SD 211 .U6 1921 Copy 1 DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE BUREAU OF FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC COMMERCE ROY S. MACELWEE, Director SPECIAL AGENTS SERIES— No. 195 SWEDISH FORESTS, LUMBER INDUSTRY, AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE BY AXEL H. OXHOLM Trade Commlsaiuner PRICE, 25 CENTS Sold by the Superintendent ol Documents, Gorernsieat Prlntine Office Washineton, B.C. i.lP%^ -<^A WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1921 gassSl]^/ / Book X L ia Special Agents Series No. 195. Ul.5, DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE BUREAU OF FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC COMMERCE ROY S. MACELWEE, Director SPECIAL AGENTS SERIES— No. 195 SWEDISH FORESTS, LUMBER INDUSTRY, AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE BY AXEL H. OXHOLM I Trade Commissioner PRICE, 25 CENTS Sold by the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing OfiBcc Washington. D . C. WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1921 LIBRARY OF CONGRESS MAR9-1921 DOCUMEisrS UiV.olON CONTENTS. Page. Letter of submittal 9 Introduction 11 General description of the country 16 Topographical conditions 17 Climatic conditions 18 Interior waterways and railroads 18 Industiies 20 Merchant marine and commerce 21 Population and principal cities 23 Money, weights, and measures 23 Part I. — Forest resoiu-ces and logging and floating operations 24 Forest resources 24 Forest regions 25 Species 28 Stands of timber 35 Ownership 38 Forest institutions and'schools 51 Forest fires 52 Taxes 53 Value of timlierlands 53 Laws affecting forest management and cutting 54 Forest commissions 58 Forestry associations 59 Annual increment and annual consumption 60 Logging 62 Methods of obtaining raw material for sawmills 62 Forest management 65 Cutting systems 66 Felling the trees 67 Driving • 73 Labor and wages 74 Cost of logging 76 Average log dimensions in different districts 77 Prices of saw logs 78 Floating. 81 Floating-river systems 82 Organization of floating 85 Improvement of floating rivers 87 Process of floating 87 Sorting of logs 88 Ocean rafting of logs 89 Labor and wages 89 Quantities of logs floated 89 Cost of floating 90 Effect of floating on quality 95 Future developments 95 Part II. — Lumber manufacture 96 Sawmill industry 96 Development of the industry 96 Location of mills 98 Ownership of mills 100 Sawmill organization 100 Export mills 103 Mills for cutting ties 104 Government-operated mills 105 Power 106 Log ponds 106 3 4 CONTENTS. Part II. — Lumber manufacture — Continued. Sawmill industry — Continued. Page. Mill construction and machinery 107 Sawing 114 Edging, sorting, and transportation 121 Dimensions 122 Special products 124 Utilization of sawmill waste 125 Seasoning 126 Grading 130 Trimming 138 Loading 140 Inspection in port of shipment 141 Labor and wages 141 Cost of production 146 Planing-mill industry 150 Crew of planing mill 151 Equipment of planing mill 151 Resawing and planing methods 156 Dimensions of planed lumber 159 Grading and loading 160 Labor and wages 1 161 Cost of production 162 Box factories 162 Equipment 163 Sawing of raw material 165 Dimensions of shooks 166 Shipments 168 Cost of production and labor 168 Ready-cut houses — Sash and door factories 1 168 Part III. — ^The lumber export trade 170 Development of the export trade r 170 Sawn and planed lumber 172 Round, hewn, and sawn timber 178 Markets for Swedish lumber exports. 183 Shipping conditions 184 Railway freight rates 185 Steamship lines and tonnage question — , 186 Rafting of sawn liunber 187 Ocean freight rates 189 Marine insurance 190 Shipping regions 191 Upper-gulf region 192 Hernosand region 193 Lower-gulf region 194 Stockholm-Malmo region 196 West-coast region 197 Detailed consideration of principal markets 197 United Kingdom 197 France 198 Germany 199 Denmark , 200 Netherlands 201 Belgium 202 Spam and Canary Islands 202 Nor^vay 203 Other iEuropean markets 203 Asia 205 North Africa ; 205 British South Africa 205 Other markets of Africa '- 206 Australia 206 The Americas 207 Competing lumber-exporting countries 207 Russia 207 Finland '- 209 • Norway 209 CONTENTS. 5 Part III. — The lumber export trade — Continued. Competing lumber-exporting countries — Continued. Page. Austria and Rumania 209 Canada 210 United States 210 Handling export sales 211 Managing the sales department of the mill 211 Export selling methods 214 Standard contracts 222 Branding 228 Trade journals — Advertising 231 Swedish Lumber Exporters ' Association 232 .\rbitration service 233 Attempt to establish uniform grading rules 234 Chartering bureau 234 Information service 235 Cooperation with Government and with other associations 236 Advantage of similar organization for United States ,. 236 Terms of payment and financing of lumber export trade 236 Standards of measure 239 Rates of exchange .' 240 Prices 240 Basis of price quotations 241 Prices at Hernosand from 1910 to 1919 244 Official prices for specified dates 247 Review of prices from 1870 to 1901 248 Prices at central Norrland ports 249 Prices in lower-gulf district 251 Prices in local markets 254 Price-conversion table 255 Comparison of Swedish and American softwood lumber 255 Manufacture 256 Quality 256 Gipading 257 Future of Swedish forests, lumber industry, and lumber export trade 258 Appendixes 260 Appendix A. — Swedish imports of woods 260 Appendix B. — Swedish exports of woods 264 Appendix C. — Catalogues 282 ILLUSTRATIONS. Fig. 1. Jonaker County forest, the densest mixed stand of pine and spruce in Europe facing . . 1 2. Exceptionally fine stand of pine in State forest facing. . 16 3. Typical pine forest in northern Norrland facing. . 17 4. Section of Swedish pine facing.. 17 5. Exports from Sweden in 1913, by groups of articles 22 6. Scandinavian forest regions 26 7. Eighty-five-year-old stand of pine and spruce, 7,000 cubic feet per acre, Dalecarlia district facing. . 28 8. Cross section of Swedish spruce facing . . 29 9. Productive forest areas by Provinces 36 10. Birch forest, central Sweden facing. . 40 11. High stumps left more than 50 year ago facing. . 41 12. Public forest districts 42 13. Plan of Swedish State College of Forestry, Stockholm 50 14. Sixteen-year old pine stand on drained land in centralNorrland. facing.. £2 15. Draining of forest land, southern Norrland facing . . 52 16. Method of cutting facing. . 53 17. Forest areas covered by special laws 55 18. Annual increment arid annual cut in the Swedish forests and possible annual increment 60 19. Eighty-five-year-old pine forest in Dalecarlia after second improve- ment thinning facing . . 64 20. Exceptionally fine stand of oak, southern Sweden facing. . 65 21. Clean-cutting system, leaving mother trees facing. . 65 6 CONTENTS. Page. Fig. 22. Chopping branches and refuse into firewood facing . . 72 23. Pulling roots facing. . 72 24. Burning charcoal facing . . 73 25. Rigid inspection of height of stumps facing . , 73 26. Driving logs facing. . 80 27. Logging camp facing. . 80 28. Crosscutting, barking, and cutting off rotten section of log facing. . 81 29. Logs piled on river bank _ facing . . 81 30. Northern Sweden, showing rivers suitable for floating. .1 83 31. Plan of sorting basin for saw logs at Sandslan 88 32. Bundling small top logs for floating _. facing. . 88 33. Pulp logs and logs for box factories piled on river bank facing . . 88 34. Logging with reindeer, northern Sweden facing. . 89 35. Relative cost of floating various log dimensions, shown by index numbers 91 36. Logs from State forests showing large percentage of heart facing. . 96 37. Log jam facing. . 96 38. Flume facing. . 97 39. Floating logs in Norrland facing. . 97 40. Plan of administrative organization of sawmill 102 41 . Sorting basin for logs facing . . 104 42. Piling logs on land facing. . 104 43 . Apparatus f oi bunching logs in sorting basin , Angermann River . facing . . 105 44. Stendahl's saw blades and ordinary saw blades 110 45. Plan of Swedish sawmill, box factory, and dry kiln 113 46. Plan of Swedish sawmill, yard, and docks 114 47. Plan of interior of Swedish sawmill 115 48. Ericson system of piling logs on land facing. . 116 49. Two systems of storing logs facing . . 117 50. Sawing system passing logs once through the gang saw 117 51. Sawing system passing logs twice through the gang saw — 118 52. Sawing schedules for logs 10^ and 9 inches in top diameter 120 53. Log pond facing. . 124 54. Modern sawmill facing. . 125 55. Diagram of piling method 127 56. Maximum sizes of knots permitted in various grades 134 57. Balanced circular trimmer facing. . 136 58. Stave cutter facing . . 136 59. Edger facing. . 137 60. Log carriage facing. . 137 61. Average amount of wane permissible in various grades of a 3 by 9 inch plank 138 62. Gang-frame saw facing . . 144 63. Gang-frame saw for crooked logs facing . . 145 64. Plan of interior of Swedish planing mill 152 65. Automatic apparatus for transporting logs from pond to mill. . facing. . 152 66. System of conveyors transporting lumber from mill to sorting plant outside of mill facing. . 152 67. Interior of modern Swedish sawmill facing . . 153 68. A workman's house facing. . 160 69. Iggesund pulp mill facing . . 160 70. Accurate length measurements of Swedish pine facing . . 161 71. Sawdust pile worth $10,000 facing. . 161 72. Torroba system of shook manufacture 167 73. Production of sawmills and planing mills by Pro\'inces 169 74. Export of wood of all kinds from Sweden, 1913 171 75. Exports from Sweden of rough and planed lumber of pine and spruce, from 1886 to 1918 172 76. Horse eating cellulose food facing.. 172 77. Briquet of compressed sawdust facing . . 172 78 . Broom handles facing . . 173 79. Piles of lumber covered with tarpaulins facing . . 173 80. Exports from Sweden in 1913 of rough and planed lumber of pine and spruce, by countries of destination 174 81. Exports from Sweden of rough and planed box shooks of pine and spruce 175 CONTENTS. 7 Page. Fig. 82. Export of rough and planed lumber, by skipping districts, 1913 177 83. Piling with cranes facing- . 184 84. Lumber piled solid and protected by triple roof facing. . 184 85. Piling lumber so as to leave ends 3 or 4 inches long protruding from pile fating. . 185 86. Method of piling with high base and perfectly clean bottoms, facing. . 185 87. Another method of piling facing. . 196 88. Piling of staves facing . . 196 89. Pine staves ready for shipment facing. . 197 90. Pile containing " Schaalbretter " used for packing cases for glassware in Belgium facing. . 197 91. Swedish price list, in Greek, showing brands 204 92. Dry kiln facing. . 208 93. Grading and trimming lumber on dock facing . . 208 94. Transporting lumber from portable mill in interior to railroad station, southern Sweden facing. . 209 95. Barge for loading lumber facing. . 209 96. Fast-feed planer facing. . 216 97. Fixed-knife drawer facing. . 217 98. Patent cutter facing- . 217 99. Double resaw facing. . 224 100. Resaw facing. . 224 101. Automatic box machine . ., facing- . 225 102. Double resaw for box material facing. . 225 103. Spruce lumber, showing brand and dense growth : 227 104. Sample of Swedish advertisement, showing brands 229 105. Mine props in port of Goteborg facing. . 236 106. Ties in port of Goteborg facing. . 236 107. Square timber, Island of Gotland facing. . 237 108. The first Refanut lumber raft, carrj-ing about 4,000,000 feet board measure facing. . 237 109. Export prices of Swedish lumber from 1864 to 1913 facing. . 248 110^ Type of ocean-going vessel used by interior mills facing. . 256 111*; Lumber paid for but left by importer because of lack of shipping facil- ities 256 112. Twenty- two steamers loading lumber, Hemosand district facing. . 257 113. Trade-marking of lumber facing. . 264 114. "German oak imported into Sweden. facing. . •265 115. Swedish oak logs facing. . 265 General map of Sweden facing. . 282 LETTER OF SUBMITTAL. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, Washington, October 27, 1920. Sir: There is submitted herewith a report on the forests, lumber industry, and lumber export trade of Sweden, by Axel H. Oxholm, a trade commissioner sent to investigate the Scandinavian lumber field jointly by various lumber associations and the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. Reports by Mr. Oxholm will also be issued on Finland and on Norway. Mr. Oxholm spent approximately eight months in Sweden, during which time he visited nearly every sawmill district in the country and, at the invitation of one of the principal exporters, even spent some time as a workman in a mill in order to gain a thorough knowledge of Swedish sawmill methods. Mr. Oxholm s work was greatly facili- tated by the cooperation of the Swedish Government, principally through the Swedish Forest Service, of the Swedish Forestry Asso- ciation and other institutions of forestry, and of the Swedish Lum- ber Exporters' Association. He also received valuable assistance from more than 1,500 lumber operators and business men in Sweden, all of whom showed great willingness to supply the data desired. Finally, acknowledgment is made to the United States Forest Serv- ice for preparing material for the report and also for reading the completed manuscript and making suggestions for its improvement. Sweden holds the foremost place among the nations in the intelli- gent exploitation of forests, in sawmill management, and in lumber export methods. The forests represent so large a proportion of the country's total assets that the best efforts of the jGovernment have been directed toward their conservation and effective utilization. With this backing from the Government, the main features of the Swedish lumber industiy have come to be forest conservation, close utiUzation of raw material, accuracy in manufacture, and a definite export policy, worked out through many years' experience and strictly maintained. The consideration of the results attained in a country that has thus concentrated on the development of the lumber industry can not fail to be of interest and benefit to Ameri- can forest owners, lumber manufacturers, and lumber exporters. Respectfully, Roy S. MacElwee, Director. To Hon. J. W. Alexander, Secretary of Cormnerce. SWEDISH FORESTS, LUMBER INDUSTRY, AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE INTRODUCTION. A study of the forests, lumber industry, and lumber export trade of Sweden is probably the most interesting of its kind because Sweden occupies the leading position in the world in the lumber industry, not on account of the quantity produced, but on account of the sci- entific forest management and the efficient manufacturing and selling methods. The climate and soil in Sweden are both very favorable to the growth of forests, and a large part of the country would be unsuitable for anything else. The total area of productive forests is 55,000,000 acres, of which public forests constitute 13,000,000 acres and private forests 42,000,000 acres. Stringent laws with regard to cutting are especially necessary in Sweden because of the supreme importance of the forests in the national life. A Swedish forest expert, C. A. Agardh, wrote in 1857: "It may be said that the position of Sweden as an independent nation and as a civilized country is contingent upon the existence or nonexistence of forests." These words were written before the lumber-export trade of the country was started on a big scale; they apply to present-day conditions perhaps even more strikmgly than to those of the middle of the nineteenth century. During normal years before the war the exports from Sweden of forest products (timber, lumber, lumber products, pulp, paper, etc.) aggre- gated $90,000,000, or 44 per cent of the total exports. The Swedish Government accordingly considers the perpetuation of the forests of such vital importance that no one is allowed to endanger the future of the timber stands by reckless exploitation for the sake of immediate profit; and this point of view is so generally accepted that no diffi- culty has been experienced m comiection with the Government's con- trol of the cutting of timber on private lands. Possibly because the cuttmg is thus restricted and it is a matter of necessity to get the utmost value out of the cutting that is permitted, particular attention is paid m Sweden to the elimination of waste in the forests. High stumps are unknown. Top logs are rarely left in the woods. Swed- ish lumbermen not only have endeavored to obtain the highest pos- sible prices for the maui product, saw logs; they have also aimed at the closest possible utilization of the waste products of loggmg operations. Approximately 20 per cent of the Swedish forests constitute broad- leaf species and about 80 per cent coniferous species. The broad- leaf species are of small unportance, because the stands are scattered and the supply is insufficient to cover the needs of the country for hardwoods. The coniferous species afford important quantities of material for export, either as lumber or m the form of manufactured 11 12 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. products. There are only two species of coniferous woods of any importance, namely, pine (Pinus sylvestris) and spruce (Picea ex- celsa). The pine resembles the Norway pine of the Lake States, and the spruce that of the western coast of the United States; but the growth is smaller and the trees have more branches, so that the limiber produced is generally very knotty. On account of the north- ern location of the Swedish forests, the growth is dense and the tex- ture of the wood is solid. The age of maturity is reached at different stages in various parts of the country — ^m the most favorable cases, in 75 to 80 years, and in very extreme cases, in about 200 years. Most of the forests are located in northern Sweden, but southern Sweden is the largest pro- ducer of lumber at the present time, owing to the fact that this dis- trict is more densely populated. There are only a few virgin forests left, because the Swedish forests have been subject to exploitation for centuries. Strict laws govern the management of the Swedish forests in all parts of the country. There is, however, no common law for the M^hole country, as climatic conditions have necessitated special laws for the different districts. These laws have to do with the cutting regulations and compulsory reforestation of cut-over lands. Lately, a law has been made to prevent the cutting of immature trees unless such cutting is necessary in order to improve the condition of the forests. Reforestation on a large scale has been carried on in Sweden by both private and public enterprise, because the forest owners in that country regard it as a commercial, paymg proposition. The forest laws in Sweden and the methods of enforcing them offer much to interest the people of the United States, because conditions in Sweden are similar to those ui some parts of this country, Swedish forests will never be cut out. On the contrary, there is no doubt that under the present system of management the quantity of standing timber will be not only mamtamed but increased through reforestation, the drainage of swamp lands, and other measures, A glance at the map of Sweden will immediately show the great advantage which that country has m its network of rivers; the dis- tance from the place where loggmg operations are carried on to the nearest waterway is only a few miles. Practically every forest dis- trict has been exploited; there are only a few areas in the northern- most part of the country where cutting has not been carried on, owing to the fact that the rivers have been unsuitable for floating logs. The cuttmg of saw logs is carried on only durmg the winter in order to prevent deterioration in the quality of the logs through discoloration. Stumps seldom exceed 3 inches m height m the for- ests, and the utmost care is given to the cuttmg of suitable log lengths and sizes, so that the best possible result will be obtained when the logs are cut into lumber. No logging machinery of any knid is gen- erally used in Sweden, although American tractors have lately been introduced into that coimtry for haulmg logs. Until recently horses had been used exclusively. The logs are loaded on sleighs and taken on the snow to the nearest waterway, where they are piled on the river bank or on the ice ready to be dumped mto the water in the sprmg. The floatmg of logs is usually carried on by a number of floating associations established by log owners m the various sec- tions, the logs being floated for joint account. SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 13 No country equals Sweden in floating facilities, and the cheap transportation from the forest to the mill accomits for the fact that Sweden can effect a very close utilization of its forest products — closer than that of any other comitry, with the possible exception of Germany. Top logs, even down to one or two inches in top diame- ter, are bunched and strapped with steel wire and floated to the near- est charcoal plant, where they are converted into charcoal. The saw logs are, on an average, 6^ to 7 inches m top diameter and average in length about 17 to 18 feet. The logs are generally barked m the woods, in order to prevent an accumulation of bark in the river and at the mills, which would seriously hinder floating and otherwise cause considerable damage. The manufacture of lumber in Sweden is characterized by the same careful utilization of material as the logging operations, so as to obtain the most profitable dimensions from the log, to minimize the amount of waste material, and to turn the waste material to useful purposes. Through years of experience the Swedish manu- factiners have produced a type of machinery especially adapted to the Swedish conditions. Following the increased value of stumpage, their machinery has been constructed with a view to effecting the largest possible saving in raw material, and the gauge of the saw blades is always very small. All large mills are equipped with gang saws; only the smaller miUs have circular saws. The gang saws give the best results because they saw lumber to exact sizes. Careful manufacture is the principal feature of the Swedish sawmills. The green lumber is given a certain excess to provide for shrinkage, and after it has been seasoned it has exactly the required dimensions. All guesswork has been eliminated from the Swedish sawing schedules, and the method of obtaining the most profitable dimensions of lumber has been calculated with scientific exactness. The various sawing systems employed are described in detail in this report. Particular attention is given to edging the lumber so as to obtain the largest possible sizes, because the price of lumber is determined by the size rather than by the thickness. The lumber is not trimmed in the mill. It is cut to almost any dimension according to English measurements. Metric measurements are seldom used in Sweden in connection with lumber for export. The lumber is edged on the half inch, and in thickness is cut to almost any size, but usually on the quarter inch. The actual waste in the sawmills is negligible. Even the smallest piece of lumber is usually turned to some use. If too small to produce laths, broom handles, box shooks, etc., it is converted into charcoal or pulp. The sawmills are generally run in connection with pulp factories, and many mills also operate planing mills or box factories. The planing mills are equipped with Swedish planers, which show some excellent features in the way of saving material and producing perfectly smooth products. The operation of Swedish box factories, planing mills, and sawmills is based on the skillful utilization of the raw material. The profit of the operation may hinge, in many cases, on the thickness of the saw blades used. Nearly all the Swedish mills season then lumber in the open air and it is never shipped without being air-dry. The seasoning thus requires two to seven or eight months, according to the season of the year and the location of the mJU. The lumber is trimmed before 14 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. shipment. The trimming is effected on the odd and even foot and much attention is paid to trimming in such a way that the lumber will yield the highest economical result when sold. The mill ends are carefully collected and re trimmed and put up in suitable lengths from 1 foot (sometimes from 6 inches) to 5^ feet. This prod- uct is either sold to the local box factories or shipped in large quantities to foreign coimtries. In regard to shipping, Sweden occupies a peculiar position, because the majority of the lumber shipping ports are closed b;^ ice during several months of the year. Only a few ports can ship the year round. An interesting enterprise has just been started in Sweden to raft sa%\Ti lumber, and this promises a great deal for the future. During late years the Swedish exporters have combined in selling for export. They maintain a strong organization and have minimum prices established to which all closely adhere. This association has laid down specific rules for the handling of lumber for export, and the Swedish exporters also cooperate mth the exporters in the neighboring countries in regard to prices and selling conditions. The raw material and the cost of labor are too high in Sweden to allow any cutthroat competition, and the Swedish laws do not prevent combinations of manufacturers in order to stimulate prices. The Swedish lumber exporters have taken advantage of these conditions and have generally been in a position to obtain such prices as would give them a reasonable return on the investment. The market for Swedish lumber abroad is so firmly established that it practically sells itself without any great effort on the part of the Swedish ex- porters. The general rule is to handle the Imnber through foreign agents, but many firms prefer to let domestic agents handle their output on a commission basis. The location of Sweden, close to the most important lumber-importing countries, has enabled the Swedish ex- porters to keep in close touch with their trade, and they thoroughly understand the conditions abroad. The prices of lumber have increased very materially since the war, as have the prices of stumpage and labor. The position of the Swedish lumbermen is now considered exceptionally good because the war and the high prices have enabled them to better their con- dition. It is believed that before the war the profits realized on the lumber export business generally were 6 to 8 per cent on the capital invested, which is not considered wholly satisfactory, having in mind the risk connected with the business. The Swedish lumber exporters will probably maintain their position; but it is doubtful whether one may expect any increase over the present quantity of lumber for export from that country, because the forest resources are devoted, to a great extent, to the Production of pulp, which generally offers more profit than lumber, t is improbable, therefore, that the exports of limaber from Sweden will exceed 2,000,000,000 feet annually, which has been the average figure in years past. There is a marked difference between Swedish lumber and the principal species of American lumber exported to foreign markets. Swedish lumber is to bo considered as good construction lumber; its many knots render it unsuitable for special purposes to which the SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 15 better grades of American lumber are adapted. The sizes of Swedish lumber run smaller than those obtainable in the United States. There should be no question, therefore, of serious competition between Swedish and American lumber if the exporters in both countries are thoroughly familiar with the character of the lumber exported. The best species of American lumber have sometimes been sold in foreign markets at the same prices as Swedish lumber; but this, no doubt, has been due, on the one hand, to the unf amiliar- ity of American exporters with the character of the lumber shipped from Sweden and, on the other, to the excellent Swedish, manufac- turing and marketing methods. There is a demand in most countries for American lumber, since it has qualities seldom or never found in lumber from other countries. The market is apparently so extensive that there is no need of cutthroat competition, since the accessible forest areas of the world seem to be linuted in comparison with the demand for lumber and lumber products. GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE COUNTRY. Sweden (Sverige) is situated between 55° 20' and 69° 4' north latitude and between 10° 58' and 24° 10' east lon^tude. Sweden constitutes the eastern part of the Scandinavian Peninsula. The country is bounded on the west and north by Norway, on the east by Finland and the Gulf of Bothnia, on the south and southeast by the Baltic Sea, and on the southwest by the Cattegat, a branch of the North Sea. The area of Sweden is 110,771,000 acres, or about 58 per cent of the area of the Scandinavian Peninsula. Of this area 9,336,000 acres (8.4 per cent) constitute inland water. The area of Sweden is some- what smaller than the area of Spain or than the combined land areas of the States of Indiana, Ohio, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and New York. The coast line is about 1,550 miles, the extreme length from north to south 980 miles, and the extreme width from west to east 310 miles. There are only two large islands, which are located off the southeastern coast — Gottland, with an area of 740,000 acres, and Oland, with an area of 330,000 acres. Sweden is divided politically into 25 Provinces. The area of these Provinces and that of the largest four lakes is as follows : Provinces and lakes. Land. Water. Total. Percent- age of water. City of Stockholm Rural district of Stockholm . Upsala .^ Sodermanland Ostergotland Jonkoping Kronoberg Kalmar Gotland Blekinge Christianstad Malmohus Halland Goteborg and Bohus , E Ifsborg Skaraborg Vermland Orebro Vestmanland Kopparberg Ge vleborg Vesternorrland Jemtland Vesterbotten Norrbotten Lake Wenner Lake Wetter Lake Malar LakeHjelmar Acres. 33, 000 1, 826, 000 1, 265, 000 1,541,000 2,464,000 2,623,000 2,201,000 2,708,000 770,000 716, 000 1, 543, 000 1, 170, 000 1,180,000 1,210,000 2, 886, 000 1,995,000 4, 336, 000 2, 062, 000 1,591,000 6, 978, 000 4,497,000 5, 962, 000 11,765,000 13, 732, 000 24, 380, 000 Total, Sweden . Acres. 2,000 86, 000 48, 000 142, 000 266, 000 224, 000 248, 000 144, 000 10,000 29, 000 53,000 28,000 37,000 37,000 260,000 100,000 439, 000 193, 000 79,000 436, 000 378, 000 347, 000 972, 000 831,000 1,695,000 1,376,000 469, 000 282, 000 122, 000 Acres. 35, 000 1,912,000 1,313,000 1,683,000 2, 730, 000 2, 847, 000 2, 449, 000 2, 852, 000 780, 000 745, 000 1, 596, 000 1, 198, 000 1, 217, 000 1, 247, 000 3, 146, 000 2,095,000 4, 775, 000 2, 258, 000 1,670,000 7,414,000 4, 875, 000 6,309,000 12, 737, 000 14,563,000 26, 075, 000 2, 249, 000 5.7 4.5 3.7 8.4 9.7 7.9 10.1 5.0 1.3 3.9 3.3 2.3 3.0 3.0 8.3 4.8 9.2 8.7 4.7 5.8 7.8 5.5 7.6 5.7 6.5 101,434,000 9,336,000 110,770,000 8.4 In this report the following terms will be used: Norrland (North- land), in northern Sweden, comprising the area north of the Dal River; central Sweden, the area south of the Dal River down to about 58° north latitude, comprising the regions surrounding the Great Lakes; southern Sweden, the area south of 5S° north latitude. 16 Special Agents Series No. 195. Courtesy of Statu Forest Laboratory, Stockholm. FIG. 2.— EXCEPTIONALLY FINE STAND OF PINE IN STATE FOREST. Special Agents Series No. 195. SS^IT^ *^ ^^9 ^^ '*WlflBr" 4^1^ N^i^^ni' ^"q^ Y^JuBFSq IhIk^ ^' . ► • J««!»^ lt '^^^^J ■•^^S^' ^ •^'* kjMknj^ ^ ''^- '>«£I^VL ^i--^- -iHE ■ #^ fc I / fSLjJ:*^-*^ |, :;F-..Jil -i. fc',^-ijBBjB ^Sn a| J ■■■Tiral ijr '^mN s. ..,-?'r...»JiaKr.i!c 4Enk ^E^Jtf!^hr%. -^jyitt Ht^lr'^^K I^^^Kj^B^b .-1 '!3k^^^| - ^ ^1 Courtesy of State Forest Laboratory, Stockholm. FIG. 3.— TYPICAL PINE FOREST IN NORTHERN NORRLAND. FIG. 4.— SECTION OF SWEDISH PINE. SWEDISH LUMBER USTDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 17 TOPOGRAPHICAL CONDITIONS. The mountainous districts in Sweden are found in the northwestern part, along the Norwegian border, and extend south to about 62° north latitude. This mountainous section is about 70 miles wide on the Swedish side. In the extreme northwestern comer this range (Kolen) attains its maximum heights, the highest peak being about 7,000 feet above sea level. Farther south the mountains decrease in height. From these mountainous districts the country gradually slopes in an eastern and southeastern direction toward the ocean. Low ridges and hills covered with forests are found in the rest of northern Sweden and the landscape is very similar to that of Finland. The altitude of this part of the country varies from 650 to 1,600 feet above sea level. In the coastal district the country is level. In central and southern Sweden the country is rather undulating and grows more and more level toward the south. In the extreme southern part of Sweden the landscape is very similar to that of Denmark. The only highlands found in southern and central Sweden are the regions south of the Great Lakes in the interior, which constitute a plateau ranging in height from 600 to 1,200 feet. In northern Sweden large swamps are found, amounting in certain sections to more than 40 per cent of the total area. The follo^ving table shows the area of different kinds of land in Sweden and the proportion of each kind to the total land area in 1915 and 1916: Kind of land. 1915 1916 Acres. Percent. Acres. Percent. Cultivatedareas 9, 318, 000 3, 205, 000 55, 640, 000 33, 271, 000 9.1 3.3 54.8 32.8 9,366,000 3, 073, 000 57,240,000 31,755,000 9.2 Meadows . 3.0 Forests 56.5 Unproductive land 31.3 Total 101, 434, 000 100.0 101,434,000 100.0 The momitainous areas of Sweden are not very extensive, and the unproductive areas consist largely of marshes, peat bogs, etc. This unproductive area, no doubt, will be turned in time into forest land, and it is therefore of interest to consider the area of these peat bogs, etc., in the various Provinces. The area of the peat bogs and swamps in Sweden has not been definitely computed, but in 1912 it was esti- mated by Dr. Hj . v. Feilitzen to be as follows : Provinces. Rural district of Stockholm Upsala Sodermanland Ostergotland Jonkoping EjoDoberg Kalmar Gotland Blekinge Christianstad Malmohus Halland Goteborg and Bohus 2092°— 21 1 Acres. 49, 111, 74, 198, 362, 310, 272, 74, 44, 169, 30, 99, 10, Pro\ances. Elfsborg Skaraborg Vermland Orebro Vestmanland Kopparberg Gevleborg Vesternorrland Jemtland Vesterbotten Norrbotten Total, Sweden Acres. 209, 000 198,000 242,000 222,000 148,000 890,000 593,000 717,000 483,000 178,000 12,682,000 18 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. CLIMATIC CONDITIONS. More than 15 per cent of the total area of Sweden is located north of the Arctic Circle, and in these sections of the country the climate is semi-Arctic, On account of the great distance from north to south, the climate necessarily varies a great deal in the different parts of the country. In southern Sweden the climate is mild. Sweden is benefited to a great extent by the Gulf Stream and has a much milder climate than many other countries in the same latitude. Tobacco, for instance, is grown as far north as 59° north latitude, and sugar beets are produced in quantities large enough to supply the entire population with this commodity. The mean annual temperature in the northern parts is below freez- ing point, while in the most favorable sections in southern Sweden it is about 45° F. The following schedule gives the mean annual temperature (Falir- enheit) in different latitudes in Sweden: Towns. Latitude. Temper- ature. Towns. Latitude. Temper- ature. 68 27 63 49 62 37 27 36 38 Stockholm .59 21 56 40 55 42 42 45 Lund 45 The highest temperature in the summer is about the same all over Sweden or about 80° F. and the lowest temperature in the winter is 49° to 59° below zero in the northernmost part of the country and about 4° below zero in southern Sweden. Snow covers the ground about a month and a half i,n southern Sweden and up to six or seven months in northern Sweden. The lakes and rivers freeze in November and the ice melts 4 or 5 months later in southern Sweden and 5 J to 6^ months later in northern Sweden. The ocean usually does not freeze on the west, south, and southeast coasts, but the entire Baltic has frozen over in extremely cold winters. The Gulf of Bothnia always freezes north of the Aland Islands, but a channel for traffic from Stockholm to Abo, Finland, is kept open by ice breakers. The ports south of Stockholm may be frozen for a short time in the winter, but during recent years naviga- tion has been kept open almost the year round by ice breakers. The GuK of Bothnia generally freezes at the end of November; the ice breaks in the northern sections in the latter part of May or the begin- ning of June, and farther south during the month of May or sometimes at the end of April. The annual precipitation averages about 20 inches for the entire country and varies from about 17 inches in Norrland to 27 inches in the west coastal districts. INTERIOR WATERWAYS AND RAILROADS. About 8^ per cent of the area of Sweden is occupied by rivers and lakes. From the mountainous districts in the northwest many im- portant rivers flow in a southeasterly direction, emptying into the Gulf of Bothnia. The rivers in central and southern Sweden are gen- SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 19 erally shorter and the majority of them either run through the Great Lakes or originate in the highlands of southern Sweden, rmming south- west, south, or southeast. For the lumber industry the rivers in northern Sweden are the most important, as they afford excellent facilities for transporting logs. Fourteen of the most important rivers in Sweden drain 69 per cent of the total area. The largest 14 water systems, each draining more than 2,500,000 acres, are as follows, according to location from north to south: Water systems. Rivers in Norrland Tornea Kalix Lulea Pitea SkeUeftea Umea Angerman Indal Length. Miles. 233 208 193 191 205 237 242 196 Drainage area. Acres. 6,178,000 4,423,000 6,227,000 2,748,000 2,866,000 6, 598, 000 7,808,000 6,573,000 Water systems. Rivers in Norrland— Contd. Ljungan Ljusnan Water systems in central and southern Sweden: Malar-Norrstrom Wetter-Motalastrom Wenner-Gota I^ength. ^mcs. 168 230 283 Drainage area. Acres. 3,163,000 4,892,000 7,215,000 5,510,000 3.8:30,000 11,985,000 In central Sweden there are several large lakes, the most important of which are Wenner (1,376,000 acres). Wetter (469,000 acres), Malar (282,000 acres), and Hjelmar (122,000 acres). In northern Sweden the lakes are fewer and smaller than those m central Sweden. The following are the largest lakes in Norrland: Storsjoii (111,000 acres), Tornetresk (78,000 acres), Siljan (72,000 acres), and Homavan (65,000 acres). The Klar River, which originates in Norway and is 228 miles long, empties into Lake Wenner. The Gota River runs out of this lake and empties into the Cattegat River. The total length of the whole water system of the Gota and Klar Rivers is 354 miles. It is estimated m Sweden that about 3,500,000 horsepower can be harnessed before 1959. Up to the present time, about 1,000,000 horsepower has been developed. Water power is of great importance to Swedish mdustries, because the country has practically no coal. Many of the waterways m Sweden have been improved to make them suitable for traffic; particularly in southern and central Sweden a network of canals has been constructed durmg the last 100 years, and it is now possible for small boats and barges to pass from the west coast through central Sweden over to the east coast. The total length of all canals in Sweden was 779 miles m 1917. Sever^ sluiced canals have been constructed, thereby enabling ships to pass up rivers where the traffic formerly was obstructed by waterfalls. The two principal canals in Sweden are Trollhatte and Gota. Trollhatte Canal, south of Wenner Lake in the Gota River, is 52 miles long, 55 feet wide, and 14J feet deep. It was built by the Govern- ment at a cost of about $7,500,000. Ocean-going steamers can now go up this canal to Lake Wenner and load at the mills on the northern shores of the lake. This is a very important means of transportation for the lumber for export from these regions, and the average annual freight passmg through this canal in the last few years has been about 810,000 tons. The Gota Canal connects the two lakes, Wenner and Wetter, with the Baltic. It is 23^ feet wide and 9| feet deep, and cost about $4,000,000. About 365,000 tons of freight were trans- 20 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. ported through this canal annually in recent years. The average annual tonnage passing through the principal 10 canals in' Sweden has amounted to 3,770,000 tons in recent years. On the larger lakes in Sweden there is a heavy steamship traffic, which is concentrated mainly on the lakes in the central and southern parts of the country. The railroad system covers mainly central and southern Sweden, where the largest part of the population is located and where the prmcipal factories and mdustries are established. The total length of the Swedish railroads was 9,368 miles in 1917, of which the Gov- enmient o^vned lines 3,268 miles in length. In northern Sweden an electric railroad, which has been m operation for a considerable time, is engaged in the transportation of iron ore to the ports m Norway and Sweden. Sweden has more railroad mileage in proportion to the population than any other comitry in Europe. The railroads play an important part in the lumber-export trade, particularly for many interior sawmills in southern Sweden. In this part of the country the fioatmg facilities are imsatisfactory and the transportation of logs and lumber is carried on almost exclu- sively by the railroads. The raihoad sj^stem m northern Sweden has not been very satis- factory, but new Imes are under construction that will provide for better commmiication between the coast cities. An mland railroad also has been started, which will open up considerable forest areas for exploitation. In connection with this railroad construction, the Government is contemplating a more extensive colonization of this northern region. INDUSTRIES. The following figures (the' latest available) show the number of persons in Sweden engaged in various occupations in 1910: Persons. Agriculture and cattle raising 2, 233, 000 Fishing 39,000 Forest operations 94, 000 Industry and mining 1, 532, 000 Commerce and transportation 579, 000 Other occupations 1, 045, 000 Total 5, 522, 000 Agriculture is thus the principal activity in Sweden, although a comparatively small area is under cultivation. The value of the crops in 1917 was about $407,000,000 and in 1913 $230,000,000. Cattle raising and dairying are important branches of agricultural activities. Although Sweden is an important producer of grain and foodstuffs, it is to a great extent dependent on the imports of these commodities from foreign countries. Besides agriculture, the chief natural resources are the forests and the mineral deposits which, together with the waterfalls, constitute the principal bases of Sweden's economic activities. Only very limited quantities of coal are mined and there are no oil wells in the country. Next to the agricultural activities, the lumber, pulp, and paper in- dustries are the most important in Sweden and play a particularly SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AITD LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 21 important part in Swedish export trade. These industries will be described in detail later in this report. Mining is one of the oldest industries in Sweden, dating back more than 700 years. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries Swe- den was the largest producer in the world of iron and copper. The Swedish iron mines are world famous, and the country also possesses copper, silver, zinc, and other metals. The value of the production of iron ore in 1917 was $22,500,000, and in 1911-1915, $13,900,000. The total value of the production of other minerals in 1917 was $3,900,000 and in 1911-1915 $1,100,000. Sweden also has important metal-working industries, in which iron and steel products play the most important part. Shipbuilding, machine works (sawmill and pulp-mill machinery is a specialty), "and a number of other activities along these lines have developed very rapidly during the last half century. The factory districts are located mainly in central and southern Sweden, where there is access to water power. The following table shows the value of production in different Swedish industries in 1913, 1915, and 1916: Industries. 1913 1915 1916 Mining and metal products Peat, coal, stone, glass, cement, and other products Lumber products Pulp and paper products FoodstulTs Textile products I>eather and rubber products Chemical products Light and power plants Total $154,400,000 24,700,000 69, 100, 000 60, 600, 000 151, 400, 000 54, 900, 000 26,300,000 25, 70n, 000 12, 600, 000 $189, 500, 000 24, 100, 000 75,000,000 70,800,000 193,800.000 67, 500; 000 51, 200, 000 39, 400, 000 16, 300, 000 $297,600,000 ■ 28,800,000 109,300,000 118,300,000 233,300,000 87, 700, 000 57,900,000 58, 000, 000 21,400,000 679,700,000 727,600,000 1,012,300,000 MERCHANT MARINE AND COMMERCE. The latest statistics, for January 1, 1919, give the Swedish mer- chant marine as follows: 1,079 sailing vessels, of 124,372 gross tons, and 1,605 steam and motor vessels, of 925,084 gross tons — a total of 2,684 vessels, of 1,049,456 gross tons. Shipbuilding has grown mainly since the war started^ and energetic steps are being taken by the Swedish shipowners to build up an ade- quate merchant marine, because it is realized what a great advantage it would be for the Swedish exporters to depend upon native-owned ships. (See chapter on Shipping.) Nearly all the ports of Sweden are safe and well protected by is- lands. In the Gulf of Bothnia the tide is almost insignificant, and this circumstance greatly contributes to the favorable port condi- tions on the east coast of Sweden. Until recently there have been no free ports in Sweden. Such free ports, however, are now being instituted at Malmo and Stock- holm, and one is contemplated at Goteborg, mainly with the view of obtaining the transit trade to Russia after conditions have become settled in that country. The western, southern, and southeastern coasts of Sweden are open the year round to navigation; but the other coastal districts of Sweden are handicapped by ice during the winter. 22 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. The following table gives the values of exports and imports of Sweden from 1905 to 1917, exclusive of the values of unwrought gold, silver, and coin: Years. 1905, 1906, 1907, 1908 1909 1910 1911 Imports. S153,781,000 171,076,000 180,589,000 160,132,000 164,445,000 179,349,000 185,040,000 Exports. $120,657,000 135,047,000 140,610,000 129,180,000 126,758,000 158,885,000 177,828,000 Years. 1912. 1913, 1914 1915 1916 1917 Imports. 8209,816,000 226,872,000 194,543,000 306,191,000 305,136,000 203,307,000 Exports. $203,806,000 219,049,000 206,991,000 352,786,000 417, 109, 000 361,679,000 Fig. 5. — Exports from Sweden in 1913, by groups of articles. The principal commodities imported are grain, coffee, tobacco, and other foodstuffs; cotton and other raw materials for textile products; textiles, hides, lubricants, petroleum, rubber, dyestuffs, machinery, and large quantities of coal and coke. The principal commodities exported are lumber and lumber prod- ucts, pulp, paper, ore (mainly iron ore), metal and metal products, dairy products, matches, and stone for building and paving purposes. SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 23 POPULATION AND PRINCIPAL CITIES. The population of Sweden on December 81, 1917, is given as about 5,800,000. The density of population for the whole country was 33^ inhabitants per square mile. The population varies from 200 to 250 inhabitants per square mile in the more tliickly settled districts to only 5 to 7 inhabitants per square mile in the northernmost Prov- inces. Besides about 25,000 Finns and 7,000 Lapps, who live in the northern districts of the country, there are about 40,000 inhabitants of other foreign nationalities and the remainder of the population (5,728,000) are Swedes. The Swedes belong to the Scandinavian branch of the Germanic race and are closely related to the Norwe- gians, Danes, and the Swedish-speaking people in Finland. The language spoken is Swedish, which closely resembles Norwe- gian and Danish, In the northernmost districts of the country Finnish is spoken to some extent among the population along the Finnish border. The emigration, particularly to the United States, has been con- siderable during the last half century. It is estimated that 700,000 Swedes now live in the United States. The capital of Sweden is Stockholm, on the eastern coast, with approximately 413,000 inhabitants. Goteborg (197,000 inhabitants) is situated on the west coast and is the most important shipping port in Sweden. Malmo (113,000 inhabitants), on the southeastern coast, is important as the transfer point between Sweden and Denmark. Norrkoping (58,000 inhabitants), south of Stockholm, is a factory and shipping point. Helsingborg (45,000 inhabitants) is an impor- tant shippinj^ and factory district on the sioutheastern coast of Swe- den, south of Goteborg. Gevle (37,000 inhabitants! is an important lumber-shipping port north of Stockholm on the Gulf of Botluiia. Orebro (35,000 inhabitants) is a railroad center in central Sweden. Eskilstuna (31,000 inhabitants) is an important factory town in cen- tral Sweden, west of Stockholm. The most important lumber-shipping ports in Norrland are Sunds- vall (17,000 inhabitants), which is located in central Norrland, and Hemosand (10,000 inhabitants), located north of Sundsvall. MONEY, WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES. The Swedish monetary unit is the crown (krona, abbreviated kr.), which is divided into 100 ore. The monetary system is the same as that of Norway and Denmark. The par value of the crown in United States currency is $0.26799, and the equivalent of one dollar is thus 3.73148 crowns. The standard of value is gold. The metric system of weights and measures is obligatory by law. In the lumber trade English measurements are usually employed. PART I.— FOREST RESOURCES AND LOGGING AND FLOATING OPERATIONS. FOREST RESOURCES. Climate and soil combined make Sweden a typical forest country. Before the first settlers came the comitry was practically covered with forests. It was difficult for these settlers to clear the land, and until a few decades ago the people in the most remote parts of Sweden burned large areas of forest lands so as to clear them for cultivation. Of the total area of Sweden, including inland water, about 57,000,000 acres, or 51 per cent, constitute productive forests. With the exception of Finland, Sweden has the largest percentage of productive forest land in Europe, where the average is 33 per cent. Sweden has approximately 960 acres of productive forest land per 100 inhabitants, and in this respect also it is ahead of the other European countries, except Finland; the average for Europe is 183 acres. The productive forest area of the European countries, exclusive of Sweden, Norway, and Finland, is as follows, according to statistics compiled by G. Sundbarg, a Swedish forest expert: Countries. European Russia Gennany Austria France Hungary Spain Turkey. Italy Bulgaria Rumania Productive forest land. Acres. 485,635,000 34,585,000, 24,161,000r 23,529,000 22,377,000 20,964,000 10,625,000 10,269,000 6,400,000 5,639,000 Percent- age of total area. 40.4 26.2 32.6 17.8 27.9 16.8 23.4 14.6 27.0 17.6 Countries. Bosnia and Herzegovina Serbia United Kingdom Switzerland Greece Portugal Belgium Denmark Netherlands Luxemburg Productive forest land. Percent- age of totalarea. Acres. 5,622,000 3,707,000 2,871,000 2,115,000 2,100,000 1,557,000 1,285,000 699, 000 635,000 190,000 45.5 31.2 3.7 21.3 12.7 7.1 17.7 7.4 7.9 29.7 The following table shows the forest area in each Swedish Province, together with the percentage of productive forest land of each Prov- ince in proportion to the total area of productive forest land in Sweden in 1915 and 1916, according to the Statistisk Arsbok (Sta- tistical Yearbook) of Sweden for 1918 and 1919: Provinces. City of Stockholm Rural district of Stockholm Upsala Sodermanland Ostergotland Jonkoping Kronoberg 24 1915 Productive forest area. Acres. 15,000 1,135,000 695,000 996, 000 1,547,000 1,400,000 950,000 Percent- age of totalarea of pro- ductive forests. 2.0 1.2 1.8 2.8 2.7 1.7 Productive forest area. Acres. 17,000 1,158,000 709,000 998,000 1,561,000 1,512,000 1,052,000 Percent- age of totalarea of pro- ductive forests. 2.0 1.2 1.7 2.7 2.6 1.8 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 25 Provinces. Kalmar Gotland Blekinge Christianstad Malmohus Halland Goteborg and Bohus . Elfsborg Skaraborg Vermland Orebro Vestmanland Kopparberg Gevleborg Vestemorrland Jemtland Vesterbotten Norrbotten 1915 Productive forest area. Acres. 1,671,000 3^4,000 357, 000 043,000 141,000 346, 000 416,000 1,853,000 767,000 3,363,000 1,333,000 912,000 5,114,000 3,669,000 4,706,000 7,308,000 7,410,000 8,419,000 Total. 55, 640, 000 Percent- age of total area of pro- ductive forests. 3.0 0.7 0.6 1.1 0.3 0.6 0.7 3.3 1.4 6.0 2.4 1.6 9.2 6.6 8.5 13.3 13.4 15.1 100.0 Productive forest area. Acres. 1,697,000 391,000 370, 000 647,000 143, 000 368, 000 418,000 1,926,000 793,000 3,385,000 1,371,000 932, 000 5,133,000 3,663,000 5,054,000 7,910,000 7,503,000 8,529,000 57,240,000 Percent- age of total area of pro- ductive forests. 3.0 0.7 0.6 1.1 0.3 0.6 0.7 3.4 1.4 5.9 2.4 1.6 9.0 6.4 8.8 13.9 13.2 15.0 100.0 About 65 per cent of the productive forest land in Sweden is lo- cated in the district of Norrland and Dalecarlia (the district adjacent to the Dal River). In this part of Sweden, however, approximately 17,000,000 acres of land are located above the timber limit, and Norr- land also contains a large percentage of unproductive land, such as swamps, marshes, etc., so that the productive forest area in propor- tion to the total area is not very large in this part of the country. The Provinces having the largest area of productive forests in pro- portion to their tot^ area are Vermland, Kopparberg, Gevleborg, and Vestemorrland. The southernmost Provinces of Sweden are now but sparsely forested, because the forests that once covered these areas have been cut out during the last few centuries in order that the land might be used for agricultural purposes. FOREST REGIONS. As a consequence of the different climatic conditions in northern and southern Sweden, the forest regions differ widely in character. The*ma]ority of the forest lands in Sweden will always be best suited for forestry, as the soil is often unfavorable for agricultural purposes, These conditions apply especially to the northern Provinces. About 85 to 90 per cent of the stands in the Swedish forests constitute conif- erous species and 10 to 15 per cent broad-leafed. The Swedish forests may be divided into three distinct forest regions. The north Baltic coniferous region covers the territory north of a line from the north shore of Lake Wenner to a point about 50 miles north of the Dal River; in other words, practically the entire territory of Norrland and the district of Dalecarlia. The south Baltic coniferous region starts immediately south of the north Baltic coniferous region and covers southern Sweden with the exception of the southernmost parts; namely, Skane and part of the Provinces of Halland and Ble- kinge. The Central European beech region covers the extreme south of Sweden. 26 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. NORTH BALTIC CONIFEROUS REGION. The productive forest area of the north Baltic coniferous region comprises approximately 36,800,000 acres. Except in the southern part, where the mining industry was developed more than 700 years ago, using large quantities of charcoal for smelting ore, this region was not exploited for forest products until about 100 years ago. The exportation of forest products started on a large scale about 1850 to 1860, and the present development of the forests in these regions dates from this time. C Fig. 6.— Scandinavian forest regions. At present nearly all the privately owned forests in this part of Sweden have been exploited. Only a few stands of virgin forests in private ownership are left. The State forests, ht)wever, which are very extensive in this part of Sweden, have not been much developed and consequently contain considerable overmature stands. These virgin forests are found in the less accessible interior districts; the coastal regions were the first to be exploited. The northern parts of Sweden are sparsely populated, and the domestic consumption of wood, in these regions, is therefore much SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 27 smaller than in other parts of Sweden. Consequently the northern Baltic coniferous region in Sweden must have large quantities of wood available for export, and the ports in Norrland north of the mouth of the Dal River exported before the war about 75 per cent of the total quantity of lumber shipped from Sweden. Whatever hap- pens in the line of agricultural development in the rest of Sweden, Norrland will always oe primarily a timber-producing section. The birch-forest region is found on the slopes of the mountains, along the Norwegian border. A few other broad-leafed species grow in these regions, but their importance is very small outside of fur- nishing fuel for local use. The growth of the trees in the mountain- ous regions is scrubby, and these regions are of no importance to the logging operations, because the stands are scattered and the logging facilities are usually unsatisfactory. Birch does not play an impor- tant part in the lumber-export industry of northern Sweden and con- sequently will not be considered in this report. Below the bkch re^on the coniferous species grow over almost all the rest of the north Baltic coniferous region, the only interruptions being swamps, cultivated areas, and inland water. The cultivated areas are not very large in this part of Sweden, and there are also comparatively few lakes. There are only two species of coniferous trees; namely, pine (Pinus sylvestris) and spruce (Picea excelsa). Pine and spruce are found in both clear and mixed stands. In some regions considerable birch is found mixed with pine and spruce. Clear stands of spruce are found principally on calcareous soil in the Province of Jemtland, certain sections of Vesternorrland and Vester- botten, and some coastal districts. The districts adjacent to the Angermann River have extensive clear spruce stands. In the interior southern parts of Norrland there are also extensive clear stands of spruce. Pine is the predominant species all over these regions ex- cept in the districts mentioned. Of broad-leafed species there are aspen {Populus tremula), alder {Alnus incana and Alnus glutinosa), basswood (Tilia euroyxa), maple {Acer platanoides) , and a few other species. These species, however, are of no importance and are seldom found except scattered among the coniferous stands. Occasionally some small broad-leafed stands may be found along the rivers. SOUTH BALTIC CONIFEROUS REGION. Except on small areas of State-owned forest lands, there are prac- tically no virgin forests left in the south Baltic coniferous region. The forests are all adj acent to the most densely populated sections of the country and have been exploited for hundreds of years. Besides pme and spruce, there are small stands of oak (Quercus rohur) , but these stands are so small that they are not even sufficient to cover the local demand. Other broad-leafed species are ash {Fraxinus excelsior) and elm {Zllmus montana), besides birch and the broad-leafed species growing in the north Baltic coniferous region. CENTRAL EUROPEAN BEECH REGION. The Swedish forests in the central European beech region are to a large extent planted. Beech {Fagus sylvatica) and oak constitute the 28 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. principal species of broad-leafed trees in this region, but the stands are not very important. Some limited stands of pine and spruce are also found, the spruce being planted. The forests in the Central European beech region and the south Baltic coniferous region were first exploited for exports of forest products during the Middle Ages. At that time the forests in western continental Europe had been badly cut out and these countries had to obtain their supply of lumber and timber from other parts of Europe. The forests in southern and central Sweden were extensively cut to furnish firewood, ship timber, and lumber. Considerable quantities of oak were cut, especially in the coastal regions. Large areas also were burned over, and to-day these areas are still to a large extent bare of forests. With the growing population in southern and central Sweden, the capacity of these regions to supply forest products for export dimin- ished and they now consume locally the largest part of their pro- duction of wood, although they probably produce larger quantities of wood than the north Baltic coniferous region. To the lumber export trade, the north Baltic coniferous region is therefore of principal interest, and it will be given special attention in this report. SPECIES. Pine (Pinus sylvestris) ^ grows best on dry, sandy soil and is found up to an altitude of 1,300 feet in the northern part of Sweden. The timber Imiit is increased to about 2,950 feet at 62° north latitude. Another species of pine (Pinus montana uncinata) grows only in the southeastern coastal regions and is of little importance to the lumber industry. Of Pinus sylvestris there are two varieties, Pinus sylvestris lajjpon,- ica and Pinus sylvestris septentrionalis. For practical purposes it may be said that the lapponica variety grows in the north Baltic coniferous region and the septentrionalis variety is found in the south Baltic coniferous region. The principal distinguishuig quali- ties of these two varieties are as follows: Lapponica variety. — The needles are short and wide; they average in length, ^ to Iff inches. The shape of the crown is cylindrical and the branches are short. The color of the bark is yellowish red and it is thinner than that of the septentrionalis variety. The wood is dense and of a reddish color, showing a larger percentage of heart than is possessed by the septentrionalis variety. It is supposed that the lapponica variety has come in from eastern Europe. The differ- ence m the quality of the wood between these two varieties may be attributed to the location and the climate. Septentrionalis variety. — The needles are l^J to 2ff niches long and are narrow. The shape of the crown is pyramidical. The bark is darker and thicker than that of the pme growing in the north Baltic coniferous region. This variety of pme probably came into Sweden from central Europe, because it shows many of the qualities of the pine m those regions. The average height of the pine tree in different parts of Sweden is as follows: Norrbotten, 56 to 59 feet; Norrland, 59 to 66 feet; central 1 North European pine is called redwood in the European markets. Special Agents Series No. 195. Special Agents Series No. 195. FIG. 8.— CROSS SECTION OF SWEDISH SPRUCE. SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 29 aiid southern Sweden, 66 feet. The maximum height of any pine tree recorded m Sweden is 108 feet. The pine grows most rapidly in height durmg the period from 20 to 50 years of age. At the age of 120 to 150 years the growth in iieight stops. Pine trees may occasionally be found from 300 to 500 years old, but this is very miusual. Trees more than 36 inches m diameter at breast height are seldom or never seen. The following figures compiled by Forester Ortenblad, of the Swedish Forest Service, show the diameter at breast height of pme 70 years old in the different parts of Norrland and Dalecarlia: Vester- botten, 7|^ inches; Jemtland, 8|-| inches; Vesternorrland, 8-^ inches; Gevleborg, 8^ mches; Kopparberg, 7f^ inches. In southern Sweden the growth of the trees is much quicker. At the age of 140 to 200 years pine has a diameter at breast height of approximately 12^ inches. The average age of maturity of pine stands (based on the age at which suitable saw-log dimensions can be obtained) is as follows in different parts of the coimtry: Southern Sweden, 80 to 90 years; central Sweden and southern Norrland, 90 to 120 years; central Norr- land and northern Norrland, 120 to 180 years. The pine has a tap-root system that extends far down into the ground and makes the tree resistant to wind and fire. The stands are not so dense as those of the forests commonly seen in the United States, and in open stands the branches are heavier and more num- erous than in denser stands. The pine growing near the coast and in the higher altitudes is lower and more branched. The taper of the pine may be 1 inch in 10 feet in the best stands, but in the moimtainous districts and near the coast the taper is greater. The taper of pine and spruce is given as follows, covering stands in central Sweden and southern Norrland: Average stand — 1 inch in 8 feet for first 22 feet from ground, then 1 inch in 6 feet ; average good stand — 1 inch in 10 feet for fu-st 26 feet from groimd, then 1 inch in 8 feet; poor stands (coast and mountain pine and spruce) — 1 inch in 6 feet for first 18 feet from ground, J^hen 1 inch in 4 feet. The thickness of the bark in trees of different diameters in central Sweden is as follows: Diameter at 4J feet Tnickness from ground. of bark. Inches. Inches. m fi lf|to3|f Wi 3fS to 5U u 5||to7|| H 7|ito9|t if 915 to UH !! n||tol3|$ ST 1311 to 15|| 5T 15ji to 17|| 14 HH to 19|| HI 19M up. n\ On an average the bark constitutes from 6 to 12 per cent of the cubical contents of the tree, but it may represent as much as 22 per cent. 30 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. The pine in Sweden is generally of a very dense and solid growth ; the farther north the tree the more close-grained is the wood. In the extreme north the growth may be so dense that the annual rings can not be seen by the naked eye. On an average, the growth in Norrland may show from 12 to 15 rings per inch. The climate in southern Sweden is mild and the growth is much quicker. Large stands are found on watery land, where the growth of the pine is very similar to its growth in southeastern Finland. The texture is spongy. The pine in southern Sweden may have a growth of 6 to 8 annual rings per inch. Pine in northern Sweden shows a large percentage of heart and is of a reddish color; but the percentage of sapwood increases the farther south the tree grows. In southern Sweden the wood is almost white. Pine contains from 2.5 to 5 per cent of resin in the sapwood and from 11 to 23 per cent of resin in the heartwood. The weight of pine, air dry, is given as 36 pounds to the cubic foot by Prof. Wijkander. The weight of a cubic foot of pine is estimated at 51.7 pounds, green, and at 31.9 pounds, absolutely dry. The shipping weight is com- puted at 46.7 pounds per cubic foot in the general trade. Pine is essentially a construction material of excellent qualities. Practically the only defect is the knots, but these, though numerous, are usually small, solid, and firmly incased in the wood. Pine is not so hard as Douglas fir and southern yellow pine in the United States, but is considerably harder than the pine in central Europe. It is easily worked with tools and does not warp or check. On account of the resin cont-^nt pine has very good lasting qualities. This wood is not well adapted for interior finish, partly because it does not show any decorative grain, and the knots make painting necessary when the wood is used for such purposes. Nevertheless, it is extensively used for joinery, but spruce is believed to be more suitable, though it has some of the same defects. The pine in Sweden is supposed to be less knotty than the pine in Norway and Finland, but otherwise there is very little difference in the quality of the wood in the three countries. The distinction made in the lumber-export trade between pine from Norway, Finland, and Sweden is due largely to differences in manu- facturing and grading and not to differences in quality. The pine in Sweden may be compared with the Norway pine {Pinus resinosa) of the Lake regions of the United States, but it is believed that Swedish pine has superior qualities as a construction wood because it is more close-grained. The best stands of pine are found in the interior districts of central and southern Norrland and of Dalecarlia. Particularly in Norrland, considerable quantities of dead pine tim- ber are found. These trees have only the heartwood left, the sap- wood having decayed. They have been standing for centuries; some have been seen in Norrland bearing the inscription of the year 1704. The supply is rapidly being cut out in accordance with the accepted principles of rational cutting. Probably in 10 years this class of timber will not be found m Sweden in large quantities. This timber is called "torrac" in the international lumber trade. The lumber sawn from these trees has special lasting qualities and is there- fore used extensively for construction purposes such as docks, etc. Its quality is very poor, and it is classified as cull lumber. SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 31 Spruce (Picea excelsa),^ it is beKeved, came into Sweden from eastern Europe. The best spruce stands are found on calcareous soil, and this species prefers moisture, but can not endure the heat as well as the pine and is more exacting in its requirements regarding climate and soil. There is only one native species of spruce in Sweden; a great many foreign species of spruce have been planted, but they do not play any important part in the lumber-export industry. The average height of spruce at the ages of 100 and 200 years in the different parts of Norrland and Dalecarlia is seen from the fol- lowing table: Districts. 100 years. 200 years. Districts. 100 years. 200 years. Norrbotten Ft. In. 46 10 65 9 55 9 Ft. In. 60 68 6 68 6 Vesternorrland Ft. In. 57 9 60 58 Ft. In. 71 Gevleborg 75 6 Jemtland Kopparberg 72 The maximum height of spruce in the various parts of Norrland is as follows: Gevleborg, 102 feet 6 inches; Vesternorrland, 95 feet; Jemtland, 92 feet; Norrbotten, 85 feet. The diameter of spruce at breast height at the age of 80 years is as follows in the different districts of Norrland and Dalecarlia, accord- ing to Forester Ortenblad: Vesterbotten, 6|f inches; Jemtland, 7f^ inches; Vesternorrland, 7|^ inches; Gevelborg, 8|f inches; Koppar- berg, 8|^ inches. The average for Norrland at different ages is as follows: 30 years. Iff inches; 40 years, 2|f inches; 50 years, 3^ inches; 60 years, 4|f inches; 70 years, 5|f inches; 80 years, 6|^ inches; 90 years, 7|^ inches; 100 years, 8|-| inches; 110 years, 8|-| inches; 120 years, 9|^ inches; 130 years, 9|f inches; 140 years, 10|^ inches; 150 years, 10|f inches. The growth of the spruce in southern Sweden is more rapid. The age of maturity of the spruce trees (based on the age when the tree yields suitable dimensions for saw logs) is somewhat earlier than that of pine. Spruce is often liable to decay, and it has been necessary in many parts of the country to cut spruce before the age of 80 years, when this rot generally begins. The root system does not extend very deeply into the ground and is partly exposed above ground- Spruce is therefore liable to suffer from winds and ferest fires. The best stands of spruce are found in central Norrland. In dense stands the bole is perfectly straight, and there are fewer branches than when the spruce grows in the mountainous districts and near the coast. The bark is smooth and is of a dark grayish color. * North European spruce is called whitewood in the European markets. 32 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. The thickness of the bark in trees of different diameters is shown in the following table: Diameter at 4} feet Thickness from ground. of bark. iTiches. Inches. Ifl ♦ IMto 3|S A 3||to 5|| ii 5||to 7|i a 7|fto 9U a %i to IIH u ll|f to 13|f a 13|f to 15if M 1511 to 17JI 11 17JI to 19iJ 5T The needles are twenty-five sixty-fourths to fifty sixty-fourths inch long, and are dark green. The wood is white and of a solid and dense growth. vSpruce has more knots than pine, but the knots are smaller and are firmly incased in the wood. Their light grayish color is not conspicuous. The wood contains only a very small percentage of resin, and is therefore liable to decay. The weight is given by Prof. Wijkander as 30 pounds per cubic foot, air-dry, while 48.4 pounds and 27.5 pounds are given by scientists as the weight of spruce, green and absolutely dry, respectively. The rail- roads figure the weight of spruce at 46.7 pounds per cubic foot, or the same as pine, but the spruce is actually lighter. Spruce bark contams from 5 to 18 per cent of tannic acid. The fibers are longer, but not so strong as the fibers of pine. The high percentage of cellu- lose in this wood and the small percentage of resin make it an ideal raw material for pulp, and spruce pulp is very soft and elastic. The physical properties of spruce (breaking strength, hardness, etc.) are not so good as those of pine, and it is, therefore, not so adapt- able for ordinary construction purposes. Its inferiority in lasting qualities restricts the use of this wood to purposes where it is not exposed to the elements. It is easily worked with tools, does not warp or check, and has many desirable qualities for interior finish and joinery. It has the same defects, however, as pine, such as knots and lack of decorative grain, and it is therefore generally painted when used for interior finish. It is an ideal shook material for boxes to be used as food containers, because the wood has neither taste nor smell. The spruce in Sweden has a great many of the same qualities as the Sitka spruce on the Pacific Coast of the United States, but the small percentage of clears and the limited dimensions obtainable make the Swedish wood less useful than the American. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF PINE AND SPRUCE. The testing of the physical properties of wood has not been devel- oped to such an extent in Europe as it has in the United States. In northern Europe few tests have been made, and little attention is paid to this important question. A test of Swedish pine made in 1897 by Prof. Aug. Wijkander, in Goteborg, has been submitted to the Forest Products Laboratory at Madison, Wis., with a view to obtaining a comparative statement of the physical properties of Swedish and American pines. The accompanying table, prepared by the Forest Service, gives data for SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 'S3 comparing various American coniferous species with Swedish pine and spruce. Sources of the data and explanations of tests are indicated. The values for air-dry material of the American species are inserted for comparison with those of the Swedish species, for which values based on tests of green material are not available. Intercomparisons of American species should be based principally on the values for green material. In making comparisons from this table it should be remembered that the material of any species is variable and that the species averaging highest will yield some material poorer than the average of a species that appears to be considerably inferior. Conversely, the species averaging lowest in a property will furnish some material better in that property than the average and much better than the poorer material of a species that is, in general, much superior. Conse- quently, too much importance should not be attached to relatively small differences shown by the data. The practical importance of this table must necessarily be limited, as it must be remembered that these tests were based on clear wood and that only a very small percentage of such clear stock is found in Sweden. The tests seem to indicate that clear Swedish pine and spruce in most respects have mechanical properties only slightly inferior to those of the best American coniferous woods. Comparison op Various American Coniferous Species with Swedish Pine AND Spruce. Results of Tests on Small Clear Specimens." Species. 6 Common names. Botanical names. Number of trees repre- sented in tests. Seasoning condition (see notes c and d.) Weight per cubic foot. SWEDISH SPECIES, c Pine... Spruce AMERICAN SPECIES.-O500OSOSO5O5OiOiOiO>Oi i 00 ^ c^ re O 'X> c CD (M O —( CC t- C ■^ J ) t-i T-l (N CO lO lO 00 •^ioo5oo'*r^io»o^HQO-*.-^e4^0u^l0^cc^os^^•^cot^co *io^ S 00 lO i-H iC CN -^ t-<.HC^ -^fN T-i ^ " JOOOOCOOOOOi >oooc ?'X^oo^ooicO"0^oco-~i^*oi^C500cox3 00co(xg?r^co:Dioio05cD -r--oaiX^cq-^'^Tr^oocc;o«ocoioC30C^ococo^HTt«»-i LO^rHc^i^ooococoTj^oioc-^-sCiocMWr-H^cooocosr^as^ rjC005»-*Oy^-^OC^05000305c01'-X'(NOOOiO-^CO'- I^ o 40 SWEDISH LUMBER li^DUSTRY AXD LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. PRH-ATE FORESTS. The private forests are in the hands of peasant landoxmers and other individuals, and large areas are o\sTied by wood-using industries such as pulp and paper mills, sa^^^nills, etc. It is estimated that one-third oi the privately owned forest land in Sweden is in the hands of wood-using industries and about two-thirds is in the hands of farmers and other individual ©"^Tiers. In the districts of Norrland and Dalecarha 37 to 38 per cent is owned by wood-using industries and 62 to 63 per cent by individuals. In southern Sweden the proportion of forest lands in the hands of the wood-using industries IS somewhat smaller. Thus individual owners possess by far the largest areas of forest lands in Sweden. In the Provinces of Norrbotten, Vesterbotten, part of the Province of Kopparberg, and the Islands of Gotland and Oland, the forests have been managed for years according to regulations laid do\vn in special laws covering these territories, and the forests are fairly, well conserved on this account. In the other sections of the country, particularly in southern Sweden and in the coastal districts, the forests have been cut for decades in excess of the annual growth. This refers mainl}' to the forests in the hands of smaller holders. There are forests in Sweden belonging to large estates, which have been managed scientifically for more than a century, and these forests usually show excellent stands. During the beg innin g and middle of the last century, the Govern- ment allotted forest lands to the settlers in northern Sweden, and this allotment was carried on until recent decades. GeneraUy these farmers obtained larger forest areas than they required to provide for their own needs. Consequently, they have always had consider- able timber for sale. Few of these farmers have taken any interest in the rational management of the forest lands; they have merely disposed of the timber in their forests to wood-using industries. It is only natural that these forests have been badly cut out in the districts where the laws have not prevented reckless cutting. The wood-using industries in northern Sweden possess large timber holdings, and these companies are now carefully managing the forests, although the great majority of them drained the forests to excess in the past. Several sawmill companies in Sweden possess 1,000,000 to 1,500,000 acres of forest lands, which in many cases were acquired decades ago at very low prices. Many of these sawmills, which were among the pioneers in northern Sweden, received liberal support from the Government in the way of concessions permitting them to cut a certain number of trees in the State forests each year at a certain low price per tree. Many of these concessions were in effect up to 1918, but they expired in that year and were not renewed by the Government. Besides possessing large areas of forest lands, these wood-using industries frequently own extensive farms and other aOTicultural properties also, which often were included in the forest lands pur- chased in the past. These conditions obtain in northern Sweden and closely resemble those prevailing in Finland. The same problem has come up in Sweden in regard to the danger of having the number of independent landowners decrease, and the Swedish Government took steps in 1906 to prevent the wood-using industries from pur- Special Agents Series No. 195. Special Agents Series No. 195. SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 41 chasing land in the Provinces of Vesternorrland, Jemtland, Vester- botten, and Norrbotten, and in portions of the Provinces of Gevleborg and Kopparberg. There are, however, exceptions to these laws, and the wood-using industries may acquire lancl for the use of factories, yards, etc., and also forest lands that may not be deemed absolutely necessary for the use of the particular farm to which they belong. It has not been the intention of the Government, however, to prevent the wood-using industries from possessing a forest area adequate to safeguard the supply of raw material. In 1909 and 1912 strict laws were passed to the effect that the wood-using industries possessing agi-icultural properties must use them for agricultural purposes; also very strict laws were passed in regard to tenants. The law in regard to the compulsory cultivation of farm land in the hands of wood-using industries proved of inestimable value to the nation during the critical conditions of the war, when Sweden found itself able to produce a large percentage of the necessary food supplies. In northern Sweden the food conditions were much better during the war than in the south, because northern Sweden was able to produce adequate food supplies for its population, while the more densely populated districts in the south were not in so favorable a position. Generally speaking, the Swedish sawmills have not such extensive areas of forest lands as those in Finland. They are therefore de- pendent to a greater extent upon the purchase of logs and timber from outside sources. The private forests in Sweden have been severely drained in decades past, particularly in southern Sweden and the coastal regions. Not only has timber of large dimensions been cut, but saplings and immature growth have been recklessly exploited, especially by exporters of props. In many districts of Sweden dealers in props taking logging contracts for saplings and young stands are called ''county shavers" because they have virtually shaved off most of the trees in the stands from the surface, leaving only scrubby growth. This practice has been stopped by the recent stringent laws. The forests in the hands of the larger lumber and pulp companies have been severely cut at times, but these owners have generally given due consideration to reforestation problems, and the forests have been well managed. One company in the Province of Koppar- berg, which is said to be the oldest stock company in the world, has carried on logging operations in its own forests since the company was started about 1225, and this company to-day probably has a larger quantity of standing timber than it ever had before, in spite of the fact that it has been logging for 700 years. Other companies in Sweden have not been in continuous operation so long, but the majority of the sawmill companies have carried out a rational forest policy for some time. Previous to the war, considerable areas of forest lands were in the hands of foreigners, mainly Norwegians and English; but during the war the Swedes acquired a large percentage of these foreign- owned forests and practically speaking, the only foreign-owned forests in Sweden at the present time are limited areas in the hands 42 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. SWEDEN (SVERIGE PUBLIC FOREST DISTRICTS %, ^roi^tgn H R**'f#^W Courtesy of State Forest Laboratory. Stockholm. FIG. 15.— DRAINING OF FOREST LAND, SOUTHERN NORRLAND. special Agents Series No. 195. Courtesy of I' FIG. 16.— METHOD Oh CUTTING. TREES MARKED "X" ARE TO BE REMOVED TO GIVE BETTER GROV^ING CONDITIONS FOR REMAINING TREES. SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE, 53 The following figures show the burned areas in the State-owned forests from 1876 to 1912: Acres. 1876-1879 93, 000 1880-1884 60, 000 1885-1889 51,000 1890-1 894 37,000 1895-1899 9,000 Acres. 1900-1904 47, 000 1905-1909 : 4, 000 1910 1,000 1911 2, 000 1912 2, 000 There are no important forest-fire insurance companies in Sweden, although such companies have been planned on various occasions. In many forests there are efficient fire-patrol systems, but in the northern districts of the country it is difficult to patrol the forests, because the population is very scattered. The absence of under- brush, the scattered stands, and the precipitation throughout the year cause the damage done by forest fires in Sweden to be very limited, and this question does not merit a great deal of attention. TAXES. Before the war the taxes in Sweden were very moderate. There was no important tax on standing timber, but taxes, municipal or Government, were levied on the profits derived from the sale of the forest products cut each year. The taxes seldom exceeded 12 to 14 per cent of the income, and in many cases they amomited to less than this figure. Besides a special tax of 1.3 per cent for the support of the forest commissions there was another special tax of 2 per cent which was collected by the communes where the forests were located. During the war the taxes increased very materially, and in many cases as much as from 40 to 45 per cent was paid on large incomes. There is stiU, however, no important tax on standing timber, as it is felt that such a tax might lead to cutting that would not be in accordance with rational management. VALUE OF TIMBERLANDS. The total value of the Swedish forests was last estimated in 1908, when the national wealth of Sweden was estimated at about $3,800,- 000,000. The following valuation was made for the forests at that time: State forests, $62,000,000; other public forests, $21,000,000; private forests, $334,000,000; total, $417,000,000. Since 1908 all values have gone up, and these figures are of little importance at the present time. It may be of interest, however, to see what values were placed on the timberlands of the Government in proportion to the values of other public forests and of private forests. The table following shows the valuation per acre in 1908 of Government forests, other public forests, private forests, and all forests in the different Provinces of Sweden and in the whole country. 54 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. Provinces. Stockholm Upsala Sodermanland Ostergotland Jonkoping KronoDerg Kalmar Gotland Blekinge Christianstad M ilmohus Halland Goteborg and Bohus. Gov- ern- ment forests. Per acre. $10. 85 16.30 15.25 19.00 21.15 18.45 19.55 7.10 8.70 7.65 21.15 8.20 4.35 Other public forests. Per acre. $14. 20 16.30 17.45 19.00 17.95 15.70 16.60 7.80 9.50 8.30 12.70 8.20 5.20 Pri- vate forests. Per acre. $9.70 13.00 10.70 11.40 8.50 7.40 7.80 5.65 7.80 7.65 15.80 6.45 4.85 All forests. Per acre. $9.85 13.40 11.20 12.20 9.35 8.85 8.80 5.85 7.80 7.65 16.05 6.80 4.85 Provinces. Elfsborg Skaraborg Vermlana Orebro Vestmanland . . Kopparberg Gevleborg Vesternorrland. Jemtland Vesterbotten . . . Norrbotten Total, Sweden . Gov- ern- ment forests. Per acre. .811.95 21.15 16.30 17.40 17.40 9.20 25. 45 11.95 12.45 7.10 3.20 6.70 Other public forests. Per acre. $13. 15 16.90 19.55 20.90 20.90 7.80 13.95 9.50 12.45 6.40 3.90 10.30 Pri- vate forests, Per acre. $7. 75 10. 45 10.45 13.00 13.00 7.80 8.85 7.14 6.85 5.65 3.20 8.00 All forests. Per acre. $8.00 11.95 10.85 13.40 13.75 8.00 9.85 7.50 7.10 6.10 3.20 7.90 In 1918, the value of average forest land (2,100 to 2,500 cubic feet per acre) was generally given as $32 to $54 per acre, according to the location and quality of the timber. For better stands as high as $108 per acre was frequently paid. These values, however, may be considered as maximum. Frequently, extensive forest holdings are purchased, including farm land and other cultivated property. In such cases the value is based on the cubical contents of the stands and may range from 4 to 6 cents per cubic foot of standing timber. Before the war, about half of these prices was paid. It is difficult to give the present value of the timberlands, because there are many conditions to be con- sidered in each case, such as the distance from the forests to the nearest floating rivers, which is of special importance in forest oper- ations. Generally speaking, however, the value of timberland increased at least 100 per cent from 1913 to 1918. Before the war, it may be said that the value of timberlands of average good stands was about $5.35 per acrfe in the northern Prov- inces of Sweden, $15.50 per acre in central and southern Norrland, and • $12.90 per acre in southern Sweden. LAWS AFFECTING FOREST MANAGEMENT AND CUTTING. The first laws with regard to forest management and cutting considered only the forest lands in public ownership and date 700 years back. Later, however, the private forests were considered, and to-day every acre of forest land in Sweden is subject to special regulations adapted to suit the circumstances in each part of the country. As the question of laws governing forest management and cutting is mider consideration at the present time in the United States, it may be of interest to give the essential points of the Swedish forest laws, because the conditions in Sweden are to a great extent similar to those prevailing in most of the forest sections in this country. It must be borne in mind that a great majority of the Swedish forests extend through an area with a very scattered population, and that these forests can not be managed in the same way as the forests in central Europe whore the population is much more dense. The different sections of trie country to which the following laws apply are designated on Fig. 17. SWEDISH LUMBER I^-DUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 55 Bui'e^u of Forehn and Domestic Commerce SWEDEN (SVERIGE) FOREST AREAS COVERED BY SPECIAL LAWS I I General Law for Private Forest 1^=^ Lappmark Law ^H Dimension Law Protection Forest Law Gottland and Oland Law Fig. 17. 56 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. LAPPMARK LAW. The Lappmark law, which was passed in 1866 and 1873, applies to the private forests in the interior Provinces of Norrbotten and Vesterbotten and stipulates that cutting must be effected only after the trees have been marked for cutting by a Government forester. The cutting system is based on principles suitable for these particular dis- tricts, where the growth of the timber is very slow. The marking of trees is made for three years in advance. In this way it is en- deavored to safeguard the future of these forests and also to obtain the highest possible annual yield. The owners of these forests may cut the wood necessary for their personal use or for use on their property, such as building material, fuel, etc. The compulsory marking of trees by a Government forester refers only tv '^ees des- tined for commercial purposes. The law is intended to protect the cultivated areas in northern Sweden by preventing the forests from being cut down, because the forests shield the agricultural land. It was also considered important that lumber and pulp mills should be prevented from purchasing farm wood lots the loss of which would greatly reduce the farm's value because they represent its sole source of building materials and fuel. The effect of the law has been the conservation of the forests, but i can not be said that the forest management has been satisfactory it all respects. The cutting has been regulated according to the princi- ple of annual growth, and as these forests often contain up to 90 per cent of overmature stands, showing a very small annual increment, the cutting has been very restricted. It has been contended that it would have been better policy if these overmature forests had been cut to a greater extent, because they represent dead capital. Cutting out these overmature stands, it is believed, would also afford better growing conditions to the younger stands. An amendment to this law in 1915 provided that overmature forests might be cut to a larger extent, if the forest owner took the necessary steps for reforestation. DIMENSION LAW. The dnnension law, passed in 1874 and 1882, applies to the coastal districts of the Provinces of Norrland and Vesterbotten. It was intended to check the excess cutting of young stands. The law stipulates that no timber less than 7 inches in diameter at 16 feet from the ground may be cut unless special permission is given by a Government forester. An exception to this rule is granted when timber is cut for the owner's personal use. Before this law was passed, large stands of young forests were recklessly cut down for small timber for export. This law is of a decidedly primitive character and has not im- proved forest management. The stands have been drained of large- dimension timber, while old and defective small growth has been left. An improvement in this law is expected. SPECIAL FOREST LAW FOR GOTLAND AND OLAND. A law was passed in 1869 to protect the forests on the Islands of Gotland and Oland, in the Baltic Sea. The law states that land suitable for forests shall be maintained as forest land, unless the stands are cut down with a view to utilizing the land for agricultural SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 57 purposes. Cutting for other purposes than for the personal needs of the forest owner and his property must be reported in advance to the authorities, who grant licenses for cutting. After the cutting has taken place, the owner must take the necessary steps for refor- esting the cut-over areas. The forest areas in the Islands of Gotland and Oland had been severely drained before this law was passed. The operation of the law has been very satisfactory, particularly as it is enforced by special forest comniissions. (Regarding forest commissions see follow- ing chapter.) FOREST LAW FOR OTHER PARTS OF SWEDEN. The law governing the management of private forests in other parts 6{ Sweden was passed in 1903. The substance of this law is that forest lands in private ownership must not be cut in such a way that the reproduction of the forests would be endangered. If the forests are cut recklessly the owner must take steps to have his lands reforested. Enforcement and supervision of the law are left to the forest commission in each Province. This law was passed with a view to checking the excess cutting .that had taken place in Sweden prior to 1903 and to safeguard the *^nation's timber supply. The effect of the law has been generally ^ satisfactory. But the regulations have not been strict enough in all cases to protect the forests, especially those exposed to the ele- ments. Furthermore, it has been contended that this law does not protect standing forests, but merely makes provision for reforestation. During the war the greatly increased excess cutting resulted in an amendment of this law. The new law passed in June, 1918, stipulates that young growing forests in the territory to which this law applies must not be cut unless such cutting is effected with a view to improving the stands (thinning). Dispensation may be given by the forest commission in each Province if it is found that the cutting of young growth is in accordance with the principles of rational forest management. If the cut-over land is destined for agricultural purposes, pastures, building sites, etc., this law does not apply. This law is expected definitely to safeguard the nation's timber supply. If the law is broken, the forest commission shall prohibit any future cutting of the young growth beyond the quantities that the owner may need for his personal use or for use on his property. The owner of a forest where the commission has prohibited further cut- ting may appeal to higher authorities in case of complaint regarding the forest commission's decision. If the forests are cut in spite of the commission's regulations, a fine is imposed upon the forest owner and the timber cut is confiscated. LAWS CONCERNING PROTECTION FORESTS. In several parts of Sweden it has been found that the -forests must be conserved in order to shield adjacent agricultural land and to pro- tect lands close to the sea from sand storms. These protection areas are located mainly in the Province of Jemtland and on the south- western coast of Sweden. The forests in these territories must not be cut for other purposes than the personal needs of the owner and 58 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. his property unless the trees are marked by a State forester. The law does not contain any regulations for forest management. The improved floating conditions of many Swedish rivers in the mountainous regions had made it possible for the Swedish lumbermen to extend the area of logging operations toward the mountains after having exploited the other districts. The consequence was that previous to the passage of this law the forests were injudiciously cut at the timber limit, so that new growth was impossible and the timber limit was lowered each year. The protection forests are under the direct supervision of the Government and the activities of the forest commissions do not ex- tend to them. Many people believe it would be advantageous to have the forest commissions supervise the cutting of these forests also. AREAS COVERED BY FOREST LAWS. According to the forest^service statistics for 1915, the areas where these laws are in force are as follows, including about 554,000 acres of private forests over which the State has a certain amount of control : Acres. Area covered by Lappmark law 4, 755, 000 Area covered by dimension law !....... 3, 180, 000 Area covered by protection- forest law 2, 074, 000 Area covered by Scotland and Oland law 335, 000 Acres. Area covered by laws con- cerning private forests in other sections 32, 636, 000 Total 42, 980, 000 FOREST COMMISSIONS. Since 1903, each Province where the general law governing the cutting in private forests is in effect has had a forest commission, con- sisting of three members servmg for a term of three years — a chair- man appointed by the Government, one member appointed by the provincial government, and one member appointed by a local asso- ciation of a semiofficial nature working for the betterment of agri- culture and forestry in each Province. There is no central organiza- tion of forest commissions; each commission reports to the forest service. Their reports are published by the Swedish Forestry Asso- ciation, the work of which is described in the next section. The com- missions are often assisted by expert foresters and they also have local committees, when necessary, in the communes and counties. Besides seeing that the law is properly carried out, the forest com- missions perform an important function in furthering local interest in better forest management. Their program includes the mainte- nancerof nurseries and the distribution of seeds and plants for re- forestation purposes. Furthermore, these commissions issue many treatises on forest culture, conservation, forest management, etc. In 1914 about 50,000 acres of land was placed under forest culture, under the supervision of the forest commissions. The expenses of the commissions are defrayed partly by a special tax amounting to 1 .3 per cent of the stumpage values of the timber cut. Ninety per cent of the amount collected in this way is used in the Province in which it is collected and 10 per cent goes to make SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AISTD LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 59 up a central fund for the whole country. The law stipulates that the funds collected from this tax must be used for no pui^Doses other than the forest commissions' work and other expenses connected with the management of private forests. Besides this special revenue, the forest commissions obtain considerable support from both the Prov- vinces and the Government. In 1915 the subsidy received from the Government was $45,000 and from the Provinces $34,000. A profit of $55,000 was derived from the sale of plants, seeds, etc. The in- come from special taxes was $310,000, making a total income of $444,000. Only where forest owners are unwilling to comply with the direc- tions of the forest commissions are the cases taken to court. The work of the commissions has been quite satisfactory, and very little trouble is experienced in enforcing the law. It is believed that the forest commissions have encountered less opposition than would have been met by any pm'ely governmental agency. The control of the cuttmg in privately owned forests is a decided limitation on pri- vate-property rights, which is less of a burden and is more likely to be recognized as an ultimate benefit, it is thought, when exercised through a commission on which local mterests, both public and private, are represented. The new forest law of Finland provides for forest commissions after the Swedish pattern. FORESTRY ASSOCIATIONS. Associations interested in promoting forestry are very active in Sweden. The most important is the Swedish Forestry Association, fomided in 1902, which issues numerous publications on forest man- agement, forestry, and related subjects and has had a very beneficial influence in spreading information among people interested in forestry. A very practical step has been taken by this association in dividing the publications into two categories, one consisting of popular mono- graphs on forest problems, mtended for readm^ by the general public, and the other of more scientific material. This association publishes the reports of the forest commissions. Another organization of great importance is the Association of Forestry in Norrland, which also issues manj^ publications. In southern Sweden there are several smaller associations working for better forest management, etc. In the Provinces where the forest commissions do not operate, the provincial governments and agricultural associations have appomted special experts, who work for the furthering of rational forest man- agement practically without remuneration. Every year, during the early spring, the Swedish Association of Forestry arranges for a forest week, which is attended by aU the in- dustries and individuals mterested in forestry. Great importance is attached to this convention, which is attended by the leading men of the comitry and is opened by the Swedish King. By attending these conventions, one receives a very striking unpression of the considera- tion given to the forests in Sweden and the dependence of the nation upon its forest wealth. 60 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. ANNUAL INCREMENT AND ANNUAL CONSUMPTION. The statement that the Swedish forests are cut in excess of their annual growth has been made for hundreds of years. These conclu- sions seem very peculiar to-day if one does not take into considera- tion that the accessible forest area has been extended largely during the past generations and even to-day there are extensive timber hold- ings in northern Sweden that have not been opened up to exploita- tion on a large scale. PRE5ENT NET ANNUAL INCREMENT 1, 312.080, 600 CUBIC FEET PRE-WAR ANNUAL CUT 564-,8Z6.000 CUBIC FEET POSSIBLE FUTURE ANNUAL NET INCREMENT I.74e>.777,000 CUBIC FEET Fig. 18.— Annual increment and annual cut in the Swedish forests and possible annual increment. In centuries past, only the forest areas in the immediate proximity of the more densely populated districts were exploited because the floating rivers were not improved so as to facilitate the transporta- tion of saw logs. The first statement in regard to annual increment and annual cut- ting was published in a report of the forest commissions in 1855, giving the annual cutting as 660,604,000 cubic feet and annual growth at 528,441,000 cubic feet. It was estimated at that time that an excess cutting of 132,163,000 cubic feet took place annually. Smce that time, the accessible forest areas have been materially increased by improved methods of floating. Various estimates have been made during the last 20 years and nearly all concluded that considerable excess cutting has taken place. If this excess cutting had taken place however to such an extent as has been stated, there would probably be very little left of the forests of Sweden. Such extreme estimates must therefore be considered erroneous. The latest estimate of the annual increment was published in 1919, from figures of the forest commissions. The following table shows for the different districts of Sweden, the productive forest area (public and private forests), the annual increment per acre, the total annual SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 61 increment, the allowance made for waste (top logs, stumps, etc.), the net annual increment, and the net annual increment per acre: Provinces. I'roductive forest area. Total annual increment. Deduc- tion for waste. Net annual increment. Norrbotten and Vesterbotten: Interior districts (two-flfths Acres. 0, 328, 000 9,49.5,000 20,898,000 17,199,000 1,425,000 Cubicfeet per acre. 11.4 17.9 28.6 35.7 42.8 Cubic feet. 72,336,000 169,537,000 597,077,000 614,252,000 61,103,000 Per cent. I ^^ 15 8 5 Cubicfeet. 181,404,000 507,516,000 565,112,000 58,048,000 Cubicfeei per acre. \ 8.6 Lower districts (three-fifths of total area) I 13.4 Jemtland.Vesternorrland, Gevle- borg, and Kopparberg 24.3 Forest area south of above Pro- vinces, except Provinces of Skane, Halland, and Blekinge. Skane, Halland, and Blekinge. . . 32.9 40.7 Total, Sweden 55,345,000 * 27.3 1,514,305,000 13 1,312,080,000 23.7 The '^ deduction for waste" allows for a waste of 202,225,000 cubic feet, which, it is believed, will be utilized to a great extent in the future when better transportation facilities and increased markets may be expected. The report of the forest commissions also makes an estimate, pub- lished in 1919 but based on pre-war conditions, in regard to the con- sumption of wood in Sweden and the quantities exported, as follows: Cubic fee per in- I . Domestic consumption (farms, household, etc.) : habitant. Norrbotten and Vesterbotten 183. (i Jemtland, Vesternorrland, Gevleber?, and Kopparberg 171. 2 South of above Provinces, except Skane, Halland, and Blekinge. . 132. 4 Skane, Halland, and Blekinge 61. 8 Average, Sweden 128. 8 Cubic feet. Total domestic consumption 732, 710, 000 II. Exports of wood 303, 185, 000 Logs, round and hewn timber (including loss of sunken logs, etc., is per cent). '. 54, 598, 000 Sawn lumber (including sunken logs, shrinkage when drying, sawmill waste, etc., 25 per cent) ..\ .' 210, 869, 000 Semimanufactured (including sunken logs, shrinkage when dry- ing, sawmill waste, etc., 30 per cent) 37, 718, 000 III. Wood used for pulp manufacture and firewood used in manufac- ture of pulp 323, 245, 000 IV. Wood used by mines, in smelting ore, and for charcoal for export. . 198, 630, 000 V. Wood used for manufacture of wood tar for export 7, 056, 000 Total consumption 1, 564, 826, 000 According to the foregoing estimates covering the annual incre- ment and annual consumption, there was an excess cutting in Sweden immediately before the war of not less than 252,746,000 cubic feet. The forest commissions' report also estimates what the Swedish forests could yield if they were more rationally managed. The estimate, which follows, may be considered as the maximum jaeld in the future. 62 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. Provinces. Annual increment per acre. Total annual increment. Norrbotten and Vesterbotten: Interior districts Cubicft. 14.3 25.0 35.7 50.0 57.2 Cubic ft. 90,420,000 237 352 000 Loiver districts Jemtland, Vestemorrland, Oevleborg, and Kopparberg 746,346,000 859,953,000 81,471,000 Forest area south of the above Provinces except Skane, Haliand, and Blekinge. Skane, Halland, and Blekiage Total, Sweden 36.4 2,015,542,000 266,765,000 Reduction for waste 1,748,777,000 Thus, the Swedish forests could produce 436,697,000 cubic feet in excess of their present production. Applying the foregoing estimate to the pre-war conditions, the Swedish forests would }deld 183,953,000 cubic feet in excess of the annual cut. During the war, it has been estimated that the cut in the Swedish forests has exceeded the pre-war cutting and may be estimated at 1,765,000,000 to 2,118,000,000 cubic feet annually. The estimates of the present annual increment may not give the correct idea of the conditions of Sweden, as large areas of overmature forest lands are found in the northern part of the country, where the annual growth is very small. When these overmature forests are cleaned up, better growing conditions will be given to the remaining stands and this may have a very important effect upon the future yield of the Swedish forests. It is evident that the consumption of wood in Sweden for domestic .purposes, such as households, farms, fuel, etc. must necessarily be greatly curtailed and substitutes for wood will be used more exten- sively that at the present time. In this way the wood may be used for such pm'poses as pulp and lumber and will yield a better profit than if it were used for fuel. The previously mentioned plans of draining swamp lands must also be taken into consideration. Large quantities of timber will be produced in these areas when they are reforested. With a better understanding of rational forestry and the strict enforcement of the new laws, the future supply of wood in Sweden wiU be amply safeguarded and the annual increment of the Swedish forests will probably be materially increased. LOGGING. Owing to the fact that Norrland and Dalecarlia, under normal con- ditions, produce more than 75 per cent of the lumber for export and also because forest operations there are on a large scale, these regions will be given particular attention in this chapter. Nearly all the operations in southern Sweden are on a small scale and are often inefiicient, offering very little interest for a study of standard forest operations in Sweden. METHODS OF OBTAINING RAW MATERIAL FOR SAWMILLS. The larger export sawmills generally have extensive areas of forest land but very few mills base their production of lumber on raw SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY Al^D LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 63 material from their own forest alone. The great majority of the mills acquire saw logs from other sources, either from public forests or from private forest owners. These purchases are not limited to Sweden alone; timber is taken from Finland also in large c[uantities and to some extent from Norway, in cases where the floating rivers originate in the forest regions of Norway. Swedish sawmills own extensive areas of timber land in both Nor- way and Finland, but most of the logs taken from these two countries are pmxhased from Finnish and Norwegian forest owners, respec- tively. In Sweden either the mills may make contracts with the for- est owners for a certain quantity of timber marked for cutting or they may bid for standing timber in the public forests. Many forest owners, and to some extent the State, sell large quanti- ties of cut saw logs delivered on the banks of the various waterways in Sweden, There are no reliable statistics showing to what extent the Swedish sawmills are dependent on purchased logs, but it may be estimated roughly that 30 to 40 per cent of the logs used by the export mills are taken from their own forests and the remainder are pur- chased or cut on other forest lands than their own. Years ago the mills sawed only pine, as spruce was considered of little or no value and was left in the forests. In some cases, logging contracts specified that the party taking these contracts could cut spruce at a very small compensation and in many cases no charge was made for spruce timber. About 50 years ago the logging con- tracts in Norrland generally specified that the cutting was lunited to pine trees 9 to 11 inches and up in diameter at 22 feet from the ground. Several contracts of this nature were made on the basis of from 6 to 10 cents per tree. With the advent of the pulp industry, spruce stumpage increased rapidly in value and as the supply of merchantable pine timber became smaller, the mills started to cut spruce, in spite of its much lower value. Although the usual procedure for contracting for timber in the State forests is to make bids in competition with other mills, the Government may make special arrangements in some cases. All dealings in Government timber are made public. In some districts the competition for timber in the State forests is very keen and the minimum prices fixed by the Government may be exceeded in some cases by 30 to 75 per cent. However, in extensive areas in the northern part of Sweden, the bids are very low, owing to the unsatisfactory transportation facilities for saw logs and also to the comparatively few sawmill and pulp operators in this part of the country. It is claimed that there has sometimes existed an agree- ment among the bidders on the timber in the State forests to regulate the price of stumpage. This is, however, a matter of much discussion. In the other parts of Sweden, where a large number of sawmills and pulp mills are in operation, such combinations have been difficult to establish, because some one always sees it to his advantage not to ad- here to such agreements, thereby breaking the ring. The large per- centage of unsold timber offered for sale by the Government can not be attributed exclusively to these combinations but is due to the unsatisfactory logging conditions in remote districts. According to official statistics, the quantities of unsold logs offered on the market by the Government, were as foUows from 1911 to 64 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 1915: 1911, 488,000 trees; 1912, 300,000 trees; 1913, 263,000 trees; 1914, 679,000 trees; 1915, 596,000 trees. For 1918, the quantitjr was estimated at 1,800,000 trees. It must be taken into consideration that logging operations were carried on with a great deal of difficulty in Sweden during the latter part of the war on account of the scarcity of food for the loggers and of feed for the horses. This situation may to a certain extent account for the quantities of unsold timber being so large. The Government has been considering the establishment of saw- mills and pulp mills in northern Sweden in order to increase the proceeds from the operation of the State forests. It is not be- lieved, however, that the Swedish Government wiU enter upon such activities to the same extent as the Finnish Government, since Swedish lumbermen feel that the Government should not compete with them in foreign fields, because the exporters are handicapped by heavy taxes, etc. On the other hand, it is certain that the Gov- ernment will increase the output of saw logs for sale instead of selling standing timber and this step wiU be looked upon with favor by all concerned. Particularly in the State forests, it has been found risky at times to bid on standing timber, because the timber is often rotten and this defect may not be discovered before the timber has been cut. By- buying saw logs, the purchaser knows exactly for what quality he is paying and he takes less chance in this way. Logging contracts previous to 1889, were made for a time extending even to 50 years, in that year, however, a logging contract was limited to 20 years, and in 1905 the limit was changed to 5 years. In the private forests, usually more favorably located, the forest owners generally obtain the highest value for their timber, as the competition is very keen. There may be cases, however, when private forest land is surrounded by the property of one forest owner, who is practically the only one in a position to log at a reason- able cbst. In such circumstances, stumpage values may be much below normal. Standing timber is pm*chased only after being cruised; this was not usually done years ago. Both the seller and the buyer make cruisings. Logging contracts are similar to those in effect in Finland but ths marking of trees for cutting must be made more carefully on account of the more stringent laws in Sweden with regard to cutting. Many sawmills in northern Sweden in years past made contracts with peasants owning timberland for the cutting of all trees above a certain dimension. These contracts were frequently made with stipu- lations that the peasants should be entitled to cut sufficient timber for their own personal use and for the use of their properties. During recent years the logging companies have often made amendments in these contracts, either by shortening the contract or by arranging to have the peasants refrain from cutting timber for their own use, in exchange tor compensation in some other form. The value of stump- age has gone up to such an extent that it has been found mutually advantageous to modify the original contracts. Special Agents Series No. 195. S-Mim%-^ -»/■"* ■■■'^Wl'' .j^.-=«r^x«* i^■.'•■ ••J t.»..-..«^ . -t«'«^v^^5^,. ■^-v^JViWK ■?«»««■- ^^■^^^'■'^-f^'^r^m*/* '■ ■■■.<*";?!«!'■ ^^^*%^;af«&,^i: Special Agents Series No. 195. Courtesy of State Forest Laboratory, Stockholm. FIG. 20.— EXCEPTIONALLY FINE STAND OF OAK, SOUTHERN SWEDEN. Courtesy of State Forest Laborutoo ^i I ' I FIG. 21.— CLEAN-CUTTING SYSTEM, LEAVING MOTHER TREES. SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 65 FOREST MANAGEMENT. The forests owned by the larger wood-using industries and estates are generally well managed and some of them have been under scien- tific management for generations. The larger forest owners fre- quently prepare detailed maps of their holdings, showing the stands, annual increment, previous cuttmg, plans for draining, etc. For the best managed forests, plans for cutting are often made 25 to 50 years ahead. The owner may come back to the same tracts of land after a certain period and find a new crop. Many companies also maintain private nurseries. The management of the forests is generally placed in the hands of trained foresters, who devote their time exclusively to forest manage- ment and to logging, floating, etc. Considerable money is also set aside for planting, seeding, and draining and the reforestation of cut-over territories is not merely an optional matter with the forest owner but, as seen from a previous chapter, it is in most cases com- pulsory by law. In many forests in Sweden it has been noticed that the age for cutting saw logs has been reduced from, for mstance, 130 years, before rational management was mstituted, to 100 or 105 years. It is very noticeable in Sweden that forest o^vners sometimes make improvements in their forests without any prospect of obtaining a direct financial return during their lifetime. On the other hand, the improvements indirectly benefit them, because if, for instance, a sawmill company has cut its forests recklessly its stock quoted on the exchange will immediately suffer. There are great plans m Sweden for drainmg and reforesting swamp lands. In connection with the draining and reforestation of swamps, the name of Dr. Frans Kempe should be mentioned. Dr. Kempe has no doubt accomplished more in this respect than any other man in Europe, and thousands and thousands of acres in cen- tral Norrland have been drained through his efforts. Figure 8 shows a section of a spruce tree cut in central Norrland on drained land. Before the area was dramed, the growth showed 12 annual rings for the first one-fourth inch from the center. After the land was drained the trees showed a growth of 14 rings for the first inch and 8 rings for the next inch, 5^ rings for the following inch and 4 rings per inch for the last two mches before it was cut. It is remarkable to see what results have been accomplished in this regard, considering the fact that these forests grow in about the same lati- tude as Nome in Alaska. Even for southern latitudes this would be remarkably quick growth. This illustration gives a good idea of the ambitious plans of the Swedish forest owners. By draining the swamp lands in northern Sweden, it is expected that in time Sweden would be able to grow on these areas alone forests ahnost sufficient to supply its present demand. It is expected that the Government will take a very keen interest in these matters in years to come, provided the increasing revenues from the State forests continue. It may be mentioned that large areas in Germany and other continental European countries which once were swamps and marshes at present produce some of the best forest stands in' Europe. 2092°— 21 5 66 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. Rational forest management has been practiced only by the larger private forest owners and the wood-using industries* possessing forest lands. It can not be said, on the other hand, that the smaller stands, particularly in southern Sweden and the coastal regions of Norrland, have been cut in accordance with rational forest manage- ment. Therefore strict laws that have been passed recently will severely affect the management of the smaller holdings, but the larger timber holders will not be materially affected. CUTTING SYSTEMS. The underlying purpose of all cutting systems in Sweden is to make the stands yield the largest possible fuiancial return on the capital invested. To accomplish this result, the cutting must be conducted along scientific lines. In well-managed forests in Sweden, much importance is attached to improvement thinnmg, which usually starts when the trees have attained the age of 30 to 50 years. Old, defective trees are removed and also trees that stand too close to their neighbors. Generally speaking, in good stands at least 20 per cent of the trees can be re- moved during the first thinning. When the stands attain an age of 60 to 90 years, the growth in height generally ceases and the cutting is effected with a view of givmg better growing conditions for the surromidmg trees so as to improve their form and size. Particularly in pine forests, it is nec- essary to cut the trees m such a way that sunlight can penetrate the tree crowns. This cutting system is not followed m spruce forests, where the general rule is that the crowns of the trees must touch each other. Cutting of this nature may be repeated every tenth year. Durmg the war an acute shortage of coal was experienced in Sweden and even as high as $80 per ton was paid for this commodity. The Swedish Government therefore had to take steps to obtain wood for fuel, and special commissions were appointed for this purpose. In one year more than 400,000,000 cubic feet was cut for fuel purposes. The system followed was mainly improvement thinning, which had a beneficial effect upon many forests whose owners had not paid much attention to this cutting system. In one forest region in central Norrland it was found, for instance, that the Fuel Commis- sion cut about 800 cubic feet per acre (55 cubic meters per hectare) without deviatmg from this improvement- thinning system. Clean cutting of large areas can not be effected in Sweden on account of the law. When clean cutting is practiced it is done only on limited areas, 25 to 40 acres, and reforestation is effected by planting, seeding, or natural reproduction. In the last case mother trees are left on the cut-over area. The number of mother trees per acre depends upon local conditions, and the clean-cut areas must not be made too large; otherwise the stands may be severely affected. Mother trees are not often left on clean-cut areas of spruce forests, because they are liable to be blown down or otherwise damaged when standing isolated, the reason being that spruce roots do not extend very far into the groimd. Reforestation of cut-over spruce land, therefore, is nearly always effected by planting or seeding. The system of clean cutting is practically limited to even-aged stands o? mature forests. Where the mature stands have an under 4 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 67 growth of young trees this system can not generally be applied with profit. The result of the clean-cutting system is even-aged forests. This system has several advantages, among which are the ease with which the cut-over areas can be planted and seeded and the comparatively small cost of reproduction. The disadvantage of this cutting system is that clean-cutting fells many trees that have not reached the age of maturity and thereby causes the owner a financial loss. Small patches of about one-half acre are sometimes clean-cut and reproduction is left to nature by seeds from the stands at the edges of the clean-cut patches. The forests cut in this way will be many- aged, as contrasted with the even-aged stands growing up after clean-cutting over larger areas. As the clean-cut areas are very small, they are not exposed to winds and the many-aged stands that grow up after tliis cutting system has been practiced for some time are more resistant to fires, storms, etc. There are also no expenses for reproduction. Dimension cutting is very miscientific and has no connection with rational forest management. Nevertheless this system of cutting is commonly practiced in Sweden, particularly in small and poorly managed timber holdings. All trees having a larger diameter at breast height than is specified as the minimum in the logging instruc- tions are cut with no regard to other conditions. It is evident that many important rules of forestry are disregarded when this cutting system is employed. Mother trees that should be left for the natural reproduction of the forests, shelter trees that should protect the young stands against the elements, etc., are all cut alike if they are of the required size, whereas scrubby growth and defective trees are allowed to remain in the forests. When this cutting sj^stem is repeated the forest is soon stripped of its stands of merchantable timber and the conditions are made extremely unfavorable for reproduction. For it is evident that when the natural reproduction of the forest is left to abnormal and defective trees, the quality of the timber of the new growth must be greatly impaired. In ration- ally managed forests, the best trees in the stands are left as mother trees, but this is not the case when dimension cutting is practiced. Dimension cutting, therefore, is primitive and incompatible with the rules of scientific forest management. FELLINO THE TREES. PLANNING THE SEASON'S CUT. Usually all the larger sawmills possessing forest land maintain special branches devoted to the management and operation of their forests. Before each logging season, the forest o^vner must carefully plan the season's work. Tlie plan for cutting may cover a number of yeaT-s in advance. During the summer and the early autumn, the trees to be cut the following season are marked. The forest area to be logged is carefully cruised, logging roads are surveyed, obstacles such as stones are blasted, bridges are built, etc. From the main logging road, a number of branch roads deviate. The laving out of a system of logging roads is very carefully done witli a view to eliminating hifis, etc. In southern Sweden, the roads must 68 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. be made more permanent on account of the lack of snow, but in northern Sweden the snow cover makes such steps unnecessary. The territory to be logged over is divided into sections, one of which is alloted to each crew of loggers, and log cabins, etc., are con- structed. The marking of the trees for cutting is left to experts and must be done in accordance with the laws in the Province where the logging is carried on. The trees are marked with a distinguishing brand, of which each mill has one. The trees are marked either at breast height only or both at breast height and as close as possible to the root. Sometimes logging contracts stipulate that trees shall be marked at breast height on opposite sides of the bole. If the areas are to be clean cut, the trees are usually'- not marked. The person marking the trees is also required, as a rule, to keep an account of the number of trees to be cut and their dimensions, in order to enable the mill to estimate intelligently the stocks of lumber that may be sawn in the near future. The logging operations are restricted to the winter months; no logging iscarried on during the spring, summer, and autumn, because at these times the logs are liable to discolor. The snow greatl}' facilitates the transportation of the saw logs, and the logging opera- tions generally start in November or December, as soon as the ground is frozen and the first snow has fallen. The logging opera- tions last three to four months in southern Sweden and six to seven months in the northern Provinces. The snow cover is very light in southern Sweden and often the snow does not stay on the ground for any length of time. The snow cover in central and northern Norrland is usually H to 2 feet and in northern Norrland, 4 to 6 feet. In southern Sweden the logging operations are concentrated along the railroad lines, because the transportation of saw logs in the rivers is not satisfactory there. In northern Sweden the distance from the nearest floating river is seldom more than 5 to 8 miles. The cutting and driving of logs are usually given out on contracts. These contracts may be based on the number of saw logs, irrespective of dimensions, or on the cubical contents of each log. The latter seems to be the more satisfactory^ arrangement. The sawmill companies may make arrangements with one foreman, who signs the contract and who hires his own crew and furnishes his own horses and equipment. The company does not take any active part in the logging operations outside of supervising from time to time the progress of the work. In normal times, however, the companies sometimes give assistance to the foreman by maintaining roads during the winter, etc. During the war, the difficulty of secur- ing horse feed and food supplies made it necessary for many sawmill companies to spend large amounts of money to procure these com- modities in order to carry on logging operations. It is noticeable in Sweden that the large forest owners have made an effort to secure a permanent staff of operators in the forests. These companies have often rented to loggers, at a nominal rent or none at all, farms located in the forests, on condition that the loggers place themselves at the disposal of the company during the logging operations in the wintertime, provided that the company pays the standard wages that could be obtained from other parties in the same SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 69 locality. This arrangement has given satisfaction to both parties concerned and has proved very successful. FELLING METHODS. The districts most remote from the waterways are logged first. Logging is usually suspended when the temperature is lower than 4° below zero, because the trees are liable to break in felling. The logging methods in Sweden are about the same as those employed in Finland and Norway. The character of the country, the relatively small stands of timber per acre, and the cutting systems combine to make the use of complicated logging machinery very difficult. The felling of the trees is done by hand, as no satisfactory tree-felling machines have been found. A number of types of drag saws have been tried from time to time but there seem to be drawbacks that make the use of these machines undesirable. Some machines re- quire two men for their operation and in other cases the macliines are too heavy to be moved around quickly on account of the snow. In most cases the felling of trees by macliines has proved more expensive than felling by hand. In felling trees saws are now used almost exclusively in Sweden, because the waste is less than when felling is done with axes. Usually two men operate each saw but in some places only one man does the work. In some cases, the one-man saw has a spiral spring attached to the end of the saw and fastened to the tree, which greatly facilitates the sawing operations. In the better managed private forests, the height of the stumps does not exceed 3 or 4 inches above the frozen ground (not above the snow cover). In order to accomplish this residt the loggers must shovel the snow away before cutting. Fines are usually imposed for stumps in excess of the stipulated height. Particular care is taken not to damage the surrounding young forests when trees are felled. If the trees show any traces of decay, the loggers must saw off pieces at the butt end from 1 to 2 feet in length until the decay is removed. For this work a small compensation is often paid. It is evident that by the exercise of care in this respect, the cost of floating and handling will be decreased, as it is a loss to bring a rotten log to the mill, to incur the same charges for handling as sound timber. After the tree is felled, it is limbed from the butt toward the top and is then barked. The barking is done with a special implement shaped like a spade with a sharp edge. Barking is compulsory by law in many sections of Sweden but in the northern Provinces the law makes certain exceptions. There are several reasons for the compulsory barldng of logs. It is contended that the accumulation of bark in the floating rivers is injurious to the fish, although on this point opinions vary. At any rate, during floating the bark loosens and fills up the rivers. For the sawmill owner, it is often important to have the logs barked, because unbarked logs are liable to accumulate sand, which is in- jurious to the sav/ blades in the mill. Furthermore, barked logs are more easily handled and prevent an accumulation of refuse at the mill. Unbarked logs are liable to tint the lumber, giving it a brownish color, which impairs the appearance. The barking of logs entails, however, considerable expense, to which there is often strong 70 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. objection. This increased expense of logging is a handicap to many forest owners in remote districts, because it hampers the utilization of small-dimension timber. Spruce logs are seldom barked. According to Forester W. Ekman, one man can cut, limb, and bark the following number of logs of different dimensions, during a day of 9^ to 10 hom"s: Log lengths. Top diameter (inches). 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 14 16 18 15 feet 32 28 25 23 22 21 20 26 23 21 19 18 17 16 21 19 17 16 15 14 13 17 15 14 13 12 11 10 14 13 12 11 10 9 9 12 11 10 9 9 8 8 10 9 8 8 7 7 7 8 7 7 6 6 6 5 7 6 6 6 5 5 5 6 17 feet... 6 19 feet 6 21 feet 5 23 feet 5 25feet 4 27 feet 4 In general, it may be said that in the better stands an average of 1^ to 2 saw logs from each tree may be obtained. In the coastal and mountainous districts, however, one log from each tree may be the average. CKOSSCUTTING. When the tree is limbed and barked, it is crosscut to log lengths. This is one of the most important operations in the forest, and special expert crosscutters have been used for this purpose in Sweden for a number of years in the most efficiently operated forests. Inefficient crosscutting methods may cost the company thousands of dollars and an ordinary logger might be more or less careless in this respect. The extra expense, however, causes many mills to do without the special crosscutters. The sawing schedules are based on the top diameter. It is there- fore necessary to produce such top-diameter dimensions as wiU give the best results when the logs are cut into lumber. Special cross- cutting tables are made up by the mills, based on the market prices of lumber and also taking into consideration the probable future trend in the prices of the different widths. The crosscutting is effected in accordance with these tables, and the crosscutter and the mill superintendent are in constant touch with each other during the logging season, in order to obtain an output of the most suitable log dimensions. The smallest top diameter of saw logs varies a great deal and is determined mainly by the cost of logging and floating. On an average, saw logs are seldom cut less than 4 to 5 inches in top diame- ter; this apphes only in districts where the cost of logging and float- ing is moderate. In other districts, the minimum top diameter may be 6 inches. The competition from pulp mills may tend to increase the minimum top diameter in many instances. The remainder of the tree (top logs) is carefully utilized as a rule, being cut into props, charcoal logs, or pulp logs of various lengths. If the log is crooked, it must be crosscut at the bend, unless the mills have special apparatus for sawing crooked lo^s. Efforts are also made to crosscut logs in such a way that the clear will be separated from the defective, part of the tree, provided the average SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 71 log lengths will not be impaired by this procedure. The mills that classify the lumber into more than three grades are particularly careful in this respect. If the taper of the log is large, the log lengths are made small because in sawing long logs with a large taper the waste is dispro- portionately great. The log lengths are cut on odd and even feet, giving from 6 to 8 inches excess to provide for damage during floating. As the lumber for export is sold on an average-length basis, no attention is paid to obtaining any special standard of log lengths. The most important markets for Swedish lumber employing the English measurements, the saw logs are cut to Enghsh feet and inches. Logs are seldom shorter than 9 to 10 feet; the maximum length varies a great deal and is usually governed by the conditions of floating. In most of the Swedish rivers the charges for floating long logs are very heavy and the timber is liable to break while en route to the mill. There- fore, the maximum lengths of logs floated in Swedish rivers may be 28 to 29 feet. The crosscutter must endeavor to obtain an average length of about 18 feet. The top diameters are usually cut on the half inch and in some cases the most efficient operators crosscut on the quarter-inch diame- ter. The top diameters most in demand are as follows: Pine, 8, 8f , 9i, 10, 11, 13, and ISJ inches; spruce, 7f, 8^, 9f, lOf 12f, and 15 inches. The following is a sample of the instructions for crosscutting logs: Minimum top Pine in lengths of — • diameter (inches). 13 to 29 feet 6 11 to 12 feet 8i 9 to 10 feet 9 Spruce in lengths of — 15 to 29 feet 1 7 13 to 14 feei 8 9 to 10 feet ] . gj In some districts in Sweden great importance is attached to ob- taining long lengths, thereby lessening the cubical contents of the lumber obtained when these logs are sawn. These mills have special markets for lumber of long lengths, but it is generally con- tended that although they obtain an increased price for such stock the waste in cutting long lengths in the miU is disproportionately large and the increased prices could scarcely make up for loss in material. It is generally estimated that one crosscutter can take care of the output of 8 to 10 loggers. The crosscutter may also be called upon to keep an exact account of the number of logs and log dimensions cut in order to enable the mills to be posted on the progress of the logging operations and to plan the following season's cut of lumber. To understand the importance of efiicient crosscutting methods, it is necessary to consider the scale of prices of lumber of various widths. Some dimensions, 1 1 and 9 inches, for example, are much in demand and command higher prices than, for instance, 8 and 10 mch stock, which is wanted by only a few markets. The following example may be given to illustrate the economic loss caused by an mefficient system of crosscutting, the values given being in accord- 72 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AlfD LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. ance with the average value of saw logs before the war: Aii average Eine tree about 60 feet high and 12 inches in diameter at breast eight, with a taper of about 1 inch in 9 feet, may be crosscut as follows: Alternative!: value. 1 log 15 feet long and 10 inches at the top $1. 20 1 log 17 feet long and 7 inches at the top 1. 20 1 log 17 feet long and 3 inches at the top 1. 20 Alternative II : 1 log 25 feet long and 8 inches at the top 95 1 log 25 feet long and 3 inches at the top 95 Alternative III: 1 log 19 feet long and 9 inches at the top 91 1 log 27 feet long and 4 inches at the top 91 Thus a loss may ensue from a faulty system of crosscutting of as much as 29 cents on one tree, not considering the top log, which is used for coal or fuel and which often is of small value. In no other country is the system of crosscutting so developed as in Sweden. In Russia, for instance, where about the same kinds of trees grow, most of the logs are crosscut to about the same lengths, the comparative value of the lumber to be sawn from various log dimensions not being taken into consideration. UTILIZATION OF ALL PARTS OF TREE. The efficiency in the utilization of even the smallest top log is sur- prising and the utilization is becoming closer and closer each year as the cost of stumpage increases and the floating facilities are im- proved. In most of the favorably located forests in Sweden, prac- tically nothing is left in the forest after cutting. Even the bark, branches, and roots are utilized for fuel, tar, etc.^ In some districts, bark, branches, etc., are compressed into briquet for fuel. During the war a very plose utilization of small top logs was insti- tuted. About 40 top logs were made up into a bundle 10 to 11 feet long and 15f to 23^ inches in diameter. These bundles are strapped with iron wire, for which purpose a special machine has been con- structed, costing about $70. Three men can put up 50 bundles per day by using this machine and one company alone put up 35,000 bundles of this material in 1918. The cost of bundlm^ was about 15 to 25 cents a bundle in 1918-19. The bundles were floated to the nearest charcoal plant where this material was manufactured into charcoal. One of these bundles may be classified at approxi- mately one-fifth of a standard log, and the charge for floatm^ has usually been about 10^ cents per bundle, though there was consider- able variation. The percentage of sunken bundles was less than one- half of 1 per cent. The whole undertaking was so successful that a number of operators in Sweden have followed up the success of the first trial, which was made in the Dal River. It is figured that the forest owners obtained a net profit in 1918 of approximately 1| cents per cubic foot by selling these bundles to the charcoal plants, but in this calculation stumpage has not been included. It is difficult, however, to fix any amount for stumpage, as these top logs would probably have no value except for this purpose. * The roots are either blasted or pulled out of the ground. During the war as high as 20 cents per cable Ibot was paid for the roots, based on the measurement of the roots in piles. Special Ag-ents Series No. 195. Courtesy of State Forest LaboniLory, .■Stockholm. FIG. 22.— CHOPPING BRANCHES AND WASTE INTO FIREWOOD. Courtesy of State Forest Laboratory, Stockholm. FIG. 23. — PULLING ROOTS. Special Agents Series No. 195. Courtesy of State Korust Laboratory, Stockholm. FIG. 24.— BURNING CHARCOAL. FIG. 25.— RIGID INSPECTION OF HEIGHT OF STUMPS. SWEDISH LUMBEE INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 73 By disposing of them in this way, the forests are cleaned up and waste is turned into profit. In no other country in the world, not even in Germany, can small- dimension top logs, etc., be utilized to so great an extent as in Sweden. This is due to the cheap transportation, both in the forests and from the forests to the mill, and to the excellent market that can usually be found in Sweden for such stock, which is used for charcoal, pulp,' props, etc. Before the war the iron industries alone consumed 120,000,000 bushels of charcoal, valued at $7,775,000, annually. DRIVING. The transportation of logs to the nearest waterway is done by horses. Only in one or two cases are small logging railroads used in central Sweden, where the limited amount of snow greatly hampers the transportation by sledges. Recently a company was formed in Sweden to put into operation a new mechanical-transportation system for saw logs. It appears, however, that this system is the same, in the main, as the system used in the United States for transporting logs by rail; but it is adapted to Swedish conditions. It is believed that the mechanical transportation of saw logs will make good progress in Sweden on account of the topographical conditions. The Swedish Government is reported to have taken steps to use German army trucks for log hauling in the State forests. The driving of logs starts as soon as the snow covers the ground in sufficient quantities to facilitate sleigh driving. The sleighs used vary in construction in the various parts of Sweden. Usually the equipment consists of two sleighs connected with a chain. The one in front is about 6 feet long and provided with an immovable bar on which the logs rest, thereby enabling the driver to make sharp turns. The rear sleigh is 7 to 11 feet lon». The load is secured by a special binder, now used instead of spikes, which previously were driven into the logs in order to fasten the chains. These spikes often broke during cold weather and the spike left in the saw log caused a great deal of trouble in the sawmills when the saw blade struck the piece of steel. The logs are generally assembled at one central point along the main logging road, where they are loaded on sleighs and driven down to the water. The equipment used for hauling the logs from the stumps to the assembling point is a small sleigh on which the top end of the log is chained, while the remainder of the log is dragged on the ground. The loads vary considerably in size. According to Forester W. Ekman, the average loads in Sweden are the following: Seven-inch top-diameter logs, 65 cubic feet per load; 12-inch top-diameter logs, 80 cubic feet per load; 12-inch top-diameter logs, 92 cubic feet per load. The number of trips per day depends, of course, upon the distance. According to Forester O. Eneroth, the following schedule may be considered as normal in Sweden: Up to 1.9 miles, 4 trips per day; 1.9 miles to 2.5 miles, 3 trips per day; 2.5 miles to 4.4 miles, 2 trips per day; 4.4 miles to 10 miles, 1 trip per day. It is impossible, of course, to give anything but a rough estimate, as the topographical conditions determine the progress of the driving. 74 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. The horses used in forest operations in Sweden are remarkably- adapted to logging conditions. They are sturdy and excellently trained for the difficult work in the forests. When the logs have been taken down to the waterway they are piled either on the ice or on the bank and are given a solid foundation of two parallel logs placed at right angles to the tiers of the other •logs. At least once a week the saw logs are scaled by the company's inspector and the logs are provided with a dozen or more brands along the entire length, in order to enable the floaters to separate them readily according to ownership. When saw logs are sold delivered at the river bank, they are often measured by members of an organization of measurers established by the purchasers of saw logs in order to avoid haphazard purchasing methods. Formerly logs were frequently measured in different ways in the same district and the buyer would not exactly know what he was getting. This system often led to unfair competition among log buyers, which the present impartial measuring system was estab- lished to eliminate. The cost of measuring of saw logs generally varied from one-half to three-fourths cent per log before the war; it was 50 to 75 per cent higher in 1918-19. Reindeer are used for log hauling to some extent in the northern- most parts of Sweden. The reindeer is a comparatively small animal but it possesses remarkable strength, and it is generally figured that two reindeer are capable of performing the same work in the forests as one horse. The average loads may be 30 to 40 cubic feet of logs. The reindeer does not possess the endurance of a horse and the dis- tance covered in hauling seldom exceeds one to two miles. The advantage of using reindeer is that the feed question is easily settled, as the reindeer lives on moss and similar vegetation growing in the northern regions. Sometimes forest owners hire a herd of reindeer to trample the logging roads after a snowfall — an effective and cheap way of road building. After the logging operations are finished in the spring, the logging areas are inspected by the company to see if the logging contracts have been carried out properly. Fines for careless cutting, etc., are decided upon and final settlement is made with the logging fore- men. The logging foremen generally receive an advance of money before the logging operations start and part payments on the logging contracts are made during logging operations in the winter. LABOR AND WAGES. In every country there is some occupation in which the inhabi- tants have special proficiency, and it does not take a stranger long to find out that it is the handling of timber and lumber in which the people of Sweden excel. The Swedish loggers are hardy, have great endurance, and are very proficient in their work. Mention has been made previously of the endeavors of the Swedish forest owners to build up a permanent staff of loggers on their tim- berlands. Besides these permanent workers, there is always a iar^e floating population moving from district to district and engaged m logging in the winter, floating in the spring, and farming in the summer. SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 75 Working and living conditions in the forest regions in Sweden have been generally satisfactory. Good money has been earned by the loggers because the cost of living in Sweden was low before the war and the loggers were able to save the greater portion of their wages. According to official statistics, the following wages were paid to different kinds of workers in the various districts of Norrland and central Sweden in 1913, 1917, and 1918. Conversions here and throughout this report have been made at the normal rate of 26.8 cents to the Swedish crown: Fallers. Drivers (with horse). Districts. Average wages per day. Increase. Average wages per day. Increase. 1913 1917 1918 1913 to 1918. 1917 to 1918. 1913 1917 1918 1913 to 1918. 1917 to 1918. Bergslag Gevle-Dala $0.83 1.16 1.04 .87 .87 .92 .91 .91 $2.04 2.98 2.49 2.42 2.22 2.36 2.79 2.17 S2.46 4. 88 3.51 3.38 3.46 3.15 4.00 3.47 Per ct. 195.8 323. 237.6 287.7 298.2 243.6 337.5 . 280. 1 Per ct. 20.2 63.6 40.9 39.5 56.3 33.4 43.5 60.4 S2.25 2.50 2.16 1.94 1.94 1.78 1.80 1.80 $4.23 7.32 6.43 6.00 5.98 5.47 5.65 4.90 $6.22 12.60 9.62 9.27 9.26 8.84 7.96 '7.83 Per ct. 175.8 402.7 345.4 377.2 376.7 397.7 341.2 334.0 Per ct. 46.7 71.9 49.9 54.5 54.8 61.9 41.0 .59.7 Central Norrland Hemosand . . . Umea Skelleftea . Lower Norrbotten . . Upper Norrbotten. . Average, Norr- land and central Swe- den .96 2.43 3.55 271.4 46.4 2.03 5.71 8.71 330.2 52.4 The following information is given in regard to the wages in various districts of southern Sweden in 1918: Districts. FaUers. Drivers (with horse). Districts. Fallers. Drivers (with horse). Sodra $1.95 2.22 $5.33 5.78 Vestra $1.87 2.20 $5.63 5 53 Smaland Ostra . . . It is thereby seen that southern Sweden had considerably lower wages than northern Sweden, but the logging operations are not important in these districts. Cases were known in districts of southern Norrland where as high as $20 to $22 per day was paid in 1918 to saw-log drivers with horse. In southern Sweden the low wages may be explained to a great extent by the fact that the loggers are more permanent employees than in northern Sweden and, besides their wages, these people obtain other benefits, such as the use of farms and other properties at very low rent. It may be of interest to consider the statement following covering the cost of the necessary food supplies per man (about 4,300 calories per day) in the forest regions of central Sweden during 1914 and 1918-19. 76 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. Articles. 2. 2 pounds margarin . . 4. 4 pounds rye bread. . 1. 1 poimds salt pork . . 2. 2 pounds wheat flour 2. 2 pounds oatmeal . . . 1. 1 pounds sugar 1913-14 1918-19 §0.40 (a) .24 SO. 54 .19 $0.80- 1.07 .10 • .13 .15 (») .10 .13 Articles. 0. 2 pounds coffee 1. 1 pounds dried fruit Tobacco, etc 14. 5 pounds (4,300 calo- ries per day) 1913-14 $0.05 .27 .40 19ia-19 C) 0.2O .80 a Usually not obtainable. 6 Not obtainable. Besides these articles, the loggers generally brought with them from home different farm products, such as milk. The prices of hay and oats during the same periods were as follows : Hay, 1 to 1.3 cents per pound in 1913-14 and 7.3 to 8.5 cents in 1918-19; oats, 2.2 to 2.7 cents per pound in 1913-14 and 9.7 to 14.6 cents in 1918-19. The prices for hay and oats are not in accordance with the maximum prices fixed by the Government; but all over Sweden only limited quantities were available at the Government rates. Many people sold both food and feed stuffs at higher prices, in spite of the energetic efforts on the part of the Government to check these practices. The importance of the forest to the Swedish nation was particu- larly manifested during the war, when Swedish scientists produced a feed substitute made of wood pulp. It is said that this substitute horse feed enabled the loggers to continue logging operations. COST OF LOGGING. To obtain an average figure of the cost of logging covering the whole country is almost impossible because conditions differ in the various sections. The following statement, compiled by Prof. G. Lundberg, gives the index numbers showing the relative cost of logging for logs of different top diameters, in most districts, if the 8-inch top diameter is taken as the basis (1.00) : Operations. Top diameter (inches). 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Felling, barking, and limbing Driving, average haul, 2 to 2h miles 1.41 1.44 1.20 1.20 1.09 1.12 1.00 1.00 0.93 .90 0.87 .82 0.82 .76 0.78 .71 0.74 .07 0.70 .64 0.67 .62 The following detailed statement of the cost of logging, per cubic foot, during 1913-14, 1917-18, and 1918-19, in a district of southern Norrland is believed to be representative of standard logging opera- tions in the principal districts of Sweden. The variations between this district and certain other districts in Sweden may be due largely to special local conditions. SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 77 Items. 1913-14 1917-lS 1918-19 Cutting (based on average logs 8 inches at top, 17 feet long, limbing, bark- ing, and crosscutting) Transportation (driving logs to waterway, average 2 trips per day) Total Overhead charges and general expenses: Marking trees for cutting and log scaling at river bank Surveying Supervision of logging Road-construction camps Inspection after logging Liability insurance Dumping logs into river Total Stimipage Grand total cost of getting logs to river bank Cents. Cents. Cents. 0.880 1.870 2.250 1.550 4.230 5.110 2.430 6.100 7.360 .080 .100 .147 .040 .050 .059 .080 .182 .201 .080 .160 -■201 .003 .013 .016 .013 .016 .016 .003 .067 .080 .299 .588 .720 4.290 9.657 10.440 7.019 18. 520 AVERAGE LOG DIMENSIONS IN DIFFERENT DISTRICTS. When the lumber export trade started on a large scale a little more than half a century ago, there were large areas of virgin forests in Norrland. During the first years of logging in this region no trees yielding logs less than 12 inches in top diameter were cut. Since that time, however, the saw-log dimensions have been steadily de- creasing as the prices of stumpage have advanced. The following schedule gives the result of an investigation of the present average saw-log dimensions covering many standard opera- tions in different parts of Sweden: Districts. Average top diameter. Average length. Disjtricts. Average top diameter. Average length. Northern Norrland: Haparanda Inches. \ 8i-8i } 7 7i Feet. 1S-18J 17-18 Central Norrland: Hemosand Inches. } 7J-7J 1 » 7 -8 Feet. Lulea Sundsvall 18J-19J Pitea Southern Norrland: Hudiksvall .. . Skelleftea Umea 17i Ornskoldsvik Gevle West coast 15-165 An investigation in several of the principal logging districts of Norrland gives the following results in regard to the percentages of pine and spruce saw logs of various top dimensions: 5 to 6 inches, 27 per cent; 6 to 7 inches, 20 per cent; 7 to 8 inches, 17 per cent; 8 to 9 inches, 13 per cent; 9 to 10 inches, 14 per cent; 10 to 11 inches, 4 per cent; 11 to 12 inches, 3 per cent; 12 to 13 inches, 2 per cent. In four districts in southern Norrland it was found that the per- centages of pine and spruce logs of different lengths were as follows : Spruce in lengths of 10 to 13 feet, 7 per cent; in lengths of 14 to 21 feet, 88 per cent; and in lengths of 22 to 29 feet, 5 per cent; pine in corresponding lengths, 18, 71, and 11 per cent, respectively. It is difficult to obtain a satisfactory statement covering the logs cut in any particular district, because these statistics have been com- piled at the mills and nearly all the districts in Norrland take logs from adjacent districts and even from Finland. 78 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. In regard to the log dimensions in southern Sweden outside the west-coast district, it is impossible to give an accurate idea of the average dimensions, because the logs are cut by thousands of small operators, usually without regard to obtaining the most profitable log dimensions. The lengths are shorter in southern Sweden than in the other parts of the country; probably most of the logs are 14 to 16 feet long. They are seldom longer on account of the difficulty of transportation. Moreover, southern Sweden produces most of the lumber exported to the Danish market, which prefers lengths of 12, 13, 14, and 15 feet. The dimensions of saw logs have been on the decline for years as the virgin forests are gradually being cut out. The following state- ment from some of the largest operations in Norrland gives an idea of the decrease of log dimensions from 1907 to 1917: Years. Average dimensions. 1907 ■ 8 inches by 19f feet. 1908 8i inches by 20 feet. 1909 7| inches by 19i feet. 1910 71 inches by 19} feet. 1911 7| inches by 19| feet. 1912 8 inches by 19i feet. Years. Average dimensions. 1913 8 inches by 18^ feet. 1914 8i inches by 18| feet. 1915 8| inches by 18i feet. 1916 8 inches by 18} feet. 1917 8i inches by 18| feet. Many sawmills in Norrland take considerable quantities of saw logs from Finland. The Swedish miUs often possess timber holdings m northern Finland, but most of the logs are contracted for from the Finnish State forests. As the Furnish timber is usually cut from vir- gin forests, it enables the Swedish mills to complete their stock lists with wide stock cut from the Finnish logs and thereby to enhance the value of the whole production of the Swedish mills. The Fmnish timber is taken in whole tree lengths and rafted across the Gulf of Bothnia to Swedish ports. Not only the ports on the northern shores of the Gulf of Bothnia take Finnish timber, but even ports in central Norrland have for a, long time contracted for large quantities of Finnish logs. This competition in saw timber is disliked by the Finnish sawmill operators but the Swedish sawmills usually can pay higher prices for saw timber than the Finnish mills, because the Swedish sawmills cut the lumber with a larger percentage of wane and can utilize the waste material to better advantage. The Fin- nish timber, however, sometimes shows decay and other defects. Energetic efforts are being made in Finland to check this exportation of saw logs to Sweden. PRICES OF SAW LOGS. The Swedish sawmills find it to their advantage to equalize their production of lumber by purchasing timber from other forests than their own. The competition usually is not only among the sawmills but also between pulp mills and sawmills. The base prices on saw logs delivered at the waterways are often stipulated by the local branches of the Swedish Exporters' Association, with a view to bringing about fairer methods in the purchase of saw logs. Although the mms may agree in regard to a certain maximum increase on these base prices, they have not been so successful in cooperating to purchase saw logs as in cooperating to sell lumber for export. SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 79 The base prices are generally fixed for logs delivered at a certain point on the main floating river. The price for logs delivered at other points is arrived at by deducting the difference in the floating charges between the two points. The buying of saw logs always entails a certain amount of risk to the sawmills because they are unable to teU what prices they may obtain for the lumber cut from these logs, as it nearly always takes from one to two and a hah years for the saw logs to be turned into lumber for shipment. At the time the purchase is made, an advance of about 10 per cent of the contract price is made and the balance is paid either in install- ments or upon delivery. As the prices of cut saw logs wiU give a better idea of the value of the raw material in Sweden than a statement of the stumpage values with the cost of logging and floating, special attention will be given the matter of prices of saw logs. The following table, compfled by Forester Ortenblad, shows the advance in the price of saw logs of different top diameters in the Indal River district, from 1855 to 1905. The prices are quoted per standard log 21 feet long: Top diameters. 1855 1865 1870 1874 1875 1880 1885 1890 1895 1900 1905 12 inches SO. 39 .09 .07 $0.47 .32 .17 $0. 54 .43 .32 .19 .13 SI. 20 1.07 .94 .80 .54 SO. 67 ..54 .40 .27 .13 SO. S6 .72 .59 .46 .21 $0.95 .82 .68 .44 .24 SI. 05 .91 .79 .52 .32 .17 $1.18 .98 .79 .54 .34 .20 $1.69 1.26 .96 .70 .43 .28 .17 .15 .09 $1.74 11 inches 1.41 1.13 9 inches .84 .56 ! .34 .17 .15 This table is especially interesting because it shows that only logs 10 inches and more in top diameter were cut up to 1870. From that time to 1890 no logs less 8 inches in diameter were sold and from 1900 saw logs with top diameters down to 4 inches were considered as com- mercial sizes. This top-diameter Umit has not been lowered at the present time. It is difficult to tabulate the statistics of cost of saw logs in such a way that they can be compared, because the methods of measurement in the different districts vary considerably and the cost of floating also is a factor. If the logs are delivered at the upper course of the river, the price must be lower than if they are delivered close to the mills. The figures in the table following, referring to different dis- tricts, can not be compared with one another without taking into con- sideration the cost of floating, but they may separately indicate the increase in cost during the last few years. The table following shows the prices of saw logs per cubic foot, dehvered on the main floating river in various districts of Sweden for specified years, together with the percentage of increase each year over a stated price basis for each district. A standard pine log 8 inches in top diameter and 17 feet in length has been considered in making these calculations, the average contents being 5.93 cubic feet, based on top-diameter measurement. The prices for spruce logs were in some cases on a par with those on pine and in other cases were somewhat lower or higher, according to circumstances. 80 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE.' Districts and years. Price per cubic foot. Increase. Districts and years. Price per cubic foot. Increase. Lulea (basis, per log, 27.9 cents): 1913 Cents. 6.4 9.1 10.0 7.8 7.8 9.1 13.0 15.6 9.1 10.0 9.6 11.5 17.0 23.2 19.3 6.8 7.1 Per cent. 35 95 110 50 50 75 150 200 140 165 150 200 350 500 400 10 15 Hudiksvall (basis, per log, 36.2 cents for 1913 and 1914 and 34.8 cent,s for later years)— Continued. 1915 Cents. 7.3 8.8 14.9 14.9 14.8 14.8 19.0 19.0 8.5 8.5 11.1 14.8 20.0 23.2 33.9 Per cent. 1917.. ..• 1918.. . .. 25 Skelleftea (basis, per log, 30.8 1916 50 cents) : 1917 150 1914 1918.. .. . 150 1915 Dalecarlia (basis, per log, 43. 1 cents): 1914.. 1916 1917 100 1918 1915.. 100 Hernosand (basis, per log, 22.8 1916 160 cents): 1917 160 1913 Klar River (basis, per log, 41.3 cents): 1913 . 1914 1915 20 1916 1914.. 20 1917 1915 . 60 1918 1916 . . 110 1919 1917 . 185 Hudiksvall (basis, per log, 36.2 1918 230 cents for 1913 and 1914 and 1919 . . 385 34.8 cents for later years) : 1913 1914.. . A sawmill company in the Angermann River district reports that the following average prices in cents per cubic foot, had oeen paid for saw logs from 1907 to 1917: 1907, 7.2 cents; 1908, 8.5; 1909, 7.9; 1910, 8.7; 1911, 8.4; 1912, 7.9; 1913, 9.0; 1914, 9.0; 1915, 8.2; 1916, 10.7; 1917, 12.5. These prices, however, may be con- sidered somewhat below the prices usually paid by other companies. In other districts of central Norrland, the following prices were ruling for saw logs delivered at the mills, including floating: 1909, 7 cents per cubic foot; 1913, 8 cents per cubic foot; 1915, 9 cents per cubic foot; 1916, 11 cents per cubic foot; 1917, 15 cents per cubic foot. When the prices of saw logs in one of these districts are compared for 1903 and 1913, the amount of increase in the latter year varies greatly in the different dimensions, as follows: 6 inches, 71 per cent increase; 7 inches, 50 per cent; 8 inches, 40 per cent; 9 inches, 27 per cent; 10 inches 14 per cent; 11 inches, 9 per cent; 12 inches, 8 per cent. The increase of the price of logs of small-top diameter was due to the heavy demand for these logs by the pulp mills. In order to indicate how the top diameter effects the price per cubic foot, the following statement, showing prices per cubic foot for pine logs of different top diameters and different lengths, is given, delivered at Granvag (sorting basin), Hernosand district, in 1913: Top diameters. 15 feet. 17 feet. 19 feet. 21 feet. 23 feet. 25 feet. 27 feet. 5inches Cents. 5.0 5.7 6.7 8.3 9.6 12.3 14.2 13.0 14.0 12.5 12.7 12.8 11.6 11.3 Cents. 5.7 6.0 8.1 9.6 10.7 13.0 14.9 13.8 13.9 12.9 12.8 13.1 11.9 11.3 Cents. 6.0 7.1 8.6 10.1 10.8 13.3 15.5 14.3 14.5 13.2 13.0 13.1 12.1 11.8 Cents. 6.3 7.4 9.2 10.5 10.8 12.2 15.9 14.6 14.7 13.4 13.4 13.1 12.1 11.9 Cents. 6.4 8.2 9.2 10.8 11.2 13.6 16.3 15.2 15.0 13.3 13.6 13.4 12.3 12.0 Cents. 6.9 8.9 9.7 11.1 11.8 14.0 16.6 15.3 15.2 14.0 13.6 13.5 12.5 12.1 Cents. 7 2 Cinches 9 5 7inches 9 8 8inches 11 4 9inches 12.3 lOinches 14 3 llinches 17 5 12inches 15.3 13inches 15.4 14inches 14.3 15inches 13.8 16 inches 17 inches ISinches 13.6 12.6 12.3 Special Agents Series No. 195. ,FIG. 26.— DRIVING LOGS. FIG. 27.— LOGGING CAMP. Special Agents Series No. 195. FIG. 28.— CROSSCUTTING, BARKING, AND CUTTING OFF ROTTEN SECTION OF LOG. FIG. 29.— LOGS PILED ON RIVER BANK. SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 81 Spruce logs cost 10 to 15 per cent less than pine. Tne following table shows the comparative prices per cubic foot, in 1914 and 1918, of 19-foot pine logs of different top diameters, deliv- ered on the main floating river in the Skelleftea district of the upper gulf region : Top diameters. 1914 1918 Top diameters. 1914 1918 Cents. 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.4 7.6 8.0 8.4 8.4 9.6 10.5 Cents. 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.9 15.3 16.1 16.9 16.9 19.3 20.9 10 inches Cents. 11.3 11.3 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 n.3 11.3 10.9 Cents. 22.5 lOJ inches 22.5 24.1 12i nches 24.1 13i nches 24.1 141 nches 24.1 24.1 gjinches 16i nches 22.5 9inches 17inches 22.5 18 i nches 21.7 The prices vary a great deal in the different districts. Where pulp mills are bidding for timber, the prices of the smaller log dimen- sions are usually higher in proportion. The average cost of floating to the mill in the Skelleftea district was three-fourths of 1 cent per cubic foot in 1914 and IJ cents in 1917. From the foregoing table it is noticeable that the value of logs increases as the top diameters increase from 5 to 1 1 inches ; but logs 11, 12, 13, 14, and 15 inches in top diameter are quoted at the same price, while logs 16 and 17 inches in top diameter are quoted at a lower price and there is a further decrease with logs 18 inches in top diameter. This decrease in the value of the heavy logs is due to the fact that they are cut from overmature trees, which often show serious defects when sawn. The following table shows the prices per cubic foot obtained for pine saw logs of different top diameters cut in the State forests in different districts dm"ing 1913, 1915, and 1917: Districts. 1913 1915 1917 7 inches. 9 inches. 11 inches. 13 inches. 7 inches. 9 inches. 11 inches. 13 inches. 7 inches. 9 inches. 11 inches. 13 inches. Lulea Cents. 5.6 7.2 7.2 10.7 Cents. 7.5 9.4 9.4 12.1 Cents. 9.6 12.3 12.3 13.4 Cents. 10.2 13.1 12.3 13.4 Cents. 7.5' 7.8 9.6 10.5 Cents. 9.1 10.7 12.3 12.6 Cents. 12.9 13.4 16.1 14.5 Cents. 12.9 13.4 16.1 14.5 Cents. 11.3 12.6 15.3 21.4 Cents. 11.3 15.8 18.8 24.1 Cents. 11.3 22.8 21.4 26.8 Cents. 13.1 Umea 21.4 Gevle-Dala 22.8 It is understood that the prices of saw logs have already reached their climax and that they have decreased in most of the districts in Sweden. When the prices of saw logs are high, the forest owners naturally endeavor to cut as much in their own forests as possible. FLOATING. No other country in the world has such favorable conditions for cheap transportation of saw logs from the forest to the mill as Sweden. The entire coimtry is virtually honeycombed with various 2092°— 21 6 82 SWEDISH LUMBER USTDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. water systems, which offer splendid facilities for the floating of timber. Timber has been floated for centuries in Sweden, but the floating was not regulated in the modern sense of the word until about 50 or 60 years ago. It is difficult to ascertain with certainty at what time log floating was started in Sweden, but there are indications that it was as early as the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, when mining was conducted on a large scale. The first governmental regulation in regard to floating w^as issued in 1551, and in 1674 floating on a large scale was recorded in the Dal River. Until 1809 the floating of timber had been carried on separately by individual log owners, but in that year the first floating association was established on the Klar River, which empties into Lake Wenner. The present floating system in Sweden was regulated by law in 1880. Important improvements have been made in the Swedish rivers to make them suitable for floating; up to the outbreak of the war it was roughly estimated that at least $40,000,000 had been spent for such purposes, of which the Government had contributed approxi- mately $600,000. Private enterprises have thus taken the most active part in this work, while the Government assistance has con- sisted mainly in making laws that would enable the log o^vner to use the rivers for floating timber without being hampered by private interests having property on the river banks. At present, the total length of all rivers suitable for floating in Sweden is estimated at 18,600 miles. Immediately before the war, it was estimated that about 85,000,000 logs were floated in these rivers annually and of this quantity approximately 85 per cent were floated in the rivers of Norrland and Dalecarlia. FLOATING-RIVER SYSTEMS. The principal floating rivers in Norrland and central Sweden are designated on figure 30. There is hardly any forest region in those parts of Sweden more than 6 to 10 miles from the nearest floating river. The rivers in northern Sweden run from the mountainous regions on the Norwegian border in a southeasterly direction,' emptying into the Gulf of Bothnia. Some rivers originate in Norway, the most im- portant being the Klar. The principal floating rivers in Sweden are found in northern and central Sweden, from the Finnish border to the mouth of the Dal River, a distance of about 470 miles. According to an estimate made by Otto Hells trom, a well-known Swedish lumber expert, the table following shows the area of pro- ductive forest regions bordering the principal Swedish floating rivers, and also the total lengths of these rivers and their tributaries suitable for floating. SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 83 afFor^/ffn *nrf Opmesfic Commerce. Fig. 30. 84 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. Floating-river systems. Kalix, including Upper Tomea and Tarendo Vitan Ranea Lulea Alteran Pitea Aby Byske Skelleftea Burea Ricklean Dalkarlsan. ., Sevaran Tavlean Umea Hornean Adjacent productive forest area. Acres. 2,965,000 82,000 667,000 2,224,000 82,000 1,359,000 225,000 618,000 1,606,000 173, 000 356,000 54,000 173,000 67,000 3,262,000 62,000 Length of floating rivers, includmg tributa- ries. Miles. 1,142 39 326 785 30 616 123 382 985 117 221 32 148 57 1.101 55 Floating-river systems . Ore Leduan Logde Gidea and Husum Mo Angermann Indal Ljungan Harraangersan Delangersan Ljusne Skerian Dal Klar Total Adjacent productive forest area. Acres. 531,000 54,000 272,000 717,000 420,000 4,201,000 3,163,000 1,878,000 205,000 321,000 2,842,000 64,000 4,670,000 1,878,000 35,191,000 Length of floating rivers , including tributa- Miles. 329 25 160 468 •290 2,088 1,156 942 124 95 1,212 12 1,620 746 15,426 Some of the rivers mentioned originate in Norway and the total area of productive forests bordering them in Norwegian territory- is about 692,000 acres. This figure has already been included in the estimate given in the table. In southern Sweden the rivers are generally short and many of the waterfalls have been harnessed or the rivers otherwise utilized by industries. This utilization materially hampers the facilities _ for the floating of logs. Practically the only important floating-river system running through southern Sweden is that of the BQar and Gota Rivers. Southern Sweden can be left out of consideration almost entirely, because floating is carried on there in an inefficient way and on a small scale. In Norrland, north of the Dal River, there are about 60 floating rivers of any importance, all emptying into the Gulf of Bothnia. Of these rivers, 11 are more than 185 miles in length, 9 are 60 to 125 miles, 17 are 30 to 60 miles, and 24 are less than 30 miles. It is of great importance to the floating in northern Sweden that the rivers run parallel without joining in the lower course. If they came together there would be a terriflc jam of logs at this part of the river during the floating season. The descent, usually 5 to 11 feet per mile, is very suitable for floating purposes. The foUowing table shows the length and the fall per mile of some of the principal rivers in Sweden : Rivers. Tornea River Kalix Lulea Pitea Skelleftea Umea Length. Miles. 233 208 193 191 205 237 Fall per mile. Feet. 4.9 7.9 9.8 11.1 7 9 6.6 Angermann Indal Ljungan. .. Ljusne East Dal... Klar Length. Miles. 242 196 168 230 283 228 Fall per mile. Feet. 8.2 8.5 11.1 9.0 5.5 4.8 Comparmg the fall in the Swedish rivers with that of the rivers, for instance, in northern Russia and" other parts of Europe,- it is evident SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 85 that Swedish rivers have a great advantage, because the fall is sufficient to carry the logs without any mechanical assistance. In many other countries it is necessary to tow the logs for hundreds of miles at great expense. The percentage of lakes in the Swedish floating systems varies be- tween 3.4 and 12.7 per cent. The lakes have a beneficial influence on the floating operations, because they act as reservoirs for the water in the sprmg, thereby insuring a more evenly distributed supply. Furthermore, these lakes afford excellent facilities for storing logs. The same good conditions for log storage are fomid at the mouths of the rivers that enter the Gulf of Bothnia, because the tide is not strong enough to cause any disturbance. It is fortunate that in northern Sweden the harnessing of water- falls has not been taken up before the rivers were regulated for float- ing. At present this harnessing of waterfalls can be done with due regard to floating conditions. The river beds of the northern Swedish rivers are deep and the banks are generally high. Thus inundations do not occur frequently — a fortunate condition for the lumberman, as such floods are liable to scatter the logs and cause considerable damage. In the rivers in northern Sweden the water stand is at its maxi- mum during the spring and summer, while in southern Sweden the water stand is at its lowest during the summer. For this reason the Swedish rivers in the north are of better service in floating logs than in southern Sweden, since logging operations are carried on during the winter and the logs are floated during the spring and summer. The floating in northern Sweden can be carried on from the time the Gulf of Bothnia is free from ice, which is generally at the middle or end of May, until the beginning or middle of November. The ice generally covers the rivers 150 to 200 days durmg the year; it melts first at the mouth and later toward the source. This is of the greatest importance, because thus the lower course of the river is the first to be clear of obstructions, so that lo^ jams are avoided. The same conditions apply m Noi-way, but few other European countries have the same favorable floating conditions. ORGANIZATION OF FLOATING. The floating in northern Sweden particularly is regulated in a very efficient way. About half a century ago each mill floated its own logs independently of other mills, but this system was very expensive, as comparatively few improvements could be made in the rivers by each individual company. A change in this system was effected a few decades a^o, and the present system of floating is based on the close cooperation of the mills having saw logs to be floated in the same rivers. The Swedish laws governing the waterways provide that if log owners deem it necessary they can have any river declared by the Government as open to public floating; but in order to take this step, it is necessary to prove that the river mil be of public use and that the cost of improvements will not be so excessive that the importance of the river for floating would be materially reduced. Only after the Government has declared the river to be opened as a public floating river can the owners of the land on both sides of the river be forced 86 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. to consent to have logs floated through their property. Accordmg to Swedish laws, the landowner on the bank of a river owns part of the river adjacent to his property. Before the river is open to public use, all accounts, plans, and estimates for the proposed operation of the floating river must be ap- proved and verified by the Government. Very strict regulations govern the division of the expenses for improvements, etc., between the interested jjarties. On the capital invested in improvements of the rivers, etc., it is allowed to charge from 5 to IQ per cent interest, including a certain, percentage of risk. As a rule, the operation of a floating river is too risky and too large an undertaking for any one individual and it is therefore undertaken by an association formed of all the log owners having logs to be floated in the same river. If the logs floated during any one year should be less than the estimate made in advance, the money paid in beforehand for the improve- ments, the upkeep, and the operation of the floating river is not re- turned. This risk is supposed to be covered by the 5 to 10 per cent charge for mterest and risk, which represents the only possible profit derived from the money invested. The accounts are carefully audited by Government officials. The charges for depreciation must not extend through more than 20 years, and as soon as the improve- ments have been amortized no charges of any kind can be made for the use of the river, but those who use the river for floating must keep up the improvements, effect the necessary repairs, etc. The members of the floating association are jointly responsible for damage done to property by the logs in floating. In order to divide the cost of floatmg equally among the members, the rivers are di- vided into a great many districts, each of which has a special tariff per log. It is very interesting to consider the difference between the opera- tion of a floating-river association and that of any other transporta- tion company, because the profit derived from the operation of the floating river is returned directly to the members of the association, and no dividends are paid except legitimate charges for interest and risk such as are allowed by law. It has been the intention of the Government to regulate the cost of floating in such a way that it would be of real benefit to the public and not a means of making money. In other words, the floating rivers are considered so essential to the welfare of the nation that they are classed with other means of transportation and communica- tion, such as State railroads, telegraph and telephone, and mail. There are at present about 270 floating associations in Sweden, of which 25 or 30 are important. There are about half a dozen small floating associations in southern Sweden, but none of any consequence. The floating is sometimes undertaken by different associations for the main river and, for the tributary rivers, and it is difficult for all the associations in the same river system to cooperate in floating. It must be borne in mind that at times floating must be rushed during the few weeks of the sprmg flood, and if there is a lack of cooperation in the floating of timber between the different districts, the result is often a mix-up of logs and the formation of log jams. The tendency is for the larger associations to absorb the smaller associations in the tributary rivers. Of all the floating in Sweden more than 70 per cent is effected by associations. The balance is carried on by private individuals, mainly on tributary rivers. SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 87 IMPROVEMENT OF FLOATING RIVERS. It is evident that if the rivers can be improved to make them better suited for floating, the time required for floating logs will be materially reduced. Furthermore, the labor charges for floating will be decreased and also the percentage of sunken logs. On account of the excellent improvements in the Swedish rivers, the floating seldom extends during more than one season. Only in rare cases, when the logs are taken from districts close to the Norwegian border, may it require two years to bring them down to the shore of the Gulf of Bothnia. The percentage of sunken logs varies greatly in the different rivers. It may be said to be J per cent to 1 J per cent in well-regulated rivers, and occasionally 2 or 2^ per cent. The importance of limiting the floating to one year is seen from the fact that two-year floating increases the percentage of sunken logs about 100 per cent. Further- more, the logs are often gTeatly damaged during a two-year logging period. A considerable loss of interest must also be charged to the logs during the two years of floating. All told, it is estimated that two-year floating represents a loss to the log owner of at least 20 to 25 per cent of the log value. The expenses for improvements, therefore, must be considered a very good investment on account of the decreased time required for floating. These improvements generally consist of dams with which to regulate the water, and walls of logs, stone, or concrete. Stones and other obstacles must be blasted and many booms laid out in various parts of the river to prevent the logs from taking a wrong course. PROCESS OF FLOATING. The floating generally starts in May and ends in October or Novem- ber. The logs piled on the banks of the rivers are dumped into the water as soon as the ice melts. The cost of this work is charged direct to each log owner. The floating river is divided into districts of 7 to 14 mfles each, and the floating is generally given out on contract, with strict stipula- tions in regard to the time when the floating should finish and also with provisions for fines to be paid by the contractor for logs that are left over, etc. The floating must be well organized and the floating crews in the various districts must cooperate with one another. The spring flood starts first and lasts only a few weeks. Quick action must be taken to have the logs moved during this time and every effort is made to economize water by retaining the water supply in the dams to the greatest possible extent. The different districts are connected with telephone so that the dam keepers can let out the water when necessary. The flood in the moimtainous districts starts generally about two to three weeks after the spring flood is over. This second flood is of great importance to Sweden, but it is seldom found in other countries except Norway and in two rivers in Finland. It is on account of these two floods that floating can generally be accomplished during one season in Sweden. 88 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. The logs frequently jam in the rivers and it may be necessary to use dynamite in order to loosen them. The logs are generally floated individually. Across lakes they are bunched in ring booms, consisting of about 100 boom sticks and capable of holding 15,000 to 20,000 logs. These ring booms are towed across the lakes, either by small steamboats or by stationary electric motors on the shore. In the Tornea River, on the Finnish border, logs must be bunched and tied with chains, and similar regulations apply to the canals. Fig. 31. — Plan of sorting basin for saw logs at Sandslan. The average speed of the logs in the rivers is about 75 miles per month. As was mentioned previously, long lengths can not be floated in Swedish rivers without difficulty; but recent improvements have made it easier to float long lengths. Years ago, m many of the Swedish rivers, the maximum log length was omy 14 feet, and this may explain the demand in some countries for 14-foot lumber. SORTING OF LOGS. In the lower course of the rivers the logs must be sorted according to ownership, and for this purpose a suitable location is selected where an arrangement for 'sorting is constructed. These sorting devices may vary considerablv in construction. The best device is found in the sorting basin of Sandslan, in the Angermann River. This sorting basin, laid out according to a Norv\^egian system (Blak- stad system), can sort 120,000 logs in 10 hours. Up to 90 different log owners may have their logs sorted at one time. In the basin 310 men per shift are employed and more than 12,000,000 logs are sorted per year. Special Agents Series No. 195. FIG. 32.— BUNDLING SMALL TOP LOGS FOR FLOATING. Courtesy of ForustL-r O. EnLToth. FIG. 33.— PULP LOGS AND LOGS FOR BOX FACTORIES PILED ON RIVER BANK. Special Agents Series No. 195 SWEDISH LUMBEK INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 89 After the logs have been sorted accordmg to ownership, they are bundled and tied with wire. At times they are made into small rafts. There are 130 to 200 logs per bundle, and by means of a clever mechanical device, 16 men can put up 6 bundles per hour. From the sorting basin the logs are towed to the mills. After the logging season is over a final insj)ection is made of the entire floating river in order to clean up possible left-over logs and to settle the question of damage to private property caused by logs diu'ing the floating season. In a few districts in southern Norrland logging is interrupted during part of the summer on account of the salmon fishing, which is going on at that time. Some of the mills in these districts must therefore take their logs to the mills by rail, which entails a large expenditure. For this purpose a few companies have constructed their own railroads. Kecently in Sweden a new machine has been put on the market for salvaging sunken logs. It consists of a crane mounted on a barge and provided with an axle that has two claws. These claws may be lowered into the water, and when they reach the bottom the points of the claws are about 13 feet apart. As the claws are pulled up they grab the logs hang between their points. The macliine is driven by motor power and is estimated to salvage 100 to 200 logs per day. OCEAN RAFTING OF LOGS. Besides the river floating, millions of logs are rafted every year up and dowTi the coast and even from Finland across the Gun of Bothnia. The Finnish logs are usually rafted in entire tree lengths, and the rafts are made up in cigar-shaped forms or placed in frames containing 600 to 800 logs. About 15 of these rafts are connected with chains and towed by steamer to their destination. It has been reported that even mills south of Stockholm have taken logs from northern Finland, but this may be rather unusual. The rafting of Finnish logs is generally limited to central and northern Norrland. During the latter part of the war the rafting of logs from Finland decreased to some extent. The various districts along the coast in Norrland take large quan- tities of logs from adjacent districts. LABOR AND WAGES. It is estimated that 30,000 to 35,000 men are employed annually in floating logs. The Swedish floaters are skilled workers but their work is both dangerous and difiicult. The men must often pass the night on the frozen ground, but during late years, the floating associa- tions have endeavored to provide adequate housing accommodations. The work is generally done on a contract basis, but when wages are paid they have been about $1.05 in 1913 for ordinary floating work and $1.18 for sorting logs. During 1918 from $4 to $6.50 was usually paid for floating and sorting. QUANTITIES OF LOGS FLOATED. No official fibres are available as to the number of logs floated, » but comprehensive statistics have been compiled by Otto Hellstrom. 90 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. The following table shows the number of logs floated in 1912 and the average for 1908-1912 on the Klar River and the floating-river sys- tems of northern Sweden : Floating-river systems. Kalix, including Tomea and Tarendo Rivers Vitan Ranea Lulea Alteran Pitea Aby Byske Skelleftea Burea Ricklean Dalkarlsan Sevaran Tavlean Umea Homean Average 1908-1912. 1,100,000 8G0, 000 64,000 60, 000 415,000 350, 000 644, 000 510, 000 157,000 139, 000 632, 000 (>00, 000 319,000 180, 000 578, 000 007, 000 2,442,000 2,440,000 609,000 412, 000 817,000 806, 000 83,000 60,000 785,000 604,000 158, 000 112,000 2,237,000 2,094,000 359,000 288,000 Floating-river systems. Ore Leduan Logde Gidea and Husum Mo Angermann Indal Ljungan Harmangersan Delangersan Ljusne Skerjan Dal Klar Total 692,000 102, 000 373, 000 2,081,000 2, 282, 000 10,832,000 6, 950, 000 7,046,000 2, 187, 000 1,603,000 9,289,000 175, 000 18,000,000 4,700.000 77,711,000 Average 1908-1912. 687, 000 42,000 360,000 1,718,000 2, 282, 000 9,780,000 5,131,000 5, 082, 000 1,372,000 884, 000 9, 2G9, 000 91,000 14,400,000 4,711,000 65,937,000 Besides the logs floated in the districts specified, it may be safe to assume that 3,000,000 to 4,000,000 logs are floated in southern Sweden. Since 1912, the quantities of logs floated have increased consider- ably, and at present it is believed that approximately 85,000,000 logs are floated in all Swedish rivers. The quantity is estimated at approximately 394,000,000 cubic feet. It must be borne in mind, however, that pulp logs are included in these figures. The most important floating river in Sweden is the Angermann River. The quantities of logs floated in this river during the years 1915, 1916, and 1917 were as follows: 1915—9,820,930 logs contain- ing 49,367,817 cubic feet; 1916— 12,667,593 logs containing 60,826,169 cubic feet; 1917—13,589,199 logs containing 60,277,914 cubic feet. The average distance of floating in Sweden is estimated at 125 miles. COST OF FLOATING. Immediately before the war it was estimated by Otto HeUstrom that the average cost of floating logs a distance of 125 miles was approximately 0.635 cent per cubic foot. This charge also included sorting at the mouth of the river. It is almost impossible to ^ive such a detailed statement of the floating cost in the different districts because the cost of floating is based on different standards in nearly aU districts. In some districts the cost of floatmg is based on the cubic foot and other districts on the log, and in the latter case the tariff is regulated according to log lengths. In some districts there may be extra charges for lengths more than 20 feet and up. Other districts may be able to float such long lengths at a lower cost for the same distance. Furthermore, the cost of floating is dependent largely upon the expenditure made for improving the floating river and on previous depreciation charges on improvements. In the best-regulated floating rivers, which have been in operation for decades, the depreciation charges may be almost negligible. The accompanying diagram, prepared by Axel Lof,_a weU-known Swedish expert on floating, shows how the log dimensions affect the cost of floating and refers to conditions in the Dal River. SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 91 Fig. 35.— Relative cost of floating various log dimensions, shown by index numbers. 92 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. Generally speaking, the cost of floating is highest for the rivers of Norrbotten and Vesterbotten, because the number of logs floated per mile is smaller than in rivers farther south. According to information from various floating river districts, some examples are given illustrating the floating diarges and their increase after the war started compared with pre-war figures. It appears that the cost of floating before the war has varied from 0.423 cent to 1.715 cents per cubic foot for the average distance, Besides these charges for floating, the dumping of the saw logs into the rivers was charged directly to each log owner. These charges amounted before the war to approximately 0.4 cent to 0.6 cent per log and in 1917, to 0.8 cent to 1.3 cents per log. The following statements with regard to the cost of floating in the different districts are taken from the reports of some of the principal floating associations in Sweden. The material collected has merely the object of showing the increase in the cost of floating during recent years and also how the cost of floating is calculated. Klar River. — ^The average cost of floating per cubic foot was as follows in the Klar River from 1913 to 1919: 1913, 0.49 cent; 1914, 0.52 cent; 1915, 0.54 cent; 1916, 0.81 cent; 1917, 1.09 cents; 1918, 1.24 cents; 1919, 1.24 cents. Dal River. — The basis of the floating charges for logs in the Dal River is as follows: Up to 9.8 feet long, equal to one-fifth of a standard log; 9.8 to 13.1 feet long, equal to one-third of a standard log; 13.1 to 29.5 feet long equal to 1 standard log; 29.'5 to 42.7 feet long, equal to 1^ standard logs; 42.7 to 59.0 feet long, equal to 4 standard logs; 59.0 feet and up, equal to 8 standard logs. The average cost of floating in the Dal River, a distance of about 125 miles, was 1.072 cents per cubic foot in 1913 and 1.876 cents per cubic foot in 1917-18. Ljungan River. — ^The cost of floating is calculated on the following basis: For logs 21 feet and shorter and less than 5 inches in top diameter, 0.35 standard log; 21 feet and shorter and 5 to 8 inches in top diameter, 0.50 standard log; 21 to and including 27 feet in length and less than 5 inches in top diameter, 0.50 standard log; 21 feet to and including 27 feet in length and 5 to 8 inches in top diameter, 0.70 standard log; 27 feet and shorter and 8 to 11 inches in top diameter, 1 standard log; 27 feet and up to 40 feet, irrespective of top diameter, 3 standard logs; 40 feet and longer, irrespective of top diameter, 6 standard logs. Ljusne River. — ^The charges from Lessen Lake to the mouth of the river, a distance of approximately 218 mUes, were as follows, per standard log: 1913, 11.6 cents; 1914, 16.10 cents; 1915, 17.77 cents; 1916, 27.60 cents. The cost of sorting amounted to 0.748 to 3.055 cents per log. The floating charges in the Ljusne River are based on the following schedule: Logs up to and including 24 feet long, equal to one standard log; log lengths from 25 up to and including 27 feet, 25 per cent increase; log lengths from 28 up to and including 31 feet, 50 per cent increase; log lengths from 32 up to and including 34 feet, 75 per cent increase; log lengths from 35 up to and including 37 feet, 100 per cent increase; log lengths from 38 up to and including 40 feet, 200 per cent increase; log lengths from 41 feet up, 400 per cent increase. Ninety- five per cent of all logs floated in this river are less than 25 feet long. SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 93 _ Iifhdal River. — ^The average cost of floating in the Indal River was given at approximately 6.7 cents per standard log during the last 30 years. The average log dimensions decreased from 19 feet, with a top diameter of 10 inches, in 1888 to 19 feet, with a top diameter of 7 mches, in 1917. Angermann River. — ^In the An^ermann River for log lengths of 27^ to 35 feet there is 100 per cent increase over the shorter lengths in the cost of floating; for log lengths 35 to 40 feet, an increase of 150 per cent; and for log lengths of 40 to 45 feet, an increase of 200 per cent. The average cost of floating per cubic foot in this river has been as follows: Years. Floating. Sorting. Total, floating and sort- ing. Years. Floating. Sorting. Total, floatihg and sort- ing. 1913 Cents. 0.335 .394 .316 Cents. 0.268 .311 .176 Cents. 0.603 .705 .492 1916 Cents. 0.474 .686 1.332 Cents. 0.289 .490 .957 Cents, 0.763 1 176 1914 1917 1915 1918 2 289 In 1914, 10,588,348 logs were floated in this river, of which only 630 logs were longer than 27^^ feet. Umea River. — ^The cost of floating in the Umea River was approxi- mately 20.10 cents per lo^ in 1915 and 21.17 cents in 1916, covering the longest distance in this river, which is approximately 240 miles. The cost of sorting logs was on an average 0.9 cent per log and was based on the following schedule: Logs 55 feet and up, equal to 8 standard logs; logs 45 to 55 feet, equal to 5 standard logs; logs 35 to 45 feet, equal to 3 standard logs; logs 27 to 35 feet, equal to 2 standard logs; logs 14 to 27 feet, equal to 1 standard log; logs 14 feet and less, equal to one-half standard log. Slcelleftea River. — ^The average cost of floating on the Skelleftea River was as follows: 1913, 0.74 cent per cubic foot; 1914, 0.81 cent per cubic foot; 1915, 0.80 cent per cubic foot; 1916, 1.04 cents per cubic foot; 1917, 1.12 cents per cubic foot. The maximum cost of floating from the most remote point of this river to the mouth of the river, a distance of approximately 190 miles, amounted to 3.26 cents per cubic foot in 1917 and the sorting of logs amounted to 0.38 cent per cubic foot. The cost of floating is based on the following schedule: Logs 24 to 27 feet, 50 per cent increase above shorter lengths; logs 28 to 33 feet, 100 per cent increase above lengths shorter than 24 feet; logs 33 feet and up, 300 per cent increase above lengths shorter than 24 feet. Pitea River. — The cost of floating in the Pitea River was on an average 13.4 cents per log in 1917. Log lengths in excess of 27 feet are counted as two standard logs, and no logs longer than 30 feet can be floated. Ranea River. — The charges for floating for the maximum distance (District No. 4) to the mouth of the Ranea River was as foUows from 1913 to 1917: 1913, 1.61 cents per cubic foot; 1914, 1.68 cents per cubic foot; 1915, 1.80 cents per cubic foot; 1916, 1.63 cents per cubic foot; 1917, 1.89 cents per cubic foot. Lulea River. — The charges for floating in Districts Nos. 9 and 10 on the Lulea River were as follows: 1913, 0.96 cent per cubic foot; 94 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 1914, 0.90 cent per cubic foot; 1915, 1.63 cents per cubic foot; 1916, 1.41 cents per cubic foot; 1917, 1.70 cents per cubic foot. Kalix River. — The cost of floating in the tenth district in the lower course of the Kalix River was as follows from 1913 to 1917: 1913, 0.44 cent per cubic foot; 1914, 0.43 cent per cubic foot; 1915, 0.44 cent per cubic foot; 1916, 0.51 cent per cubic foot; 1917, 0.89 cent per cubic foot. The cost of floating in Finland and of rafting logs to northern Sweden was approximately 3.2 cents per cubic foot in 1913 and 4 cents in 19 It may be stated as a general rule that of the total cost of trans- portation from river bank in the forest to the mills, the cost of floating itself is about 70 per cent and the cost of sorting about 30 per cent. The following table, prepared by Otto Hellstrom, shows the average cost of floating on the different river systems of Sweden for iSe period 1908 to 1912: Floating-river sys- Average cost of floating, 1908-1912. Log con- tent. Floating-river sys- tems. Average cost of floating, 1908-1912. Log con- tems. Per log. Per cubic foot. Per log. Per cubic foot. tent. Kalix, including Upper Tornea Cents. 8.85 3.24 5.97 5.38 2.25 7.55 4.44 5.92 3.67 3.70 1.82 3.20 2.62 3.48 6.53 Cents. 1.14 .81 .99 .80 .47 Cubic feet. 7.8 4.0 6.0 6.7 4.8 Hornean Cents. 1.92 2.60 5.17 7.03 3.14 2.46 3.35 6.40 2.50 1.54 1.91 2.21 2.44 2.73 2.27 Cents. 0.96 Cubic feet. 2.0 and Tarendo Ore Rivers .85 1.72 .57 6.1 Vitan 4.1 Ranea.. Gidea and Husum. . Mo 5.5 Lulea Angermann Indal Pitea Aby Byske .93 ■' 6.4 Harmangersan Delangersan Skelleftea .91 .57 1.03 .42 4.1 .3.2 S.1 6.2 Ricklean Dalkarlsan Dal .76 .57 3.6 Klar 4.0 Average 3.46 .77 The cost of floating has generally been reduced during the last haK century in most of the rivers in Sweden, in spite of the fact that wages have gone up to a very large extent. The decrease was due to the improvements made on the floating rivers. Besides this decreased cost of floating, which directly benefits the log o\^^lers, the improvements also opened up large areas of forest land and made them accessible to exploitation, thereby increasing the value of stumpage. The following figiu-es are given by Forester Ekman covering the cost of floating per standard log in the Ljusne River, a distance of about 150 miles from Lofsan to Lake Marmen, from 1865 to 1905: 1865, 4.3 cents; 1870, 2.9 cents; 1875, 3.5 cents; 1880, 3.1 cents; 1885, 2.1 cents; 1890, 1.7 cents; 1895, 1.4 cents; 1900, 1.3 cents: 1905, 1.2 cents. The corresponding figures for 1910 and 1913, according to the reports of the Floating Association, are 4 cents and 2.7 cents, respectively. SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 95 EFFECT OF FLOATING ON QUALITY. The timber must be materially affected by remaining in the water one or two years dm'ing the floating. The gum in the logs is partly washed out and the wood is made softer. Consequently the lasting qualities are somewhat decreased, but on the other hand the color of the wood becomes more uniform. It is also found that lumber cut from floated timber is less liable to shrink during the process of seasoning and shows less tendency to split, crack, or warp. It is also claimed that lumber of this kind is less liable to discolor during the seasoning process than lumber cut from logs that have not been in contact with water. However, during the process of floating, particularly during two years of floating, the sapwood of the logs may discolor and this is a serious drawback. The opinions in the different importing countries vary considerably in regard to the merits of lumber cut from floated timber. Germany and Denmark, for instance, both of which have been accustomed to receive large quantities of lumber cut from unfloated timber, always prefer such stock, while most of the other markets prefer the other kind. The drawbacks, if any, appear to be too small to offset the advan- tages of this cheap transportation facility. FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS. In the future, one may look forward to increased activities in improvement of the waterways in Sweden to make them suitable for floating, particularly in the northernmost Provinces. The Swed- ish forest owners will thus be enabled to utilize to better advantage the waste products in the forests and the small-dimension logs. Furthermore, it is expected that when the many waterfalls have been harnessed, a more systematic economizing of the water will be imperative during the floating period. In this regard, the Swedish floating interests have much to learn from Norway. Although stumpage values will probably remain at a very high figure in the future, the cheap transportation of the saw logs will always enable the Swedish lumbermen to obtain the raw material delivered at the mills at a figure that will make possible competition in European markets with any other country. The cost of floating wdll probably decrease as soon as the many improvements in the waterways have been amortized. PART II.— LUMBER MANUFACTURE. SAWMILL INDUSTRY. DEVELOPMENT OP THE INDUSTRY. The sawmill industry has old traditions in Sweden and dates back several hundred 3^ears. The first mills were constructed in southern Sweden at the l^eginning of the sixteenth century. They were of primitive construction and operated by water power. The gang saws had only one saw blade inserted in the sash, and the kerf was frequently as heavy as one-half inch. The first improvement in the mill equipment was made at the end of the sixteenth century, when Dutch sawmill machinery was introduced. The Dutch gang saws were equipped with thinner saw blades and had several blades insertea in the sash. One of the first mills in Norrland was constructed in 1744 at Kramfors. Prior to the middle of the last century, the sawmill industry, basing its production on export, was concentrated mainly on the southwestern coast of Sweden and in the Province of Verm- land. But the mills were of small capacity, and the industry was conducted on a small scale, compared with the present sawmill industry in Sweden. These mills frequently operated with unsatis- factory results, and it was not until the sawmiU owners formed larger corporations that the industry started to grow to any great extent. The first sawmill company in Sweden was established in 1855 (Korsnas Sagverks A/B.) at Gevle, in southern Norrland. The first steam sawmill in Sweden was constructed in 1851 at Wifsta in central Norrland, near the port of SundsvaU. This sawmill was operated in connection with a shipbuilding plant, and the wooden vessels turned out by this company were loaded with lumber, and both ships and cargoes were sold abroad. The heavy British import duty on lumber was a handicap to the Swedish sawmills, but in 1866, these import duties were abolished and the demand for Swedish lumber increased materially from that time. As a consequence of these conditions, many new sawmills were constructed in Sweden, and the lumber industry soon developed to large proportions. The majority of the present Swedish sawmills were constructed about 40 or 50 years ago, but the owners have modernized their equipment. The first sawmill operated by elec- tricity was built at Kramfors, in central Norrland, in 1897. To-day Sweden unquestionably stands as the leader of the world in efficient methods of manufacturing lumber and close utilization of sawmill waste. The latest statistics available (1916) give the total number of saw- mills and planing mills combined at 1,365, employing 46,864 hands. Tliis number, however, refers only to mills working on a commercial basis. Besides this number, there are at least three or four thousand small miUs, many of which are portable and scattered all over the Special Agents Series No. 195. FIG. 35.— LOGS FROM STATE FORESTS, SHOWING LARGE PERCENTAGE OF HEART. FIG. 37.— LOG JAM. Special Agents Series No. 195. FIG. 39. — FLOATING LOGS IN NORRLAND. SWEDISH LUMBEE INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 97 southern and central parts of the country. Their operations are limited mainly to supplying the local demands, in some cases only the needs of the property where they are located. Their importance to the lumber export trade is almost insignificant. The horsepower used by the larger mills in 1915 is given as 116,623, applied direct to the mxachines in the mills, and 18,049 for operating electric motors. The number of gang saws is given as 1,641 and the number of planers as 963. The value of the production of lumber of different kinds in 1914 and 1915 was as follows: Items. 1914 1915 Pine and spruce: Sawn planks, battens, and boards $41,200,000 11,100,000 6,000,000 300,000 400,000 $49,900,000 9,800,000 8,700,000 400,000 300,000 Planed boards Small-dimension lumber, including box shocks, planed and rough other lumber Wages for sawng and planing Total 59,000,000 69,100,000 The following table shows the development of the Swedish saw- mill and planing-mill industr}^ from 1896 to 1915: Years. Number of mills. Number of hands em- ployed.o Hands per miU. Value of production. Horsepower applied direct to machines. Total. Per mill. Per laborer. 1896 992 981 1,019 1,066 1,148 1,175 1,122 1,259 1,370 1,281 1,377 1,400 1,222 1,200 1,232 1,275 1,248 1,053 1,101 1,132 36,797 40,225 40,683 40, 865 43,312 42, 407 40,581 42,831 41,849 38,568 40,347 40,912 36, 940 35,576 39, 605 39, 603 37,908 44, 150 641,847 641, 161 37 41 40 38 38 36 36 34 31 30 29 29 30 30 32 31 30 42 38 36 $33,600,000 39,200,000 38,200,000 37,400,000 43,800,000 37,200,000 37,700,000 45,500,000 41,100,000 36,300,000 43,500,000 46,300,000 37,600,000 35,100,000 48,900,000 47,400,000 46,700,000 60,900,000 59,000,000 69,100,000 37,126 40, 472 44, 292 46,678 51,526 54, 215 53,000 59,080 64,363 64,589 75,843 82, 772 82,097 84, 196 95, 994 101,009 99, 816 106, 706 113,058 116,623 37 41 43 44 45 46 47 47 47 50 55 59 67 70 78 79 80 101 103 103 1 1897 1.0 1898 1.0 1899 1.1 1900 1 2 1901 1.3 1902.. 1.3 1903 1.4 1904 . . ... 15 1905 1.7 1906 1.9 1907 2.0 1908 22 1909 2.4 1910 2.4 1911 2.6 1912 2.7 1913... . 2.4 1914 2.7 1915 2.8 a Average for year. 6 Of the total number, 1,847 hands were employed in the manufacture of charcoal. It is interesting to notice how, with the development of Swedish mills, the tendency has been to increase the horsepower per laborer; in other words, how machines have been used lately for purposes for which hand labor was employed formerly. 2092°— 21 7 98 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. LOCATION OF MILLS. The location of tlie Swedish saw and planing mills in 1915 is shown in the following table: Provinces. City of Stockholm Stockholm, rural districts Upsala Sodermanland Ostergotland Jonkoping Kronoberg Kalmar Gotland Blekinge Christianstad Malmohus Halland Goteborg and Bohus Elfsborg Number Number of mills. of hands. 6 240 40 661 27 938 42 1,086 88 1,485 76 848 74 1,411 40 858 2 30 19 211 27 297 13 182 10 118 19 2, 132 62 923 Provinces. Skaraborg Vermland Orebro Vestmanland Kopparberg Gevleborg Vesternorrland Jemtland Vesterbotten Norrbotten Total In towns. . . In country . Number of mills. 1,132 102 1,030 Number of hands. 487 2,378 1,343 1,369 3,337 5,672 8,887 981 3,004 3,004 141,882 5,020 36, 862 o Number employed at time statistics were taken. The average number employed during 1915 was 41,161. The following table shows the quantity and value of the pine and spruce lumber produced by the Swedish sawmills and planing mills in the different Provinces in 1915, together with the total quantity and value for 1914: Provinces. City of Stockholm Stockholm, rural districts. . Upsala Sodermanland Ostergotland Jonkoping Kronoberg Kalmar Gotland Blekinge Christianstad Malmohus Halland Goteborg and Bohus M feet.a Value.o 12,405 $286,000 35, 872 661,000 77,314 1, 703, 000 60,362 1,392,000 76, 127 1,562,000 46, 804 1,074,000 58,331 1, 253, 000 45,835 1, 146, 000 884 25,000 9,553 194, 000 11,075 285,000 6,662 232, 000 7,598 198, 000 144,327 5,344,000 Provinces. Elfsborg Skaraborg Vermland Orebro Vestmanland . . . Kopparberg Gevleborg Vesternorrland. . Jemtland Vesterbotten.... Norrbotten Total, 1915 Total, 1914 M feet.o 31,092 26, 976 171, 635 75, 115 55, 736 203, 015 365, 698 696, 507 50,783 224, 101 215, 340 2,709,147 2, 611, 155 Value.o 714,000 568,000 4,067,000 1,523,000 1, 129, 000 3,970,000 7, 687, 000 14, 782, 000 1,039,000 4, 569, 000 4, 248, 000 59,651,000 49, 914, 000 a Special stock (lath wood) is not included in the quantities produced but is included in the values. The value of the production of this stock in 1915 was about $509,000. The following table shows the quantity of the principal kinds of pine and spruce rough and planed lumber produced by the Swedish mills in the different Provinces in 1915, together with the totals for 1914. SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 99 Pine and Spruce Lumber Produced by Swedish Sawmills and Planing Mills IN 1915. Provinces. Rough lumber (planks, battens, and boards). a Planed lumber. Total rough and planed lumber. Split wood (mill ends). Laths, mold- ing stock, etc. Box shooks. Staves.^ Total rough and planed lumber, split wood, laths, etc. City of Stockholm Stockholm, rural districts . Upsala Sodermanland Ostergotland. Mfeef. 9,547 27, 010 64, 023 36, 972 57,812 Jonkoping ' 30, Kronoberg. Kalmar Gotland Blekinge Christianstad Malmohus Holland Goteborg and Bohus . E!fsborg Skaraborg Vermland Orebro Vestmanland Kopparberg Gevleborg Vesternorrland .". Jemtland Vesterbotten Norrbotten Total, Sweden, 1915. Total, Sweden, 1914 . 39, 569 31, 996 240 5, 594 7,757 1,424 4,587 35,542 19,811 21,253 137, 136 63,401 42,314 132, 743 241,974 507, 612 28,183 148, 7C5 178,416 Mfeet. 2,312 6,491 6, 123 10, 135 10, 133 11,974 8,140 11,138 598 3,718 22 2,117 1,386 19,490 8,627 3,973 17, 040 6,044 11,044 44, 068 86, 706 80, 763 19, 406 40,041 4,506 Mfeet. 11,859 34, 101 70, 746 47, 107 73, 945 42, 777 47, 715 43,134 838 9,312 7,779 3,541 5,973 55, 032 28,438 25,226 154, 176 69,445 53,358 176,811 328, 680 588, 375 47, 589 ISS, 806 182, 922 Mfeet. 616 ,627 438 229 4 195 160 137 3,331 801 560 1,925 19, 255 52, 549 502 21,114 18, 773 Mfeet. 127 636 677 166 726 1,965 620 161 45 99 556 339 510 106 777 1,108 500 2,043 2,833 8,638 283 7,213 6,759 Mfeet. 305 76 1,443 12, 514 764 1,862 8,490 1,852 1 Mfeet. 114 443 821 137 463 196 1,506 443 36 2,434 892 88, 829 1,.'")82 1,482 11,036 3,283 674 10, 208 5,593 20, 283 318 418 848 142 2,509 603 649 127 402 25 2,315 478 644 0,028 9,337 20, 002 2,091 0,5.50 6,038 Mfeet. 12,405 35, 872 77,314 60, .362 76, 127 46, 804 58, 331 45,835 884 9,553 11,075 6,662 7,598 144, .327 31,092 20, 976 171, 635 75, 115 55, 736 203,015 365, 698 696, 507 50, 783 224, 101 215,340 1,875,684 1,713,191 422,001 529, 279 2, 297, 685 2,242,470 124, 461 135, 408 37,055 34,202 187, 223 125, 633 62,723 73, 442 2, 709, 147 2, 611, 155 a Not including rough lumber produced as raw material for planing mills. b Including about 3,500,000 feet of species other than pine and spruce. It is seen from the foregoing table that the most important saw- mills are located in Norrland. The western coastal districts figure prominentl}^ in the manufacturing of box shooks and planed lumber, and these districts are also the center for important joinery factories. The introduction of steam sawmills in Sweden revolutionized the sawmill industry. Formerly the mills were located at the waterfalls in the interior, which involved heavy cost for transportation of the lumber destined for export. When the mills were operated by steam power, the question of location was made independent of the pres- ence of waterfalls, and nearly all the export mills, therefore, were located near the coast at the mouths of the floating rivers. Floating is by far the cheapest way of transporting wood, and the export mills located at the shipping ports have a great advantage over the mills located in the interior which ship their lumber for export by rail. In southern Sweden the mills are located along the railroad lines and are usually operated by peasants as a branch of their principal activity, agriculture. Many mills are also operated by lumbermen acquiring contracts for the logging of timberlands; their mills are usually of the portable type and are moved from year to year to different parts of the country where they may have taken over contracts for logging. 100 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. The defective floating facilities in southern vSweden hare made it diflicult to operate large sawmills. Many of the mills in southern Sweden are inefficiently operated; they pay slight attention to the saving of raw material and their eciuipment is often unsatisfactorv^, circular saws, defective edgers, etc., largely affecting their output. In northern Sweden the mills are of a larger capacity, well established, and supported by extensive timber holdings. Only a few mills of this type are found in southern Sweden, but some of these few are among the best-equipped mills in the country. In central Sweden there are several important sawmill districts, particularly aroimd Lake Wenner. The mills in Norrland, north of the Dal River, play a prominent part in the export lumber trade, as about 75 per cent of the total quantity of lumber for export is shipped through the Norrland ports. The principal sawmill districts in Sweden are as follows: On the coast of Norrland — ^Haparanda, Lulea, Pitea, Skelleftea, Umea, Hernosand, Sundsvall, Hudiksvall, Soderhamn, and Gevle; south of Stockholm — Norrkoping; on the southwest coast, Goteborg; and on Lake Wenner, Karlstad. There are also important interior districts in southern and central Norrland and Dalecarlia shipping by rail. OWNERSHIP OF MILLS. During the last half century, the development in Sweden has been toward operating the mills by stock companies. ' The latest statistics available, showing the ownership of the saw- mills and planing mills, the number of mills, and the hands employed in 1915 and 1916, are as follows: 191.5 1916 Classes of ownership. Numher NumTier of mills, ofhands.a Number of mills. Number ofhands.a Individuals . 479 46.5 169 10 9 6,671 31,421 3,577 61 1.52 598 518 222 17 10 8,227 Companies 34, 175 4,183 Economic associations . 128 State 1.51 Total 1,132 41,882 1,365 46,864 a At the time the statistics were obtained. The Government mills are small mills scattered in the different parts of the country; their importance is very limited and their production is not based on export. One of the mills cut only railroad ties for the State-owned railroads. SAWMILL ORGANIZATION. The larger mills in Sweden are engaged not only in cutting lumber, but also in manufacturing other wood products. It is generally con- sidered that the sa\^Tnill industry alone is not profitable for a forest owner. The value of the raw material is high and the waste must be turned into profit; therefore, the sawmills and planing mills form only a part of a large combination of different industries, all using wood as SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 101 raw material for their products. It is evident that these conditions are of great importance, because if one })ranch fails to make a profit one year, the other branches may be of support in order to make a f»rofit on the whole operation. Furthermore, improvements in the orest, mills, etc., can be accomplished more readily because their expense may be distributed among all the industries that obtain their raw material from the forests and mill waste. During recent years, a consolidation of the different wood-using industries has been noticeable. Some mills may have insufficient supplies of raw materials while other mills may have large timber stands and limited manufacturing facilities. These two categories of industries frequently combine. The largest combination of this kind in Sweden was effected during the war and one company in northern Norrbotten was estabUshed by a consolidation of several mills. This company has a dominating position in this part of Sweden, producing annually 178, 000, 000 feet board measure of sawn lumber, 30,000 tons of mechanical pulp, 10,000 tons of soda pulp, and 30,000 tons of pig iron, besides large quantities of charcoal. This company also operates a number of agricultural properties and has more than a million acres of timber land. Most of the larger sawmills are operated in connection with planing mills, box factories, and charcoal plants. Besides these, the mills usually have sulphite and sulphate mills and may even have paper mills. These mills are operated partly on the raw material obtained from sa\vmill waste and partly from pulp logs, which can not profit- ably be sawn into lumber. Charcoal is used in smelting iron ore and many of the larger com- panies also operate iron and steel plants. The scarcity of many com- modities during the war caused a further development of the wood by-products industry in Sweden, mainly utilizing waste from the pulp factories for manufacturing a number of chemicals. One of the re- markable developments during the war was the making of cattle feed from pulp by a special process ; in many cases this pulp was mixed ^vith flour for making bread. In this way the Swedish people not only derived great financial benefit from the forests but also managed to turn wood into food products in time of stress. It was sometimes found during the war that the mills derived a greater financial return from sawmill waste than from the sale of sawn and planed lumber. To bear out this fact, a statement was given by a large mill in Norrland, producing about 40,000,000 feet board measure of lumber annually, from which it appeared that the mill's profit on the sale of sawmill waste in 1918 was about $235,000; in 1917, S98,000; in 1916, $83,000; and in 1915, $29,000. It is evident that the smaller mills not able to utilize the waste in the same way as the large mills have difficulty in existing, particu- larly because they can not afford to pay as high prices for raw mate- rial as the larger mills because the larger mills can utiUze practically the whole log. The accompanying chart, showing administrative organization, gives an idea of the large proportions of some of the Swedish wood- using industries. Not all the large sawmiUs maintain all the activities shown in the diagram, but there are mills in Sweden that actually operate on such a large scale. Formerly many sawmills in Norrland had often been oper- 102 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 103 ated with insufficient capital. These mills were necessarily in the hands of the banks and were often forced to dispose of their forests in order to meet their obligations. Some mills were also, to some extent, dependent upon financial support from some of the largest foreign agents, but during the war the financial position of nearly all sawmills in Sweden was materially improved, and it is not supposed that any mills, at the present time, are dependent upon foreign finan- cial support. The smaller sawmills, on the other hand, are to a great extent, dependent upon advances made by domestic export agents. There are very few mills in foreign ownership at the present time ; the sawmill industry in Sweden must be considered to be almost ex- clusively Swedish-owned. The export mills in Sweden specialize in cutting stock for export, and do not generally handle any domestic orders. The domestic demands are supplied by smaller mills and the specifications are entirely different from the dimensions shipped for export, so that the mills can not cater profitably to both markets. EXPORT MILLS. The average standard export mill in Sweden may have an annual capacity of 15,000,000 to 18,000,000 feet board measure. The Swedish export mills are of somewhat smaller average capacity than the mills in Finland but considerably larger than the Norwegian mills. The reason for these conditions is that the Swedish mills are more dependent than the mills in Finland upon the log supply re- quired from other sources than their own^forests and also on account of the fact that the Swedish pulp industry is very considerable and takes a large quantity of logs that in other countries would be used by the sawmills. The largest Swedish mill has a capacity of approximately 85,000,000 to 90,000,000 feet board measure per year and is equipped with about 30 gang saws. These gang saws are of old construction; the number of modern gangs necessary to turn out the quantities mentioned will be about 16. This mill employs about 1,000 hands and is located near Gevle, in southern Norrland. There are several mills m Sweden of an annual capacity of 40,000,000 to 60,000,000 feet, but it is now commonly believed that it is not economical to operate such large mills, because it is difficult to regulate the produc- tion in dull times. It is considered preferable to operate several smaller mills, as any one of these mills may be conveniently shut down without interfering with the operation of the other mills. The most suitable size of sawmill in Sweden may cut approxi- mately 15,000,000 to 16,000,000 feet board measure per year, having an equipment of 6 modern gang saws and rmming one shift. In the future it is believed that no mill of any larger capacity than 20,000,000 to 30,000,000 feet board measm-e \vill be constructed. Only the sawmills in southern and central Norrland are connected with box factories and planing mills because the wood in the northern- most sections of Norrland is not exceptionally well suited for planing purposes and the marketing conditions are not so favorable m that part of the country. Durmg the war the box-shook industry boomed and many new factories sprang up, supplying box material for the warring nations. 104 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. The complete layout of a modern mill, yards, docks, etc., is shown in figures 58, 59, and 60. Nowadays the making of plans for sawmills is left to engineering firms that make a specialty of this work, while formerly the sawmills were constructed in the less efficient way by contractors who did not always have the necessary knowledge of all the phases of the lumber industry. COST OF CONSTRUCTION. The cost of constructioYi of a sawmill plant based on an annual production of 15,000,000 to 16,000,000 feet board measure (working one shift 57 hom-s per week) was as follows in 1918: Power plant fully equipped (engine, 500 horsepower) $40, 000 Mill and machinery (6 gang saws, 3 edgers, 2 resaws, and necessary small maclunes, such as trimmers, lath machinery, belts, transmission, including mill construction) 94, 000 Log pond 13, 000 Yard, equipped with rail system, cranes for piling, docks, trimining sheds, etc. 80, 000 Workmen's houses, office buildings, etc 94, 000 Electric-light plant 13, 000 Roads, draining, etc 11, 000 Various expenditures 16, 000 Total 361,000 The total cost of the plant per 1,000 feet board measure capacity was thus about $22.90, or $60,300 per gang saw in 1918. The total cost of this plant in 1914 would have been $11.50 per 1,000 feet ca-pacity, or $30,820 per gan^ saw. CREW. The crew of a sawmill with an annual capacity of about 16,000,000 feet board measure per year would be about as follows: Pond (6 men): 1 log scaler, 1 assistant log scaler, 2 boom men, 2 men on bull chain. Mill (62 men): 1 superintendent, 6 head sawyers, 6 assistant head sawyers, 3 edger- men, 3 assistant edgermen, 3 trimmers, 3 assistant trimmers, 2 sawyers of staves, 2 assistant sawyers of staves, 2 trimmers of staves, 2 loaders of staves, 1 sawyer of other small dimensions, 1 assistant sawyer of other small dimensions, 1 trimmer of slabs, 3 loaders of small dimensions, 3 boys handling refuse, 2 graders, 2 assistant graders, 1 oiler, 1 fireman, 1 engineer, 1 assistant engineer, 1 filer, 1 assistant filer, 1 clean-up man, 3 common laborers, 1 blacksmith, 1 assistant blacksmith, 1 carpenter, 2 watch- men, 1 tallyman. Yard (22 men): 1 superintendent, 1 assistant superintendent, 18 pilers, 1 engineer (locomotive), 1 switchman. Dock (4 trimming sheds, 43 men): 4 boys removing refuse, 5 men trimmin^ and loading split wood, 4 boys branding lumber, 1 old man or 2 boys for piling staves (who may also be used when loading staves), 5 men cleaning up in yard, and common labor- ers pumping barges, etc., 8 men loading lumber or conveyors in yard, 2 assistant fore- men, 4 graders, 4 trimmers, 4 men in barges. Thus the total would be 133 employees, not including 4 men who operate log elevators during the winter. MILLS FOR CUTTING TIES. Some mills are especially constructed for cutting ties. Most of the ties exported from Sweden are for use in the mines in the United Kingdom. The mills are equipped with circular saws and are similar Special Agents Series No. 195. FIG. 41.— SORTING BASIN FOR LOGS. ' ■ \ *i ^if^feSaiUiMlS^ i^. FIG. 42.— PILING LOGS ON LAND. Special Agents Series No. 195. SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 105 in construction to the edgers. In 10 hours about 1,200 to 1,600 six- foot ties may be produced by two men. The usual dimensions of ties cut in Sweden are as follows : 3 by 6 inches ; 2| by 5f inches ; 2| by 5 inches ; 2f by 4| inches. The lengths are 3, 3^, 4, 4^, 5, 5^, and 6 feet. _ The saw must touch all four sides. It is required, however, that the ties must have at least 1| to 2 inches of sawn surface on the widest sides of the piece. The following table shows the number and dimensions of ties that are usually cut from logs of different top diameters : Top diameters. 5-5J inches . ^-^ inches 6-6i inches . Number of ties. Dimen- sions. Inches. 21 by 4 J. 2* by 5. 2| by SJ. Top diameters. 64-7 inches . 7f-7-| inches 8-8i inches . Number of ties. Dimen- sions. Inches. 3 by 6. 2J by 4i 2* by 5. The refuse from the tie mills is cut into staves, box shooks, etc. According to Forester M. Nordquist, the cost of sawing ties of different sizes in 1916 was as follows in cents per 100 ties. These charges do not include trimming. Lengths in feet. 3 by 6 inciies. 21 by 5| inches. 2i by 5 inches. 2f by 45 inches. 6 Cents. 26.8 26.8 24.1 21.4 21.4 18.8 18.8 Cents. 24.1 24.1 21.4 18.8 18.8 16.1 16.1 Cents. 21.4 21.4 18.8 16.1 16.1 13.4 13.4 Cents. 18.8 5J . .... 18.8 5 16.1 4i . . . . . . 16.1 4 13.4 3i 13.4 3 13.4 GOVERNMENT-OPERATED MILLS. In the State forests, the Government operates 17 small mills. In 1915, 227,233 logs, or 1,232,585 cubic feet, were sawn and the total production amounted to 40,493 cubic feet of railroad ties, 796,746 cubic feet of lumber of different kinds, and 7,827 cubic feet of con- struction timber. The cost of production (sawTnilling and yarding) was given at 3.9 cents per cubic foot. Of the total quantities of lumber produced at these mills, includ- ing old stock, the following quantities were sold : 702, 890 cubic feet of lumber $162, 781 41, 211 cubic feet of railroad ties 6, 184 284, 903 cubic feet of wood for various pui'poses 10, 060 70, 787 cubic feet of lumber for various purposes '. 13, 346 Total 192, 371 It is claimed that the Government has been able to make better profits by manufacturing its timber into lumber instead of selling the timber standing or cut into saw logs, and the question is now under consideration whether the Swedish Government should follow the example of the Finnish Government by engaging in the sawmill and 106 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. pulp industry on a large scale in order to increase the profits derived from the operation of the State forests. POWER. Most of the mills in Sweden are operated by steam power gener- ated by sawmill waste. Modern steam engines operating with super- heated steam reduce the consumption of fuel 30 to 50 per cent from that of the older steam engines. In some districts the waste is too valuable to be used for fuel and the sawmills may burn coal and turn the waste into pulp or sawdust briquet, the latter being used for smelting ore. The most modern plants are operated by electricity, every machine in the mill having an individual motor. The electric power is generated either from waterfalls or by burning sawmill waste. It is the hope of the Swedish lumbermen in Norrland, in the future, to operate the sawmills by electricity. It is estimated that 50,000 horsepower will be necessary for this purpose, and this could easily be obtained by utilizing the water power in the rivers of Norr- land. Recently a few modern plants have installed plants generating gas (mono gas) from the sawmill refuse. It is claimed that about 50 per cent of the consumption of sawmill waste for fuel can be saved by this process, and in addition, valuable by-products are obtained, such as wood tar. The advantage of the ' 'mono-gas system" is that dry and green wood are equally good as fuel. It is generally calculated that a steam engine of about 500 horse- power would require 1,700 to 1,800 cubic feet of sawdust and other refuse per shift of 10 hours. Most of the mills also operate electric- light plants. LOG PONDS. When the logs are towed from the log-sorting basin in the rivers to the miU, provisions are made for storing logs either in log jjonds or on land. During the winter the water freezes and extraordinary measures must be taken to store the lumber in such a way that it will be easily accessible. This may be done by piling the logs on land in huge piles, each containing one dimension, based on the top diameter, which work is done by log elevators having a capacity of 150 to 200 lo^s per hour; or the logs may be piled crosswise in 13 to 15 tiers and stored under the ice. One system consists of drawing one tier of logs partly upon land, and then drawing the other tiers close onto the first tier so that about one-fourth of the log lengths protrude out of the water. The log ponds are divided into several pockets to separate pine logs from spruce logs and also to sort these logs according to top diameters and grades. Some mills sort the top-diameter dimensions on the half-inch, while closer utilization of the logs calls for sorting on the quarter inch. Short log lengths are sometimes separated in the ponds from standard log lengths and in the most efficiently operated miUs the logs are also separated according to quality. It is very important to effect this sorting carefully, as there is a different sawing schedule for each of the categories named. SWEDISH LUMBER USTDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 107 During the winter when the water freezes, either the logs must be hauled from the piles on land or an open canal may be made in the pond by exhaust water from the boiler. This system has the disadvantage that the facilities for sorting the logs before they are taken to the mills are at times unsatisfactory. In order to improve these conditions several mills in northern Sweden have hot ponds. These ponds are usually 110 to 134 feet wide and 175 to 350 feet long. The walls are^ constructed of 4-inch planks and during the summer the wall facing the mill is removed. It is estimated that by using this system of lo^ ponds, the sawing capacity of the mills, during the wintertime, is increased about 10 per cent and the logs may be sorted efficiently. In the ponds there are usually installed cross-cutting saws to buck the logs into suitable lengths, as some mills are taking logs in entire tree lengths from the forests. Logs defectively crosscut in the woods are also crosscut in the ponds before they are taken to the miU. Before the logs are puUed up the gangway to the miU they are carefully inspected by the scaler, who directs the logs to the proper gangsaw set for the cutting of each dimension and grade. During late years a very practical apparatus for transporting logs from ponds to mill has been inaugurated. Formerly several logs were bunched and hauled up the gangway on chains, but this system required a great deal of power. A new system has a gangway for each gang saw and the bull chain is provided with steel carriers having an edge like a saw, whereby the logs are held firmly in place. The distance between these metal carriers varies from 5 to 5f feet. The logs are merely pushed onto the chains in the ponds and carried up the gangway to the mill. When the logs are placed in front of the saw carriage, the top end touches a lever connected with the belt, which is shifted to the loose pulley, and the operation is thereby interrupted. As soon as the log is removed from the chain, the belt is transferred by a weight to the fixed pulley and the next log is hauled up. By means of the new system, the services of several men in the pond and on the log deck can be dispensed with. MILL CONSTRUCTION AND MACHINERY. The sawmills are built of wood; no steel mills are found in Sweden. Usually the sawing of lumber and the utilization of waste products are combined in one miU, but in some cases a special annex is con- structed, adjacent to the sawmill, for sawing slabs, edgings, etc., into laths, broom handles, box shooks, and similar stock. This latter system has many advantages, especially in the case of large opera- tions. Some of the larger sawmill companies operate two plants, one for pine and the other for spruce. The mills are usually constructed in two stories. In the basement, the foundation of the gang saws, conveyors for sawdust, and machines for cutting refuse into chips for pulp miUs (hogs) are located. On the upper floor the sawmill machinery is installed. Most of the mills are built to cut logs up to 35 to 40 feet in length, but such log lengths are seldom sawed, the maximum being 27 to 30 feet. The Swedish sawmill machinery is believed to be superior to other types in accuracy of sawing and saving of material. Several large factories in Sweden turn out sawmiU and planing-mill machinery 108 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. for both domestic and foreign markets, Tlie principal feature about the Swedish machines is the excellent steel used in their manufacture, which enables the machines to turn out carefully manufactured stock. Gangsaws are used by the Swedish standard mills, while circular saws are commonly found in the mills operated on a small scale. An American band saw was installed in one of the larger mills in Sweden a few years before the war, but this type was found im- practicable for Swedish conditions on account of the waste and the large percentage of miscuts. The Swedish logs are of too small dimensions to make the use of American band saws possible and the percentage of clears is insignificant, so that the band head saw is not suitable for this material. Many of the larger Swedish export mills are equipped with machin- ery of the Bolinders type, and a short description of these machines is given below because they are generally considered as standard in northern Europe. The principal features of these machines have been patented by the manufacturer. Part of the followin^information has been supplied by the manu- facturers, e' . & C. G. Bolinders, Mekaniska Verkstads A/B., Stock- holm, concerning the machines that they turn out: GANG SAWS. The gang saws used in Sweden are constructed 20, 24, 30, and 33 inches in sash width. The bedplate is of heavy design and is con- structed so as to absorb vibration, insuring smooth running. The crank shaft is of the so-called "machined" type and the two webs of the crank are fitted with counterweights for balancing the momentum of the saw-blade frame and connection rod, whereby shocks at either end of the stroke are avoided. The bearings are of the self-acting ring oiler type, lined with white metal. They are furnished with felt packing at each end to prevent the entrance of dust and dirt. The bearings are brought as close to the crank as possible, which makes the machine reliable in operation. The fl3rwheels are located one at each end of the shaft outside the bearings. The connecting rod is of strong construction, and the heads are so designed that the necessary adjustments may be made easily. The solid construction of the sash is one of the most impor- tant details of the gang saw. The capacity of the machine is de- pendent upon the feed mechanism. The 20 and 24 inch gangs are provided with continuous feed mechanism, which can be regulated while the machine is working. By a simple movement the operation can be instantly stopped or reversed, if necessary. The 30 and 33 inch gangs, as a rule, are, fitted Avith an intermittent feed mechanism. The upper feed rollers, which are power driven, are self-setting without any assistance from the operator. This is due to the fact that the lowest position of the upper rollers is changeable and under the control of springs in a vertical direction. This position can be adjusted to the size of the log that is being sawn. For example, in the case of sawing a log 9 inches in top diameter, the lowest position of the upper feed roller is adjusted, so that the opening between the upper and lower feed rollers is 8V inches. As the log passes through the sash the top roller raises itself. When the log has passed through the sesh, the upper roller falls back without shock to its original posi- SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 109 tion 8^ inches above the lower roller, ready to receive another 9-inch log. The upper roller works in a frame, which is pivoted to one side of the machine and can be swmig clear readily, so that the sash be- comes easily accessible, which is an advantage when inserting or changing blades. The crank pin is continuously lubricated through the crank shaft from the lubricator, and the guides from oil pumps are aU mechani- cally driven. The loose pulley runs in ball bearings. The following table shows the specifications for the principal stand- ard sizes of gang saws in Sweden: Width of saw sash. Length of stroke. Revolu- tions per minute. Necessary brake horse- power. Driving pulleys. Bedplate. Diameter. Face. Length. Width. Inches. 20 24 30 33 Inches. 20 20 20 20 3.50 325 290 275 30 30 30 30 Inches. 39 39 39 39 Inches. Si s* 8j Inches. 71 71 71 71 Inches. 57 57 57 57 Larger types of gang saws, having sashes 36 and 42 inches wide, are also made in Sweden, but these gang saws are manufactured mainly for export, particularly to the Russian market. For each saw there are two pairs of log carriages, one pair in front of the saw and the other behind. While formerly the sawyer had to place the log in position on the carriage by lifting or roHing, this work IS now handled by a foot lever (similar to ''steam niggers" in American mills). The one front carriage is constructed so that the logs may easily be turned and placed into position on the carriage by a pair of claws operated by a handle. Alter the log has passed through the gang, the carriage is moved automatically back into position for the next log. Instead of using similar log carriages at the rear end of the saw, sometimes two steel arms running on rails under the roof are employed. The lumber is transferred over to the conveyors by a pair of steel arms operated by foot levers. By these improvements the heavy work in the sawmills is materially decreased, as the sawyers, practi- cally speaking, do not touch the logs or the lumber. The use of special gangs for sawing crooked logs is an example of Swedish thoroughness in effecting the largest possible saving in raw material. Instead of being crosscut into smaller log lengths, these logs can be sawed on the special gangs. The rail on which the carriage runs can be moved to either side of the gang, whereby crooked logs can be turned so that the saws cut parallel with the grain. Another system has a number of rollers, which can be turned at an angle to permit sawing to follow the bend of the log when passing through the gang. Some of the gang saws have been constructed for cutting two logs at a time; but this system has now been abandoned because the modern single gang saw is as effective as the double gang saw of the old type, and this double gang saw. required three operators, while the naodern type requires only two. Furthermore, trouble is often experienced in sawing different log lengths at one time, and the 110 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. double gang saw also has a tendency to cut with less accurac}^ than the single gang saw. The present types of gang saws represent an important improve- ment over gangs used 5 or 10 years ago. The speed of the new types has been increased about 77 per cent above the speed of former types. The present standard gangs turn out per hour on an average 48 logs less than 10 inches in top diameter, and of an average length of 18 feet, while formerly only 27 logs per hour were sawn. This estimate includes the time necessary for breakdowns, clearing and placing logs in position on the log carriages, etc. This increased capacity of the gang saws, therefore, will partly offset the heavy increase in wages paid to sawmill laborers at the present time. ooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo '\'^\,y\^^V'^\^'\^^\>^V'\^^\^\^^^ ^ ^ as* Fig. 44.— Standahl's saw blades (a) and ordinary saw blades (6). SAW BLADES. The saw blades used in the gang saws are made of the best Swedish steel. The thickness of the blades has constantly been reduced during the last few years, and the common type now used in the mills is 17, 18, and 19, Birmingham wire gauge. To change from 14 to 17 B. W. G. means a saving in raw material of about 3 per cent. The filing is always done by special machinery. Lately an improved system of swaging has been instituted whereby the teeth are bent only at the point and slightly turned at the same time and not, as formcrlv, swaged from the base. By this procedure the kerf has been made considerably smaller. There are special machines for swaging the teeth in this way. Some mills use very thin saw blades, 20 and 21 B. W. G. These blades have one row of bumps on each side of the blade close to the back of the blade, whereby the saw blade is given a conical shape, enabling the mills to use a smaller swaging and con- sequently entailing less waste. It is claimed, however, that the speed of sawing is somewhat decreased and the use of these blades SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. Ill is dependent upon whether the value of the saving in raw material and m waste wiU offset the increased cost of labor. (See fig. 48.) The following table shows the allowance for swaging and kerf for saw blades of various thicknesses, according to the Birmingham wore gauge : No. Thickness of blade. Swaging. Kerf. No. Thickness of blade. Swaging. Kerf. 6 Inch. 203 Inch. 0.059 Inch. { 0.262 .239 .224 .207 .193 .179 .168 .154 .142 .131 .124 17 18 19 20 21 22 Inch. 0.058 Inch. I 0.039 1 .030 Inch. ( 0.097 7 .180 .049 J .088 s .165 .042 1 .081 9 .148 .035 1 .074 10 .134 ... .032 f .062 \ .058 11 120 .028 P .109 13 .095 14 .083 )•> .072 16 .065 Circular saws are never used for cutting ordinary logs in standard Swedish mills, because the}^ do not turn out lumber sufficiently- accurate in manufacture to meet the requirements of foreign cus- tomers. The standard mills use circular saws only for cutting small timber. EDGERS. It is generally figured that one ed^er is sufficient to take care of the output of two gang saws when a rational system of sawing is applied (passing through the gang saw twice logs 7 inches and more in top cQameter). Tlu-ee principal types of edgers are used in the Swedish mills. The largest size is used especially for edging small timbers and heavy construction materials. This type wdll edge lumber 2 to 20^ inches in width and up to 8 inches in tliickness. The medium-sized edger is the standard type in all larger mills. It will size lumber 2 to 14 inches in wddth and up to 6 inches in thickness. A smaller type is used in the smaller mills and will edge lumber 2 to 12 inches in width and up to 4 inches in thickness. There are also various types for edging staves and other small-dimension lumber, which are con- structed along the lines of the edgers described. The following table shows various items connected with the opera- tion of the large, medium-sized, and small edgers: Items. Distance between centers of feed rollers inches Rate of feed linear feet per minute Speed of arbor revolutions per minute Pulley: Diameter inches Face do.. Saw: Diameter do . . Center hole do. . Pin hole do.. Pin hole distance from center do. . Approximate power required brake horsepower Large. 49i 200-230' 1,800 m 37| 3| 25 Medium- sized. 47-1 200-230 1,800 94 25H 3| i 2A 20 Small. 40* 165-200' 1,800 124 74 21M 3 4 2 15 112 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. A special feature with the more recent t3^pes of Swedish edgers is that the feed rollers are raised automatically at the moment the}^ are brought in contact with the inserted lumber without the intervention of the operator. The lumber is driven toward the machine by a special feed mechanism. The edger is also provided with a re\^ersing me(;hanism and the saw arbor runs in a double row of ball bearings. The adjustable saws are moved by a lever and the edgers are set with a simple device in order to give the lumber the required increase of width to provide for the shrinkage during the process of drying. RIP SAW FOR SMALL-DIMENSION LUMBER. The rip saw is fed by means of a small toothed wheel under the table, with its teeth projecting above the surface of the table. Owing to the construction of this feed wheel, the edging is pressed against the guide plate at the same time that it is moved forward. Above the table there is an upper feed wheel pivoted to a support and capable of raising or lowering itself to accommodate the lumber. The following are the specifications for tliis rip saw: Feed, 230 lineal feet per minute. Revolutions of spindle, 1,800 per minute. Dimensions of spindle pulley, 8 by 5^ inchea. Diameter of saw blade, 15| inches. Diameter of center hole in saw blade, 2| inches. Power required, 7 to 8 horsepower. HORIZONTAL BALANCED CROSSCUT SAWS. ^ The horizontal balanced crosscut saw is intended for crosscutting timber, lumber, and sawmill waste, and is made in three sizes. The saw spindle is journaled in a strong frame, which is balanced by means of a weight and which can be raised or lowered by either a hand or a foot lever. The driving belt of the saw spindle is tightened by a very simple arrangement, for which reason a belt woven in one piece can be used. The following table shows the specifications for crosscut saws of the three sizes : Items. Small. Diameter of saw inches. . Bedplate length and width do — Electric motor power horsepower. . Speed revolutions per minute. . 20 42J by 17 4 1,800 TRIMMER FOR BOX SHOCKS, STAVES, ETC. The trimmer for box shooks, staves, etc., is generally provided with two or three circular saws. The two outer saw blades can easily be set to cut for various lengths. SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 113 The specifications are as follows: Items. No. 2. Number of saw blades Cutting capacity inches. . Maximum diameter of saws do Diameter of center hole of saw : do — Diameter of pin hole of saws do Distance of pin hole from center do — Maximum distance between outer saws do Minimum distance between outer blades do Revolutions of saw spindle per minute Driving pulley: Diameter *. inches. . Face do Revolutions per minute Iby 12^J by 4J 18 2| 11 48 9J 1,«00 3§ MECHANICAL DEVICES FOR HANDLING LUMBER IN MILLS. Formerl}^, when labor was comparatively cheap, not much atten- tion was given to saving labor in the mills. During the last 10 years, however, the labor problem has steadily grown and at present the J J J III! II I I J Ill lllllllillll Fig. 45. — Plan of Swedish sawmill, box factory, and dry kiln. 1, log pond; 2, sa\vmill; 3, power plant; 4, dry kiln; b, box factory; 6, sorting table. prices paid for labor in the Swedish mills are very high. Lately, therefore, the mills have endeavored to decrease the expense of handling lumber by installing various labor-saving devices. Among these the automatic conveyors are of main importance. The lumber is transported from one machine to another on live rollers, and slabs and edgings are ti'ansported in a similar way on 2092°— 21 8 114 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. belts. In order to prevent accumulation of sawmill waste in the mill the belts for carrying refuse are generally installed on the lower floor of the mill and the refuse is dumped on these belts through openings in the upper floor. In some mills refuse is also transported on carriages running on a rail suspended from tlie roof. Fig. 46. — Plan of Swedish sawmill, yard, and docks. 1, sawmill; 2, car transfer; 3, yard; 4, trimming sheds; 5, barges; 6, conveyors. The Swedish mills endeavor to have the lumber pass one way and to avoid transportation sidewise as much as possible. SAWING. As an average result of the sawing of standard logs in Sweden, the following example is given, the percentages being expressed in rela- tion to the cubical contents of the logs based on top measurements: Planks, battens, and boards (trimmed stock), 70 per cent; sawdust, 8 per cent; shrinkage during drying, 4 to 5 per cent; slabs, edgings, etc., 12 per cent; mill ends, 6 per cent. It is evident that the sawing results depend to a great extent on whether the mills pass the logs once or twice through the gang saws. Practically the only part of the log that may be termed waste is the shrinkage. The Swedish sawmill industry, therefore, may be compared favorably with the packing industry in the United States, in which the only thing wasted is the squeal of the pig. The quality of the Swedish lumber may not be so high as that of some of the softwoods of the United States, but the Swedish lumber- men endeavor to make their profits on the utilization of the logs and do not sacrifice quantity in order to produce quality. For Swedish conditions, this is the only sensible method of operation, and only by adhering to this policy can the Swedish lumbermen expect to hold the present firm position in the world markets. The smaller mills of the portable type do not offer anything of inter- est, because the logs are sawn in a haphazard way and the waste is often as lar^e as 20 to 25 per cent. These operations, therefore, will not be considered in this report. SWEDISH LUMBEK INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 115 -^8 -a SB "3 M o? 116 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. Spruce logs are sawn the year round, but pine logs are not sawn during the summer months, because pine is more liable to discolor during the summer. The sawing is effected according to special schedules, and each gang saw is adjusted to cut only one log dimension at a time. For instance, one gang may cut 6-inch logs for one week and 6i-inch logs the following week. Before the sawing season starts the mills generally run three or four weeks on trial. During this period the contents of each log sawn is carefully estimated and also the quantity of lumber and waste produced from each log. A record is kept of each log and the sawing schedules used in each case in order to ascertain which sched- ules would give the best results, both in the output of lumber and in the manufacture of the sizes for which the best prices are obtained. Several mills in the same district sometimes cooperate in these trials, thereby; reducing the cost of this operation and arriving at better conclusions than if each mill had operated independently. The principle of rational sawing is to have as much lumber pro- duced in the gang saws as possible, so that only a small percentage of the log has to be sawn on the smaller machines into laths, broom handles, staves, etc., because the sawing of this stock entails a cost 250 to 300 per cent higher than the gang sawing of lumber. The waste also is disproportionately large. The number of logs required to cut 1,000 feet board measure of lumber varies a great deal. In special cases only 7 logs may be re- quired, and in other extreme cases 30 to 35 logs. The usual number is 20 to 22 logs. On an average, standard mills require 118 to 120 cubic feet of raw material, based on top measurement of the logs, to produce 1,000 feet board measure of lumber (planks, battens, and boards). There are people in Sweden who have devoted years to the study of sawing schedules, and many valuable tables are published that are of material assistance to the Swedish sawmill operators in selecting the most suitable sawing schedule for their logs. Not all the mills are equally careful in the utilization of the raw material. The most efficiently operated mills based their sawing schedules on the following factors : (1) Top diameter of logs and shape of logs. — The logs are separated into different categories, based on each half inch or quarter inch of top diameter. This is for the purpose of obtaining the widest pos- sible stock of each log with the least possible waste. Furthermore, differentiation is often made in the sawing schedules between round and oval logs. (It is estimated that at least 80 to 85 per cent of all logs are oval.) For instance, to cut 3 by 9 inches, which is one of the principal stock dimensions, the log must be at least 9f inches in top diameter if round and 10 inches if oval. By sorting the logs on the one-fourth-inch top diameter, it is possible to obtain a larger quantity of lumber than by sorting on the one-half inch. In the case of oval logs two different schedules are applied. If the logs are free from shakes, the schedule is based on sawing the logs in such a way that the largest top diameter of the logs is sawed parallel with the saw blade; in this way the widest stock is obtained. On the other hand, if the log has shakes or splits radiating from the center of the logs in the direction of the smallest diameter, the logs Special Agents Series No. 195. Special Agents Series No. 195. SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. IIY must be sawn in such a way that the saw blades cut parallel ^\dth the shakes. The top diameter upon which the sawing schedules are based in this case is therefore smaller than in the former case, and lumber of smaller widths is produced. For instance, perfect oval logs 7i inches in minimum top diameter can produce lumber 2^ by 7 inches; but if the logs are shaky, 7| inches in minimum top diam- eter is necessary to produce the same size of lumber. (2) Quality. — ^The sawing schedules often contain special instruc- tions in regard to the sawing of the different equalities of logs and these schedules are made to conform to the grading stipulations. If, Fig. 50. — Sawing system passing logs once through the gang saw (top diameter, 12 inches). for instance, logs that yield only cull lumber are sawed practically square-edged, it is evident that a serious loss of material mil be the consequence, as cull lumber admits of a large amount of wane. The following example illustrates this point. In order to obtain a piece 3 by 9 inches, of first quality, the top diameter of the log must not be smaller than 12| inches, while the same dimension of third quality may be produced from logs 12 inches in top diameter and fourth quality from logs llf inches in top diameter. (3) Lengths.— Short lengths may be sawn on a different schedule from standard lengths on account of the difference in taper. 118 SWEDISH LUMBER IlfDIJSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. It is seen that the log scaler has an important position, and that carelessness in his work may cause heavy losses to the mill. Two different methods oi sawing are used in most of the Swedish mills working on an efRcient basis: (a) Passing logs once through the gang saw and (b) passing logs twice through the gang saw. The former system involves a lower labor cost, but each piece of lumber must be edged separately in the edger. This is used only for small logs 4^ to 7 inches in top diameter. Logs of larger top diame- ter are usually passed through the gang twice. By this system the ' ^y^Tiey board t PVar. ?y y/y 3- k9- 3- x9' x\\X^ IV X 8" / board %'iYaney I'A-xS" ^^^ V/>. X I" x5- ' % iVanev hoard_ Fig. 51. — Samng system passing logs twice through the gang saw (top diameter, 12 inches). first gang slabs two or three boards on two sides of the log. The log is then turned over 90 degrees and passed through the next gang, located immediately in front of the first gang, and the lumber is cut to the required dimension. The lumber produced by this method is almost square-edged and only a small percentage of it passes through the edger. Much material can be saved by the latter method, because the edging of the lumber is done by the first sawing in the gang and not in the edger. Thus waney boards are obtained, which have a higher market value than edgings. The material utilized is about 10 per cent more than by the first method, but the cost of sawing is considerably higher, because it requires about 75 per cent SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 119 more time to pass the logs twice through the gang saw. In addition, the average length of the lumber sawn by passing the logs twice through the gang is materially increased. It is a matter of easy calculation to the Swedish mill operators to decide which method pays the best in each case. The cost of labor may be high but the increased saving of material amply offsets the extra expenditure for the more careful sawing system. Many mills in Sweden therefore base their entire production on passing all logs twice through the gangs. The system has its drawbacks, however, because the amount of wane can not be regulated easily, as practi- cally all the lumber is sawn square-edged, except the sap boards. This method, therefore, is not profitable in cutting low-grade logs. The following sawing schedule, procured from a Swedish authority on the subject, shows the dimensions and the cubical contents of lumber obtained from a log 18 feet long and 12 inches in diameter, containing 14.14 cubic feet: When the log is passed once through the gang saw, the dimensions obtained are five-eighths of an inch by 4 inches, 1 by 6 inches, 4 by 9 inches, 4 by 9 inches, 1 by 6 inches, and five-eighths of an inch by 4 inches, the aggregate cubical contents of which is 11.13 cubic feet, not trimmed, or 9.46 cubic feet, trimmed; when the log is passed twice through the gang saw, the dimensions obtained from the first gang are five-eighths inch waney board, 1 by 5 inches, 1 by 5 inches, and five-eighths inch waney board, and from the second gang, five-eighths inch waney board, 1 by 5 inches, 1| by 8 inches, 3 by 9 inches, 3 by 9 inches, 1| by 8 inches, 1 by 5 inches, and five-eighths inch waney board, the aggre- gate cubical contents of which is 11.44 cubic feet, not trimmed, or 10.64 cubic feet, trimmed. The difference in the cubical contents of the lumber produced by these two systems may be still greater in some cases. The sawing of odd sizes on special orders requires unusual skill on the part of the sawyer because salable lumber must be produced from the rest of the log; otherwise the mill finds itself with many other odd dimensions, for which there is no market. Comparatively few mills make a profit on sawing odd dimensions unless they special- ize in it. This is especially true at the present time, with the high cost of labor, because the sawing of such stock involves extra expend- itures, which in many cases are not offset by the extra prices paid. In selecting the sawing schedule, attention is usually paid to hav- ing the center of the logs cut by the saw blade, except in the case of scantlings, which are usually cut from top logs. Otherwise, the lumber is liable to become shaky while drying. Many mills, however, contend that it is not necessary to have the center cut by the saw blades if the lumber is properly piled and seasoned. A Swedish authority on sawing schedules (O. Ericson) has issued a table showing the different top diameters of saw logs, accompan- ied by a set of patterns representing the usual stock sizes of lumber for export. By this system, called "the Ericson system," the mill operators can easily prepare their own sawing schedules and find out in advance how to saw the logs in the most profitable way with- out waste by trial sawing, etc. This system is of speciaFvalue in cut- ting odd sizes. It is used throughout Sweden and also in Finland and Norway. 120 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. I %' %X372" 6ygX3'/^ •"/^x^ 9" SygX3'/2. \x3yz Fig . 52.— Sawing schedules for logs 10^ and 9 inches in top diameter. The inner circle represents the top circumference and the outer circle the butt circumference of the log. SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 121 Crooked logs are sawn on special gang saws, such as were previously described. The bend of the logs generally must not exceed 4 inches on an average standard log of 18 feet; i. e., the deviation of the log axis from a straight line must not exceed 4 inches. Lumber from such logs is piled with the bend up so that only the ends of the pieces touch the underlying lumber. By the weight of the lumber piled on top, it is claimed that the crook disappears by the time the lumber is sufficiently dried for shipping. Complaints have been heard from time to time from customers abroad in regard to such lumber, but these complaints may be due to the defective piling system used; opinion on this point differs con- siderably among Swedish mill owners. There is no question that the saving in material by sawing crooked logs on special gangs is considerable; it may be, in some cases, as high as 40 to 50 per cent, it is claimed. Furthermore, the average length of the lumber is materially in- creased because mills not having special gangs for sawing crooked logs must crosscut the crooked logs and produce short lumber. Crooked logs sawn on ordinary gang saws produce a larger percentage of mill ends than those sawn on special gangs. The lumber is cut to English measurements in thickness and width; the sawing according to other measurements is so rare that it may be left out of consideration. It must be noticed, however, that it is easy for the Swedish gang saws to be adjusted to cut to any measurement; but the handling of lumber cut to many different standards would cost the mills a great deal of extra trouble and this is why such cutting is rare. In all sawing schedules adequate allowance is made for shrinkage, but this allowance varies a great deal in the different parts of the country, depending upon the climatic conditions, the character of the logs, the rate of growth, and whether or not the logs are floated. It is therefore almost impossible to give any general rule to cover the sawing schedules in all parts of Sweden. It is generally held that the gang saws are set to cut to Norwegian inches and that the lumber will dry out to English inches. (Norwegian inches are about 3 per cent larger than English inches.) The following figures, prepared by Forester W. Ekman, show the customary allowances for shi'inkage that are made in sawing lumber: f and f inch thickness — g^^-inch excess; 1 and IJ inch thickness — •^-inch excess; 1^-inch thickness — g\-inch excess; 2 and 2| inch thickness — g\-inch excess; 3 and 4 inch thickness — gVii^ch excess; 4 and 4^ inch width^-^inch excess; 5 and 5| inch width — ^^-inch excess; 6 and 7 inch width — |^f-inch excess; 8, 9, and 10 inch width — ^-inch excess; 11 and 12 inch width — ^-inch excess. The lumber is passed from the gang saw to the edger on conveyors. EDGING, SORTING, AND TRANSPORTATION. The edgerman is one of the most important operators in the mill. He must know the grades and the wane permissible in the different grades and how to produce the maximum width in each piece of lumber, taking into consideration what dimensions are in demand and how to obtain them without sacrificing the width of the balance of the stock. It is easy to imderstand the importance of having a 122 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. capable edgerman when it is considered that the difference in price per 1,000 feet board measure between 9-inch and 11-inch stock is at present $10 to $12. By careless edging thousands of dollars may be lost, and many mills contend that the edgerman to a great extent decides the profit which the mill is making. The lumber is generally edged on the half inch, starting from 3 inches and going up to 7 inches. For wider stock the lumber is usually edged on odd and even inches. The edging of two pieces at one time is never seen in standard mills because each piece of lumber must have the edgerman's individual attention, even if it requires a little longer time to do the work in this way. Stock destined for planing purposes is given an unusually large amount of wane. The reason for this will be given in a later chapter. It can not be too strongly emphasized in connection with Swedish sawmilling that careful utilization of the raw material is given the first attention and that speed is secondary. The careful edging of the lumber in Sweden is striking compared with the practice in many other wood-producing coimtries. Swedish lumbermen who have visited other countries often comment unfavorably upon the practices, for instance, in Austria, where the edging is left to the cheaper class of labor and usually to women, who are not physically quanfied for the work. The lumber coming from the edger may be roughly trimmed in the mill on balanced circular saws, but only in cases where the ends are extremely rough. The exact trimming of the stock is not effected until the time when shipment is made. From the edger the lumber is transported on belts or live rollers to the sorting plant located immediately outside of the mill. In this sorting plant the lumber is roughly separated into the principal grades and sizes. In the most up-to-date plants the lumber is transferred to the various sorting tables by a system of switches operated from the mill, which reduce the handling to a minimum. The sorting plant is built on the same level as the upper sawmill floor and the lum- ber is lowered on chutes to cars immediately below each sorting table. These cars are then transported to the yard either by electric engines or by horses. The transportation question in the mill has not always been handled in the same efficient way as at present and many old sawmills experi- ence considerable trouble in having the mills modernized in this respect. DIMENSIONS. Each mill has usually one or several customers abroad demanding special stock, but certain sizes are cut by nearly all the mills, such as 3 by 9 inches, 2^ by 7 inches, 1 by 4 inches. The followmg are the dimensions of pine and spruce for export that are most in demand and are considered as stock sizes: 4 by 11 and 9 inches; 3 by 11, 9, 8, 7, 6, 4^, and 4 mches; 2^ by 11, 9, 8, 7, 6^, and 6 inches (2^ by 9 and by 8 inches bemg spruce only); 2 by 11, 9, 8, 7, 6^, 6, 5^, 5, 4|-, and 4 inches; 1^ by 11, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4^, and 4 inches; 1| by 11, 9, 8, 7, 6^, 6, 5i, 5, 4i, and 4 inches; 1 by li, 9, 8, 7, 6^, 6, 5^, 5, 4i, 4, 3^, and 3 inches. Other dimensions usually produced are the followmg: 4 by 8, 7, 6^, 6, 5, and 4 inches; 3 by 6^, 5^, 5, and 3 inches; 2^ by 5^ and 5 inches; 2 by 3^ and 3 inches; 1^ by 5^, 3^, and 3 inches; li by 3^ SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 123 and 3 inches; | by 7, 6^ 6, 5^, 5, 4^, 4, 3^, and 3 inches (all |-inch sizes for spruce only); f by 7, 6^, 6, 5^, 5, ^, 4, 3^, and 3 inches; f by 7, 6i, 6, 5 J, 5, 4^, 4, 3^, and 3 inches. In addition to these dunensions, there may be many others, such as, for instance, 12-inch stock, but not many mills can cut 12-inch lumber because their logs are too small. The demand from one year to another may vary considerably. It depends upon the demand in the different countries and the ability of other competmg countries to -furnish the material. Russia, for example, furnishes a large percentage of Europe's demand for planks and when this country was unable to make deliveries, the importers turned to Sweden and other north European countries to supply this commodity. Some markets may demand large quantities of planks (for instance, the British colonial markets) , while other coun- tries, such as Germany, specify boards and battens. The stock kept on hand depends upon the markets to which a mill caters. It is also very important that the sales manager of the mill ascertain in advance of each cutting season what. dimensions would be most in demand in order to adjust the cutting in the mill. There is, therefore, nothing haphazard about the Swedish cutting for stock. There are a larger number of dimensions of pine than of spruce. Ten-inch stock is generally not much in demand, except in a few markets, while 11 inches and 9 inches are stock sizes. The mills' ability to cut 9-inch and 11-mch stock is somewhat limited by the small log dimensions. Usually the quantity of 11-inch stock does not exceed 3 to 5 per cent in most of the mills. Before the war there was a growing demand in Sweden for seven-eighth-inch and nine- eighth-inch boards, and many mills included these in their regular stock lists. Limited quantities of one-half -inch boards may also be cut at times. Most of the mills carry three-fourth-inch and five- eighth-inch boards in stock. The following schedule is representative for some of the larger export mills in Norrland, showing the percentages of the different widths of lumber produced: Widths. Pine. Spruce. Widths. Pine. Spruce. 9inches and wider Per cent. 19 12 17 19 Per cent. 12 8 12 15 5J and 5 inches Per cent. 17 16 Per cent. 27 8 i nches 26 Total 6h and 6 inches 100 100 In other parts of the country the percentage of wide stock is much smaller. Swedish lumber for export is divided into the f ollowmg categories : Planks — 2 inches in minimum thickness and 8h inches in mininmm width; battens — 2 inches in minimum thickness and 6 to 8^- inches in width; scantlings — 2 inches in minimum thickness and less than 6 inches in width; boards — less than 2 inches in thickness and 6 inches or more in width; narrow boards — less than 2 inches in thickness and less than 6 inches in width. The Swedish mills usually produce approximately the following percentages of each category: Planks, 17 per cent; battens, 20; scantlings, 10; boards, 25; narrow boards, 28. 124 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. The quantity of small dimensions of lumber, such as staves, broom handles, and similar stock, usually does not exceed 20 per cent of the total quantity produced and in many cases it is only 8 to 12 per cent. Planks are sometimes resawn in the mills into several thicknesses, leaving about 6 inches at the end of the plank which is not cut by the resaw. This stock is sometimes shipped to certain markets in Africa, as it is claimed that the duty on lumber is based on the number of pieces and by cutting the stock in this way the duty is only paid on one piece. This procedure, however, is not very often followed. On account of the small dimensions of the logs, practically no rift (vertical) grain is produced. Heart specifications are filled by only a few mills, mainly for railroad and ship material; but the output of this commodity is so limited that it may almost be left out of con- sideration. Most of the mills do not attempt to cut such stock. SPECIAL PRODUCTS. PAVING BLOCKS. From only one district in Sweden is paving-block material being supplied. Swedish pine is usually too soft to make an entirely satisfactory paving block, but the district of Norrkoping, immediately south of Stockholm, has made a specialty of it. Planks 3 by 9 inches and 3 by 8 inches are used for this purpose abroad, but blocks are seldom manufactured in Sweden. There is no doubt that material obtained from the district of Norr- koping would give a fairly satisfactory paving material and could be successfully introduced in many countries if the exporters from this district were willing to make the necessary effort to push this article. In several cities in Sweden such paving material has been found suitable, and there is no reason why it should not obtain as good a result in foreign markets. The Norrkoping paving-block material is denser than the Pinus maritima of southwestern France, which is used extensively for paving blocks in southwestern Europe. SHORT LUMBER. Short lumber is considered stock in lengths of 6, 7, and 8 feet. Of this stock there is never an excessive quantity in Sweden of which the mills can not dispose. The proportion of short lengths seldom exceeds 7 per cent for ordinary stock, but it may be as high as 20 to 22 per cent for narrow sap boards. As these boards are generally fairly clear, however, they nearly always find a good market. In all ordinary contracts for export, there is a clause to the effect that 3 to 5 per cent of short lengths must be included in each cargo at a certain reduction in price. In this way the Swedish exporters have been enabled to dispose of most of their short lumber, and whatever excess quantity is found on hand may be utilized for other purposes. STAVES. Staves are manufactured into various sizes, according to the use and destination. This stock is generally cut for cement and herring containers which are made of both pine and spruce. The usual dimensions of staves are as follows : One-half inch thick, 3 to 7 inches Special Agents Series No. 195. Sepcial Agents Series No. 195. SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 125 wide (small quantity, 2 inches), 24, 26, 28, 29, and 32 inches long, and heading 17 to 18 inches long. Sometimes they are nine-sixteenths inch thick, 24 inches long, and 2^ to 4 inches wide or five-eighths inch thick, 30i inches long, and 2^ to 4 inches wide. The staves are always cut square-edged and must be of good, sound quality. BROOM HANDLES. Broom-handle stock is cut of both pine and spruce, 1 by 1 inch and 1, 1.25, 1.40 to 2^ meters (1 meter = 3.28 feet); li by li inches and 1, 1.25, 1.40 to 2^ metere. In Sweden broom handles for export generally are not turned but are shipped in squares, because tliese broom handles would require expensive packing boxes, and the prices are so low that it would not pay the Swedish exporters to turn out this stock.- LATH. Lath is manufactured from both pine and spruce in the following dimensions: !{ by 1^ inches, IJ by -^ inches, 1 by 1^ inches, 1 by -^ inch, etc., in lengths of 2|, 3, 3|, 4, 4^, and 5 feet. The lath must be free from knots and accurately sawn. CHARCOAL. Charcoal is an important product in Sweden; at least 10 percent of all wood cut is manufactured into this commodity. The value of the charcoal produced in 1913 was approximately $7,500,000, but this figure includes charcoal made in the woods, at the sawmills, and in special plants. During the war the price for charcoal increased about 300 to 400 per cent above the pre-war figures and this caused many miUs to increase their production of this commodity. Even old buildings were torn down to be converted into charcoal. In the future it is believed that the charcoal industry will somewhat decline, as the electric smelting of ore will probably be further devel- oped. UTILIZATION OF SAWMILL WASTE. Even in the most efficiently operated mills, there is always a considerable percentage of slabs, edgings, etc., and without close utilization of this refuse it is not possible for the sawmiUs to operate at a profit. A variety of small-dimension lumber can be cut from such waste material. Among the principal kinds are staves, box shocks, broom handles, laths, and molding stock. In some plants special mill s adjoining the sawmills have been constructed for cuttmg this stock. Outside of the mill, charcoal plants are frequently constructed for the utilization of slabs and edgings that would not be suitable as raw material for smaU-dimension lumber. Waste that is not suitable for other purposes is often chipped in logs to make raw material for the pulp mills, or it may be trimmed to standard lengths for firewood. Some mills have automatic trimmers for this purpose. During normal times coal costs about $4.50 to $5 per ton, but its price increased during the war to about $65 to $80 per ton. Evidently the value of the sawmill refuse would show a corresponding increase. It is calculated that about 430 cubic feet of sawmill refuse (edgings, etc.) is equal to 1 ton of coal and that about 650 cubic feet of sawdust 126 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. will give the same equivalent. If the price of coal is $4.08 per ton the value of the sawmill refuse would be approximately $1.03 per ton. If the price of coal is $8 per ton, the value of the refuse would be $1.60 per ton. If the price of coal is $13.50, the value of refuse would be approximately $3.50 per ton, and so on. The value of refuse is calculated net; that is to say, due allowance is made for the trans- portation from miU to power plant and extra expenses in the handling of refuse in firing. The price of sawmill refuse cut into chips for pulp making varied considerably in price before the war, but as a rule it was 6 cents to 8 cents per cubic yard in 1913. In 1918 as much as $1.65 per cubic yard was paid for this material. In Goteborg, the price for miU ends used for fuel in that city was higher than in any other part of the country; in 1918 as much as $4 per cubic yard was paid for this material. In some plants sawdust is compressed into briquets on special machines, using wash waste from the pulp mills as a binder. The moisture content of these briquets is about 15 per cent. Sawdust may also be ground into wood flour, used in the manufac- ture of various articles, including gramophone records and linoleum. Sweden's best market for wood flour (usually made of spruce) is the United States. Exports of this product to the United States have been increasing rapidly and amounted to more than 6,000,000 pounds, valued at $32,000, in 1916. In passing through a standard Swedish mill one is struck by the absence of rubbish. The present generation has not seen any refuse burners in Sweden. SEASONING. AIK-DRYING. Most of the standard mills in Sweden have extensive yards and their system of seasoning has a world-wide reputation. The size of a Sweclish yard may diifer considerably according to locality. In the north the yards must be capable of storing a larger percentage of the annual production than the mills in the southern sections of Sweden. While the mills on the west coast can ship throughout the year, the mills in the extreme north must always count on having large stocks on hand on account of the limited time during which navigation is open. On an average, it may be said that the capacity of a yard should be at least one-third of the annual production of the mill, but some mills have storage capacity for up to two-thirds of their annual production. The country is flat at the coast and it is usually easy to find an open space convenient for laying out a yard with suitable dock facilities, etc. The yards were formerly reclaimed by filling in sawmill refuse, but during the war the sawmill refuse was so valuable that several mills removed the filling, turning it into raw material for the pulp factories, and put sand in its place. San d is considered more suitable than sawmill refuse, because the lumber is liable to be discolored when piled on decayed sawmill waste. As a rule, large yards are provided with a rail system and many mills have electric locomotives for transporting lumber from the mifl to the yard. The rail system may be laid on the ground or may be elevated above the ground. Tlie latter system is expensive and SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 127 it is claimed that the elevated-rail system to some extent presents ventilation in the yard and that the lumber is liable to discolor more easily than if the rails are laid on the ground. On the other hand, the elevated-rail system has many advantages. The lumber is more easily handled, because it is lowered to the ground on special apparatus and this operation does not require any special skilled laborers such as are needed with the other system where the lumber has to be carried on the shoulder 20 or 25 feet up on top of the piles. The labor situ- ation has been difficult for some time. Many mills also have electric cranes, auto- matic stackers, and other similar devices for piling lumber. The cranes are usually consid- ered the most satisfactory. Piling with mechanical devices often reduces the cost of the operation by 50 per cent. Characteristic of the better Swedish yards is the high base of the piles, usually 2 to 3 feet from the ground. This base is frequently built up of mill ends in the shape of a pyramid hav- ing open spaces between each layer of the mill ends, so that the ventilation will be sat- isfactory. The piles rest either on sand or on a solid wooden floor. A great deal of atten- tion is paid to keeping the base of the piles perfectly clear of rubbish and other matters that are liable to decay and thereby cause the lumber to discolor. The piles are generally about 25 feet wide and up to 29 or 30 feet long and 20 to 22 feet high, and they contain 40,000 to 45,000 feet board measure of lumber (planks) . They are covered with roofs and in cases where the yards are equipped with cranes the roof boards are nailed, which makes the placing of the roof on the piles less troublesome. In the better yards, the piles often have triple roofs, so that the joints overlap and the piles are kept absolutely dry. The following schedule gives the number of tiers of the different dimensions in the piles generally seen in Sweden: 4-inch thickness, 14 to 16 tiers; 3-inch thickness, 18 to 20 tiers; 2i-inch thickness, 28 to 30 tiers; 2-inch thickness, 40 to 45 tiers ; 1^-inch thickness, 55 to 60 tiers ; 1^-inch thickness, 65 to 70 tiers ; 1-inch thickness, 85 to 90 tiers; f-inch thickness, 115 to 125 tiers. From the top of the pile to the top of the roof there is generally a distance of about 28 inches. Sometimes it is necessary to have the stock seasoned quickly and the lumber is piled /o' Fig. 55. ■ Diagram method. of piling 128 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. on edge, with 30,000 to 35,000 feet board measure in the pile. It is also claimed that lumber when piled in such a way that the ends are projecting from 3 to 4 feet from the piles without having any support will dry more rapidly, as the circulation of air is more satisfactory. Lumber piled in this way, however, is liable to split at the ends. In one case a very practical arrangement was seen of such piling. A pile containing, for instance, 3 by 9 inch planks was piled in such a way that in each tier one piece 3 by 10 inches was placed at each end and one piece in the middle and between these pieces the 3 by 9 inch planks were stacked on edge. Other tiers were placed on top of the first tier in the same way. (See fig. 55.) When the lumber was dry, the 3 by 9 inch planks could easily ])e shoved together and piled solid without having to take down the whole pile and repile it again. ];t was furthermore seen that these piles dried somewhat quicker than other piles where the tiers contained one dimension only, because by this system of mixing 3 by lO's and 3 by 9 's a more even circulation of air was obtained. After the lumber stacked on edge is dry, it is piled solid and the piles contain about 80,000 to 100,000 feet board measure per pile. In the yards, the lower grades and the spruce lumber are piled at the center and the better grades and pine lumber are piled at the outskirts of the yard, because pine luniber is more liable to discolor than spruce. Some mills have sheds for the upper gi'ades. In the better Swedish yards a great deal of care is given uncovered piles by pro- tecting them with tarpaulins. The same applies to truc-ks of lumber left in the yard during rain or overnight. As Swedish lumber is not sold on specified lengths, all lengths are mixed in the piles, hut each pile contains one dimension in regard to thickness and width and one grade only. The piles are not given a sloping shape, as is common in the United States, but are built on a horizontal foundation. Often the piles containing the upper grades of lumber are covered on one or on all four sides with weatherboards to protect them from the elements. It was particularl}^ noticed in Sweden how careful tlie exporters are in storing lumber left over from one season to another on account of the inability of the importers to obtain tonnage. Either no charge is made for such storage or the charge is very small, but such lumber is stored at the owner's risk. The lumber is considered sufficiently dry for sliipment when it contains approximately 30 per cent of moisture. In the northern parts of Sweden the snow during the wintertime causes extra work in keeping the alleys and the roads open. From the 3"ard to the dock the lumber is transported on a system of con- veyors provided with live rollers and operated by electricity. There is generally a conveyor for every other aisle in the yard. Some mills have a system of sectional conveyors that caii be moved from one aisle to another, but it is generally found that the stationary con- veyors give better service in the end, although they cost more in con- struction. There are, of course, many smaller yards that do not have conveyor systems and take the lumber to the dock on trucks, but the larger mills all transport their lumber in the way described. In regard to the time wliich the lumber requires to be seasoned, it is impossible to give any general rule, as the conditions in the dif- ferent yards, even in the same districts, vary considerably. SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 129 The following table, however, shows figures compiled by O. Ericson for the length of time allowed for seasoning lumber sawn at different seasons and shipped to different destinations. These figures are be- lieved to be fairly representative of Swedish conditions in general. Coimtries of dest tion. na- Sawn dunng autumn. Sawn during winter. Sa'wn during spring and summer. Countries of destina- tion. Sawn diu-ng autumn. Sawn during winter. Sawn during spring and summer. Denmark and Germany United Kingdom and Months. 8 8 8 Months. 4 4 4 Months. 2 2 2 Southern France Spain and Portugal . . . British colonial and other over-sea markets Months. 8-9 8-9 Months. 4 4 Months. 2J-3 2J-3 Northern France. . 9-10 6 4 From this table it is seen that the lumber must be given special care when it is destined for far-away countries, and exporters con- tend that such care is well worth while. The passage to these coun- tries often lasts a month or more, and if the lumber is put on board improperly seasoned it is liable to discolor. The importers take the same stand and contend that the small extra charge that they have to pay for this careful handling of the lumber is well worth wliile, because it is insignificant compared with the total cost of the lumber delivered at its destination. Owing to the careful seasoning of the lumber, the percentage of discolored stock is very small in Sweden, Many mills do not figure on a larger percentage of discolored stock than 1 per cent, and in some cases even less was reported. The maximum seemed to be 10 to 12 per cent, and in such cases it was frequently found that the logs had been floated for two years and that the discoloration had occurred before the lumber reached the mill. The discolored lumber is frequently passed through the planing mill, and the discoloration partly disappears. The mills are unwilling to include discolored stock in large quahtities in the regular stocks of rough lumber for export. KILN-DRYING. Although the system of Idln-drying has been known for years in Sweden, it can not be said to have come into general use. In the first place, the American methods introduced some time ago did not work out very well in Sweden, principally because no consideration was given at that time to the different character of Swedish and American lumber. However, during late years successful experi- ments have been carried on in Sweden, and it is said that at least one firm has perfected a system of kiln-drying and used it successfully. At present only a small number of mills in the country kiln-dry their entire output. Where kilns are found they are generally worked in connection with planing mills or box factories. The advantages of kiln-dr^dng lumber are not so evident in Sweden as they are in the United States. Whereas in the United States fuel is very cheap, because the value generally placed on refuse is almost nil, in Sweden the value of refuse as a fuel or material for pulp making is very high because the country has no coal deposits of its own and is dependent upon imports for this commodity. Further- 2092°— 21 9 130 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. more, the principal shipping ports in Sweden can not ship throughout the year. Therefore, the lumber must be seasoned in the cheapest way — by air-drying. On the other hand, the Swedish exporters realize the advantages of kilns, which would enable them to insure their customers quick delivery and also to complete a cargo on short notice, if a shortage should be discovered at the time of shipment. This last advantage is not so striking in Sweden, because if one mill is short of stock the other mills are usually willing to help out. For box factories and planing mills, which require lumber con- taining about 25 per cent of moisture, kilns would be of good service. As far as could be learned, customers abroad have not objected to kiln-dried lumber. Nevertheless it can not be denied that kiln dry- ing in some parts of Sweden would have limited prospects of success. In certain sections of Sweden the logs are taken from mountainous districts and the lumber is very knotty. Around most of the knots there is a pitch ring, and when such lumber passes through the kiln, the knots are liable to fall out. If, however, the plans of the Norr- land lumbermen to keep navigation open by ice breakers during several months in the winter should be realized, kilns may have a better chance. GRADING. There is no absolutely uniform system of grading in Sweden. Each mill has established grades to which it adheres closely year in and year out. The grading rules established for each mill have often been created by cooperation between buyers and sellers and they are usually made up in such a way so as to suit particular markets. It often happens that mills with large stands of virgin timber have been able in years past to supply comparatively large quantities of the upper grades. During late years, these concerns may have partly cut out these old stands and the second-growth timber may produce only small quantities of the upper grades. In such cases the grading rules are not made less strict to conform to the new conditions; the cutting out of the old stands only decreases the quantity produced of lumber of the upper grades, according to the old-established grading rules. This is one of the basic rules of the Swedish lumber export trade and is the reason why the exporters have been able to maintain the same markets for decades. The importers may com- plain at times because they are unable to obtain as large quantities of one grade or of several grades as they did in previous years, but these complaints do not induce reliable Swedish sliippers to make the grading rules less strict by including inferior qualities in the upper grades. During late years there has been a tendency toward a more uni- form system of grading in some districts in Sweden. This may be caused by the fact that several individual mill owners have reorgan- ized their concerns into stock companies. It was formerly a matter of pride to many exporters to be able to supply a better grade than their neighbors, and there are still a few firms in Sweden that prefer to include only first, second, and third grades in their unsorted grade, while all other firms are including first, second, third, and fourth grades. The former firms may obtain a slightly higher price than the latter firms, but this is no doubt a SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 131 poor policy because by "sweetening" the grades they lose out in the end on the profits realized on the whole production. The only benefit to exporters from these practices may be that they obtain a reputation for shipping above grade, but this is not considered good business. As these firms pass over into stock companies, the matter of grading rules is often adjusted to conform to the usual practices of gradmg in the particular district where they are located. Thus the difi^erent grading rules are based to a large extent on conditions of past years, which now have partly ceased to exist, such as the possession of old stands allowing a larger percentage of clear lumber than lumber cut from second-growth forests, etc. As these forests are gradually cut out, the production of the various saw- mills is made more uniform, thereby paving the road for a uniform gradmg system for the different districts. This matter has already been given consideration in Sweden and no doubt will be taken up seriously. A branch of the Swedish Exporters' Association in the Hernosand district appointed a commission some years ago to establish uniform grading rules for all the association members in that district. An abstract of these rules is given at the end of this section. Uniform gradmg rules for the entire country probably would not be advisable, owing to the differences in the character of the timber in the various sections. Swedish lumber is generally graded into unsorted grade, fifth, and sixth grades. Sometimes, particularly in southern Norrland and the districts around Lake Wenner, the lumber is classified into first, second, third, fourth, fifth, and sixth grades. These two systems of grading are dependent upon the mills' supply of the upper grades. Generally the small percentage of the upper grades obtainable does not make the grading into more than three grades profitable. Some mills may grade a few dimensions into six grades and the remainder into three grades. The unsorted grade is composed of first, second, third, and fourth grades and may be termed sound construction lumber. A very smaU amount of discoloration is admitted in tliis grade and practically no rotten knots or similar serious defects. It is difficult to compare tliis grade with any corresponding grade for the principal species of softwoods in the United States, such as southern yellow pine and Douglas fir. It seems, however, that the maximum defects allowed in the unsorted grade would probably correspond to the medium quality of No. 2 common of southern yellow pine and Douglas fir, but the Swedish rules are stricter in regard to discoloration and allow no variation in sawing. The fifth grade of Swedish lumber may be termed better-class cull lumber, which is used for construction purposes where strength and durability are not serious considerations. This grade is service- able and is put to many uses for temporary construction purposes, etc. The sixth grade is cull lumber, which is not expected to have lasting qualities and is not serviceable for ordinary construction purposes. It is used locally to a great extent for lagging, board- walks, and similar purposes where the lumber would be liable to deteriorate in a short time, and also for cheaper kinds of temporary construction. In some mills, particularly in the northern part of Norrland, another grade of cull lumber may be established, called seventh 132 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. grade. The only requirement for lumber of this grade is that it must not fall to pieces when handled. This stock is not exported, as the freight would often amount to more than the lumber is worth. The foregoing grading s}^stem applies to pine lumber. Spruce lumber generally is not divided into more than three grades — un- sorted (comprising first, second, third, and fourth grades), fifth, and sixth grades. The same grading rules apply to spruce as to pine, but spruce lumber generally does not yield any large percentage of the upper grades on account of the presence of a large number of small knots. The knots of the spruce are not so conspicuous as those of pine and are generally not so large. Spruce often yields a disproportionately large percentage of cull lumber because older stands of spruce are liable to decay. Only a few concerns in Sweden use six grades for spruce. There is a considerable difference between Swedish first and second grades and the corresponding grades in the United States. Clear lumber in the American sense of the word is seldom seen in Sweden and both first and second grades admit of a few knots. Some firms in Sweden at times may separate clear sap boards, which are pro- duced in small quantities, and sell these separately to special cus- tomers abroad or to the local furniture factories. Contrary to many grading rules in the United States, the Sweaish grading rules do not allow the mixing of different species. Further- more, the Swedish grading rules do not make provisions for miscuts or scant lumber. Whether cull stock or first grade is produced, it must have the required dimensions, no more, no less. When any scant or miscut lumber is produced, it is either resawn, or better, cut into stock for the planing mills. One will notice with surprise that many Swedish contracts for lumber exports stipulate that up to 10 per cent of blue lumber may be included in each cargo. The Swedish exporters always believe in playing safe, and although this stipulation allows the shippers to include this large percentage of discolored lumber, all the reputable shippers take great care to avoid shipping such stock because if they went to the limit in this respect it would not be long before their reputation would be seriously affected. To many American shippers it may seem that the grading rules for the Swedish upper grades are somewhat lax, but it must be considered that the stocks are always well manufactured and carefully seasoned, and this circumstance, in connection with the efficient marketing methods, to a great extent offsets the defects, such as knots. It must be noticed that the Swedish grading rules do not make any provision for rift grain or flat grain, sapwood or heartwood. In regard to the texture of the wood there are no written regulations, but, as a general rule, very coarse-grained lumber would not be included in the upper grades. In one respect, however, may it be said that the Swedish grading rules have changed somewhat, namely, in regard to the amomit of wane permissible. Decades ago Swedish lumber was usually sawn square edged. A number of mills in Norway started to cut certain stocks with a wane, as it was realized that lumber for certain construc- tion purposes could take a reasonable amount of wane without inter- fering with its usefulness. The Swedish miUs adopted this system of cutting waney stock and the amoimt of wane has been somewhat SWEDISH LUMBER iNiDUSTEY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 133' increased during the last decade; but in each case this matter has been taken up first with the importers. The amount of wane speci- fied in the grading rules quoted later may seem somewhat large to shippers in the southern part of Norrland, where several mills are cutting perfectly square-edged lumber; but these mills obtain some- what better prices for their product than the mills in the Hernosand district, to which these rules chiefly apply. (In regard to the percentage of lumber produced of the various grades, see chapter on "Shipping regions.") The lack of uniform gradmg rules for all mills is a disadvantage theoretically, but it is claimed by both the importers and the Swedish shippers that as long as there is so small a difference in the grading rules of the different mills in each district, this matter is of small importance. The importer always knows the character of the ship- ment of each exporter. Uniform grading rules in other countries are often so elastic that they give the exporters considerable opportunity to vary the character of their shipments, whereas in Sweden the exporters adhere closely to the rules. Swedish exporters are especially careful to have their lumber shipped up to grade when the prices of lumber decline. Experience has taught them that importers, having bought at top price, are very particular in regard to the quality of these shipments, because it is felt by many importers that a claim may make up for the loss. The Swedish standards of grading were not changed during the war in spite of the fact that conditions in the importing countries often prevented the importers from inspecting the cargoes with their usual care. There were, of course, some unscrupulous exporters or export merchants shipping almost any quality, but these firms are rated as war profiteers and have no standing among the reliable exporters in Sweden. The following is a summary of the standard Swedish grading rules for sawn lumber (district of Hernosand) , based on rules compiled by O. Ericson: These rules are based on pine and spruce lumber 3 by 9 inches and 16 to 17 feet in average length, and each of the defects mentioned denotes the maximum admitted for each defect in the various grades. The defects admitted in the other dimensions are to be in proportion to the cubical contents of these dimensions compared with the above-mentioned basis, 3 by 9 inches. The number of defects admitted naturally is dependent upon the length of the pieces and will be in proportion to the above- stated average. STANDARD DEFECTS. Knots. — ^The diameter of the knots should be considered as the average diameter. Sound knot is considered a knot firmly embodied in the wood and as solid as the wood surrounding it. Black knot is a knot containing pitch and black in color. Incased knot is a knot surrounded by bark or pitch. _ Rotten knot is a knot not so hard as the wood surrounding it. Loose knots are con- sidered in the same class as rotten knots. Pin knot is a sound knot not exceeding one-half inch in diameter. Rot or decay is any form of decay that may be evident, either as a dark-red discol- oration or as white or red rotten spots. Shakes and splits are usually a separation of the wood between the annual rings occurring during the process of seasoning (season checks), or caused by frost, wind, etc., in the forest. Pitch pockets are openings between the grain of the wood containing pitch or baik Wormholes. — There are two principal kinds of wormholes; Pin wormholes, gen- erally not exceeding one-sixteenth inch in diameter, and gi-ub wormholes, which are larger than the pin wormholes, up to about one-fourth inch diameter. 134 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE, Wane is bark on the edge of lumber. Discoloration is incipient rot of the sapwood caused by fungi, either during the process^ of seasoning or between the felling and the time the log reaches the mill. Such discoloration often occurs during floating. FIRST GRADE. Knots. — Three to four sound knots, up to three-foiu-ths inch in diameter, and a rea- sonable number of pin knots are admitted, but no rotten knots are tolerated in this grade. Small, black pin knots may be allowed, provided these knots do not extend through the piece. The edges must be free from knots. Fig. 56. — Maximum sizes of knots permitted in different grades (actual size). Rot or decay is not admitted in any form in this grade. Shakes and splits. — No wind-shakes are allowed in this grade. Only a limited num- ber of very small shakes, not exceeding one-fourth inch in depth and not extending beyond two-thirds of the length of the piece, may be allowed, but these shakes must occur only on one side. No shakes are admitted on the edges. "fitch pockets and wormholes are not admitted in this grade. Wane^ on one edge only must not extend over more than 15 per cent of the length of the piece; wane on both edges must not extend over more than 10 per cent of the length. Discoloration. — The lumber of this grade must be strictly bright, although a few slightly discolored spots caused by crosspieces in piling may be admitted. SECOND GRADE. Knots. — Three or four sound knots, not exceeding 1|- inches in diameter and another three or four sound knots, not exceeding 1 inch in diameter, may be admitted, besides 1 The amount of wane in each grade is given in a special table at the end of this section. SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 135 a few smaller knots. Not more than 2 black knots of up to 1 inch in diameter and 2 or 3 black knots not exceeding three-fourths inch in diameter are allowed. Encased knots are allowed in somewhat smaller number and sizes than black knots. No rotten knots are allowed. Sound knots more than 1 inch in diameter must not occur on the edges. Rot is not admitted in aiiy form. Shakes mid splits. — No wind-shakes are allowed in this grade. Shakes occmring on one side only must not exceed one-half inch in depth. If shakes occur on both sides, they must be smaller in proportion. One small shake on the edge is admitted if running parallel with the fibers. A few small pitch pockets are admitted in this grade. Wormholes are not allowed in this grade. Wane. — If wane occm's on one edge only, it miLst not exceed 20 per cent of the length of the piece ; if it occurs on both edges, it must not exceed 15 per cent of the length of the piece. Discoloration that has been incurred during the process of seasoning is admitted in a very light form on one edge. If occurring on one side the discoloration must not exceed 1 inch in width and must not extend beyond 50 per cent of the length of the piece. Two small discolored spots caused by crosspieces are allowed. THIRD GRADE. Knots. — Five or six sound knots not exceeding 2f inches in diameter, and a reason- able amount of smaller knots are admitted. Three to four black knots not exceeding 1 J inches in diameter may pass in this grade. Encased knots are admitted in about the same number and sizes as black knots. One slightly rotten knot may be admitted, but it must not exceed 1 inch in diameter. Decay and rot. — Loose rot is not admitted. One solid rotten streak not extending very deeply into the piece is admitted, but the length must not exceed 4 feet and the width must not exceed one-fourth inch. A proportionally larger amount of incip- ient rot is admitted, provided the rot is not too prominent. Shakes and splits. — One medium-sized wind-shake is admitted, extending up to 25 per cent of the length of the piece. Heart-shakes and similar splits are admitted not .exceeding 1 inch in depth, extending up to 60 per cent of the length of the piece. If these shakes occur on both sides of the piece, such shakes must be proportionally smaller. Three shakes occurring on the edges and running in a diagonal direction through half of the width of the edge are allowed, but these shakes must be very li?!:ht and must not cross one another. If the shakes extend parallel with the grain of the wood, they may be larger. A few small pitch pockets may be admitted, but they must not penetrate the piece. Wormholes. — Three pin wormholes may be allowed in this grade and a few grub wormholes extending through 15 per cent of one edge. Wane. — If wane occurs on one edge only, it must not exceed 30 per cent of the length of the piece; if found on both edges, it must not exceed 25 per cent of the length of the piece. Discoloration. — Blue lumber cut from discolored logs may be admitted in this grade if the discoloration occurs on one edge and on the one face side, but the discoloration on the face side must not exceed 1 inch in width and 50 per cent of the length of the piece. If the discoloration is caused dming the process of seasoning, it is admitted on one edge and 1| inches in width on one face side, but it must not extend beyond two-thirds of the length of the piece. Five small discolored spots caused by cross- pieces may be admitted. FOURTH GRADE. Knots. — Six or seven sound knots not exceeding 3J inches in diameter anrl a rea- sonable amount of smaller knots may be admitted in this grade. Not more than fom- black knots not exceeding 2 inches in diameter may be allowed. Encased knots may be admitted in the same number and sizes as black knots. Three rotten knots not exceeding 1\ inches in diameter or tln-ee slightly decayed knots not exceeding 1^ inches in diameter may be allowed. Decay and rot.- — Loose rot is not permissible in this grade. One solid rotten streak on one side of the piece not exceeding 1^ inches in width and up to 20 per cent of the length of the piece is admitted. One entire edge may have incipient rot, provided that no other kinds of decay are found on the piece. Shakes and splits. — One large wind-shake is admissible, but it must not extend beyond 60 per cent of the length of the piece and must not penetrate the plank. If beside this shake several smaller wind-shakes are found, the large shakes must be proportion- ally smaller. Heart-shakes and similar shakes are admitted extending up to 70 per 136 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. cent of the length of the piece and may partly penetrate the piece at one end. Four small shakes extending diagonally across the edge and five shakes extending through half of the width of the edge are allowed. Wide pitch pockets extending up to 20 per cent of the length of the piece may be admitted, if they are not of any considerable depth, but if penetrating the piece, the length must be shorter. Wormholes. — Up to six small wormholes are admitted on one edge of the piece only, but they must not penetrate the plank. Some light grub wormholes are admitted throughout one edge. Wane. — If wane occurs on one edge only, it must not extend beyond 40 per cent of the length of the piece; if found on both edges, it must not exceed 35 per cent of the length of the piece. Discoloration. — Lumber cut from discolored logs is admitted in this grade and the discoloration may occur on both edges. The discoloration on the one face must not exceed 1^ inches in width and must not extend beyond two-thirds of the length of the piece. Discoloration caused by defective seasoning is admitted on one edge and up to 3 inches in width on one face side of the piece along its entire length. However, if the discoloration occurs to this extent,it miist be of a very light nature. Six to eight spots caused by crosspieces are admitted. FIFTH GRADE. Knots. — Sound knots and encased knots are admitted in almost any number and size. Of black knots not more than six are allowed, which must be not more than 3^ inches in diameter. Slightly decayed knots must not exceed four in number and 2| inches in diameter. Not more than four rotten knots not exceeding If inches in diameter may pass. The rotten knots must not penetrate the piece. Decay. — Loose rot may occur in small spots. Solid rot may be admitted up to 30 per cent of the length of the piece, partly penetrating the piece. Incipient rot may be admitted in any quantity. Shakes. — Wind-shakes may be admitted partly penetrating the piece throughout the entire length, but shakes at the ends must not be too open. Heart-shakes may be admitted penetrating the piece and extending throiigh the entire length. Splits on the edges, nmning in a diagonal direction, not exceeding one-sixteenth inch in width, are admitted. If shakes nm parallel with the grain, they may be somewhat larger. Pitch pockets may be large and penetrate the piece but must not exceed 50 per cent of the length of the plank. Wormholes may be admitted in almost any reasonable quantity and niunber. Wane. — If wane occurs on one edge it must not exceed 60 per cent of the length of the piece, if it occurs on both edges it must not exceed 55 per cent of the length of the piece. As a general rule, the edges touched by the saw must not be narrower than 1 inch, and the sawn face of the plank 5^ inches in minimum width. Discoloration may occur in almost any form and quantity. SIXTH GRADE. Knots. — Almost any kind of knots and in any number pass in this grade, but only a limited number of rotten knots are admitted, if they penetrate the piece. Decay and rot. — Loose rot may be admitted in the form of rotten streaks penetrating the piece, and rotten spots. Loose rot must not occur wider than 1 inch at one end of the piece. Solid rot may be admitted in unlimited quantity. Shakes of any kind are admitted, but the plank must not fall to pieces when handled. Wormholes are admitted in any mmiber and size. Wane is admitted in almost any size, but the sawn-face side of the plank must be at least 3 inches wide. Discoloration. — Any amount of discoloration is admitted in this grade. SEVENTH GRADE. This grade represents an inferior grade of cull lumber and admits of almost any defects. UNSORTED GRADE. Unsorted grade, being composed of first, second, third, and fourth grades, may con- tain any defects admitted in these four grades. However, the total amount of defects allowed in the imsorted grade must be in proportion to the quantity of each of the four grades in the unsorted grade. For instance, if two rotten knots are admitted in fourth grade and if fourth grade represents 50 per cent of the unsorted grade, the imsorted grade would admit not more than one rotten knot. As the percentage of first, second, Special Agents Series No, 195. FIG. 57.— BALANCED CIRCULAR TRIMMER. FIG. 58.— STAVE CUTTER. Special Agents Series No. 195. FIG. 59. — EDGER. FIG. 60.— LOG CARRIAGE. SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 137 third, and fourth grades produced by the various mills may differ to some extent, it is evident that general grading rules can not be given for the unsorted grade to cover all cases without taking this question into consideration. WANE ALLOWANCES. The following table shows the customary amount of wane allowed for different dimensions of Swedish pine and spruce, according to figures compiled by O. Ericson. The figures represent the base of the triangle formed by the wane on two edges. Dimensions. 4 by 9 inches . . 4 by 8 inches.. 4 by 7 inches . . 4 by 6 inches . . 4 by 5 inches.. 3 by 9 inches.. 3 by 8 inches.. 3 by 7 inches.. 3by 6 inches.. 3 by 5 inches.. 2J by 9inches. 2J by 8 inches. 2iby 7 inches. 2J by 6 inches. 2Jby 5 inches. 2 by 9 inches . . 2by Sinches.. 2 by 7 inches.. 2by 6 inches.. 2 by 5inches.. IJ by 9 Inches. IJby 8inches. IJby 7inches. l| by 6inches. IJ by 5 inches. IJby 9 inches, li by 8 inches, liby 7 inches. IJby 6 inches. IJby 5 inches. IJ by 9 inches. IJ by 8 inches. l| by 7 inches . l| by 6 inches. Ijby 5 inches. 1 by 9 inches.. 1 by 8 inches . . 1 by 7 inches . . 1 by 6 inches . . 1 by 5 inches . . i by 9 inches . . I by 8 inches . . I by 7 inches . . I by 6 inches . . I by 5 inches . . J by 6 inches . . J by 5 inches . . J by 4 inches . . f by 6 inches.. I by 5 inches . . I l)y 4 inches . . i by 6 inches.. I by 5 inches . . I by 4 inches . . First grade. Second Inches. Third grade. m ■ 111 lit 1^1 Fourth 2A ni ni lil m IH UJ It J m IH lA lA Fifth grade. 2|f 2n 21-1 2^1 m 2ii; 2 Sixth grade. Inches 4A 065 3M m 3 211 2M 2n 2Ji 2il 2JI 241 2A n% 2-h a a XTnsorted grade. The wane allowed in the different dimensions is based on the end area of each piece. The extent of the wane allowed for the other dimensions not specified in the above tables can easily be ascertained by taking into consideration their propor- tionate end area. The wane for sixth quality varies a great deal and may be some- what larger than the figure given in the foregoing table. In the smaller dimensions the wane allowed is somewhat larger in proportion to other dimensions. If the wane occurs on one edge only, the figures in the table may be increased by 25 to 30 per cent. 138 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. TRIMMING. On the dock there are several trimming sheds, which are movable up and down the pier on a track. The trimming sheds are provided with circular saws operated by electricity. The saws have a large number of teeth in order to give the ends of the lumber a clean-cut appearance, as if it were planed. Some old-fashioned mills trim by hand, but this is very inefficient and expensive and is never practiced b}'^ the standard mills. Z^'' Grade ai/erage 2ND .. average 3"^° " average 4 r// „ average ^TH „ average QTH „ average g TH „ maximum Fig. CI. — Average amount of \raiie permissible in various grades of a half actual size). by 9 inch plank (end view nearly The trimming sheds are attached to the end of the conveyor and the lumber is carried by the rollers to the trimming table, where it is graded and the proper lengths are marked on each piece. Some- times customers require that the length of each piece be designated on one side in crayon. The grader carefully turns over each piece in order to determine the grade and also to raise the grade of the piece by trimming if this can be done profitably. It must be noticed, however, that Swedish lumbermen do not sacri- fice the length of a piece of lumber unless the grade of the piece can be raised at least 2 points. For instance, a plank qualified as third grade would not be crosscut into two pieces, one of second and one of third grade; but if one piece of first grade and one piece of third grade could be obtained, the piece would probably be crosscut pro- vided both pieces would be of commercial lengths (9 feet and up). It must also be closely observed by the grader that the average length of each plank, batten, scantling, and board must not be spoiled by crosscutting in order to raise the grade in such a way that the general average of the cargo would consist of lumber not having the average length required in each category. The grader takes enough time to do his work carefully, as it is an easy matter for the sawmiU coinpany to figure out which would pay the better, to save a few dollars per week in labor by having the lumber graded superfi- cially or to spend a little extra money and be assured that the standard of grades would be maintamed. SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 139 The butt end of the piece is first sUghtly touched by the saw, whereby about a half inch is trimmed off. Then the top end of the piece is trimmed to the proper length, giving each piece a slight excess of about one-fourth or one-half of an inch. The general rule is that the crayon mark must be left on the piece after it is trimmed. Swedish lumber, therefore, is never cut short. If there is any devia- tion from the lengths specified in the contract, it is rather a trifle too long. Swedish lumber is trimmed to different standards of measurement, according to the country of destination. If it goes to the United Kingdom or the British colonies, it is 'trimmed to English feet; if it goes to France, it is trimmed to metric measurements; if it goes to Spain, it is trimmed to Spanish feet, etc. This is easy to do because it simply requires changing the measuring rod attached to the trimming table, and does not imply any extra labor. The following schedule gives an idea of the different standard measurements cut by a company in northern Sweden: 69 per cent of the quantity shipped was cut to English feet; 7 per cent to Danish feet (1 Danish foot = 0.9711 English foot); 8 per cent to metric feet (1 metric foot = J meter =1.0936 English feet); 7 per cent to Spanish feet (1 Spanish foot =1.0783 English feet); 4 per cent to Dutch feet (1 Dutch foot =1.0768 English feet); 4 per cent to German feet (1 German foot = 1.0639 English feet) ; 1 per cent to decimeters (1 decimeter = 3 y|-inches). The lumber is always trim- med to odd and even feet. It is realized by the Swedish lumbermen that this system is waste- ful, and a strong movement was started some time ago to trim aU lumber either to metric measurements or to English measm'ements. The logs in the forest are aU cut to English feet and when they are trimmed to a different standard it is evident that a loss must result. It is generally figured that 6 to 12 per cent constitute mill ends under the present conditions. The smaller the unit of the standard length measurem.ent the smaller the percentage of mill ends. The movement also contemplates trimming on the half foot or on the decimeter. An exporter in Sweden estimated that such a step would save the Swedish lumber exporters at least $3,000,000 to $4,000,000 a year, because it would save lumber and also increase the average length of the product, on which basis the lumber of all Swedish mills is sold. It is expected that the members of the Finnish and Swedish Lumber Export Associations will come to an agreement whereby lumber for export in both countries shall be trimmed to English measurements only.^ Each shipper sells his products on an average-length basis. The lengths of lumber of different categories may vary somewhat in the various parts of Sweden. Southern Sweden ships very short lengths, for example. The Sundsvall district, in Norrland, has possibly the longest average lengths. Farther south the average lengths are somewhat less. The variations between the average lengths in the different districts in Norrland are not very considerable. 2 This agreement has been consummated since this report was written. 140 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. The following table gives the average lengths of the different dimen- sions and grades of pine and spruce in Norrland: Kinds of lumber. Planks (11-9 inches) Battens : Sinches land 6J inches 6inches Scantlings (Si and 4 inches) Boards : 9inches Sinches 7 and 6 inches 5Jand Sinches 4|inch&s 4 inches Unsorted grade. Pine. Spruce. Feet. 16-17 15.', 15i 15 14-15 16 15* 15" 14i 14" 12-13 Feet. 16 15 15 i^ 14-15 14 14 14 134 13-14" 11-12 Fifth grade. Pme. Spruce. Feet. 16 15 14i 14 14 13-14 13-14 13-14 12-13 12-13 11-12 Feet. 14i 13-14 13-14 13-11 13-14 13-14 13-14 12-13 12-13 11-12 In the trimming shed a large quantity of ends of boards, planks, battens, and scantlings accumulates. These mill ends are carefully retrimmed into lengths of 12 inches, 18 inches, etc., up to and in- cluding 5^ feet. In some cases even lengths of 6 inches are taken. This wood is called split wood and finds a ready market in England, Denmark, and other countries, where it is used as raw material for box shooks, kindling wood, etc. With the growth of the Swedish box-shook industry during late years, these mills utilize the mill ends themselves, and in the future mill ends, at least of the better class, probably will not be exported. Whatever is left of miU ends shorter than 6 inches or 12 inches is carefully gathered and either is used for firewood or is cut into chips for pulp material. After the shipping season is over, there is hardly a piece of waste material left on the dock. LOADING. Previous to the arrival of a steamer in the port, the lumber to go on that steamer is loaded into barges, usually protected on all four sides with walls and provided with a roof. These barges may hold 25,000 to 150,000 feet board measure. The lumber is tallied and inspected in the barges. The last operation is to brand the lumber, wliich is done by hand using a dye made by the mills themselves of a composition similar to gelatine. The brands are put on by boys, and the expense is almost insignificant seldom exceeding two to five cents per 1,000 feet. There is one size of brand for each dimension so as to cover the entire surface of the ends, and the brands are very carefully put on, some- times at both ends of each piece so that the brand may always be visible when the lumber is piled in the importers' yards. Split wood, staves, etc., and inferior cull lumber usually are not branded; but every other piece of lumber for export is provided with the shippers' brand. The question of branding will be discussed in detail in a later section. The following statement gives an approximate idea of an average loading schedule. A crew of 4 men can trim, grade, and load in one day the following quantities of different dimensions: 1 by 6 inches, SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 141 23,000 feet board measure; 2^ by 7 inches, 38,000 feet; 3 by 9 inches, 55,000 feet; narrow boards, 24,000 feet. After the barges are loaded, they are towed alongside the vessel and the lumber is taken on board. The responsibility of the shipper ceases when the lumber leaves the dock if the cargo is sold on an f. o. b. basis. But the exporters at times place their own foremen on board the vessel to insure that the lumber is properly taken care of and to see that manila rope is used whenever possible in order to prevent damage. lioading is not effected during a rain, unless the captain should demand that this be done. In such cases, a protest is taken out by the shippers stating this fact in order to relieve themselves of responsi- bility in case any claim for discoloration should ensue. The same also applies if the captain has overestimated the capacity of the vessel and loads on the deck part of the cargo that should be loaded in the hold. Spruce and discolored lumber are usually piled on deck. On account of the short shipping season in Norrland, from which about 75 per cent of Sweden's exports of lumber is exported, the shipping must necessarily be rushed, but on the other hand, long hours and almost daylight nights make it possible to load both day and night during the summer. On an average, 200,000 to 250,000 feet board measure are taken on board per shift of 10 hours. Only in rare cases are the vessels loaded from the dock. In many districts a number of mills are lo- cated in the same ports. In such cases it is easy to arrange for ship- ments of parcel lots and have the barges towed a few miles to the nearest place of loading. Such parcel shipments may often be effected without any great increase in freight. By this system the exi)orters may easily dispose of their stocks in smaller lots, which facilitates sales. These conditions are especially noticeable in the Hernosand district. INSPECTION IN PORT OF SHIPMENT. Importers have found it desirable to exercise a direct control over lumber shipments from some exporting countries by having their own inspectors in the port of loading. It is understood that this has been the custom, for instance, in the Russian Baltic ports. Such plans no doubt would be opposed vigorously by the Swedish mills. At least, such inspections are not heard of in connection with planed and rough lumber exported from that country. The exporters point out the fact that if anything is wron^, they are willing to make it right and that every piece of lumber is branded and that they have also instituted a system of arbitration in foreign countries which makes it possible for the importers immediately to take up the question of claims with these representatives. This arbitration system w411 be discussed in another chapter. LABOR AND WAGES. During normal times the sawmill laborers were steady and did not shift about a great deal. The hiring and discharging of men in Sweden is generally rather complicated, and the mill owners have 142 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. realized the important bearing of a permanent crtew on the uni- formity of the product from year to year. Therefore the larger Swedish sawmill owners, for instance, have built homes for their men and sometimes provide land for growing the necessary articles of food. In some mills there are clubhouses, assembly rooms, bath- houses, laundries, etc., and free medicine and doctor's attendance are generally provided. If figured in money, these benefits in normal times would amount to 14 to 20 per cent of the wages paid; but it should be borne in mind that they are not offered by all the mills. Some mil] owners have also established special benefit funds and look after their men when incapacitated by old age, so that the men often stay with the same mills throughout their lives. Special offi- cers of the sawmill companies are often detailed to look after the men's welfare. Liability insurance is compulsory by law. During the war the sawmill owners facilitated the buying of food, etc., for the men and when the mills shut doAvn for one reason or another, the owners generally made other provision for the men in regard to work. The Swedish people enjoy exceptional educaCional facilities and the percentage of illiterates is smaller there than in most other coun- tries in the world. Furthermore, there has been a better chance for the workingman to advance himself than in most other European .countries. Many prominent Swedish operators have established their present position from a very modest start. The following statement, from a Russian authority, gives the out- put per laborer in an average-sized mill in Sweden and in the Arch- angel district of northern Russia: Minimum, 100,000 feet board measure in Sweden and 40,000 feet in Archangel; maximum, 150,000 feet in Sweden and 64,000 feet in Archangel. These figures may show, however, not only the greater efficiency of the Swedish saw- mill operators but also the better equipment of the Swedish mills. The Swedish workmen do not work exceptionally fast but they are conscientious and practical in their work. Frequently sawmill la- borers in Sweden make inventions or improvements on sawmill ma- chines and also in methods of handling lumber. In other words, the Swedish workman uses his head and is dependable. The foremen in different mills located m the same district some- times have local associations to discuss problems pertaining to their work, such as grading and mill operations. Labor questions are handled through the Lumber Manufacturers Employers' Association, to which are referred all controversies be- tween the mill operators and their men and which devotes its whole time to labor questions. In Sweden there is no rush of labor from one sawmill section of the country to another to obtain higher wages, owing to the work of this association, which establishes the scale of wages to be paid by all its members. The workmen also are organ- ized. INCREASED COST OF LIVING. The pre-war wages in Sweden were not so high as those paid in the United States, but the cost of living in Sweden was very low before the war. The increase in living cost from July, 1914, to January, 1919, is shown by the following schedule, taken from official sta- tistics, for a family spending about $536 per year before the war: July, SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 143 1914, $536; December, 1916, $746; May, 1917, $814; September, 1917, $889; January, 1918, $1,028; April, 1918, $1,088; July, 1918, $1,176; October, 1918, $1,300; January, 1919, $1,430. The following table, compiled from official statistics, shows the cost of some of the principal articles of food in Sweden in 1913 and 1918: Articles. 1913 1918 Articles. 1913 1918 Milk per quart.. Butter per pound. . Eggs per dozen. . Potatoes per bushel. . Rye flour per pound.. SO. 035 .29 .26 .87 .026 $0,096 .72 1.17 4.48 .051 Beef per pound. . Salt pork do Herring do Suear do Coffee do $0.15 .17 .041 .08 .21 $0.69 .49 .18 .11 .38 Most of these prices represent the maximum prices fixed by the Government ; but on account of the scarcity of many articles of food there was considerable selling; of food at higher than the Government prices. WAGES. In the sawmills and yards and on the docks aU work is done on contract. This system of payment has been universally adopted throughout Sweden in all large mills and has generally given satis- faction. In the mill the basis of the contract is generally stipulated according to the number of logs sawn and in the yards and on the docks the basis is the number of pieces handled. The base price is usually regulated according to the dimensions of logs and lumber taking into consideration the working conditions of the plant, m.a- chinery, etc. The chief advantage of this system is the small cost of supervision. Furthermore, it accelerates the work, as each man's income is dependent upon the work done. If a combination of wages and contract could be worked out, however, it would be con- sidered more satisfactory, as the contract system has its drawbacks. In the miU the head sawyer receives a certain compensation for each hundred logs sawn, and the rest of the mill crew are paid in pro- portion to the amount received by the head sawyer. The mills usually run two shifts, which were about 10 hours each, before the war, but which during the war were reduced to 57 hours per week. From January 1, 1920, the eight-hour day is compulsory by law in the industrial plants in Sweden (including the sawmills), but this does not apply to the forest and floating operations. Besides the wages earned, most of the employees of the larger plants in Sweden have free house room and fuel for themselves and families, or at least obtain these commodities at very small charges. Although such accommodations may represent a considerable outlay of money to the sawmill, it has been necessary in most cases to provide them, as the mills often are situated far from the nearest town. The mills often cut birch in the forest to provide the workmen with fuel, because birch can not be used for pulp. No official statistics are available in Sweden concerning the average wages for workmen in the lumber industry. The following schedule, obtained from private sources, is believed to give a correct idea of the average wages paid in 1914 and 1919 by about 75 or 80 per cent of the largest mills in Sweden. This schedule was worked out from 144 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. information obtained from various mills regarding the total amount of money earned by the head sawyers, together with the percentages of the head sawyers' wages received by the rest of the mill crew. These percentages are stated in the schedule. The value of fuel, rent, medicine, doctors' attendance, liability insurance, and other gratuities is not included in this scale. Positions. 1919 Head sawyer Assistant head sawyer Head edgerman Assistant liead edgerman Stave sawyers Assistant stave sawyers Stave edgerman Assistant stave edgerman Stave trimmer Assistant stave trimmer Slab sawyer Assistant slab sawyer Slab trimmers Assistant slab trimmers Boy transporting refuse and edgings... Trimmers oflumberinmill Assistant trimmers of lumber in mill . . Graders Assistant graders Clean-up men Assistant engineer Fireman Assistant fireman Oiler Log scaler Assistant log scaler Boom men Men on bull chain Common laborers Blacksmith Assistant blacksmith Carpenter Watchman Filers in yard Assistant pilers in yard Engineer (locomotive) Switchman Fach man of crew in trimming shed. . . Boys branding lumber Old men piling split wood Boys piling refuse Boys piling staves , etc Boys loading and bimdling staves, etc CIS. per r cent. hour. Per cent. 100 14.7 100 83 12.2 90 100 14.7 100 83 12.2 90 100 14.7 100 70 10.3 70 05 9.6 65 50 7.4 50 65 9.6 65 50 7.4 50 100 14.7 100 60 8.8 60 65 9.6 65 50 7.4 50 50 7.4 50 85 12.5 85 65 9.6 65 100 14.7 100 85 12.5 85 80 11.8 80 100 14.7 100 90 13.3 90 85 12.5 85 95 14.0 95 100 14.7 100 85 12.5 85 85 •12.5 85 00 8.8 60 75 11.0 75 100 14.7 100 70 10.3 70 100 14.7 100 75 11.0 75 110 16.2 110 (a) (a) (a) 90 13.3 90 95 14.0 95 100 14.7 100 50 7.4 50 80 11.8 80 65 9.6 65 60 8.8 60 90 13.3 90 Cts. per hour. 34.8 31.3 34.8 31.3 34.8 24.4 22.6 17.4 22.6 17.4 34.8 20.9 22.6 17.4 17.4 29.7 M.6 34 8 29.7 27.8 34.8 31.8 29.7 33.1 34.8 29.7 29.7 20.9 26.1 34.8 24.4 34.8 26.1 38.3 (a) 31.3 33.1 34.8 17.4 27.8 22.6 20.9 31.3 a Not available. It is seen from the foregoing table that the basis of wages for 1914 was 14.7 cents per hour for the head sawyer and that the lowest wage paid was 7.4 cents, which was earned by boys 16 to 18 years old. In 1919 the wages jumped to 34.8 cents for the head sawyers and the minimum wage to 17.4 cents. A grader usually receives a bonus at the end of the season. The wages in the different parts of Sweden vary very little. The highest wages in 1914 were generally paid on the west coast of Sweden, where the basis was 16.1 cents and the lowest wages were paid on the east coast, where the basis was 13.7 cents. It is generally estimated that the laborere can make 30 to 40 per cent more by working on a contract basis than if they were paid straight wages. While the laborers in the mills work on a contract basis, the saw- mill superintendent, chief engineer, yard and shipping superintend- Special Agents Series No. 195. FIG. 62.— GANG-FRAME SAW. Special Agents Series No. 195. SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 145 ent, and assistant yard and shipping superintendent receive salaries, which were about as follows per year in 1914 and 1919: Positions. Sawmill superintendent Chief engineer Yard and shipping superintendent Assistant yard and shipping superintendent $1,072 1,072 1,206 938 The following table shows a typical contract of 1916-1918 for the head sawyer's compensation for passing logs of different top diam- eters once and twice through the gang saw. The head sawyer and assistant head sawyer receive a bonus of 8 cents per day in addition to the compensation shown in the table. The rest of the mill crew, as has been stated, receive their pay on a percentage basis of the head sawyer's compensation. Top diameters. Passing log once through gang. Passing log twice through gang. Top diameters. Passing log once through gang. Passing log twice through gang. 5-6} Inches Cents per log. 0.5 .6 .6 .7 .9 Cents per log. 0.5 .5 .5 .6 .7 11-lli inches . Cents per log. Cents per log. 0.7 7-7* inches 12-12i inches . g 8-8i inches 13-13i inches . .9 9 inches 14-14 i inches . 1 1 9i-10 inches The following table shows the compensation per 100 pieces in 1916-1918 for piling lumber of different dimensions: Per 100 4 by 11 inches 4 by 9 and 8 inches. . . 4 by 7 inches 4 by 6 inches 4 by 5^ and 5 inches. . 3 by 11 inches 3 by 9 inches 3 by 8 inches 3 by 7 inches 3 by 6^ and 6 inches. . 3 by 5| and 5 inches. . 3 by 4| and 4 inches. . 3 by 3| and 3 inches. . 2^ by 11 inches 2| by 9 inches 2| by 8 inches 2| by 7 inches 2|by Clinches 2| by 6 inches 2i by 5^ and 5 inches. 2i by 4| and 4 inches. 2iby 3 inches 2 by 11 inches 2 by 8 and 9 inches. . . 2 by 6 and 7 inches... 2 by 5^ and 4^ inches. 2 by 4 inches 2 by S^and 3 inches.. l|by 11 inches pieces. §1.07 .96 .68 .59 .54 .90 .67 .58 .54 .48 .44 .39 .36 .68 .59 .54 .47 .44 .38 .36 .34 .29 .56 .46 .35 .31 .29 \28 .44 Per 100 IJ by 9 inches l| by 8 and 7 inches.. 1 J by 6 and 5^ inches. l| by 5 and 4| inches. l| by 4 inches l| by 3 inches l| by 11 inches , l| by 9 and 8 inches. . 1^ by 7 inches 1^ by 6 and 5 inches. . l| by 4^ and 4 inches. I4 by 3| and 3 inches. 1 by 11 inches 1 by 9 inches 1 by 8 and 7 inches. . . 1 by 6^ and 5 inches. . 1 by 4^ and 4 inches. . 1 by 3^ and 3 inches. . f by 9 inches I by 8 and 7 inches I by 6 and 5 inches I by 4^ and 4 inches. . 'I by 3^ and 3 inches. . I by 6 and 5 inches f by 4^ and 4 inches. . f by 3| and 3 inches. . I by 6 and 5 inches I by 4^ and 4 inches. . I by 3| and 3 inches. . pieces. 10.35 .32 .28 .25 .24 .20 .42 .32 .31 .26 .23 .20 .40 .31 .27 .24 .21 .19 .27 .24 .19 .17 .16 .16 .15 .15 .16 .15 .15 2092°— 21- -10 146 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. A special contract for sawing small timber is made on the basis of $1.14 per 1,000 pieces, representing the compensation of the head sawyer. The rest of the mill crew receive the following percentages of the head sawyer's compensation: Assistant sawyer, 90; refuse man, 60; edgerman, 100; assistant edgerman, 90; loader on cars, 100; trimmers of slabs, 75; assistant trimmers of slabs, 40; log scaler, 100. The wages per 100 pieces for piling small timber of different dimen- sions were as follows in 1916-1918: 3 by 3 inches, 32 cents; 3 by 4 inches, 38 cents; 4 by 4 inches, 48 cents; 4 by 5 inches, 54 cents; 5 by 5 inches, 67 cents; 5 by 6 inches, 80 cents; 6 by 6 inches, 94 cents. The following wages were paid for cutting, grading, and piling staves: For cutting staves one-half inch and more in thickness, 25 cents per 1,000 feet b. m.; for cutting staves thinner than one-half inch, 27 cents per 1,000 feet; for grading staves, 9 cents per 1,000 pieces; for piling staves, 19 cents per 1,000 pieces. COST OF PRODUCTION. No complete cost-of-production system is used by the mills in Sweden. The only efforts to standardize the cost-accounting system have been made by the employers' association, but this system relates only to the actual cost of labor. Many mills have a defective cost-of-production system and do not know what the lumber costs to produce, including all charges at the time it is ready for ship- ment. In comparing the cost of production in several districts in Sweden, a variation of as much as 50 per cent was found, although the principal charges for raw material and labor would be about equal at least for mills in the same district. Some mills contend that the cost of production before the war was as low as $14.50 or $15 per 1,000 feet board measure. Upon a close examination it was found that most of these mills did not make any allowance for depreciation of the plant and similar overhead charges, because it was claimed that the plant was amortized years ago, while other mills did not set aside a certain percentage of the profits for new machinery, etc. Stumpage values have nearly always been considered in Sweden as a safety valve for the profits, and the mills possessing their own forests do not always charge up to stumpage account the actual market value, thereby obtaining an erroneous impression of the cost of production. That there is room for improvement in this respect is evident, as the mills having efficient accounting systems feel that it would strengthen the selling policy of all the exporters if the actual cost of production were ascertained by all the mills. In the following statement an estimate is given of the average cost of production for standard Swedish export mills for the years 1913-14, 1917-18, and 1918-19. Objection may be made to different items and the cost of production may seem somewhat high; but it is believed that this statement is generally in accordance with the actual cost of tlie different operations and stumpage. The calcula- tion is not dependent upon special conditions, such as exceptionally low stumpage values based on the prices paid years ago when the stands were purchased. It is based On an average standard sawmill SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 147 of an annual capacity of about 16,000,000 feet board measure, operating 285 days in a year and requiring 118.7 cubic feet of raw- material to produce 1,000 feet of planks, battens, and boards. Average Cost of Production of Planks, Battens, and Boards of Swedish Pine and Spruce in 1913-14, 1917-18, and 1918-19. Items of cost. 1918-19 Raw material: Logs in mill pond Pond: Storage of logs in pond, piling on land, etc... Sawmill: Value of refuse used as fuel in power plant Wages in mill, including transportation to yard. Repairs in mill Supplies in mill Total, sawmill cost Yard: Piling in yard, wages Supplies. ". Repairs Total , yard cost Shipping: Wages Repairs and supplies Total , shipping cost , General expenses: Administration, office, etc Supervision and foremen, entire plant Liability insurance, all departments , Taxes Fire insurance Depreciation of plant Depreciation and interest on workmen's houses Interest on capital for operation of plant Agent's commission, cash discount, etc Total, general expenses Grand total $11. 09-$ 13. 33 ,14- .17 $21. 24 .24 $30.00 .30 . 17- . 20 .95- 1.08 .14- .20 .27- .40 1.36 1.62 .28 1.25 1.20 2.40 .40 .55 1.53- 1. .51- .17- .03- . 71- . 81 .68- .74 .14- .20 .95- .14- .06- .40- .27- 1.08- .47- .61- 1.08- .94 1.02 .20 .07 .47 .30 1.22 .54 .68 1.12 '!19. 35- 22. 75 4.51 4.55 .87 .51 .06 1.27 .35 .10 1.44 1.72 1.16 .30 1.75 .40 2.15 1.27 .21 .24 .60 .54 1.08 .47 .91 2.16 1.50 .30 .24 1.20 .81 1.08 .47 1.42 2.43 9.45 36.37 a Average, $20.30. By analyzing the result of sawing a log it is generally found that the percentages of the different products are as follows: 70 per cent planks, battens, and boards; 8 per cent sawdust; 4 to 5 per cent loss in material through shrinkage; 12 per cent refuse and slabs (partly raw material for charcoal, pulp, and small-dimension lum- ber) ; and 6 per cent mill ends (split wood) . The net value of these products at the mill is seen from the following table (basis, 118.7 cubic feet of raw ir.aterial per 1 ,000 feet board measure) : Products. Per cent. Cubic feet. Net value at mill. 1913-14 1917-18 1918-19 Planks, battens, and boards 70 8 4 12 6 83.3 9.5 . 4.6 14.2 7.1 $20.30 .18 $36.37 1.79 $48. 17 Sawdust 1.27 Shrinkage Refuse and slabs .. . .32 .75 .88 1.13 .58 Mill ends 1 52 Total '00 lis. 7 21.55 40.17 51.54 148 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. The value of refuse per 1,000 feet board measure was $1.25 in 1913-14, $3.80 in 1917-18, and $3.37 in 1918-19. These figures are based on the current values in centrally located sawmill districts in Sweden. In places where there are no markets for waste material for pulp making they must be materially reduced. Under the section "Logging" a statement has been given with regard to the cost of these operations and also an estimate of the cost of stumpage. It is believed, however, that in order to arrive at a satisfactory result in regard to the total cost of production of the lumber, it is advisable to consider the average cost of all logs delivered at the mill and not only to take into consideration the value of the logs cut in the mill's own forests, because a large percentage of the sawlogs is purchased in Sweden. The pond charges include expenses for sortmg the logs in the pond and storage on land or in water. A fair average for the whole year has been given in this estimate. The values of sawdust and refuse must be taken into consideration, as these conunodities are of commercial value. The figures for sawing represent average figures covering many plants and are fairly constant, as wages are regulated by the employers' association. Charges for repairs and supplies may vary a great deal, but as these items are small, they do not influence the total cost of sawing to any great extent. The cost of transporting lumber from mill to yard is included with sawmill wages, because separate figures for transportation costs were diflacult to obtain. The figures for yarding and shipping costs represent mainly wages and are fairly constant in the different plants. These figures are based on cargo shipments. The overhead charges that figure in the books of the majority of the sawmill companies in Sweden seem to be too small and possible objections to the foregoing statement of the cost of production would probably be directed first toward these items. Attempts have been made, however, to include all reasonable charges that are believed to be consistent with a modern system of accounting in connection with sawmill operations. One important item is, for instance, the salary of the general manager, which in many cases does not figure in the accounts. Some Swedish mill owners contend that no salary should be charged, because they own the mills them- selves and consequentl}^ have no actual outlay for the management. The foregoing calculation, however, has taken these and other similar charges into consideration. In an average mill before the war at least 30 to 40 cents per 1,000 feet would be required for management alone. Adequate charges are also made for office expenses, selling cost, etc. The charges for supervision and foremen for the whole plant can not satisfactorily be distributed among the branches of the sawrmill plant. The same applies to liability insurance for workmen. They have therefore been considered as OA'"erhead charges. Taxes may vary a great deal according to the value of the plant and the location. As the system of a progressive scale in taxes is used in Sweden, this itein of taxes is dependent largely upon whether or not the income of the mill is classified as excess profit. In the case of excess profit the taxes may be as high as 40 to 45 per cent as, for instance, one sawmiU company in Sweden pays more than $2,000,000 in taxes at the present time. SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 149 The fire insurance covers the entire plant, including yard and houses. The charges for depreciation are considered adequate, based on a recently constructed mill. The depreciation and interest on workmen's houses must be considered because these houses, in most cases, are regarded as a necessary part of the sa%vmill plant. The charges for interest on capital may seem excessive, but the same applies to this item as to the item of depreciation. Many mills fail to make adequate charges to this account. The interest is figured at a normal rate on the capital required to operate a sawmill of the mentioned capacity — that is, the capital required for wages, logs, raw material, and other expenditures. The charges for agents' commissions, cash discount, etc., are standard charges amounting to about 5 per cent of the f. o. b. value of the lumber exported. The total cost of production, averaging $20.30 per 1,000 feet board measure, may seem somewhat high for most sawmill operations in Sweden, and many mills, no doubt, were able to operate at a smaller cost before the war, particularly smaller mills not having excessive overhead charges. In regard to the cost of production during and after the war, it is difficult to arrive at any correct estimate. The variations for the difi^erent plants are too heavy and the values of stumpage have fluctuated materially from time to time. As before the war, stumpage values play an important part in the cost of production. As an example of the high cost of raw material, it may be mentioned that in 1919 one mill in southwestern Sweden had a cost for raw material alone, delivered at mill, of S45.50 per 1,000 feet board measure. The wages increased materially as the cost of living went up. Lubricants, oelts, and similar supplies were difficult to obtain and these commodities were often handled by per- sons who demanded exorbitant prices. The price of lubricants alone was a hundred times higher in 1918 than in 1913. During the war the working hours also were decreased and this had an important bearing on the high cost of production. The increase in wages did not reach its cfimax at the time of the armistice, but has been climbing ever since. The institution of the eight-hour day in 1920 will materially increase the cost of production. Stumpage values, however, seem to be on the decline; during 1919 the prices were not so hig:h as in 1918. The rate of interest paid on borrowed capital is higher at present than before the war. It was generally estimated that 5 to 5^ per cent was paid on borrowed capital by most of the mOls before the war, whereas at present 7 to 8 per cent would probably be considered the average rate of interest. If one considers the operation of a mill based on the production of planks, battens, and ooards alone, and on purchased logs, it is easily seen that the sawmill business itself was not very profitable before the war nor even during the war, in many cases. A satis- factory profit can be made only if the waste material is carefully utilized through the combination with other industries, such as pulp miUs, charcoal plants, planing mills, and box factories. It is safe to assume that even under the most advantageous cir- cumstances few miUs in Sweden can produce lumber at present for less than $40 to $45 per 1,000 feet board measure. Immediately before the war the cost of production would run not less than 150 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. If lower costs of production are given, it is believed that charges for stumpage and overhead expenses may not have been accurately calculated. To persons not familiar with the present problems of the Swedish lumber industry it may seem that the sawmills make' an unreason- ably large profit on the sale of their lumber, as the prices of lumber jn some cases have almost trebled, compared with the pre-war level. It appears, however, upon a close investigation of Swedish con- ditions that the cost of production has advanced almost in the same proportion, and were it not for the fact that the Swedish sawmills can utilize their waste material profitably many of them probably would not be in operation at present. There is always a heavy risk in connection with the Swedish saw- mill business, because the miUs contracting for saw logs one year may not be able to have the lumber that is cut from these logs ready for shipment until two or even three years after the logging contracts have been made. In the meantime the prices of lumber may fluc- tuate a great deal and the miUs may lose heavily. For instance, logs purchased at top prices during the summer of 1918 will not be ready for shipment before the summer or autumn of 1920, and as the stumpage value at that time will probably be lower than in 1918 the profits will be small. It is believed that the majority of the Swedish mills did not make a larger profit before the war on the sale of their lumber than 6 to 8 per cent. PLANING-MILL INDUSTRY. The development of the lumber industry in Sweden has followed lines similar to its development in Norway. At the start, centuries ago, round logs and square timber almost exclusively were produced for export, but later this industry gradually developed into the manufacturing of sawn lumber. A further development along the lines of exporting manufactured and semimanufactured wood pro- ducts, in preference to unmanufactured material, has taken place during the last quarter century, and a considerable percentage of the rough lumber is now turned into planing-mill products, box shooks, sashes, doors, etc. The relative importance of the planing-mill industry, however, is not so great in wSweden as in Norway, where most of the lumber exported consists of planing-mill products. The most important district in Sweden manufacturing planed lumber, doors, sashes, etc., is the west-coast district, where the city of Goteborg takes the lead. The satisfactory shipping facilities for exporting, in parcel lots, to the principal European markets have developed the planing-miU industry in this part of Sweden. The box-manufacturing industry is one of the chief activities in the west- coast district. In this report sashes, doors, moldings, etc., will not be treated, as these products are in a class by themselves. The only semimanufactured lumber products closely allied to the sawmill industry are planing-miU products and box shooks. From the statistics in a following section it will be seen that the exports of planing-miU products have increased materially in Sweden during recent years and in 1913 constituted about 15 per cent of the total quantity for export of planks, battens, and boards. During the war the manufacturing of box shooks has greatly developed. SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 151 Swedish pine and spruce are easily worked, and when planed pro- duce a smooth and even surface in spite of the numerous knots. The small percentage of the upper grades, however, is a serious draw- back. Planed Swedish pine and spruce as export articles probably would not have been known in the world's markets were it not for their excellent manufacture. The planing mills are usually operated in connection with box factories. In southern Sweden the mills often buy rough lumber, split wood, etc., resawing this wood in the planing mills into boards; but many planing mills also operate small sawmill plants, cutting their own stock for planing purposes from logs. Part of the output of these small sawmills may be sold as rough lumber, especially the wider dimensions (9 inches and wider), because it sometimes pays better to dispose of this stock in this way than to turn it into planing- mill products. Only the better grades of boxes are manufactured from such stock. The plan of a modern Swedish sawmill, box factory, and dry kiln is seen from figure 45. This plant is based on rail shipment, but is located close to a shipping port. The lumber cut in the sawmill is dried in a kihi, and there is a sorting table outside the mill for grading the lumber. The transportation of the lumber from the sawmill to the kiln and from the kiln to the planing mill and box factory is effected by a transfer system similar to that used in the United States. In figure 64 is seen an efficient arrangement of the different machines in a combined planing mill and box factory. These machines are aU of Swedish make. CREW OF PLANING MILL. The crew of a planing mill of an annual capacity of 10,000,000 feet board measure, operating two planers and two resaws, would be 28 men, as follows: One superintendent, 2 planer operators, 2 men feeding planers, 2 men at rear end of planers, 2 resawyers, 2 feedere of resaws, 2 men at rear of resaws, 2 trimmers, 2 graders, 1 filer, 3 car pushers to planing mill from yard, 2 car pushers from planing mill to shed, 3 pilers in shed, and 2 boys handling refuse. EQUIPMENT OF PLANING MILL.^ The planing mills are equipped with resaws, which are circular saws of a conical shape and somewhat similar to the shingle saws in the United States; but they seldom have a larger diameter than 24 inches. The kerf is small, generally 1.5 millimeters (0.059 inch), and seldom more than -^ inch. The feed is effected at a maximum speed of 140 to 148 lineal feet per minute. There are many types of resaws. in the larger plants double resaws are in general use. The following description outlines some of the principal features of these resaws. : DOUBLE RESAW. The double resaw has been designed especially for resawing planks and boards and is used by the larger planing mills and box factories. » The data in regard to the machinery used in the Swedish planing mills and box factories have been furnished to a large extent by the principal manufactiu-er in Sweden of planing-mill machinerv. J. & C. G. Bolmders Mek. Verkstad A/B., Stockholm. f ^ j, 152 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. Special Agents Series No. 195. FIG. 65.— AUTOMATIC APPARATUS FOR TRANSPORTI NG LOGS FROM POND TO MILL. FIG. 66.— SYSTEM OF CONVEYORS TRANSPORTING LUMBER FROM MILL TO SORTING PLANT OUTSIDE OF MILL. Special Agents Series No. 195. SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 153 Thiri conical saw blades are used, by which lumber up to 9 inches wide can be split with a saw kerf of less than one-sixteenth inch, depending upon the condition of the wood and the dimensions. When cutting lumber of wider dimensions the saw kerf will nat- urally be somewhat greater. The machine has one right-hand and one left-hand saw working together in the same frame, but each saw has its own feed mechanism and countershaft, so that they work independently of each other. Between the saws is a table with rollers both on its surface and at its edges, so that the lumber can easily be passed back over the table for resawing. The frame is cast in one piece. Immediately in front and on both sides of the saw blades there are pressure roUers, which hold the boards steady even if the feed- roller pressure is thrown off, permitting the sawing of lumber of short lengths. Both the feed roller and the pressure roller, independently of each other, can be set at an angle for sawing out boards that are thinner at one edge than at the other, or so-called weatherboards. Following are the specifications for one of these machines: Maximum depth of cut, 11| inches. Maximum diameter of saw blades, 31^ inches. Maximum distance between feed roller and fence, 7| inches. Maximmn distance between saw blades and feed roller or fence, 4 inches. Average rate of feed, 90, 110, and 132 lineal feet per minute. Countershaft's pulley: Diameter, 15f inches. Face, 8^ inches. Revolutions per minute, 630. BAND SAWS AND TRIMMERS. Band saws are used for resawing stock 9 inches and wider, because circular saws can not be used profitably for such purposes. The band saws are used principally in the planing mills and box factories. One of the largest types used in the Swedish mills is of the following description: The frame is heavy and is cast in a single piece. The feed mechanism consists of four (2 pairs) power-driven feed rollers 6 inches in diameter, journaled in heavy frames, which are movable on long shdes. Following are the specifications: Maximum depth of cut, 28 inches. Maximum distance between feed rollers, 14 inches. Rate of feed, 115 lineal feet per minute. Dimensions of saw wheels : Diameter, 56 inches. Face, 5 1 inches. Driving pulleys: Diameter, 19J inches. Face, 8^ inches. Revolutions per minute, 600. Maximum length of saw blade (without allowance for brazing), 28 inches. The trimmers used in the planing mills are of about the same con- struction as those used in the sawmills, but the saw blade has more teeth. HEAVY FAST-FEED PLANER. Of planers there are many types. Most of them are operated on the system of rotary cutters and fixed knives combined. The follow- 154 SWEDISH LUMBEE INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. ing description gives the principal features of the largest type of Swedish planer. The feed mechanism is double and consists of four paits of feed rollers 16 inches in diameter, of which two pairs are placed in the front of the machine and the remaining ones immediately following the bottom fixed knives, which arrangement allows an effective and powerful feed without exercising unnecessary pressure on the lumber. The upper rollers are conveniently raised or lowered by means of a crank from the front side, and an easily accessible and adjustable screw prevents them from falling too low should a board pass through without being followed up by another. The lower feed-roller spindles have their bearings in square blocks and are easily adjustable for woods of different hardness, etc. The gear wheels subject to the most wear are made of steel and all high-speed gears have machine-cut teeth. All gear wheels are we.ll guarded by cast-iron hoods. The cutter spindles are made of Swedish steel and revolve in ball bearings. The front under cutter is journaled in a light but strong frame, which can be drawn out even while the machine is running. If a reserve cutter with sharp knives is alwaj^s kept in readiness, the change can be made in an instant without interfering with the work of the machine. The cutter head has chip breakers on all four sides. The thickness of the chip can be regulated from the front side of the machine while it is working. The side cutters are adjustable while running both horizontally and vertically and are furnished with cutter blocks for taking ordi- nary planing knives, also bushings for patent cutters, the latter being necessary if the maximum rate of feed for which this machine is designed is to be attained. Adjustable chip breakers are also fitted. The top cutter is journaled in a very heavy frame, which is con- veniently adjustable by a hand wheel from the front side of the machine. The cutter block has chip breakers on all four sides. The last under cutter (beading cutter) is adjustable both horizon- tally and vertically. The bearing at one end is easily removed, whereby cutter blocks with ordinary planing knives or patent cutters can Be used. By using the latter the maximum rate of feed can be maintained even when beading. The rear table can be removed, leaving the cutter free. Both the front and rear table can be moved to or from the cutter spindle, so that when adjusted correctly in position no vibration need be feared. The bottom fixed-knife drawers are in duplicate; that is to say, they are placed side by side. Each drawer is fitted with three fixed knives placed at the most advantageous cutting an^le. The drawers can be withdrawn and replaced independently of each other and without disturbing the working of the machine. A drawer with sharp knives can always be held in reserve to rejDlace the one working in the machine when it becomes dull. There is a considerable saving of time by this arrangement, as the feed never stops wliile the drawers are being changed ; and as the sharp knives are put in and set to work exactly before the dull ones are released, every board that passes is perfectly finished. The pressure above the drawer is regulated by means of a handle in the front side of the machine, which is connected to the drawer in such a way that when the pressure is applied the SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 155 drawer is raised and vice versa. There is a hand wheel for fixing the pressure arrangement to the size of work to be planed. The side fixed-knife drawers are fitted on heavy slides and are adjustable while the machine is running, both horizontally for different widths of lumber and vertically, so that the planing Imives can be used throughout their entire length. The top fixed-knife drawer, which is placed inunediately following the top revolving cutter, is pressed against the work by a simple de- vice and is at the same time easy to remove. The pressm-e devices are easily adjustable for diiierent thicknesses of wood and different pressures. Over the bottom cutter and fixed knives, as also against the side cutters, the work is held in position by rollers working independently of each other, by which means uneven lumber receives an even pressure over its entire width. In front and behind the top cutter there are pressure rollers. Over the beading cutter the work is held in position by sliding pressure. The pressure rollers are furnished with closed grease cups, by which means lubrication is very effective and the lubricating material is protected from shavings, dust, etc. The coimtershaf ts are fitted with ball bearings. The main counter- shaft of the planer is located behind the machine. The intermediate countershaft, with fast and loose pulley (the loose pulley running in ball bearings), as also the feed countershaft, are located under the floor; but they can also be located overhead, if necessary. Following are the specifications for the heavy, fast-feed planer: Maximum dimensions planed : Thickness, 6 inches. Width, 12 inches. Rate of feed, 60,72, 85, 98, 113, 126, 154, 181, 208, and 236 feet per minute. Maximum capacity, 120,000 linear feet per 10 hours. Countershaft pulley: Diameter, i7| inches. Face, 8 J inches. Revolutions per minute, 750. PATENT CUTTERS. In many planing mills there is great difficulty in obtaining liigh- class work from knotty and cross-grained or brittle wood at a high rate of feed when using ordinary sectional cutters, as the grinding and inserting of these cutters require the greatest accuracy to insure a perfect balance, and this work consumes considerable time. This disadvantage is entirely obviated by using patent cutters. The patent cutters are manufactured from Swedish tool steel by machines specially designed for this purpose. They are equilateral, so that every tooth cuts exactly the same amount of material. The patent cutters have six or more teeth and are circular in shape, thus insuring a perfect balance, which enables the machine to be run at a greater speed, giving a larger output. The profile remains the same until the cutter is worn out; the thickness and height of tongue can not fail to be correct. The changing of these cutters can be done in two or three minutes. These cutters can be used on any spindle, such as four-cutter planers or spindle molders. 156 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. SHAVING CUTTERS. The machines for chipping shavings from the planer are intended for cutting up the long shavings cut on a planing machine by the fixed knives. The machine cuts up shavings into very small pieces suitable to be carried, together with the cutter chips, in ordinary shavings spouts or in pipes, to the boilers or any other desirable place. The machine consists of two rotary cutters, each furnished with two knives and so constructed that the knives always meet at the same place. The cutters are journaled in a common frame, which can be withdrawn for inserting, sharpening, or exchanging knives; this is done once every week. No special feed mechanism is neces- sary. The machine is run by a single belt. The machine is located under the fixed-knife drawers of the planer and at a convenient distance from them. It is furnished with a fast and loose pulley and is started and stopped from the front side of the planer. RESAWING AND PLANING METHODS. The successful operation of a planing mill is based on a skillful utilization of raw material, as the charges for planing alone would barely cover the cost of labor. The profit derived, therefore, must be dependent upon the individual operator's success in effecting the highest possible saving in raw material. Through agreements estab- lished years ago between the exporters and consumers abroad, the price basis of planed lumber is made the rough sizes, allowing one- eighth inch on the thickness and one-fourth inch on the width of each piece for planing; for instance, 1 by 44- inches nominal (rough) measure is required to be | by 4| inches actual measure (planed), and the prices based on 1 by 4^ inches. Tliis allowance was considered necessary many years ago when the technique of the planing-miU industry was less developed than it is now. Since that time, how- ever, the design of planing-miU machiner}^ has made important prog- ress, especially in the saving of material. The waste in chips when planing now amounts to only a fraction of the allowance mentioned. Each planing mill has its own method of resawing raw material in the most profitable way, and this is usually done by resawing planks and battens into boards on special circular resaws, because the circular resaws have a smaller kerf than the gang saws. Boards are the only dimension lumber for export that is planed in Sweden. The rough stock for planing purposes must be dried at least six months before it is planed. Tlie moisture contents of such stock does not generally exceed 25 per cent. Many mills have found it profitable to install kilns for this purpose. In cutting logs to produce lumber for planing purposes, special sawing schedules are in effect, which differ consideralbly from the sawing schedules used in cutting rough stock for export. Rough stock for planing purposes is generally cut with considerable wane. If such stock were edged in the ordinary way in the sawmill, a large percentage of raw material would be wasted in edgings; therefore, the waney stock is resawn in the planing mill and not edged before it is run through the planer, because the waney portion of the lumber is removed by the siae cutters and the only consideration that must be given such rough stock is that sufficient material must be left to provide for the tongue and the groove. SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 157 The following schedule shows the system of resawing rough stock of planks and battens in many planing mills in Sweden: 4-inch stock is resawn into 3 pieces of a nominal thickness of five-eighths inch and 3 pieces of a nominal thickness of three-quarter inch; 3-inch stock, into 4 pieces five-eighths inch thick and 1 piece three-qunrter inch thick ; 2^-inch stock, into 3 pieces five-eighths inch thick and 1 piece three-quarter inch thick, or 3 pieces seven-eighths inch thick, or 2 pieces 1 inch thick and 1 piece five-eighths inch thick; 2-inch stock, into 3 pieces one-half inch thick and 1 piece three-quarter inch thick, or 3 pieces three-quarter inch thick, or 3 pieces one-half inch thick and 1 piece five-eighths inch thick, or 2 pieces three- quarter inch thick and 1 piece five-eighths inch thick; and 1-inch stock, into 1 piece one-halt inch thick and 1 piece five-eighths inch thick. Four pieces of weatherboard are resawn from 2^ by 7-inch stock, which are three-quarter inch at one end and one-quarter inch at the other end. By nominal thickness is meant the thickness on which the boards are sold ; the actual thickness would be less, as was previously explained. The foregoing figures represent the resawing of regular stock sizes from the sawmill yard. Many mills, however, cut special stock for the planing mills and the following schedule gives some of the princi- pal dimensions of this nature cut in Sweden from rough stock of planks and battens : 2 j-f-inch stock is resawn into 2 pieces of a nomi- nal thickness of 1^ inches; 2|-inch stock, into 5 pieces five-eighths inch thick or 2 pieces 1^ inches thick; 23j^-incli stock, into 2 pieces li inches thick or 4 pieces five-eighths inch thick; 2|-inch stock, into 2 pieces 1^ inches thick; 2|-inch stock, into 3 pieces three-quarter inch thick; Iji-inch stock, into 4 pieces one-half inch thick or 2 pieces 1 inch thick; If-inch stock, into 2 pieces 1 inch thick, or 1 piece li inches thick and 1 piece three-quarter inch thick, or 4 pieces one-half inch thick; l|-inch stock, into 3 pieces five-eighth inch thick or 2 pieces 1 inch thick. The first condition for employing such exceedingly fine resawing methods is that the raw material must have the required dimensions and must be accurately cut. Lumber from circular mills can not usually be resawn in the manner mentioned. Consequently the planing mills operating with stock from circular mills have greater difficulty in saving raw material unless the lumber is either cut to exact sizes or somewhat in excess of the required dimensions. Before purchasing such circular-sawn lumber, the inspector for the purchaser exercises the utmost care and takes every fraction of an inch into consideration. Considering the fact that a large percentage of Swedish rough lum- ber for export is imported for planing purposes and that the importing countries frequently employ the same methods of resawing as are used in Sweden, it is readily seen to be of the greatest importance to these importers to receive Swedish rough lumber well-manufactured, especially when one takes into consideration that heavy charges for freight, custom duties, etc., are added to the cost of the raw material. The resawing schedule given may seem unsatisfactory to many mills, because m some cases the planed lumber produced may be somewhat scant. These schedules therefore, can not be said to be in use in all mills. It depends upon the markets and the customers 158 SWEDISH LUMBER IISTDUSTRY AND LUMBER EJ^ORT TRADE. of each mill to what extent they can employ such schedules. For in- stance, to cut 3 thicknesses of three-quarter inch each from one batten 2 inches thick, would generally be considered inadvisable. The same applies to cutting two pieces 1 inch thick from If -inch stock. It is claimed that planed lumber resawn from such stock has fre- quently been sent to the London market on consignment. In this market the lumber is sold at auction sales and as the purchasers have an opportunity of inspecting the lumber before the purchase is made, no claims are afterwards considered, but the prices are usually correspondingly low for such scant stock. Tiiese consignment practices, however, are discouraged in Sweden. It is generally required that the upper cutters touch the back of each board. Otherwise, the planed lumber is considered scant. If the lumber, through some faulty resawing, turns out scant, it is dressed down to the next size, in preference to having it shipped along with other stock having the required sizes. There is no pro- vision in the Swedish grading rules to the effect that the lower grades may be shipped scant. Cull stock, as well as first grade, must always have the measurements required by the grading rules. As a rule, it may be said that the saving in raw material by resawing is larger in case of narrow ^vidths than in wide stock. The following example shows the resawing of a waney batten 2^ by 7 inches: 1 piece | by 7 inches; 1 piece | by 6 J or 6 inches; and 1 piece I by 5 mches. If the batten were square-edged, the width of all tliree pieces would have been 5 inches. In this case it is seen that considerable material has been saved by resawmg the waney stock. Besides this saving in raw material, it has also been found that the grade of discolored rough lumber, after being planed, may be raised considerably because the discoloration is often present only at the surface. This is a very important pomt to consider, because by planing rough discolored stock the sawmills may sell at full price a large percentage of the blue lumber, which would otherwise have to be sold at a reduction. Not only discolored lumber but also lumber contaming other defects that would classify it as better class cull stock may be materially improved in grade by planmg. It has usually been found that rough lumber of other than cull and discolored stock may be raised in grade by being run through the planing mill. For mstance, second-grade battens, rough stock, may yield 25 per cent of first-grade planed stock, 74 per cent of second-grade planed stock, and 1 per cent of third-grade planed stock. Third-grade rough boards may yield 100 per cent of second-grade planed stock and fourth-grade rough stock may yield 25 per cent of second-grade and 75 per cent of third-grade planed lumber. Un- sorted scantlings, rough stock, may give 10 per cent of fu'st grade, 76 per cent of second-grade, and 14 per cent of third-grade planed lumber. The average length of the lumber also is generally increased by planing because the wane can be utilized profitably. After resawing, the lumber is trimmed, giving the stock a small excess, usually about one half inch. From the trimmer the lumber is passed through the planer. The surface of the planed products is perfectly smooth on account of the fixed Imives, which shave off thin ribbons of the same length and width as the piece. The thickness of these SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 159 shavings may be regulated; they are often thm enough to be trans- parent. The planers are operated m such a way that the surface cut by the gang saw is dressed by the upper rotary cutters, while the face of the board that is bemg cut by the chcular saw is surfaced by using the fixed knives only. This is possible because the surface cut by the circular saw is very smooth. In case of rough surface on both sides of the board, both the upper and the under cutters must be used and the fixed knives also are employed on face side, but the waste is somewhat larger by this procedure. Even the knottiest piece of lumber may be surfaced without chipping and tearmg the grain, provided the stock is dry and the planing is done efficiently. The shavings are passed through a cutter installed immediatel)" under the planer on the ground floor of the mill. In this cutter the shavings are cut into chips for pulp material or the shavings may also be manuf actm^ed mto excelsior on special machinery with revolv- mg disks. Through blow pipes the shavings from the upper, mider, and side cutters are removed. In most cases the total waste in material through resawing and planing combined would hardly exceed five sixty-fourths inch in thick- ness. Thus the gam m material is made on the thickness of the board; en the width the mills do not figure on any gam. DIMENSIONS OF PLANED LUMBER. The usual dimensions of planed lumber are as follows: Thickness — h, h f > h Hj H? and 1^ mches, many other dimensions, such as If inches, may be termed odd sizes); width — 4, 4^, 5, 5^, 6, 6^, 7, 8, 9, and 11 inches; average length— 15 to 16 feet for stock 6 J inches and less in width and 14 to 14 J feet for stock 7 inches and up. Weatherboards and rustic also are manufactured by some concerns. Sometimes the mills may plane lumber to conform with the metric measurements, as this can very easily be effected. In trimming the lumber the same system is followed as with rough lumber. The Swedish exporters have seriously considered trying to enforce the metric system m the dimensions produced in the planmg mills be- cause a great savmg in raw material could be effected through the fact that the standard of measurement m the metric system is smaller than that of the system now used. The same dimensions for planing-mill products are used in Sweden and Norway. In some comitries the importers specify that the planed boards must be of a certain specified size expressed in millimeters. In such cases the manufacturers can not make any considerable gam in raw material, but the prices are correspondingly higher. As this stock is often sold with a written guaranty in regard to measurement, some importers are very exacting in their inspection, and if a varia- tion from the specified sizes can not be ascertamed m the case of one piece of lumber, five or more pieces are piled one on top of the other and the total thickness of all five pieces measured and divided by five. If any discrepancy is found by this method a complaint is sure to follow. Some importers are provided with almost scientific mstruments called micrometers, enabling them to measure dimen- sions of planed boards to a fraction of 1 millimeter. 160 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. Some limited quantities of moldings are produced in Sweden, but it is claimed that producing moldings for export is not profitable on accomit of the variety of patterns and the extra trouble in filling small orders. Therefore the mills generally do not care to cater to this trade. GRADING AND LOADING. The grading of planed lumber in Sweden is dependent upon so many circumstances that no one has attempted to give any definite written grading rules. The quality of the lumber itself is inferior to the usual planing mill products of soft woods in the United States, mainly because there is practically no clear lumber to be obtained from Sweden. On the other hand, the manufacturing of planed stock in Sweden is better and it is not necessary to run the planed lumber through Sanders before it is used. Therefore it is possible to sell Swedish planed lumber in so distant a market as Australia, which is nearly 13,000 miles away from Sweden, but only about 7,000 miles distant from the Pacific coast of the United States. On account of the presence of knots Swedish planed lumber is used only where it can be painted. Otherwise, the appearance is very poor. The planed pine lumber is graded into first, second, and third grades or sometimes into four. Absolutely clear stock may be sep- arated from the remainder of the first quality but the quantity of this grade is very small, often less than one-half of 1 per cent. The lumber may also be shipped unsorted (that is, containing first, second, and third grades in the proportion in which they come from the planer, but eliminating fourth grade and cull). Usually lumber 5 inches wide and less is sold unsorted. Spruce lumber is usually graded into mixed grade, which consists of first and second grades, and third grade or is also sold unsorted. For the British colonies, pine and spruce are sold in two grades: Colonial first, which consists of first and second grades, and colonial third. Weatherboards are sold unsorted. The lumber is branded according to the same system used for rough stock but it is often customary to indicate, either by a special brand or by a special color, that the stock is dressed lumber. The result of the grading of the better stocks may be given roughly as 1 J per cent of first grade, 80 per cent of second grade, 10^ per cent of third grade, and 8 per cent of discolored and cull. If graded for British colonial markets the result is usually 80 to 85 per cent of colonial first and 15 to 20 per cent of colonial third, besides cull, which varies a great deal. Cull stock may find a market in the United Kingdom and a few other countries but is usually disposed of locally. Like sawn lumber, planed lumber is always shipped with the pine and spruce distinctly separated. From the mill, the lumber is taken to sheds, where it is piled solidly according to dimension and grades. Thence it is transferred to barges when shipment is made. The barges are always covered on all four sides with walls and must be protected by roofs. In regard to the bundling of planed lumber, there are different regulations in almost every country. Special Agents Series No. 195. Courtesy of Uddeholm A/B. FIG. 68.— A WORKMAN'S HOUSE. ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^U 1 ^^^^.^^f ' ,,. .■^^•"Ig IHHk i ■■ m FIG. 69.— IGGESUND PULP MILL. Special Agents Series No. 195, From Special Aconts Scries No. 11:'. FIG. 70.— ACCURATE LENGTH MEASUREMENTS OF SWEDISH PINE. THE PLANK ALONG WHICH THE TAPELINE IS STRETCHED IS THE CORRECT MEASUREMENT. FIG. 71.— SAWDUST PILE WORTH 5.10,000. SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 161 The following schedule gives an idea of tne rules with regard to bundling planed lumber for shipment to some of the principal markets : London market — ^ by 4-11 inches, f by 4-11 inches, and f by 4-7 inches must be bundled; | by 8-11 inches need not be bundled; | by 4-5 inches must be bundled; I by 5^-11 inches need not be bundled; I by 4-11 inches and 1 by 4-5 inches must be bundled; 1 by 5^-11 inches and IJ and IJ by 5| inches need not be bundled. West coast of England — f by 7 inches need not be bundled and | by 6| inches and down must be bundled. Australia and South Africa — | inch and thicker need not be bundled and | inch and less must be bundled. Netherlands — | inch and up need not be bundled and f inch and less must be bundled. Denmark — The bundhng is dependent upon the buyers' orders in each case. The bundles are usually made up in the following way: |-inch boards, 6 to 8 boards to the bundle; f-inch boards, 5 to 6 boards to the bundle; |-inch boards, 4 to 6 boards to the bundle; |-inch boards, 5 boards to the bundle; and 1-inch boards, 5 boards to the bundle; weatherboards, 4 boards to the bundle. A crew of four men can load about 50,000 feet board measure of planed boards per day. If the boards are bundled, this crew can load only 30,000 feet per day. LABOR AND WAGES. Work in the planing mills and box factories is made on a contract basis in the same way as in the sawmills. The operators of the planer obtain a certain compensation per 1,000 linear feet of lumber turned out and the remainder of the crew receive payment in proportion to this compensation. In 1914 the planing-mill foreman was receiving a salary of about S536 per year and in the winter and spring of 1919, $884 per year. The following percentages and wages apply to the workmen in the ma- jority of the Swedish mills during 1914 and winter and spring of 1919: Positions. Operator of planer Resawyer Assistant operators of planer Assistant resawyer Trimmer .' Grader Per- cent- ages. 100 100 70 70 80 1919. 1914. Cents Cents per per Tiour. hour. 14.7 34.8 14.7 34.8 10.3 24.4 10.3 24.4 11.8 27.8 14.0 33.1 Positions. Filer Car pushers to planing mill from yard Car pushers from planing mill to shed Pliers in shed Boys handling refuse Per- cent- ages. 100 100 50 1914. Cents per hour. 13.3 15.4 14.7 14.7 7.4 1919. Cents per hour. 31.3 38.5 34.8 34.8 17.4 The following schedule for 1916 to 1918 is representative for contracts covermg planing-mill labor in Norrland, on the basis of 2^ cents per 1,000 linear feet, with 15 per cent additional for boards 8 inches and more in width: Operator of planer, 100 per cent; resawyer, 100 per cent; assistant resawyer, 90 per cent; grader, 100 per cent; trimmer of planed lumber; 70 per cent; feeder for resaw, 65 per cent; man at rear of resaw, 60 per cent; feeder of planer, 55 per cent; trimmer (rough stock) 80 per cent. For resawing weather 2092°— 21 11 162 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. boards, the wages were 5.4 cents per 1,000 linear feet; for bundling boards, 0.4 cent per bundle; for trucking boards from mill to shed^ 34 cents per 1,000 feet board measure; and for trucking raw material to the planing mill, 20 cents per 1,000 feet board measure; for lumber ll inches and thicker, 27 cents; for lumber If to 1 inch thick; and 34 cents for lumber three-fourths inch and less in thickness. COST OF PRODUCTION. Usually many mills in southern and southwestern Sweden acquired a large percentage of their raw material by purchases of planks and battens from smaller interior mills. The following may be con- sidered as average prices per 1,000 feet board measure f.o.b. interior sawmill, immediately before the war, for lumber of different widths: 9 inches, $19; 8 inches, $17.65; 7 inches, $17.65; 6-6| inches, $16.85; 5-5i inches, $15.80; 4-4^ inches, $14.75. Freight charges to the planing mill were $1.50 to $2.50 per 1,000 feet board measure. In 1918 the corresponding prices were as follows: 9 inches, $44.75; 8 inches, $43.65; 7 inches, $42.35; 6^-6 inches, $41.30; 5*-5 inches, $40.20; 4^4 inches, $39.10. Freight charges to the planing mill were $8. 50 to $10.15 per 1,000 feet board measure. The following statement is an estimate of the cost of planing in an average sized plant, and refers to the years 1913-14 and 1918. The present cost would probably be somewhat higher, as the wages have incerased since this estimate was made: Items of cost. Wages Supplies Repairs Accident insurance and hospital Fire insurance 1913-14 1918 80.95 $1.49 .41 1.22 .07 .14 .05 ( .14 .05 .10 Items of cost. Depreciation on plant Interest on capital. . . Taxes Total 1913-14 SO. 43 .08 .14 2.18 1918 80.95 .17 1.08 5.29 BOX FACTORIES. The essential feature in manufacturing box shooks is to effect a close utilization of raw material, and in the box factories this close utilization is accomplished to the highest possible degree. Many mills that had not previously specialized in this industry, but began mantLTacturing box shooks during the war on account of the large profits made during the abnormal times, now find themselves in a difficult position, because during normal times it requires more than ordinary experience in mill operation to run a box factory satis- factorily. Many people seem to think that any kind of raw material is suitable for box shooks, but this is a great mistake, and concerns operating exclusively on waste as raw material for boxes are not likely to make a success of the undertaking. Considerable complaint is heard in Sweden of many incompetent box-factory operators failing to calculate correctly the cost of pro- duction, thereby often underselling their competitors at a great loss to all concerned. The larger box factories use as raw material logs, planks, battens, split wood, and sawmili waste. The equipment of the mill largely SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 163 determines what raw material is used. The most profitable operation seems to be a combination of the raw materials mentioned. Even top logs down to 3^ inches are used in cutting stocks for box shooks. Of planks and battens, exceptionally waney stock not suitable for ordinary shipping stock is preferred because waney lumber can be utilized effectively, even more than in the ordinary planing mills. Each mill has its own method of resawing the raw material. Both pine and spruce, and to some extent hardwoods, are used for this stock. Spruce is always preferred for food containers on account of the absence of smell and taste in this wood. Swedish pine and spruce are generally excellent box material and will hold nails well. The knots are firmly incased and do not come loose, and the wood does not split or check. EQUIPMENT. A number of small machines of various types are found in the Swedish box factories. Of resaws there are several types in use. The following description is given of a double resaw used by the larger box factories, where the splitting of short pieces of lumber into thin box boards is carried on on a large scale and where accurate dimensions and the least possible loss are necessary conditions of the manufacture. The machine is constructed with two saw blades on separate spindles, the idea being that the board sawn by the first saw is split in two by the second saw. The feed is accomplished by means of an endless chain fitted with projections, which carry the work continuously to the saw blades. The saw blades, which should be conical and have a thickness corresponding to No. 19 to 20 Bir- mingham wire gau^e, depending upon the depth of the cut, are steadied while running by leather-covered set screws, both in front and behind the center of the blades. Following are the specifications for this machine : Maximum diameter of saw blades, 24J inches. Maximum length that can be cut with two blades, 23^ inches. Maximum length that can be cut with two blades and special pressure device, 27| inches. Maximum length that can be cut with one blade, 71 inches. Minimum length that can be cut of narrow lumber, 6 inches. Minimum length that can be cut of wider lumber, 8-10 inches. Maximum distance from first saw blade to fence, 2 inches. Maximum distance from second saw blade to fence, 1 inch. Minimum thickness that can be split, five thirty-seconds of an inch. Maximum depth of cut, 8 inches. Rate of feed, 39, 66, and 100 linear feet per minute. Countershaft pulley: Diameter, 15| inches. Face, 8^ inches. Revolutions per minute, 710. Besides a variety of planers of different sizes, built on more or less the same principle as was described in a previous section, a few types of automatic box machines are in use. There is only one automatic shook machine of Swedish make, of which the following description is given: This machine is intended to take material roughly trimmed and edged, and to plane, tongue, groove, glue, joint, and make up finished box sides and ends, etc., to the exact dimensions required. The operation is performed automatically from the time the boards are 164 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. feci into the machine until the finished box sides or ends, etc.. are delivered by the machine. The boards are fed into the machine as in an ordinary planer on one or both sides and are tongued and grooved. The edge is then glued if desu-ed and the boards are jointed together, trimmied to the desired length, and cut up into widths corresponding to the dimen- sions of the box sides or ends, etc. For the operation of the machine two men are required, one man for feeding the boards into the machine and one for operating the machine and looking after its planing steel, cutters, and saws. The maximum rate of feed is 90 linear feet per minute, which for a 10-hour working day, with 6 by § inch by 24^ foot lumber, makes about 9,000 feet board measure, or about 7,000 pieces of 24 by 18 inch finished box shocks. If three cross-cut saws are used, double the number of finished shocks wiU be obtained. The machine consists of the following principal parts: Planing machine, glueing device, jointing device, side-shifting device, length- adjusting apparatus, cutting-up apparatus, and delivering apparatus. The plamng machine has, as usual, a feed mechanism navmg four driven rolls, following which come the under cutter for planing the bottom side, the top cutter for planing the top side, and the side- cutters for planing the edges of the boards and at the same time cutting the tongue and groove, which are of the dovetail type. There are four side cutters arranged, two on each side. They are all set to an an^le for making dovetail joints. The glueing device is placed immediately behind the side cutters. The jointing device consists of a feed mechanism, which takes hold of the board as soon as it has passed the planing machine and glueing device, and by a quick motion drives it into joint with the preceding board, after which the jointed material is moved auto- matically sidewise by a sliding apparatus called the side-shifting device. This device moves the jointed material automatically to one side a distance equal to the width of one board, so that as each board comes from the planer, planed, tongued and grooved, and glued, it meets the preceding board in correct position for forming a joint with it. As the jointed material is moved sidewise to leave room for each board coming through the machine, two or three crosscut saws adjust the length to an exact dimension. By means of a resaw the jointed material is cut into box ends or sides of the exact width required. The last device in the machine is the delivering apparatus, wliich delivers the finished jointed material. The box shocks may be turned out with single or with double dove- tails. In the latter case seven-eights inch stock is resawn on a band saw into two pieces three-eights inch thick, which materially increases the output. Following are the specifications for this machine: Maximum dimeneions of finished material, 37 by 32 inches. Minimum dimensions of finished material, 10 by 10 inches. Maximum thickness of finished material, seven-eighths inch. Minimum thickness of finished material, five-sixteenths inch. SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 165 Length of raw material: ^ Maximum, 38 indies. Minimum, 18 inches. Width of raw material: Maximum. 7 inches. Minimum, 3 inches. Rate of feed, 54, 60, 67, 73, 80, and 90 linear feet per minute. Dri^'ing pulley: Diameter, llf inches. Face, 7^ inches. Revolutions per minute, 1,300. This machine is said to work satisfactorily, but it is claimed that it has the disadvantage of requiring considerable time in changing the steel to plane shooks of different dimensions. The machine should be driven by its own electric motor of 40 effective horsepower. SAWING OF RAW MATERIAL. Mills sawing their shooks from logs often use the following sawing schedule, according to Forester M. Nordquist: Top diameters of logs. 4-5 inches . 5J-6 inches 6i-7 inch&s 7}-8 inches Number ofshooks, Thickness ofshooks. Inches. H H u a 1 2. Top diameters of logs. Number ofshooks. 8J-9 inches.. 9i-10 inches. Thickness ofshooks. Inches. lA The lumber is not edged but is dried, either in kilns or in the open air. After drying the lumber is resawn on circular saws to smaller dimensions and cut to suitable lengths, whereupon each piece is edged. In this way considerable material that would otherwise be wasted in the form of edgings is saved because individual attention can be given each small piece in edging, thereby effecting the largest possible saving in raw material. If the shooks are to be dressed they are run through a planer. One system of sawing material for box shooks has been found very satisfactory. The logs are first halved and then taken out to the yard to be dried. After drying the two half logs are cut to the required dimensions on gangsaws, with blades of 19 to 20 Birmingham wire gauge. It is claimed that lumber cut from these logs is especially firm in texture and that the knots are firmly pressed into the wood during the process of drying, so that stock cut from these logs is espe- cially suitable for planing purposes. It is claimed that the waste of each log that can not be turned into box shooks represents only 17 to 18 per cent of the cubical contents of the logs. Another system of manufacturing box shooks is used by the Safveans A/B. of Goteborg, which has improved upon a machine that is manu- factured and commonly used in the United States. This miU cuts the lumber from logs with a large percentage of wane. The wanes are * The raw material should be at least J to § of an Inch longer than the finished material. 166 SWEDISH LUMBER IISTDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. then edged at an angle of 20, 30, or 40 degrees, according to their form, whereby only a slight portion of each plank or batten is edged. By sorting the various categories of raw materials representing 20, 30, or 40 degree wanes and running this Imnber through the American box machine, the pieces are glued together in the way shown in figure 95. Furthermore, the mill also takes advantage of the taper of the log by joining the butt and the top end together as seen on the same figure. This represents the closest utilization of raw material found in any factory in Sweden. The glued and joined pieces are there- upon resawn on band saws into suitable thicknesses. Besides the considerable saving in raw material this system has another advantage of having a larger gluing surface at the joints, which materially strengthens the shooks. DIMENSIONS OF SHOOKS. There are very few standard dimensions of box shooks. Even some of the largest importers abroad do not seem to understand the ad- vantage of standardizing their shook specifications. The mills in Sweden are therefore generally unable to keep shooks in stock but make them on special orders. The prices vary materially in each case, depending upon specifica- tions. It is always a matter of bargaining whether the boxes shall be made up of one, two, three, or more pieces, and this materially in- fluences the price, as the supply of wide stock in Sweden is limited and its prices are high. The following are a few standard box specifications turned out by the Swedish factories : Pyramid butter box for Ireland: ^ Dimensions. 2 ends 12 inches base, 11 inches top, 13 inches high, ^-g inch thick. 2 sides 13| inches base, 12 J inches top, 13 inches high, -f*^ inch thick. 1 top 12| bv 12i by ^ inch. 1 bottom 13| by 13| by ^''^ inch. Soap boxes for United Kingdom: (2 ends 13| by 8f by f inch. J J2 sides 18f by 8f by | inch. ] 1 top ISt by 13| bv t'^ inch. U bottom 18f by 13f by y% inch. 12 ends 15J by 6| by f inch (planed on one side). 2 sides 20| by 6|.by y^^inch (planed on one side). 1 top 20 by" 15i by 3^ inch (rough). 1 bottom 20 by 15| by y^^ inch (rough). Salt boxes for United Kingdom: 2 sides 14|- by 13^ by y% inch (made up from 3 and 4 inch shooks.) 2 ends 13^ by 1 ^ by y'^ inch (made up from 3 and 4 inch shooks). 1 top and 1 bottom , 13| by 13f by y*^ inch (made from up 3 and 4 inch shooks). 4 l)races 13| by 2 by f inch. One factory in Sweden has standardized the manufactui^ of boxes called "Torroba, " which are sold mainly in the United King- dom. The box shooks are made on the American box machine previously referred to, and it is claimed that these boxes require 20 per cent less wood than boxes of the same capacity turned out * Shooks to be planed on both sides and edges; measurements refer to planed stock. SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 167 by other factories. This is due to the special features of tne manu- facture that have already been explained. A strength test made by the Chalmerska Institute in Goteborg shows the amount of pressure possible on Torroba boxes and boxes of ordinary construction. Ordinary nailed box of usual type, con- Top View End V/ew ToQQOBA System of Snook M/jnufacture Fig. 72. sisting of several shooks (three-fourths-inch ends, five-eighths-inch sides, Dottom and top), 909 pounds; nailed Torroba box (five-eighths- inch ends, one-half-inch sides, top and bottom), 1,320 pounds; lock- cornered Torroba (five-eighths-inch ends, one-half-inch sides, top and bottom), 1,833 pounds. 168 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. SHIPMENTS. Box shocks are shipped mainl}^ on regular liners in parcel lots. The box shooks are tied with wire or other oinding material and often stamped with the importer's brand. The branding machines are nearly all of American make. COST OF PRODUCTION AND LABOR. It is impossible to give any general statement in regard to the cost of production of box shoofo, as many special features enter into consideration in each case. The following schedule may serve as a guidance in regard to the cost of labor covering a district in Norrland during 1916 to 1918: Cents per 1,000 Sawyer: linear feet. 3^ inches and less in width 7 3^ to 5J inches 9 5^ to 6^ inches 10 6;;. to 7i inches 12 7| to 8i inches 15 8^ to 9 inches 16 Cents per 1,000 Edgemian: linear feet. 1% inch and less in width 2 I to f inch 4 Thicker stock 5 Trimmer: j^g inch and less in width 3 f to f inch 4 Thicker stock 5 READY-CUT HOUSES— SASH AND DOOR FACTORIES. A few attempts have been made to start manufacturing ready- cut houses for export. For various reasons these undertakings have not been successful, and factories specializing in this product on a large scale are not found in Sweden. It is probable, however, that such an industry will be started in the future if a demand should be created abroad for these houses, but high prices for raw material and labor in Sweden prevented the starting of this industry during the war. The sash and door industry is entirely separated from the sawmill business and is located chiefly in the Goteborg district on the west coast of Sweden. Important factories are found, but they are not operated on so large a scale as similar factories in the United States. The machinery in many cases is imported chiefly from the United States. Tlie industrial statistics of Sweden give the total value of the product of the sash and door factories combined as about S2, 200,000 in 1915. Sash and door factories are sometimes operated in connection with planing mills, but as a rule they form a separate industry and will not be considered in this report. A normal year's exports of sash and doors from Sweden are about S900,000. SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 1(59 SWEDEN (SVERIGE PRODUCtlON OF SAW MILLS AND PLANING MILLS BY PROVINCES (PtHE AND SPRUCE LUMBER) 1915 lOjOOO ^>2^ ROUGH. PUNKS, tt.f£n^2£23 BATTENS AND BOtPDS 1 PLANED ' BOARDS 10.000 ^mmSPUTWOOD. BOXSHOOKS M-rserVi" LATHS STAVES, ETC C'Tt OF STOCKHOLM RURAL OiSTRiCr OF STOCKI SOoeRMANLAND OSIEHCOa jOnkOping HRONOBCf^b KALMAR GOniANO GOTEBORG » AlVSBORC SKARABORG VARMLANO 19 VASTMANIANO 20 KOP^aRBLRC ?l GiVLESOftG 22 VASIERNORRUWO 23 JAmTLAND 24 VASTERSOnEN 2i HORHBOTTEM Fig. 73. PART III.— THE LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. DEVELOPMENT OF THE EXPORT TRADE. Timber and lumber liave been exported from Sweden for centuries. At the start this trade was to a large extent in the hands of the Han- seatic League but it passed later to the Dutch merchants. The Netherlands was the largest market for Swedish wood in the seven- teenth century and imported large quantities of timber for ship- building and other construction purposes. Lumber was not ex- ported in large quantities because Swedish logs were manufactured into Imnber in the importing countries. In the eighteenth century, the LTnited Kmgdom became the prin- cipal market but at the beginning of the nhieteenth century several difficulties were placed in the way of imports of lumber into this mar- ket, with the exception of lumber from the North American Conti- nent. Heavy duties amounting to even $26 per 1,000 feet were imposed on lumber at one time. Restrictions in Sweden also limited the exports of wood products, such as export duties and shipping restrictions, etc., many of which were in force even up to the middle of the last century. The duties on lumber imported into England were abolished in 1866, and from this time the Swedish lumber export trade grew ver}^ rapidly. Prior to the middle of the century trade had been carried on mainly by the west coast and the east coast of Sweden as far north as Gevle. With the creation of the important sawmill indus- tries in Norrland about 60 years ago, the export trade gradually changed over to this part of the country, and the Norrland shipping districts have now been exporting the bulk of the lumber from Swe- den for decades. The total value of the lumber and timber ex- ported from Sweden during the last 50 years prior to the war, from 1864 to 1913, was $1,456,738,000, of which $1,122,383,000 repre- sented the values of the shipments from the Norrland districts. The value of the lumber shipped from the whole of Sweden during this period represented about 34 per cent of the value of all com- modities exported. The last 50 years represents a steady increase in the lumber ex- ports up to 1897. From this time on the quantities exported varied to some extent and reached their lowest ebb in 1909. After this time the export trade increased up to 1913, when it reached the 1897 level. The war naturally caused much change in the export business and in 1914 the quantities declmed to some extent, but the following two years, 1*915 and 1916, represent very good shippmg seasons, 1916 being a record year in the history of the Swedish lumber trade. In 1917 and 1918, difficulties were experienced and the quan- tities exported were very small, but the profits realized on these small quantities were greater than were generally obtained ])efore the war. 170 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 171 111 considering the Swedish export statistics, it must be kept in mind that the success of the export trade should not be judged ex- clusively by the quantities shipped. The Swedish lumber exporters do not flood foreign markets with theu- lumber during dull times. EXPO/^T OF kVOOD OF ALL K/NDS FROM SWEDEN L9^3 — POUGH LuAlB£f^ 64.1 Vo Planed Lumber /0:9 7o Pound T/mber n.2 7o Hewn 7.9 % Firewood 5.9 % "^ )> Pine and Sprace 39.3 7o Fig. 74. J Orher species than P/ne and Spruce O.77o When prices are unsatisfactory, the exporters prefer to curtail their output for export and favor the policy of exporting smaller quan- tities of lumber at fairly satisfactory prices, rather than trying to impose upon the markets large quantities of lumber in excess of the demand. Since the crisis after the Franco-Prussian War, when the prices of lumber dropped in a short time more than 50 per cent, thereby eliminatmg a large number of mills from the exporting busi- ness, there has been no serious crisis which the Swedish lumber ex- porters have not been able to overcome. 172 SWEDISH LITMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. The mill owners frequently contend to the foreign importers that it pays them better to leave their trees standing than to cut them dm-ing dull times and realize only small profits or none at all. The growing trees always yield a profit in the form of annual increment, and although this annual increment represents a smaller percentage on the investment than would be derived from the sale of lumber Thousand Fe^fB.M. Thousand teef B.M. \ ■Z.IOO I 2.1 00 - ZDoa- -fx Y ^ ■7- -V ■/r l\ 1 V , / \ TOT 9LR. 7UB/y 0ND PLff, '£0 A. / ■\ 1 A v V \ f / \ / i J ^\ V r "A A \ r ^' '/ } \/ 1 \. / \ \ \ 1 / A \/ / / V V / \ \ J J / \ / \ ( \ K V r \/ i RL 'UBM LU/^ tBff \ ' / V V I / Y / V 700 - 400- PLff veo LUA fBS/ ' -O" ..«,--' --^-. ^^^ ..0.. — ^. — ^. \. -•'*" — «.. —' ■•^- ,^ ,/"" "^ ■""■n y ■-, .,0 "' 0- 1V5 ^^ ^0 IQ ■2 000 ■ I. 900 ■ I aoa - / 700 ■ i 600 ■ / 500 ■ I 400 . I 300 -I 200 -/ 100 - /. ODD -goa • eoo -7ao -BOO -soo ■ 400 -300 -ZOO - 100 ■0 tJl (h »j 01 &» ^SChO,«j:. .,.,., § - - ^ r ■ ■ Fig. 75.— Exports from Sweden of rough and planed lumber of pine and spruce, from lS8(i to 1918. during ordinary times, it is considered better to take this smaller profit than to endanger the prices of the total output \)j dumping excess quantities on the market. SAWN AND PLANED LUMBER. Although Swedish exports of timber and lumber have not grown in proportion to those of Finland, it must be noticed that the quan- tities of sawn and planed lumber are larger than the corresponding Special Agents Series No. 195. FIG. 76.— HORSE EATING CELLULOSE FOOD. FIG. 77.— BRIQUET OF COMPRESSED SAWDUST. Special Agents Series No. 195. FIG. 78.— BROOM HANDLES. FIG. 79.— PILES OF LUMBER COVERED WITH TARPAULINS. SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 173 figures in Finland. The exports of round logs, small timber, etc., represent important items in the Finnish wood-export trade. Swe- den does not compare so favorably in this respect with Norway, where the percentage of planed-lumber products is especially high. In fact, the tendency to increase the proportion of manufactured lumber exported started in Norway and gradually moved eastward. The following table gives the percentages of pine and spruce lum- ber of different widths and thicknesses exported from Sweden from 1913 to 1918: Kinds of lumber. Rough stock: Planks and boards 8h inches and up 2 inches thick and up — Pine Spruce Less than 2 inches thick — Pine Spruce Battens and boards, 6 to 8^ inches wide 2 inches tliick and up — Pine Spruce Less than 2 inches thick — Pine Spruce Scantlings and narrow boards, less than 6 inches wide 2 inches thick and up— Pine Spruce Less than 2 inches thick- Pine Spruce Planed boards: 84 inches and up Pine Spruce 6 to 8| inches Pine Spruce Less than 6 inches Pine Spruce Total, rough and planed— SJ inches and up Pme Spruce 6 toSiinches Pine Spruce Less than 6 inches Pine Spruce Per cent. 20.23 12. 58 4.34 2.49 .82 32.87 12.11 9.20 8.03 3.53 5.38 4.63 12.36 9.72 1.10 .47 .63 8.31 4.24 4.07 5.40 2.99 2.41 21.33 15.54 5.79 41.18 24.38 16.80 37.49 20.73 16.76 1914 Per cent. 17.28 10.76 3.92 2.05 .55 34.91 12.65 9.75 3.92 31.00 6.92 4.91 11.65 8.07 1.22 .48 .74 8.94 4.92 4.02 6.10 3.47 2.63 18.50 13.29 5.21 43.85 26.16 17.69 37.65 22.04 15.61 Per cent. 19.88 12.62 4.86 1.78 .62 36.01 14.06 10.64 7.75 3.56 32.77 8.25 5.69 10.66 8.17 .36 .62 5.27 2.71 2.56 5.09 2.71 2.38 20.86 14.76 6.10 41.28 24.52 16.76 37.86 21.62 16.24 Per cent. 21.01 13.33 5.09 1.87 .72 37.39 14.88 11.04 7.99 3.48 32.02 7.58 6.22 11.08 7.14 .60 .32 .28 4.32 2.13 2.19 4.66 2.40 2.26 21.61 15.52 6.09 41.71 25.00 16.71 36.68 21.06 15.62 1917 Per cent. 17.60 9.79 5.01 1.86 .94 39.06 13.21 12.24 S.91 4.70 7.71 7.05 .37 .22 .15 2.98 1.75 1.23 4.78 2.88 1.90 17.97 11.87 6.10 42.04 23.87 18.17 39.99 21.35 18.64 1918 Per cent. 17.30 9.51 1.30 2.60 39.06 12.62 11.87 10.07 4.50 34.89 7.19 6.43 12.04 9.23 .28 .19 .09 3.19 2.02 1.17 5.28 3.44 1.84 17.58 12.30 5.28 42.25 24.71 17.54 40.17 22.67 17.50 Average, 1913-1918. Per cent. 18.89 11.43 4.59 36. 55 13.25 10.79 8.56 3.95 33.08 7.17 5.82 n.42 8.67 .76 .34 .42 5.50 2.96 2.54 5.22 2.98 2.24 19.65 13.88 5.77 42.05 24.77 17.28 38.30 21.57 16.73 The figm-es for war years are of little interest because conditions were abnormal and it was extremely difficult to effect any shipments to far-away comitries on account of the scarcity of tonnage and the high freight rates. Exports of timber props and similar stock have been fairly con- stant durmg the last 50 years, showing a small increase up to 1904, but the exportation of unmanufactured stock decreased from that time until the end of the war. During the war the exports of pit props and timber, and also railroad ties, increased materially, but this increase was due only to war conditions. The tendency in 174 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. ■H g HW 899' 9/ '93/iJJ.NnOD iJ3HMO lit/. h3 W.^'yCyA' £'5'^'9£ 'tf/ltfUlS'nff >S ■/V '9 ^--=11^ O £r'^;5' 'biDliJJb/ Nt S3iyj.NnOD ii3HJ.D IW >^ ■iA/g -fj^ i^ei 's-9 ' i/j/yj(j HJ.nos'f^s-/ifi/3 ;y/y -fJM/ 099 '^(? ' 3dodn3 Ni S3/yiNnoD ii3HJLo ne U/ g 4- J W 99 O 69 - /< b/MHON H 9 '^3^ Sti.6 'OL - NitfdS A/ 9 id a tP^'^9- Hnj9 739 M 9 43 H 669 'M/ - ONt/ 7 70// 'iiii SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 175 Sweden was shown clearly in the exports during the years preceding the wax, namely, to manufacture the raw material mto sawn or planed lumber products, pulp, etc. Kecently the imposition of an Thousand FeefB.M. TfiousandFeefBM. ' fl A /\ / \ / \ / \ / \ y 1 \ A \ / \ \/ i / V J y / o- 1907 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 1 /90 /60 /70 /60 /50 /30 /20 //a /oo 90 ■60 70 60 SO 40 30 20 to Fig. 81.— Exports from Sweden of rough and planed box shocks, of pine and spruce. export duty on unmanufactured wood has been considered. During the last 15 years before the war the exports of planed lumber were constant in proportion to the exports of rough lumber, but the former decreased somewhat during the war. The normal proper- 176 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. tion of planed lumber to the total exports of rough and planed stock was approximately 15 per cent before the war. The exports of box shooks m Sweden developed very rapidly during the last 10 years before the war; the quantity of planed and sawn box shooks exported in 1916 was about three times as large as in 1908. The latter increase, however, must be attributed to the war demand for box shooks. The exportation of split wood and mill ends decreased in the same proportion ; the quantities exported of this stock in 1916 were less than one-third of the quantities exported in 1908. This clearly shows that the Swedish box fac- tories now are utilizing most of the split wood as raw material for manufacturing shooks m Sweden, while formerly they exported this raw material to other countries, where it was manufactured into such stock. The exportation of pulp wood showed a similar tendency before the war, and it is believed that pulp wood will not be exported in large quantities, because the Swedish pulp mills themselves need this raw material. While there has always been and always will be a market for Swedish rough lumber, both in Europe and in countries outside of Europe, the future of the export trade in planed lumber is rather uncertain. One country after the other has practically barred Swedish planed lumber from its markets by imposing on such stock import duties so heavy as to be practically prohibitive. The estab- lishing of direct steamship lines from Sweden to over-sea countries has materially assisted the exporters of planed lumber, as Swedish planed lumber is frequently shipped in small parcel lots. Immediately before the war such planed stock, shooks, floormg, etc., was shipped m considerable quantities to far-away new markets (India, Persia, Dutch East Indies, South America, etc.). If these markets should be exploited more extensively, the Swedish lumber exporters will doubtless be able to dispose of a large part of their output of planed lumber. In considering the economic aspect of the Swedish lumber business one must bear m mind that the profits of the Swedish lumbermen are not entirely dependent on sales of sawn and planed lumber. This fact may explam their unwillingness to sell lumber when prices are low, because they are in a position to continue their operations along other lines, such as pulp factories, and, if necessary, to curtail the production of their sawmills in order to stimulate the market. The remarkable growth in the Swedish export trade m mechanical and chemical pulp from 1892 to 1917 is shown in the following table: Vears. 1892.. 1893.. 1894.. 1895.. 1896.. 1897... 1898.. 1899. . 1900.. 1901.. 1902... 1903.. 1904.. Mechanical pulp. Wet. Tons. 27,803 27,869 32,410 33, 249 35, 975 39,791 47,099 52, 303 48,403 42,058 3(),348 4S, 734 58,442 Dry. Tons. 20,654 20,782 22,718 49,680 65,642 54,716 48,841 41,996 3(), 834 35,636 61,586 07,111 81,392 Chemical pulp. Wet. Tom. 29,116 36,869 35,038 59, 748 76,934 80, 062 77,603 110,763 132, 881 143, 426 178,333 224,811 232,275 Dry. Tons. 12,580 13,590 13,204 9,120 7,791 8,350 7,930 4,558 10,426 10,320 10,541 18,017 20, 415 Mechanical pulp. Years. Wet. 1905 1906 1907 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 1915 lOlti 1917 Ton^. 48,735 63,950 59,366 54,414 45,995 51,198 61,203 57, 458 59, 198 37,806 57, 191 65, 792 64,175 Dry. Tons. 72,507 83,396 114,246 109,322 114,495 180,517 178, 121 217, 746 264,049 202,063 185, 825 223,010 111,436 Chemical pulp. Wet. Tons. 239,614 253,787 321,470 362,677 371,832 489, 004 562, 814 618. 258 625,716 630,062 695. 259 664,112 478,468 Dry. Tons. 22,980 23,678 3.5,763 37,333 31,252 42,608 45,390 55,069 00,394 61,080 53,055 55,064 35,103 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 177 SWEDEN (sverige; EXPORT OF ROUGH AND PLANED LUMBER (PINE AND SPRUCS) BY SHIPPING DISTRICT6 1913 2092°— 21- Flg. 82, 178 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. The following table shows the exports of planks, battens, and boards, planed and rough, from Sweden to the principal countries of destination, during the first 8 months of 1913, 1918, and 1919, accord- ing to Swedish official statistics (the latest figures available at the time this report was written) : Countries of destination. England France Germany Netherlands Denmark Bel^um Spam Other European countries.. . Countries outside of Europe: Total January- August, 1913. Mfeet. 423,463 205, 720 162, 588 69, 575 146,045 50,009 41,511 55,163 137,456 1,291,530 January- August, 1918. Mfeet. 357,899 12,642 89,272 90,389 190,983 671 1,327 117,073 12, 264 872,520 January- August, 1919. Mfeet. 630,176 95, 864 7,148 48, 128 135,511 10,203 32,504 118, 709 25,417 1,103,660 ROUND, HEWN, AND SAWN TIMBER. During the early part of the lumber export trade round timber and logs represented a large percentage of Sweden's exports of wood. The quantities exported at present are mainly the saw logs shipped to Norway, particularly from regions connected with Norway by floating rivers. The exports of saw logs and round timber to other countries are very small. MAST TIMBERS. Sweden was once an important source of supply for mast timber, but now it is difficult to obtain mast timber because most of the virgin forest in Sweden has been cut. It is also very difficult to transport mast timber because logs longer than 30 feet can not be floated in Sweden, as a rule, even in the best-regulated rivers, because the timber is liable to break. Mast timber, therefore, is ta^cen by rail- road to the coast. It is usually produced in central and southern Norrland, where the growth of the trees is suitable for stock of this kind. The specifications for mast timbers sometimes call for timber 50 to 60 feet long and 10 inches in top diameter, but it is very difficult to furnish such dimensions. The use of wooden masts has greatly decreased during recent years on account of use of steel masts in their place. The spar and mast timber supplied at present is of comparatively small dimensions, and is shipped mamly to the United Kingdom, where it is used for masts for small boats, ship riggmg, etc. Spruce is principally shipped for this purpose because it is lighter than pine. Scotland takes considerable quantities of masts for fishing vessels. The spars and masts must be perfectly straight and must have no serious defects, such as large knots, which would materially weaken the piece. Stock of this kind must be shipped the year it is cut. The prices before the war for small masts for fishing vessels were generally 15 to 25 cents per cubic foot, depending upon the dimen- sions. SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 179 POLES. Small poles called 'dickers/' mostly of spruce, are shipped in lengths of 16 to 50 feet, havmg a top diameter of 1^ to 3 inches and a diameter at the middle of 3^ to 6 J mches. This stock is ship- ped mostly to the United Kingdom. The poles must be straight and hare no serious defects. They are shipped with the bark on. This stock is used mostly for scaffoldmg in various mdus trial plants. The foUowmg table shows dimensions and prices for such small poles m 1913: Top diameters. Price f . 0. b. I-eugths. west coast port (1913). Cents per cubic feet. Feet. Inches. 16-22 n 10.7 22 2 20.1 23-30 2 25.5 22 2.\ 24.1 24 2?, 29.4 25-29 2.1- 40.2 30-35 ■71 58.9 36-40 'ly 67.0 42-48 ■>i 93.8 The United Kmgdom and Denmark are the prmcipal markets for telegraph and telephone poles. This stock is not shipped in any great quantities from Sweden because the specifications in the United Kingdom are very strict and frequently result in claims, which make the exportation of this stock unprofitable. The poles must be felled between November 15 and March 15, according to the British specifications. The taper of the Swedish pine is generally not suitable for telegraph and telephone poles of the required dimen- sions. For instance, when the specifications stipulate an 8 inch inch diameter at the butt and a 6 mch diameter at the top, the Swedish poles would be 7^ inches at the butt and 6 inches at the top. The growth of the Norwegian pme is more suitable for telephone poles and this trade, therefore, is handled largely by Norway. It is difficult m Sweden to obtain telegraph and telephone poles more than 50 feet long if they must comply otherwise with the British specifications. The followmg are typical specifications for telegraph and tele- phone jDoles from southern Norrland to the east coast of the United Kingdom in 1913: Minimum Prices c. i. f. T^engths. Top diameters, east coast, diameters. 5 feet from United butt end. Kingdom. Fed. Inches. Inches. Per phcr. IS 51-6.', 7\ $0,973 20 W-6i '•2 1.095 22 5.'.-6J 7-J 1.277 24 5|-6J 8 1.642 26 5?-7 H 1.947 28 52-7 8i 2.190 30 6 -7] SJ 2.433 34 fi;-7j 9J 3.042 30 6'-7-i 10 3.407 3S K-7i m 4.380 40 0'-?.', 03 5.110 15 0.V8" 103 6.083 .-lO ol-si Uf. S. 030 55 7 "-8 5 m 10. 9.J0 00 7 -SiJ 131 14.840 65 7 -9 14 17.760 180 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. MINING TIMBER. The United Kingdom is the principal market for romid mming timber. This stock is of rather poor quality, admittmg discolora- tion, a certain amomit of rot, large knots, etc. — in other words, stock that is not suitable for the sawmills. Tlie mining timber is usually barked and shipped in lengths of 10 feet and up, generally 17 to 18 feet. The top diameter varies from 4 to 7 inches. This stock was sold before the war at about 7 to 8 cents per cubic foot. The exports are unimportant. Pit props are used m the mmes for various purposes, supports, etc., and are shipped mamly to the United Kingdom. The shipment of props from Sweden is effected either direct or by way of Norwegian ports. During the last 10 years before the war the exports of props declined about 50 per cent on account of the m- creased use of such stock by the pulp mills in Sweden. Both pine and spruce and some birch props are shipped. The birch props are used m the manufacture of bobbins. Of phie and spruce props there are two kinds, long and short props. The long props are 3 inches in top diameter and are 10 feet and up in length. The average length is generally 14 to 16 feet. This prop is usually crosscut to suitable size at the mines. Short props are shipped in lengths from 2^ to 8 or 9 feet. The general rules in connection with prop shipments stipulate that the number of feet in length must not be less than the number of inches in top diameter. The props are shipped either barked or with the bark partly stripped. Props are usually sold by the cubic fathom, or 216 cubic feet. Tlie prices before the war varied a great deal because prop shipments are usually handled by small exporters and speculators who have not regulated their output or prices. Much unfavorable comment is heard in Sweden about the system of measuring props in the importing countries, and there seems to be and urgent call for some kind of official institution for measuring props, such as has been established in Nomvay with very satisfactory results. The Swedish prop shippers have been more or less in the hands of the importers, as the props frequently have been paid for on the basis of measurements taken hi the importing countries. The prices before the war generally averaged about $11.50 per cubic fathom, f. o. b. central and southern Norrland ports, and $14.50, f. o. b. west coast of Sweden. During the war the prices for props advanced materially and as much as 150 to $55 was paid f. o. b. west coast of Sweden. The production of props has been for many years a menace to the Swedish forests, but hj the new forest law the production of props is greatly curtailed. Such stock from now on will be produced mainl}^ from timber cut in accordance with the improvement-thinning cutting system or from top logs, etc. It is believed that the shipments of props from Sweden will decline materially in years to come; and as laws similar to the Swedish are in effect in Finland, the production of props will probably be transferred to Russia, where the cutting regulations arc less strict . Props are sometimes cut in two and exported. For instance, from logs 4^ and 5 inches in top diameter, two piec(>s, 21 by 4^ and 2^ by 5 inches, are obtained. The length varies from IV fe(>t and up; SWEDISH LUMBER INDtTSTEY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 181 it is usually 6 feet. This stock is usually shipped to the United Kjngdom. PULl" WOOD. It is natural that a country like Sweden with an important pulp industry can not have any large quantities of pulp wood for export^ because the Swedish pulp factories are in need oi very large quantities of this material. The pulp wood exported from Sweden goes almost exclusively to Norway, and is shipped only from such regions as are more accessible to Norwegian points than to the nearest Swedish pulp mills. HEAVY SQUARE TIMBER. Heavy square timber may be defined as timber 9 or more inches square at the middle. The lengths are 18 feet and more. This stock is shipped mostly from the west coast of Sweden and the northern parts of Norrland to Denmark and Germany. Pine is generally preferred. For reasons previously stated, the supply in Sweden oi this kind of timber is not very large. The maximmn dimensions obtained in any part of Sweden may be said to be 15 to 16 inches square at the middle, and 50 to 60 feet long. Such stock, however, is extremely rare and would command heavy prices. The customary dimensions of heavy square' timber are 9, 10, 11, and 12 inches square at the middle. The average length is about 22 feet. The average cubical contents, upon which basis the timber is sold, is generally 30 to 35 cubic feet. The timber is hewn in such a way that the piece is given a conical shape. The difference in the measure at the butt and at the top is generally 1 to 3 inches, depending upon the length. The timber is cut on the half foot in length and measured on the quarter mch in square. Considerable wane is allowed, extending from the middle of the piece toward the top. For instance, timber 10 inches at the butt may have 6^ inches of hewn surface at the top. The rules in regard to the wane vary greatly, however, with different shippers and differ- ent markets. The timber is graded into two grades, first and second, but very small quantities of second-grade timber are shipped. The require- ments in regard to first-grade stock are rather indefinite, but the general stipulation is that the timber must have no defects that would materially weaken it. No lar^e or rotten knots, no discolora- tion, and no heart shakes are admitted. The timber is generally stored under water to prevent checking. The prices obtained before the war, f. o. b. central Norrland ports, were approximately $0,40 per cubic foot, based on timber of 30 cubic feet, and i7i 1918 about $1.35 per cubic foot was paid for the same dimension. HEWN AND SAWN SMALL TIMBER. Northern Norrland and the west coast of Sweden are the principal producers of hewn and sawn small timber, and it is shipped to the United Kingdom, France, Germany, Denmark, and Egypt, and a few other countries. Both pine and spruce small timber is cut and shipped in one quality only. The smair timber must not have so many nor so large knots as the heavy timber. The stipulations in regard to this stock vary greatly in the different countries to which it is shipped. 182 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. Tlio United Kingdom requires that the difference in measiiremont l)ctween the butt and the middle must not exceed 2 inches. If th(^ quality of the small timber is good, wane up to one-third of the lengtli of the piece, measured from the top toward the middle, may be al- lowed. For instance, timber 6 inches square at the middle may be 4 inches square at the top. The dimensions shipped to the United Kmgdom vary from 4 to 6 inches square at the middle and tlio lengths from 12 feet and up. To Egypt, Germany, and Denmark small timber is shipped Jiewn, sawn, or planed in dimensions ranging from 3 by 3 inches and up. Denmark takes mostly pine stock, both hewni and sawn, but this market is rather strict in regard to the wane on sawn small timber. Hewn stock, on the other hand, admits of a large amount of wane. The small timber must be bright and dry and have no serious defects. The average length is about 15 feet. The hewn timber ma}^ admit of a larger amount of defects than sawn timber, but, on the other hand, the average length of hewn timber must generally be some- what greater than that of sawn timber. To Germany a special stock called ''Kantholz" is shipped, both of pine and spruce. Spruce, however, is preferred on account of the duty, which is based on the weight. The German importers prefer to have th^e stock sawn according to metric measurements. For such special sawn stock extra charges are naturally made by the Swedish exporters. The average lengths of "Kantholz" are 15 to 16 feet. This stock may contain a large amount of wane; it may be stated in the contracts that the only requirements in this regard are that the saw must have touched all four sides of each piece. The small timber shipped to Egypt is of rather inferior quality and admits of a large amount of wane. This stock, however, must be bright and dry. For Egyptian small timber both pine and spruce are used and the stock is hewn. The dimensions vary considerably and the lengths are generally 12^, 15f , ISf , 22, and 25 feet. Following are the items in a typical shipment of 1,000 pieces of this small timber to the Egyptian market: Lengths. Width and tliickness. Pieces. Fcef. Inches. (3 bv 3 170 12i I3bv4 120 ]4bV4 110 |4by 5 70 (3 by 3 50 15J l3 by 4 50 I4bv4 150 14 by 5 100 (3 by 3 10 IXJ J3bv4 10 l4by 4 90 U bv 5 50 22 /4 by 4 t4 bv 5 5 5 25 ;4by4 \4by5 5 5 The prices of small timber, f. o. b. Norrland ports, were as follows before the war: Kantholz for Germany, measuring 4 by 4 to 6 by 6 inches, sold at 13.1 cents per cubic fool; 6 by 7 to 8 by 8 inches, 14.3 cents per cubic foot. These prices were based on timber IS feet and SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 183 more in length; shorter lengths were two-thirds of these prices. vSmall timber for Egypt varied in price from 10 to 12 cents per cubic foot. Small timber for France from 4 to 5 J inches square sold at 17 cents per cubic foot; 6 to 6| inches square, 18 cents; 7 to 7f inches square, 20 cents; and 8 inches square, 21 cents. These prices were based on lengths 18 feet and up. Shorter lengths v/ere sold at two- thirds of these prices. Small square timber for the United Kingdom generally commanded 12 cents per cubic foot in lengths of 18 feet and up. Shorter stock was sold at two-thirds of this price. Small timber for Denmark was generally sold at 25 to 30 cents per cubic foot, according to dimensions. During 1918 the average prices for small timber ranged from 60 to 85 cents per cubic foot. The follow- ing is an example of prices for the Danish market in 1918: 3 by 4 inches, 60 cents per cubic foot; 4 by 4 inches, 61 cents; 4 by 5 and 5 by 5 inches, 64 cents; 5 by 6 and 6 by 6 inches, 67 cents; 6 by 7 and 7 by 7 inches, 69 cents; 8 by 8 inches, 76 cents; 9 by 9 inches, 85 cents. The output of small timber may be affected seriously by the new forest laws in Sweden, which will restrict the cutting of young forests. RAILROAD TIES. The exports of railroad ties from Sweden are not important, as even the Swedish railways at times have difficulty in obtaining the necessary material of this kind. The Swedish Government, therefore, had to construct a sawmill for cutting ties, producing about 1,000,000 ties annually. The United Kingdom and Denmark are practically the only markets for Swedish ties, which are usually produced on the west coast of Sweden. The ties shipped to England are generally used in the mines. (The dimensions of the ties have been given under the section on ''Sawmilling.") Ties produced by private mills in Sweden for domestic consumption contain 34 cubic feet, and the following average prices have been obtained during the last five years: 1914, $0.67 per tie; 1915, $0,723; 1916, $0,938; 1917, $1,206; 1918, $1,742. The ties exported to Denmark are somewhat smaller than the ties used in Sweden and the price paid in 1918 was $2.15 per tie delivered f. o. b. Swedish west-coast ports. MARKETS FOR SWEDISH LUMBER EXPORTS. During the years immediately previous to the war Sweden ex- Eanded its activities over a larger field abroad. When the war roke out this development of the lumber export trade to countries outside of Europe was curtailed to a great extent. The following table shows the percentage of the Swedish exports of planed and rough lumber (pine and spruce) , including box shooks, that was sold to each continent from 1905 to 1916: Continents. 1905 1906 1907 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 1915 1916 Europe Perct. 94.1 5.2 .1 .4 .2 Percl. 94.1 4.8 .1 .6 .4 Perct. 93.3 5.5 .1 .6 .5 Perct. 91.0 7.1 .1 1.4 .4 Perct. 91.4 6.5 .3 1.3 .5 Perct. 86.6 9.6 .5 2.6 .7 Perct. 85.9 9.3 .6 3.1 1.1 Perk. 87.2 9.0 .8 1.8 1.2 Percl. 87.2 9.5 .4 2.3 .6 Perct. 91.7 5.5 .4 2.0 .4 Perct. 96.9 2.5 .1 .4 .1 Perct. 97.2 Africa 2.6 Asia .2 Australia America .0 .0 184 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. A detailed statement in regard to the percentage of rough lumber and planed lumber exported to the different continents may be found in tlu^ a])j)endix. SfflPPING CONDITIONS. While the ports on the western and southern coasts of Sweden are open the year round, this is not the case with the ports facing the Baltic and the Gulf of Bothnia, Large stocks of lumber are therefore accumulated during the winter for shipment by the first open water. These stocks usually aggregate about 1,000,000,000 board feet when navigation opens in the spring. In late years, however, the southeastern ports of Sweden have been kept open by ice breakers, but the lumber shipments for export from these ports are not very important. The snipping season of the principal lumber-exporting districts does not start until the end of April, at which time the southern Norrland ports are open to navigation. During the month of May the other ports lying north of this district can resume shipping, which is carried on until the water freezes sometime in the late fall, about the middle of November in the northern ports. In the southern Norrland ports navigation may be open until the latter half of December. The following schedule gives an approximate idea of the percent- ages of a normal year's exports of lumber from Sweden shipped during the different months: Per cent. January-May 24 June : 11 July 13 August 11 The Swedish ports are very satisfactory and are usually protected by islands. The tidewater in the northern ports does not interfere at all with the shipping, as the Gulf of Bothnia may be considered almost an inland sea. While in Norrland and on the east coast lumber exports are usually effected by vessels durmg normal times, southern Sweden ships important quantities by rail to Denmark. This market is supplied by many small mills in southern and central Sweden cater- ing to this trade and the lumber is taken across the narrow sound on ferryboats. During the war this rail shipment increased on account of the high ocean freight rates and heavy insurance premiums demanded. Even the mills up in southern and central Norrland shipped lumber in this way to Denmark. Considerable quantities of lumber are shipped to Norway by rail during normal years from interior mills located at a distance from Swedish ports. The rail shipments to Norway increased very materially during the war. While the average normal quantity of lumber shipped by rail to Norway was about 90,000,000 feet board measure, this quantity nearly doubled during the latter part of the war. A large percentage of the Swedish lumber exported to Norway is consumed in that country, but probably most of it is planed or otherwise manufactured and reexported. The natural outlet for Swedish lumber from Norrland is by water, and as soon as normal conditions are restored rail shipments will Per cent. September 11 October 13 November 10 December 7 Special Agents Series No. 195. FIG. 83.— PILING WITH CRANES. FIG. 64.— LUMBER PILED SOLID AND PROTECTED BY TRIPLE ROOF. Special Agents Series No. 195. PIG. 85.— PILING LUMBER SO AS TO LEAVE ENDS 3 OR 4 INCHES LONG PROTRUDING FROM PILE. FIG. 86.— METHOD OF PILIIK, WITH HIGH BASE AND PERFECTLY CLEAN BOTTOMS. SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 185 decrease. There \vi\\ always be some rail shipments to Norway aud Denmark, however, from certam mterior mill districts in Sweden. Owing to the difficult conditions in regard to shippui^ during the war, several mills in Norrland shipped important quantities of lum- ber onbarges inside the 3-mile limit to southwestern Sweden and stored the lumber in the ports until the followiii^ winter, when the prices went up on account of the limited quantities available for shipment from the parts of Sweden with ports open the year round. This shipping system was very expensive, as the storage charges on the west coast were heavy and usually very small profits, if any, resulted. This system was discoaitinued by most of the firms toward the end of the war. It must be considered as a war measure only. Some mills also tried to reach foreign markets via Norwegian ports, but the difficulties in regard to securing storage space for lumber and the high charges for transshipment prevented the Swedish exporters from making much of a success of this undertaking. There may have been also, in many cases, obstructions on the part of Norwegian exporters who did not like to see the Swedish lumber pass out of their hands by being shipped dhect. Owing to the shortage of coal and cars during the war, the Swedish Government made a ruling that lumber could be shipped by rail only through its regular channels before the war and besides compensa- tion in coal was demanded in case of such rail shipments. RAILWAY FREIGHT RATES. Before the war the cost of shipment by rail during the winter from the mills on the Wenner Lake to Goteborg was approximately $2 to $3.50 per 1,000 feet board measure. In 1918, the charges were $7.50 to $10. These charges include loading on cars, railroad freight, and transshipping to steamer in Goteborg. The charges per 1,000 feet board measure for transshipment of planed and rough lumber, held for different storage periods in the port of Goteborg, were as follows : storage periods. 16 days 25 days 35 days Planed lumber. S2.17 2.79 3.45 Rough lumber. $2.03 2.50 3.18 Storage periods. Planed lumber. 45 days $4.12 60 davs .'). 15 90davs 7.04 Rough lumber. $3.86 4.87 6.78 In some cases, both during and before the war, lumber was shipped by rail to Goteborg even from points in central Norrland. The rates before the war, including storage charges in Goteborg, were about $4.50 to $5.25 per 1,000 feet and in 1918 about $21.50. The rates for shipment of planed lumber from the sawmill districts in Jemtland, in the interior of central Norrland, to the Norwegian port of Trondhjem were $1.35 to $1.50 per 1,000 feet in 1913, and $4 to $4.50 in 1918. For rough stock the charges were $1.55 to $1.65 in 1913 and $5.25 to $7 in 1918. On August 1, 1919, another heavy increase was made in railroad freight and the present rates in Sweden represent about 250 per cent increase above the pre-war rates. This has had a very serious efl"ect 186 SWEDISH LUMBEK INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. on rail shipments in Sweden and has also affected the charcoal industry to such an extent that many mills have been forced to discontinue the operation of their charcoal plants. STEAMSHIP LINES AND TONNAGE QUESTION. While the Swedish west-coast shippers have enjoyed the benefits, of direct liners, the Norrland ports nave not been in the same favor- able position. Only a few liners at times touched the Norrland ports before the war, as the steamers generally managed to obtain full cargoes in southwestern Sweden and in southeastern Noi'way. Before the war the west coast of Sweden had steamship connections with practically every important lumber market in the world, as is shown by the following list of countries served by steamers from Goteborg: France (Channel, Bay of Biscay, and Mediterranean ports); Belgium, the Netherlands, United Kingdom (east, south, and west coasts), Denmark, Norway, Germany, Spain (Bay of Biscay and Mediterranean ports), Portugal, Italy, Balkan ports, and the Levant, South America (east and west coasts), British India, Dutch East Indies, Persian Gulf and Red Sea ports, Canary Islands, North Africa, South Africa, East Africa, West Africa, and Australia. Some of these lines were Norwegian and some were of other nationalities, but the Swedish shipowners greatly developed this system of regular steamship lines during the last few years before the war. The war interrupted this development, but during 1919 most of the old- established lines resumed operations and several new lines were estab- lished, while others are contemplated. The Swedish and the Nor- wegian steamship lines closely cooperate in regard to the expansion of their activities. Some of the Swedish steamship lines had Govern- ment subsidies before the war, but during the war several of them voluntarily returned the amounts received from the Government. Sweden has not at present suitable timber for shipbuilding pur- poses, and the art of building wooden ships is almost forgotten. A type of smaller vessels has been inaugurated lately by one miU in the Wenner district, having access to the ocean through the canal in the Gota River. The boats built for this mill have a capacity of 600,000 to 800,000 feet board measure and are equipped with auxihary motors. Such ships can easily cross the North Sea, and it is even planned to have them go as far as the Mediterranean countries, so that the cargoes will not have to be transshipped in Swedish ocean ports. It is almost certain that this type of steamer will be found very suitable, as they can easily reach Em'opean ports where larger steamers have difficulty in entering. Other miUs have constructed barges of a larger capacity provided with auxiliary oil-burning engines. For many years plans have been under consideration to keep the Norrland ports open to navigation the year round by ice breakers. Although this plan has not yet been fully reahzed, the shipping season has been extended every year by means of ice breakei-s. In 1918 this movement was again started and received official support. It was planned to establish a service of powerful ice break- ers along the Norrland coast, assisted by a series of local ice breakers, and it was expected to have all important ports open at least through the greater part of the winter. If this scheme is successfully carried SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 187 out ill the future, it will have an important influence upon the market, as Sweden will then be enabled to sliip lumber the year round. The plan has many practical difficulties, however, and it may not benefit the lumber industry to such an extent as is generally believed. Lumber can usually be loaded only from barges, and it will be very difficult and in many cases almost impossible to load in this way during the winter. For the pulp mills, on the other hand, such a plan would be of the utmost importance, as the vessels may load from the dock. The districts around Lake Wenner in central Sweden are in an espe- cially advantageous position in regard to shipping. A system of canals connects this lake and the surrounding water systems with the Catte- gat, and ships up to about 1,500 tons may pass through this canal and load at the mills on the northern shore of the lake. • Lake Wenner has an area of about 2,400 square miles and borders on a very impor- tant lumber region. It is planned to employ ice breakers in the canal and on the lake to keep navigation open the year round. RAFTING OF SAWN LUMBER. In 1918 a Swedish company, Aktiebolaget Refanut, was organized in Stockholm to exploit the patents of rafting sawn lumber. The idea of rafting sawn lumber is new, although rafting logs has been practiced for a long time on the Pacific coast of the United States, and in' Finland and northern SAveden. Aktiebalaget Refanut conceived the idea of extending the rafting to sawn lumber during the war; in pre-war days the freight rates had been so low that there seemed to be a limited call for such a system. During the war freight rates advanced to such a height that the northernmost districts on the Gulf of Bothnia found it exceedingly difficult to have their stocks shipped, and many companies had more than 50 per cent of the annual production in their yards at the end of the shipping season. The time seemed opportune for an attempt to raft sawn lumber, and during the autumn of 1918 a huge raft containing approximately 4,200,000 board feet of sawn lumber, consisting mainly of fifth-grade stock, was towed from Haparanda district in northern Sweden to Copenhagen, a distance of about 1,000 miles. This raft was 365 feet long, 50 feet wide, and 25 feet deep, and had a draft of 15 feet 5 inches. It was constructed very solidly and bound with steel wire. The raft arrived in good condition, and the first attempt to raft sawn lumber was accomphshed successfully. As this matter of rafting is of vital importance to the lumber ex- porters in the United States, where attempts have been contem- plated to raft lumber across the Atlantic, it may be of interest to consider a report made by Lloyd's surveyor in Stockholm in this connection. An extract from this report reads as f oUows : The bottom structure of the raft consists of foiu: tiers of longitudinal beams or girders, each consisting of two tiers of 8 by 6 inch pine beams, bolted, the one tier on top of the other, by means of 1-inch screw bolts. These girders are connected crosswise by means of 8 by 8 inch beams and IJ-inch screw bolts at the crossings. Forward and aft this bottom structure is pointed, the angles at both ends being 60°. On this bottom frame the first layer, consisting of 11 by 4 inch deals, is laid longi- tudinally, with the butts well shifted. The next, or second, layer is laid on top of the longitudinal layer at an angle of 30° on one side. The next, or third, layer is laid on top of the second one at an angle of 30° with the longitudinal direction, but on the opposite side. The next, or fourth, layer again is laid longitudinally, and so on. In addition, a few layers are dispersed throughout the body of the raft at right angles to the longitudinal direction. 188 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. It is assumed that by this distribution of the component tiers of the raft the longi- tudinal or bending stresses in the body, caused by the action of the waves, weight of deck cargo, etc.. will be absorbed by the longitudinal tiers, whereas any tendency toward " corkscre^ving " in a seaway, caused by waves striking in an oblique direction, will be counteracted by the diagonal and athwartship tiers. Aktiebolaget Refanut's object was to test the question whether, practically speaking, the natural adhesion between the surfaces of sawn wood was sufficient, if supplemented by a reasonable amount of cable bindings, to withstand the disintegrating effect of long sea voyages, and it must be said that the result was satisfactory under the conditions encountered in the Baltic. To quote again from Lloyd's report: In the southern part of the Baltic, however, a sea rose 2 to 3 meters (7 to 10 feet) in height, and then the midshij) portion of the raft was foimd to rise and drop relatively on both ends within the limits of 2J and 4J- inches between the extreme positions, thus showing that an actual deflection from the horizontal line of the deck took place of 4f inches as a maximum, a deflection which is thus practically equal to the deflec- tion of the bottom, caiised by a deck load of 198 tons, as ascertained through, the soimd- ings above recorded. The observations appear to corroborate the opinion of the originator and the designer that the internal pressure between the component parts of the raft is sufficient for practically altering the friction or adhesion between these parts so much that it may be considered equal to the cohesion in a solid log or beam. In particular, the good elastic properties of the main body of the raft, if the weak, pointed ends be disregarded, is really striking and appears to support this theory materially. Finally, Lloyd's report on the underwriting point of view states: That rafts, of the general design shown on the appended plan, appear to possess suffi- cient rigidity to resist the action of even a fairly rough sea; That the waves of about 10 feet in height, encountered on this first voyage with a lashed raft of sawn wood, termed "refanute," when striking against the bow and sides, have not caused any damage whatever; That the working in a seaway of tMs raft more than 328 feet in length, and the period- ical deflections from the horizontal of the main body of the raft between the wedge- shaped ends, are insignificant and probably less than those that may be observed on the null of a cargo steamer of the same length, loaded with hea^'y cargo: That the permanent set of the deck line is practically nil ; and That the network of steel wires has been found to be judiciously' dispersed over the surface of the raft and has actually prevented any part of the surface wood from com- ing adrift or even loosening the fii'm adherence to the adjacent parts of the ' ' refanute, ' ' which appears to be the "springing point" and the underlying principle of this new kind of transportation of sawn wood. Provided that Aktiebolaget Refanut can satisfy underwriters that the same consci- entious attention to details of stowing and binding together be given to future constnic- tions. as has been bestowed on the "Refanut I," I consider the risk on insurance of this kind of craft — apart from the fact that about five-eighths of the "cargo' ' is or may be soaked with water from the outset — ^little if at all greater than that on the large deck cargoes of sawn wood, usually carried across the North Sea. But I beg to emphasize that I do not recommend promiscuous insurance of this kind of craft, irrespective of its origin and construction. I understand that Aktiebolaget Refanut is patenting the main features of the new construction and have registered the name "Refanut" in different countries. Their future rafts, or "refanutes," will all liear this name with consecutive numbers, so that even their name will become a Mnd of guaranty of a certain type of raft and class of work in its construction. While a raft of logs once broken is hopelessly dispersed, sawn lumber has often shown an astonishing cohesion, and it is believed that in case of accident, the greater percentage of such rafts could be salvaged. Naturally the lumber will suffer somewhat from sea water, but recent improvements made on the Refanut will overcome these difficulties to a great extent. It is claimed that the freight on this raft from northern Sweden to Copenhagen was only one-fifth of SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 189 the freight rates for the same quantity of lumber carried in the regular way. Early in the spring of 1919 a raft of sawn lumber, constructed on lines similar to the Refanut, was transported from Trondhjem in northern Norway to the east coast of the United Kingdom. Although the North Sea, which is very shallow, is one of the most difficult crossings to make, this rafting turned out successfully. It appears that Aktiebolaget Refanut Co. intends to make further experiments to perfect this system and that this question has already been taken up with American interests by the Swedish company. Figure 108 shows the construction of the first Refanut, which was towed to Denmark. OCEAN FREIGHT RATES. Although the pre-war freight rates will probably never obtain again, it may be of interest to see how the low rates then prevailing enabled the Swedish exporters to reach such far-away countries as Australia and South Africa. The freight rates before the war were fairty stable. Many ports in Sweden enjoyed the privilege of having direct liners to the principal foreign markets, and a large percentage of the lumber shipped from the west coast was sent on the regular liners. The freight from the west-coast district to the east-coast ports of the United Kingdom at times was as low as $1.25 to $1.50 per 1,000 feet board measure, but the rates from the Baltic and Gulf of Bothnia ports were somewhat higher. On an average the freights per 1,000 feet board measm-e from the Hernosand district to various destinations were about as follows before the war: Northern Africa $7. 50-$9. 00 6.14 n.00 12. 25 12.50 10.50 10. 25 9.85 Canary Islands. Algoa Bay and Ca])e Town. East London and Durban. . Delagoa Bay Freemantle Adelaide Melbourne and Sydney United Kingdom east-coast ports .". $2. 50-$3. 30 Germany 1. 75- 2. 25 Netherlands and Belgium... 2. 75- 3. 00 France (Channel ports) 2. 80- 3. 25 Northern Spain 4. 00- 5. 00 Mediterranean ports (Spain and France) 7.00- 8. 50 Other Mediterranean ports. . 7. 50- 8. 50 The freights from the Swedish west coast to South yVfrica and Aus- tralia were $1.25 less. The rate from the Hernosand district to Mel- bourne and Sydney by sailing vessel was $7.35 per 1,000 feet. In many cases very low rates could be obtained on lumber from the west coast, especially when steamers desired parcel lots to com- plete a cargo. The record rate is said to have been obtained a few years before the war broke out, when a steamer was chartered to load at five different mills in the Hernosand district for the United Kingdom east-coast ports at about $2.08 per 1,000 feet. The difference in freight between the various ports in Norrland and the southeastern coast of Sweden was not very large before the war. Between the ports in the upper-gulf and in the Hernosand district, the difference in freight would be about $0.61 to $1.23 per 1,000 feet. The difference between the Hernosand district and the lower-gulf district did not vary very much — at times about $0.61 per 1,000 feet. A large percentage of the lumber exported, particularly to the Mediterranean comitries and the British colonies, was shipped in sailing vessels. Most of the lumber to South America was shipped 190 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. from Gotebor^ on the west coast by the regTilar liners between this port and South America. The freight rates from Goteborg or Stock- nohn to the various ports in South America in 1913 were about as follows, per 1,000 feet board measure: Pernambuco, S14; Rio de Janeiro, $11; Santos, $12; Bahia Blanca, $18.50; Montevideo, $9.50; Buenos Aires, $9.50. Deck cargoes were sometimes shipped at two-thirds of the regular rates to the Mediterranean countries and a few others, but in most cases deck cargoes paid full freight. Short lumber (6, 7, and 8 feet), constituting 3 to 5 per cent of the cargo was sometimes freighted at two-thirds of the regular rate on sailing vessels, but on steamers full freight was always paid. During the war the freight rates increased many tunes and even $50 to $60 per 1,000 feet board measure was paid for lumber cargoes from Goteborg to the east coast of the United Kingdom. However, these freight rates are of no interest at the present time, as they were abnormal. It is difficult to pronoimce anything definite upon the freight rate for the future, as this question is very unsettled. Recently the Swedish shipowners entered into an agreement with the United Kingdom with regard to tonnage and the following rates per 1 ,000 board feet applied for lumber shipped from Sweden to that country (October, 1919) : Hernosand to east coast ports of the United Kingdom, $21.80; Hernosand to west coast ports of the United King- dom, $23.05; Swedish w^est coast ports to east coast ports of the United Kingdom, $12.90. For other European countries the freight rates vary from one day to another. From the Swedish west coast ports to northern France, about $19 to $20 per 1,000 feet, board measure, is generally paid, and to the same markets from Hernosand about $30. To the Netherlands and Belgium the rates are somewhat lower; for the Netherlands the rate is about $25 from Hernosand. It is estimated that the higher the freight rates the better opportu- nity the Swedes have for controlling European markets, without com- petirion from countries outside of Europe; and by the time freight rates have come down to reasonable figures, the Swedish lumber exporters will have the advantage of several new steamship lines. MARINE INSURANCE. The insurance rates difi'ered considerably before the war during the various seasons of the year. On an average, the premium paid was about ^ of 1 per cent to 1|^ per cent during normal times. For sailing vessels the charges were heavier. During the war 10 per cent premium for marine insurance was not an unusual charge and even as higk as 30 per cent was paid in March, 1917, from Goteborg to United Kingdom east coast ports. Since the armistice, the rates of insurance have come down to about the pre-war level. SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 191 The following table gives the normal marine-insurance rates at various seasons, affecting lumber cargoes from the east coast of Swe- den, to the principal markets: Dates of sliipment. Apr. 1-July31.. Aug. 1-Aug. 10.. Aug, 11-Aiig. 15. Aug. 16-Aug. 20. Aug. 21-Aug. 31. Sept. 1-Sept. 10. Sept. 11-SeDt. 15 Sept. 1(>-Sept. 20 Sept. 21-Sept. 25 Sept. 2f>-Sept. 30 Oct. 1-Oct. 5. . . . Oct. 6-Oct. 10... Oct. 11-Oct. 15.. Oct. ir>-Oct. 20. . Oct. 21-Oct. 25. . Oct. 26-Oct. 31.. Nov. 1-Mar. 31.. To east coast of TTnlted Kingdom. Per cent. To west coast of United Kingdom. To western France^ Bay Of Biscay ports, Por- tugal and south coast of Spain east to Gibraltar. Per cent. Per cent. To Med- iterranean countries. Per cent. The rates from the east coast of Sweden to the channel ports of France and England were usually the same as for the east coast of the United Kingdom. The rates to South Africa were generally about 10 per cent higher, and the rates to South America and Australia about. 15 per cent higher than the rates to the Mediterranean countries. SHIPPING REGIONS. • Ever since the lumber export trade of Sweden started on a big scale some 60 years ago, the importers have differentiated between the lumber products shipped from the various Swedish districts. The wood in the northern regions shows very pronounced qualities, such as solid texture, while in the southern districts of Sweden the wood is often more coarse-grained and pulpy. At present most of the virgin forests are cut out and the mills are more dependent upon obtaining their log supply from other sources. The differentiation now made is to a large extent, in regard to the product of different shippers; it is not based exclusivel}^ on shipping districts. The larger importers and agents, who generally are well posted on local condi- tions in Sweden, know the character of the shipments from most ot the prominent exporters, and the prices paid for lumber may vary con- siderably for the products of different exporters in tne same districts. Many shippers have obtained a good reputation among importers and consumers and by branding their products may be able to obtain a better price than their competitors although they may use the same raw material and the same manufacturing methods. The best proof of this situation is that Swedish lumber exporters m several of the largest districts in Norrland take an important per- centage of their log supply from northern Finland and, using the 192 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. same raw material as their Finnish competitors, obtain for their prod- uct several dollars more per 1,000 board feet. Logs are often taken from other districts in Sweden than from the section of the country where the mills have their forests. Sawn lumber also is barged from one sawmill district to another. For instance, lumber from Herno- sand, which was sold at about 61 cents per 1,000 feet less than lumber from Sundsvall, farther south, was often barged to that port at a cost of about 13 cents per 1,000 feet, the Sundsvall exporters thereby- making a profit of 48 cents per 1,000 feet. i It is evident that one can no longer make any accurate differen- tiation between the lumber products of the Swedish shipping dis- tricts; but the differentiation must be made in regard to the prod- ucts of each individual exporter. If the mills have been able to maintain their good standing amono; the importers for shipping quality lumber, in spite of the fact that they are taking logs from other districts, they have done so through careful grading and efficient manufacturing and selling. The following table shows the exports from different districts of Sweden in 1913 of pine and spruce planks, battens, and boards rough and planed (not including box shooks, staves, etc.): Sliipping districts. Rough lumber. Planed lumber. Total rough and planed. Haparanda, Lulea, Pitea, and Skelleftea. Umea and Ornskoldsvik Mfiet. ■ 260,313 122, 171 269, 678 256, 552 385, 9S0 Hernosand Sundsvall Hudiksvall, Soderhamn, and Cievle , — , -- Stockholm-Malmo(including Gotland I land) i 194, 205 West-coast district ! 113, 125 Districts bordering on Norway [ 42, 610 other districts , 24, 439 Mfcct. 1,461 40, 134 9,085 81,004 60, 757 33,802 38, 101 20, 575 5,324 At feet. 261, 774 162, 305 278, 763 337, 556 446, 737 228, 007 151, 226 m, 185 29,763 Total 1, 669, 073 290, 243 1,959,316 UPPER-GULF REGION. The upper-gulf district extends south from the Finnish border to a few nmes north of the Angermann River and comprises the follow- ing districts: Haparanda, Lulea, Pitea, Skelleftea, Umea, and Ornskoldsvik. In the northern part of this region there were for- merly several mdls of medium size, but during the war a consolida- tion process took place, and one company now practically monopo- lizes the whole export trade in this part of the upper gulf. In the southern part of the upper-gulf district there are several very impor- tant mills, some are operated in connection wdth planing mills and pulp factories. The pine from the upper gulf, particularly in the north, is of a reddish color and contains a larger percentage of heart than is found in the other districts of Sweden. The lumber is very knotty, how- ever, and logs cut from overmature stands often contain many defects, so that it has been necessary in several instances to create an extra grade of cull lumber, usually termed "seventh grade.'' The pine from these regions is in gi'eat favor with the British, Egyp- tian, and other importers. SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXFORT TRADE. 193 The spruce is not considered so satisfactory as the pine in the northernmost districts, but in the southern part of the upper gulf excellent spruce is found. The lumber from the upper gulf may be classified as good con- struction lumber, although it is commonly considered not to have the same breaking strength as lumber taken from districts farther south, owing to the shorter fiber of the wood. This, however, is more theory than a scientifically proven fact and may be vigorously opposed by the lumber exporters in the upper gulf. The lumber in the nortthernmost part is not suitable for planing purposes on account of its many knots. It is therefore sold only in one unsorted grade and two or three grades for cull stock. The normal production in the upper gulf may be considered to be about 80 per cent pine and 20 per cent spruce, about 75 per cent of which would be graded as unsorted, 20 per cent fifth, and 5 per per cent sixth and seventh grade. In the southern districts of the upper gulf the. result of the grading would show a distinct improvement. More spruce lumber also is produced in these districts, and it is of excellent quality. The lumber from the upper-gulf region is handicapped in regard to shipping facilities. The freight rates are usually higher than from other districts, and no direct steamship lines touch the ports, because this region consists almost exclusively of sawmill districts and it is difficult for shipowners to obtain cargoes for these ports. Particu- larly during the war, many mills found themselves with large quan- tities of lumber that they were unable to ship on account oi the exorbitant freight rates. Moreover, the sliipping season is short, as the ports are closed by ice in the autumn and the ice breaks up very late in the spring. For these reasons the prices are lower than for most of the other districts in Sweden, although the lumber itself is considered to be more satisfactory than that from many other districts. Navigation opens in the northernmost parts of this region at the end of May and closes early in November; in the southernmost dis- tricts navigation is open at the beginning of May and closes in the beginning or middle of December. HERNOSAND REGION. Hernosand region, one of the most important in Sweden, comprises the land bordering the Angermann River and a narrow strip north and south of the river along the Gulf of Bothnia. Many mills are found on both sides of the river, which is navigable for about 70 miles, allowing steamers of any size to go up to the mills at this distance. The mills are usually smaller than in the other districts in Norrland. There is also a large pulp industry, affording good marketing conditions for the mill refuse. A number of planing mills are operated in connection with the sawmills. The lumber from the Hernosand region seems to be rather uniform in regard to manufacture and trading, in spite of the fact that this territory has a large number of mills. The sawmills frequently co- operate in regard to the grading and sawing, etc., and shipments from the Hernosand district are considered in the general lumber 2092°— 21 13 194 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUIMBER EXPORT TRADE. trade as typical Swedish standard products. When export prices are quoted, the Hernosand district is frequently made the basis, and the prices for the other districts are calculated by adding or subtract- ing the customary difference. Formerly this region was almost exclusively a spruce-exporting district. The spruce lumber is of excellent quality and the wood is of an intense white color. The knots are small and firm and the wood is very dense. Lately, however, pine has been exported in a larger proportion than before, and the quality is good, although the pine from this section is not so well known as the spruce. The pro- portion of pine and spruce is about 55 per cent of spruce and 45 per oent of pine. In this district certain dimensions, especially of spruce, are classified into six grades, but the remainder is sorted into un- sorted, fifth, and sixth grades. The 3 by 9 inch spruce planks from Hernosand are much in demand in the French market, and this dimension is graded into six q^ualities. The grading of some of the representative Hernosand-distnct mills for 3 by 9 inch spruce planks shows the following result: First quality, 5 per cent; second quality, 10 per cent; third quality, SOper cent; fourth quality, 35 per cent; The percentage of fifth and sixth grades may vary a great deal. For the mills under discussion, the percentage of fifth and sixth grades combined amounted to 8 per cent of the total production of all grades. The result of the grading of the other dimensions of pine and spruce was 80 per cent luisorted, 9 per cent fifth, and 1 1 per cent sixth grade. The percentage of cull lumber is dependent largely upon tlie age of the timber stands. One year a tract of overmature stands in a forest may be cut and the percentage of cull lumber consequently would be very large. The following year second-growth stands may be logged, and the percentage of cull in such a case may be very small. The virgin forests in this district are nearly all cut out now; only in the most remote mountain districts are there limited areas left. It is commonly considered that the grading of the Hernosand dis- trict is somewhat less strict than that of the districts farther south in Norrland. Particularly is this true in regard to the amount of wane. However, the difference in grading is not very considerable between the Hernosand and the lower-gulf region and it can not be demon- strated satisfactorily in writing. Navigation opens about the middle of April and closes at the end of December or the beginning of January. LOWEE-GULF REGION. The lower-gulf region extends south from about 15 miles north of Sundsvall to about 60° latitude and constitutes by far the most im- portant lumber export region in Sweden. It comprises the follow- ing shipping districts: Sundsvall, Hudiksvall, Soderhamn, and Gevle. The largest sawmills in Sweden are located in this region, which also has an important planing-mill industiy. Some mills located in the interior sections maintain yards at the ports. This region is also an important producer of pulp and paper and some mills operate their own railroads for transporting the lumber from the interior. SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 195 The quality of the output of the different standard mills in the lower-gulf region is considered uniform, although the southernmost districts generall}'" have a larger percentage of clear lumher. Sunds- vall and Hudiksvall, the two northernmost shipping districts in the lower-gulf region, are especially noted for their excellent spruce, while the quality of the pine of the southern shipping districts is better than that of the spruce in the same districts. In the Sundsvall district only certain dimensions of pine and spruce are graded into six equalities; the remainder is graded as unsorted, fifth, and sixth. Hudiksvall and the districts south separate practi- cally all dimensions of pine and some dimensions of spruce into six grades. Sundsvall is particularh' noted for the long average length of its production, and lumber from this district is especially in demand by the British colonial markets, such as vSouth Africa and Australia. The other districts have specialized in high-grade stock for joinery and the better class of construction material. The following figures show the percentages of pine and spruce in the different grades for the Sundsvall sliipping district: Unsorted, 88 per cent; fifth grade, 7 per cent; sixth grade, 5 per cent. For pine planks the grading is about as folloAVs: First grade, 3 per cent; second grade, 7 per cent; third grade, 40 per cent; fourth grade, 35 per cent; fifth and sixth grades, 1.5 per cent. The percentages of spruce planks in the dift'erent grades is as follows: First grade, 2 per cent; second grade, 16 per cent; third grade, 42 per cent: fourth grade, 14 per cent; fifth and sixth grades, 26 per cent. The percentages for the fifth and sixth grades var}^ a good deal and can not be considered as average. Spruce lumber from shipping points south of Sundsvall is traded about as follows: Unsorted, 85 per cent; fifth and sixth grades, 15 per cent. Some dimensions of spruce may be sei)arated into six different grades in the same way as pine, but the grades commonly used for spruce lumber are unsorted, fifth, and sixth. The table following shows the average percentage of different kinds of pine lumber in each of the first four grades in some of the largest mills of southern Norrland. For grades V and VI no average figure can be given, but in most cases the proportion of V and VI seems to be about 15 to 20 per cent of the total production. The percentages in the table are calculated on the basis of the total quantity in the first four grades. Kinds of lumber. I grade. ■ II grade. Ill grade. IV grade. Planks Per cent. Percent. 2 15 ■1 , 18 7 14 6 13 Per cent. 12 38 32 36 Per cent. 41 Battens 40 Boards 47 Narrow boards 45 Scantlings are usually divided only into unsorted, fifth, and sixth grades. The logs in the southern part of the lower-gulf region give a larger percentage of the upper grades than those found in many other parts of vSweden. ^11 though the lumber exporters in other parts of Sweden, who are able to ship the year round, may obtain better prices during the winter months than are obtained for lumber from the lower gulf, 196 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. this is no indication of better quality but is due to the ability to fur- nish lumber when the lower-gulf shipping ports are closed by ice. \ Navigation opens about the middle of April and closes at the end of December or the beginning of January. ^ STOCKHOLM-MALMO REGION, The Stockholm-Malmo region comprises all the shipping dis- tricts south of 60° north latitude and takes in the southeastern coast and the southern coast up to and including the city of Malmo. A large number of small mills are scattered in this territory and, out- side of a few larger mills, there are no standard operations. While excellent timber is found in the northern parts of this region, north and south of Stockholm, the other parts of southeastern and southern Sweden are not known for good quality. With the exception men- tioned, the lumber shipped from this district probably represents the poorest quality in Sweeten. The manufacturing of the lumber also is usually defective, and these shipments can not be considered as representative of Swedish lumber for export. The lumber is often carelessly cut, usually on circular saws, which gives it a rough sm-face. Owing to the poor floating facilities in this region, the logs have not generally been in contact vnth. water, and the wood is often very hard on this account, particularly timber originating in the highlands of Smaland. Blue lumber constitutes a large percentage of these shipments, owin^ to defective methods of seasoning, and in many ports lumber is shipped that has not been edged. The lumber is usually graded into unsorted, fifth, and sixth grades, but, as the lumber export business is mainly in the hands of export merchants, there are no established grading rules. A large part of the output is sold locally or to the box factories and planing mills, especially on the west coast of Sweden. Most of the lumber shipped from southeastern Sweden is about 14 feet to 15 feet in length. Pine lumber is the predominating factor in the export trade. On the Island of Gotland similar conditions prevail. The quality of the lumber shipped is rather good and it is of solid texture, although very knotty. The wood is very hard, owing to the fact that it has not been floated. For a long time Brazil was a favorable market, but now the bulk of the lumber shipped from this island goes to Germany. Although the shipments from the Stockholm-Malmo region usually are defective, some mills produce very satisfactory lumber. Espe- cially in the Norrkoping district, several first-class mills may be found and larger dimensions may often be obtained here than from other parts of Sweden, some of the logs being cut on State forest land. The prices obtained for lumber from southeastern Sweden under normal conditions, during the season when all shipping districts in Sweden are open to navigation, are considerably below the prices obtained in otner districts. Exceptions must be made for standard shipments from this district. During late years navigation has usually been open the year round, although some ports may be closed for a few weeks. Special Agents Series No. 195. FIG. 87,— ANOTHER METHOD OF PILING. FIG. 88.— PILING OF STAVES. Special Agents Series No. 195 - O q: _j UJ LLi < < if) < O o o o Q- O en CL O 6 LL SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 197 WEST-COAST REGION. The west-coast region extends from Malmo up to the Norwegian boundary on the west coast. In this region Goteborg is practically theonly port of any importance. From the smaller ports is shipped lumber from the interior districts of southern Sweden, similar in character to that from the east coast, while Goteborg shipments represent mainly the lumber products of the districts of Vermland, with some from Dalecarlia. Some of this lumber is shipped direct from mills on Lake Wenner through the canal. Goteborg shipments are considered among the best in Sweden and the export lumber business is in the hands of old, well-established firms. The character of the lumber shipped via Goteborg is similar to that shipped from the south Norrland ports. The great advantage of this port is that it is open the year round, and the prices obtained, espe- cially during the winter months, are considerably higher than those obtained from the Norrland ports during the summer months. For a good production in Vermland, the proportion of the first four grades of pine and spruce would be about as follows: First grade, 5 per cent; second grade, 20 per cent; third grade, 55 per cent; fourth grade, 20 per cent. Of the fifth and sixth grades, the quantity is about 10 to 15 per cent of the total production. Goteborg is in an especially advantageous position in regard to shipping because many direct liners run from this port to the principal European countries and also to the principal markets outside of Europe. This is also the best port on the west coast. This district is one of the main centers for exports of joinery, planed stock, and box shooks. DETAILED CONSIDERATION OF PRINCIPAL MARKETS.^ UNITED KINGDOM. The United Kingdom is the most important of all markets for Swedish lumber. Almost any dimension of pine and spruce, both rough and dressed, finds a market there. Pme is generally preferred in England and Ireland, while more spruce is shipped to Scotland. The British market is very conservative and often specifies wide stock of lumber when narrower dimensions would serve the same pur- pose. Shipments from the northern Provinces of Norrland are especially in favor in the United Kmgdom on accomit of the reddish color. British shipyards and other plants sometimes call for heart specifications, but the demand can not be satisfied from Sweden in spite of the hirfi prices offered. "Torrac" of pine and spruce, or lumber sawn from dead trees with only the heartwood left, the sapwood having decayed, is shipped in considerable quantities and used extensively for construction pur- poses, especially when the lumber is to come into contact with water. This torrac lumber, however, is to be considered low-grade material. It is almost impossible to give a detailed statement in regard to the different dimensions required by this market, as nearly any dimension can be sold m the United Kingdom. The following 1 Various tables in the appendix show the quantities of lumber shipped to each country. The descrip- tion of the requirements of the principal markets in this section is based on pre-war conditions. I 198 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND T.TTMBER EXPORT TRADE. dimensions, however, are usually called for, in both pine and spruce: 3 by 11, 9, 7, 6,4:1, and 4 inches; 2h by 7 and 6 inches; and 2 by 7, 6, 5,4.^, 4, and 3 inches. Pine and spruce boards in various widths and in thicknesses of H, 1}, and 1 inch are also in demand. Scotland demands principally spruce lumber, usually in the followmg dimen- sions: 3 by 9, 8, and 7 mches; 2^ by 8, 6^, and 6 inches; and 2 by 7, 6, oi, 5, 4J, and 4 inches, Ireland often specifies wide boards, up to 11 inches. The United Kmgdom may be termed a market for planks. Battens and boards are taken in comparatively small quantities. It is the principal market for Swedish planed stock, taking about 50 per cent of the total Swedish output for export of this kmd of lumber. The planed boards are taken in almost any sizes. This market also re- quires 7-mch weatherboards, which are xiot exported elsewhere except to Australia, To the United Kingdom is shipped more than 50 per cent of Sweden's output for export of staves, box shocks, and split wood. It also is one of the most important markets for logs and timber and takes practically the entire quantities exported from Sweden of pit props and ties. The following are typical specifications for the London and the Scottish markets: LONDON. Pine, unsorted: M feet. 4 by 8 inches 10 4 by 7 inches 10 3 by 9 inches 99 3 by 8 inches 50 3 by 7 inches 30 3 by 5 inches 10 21 by 8 inches 10 2i by 7 inches 198 2^ by 5 inches 10 2 bv 11 inches 2 2 by 9 inches 20 2 by 8 inches 20 2 by 6 inches 40 2 by 5 inches 50 2 by 4^ inches 228 2 by 4 inches 139 1 by 7 inches 99 fby5Hnches 20 f by 5 inches 50 Total •- 1,095 SCOTLAND. Pine, unsorted: Mfeet. 3 by 11 inches 20 3 by 9 inches 40 3 bv 7 inches 20 2i by 7 inches 50 2^ by Clinches 30 2iby6lnches 20 2 by 6 inches 20 2 by 4 inches 30 Spruce, unsorted: 3 by 9 inches 50 3 by 7 inches 30 2i by 7 inches 149 2| by 6i inches 198 2 by 7 inches 20 2^ by 6 inches 198 2 by 6 inches 154 2 by 4 inches 50 Total 1,079 FRANCE, Next to the British the Frencli market is normally the most im- portant for Swedish lumber and it was mcreasmg m importance during the years before the war. Both pme and spruce are taken, and spruce from the Hernosand and Sundsvall districts is much in demand. France takes important quantities of planks and battens and nar- row boards, but only limited quantities of wide boards. The lumber is usually trimmed to metric feet, Durhig the last 25 years the heavy duty imposed upon planed lumber imported into France has prevented the Swedish exportation of such stock to this market. SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 199 The lumber taken from Sweden represents a better quality than that imported from Finland. Swedish lumber is used iii France mamly for jomery and better-grade construction. The competition from Russian ports, particularly from Archangel, was very keen before the war, but Swedish shippers had a considerable advantage in lower freight rates. Some of the principal dimensions taken in northern France and in southern France are as follows : Northern France. Southern France. Spruce: 3 by 9 inches. Pine: 2J by 7 inches. 2i by OJ inches. 2i by 6 inches. Pine and spruce: 1* by 4J inches. l| by 4j inches. 1 by 4J inches. 1 by 4'inches. Pineo: 3 by 8 inches. 3 by 7 inches. 2 by 8 inches. IJ by 4.i inches. IJ by 4 inches. 1} by 44 inches, i; by 4'inches. « There is also a small amount of spruce in the same dimensions. Three by nine inch spruce planks are in great demand in France and are graded in a special way. Both pine and spruce boards are taken xmsorted. The French market also takes some staves, box shooks, and small timber. A typical specification for France is as follows: Spruce: M feet. First grade — 3 by 9 inches 30 Second grade — 3 by 9 inches. . 99 Third grade— 3 by 9 inches 198 Fourth grade^ — 3 by 9 inches.. 99 Fifth grade — 2?f by 7 inches. . . 594 Pine: Unsorted — 2i by 7 inches 594 I i by 4h inches 40 IJ by 4 inches 10 l| by 9 inches 50 1 bv 9 inches. 50 Pine — Continued. Unsorted — M feet. li by 4J inches 30 1 by 5 inches 99 lby4nnches 238 1 by 4 inches 198 3 by 9 inches 198 2.V by 7 inches 198 Fifth grade — 2^ by 7 inches 594 3,319 GERMANY. Germany is close to several of the most important producing countries in Europe, and this fact, together with its o^vn extensive forest resources, makes it possible for German lumber dealers to make a good selection of lumber from the most suitable sources. In the German market Swedish lumber, therefore, meets keen competition with native German, Finnish, Russian, and Austrian lumber. The market for Swedish lumber is thus somewhat limited and is not nearly so important as the French and British markets. The Danish market, though it serves a population of only about 3,000,000, is nearly as important for Swedish lumber as the German market. The demand for Swedish lumber in Germany is not so stable as in the United Kingdom and France. Germany takes principally spruce lumber, mainly battens and narrow boards, together with ver\^ small quantities of planks. The 200 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. Rhine district is one of the best markets for Swedish spruce, but the Rhine importers do not generally buy the spruce north of the district of Sundsvall. The lumber is usually imported via Dutch ports and taken on barges up the Rhine. As the Netherlands figure in Swedish statistics as the importer of this stock, it is not possible to find out the exact q^uantities shipped in this way to Germany. The dimen- sions most in demand (chiefly spruce lumber) are 2h by 7, 6, 5i, and 5 (inches and 2 by 7, 6, 5|, and 5 inches. The Bremen market calls for large quantities of 2 i by 6 inch spruce, part of which is shipped to Saxony. This particular dimension is consumed mainly by the German planing-mill industry in resawing the battens into boards, whereby a saving in raw material may be effected. Spruce boards are taken chiefly in the following dimen- sions: 1 by 5, li by 5, li by 5 J, 1^ by 6, and 1| by 7 inches, and pine boards in sizes from 4 to 9 inches wide. This pine stock is taken chiefly from the lower-gulf district and usually in the upper grades. Unsorted boards and narrow boards are generally bought from the other shipping districts in Norrland. Important quantities of lumber are also taken from southern Sweden. In certain markets in northern Germany, fifth-quality boards in various widths are taken. A specialty in the German market is the so-called ''schaalbretter, " which are waney sap boards used for packing material and boxes. The thicknesses are usually five-eighths and three-quarters of an inch and the widths 3 to 7 inches. The schaalbretter usually contain 20 to 30 per cent of short lengths, 6 to 8 feet, and the only requirement in regard to wane is that the saw must touch all four sides of the piece. The German importers frequently specify odd dimensions, such as seven-eighths, nine-eighths, 2f inch thicknesses, where they formerly ordered 1 to 1| inches, 3 inches, etc. Undoubtedly in many cases these dimensions are sold as holding a larger measure than they actu- ally do. The Swedes do not look with satisfaction upon having their lumber sold in this way, aiid some mills even refuse to brand such stock. In most of these cases the Germans may use the odd dimen- sions for planing purposes, and by using modern planers, often of Norwegian or Swedish construction, they may be able to dress these rough dimensions down to the required sizes, where formerly greater thicknesses would be required. Such odd dimensions, however, always command extra prices. Planed lumber does not find a good market in Germany, partly on account of the tariff and partly because the German planing-mill industry is highly developed. Germany imports some Swedish staves and box shooks, and con- siderable quantities of small timber and telegraph and telephone poles. DENMARK. Denmark affords an important market for Swedish lumber. The Danish market does not require such long lengths of lumber as, for instance, British colonial markets. The Danish market is supplied mainly by the mifls in southern Sweden, where short stock pre- dominates. The principal requirement in Denmark is to receive the lumber in a bright condition, and the Swedish shippei-s are particu- larly careful not to ship blue lumber to this market, as heavy claims SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTEY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 201 would be certain to ensue. Pine lumber is generally preferred; of the total quantities of lumber exported to Denmark from Sweden, less than one-third is spruce lumber. Denmark is decidedly a mar- ket for boards, which constitute about 90 per cent of the lumber imported from Sweden. The principal dimensions taken by the Danish market, are as fol- lows: 7 by 1^, li, 1, and | inch; 6 by l^, 11, 1, and f inch; and 5 by 1^, 11, 1, and I inch; H by 5 inches and IJ by 6 inches are in par- ticular demand, and it is sometimes difficult in Sweden to supply the demand for this stock. The boards are often taken of the upper grades, and the prices paid for this stock are very satisfactory. Lim- ited quantities of pine planks and battens, particularly 2^ by 5' inches, 2| by 5 inches, and 2 by 5 inches, are called for. Oi cull and low-grade lumber the following dimensions are usually shipped: 1 by 5^, 5, 4^, and 4 inches; | by 5^, 5, 4|, and 4 inches; and f by 5^, 5, 4^, and 4 inches. Schaalbretter are also in demand in this market. Next to the United Kingdom, Denmark is the largest market for Swedish planed lumber, which is usually shipped in the unsorted grade. The following sizes are the most in demand: IJ by 5, 6, and 7 inches and 1 by 5, 6, and 7 inches. Pine and spnice are taken in about equal quantities. Denmark also imports considerable quantities of split wood and staves, timber, props, and ties, and large quantities oi small timber and telegraph and telephone poles. The following specification is an example of a Danish shipment calling for a large number of items and very small quantities of each: M feet. 2^ by 12 inch first and second grade pine 2 2| by 11 inch first and second gi'ade pine 2 2| by 10 inch first and second grade pine 2 2^ by 9 inch first and second grade pine 2 2 by 12 inch first and second grade pine 2 2 by 11 inch first and second gi'ade pine 2 2 by 10 inch first and second grade pine 4 2 by 8 inch second grade pine 10 2 by 7 inch second grade pine 20 I2 by 8 inch second grade pine 10 l| by 7 inch second grade pine 10 1\ by 12 inch first and second grade pim; 2 1\ by 11 inch first and second grade pine 2 1^ by 10 inch first and second grade pine 2 1^ by 9 inch first and second grade pine 4 ll by 8 inch third grade pine 10 1 by 9 inch third grade pine 10 l\ by 7 inch first grade pine 10 1^ by 7 inch second grade pine 10 Ij by 6 inch first grade pine 10 l| by 6 inch second grade pine 10 1 by 7 inch first grade pine. 10 1 by 7 inch second grade pine 10 1 by 6 inch third grade pine 30 1\ Dy 8 inch unsorted grade 20 206 NETHERLANDS. For hundreds of yeai"s the Netherlands has been one of the prin- cipal markets for Swedish lumber. Spruce is most in demand, partly for consumption in the country itself and partly for reexport to Ger- 202 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. many. Shipments of spruce lumber constitute about 80 to 85 per cent of the entire quantity exported to this market, and lumber of all thicknesses up to 3 inches, and in widths from 5 inches up to and including 1 1 inches, is in demand. This market takes mainly battens and boards. Of the various dimensions of battens and boards of pine and spruce, the following are most in demand : 3 by 5, 6, 6-^-, 7, and 8 inches ; 2^ by 5, 6, 6^, 7, and 8 inches; 2 by 5, 6, 6^, 7, and 8 inches; H by 5, 6, 6^, 7, and 8 inches; 1| by 5, 6, 6|, 7, and 8 inches; 1 by 5, 6, 6^, 7, and 8 inches. About 30 per cent of the total shipments to the Netherlands are made up of planed lumber, almost all spruce, in the usual standard sizes, such as 1|, 1, seven-eighths, and three-fourths inch thicknesses, and chiefly 5 and 8 inch widths. Some widths of 7, 6^, and 6 inches also are taken. Either the planed lumber is shipped in the unsorted grade or the unsorted grade may be sorted into, for instance, two grades (first and second), with 50 per cent of the total quantity in each grade, according to special instructions in each case. During late years, the Netherlands has come into the market for several odd dimensions of rough lumber, such as If, 2f, 3f, 4|, and 5f inches, etc. This stock may be used for the same purposes as in Germany. Both German and Dutch importers are known to be very technical regarding claims ; they expect the lumber to have the exact dimensions specified. The Netherlands also imports some quantities of split wood, staves, and similar stock and takes considerable quantities of small timber. BELGIUM. Before the war most of Belgium's imports consisted of narrow boards of pine and spruce, chiefly from the lower-gulf district. Pine lumber is preferred. Planed lumber is not imported and only limited quantities of battens and planks, as Swedish 'lumber was generally considered of too high quality for the Belgian requirements. The industries in that country used large quantities oi low-grade stock for packing cases, and cheap lumber for this purpose was taken from Russia and Finland. Schaalbretter of the same specification as those taken by Germany, and discolored and cull lumber were also in demand. The boards taken from Sweden were generally in thick- nesses of 1 inch and five-eighths of an inch, and in widths of 4, 4-|-, and 5 inches. The lumber for Belgium is trimmed to metric feet. Considerable quantities of staves and box shooks are imported. Controversies between the shippers and the Belgian importers were frequent before the war, resultmg from claims in regard to quality made by the importers. The prices obtained in this market for Swedish lumber were often less satisfactory than those obtained in other markets in Europe. SPAIN AND CANARY ISLANDS. While the north Spanish ports take mostly pine, the Mediterranean ports call chiefly for spruce. It is of main importance to ship the lumber absolutely bright to this market, as it is not painted when used for flooring, and blue lumber is practically worthless for this purpose. SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 203 Formerly in southern Spain lengths of 14 feet were chiefly in de- mand. This custom, however, is gradually disappearing, and the tendency is to take the usual lengths produced by the Swedish exporters. The specifications for this market vary but slightly from one year to another. Among the principal standard dimensions are 4 by 9 inches, 3 by 11 inches, 3 by 9 inches, 3 by 8 inches, 3 by 7 inches, 2^ by 7 inches, 2^ by 4 inches, 2 by 9 inches, 2 by 8 inches, and 2 by 4 inches. Four, six, and eight inch boards, in thicknesses of H, 1^, and 1 inch are generally called for, especially in northern Spain. For 1 by 4 inch pine and spruce the Swedish exporters can hardly satisfv the demand. Many odd dimensions are often called for. Spain does not import planed lumber on account of the heavy duty imposed on such stock. It is mainly a plank market. Limited quantities of small timber are also imported. The Canary Islands, which belong to Spain, afford a good market for sawn box shocks, particularly those from the western coast of Sweden. NORWAY. The barren west coastal districts of Norway take considerable quantities of lumber from Sweden. Large quantities of Swedish lumber are also exported to Norway for reexportation, cither rough or manufactured mto planmg-mill products, box sliooks, etc. Most of the Swedish lumber is taken in battens and planks and small quan- tities of boards. Cull lumber, especially in the 3 by 9 inch dimension, for construc- tion purposes, has been extensively called for during recent years. Norway also imports large quantities of planed lumber, part of which is destined for reexportation. The reexportation from Norwaj'- of Swedish lumber will be treated in the Norwegian report. Norway imports from Sweden considerable quantities of staves, box shocks, split wood, logs, small timber, props, and pulp wood, part of which is for reexportation. OTHER EUROPEAN MARKETS. To Portugal almost nothing but pine battens and planks from 8 inches and up in width are exported. A specialty in the Portuguese market is 10-inch planks, which can be sold in very few markets besides Portugal and the United Kingdom. In Italy the Swedish lumber comes into keen competition with lumber from Austria and other southeastern European countries. The market is not important and is limited chiefly to pine planks, usually 3 by 9 inches. There is also a limited call for pine battens 2 by 4 inches and 2 by 5 inches, and pine boards If by 6 inches, | by 6 inches, 1| by 9 inches, 1^ by 4^ inches, and 1^ by 6 inches. This market also takes small quantities of timber. Greece is a rather unimportant market. It takes limited quantities of pine boards and battens of 1 by 5 and 6 inches, and 2 by 5 and 6 inches, besides very small quantities of planed narrow pine boards and small timber. Turkey takes some quantities of planed pine lumber of 5 and 5J inch stock, small quantities of rough lumber, and small timber. This . market grew rapidly with the establishment of direct steamship lines. 204 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. " »o >o »o c> + >o n -. ^ Wi O «0 CO CS 0\ N. vo ooo^s.>^)rJ. " o o o >o •_|. vq ^ c\j ^ XXXXXXXXXXXXX (N) fN) Cm «o X X X X l^ SWEDISH LUMBEE JNDUSTEY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 205 Gibraltar, Iceland, and the Faroe Islands take small quantities of lumber, mainly pine stock, and limited shipments of small timber have been made to Bulgaria. ASIA. To Asia Sweden has exported only small quantities of lumber. Persia, British India, and the Dutch East Indies have imported some quantities of planed and sawn box shooks from the west coast of Sweden. Asiatic Turkey (included under Turkey in the statistics in the appendix) is practically the only Asiatic market of any impor- tance, importing box shooks, planks, battens, and planed and rough boards of pine, besides small timber. NORTH AFRICA. Algeria, Tunis, and Morocco have increased very rapidly in im- Sortance durmg the last 10 years. They take mostly pine in such imensions as 3 by 9 inches, 2 by 4| inches, H by 6 inches, and 1 J by 4^ inches rough. Of planed lumber, pine is preferred, and is usually taken in the following dimensions: H by 4-|- inches, 1^ by 5 inches, 1 by 4^ inches, and 1 by 5 inches. The demand for Swedish lumber in Egypt has varied a great deal from one year to another, as this market to great extent is supplied from Austria and Rumania. Pine lumber is most in demand and is imported in sizes such as 4 by 9, 3 by 9, 2 by 9, 2 by 8, 2h by 7, 2 by 6, 2 by ^, 2 by 4, 1^ by 8, and 1^ by 4 J inches. Small quantities of narrow planed pine boards are also taken. The exportation from Sweden to Egypt of small square timber has been a large item. As the small timbers are often cut from young stands, the exportation of this stock has been vigor- ously opposed oy advocators of rational forestry in Sweden, and the exportation of small square timber to Egypt declined about 65 per cent during the last 10 years before the war. It will very likely be materially reduced in the years to come on account of the stringent laws concerning the cutting of immature stands in Sweden. The following is a typical specification for Egypt, consisting entirely of unsorted-grade pine : M feet. 4 by 9 inches 99 3 by 9 inches • 297 2^ by 9 inches 198 2 by 9 inches 495 1^ by 9 inches 396 l| by 9 inches 297 1 by 9 inches 198 f by 9 inches 40 i by 9 inches 20 2 by 8 inches 149 M feet. li by 8 inches 79 1\ by 8 inches 79 1 by 8 inches 79 2J by 7 inches 158 2 by 6 inches 495 2 by 4 J inches 396 2 by 4 inches 59 1 J by 4J inches 149 3, 683 BRITISH SOUTH AFRICA. Among the markets outside of Europe, British South Africa is the most important. While one after the other of the European coun- tries have stopped the importation of planed lumber by imposing heavy customs duties on such stock, the Swedish lumber exporters 206 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. have succeeded in maintaining their j)laning mill industry by finding new markets, particularly in the British colonies. Of rough lumber, pine planks 3 by 9 inches, in third, fourth, and fifth grades are mostly shipped. During late years, however, the South African importers have discovered that scantlings and battens can be obtained more cheaply by ordering these dimensions from Sweden than by resawing them in South Africa from imported planks. Therefore, dimensions such as 2 by 3, 3 by 3, 3 by 4, 3 oy 4^, 3 by 5, and 3 by 6 inches are now called for in this market, besides small quantities of 2 by 6 and 2 by 5 inches. The South African market takes pine lumber almost exclusively. In planed lumber (pine and some spruce) the specifications usually call for Ij, 1, and f inch by 6^ inches; 5 by 1| and 4§ by IJ incJti pine is in demand, besides a few other sizes. The planed lumber is graded into "colonial first," which is a mixture of first and second grades of planed stock, and "colonial third." About 30 per cent of the total imports to this market consist of planed stock. The South African market demands long lengths. Lumber less than 10 feet long is seldom shipped, and specifications often call for 16 feet and longer, usually specif3dng a certain quantity of each dimension in lengths of 20 feet and up. Limited quantities of box shooks are also imported. The lumber shipped to South Africa and other African countries must be specially well seasoned. For this extra care, the Swedish lumber exporters obtain about $2.50 to S3 per 1,000 feet above the prices usually charged for the same dimensions in European markets. A typical railroad specification for South Africa is as follows. : M feet. 4 by 11 inch pine, third grade 6 3 by 11 inch pine, third grade 67 4 by 9 inch pine, third grade 28 3 by 9 inch pine, second grade 1, 172 3 by 9 inch pine, third grade 1 , 841 l^by 6^inch, colonial first, tongued and grooved .' 149 Total 4, 051 OTHER MARKETS OF AFRICA. Portuguese East Africa and French West Africa take both planed and rough lumber, mostly pine, in about the same sizes as British South Africa. Other sections of Africa occasionally take small quantities of Swedish lumber, but they are not considered established markets for this product, as the exportation is dependent upon casual chances of shipping space, etc., and not on the result of a systematic exploita- tion of these fields by Swedish lumber exporters or their agents. AUSTRALIA. Australia is a very important market for Swedish lumber, both planed and rough, and the Australian business increased materially during the last decade before the war in spite of the distance of about 13,000 miles from Sweden. The specifications are similar to those of South Africa, but Australia takes mostly planed lumber. In planed lumber, spruce is chiefly in demand, wHile the rough lumber M feet. 1 byG^inch, colonial first, tongued and grooved 556 I by 6i inch, colonial first 85 I by 6"^ inch, tongued, grooved, and center beaded 147 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 207 consists almost exclusively of piiie stock. The rough lumber is usually imported in the f ollowing^sizes : 4 by 9, 3 by 11, 3 by 9, 2^ by 7, and 2^ by 6^ inches. While South Africa generally takes third and lower grades of rough lumber, Australia prefers first, second, and third grades, shipped in large quantities. Of planed lumber the following sizes are shipped in the largest quantities : 6 and 6^ inches in width and one-half, five-eighths, three-fourths, 1, 1^, and 1^ inches in thickness. The planed lumber is classified into colonial first and colonial third grades. Australia also takes 7-inch weather boards, which arc shipped in the unsorted grade, and con- siderable quantities of sawn box shooks. THE AMERICAS. Although South America is not an important market for Swedish lumber, the trade has been steadily growing with the direct steamship lines established a few 3^ears before the war. Brazil formerly afforded a good market for Swedish lumber, to a large extent exported from the Island of Gotland, where 3 by 9 inch lumber, 14 feet long, was the principal dimension shipped. At present most of the lumber for South America is shipped from the west coast of Sweden. Brazil takes chiefly pine and spruce planks. The Argentine market has been developed recently and the prin- cipal dimensions shipped to this market from Sweden are 2 by 6, 2 by 3, 1 by 6, and 1 by 3 inch spruce, and also limited quantities of planed lumber in widths from 6 to 8^ inches, i^rgentina also takes limited quantities of sawn and planed box shooks. Uruguay and a few smaller markets have at times imported limited quantities of Swedish lumber. The Swedish exporters managed to extend their market even to Chile, but so far only small quantities of planed boards have been sliipped on the regular liners. North America and Central America do not figure as importers of Swedish lumber. COMPETING LUMBER-EXPORTING COUNTRIES. RUSSIA. There has in years past been considerable competition between the shippers in the various north European lumber countries. Russia particularly has offered keen competition because the quantities of lumber exported from that country were much larger than the quan- tities exported from Sweden, and both raw material and labor have been very cheap in Russia. The Russian lumber from certain sec- tions is also considered superior in quality to the average Swedish stock. The Swedish lumber exporters, however, do not fear compe- tition from exporters in other countries as long as such competition is fair and the export policy followed is systematic. Russian sliippers have often dumped their stocks on foreign markets at very low prices. Many Russian shippers before the war had not sufficient capital to enable them to hold their stock when the markets were unable to ab- sorb large quantities of lumber, and consignments from Russia to I^uropean markets have constituted a large percentage of the quan- tities exported from that country. As a whole, the Russian ex- 208 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. porters are not on a par with the Swedish exporters in regard to export methods, and it has often been difficult, therefore, for the Swedish exporters to have any clear idea of the policy that would be followed during the selling season by the Russian shippers in regard to prices, shipments, etc. The Russian exporters have usually been able to furnish wider stock and longer lengths than the Swedish exporters, but have often failed to take advantage of these facts. The following stock list, representa- tive for the bettor class of shipments from the Archangel district on the White Sea, shows these shippers' ability to furnish wide stock: Mfeet. 3 by 11 inches 6, 930 3 by 9 inches 5, 940 1^ by 11 inches 2, 376 l| bv 10 inches 1, 584 1 by 11 inches 1, 287 1 by 9 inches 2, 277 1 by 8 inches 1, 980 M feet. 1 by 7 inches 1, 782 J by 7 inches 693 I bv 6 inches 693 I by 5 inches 693 i by 3-11 inches 1, 287 Total 27,522 The following schedule covering sales made in 1914 to the United Kingdom shows the low price level before the war of Russian Wliite Sea stocks, which at the time were rated among the best in Europe. Prices are for pine f. o. b. Archangel. Dimensions. First grade. Second grade. Third grade. Fourth grade. 3 and 11 inches. . . Per Mfeet. $47.93 47.93 40.55 47.93 30.72 34.41 Per M feci. $38. 10 38.10 33.18 39.33 24.58 29.49 Per Mfeet. $25.81 27.04 24.58 29.49 20.89 22.12 Per Mfeet. $19.66 23.35 3 by 9 inches . . . . 22.12 19.66 8 and 7 inch battens. . 19.04 17.82 These prices correspond to the Swedish prices covering shipments from the upper gulf, which in quality compare unfavorably with the White Sea stocks. The high freight rates from Archangel to the United Kingdom— about $4.50 per 1,000 feet, or $1.30 to $1.50 in ex- cess of those from Swedish Norrland ports — may account to some extent for these low prices. The competition from Riga on the Baltic was just as keen, although the lumber from this port is not so good as that from the White Sea ports. At the same time (1914) the following prices per 1,000 feet were obtained for different dimensions and grades of spruce f. o. b. Riga: 3 by 9 inches, first and second grades, $28.60; 3 by 11 inches, unsorted grade, $26.15; 3 by 9 inches, unsorted grade, $25.56; 3 by 8 and 7 inches, unsorted grade, $22.18. The freidit rate from Riga to the United Kingdom was $2 to $2.10 per 1,000 feet. The lack of a strong organization has been a great handicap to the Russian exporters. The Swedish exporters tried in vain, before the war, to come to an agreement with the Russian exporters similar to the one concluded with Finnish exporters. The best lumber from Russia is exported from the Petrograd shipping district and from the White Sea region in northern Russia, but the shipping conditions in Russia are generally not so favorable as those in Sweden, The White Sea region is closed by ice duiing FIG. 92.— DRY KILN. FIG. 93. —GRADING AND TRIMMING LUMBER ON DOCK. Special Agents Series No. 195. Courtesy of State IuflsI Laburatur.\ . .Stuikhol. FIG. 94.— TRANSPORTING LUMBER FROM PORTABLE MILL IN INTERIOR TO RAILROAD STATION, SOUTHERN SWEDEN. FIG. 95.— BARGE FOR LOADING LUMBER. SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 209 a part of the year, though recently it has been kept open by ice break- ers much longer than in previous years. As the shipping season draws to a close, the exporters may resort to price cutting in order to be sure to dispose of their stocks. The Swedish exporters, on the contrary, may advance the prices too rapidly as soon as the market shows signs of improvement, sometimes interrupting negotiations of sale. FINLAND. The Swedish exporters, before the war, had considerable trouble with the Fmnish exporters because the latter had been selling their lumber at lower prices. Finnish stock is generally somewhat in- ferior in quality to the average Swedish products, but Finnish lumber of the unsorted grade has often been sold, especially by small mills, at prices only slightly in excess of the price for Swedish fifth grade (better class of cull lumber). The Finnish exporters had profited by this policy in Belgium, Germany, and a few other markets, which were inclined to consider price more than quality. A change in this policy took place during the war, when the Finnish exporters established close cooperation with the Swedish exporters, and many of the small mills that formerly were the chief cause of this price cutting were taken over by larger concerns in Finland. The more favorable shipping conditions in Sweden than in Finland have mate- rially helped the Swedish exporters. NORWAY. Between Norway and Sweden, there has never been any serious competition. Norway has developed over-sea markets to a great extent on account of its better steamship service, and, furthermore, Norway has specialized for years in planed lumber and box shooks while Sweden principally exports rough stock. The quantities ex- Eorted from Norway are relatively small, and the Norwegian shippers ave generally been able to obtain better prices than the Swedish shippers on account of their ability to ship during the part of the year when most of the Swedish ports are closed to navigation. The Norwegians have always exported their lumber intelligently and have not dumped any quantities on the market, or otherwise caused prices to decline through lack of understanding market con- ditions. Close cooperation with the Norwegian shippers, therefore, has not been necessary to the Swedish trade, although actually coop- eration between the Norwegian and the Swedish exporters' associa- tions has existed for some time. AUSTRIA AND RUMANIA. While the timber in north Europe consists of pine and spruce of about the same species as the softwoods of Austria and Rumania, the lumber from the latter countries differs widely from the Swedish woods in quality and texture. The principal markets for the lumber from Austria and Rumania appear to have been near-by countries such as the Levant, northern Africa, and other Mediterranean countries. Until recently Swedish lumber has not been exported in 2092°— 21 14 210 SWEDISH LUMBEE INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. any quantity to these sections of Europe, and only in rare cases has lumber from Rumania and Austria entered into direct competition with Swedish lumber. There would probably be just as great a difference between Swedish and Austrain lumber as there is between Swedish lumber and, for instance, southern yellow pine; and the Swedes know the comparative values of Austrian lumber and their own, and price their stock correspondingly higher. CANADA. Some spruce from eastern Canada has been exported to the markets that ,take Swedish spruce and pine. Although in England, for in- stance, this competition has been keenly felt at times, on account of the extremely low prices of the Canadian spruce, the relative qualities of Swedish lumber, and Canadian spruce are well kno^vn in Europe and generally preference is given to Swedish Imnber in spite of its higher prices. Swedish exporters sometimes complam of dumping practices on the part of Canadian exporters, but this competition has not been so keen as to prevent Swedish exporters from disposing of their stocks to good advantage. In 1914 Canadian spruce was sold at the followmg prices, c. i. f. United Kingdom, in competition with Swedish spruce: 3 by 9 inches, $26.42 per 1,000 feet; 3 by 8 and 7 inches, $22.12 per 1,000 feet. The high freight rates from Canada have handicapped the exporters there in placing their stock in Europe. UNITED STATES. One of the most serious competitors of Sweden in the Imnber trade has been the United States. Particularly southern yellow pine, known abroad as pitch pine, has been exported in large quantities to markets that also take Swedish lumber. Upon a close investiga- tion of the character of Swedish lumber and southern yellow pine, serious competition would seem unnecessary because southern yel- low pine, m the grades usually shipped to the European markets, is superior to Swedish pine in almost every respect, and is considered so by both Swedish exporters and European importers. Neverthe- less, southern yellow pine has often been sold at only slightly higher prices, and sometimes at lower prices than Swedish lumber delivered in the same markets. Not only southern 3'ellow pine, but also other species of American lumber, such as Douglas fir and North Carolma pine, have been marketed in the same way. American exporters have not realized the limitations of Swedish lumber with regard to upper grades, long lengths, wide stock, etc., and the prices at which lumber has been sold by Swedish exporters. They have been ad- vised by their agents simply that Swedish lumber is sold at such and such a price; and knowledge of the price of Swedish lumber without information as to grades, sizes, etc., did not offer a guide for American exporters in prichig their o^vn stocks. Most of the Amer- ican softwood lumber exported to Europe could hardly have been supplied from any other country in the world, with the possible exception of the west coast of Canada, which is too distant from European markets to be able to ship lumber in any quantities. SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 211 The following examples illustrate these conditions as late as 1918: A Swedish exporter quoted S59 per 1,000 feet, f. o. b. Swedish port, on a shipment of 3 by 9 inch pine planks of unsorted grade to the west coast of Africa. The freight rates, from the Swedishport to the port of destination were given as $58 per 1,000 feet. The same speci- fication was submitted for quotation to an exporter on the Gulf Coast of the United States at the same time and the q^uotation ^ven by this exporter was $30.72 per 1,000 feet, the freight rate being $78. This quotation covered southern yellow-pine lumber of merchantable grade, and the lumber was offered cut in specified lengths, whereas the Swedish exporter guaranteed only 17 feet average length for the whole cargo. It is evident that only lack of knowledge of market conditions could account for this low quotation by the American shipper when practically only two countries outside of the United States (Norway and Sweden) could have delivered this stock and these two countries maintain the same prices. The following prices cover shipments of American pitch pine and Douglas fir to the United Kingdom during 1914: Rio Prime deals, $30.72, c. i. f. United Kingdom port; Douglas fir, merchantable deals, $27.04, c. i. f. United Kingdom port. These prices were only slightly above the prices paid in the same markets for Swedish planks of unsorted quality. The Swedish lumber exporters expect that as the stands of timber in the United States decrease and stumpage values rise, adequate charges for stumpage will be included in the calculation of the cost of production and also that American lumber will be more carefully manufactm-ed and the labor charges per 1,000 feet will be higher. Then the American shippers will be forced to ask higher prices for their lumber for export. There is no doubt that they %vill be able to keep their present markets, because most of the importers will be willing to pay higher prices for American lumber if the lumber is more carefully manufactured. The Swedish exportei's would be inter- ested in seeing American softwoods sold at higher prices in Europe, because firm prices on American woods would make it easier to maintain prices on Swedish woods. HANDLING EXPORT SALES. MANAGING THE SALES DEPARTMENT OF THE MILL. It is fully realized in Sweden that it is one matter to manage a mill and another matter to handle the sales end of the business. Although these two operations are united in the activities of one company, they are of an entirely different nature and each requires a highly trained staff. The general manager of the export mill may usually take a more direct interest in the selling end of the business than in other branches, because the sales department is probably the most important and the financial returns of the company are largely dependent on the successful carrying out of an export policy. In charge of the department of export sales, there is usually a highly trained sales manager conversant with conditions in Sweden, as well as in the principal importing countries. These sales managers have usually passed one or several years in various countries work- ing in the offices of agents or importers, and have thus obtained a 212 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. good knowledge of conditions a])road. This gives them a better understanding of how to satisfy their customers and they are better able to adjust disputes that may arise between exporters and importers. On the other hand, agents and importers frequently visit the Swedish concerns and the Swedish exporters, and the sales managers repay these visits frequently, in some cases even twice a year. Although it is generally considered poor policy to effect sales when the Swedish luniber exporters visit their customers abroad, never- theless many exporters do so. It is contended that these visits should have the character of a courtesy extended to the importers to ascertain whether the Swedish exporters can improve upon their services and that the sales should be left entirely to the agents. There is no doubt that this viewpoint is correct in many cases, especially when the market is dull, because to have the Swedish exporters travel abroad endeavoring to sell their stock would give importers the impression that it was necessary for the exporters to di&pose of their lumber quickly. It has always been a point with the Swedish lumber exporters to make their agents and customers understand their capacity, thereby avoiding unreasonable demands in regard to specifications and deliv- eries. It is easy to see how this mutual knowledge of ccnditions has an important bearmg on the relations between exporters and im- porters. The Swedish exporters have the advantage of bemg located at only short distances from the principal markets. It is no greater undertaking for Swedish lumber exporters to visit then' customers in England or France than it is for a sawmill operator in the State of Louisiana to see his customer in the Middle West. Only m rare mstances do the same mills engage in both export and domestic business, and the sales manager therefore devotes his entire time to disposing of the company's lumber products for export. Where pulp mills are operated in connection with sawmills, the sales maiiager may also be called upon to dispose of the pulp-mill products. The sales managers are always in close contact with market condi- tions, through frequent visits to foreign countries, by keepiiig in close touch with the mill's agents, and most of all through the efforts of the lumber exporters' association, which will be discussed in a later chapter. In advance of each cutting season the sales manager must estimate the possible demand for lumber m the various countries in order to enable thfe mill to cut accordingly. The mills m Sweden must cut large quantities for stock, as the seasonmg process requires considera- ble time and it is easily seen, therefore, that it is of the utmost importance to cut such dimensions as are easily salable when the lumber is ready for shipment. The general manager of a sawmill company must coordinate the work of the sales manager in deter- mining the demand for lumber in the future and the sizes to be cut, with the instructions that are given to the crosscuttere m the forests, the log scalers in the pond, and the head sawyer in the mill. If any of these men should fail to work intelligently, the success of the sawmill business would be endangered. The selling season generally starts during the autmnn and early winter when the contracts arc made for shipments at first open water SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 213 (f. o, w.). At other times of the year, minor sales are made, l)iit dur- ing the late spring and summer the selling season is generally slack. Before each selling season, the sales manager must have made up a detailed inventory of the stock on hand and must also make an esti- mate of the quantities of lumber that will be ready for shipment at the opening of navigation the following season. Through many years of practice, the Swedish mills are generally able to give a very accurate estimate of the stocks that will be ready for shipment at first open water, even six months or more in advance. Following is a typical Swedish stock list, showing quantities of different sizes of pine and spruce : Sizes. 4 by 9 inches.. 3 by 11 inches.. 3 by 9 inches.. . 3by Sinches.. . 3by 7inches. . , 3by einches.. . 3 by 5J inches.. 3 by 5 inches.. . 3 by 4 inclaes . . 2J by 9 inches . . 2J by Sinches . 2j by 7 inches. . 2J by 6^ inches . 2i by 6 inches. . 2§ by 5^ inches . 2| by 5 inches.. 2J by 4 inches. . 2 by 11 inches . 2 by 9 inches . . . 2 by Sinches. . . 2 by 7 inches.. . 2 by 6 inches. . . 2 by 5J inches.. 2 by 5 inches . . . 2 by 4J inches . . 2 by 4 inches . . . 2 by 6 J inches. . 1§ by Sinches. . l| by 44 inches . l| by 4"inclies . . IJby 11 inches. Pine. Mfeet. 139 743 2,317 772 149 4 6 297 1,9S0 1,129 347 2 2 103 69 40 436 139 208 347 267 257 139 20 20 79 Spruce. Mfeet. 2 317 2,079 396 149 34 2 2 103 1,782 594 792 10 50 63 ,168 277 525 416 426 Sizes. li by 9 inches.. IJ by Sinches . IJby 7 inches. IJ by 6 inches. l| by 5i inches. IJ by 4| inches. l|by 4lnches.. 1 by 9 inches . . . 1 by 8 inches . . . 1 by 7 inches . . . 1 by 6^ inches . . 1 by 6 inches . . 1 by 5 J inches.. 1 by 5 inches. . 1 by 44 inches . . 1 by 4mches . . I by 7 inches. . . f by 6 inches . . t by 5J inches . . I by 5 inches . . I by 4§ inches. . I by 4 inches . . f by 7 inches. . I by 6 inches . . f by b\ inches . . J by '5 inches . . f by 4^ inches. . f by 4 inches . . Total. Pine. 15, 443 Spruce. Mfeet. Mfeet. 218 85 248 99 218 317 69 99 30 50 10 99 10 149 38 188 61 297 287 119 50 396 347 198 188 386 327 693 356 911 634 4 4 24 4 16 2 99 20 168 30 396 59 4 2 26 8 30 6 119 50 139 69 168 129 12,672 These stock lists are sent to the companies' agents in different countries with special instructions in regard to the prices that the exporters expect to obtain and other details in regard to sales. It is not customary in Sweden to take orders for larger quantities than the mills can handle, and contracts are seldom or never can- celed because the mills are unable to make deliveries, except by reason of force majeure (act of God) or other causes beyond the shipper's control. Formerly there was considerable jealousy among the Swedish shippers and they often showed unwillingness to assist one another in cases of an emergency shortage of stocks. Now, however, these conditions have changed, mainly through the work of the Swedish Lumber Exporters' Association, The mills can figure, as a rule, on being able to obtain lumber from their colleagues on very reasonable terms to make up for possible shortages. The Swedish shippers con- sider that if any shipper in their district should fail to make delivery according to contract, his failure w^ould reflect not only upon himself but also, to a certain extent, upon all shippers m the same district; and when a district has once obtained a reputation for making unsat- 214 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. isfactory delivery, the prices obtainable by all exporters iii the district will suffer accordingly. Assistance in • filling orders may therefore be obtained readily, but the Swedish shippers do not rely upon it when they enter mto contracts for the exportation of their products. It may happen that the exporters find themselves unable, for one reason or another, to ship according to specifications. In such cases the exporters always wire the importers or agents to arrange for the necessary substitute dimensions to be shipped, but such changes are never made by reliable exporters without the consent of the importers. EXPORT SELLING METHODS. The sale of Swedish lumber for export may be effected in the fol- lowing ways : (1) Selling through a foreign agent on a commission basis. (2) Selling through a domestic agent on a commission basis. (3) Selling through own organization abroad. (4) Selling outright to foreign agent. (5) Selling outright to domestic export merchant. (6) Selling outright to other mills. (7) Exporting lumber to own organization abroad, which distributes lumber to wholesalers. (8) Selling direct to importers abroad. (9) Consigning lumber to foreign markets. In this report the following terms will be used: Agent, meaning a representative of the mill, operating on a commission basis, and exi^ort merchant, a merchant buying outright on his own account from the mills and selling the lumber to customers abroad, either through agents or direct. (1) Selling through a foreign agent. — This method is used by most Swedish mills in disposing of their lumber to foreign markets. The mills maintain one or several agents in foreign countries and most of these connections have been established for a number of years. The agents usually are given the sole right to handle the mill products in a given territory — in a part of a country, a whole country, or several countries. In many cases these agents are Scandinavians, who are generally preferred, because they usually have a better understanding of conditions in Sweden, in addition to their knowledge of the terri- tory abroad where they operate. These agents may have subagents in different places, but the ex- porters are not concerned with these subagents, who are compensated by the mill's representatives and operate on a commission basis, usually of 1 per cent. It would be preferable, no doubt, not to em- ploy An agent representing other Swedish exporters in the same mar- kets. This is not always possible, however, because the advantage to a mill of having an agent with a large clientele is too apparent to warrant such conditions. The markets for Swedish lumber are so extensive that agents representing several Swedish mills usually are able to dispose of their stocks without hampering the business of any one of the exporters whom they represent. The duty of the agent is, in the first place, to sell the stock, but merely to sell would not be satisfactory to the Swedish exporters, who are very exacting in their requirements. The agent must en- deavor to dispose of his stock in such a way as to satisfy the export- SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 215 ers. Otherwise it would be easy for an agent to pick out of each list the stock most readily salable in his territory and to leave the remainder to other agents. If this were done, the mills might find themselves with a large percentage of less desirable stock on hand at the end of each shipping season. Moreover, if the agents were not required to assist the mills in other ways than simply selling any stock that they might have a chance to dispose of with little effort, the mills, doubtless, w^ould be able to handle their sales to better ad- vantage themselves, without the assistance of intermediaries. The mills have found, however, that the services of an agent are generally advisable, because considerable adjustment is required in regard to both the specifications and the prices before a sale is made. To understand the important assistance that the agents render to the exporters, it must oe considered that the Swedish exporters spread over a large field and that they must endeavor to distribute their stocks in such a way that they will be as complete as possible in all markets where they sell. It has been shown that the Swedish lumbermen cut their lumber so as to obtain the most economical result and that due regard is paid to the saving of raw^ material in sawing the logs. Furthermore, the logs are too small to yield any large quantities of wide stock or long lengths, and it is therefore apparent that good judgement must be shown in disposing of dimensions of which there is a limited sup- ply. In regard to odd sizes, excess quantity of any one dimension, etc., considerable adjustment and discussion are always necessaiy before a sale can be effected. Evidently an agent in close touch with the importers can make a satisfactory arrangement more easily than the exporters, who have to take up these matters by corre- spondence or by wire. Right in this connection the agents perform their most valuable services. For instance, if an odd size of one grade is wanted, the agent must endeavor, in the first place, to ob- tain an extra price for this dimension and also to have the importer take other grades of the same dimensions, because otherwise the remainder of such odd stock would usually be a dead loss to the exporters, as it could not find another market readily. If the mill's products are handled by several agents in different countries, it is of great importance to have each agent dispose of such stock as command higher prices in his territory than in the other districts, but at the same time not to spoil the stock list for the other agents. To accomplish good results along this line requires a detailed knowledge of market conditions in the different countries. The agents generally have a large clientele and may easily bunch several orders, thereby making up a cargo. This is of special im- portance to miUs that do not have the benefit of direct steamship service to the principal markets. From the agents the mills obtain information regarding market conditions. Although this information, in most cases, is reliable and of great assistance, there are cases where an agent desires to bring pressure to bear upon the mill and gives out information cal- culated to make the mill reduce the price in order to enable him to effect a sale. For instance, it is said that agents would wire their connections in Sweden that competitors, ejther in Sweden or in another country, had offered one dimension at such and such a price. It often happened that the agents' reports were only partly true because 216 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AXD LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. the dimension referred to might represent only a few thousand feet in a cargo or might have been sold at a special low price as a com- pensation for concessions given by the importers. Formerly the mills had no means of checking up such reports and would often reduce their prices to make a sale. Now, however, the exporters in Sweden do not have to rely upon any other information than that which they receive from their association in Stockholm if there is any doubt about the truthfulness of a report from abroad. Most of the foreign agents also maintain a chartering service and are in a position to obtain freight space and effect the insurance for the importers, if the lumber is sold f, o. b., and for the exporters if the cargo is sold on a c. i. f. basis. In many cases the agents are required to guarantee the solvency of the importers to whom they sell. Evidently the agents are in a better position than the exporters to keep posted in regard to the financial position of the various importers. For this service the agents generally obtain about ^ oi 1 per cent commission. The commission received by the agents for making sales amounts to about 2 to 2^ per cent; in some cases it may be as low as 1^ per cent. Lar^e exporters of recognized standing may obtain an agent's services on the last-mentioned terms because their stocks are easily salable. Sometimes agents may cede part or all of their commission to the importer, as a special rebate, in order to make a sale. This practice is vigorously opposed by the exporters, as it is considered a reduction on the selling prices established by the mills. No reputable agency does business in this way. Valuable assistance is rendered by agents when claims are made by importers in testifying to the quality of the shipment received. The agent, having sold the cargo, is the logical person to represent the exporter. The agents are in most cases able to take care of the exporters' interests in a very satisfactory way and claims are usually settled amicably, thus preventing the expenses and trouble involved in having these matters settled by litigation. Some agents, however, have the unfavorable reputation of being inclined to settle such disputes in favor of the importers, in order to obtain their future patronage. Thus several agents may be known among importers as being "reasonable" in questions involving claims, but such prac- tices can seldom be carried on for any length of time. Formerly some Swedish exporters were more or less dependent upon financial support from their agents in the form of advances on the cargoes that the agents were to sell during the coming season. This system has now been abolished, as the mills can easily obtain financial support, if necessary, from Swedish banks. It is considered poor business policy to be financially dependent upon the agents in this way. It is not believed that foreign agents hold stocks in Swedish miUs, at least not to any considerable extent. The agents, however, partly finance the Swedish lumber exporters in other ways, by making arrangements for credit for the importers, in cases where the exporters are unable to extend this themselves. This will be explained in a later section. Where the exporter draw on the importers, the agents generally attend to collecting the drafts. In drawing on the agents for the amount of the cargo, a discount of 2 to 2^ per cent is made on the f. o. b. value of the invoice. The Special Agents Series No. 195. Special Agents Series No. 195. SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 217 total commission that the agents generally receive is thus 4 to 5^ per cent, made up as follows: Commission for sales made, H to 2^ per cent; del credere, V of one per cent; cash discount, 2 to 2^ per cent. The exporters, furthermore, often agree to settle, in part or in full, the agent's expenditures for postage and telegrams. The agents receive commission from the exporters only and not from the importers as well. Only in very rare cases does this commission, del credere, and discount exceed 5 per cent. This commission is considerably smaller than that received from exporters in some other lumber-exporting countries, but the agents state that they have little trouble in selling standard Swedish products, both on acccount of the well-estabUshed clientele that has been developed during the last half century and on account of the care with which the Swedish exporters fill their orders. Tlie Swedish exporters are opposed to having their agents buy out- right on speculation. They want them to operate only on a com- mission basis. There is usually no written contract but only a "gentlemen's agreement" between the mills and their foreign repre- sentatives. Direct dealing without the intervention of a middleman is often spoken of as the only desirable method of engaging in foreign trade. It is quite true that such dealing is ideal where it can be carried out but in many cases it is impractical because many matters need to be adjusted before a sale can be made. The agents therefore are not looked upon as "a necessary evil" by the Swedish lumbermen but as an advantageous medium by which to dispose of their stocks. If an agent conducts his business properly, the charge for his services is a small matter in comparison with the losses to which the mills ex- porting direct might be subjected if they lack knowledge of markets and customers. Selling through foreign agents will probably be the principal sys- tem followed in Sweden in the future, as it has in the past. (2) Selling through a domestic agent. — ^IVIills located at a distance from the lumber centers and unable to keep in close contact with the market, and smaller mills not able to maintain a special sales organi- zation for handling their output have frequently had recourse to domestic agents to handle their foreign sales. They give these agents the sole right to sell their lumber for export on a commission basis. It is evident that such an agency, specializing in the marketing of lumber abroad, would obtain more satisfactory results than mills without the necessary expert assistance or mills that are out of touch with the market. Furthermore, as a rule these domestic agents have been able to obtahi the same prices in the same markets for the lumber manufactured by small mills as for the products from larger mills. The domestic agents generally cover a larger field than any indi- vidual mill and this advantage has been apparent to most of the small mills. These domestic agents often finance the small mills or own stock m the mills they represent. Diu-ing late years this system of marketing has been gaining in favor, not only with small mills but also with larger concerns. Recently an amalgamation of several of the largest sawmills in Sweden has appointed a well-established domestic agent to handle its entire output. This agency now sells 218 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. annually about 15 per cent of all the lumber exported from Sweden. Similar systems have been successfully tried out in other lines. Domestic agents receive a commission of about 2 to 2| per cent, in addition to the customary cash discount from their coimections in Sweden. The domestic agents have representatives attending to their sales in foreign markets, who are to be considered as subagents of the domestic agents and receive part of the commissions paid to the domestic agents by the mills. In having their lumber handled in this way by large sales agencies instead of by a large number of small mills, a much firmer stand can be maintained by the Swedish lumber exporters as a whole toward the importers, because this system partly eliminates the danger of having lumber dumped by concerns that are financially weak. If the products of such mills are handled by the stronger concerns of domestic agents, these agents, as a rule, will support the mills finan- cially to prevent any reckless price cutting. Besides lumber, these domestic agents sometimes handle also other forest products, char- coal, pulp, paper, timber, etc., and also maintain a chartering service and insurance agency. The great majority of the Swedish domestic agents have conducted their business in such a way that they have been of material assist- ance to the lumber industry, (3) Selling through own organization abroad. — Very few mills in Sweden are of so large a capacity as to maintain their own sales organizations abroad to handle their output exclusively. One of the largest mills in Sweden, which exports pulp, and iron and steel products, in addition to lumber products, maintains agencies in va- rious countries in Europe, such as the United Kingdom, France, Bel- gium, and Germany. These agencies handle'all the products of this company. This is evidently the most efficient way for large organi- zations to market their products in foreign countries, as it gives the exporters a better chance to push their products and to protect their own interests. Other agencies sometimes give too much considera- tion to their own profit at the expense of the shippers or do not show any particular willingness to exploit the markets for a new product as long as a satisfactory commission can be earned by selling well- established brands. The importers seem to favor dealings with branch houses because it is felt that many matters can be settled more easily and c[uickly by dealing direct with the exporters through their own organization, and dealings of this nature emphasize the responsibility of the shippers. To maintain such an organization, however, would be very expensive and would hardly be possible for most of the mills in Sweden, even of the largest size, if based on the sales of their lumber products alone. For instance, a mill producing 60,000,000 feet per year would pay a commission to an agent during normal times of about 2 per cent of the f. o. b. value, or $25,000 to S30,000 per annum. It is evident that to sell all this lumber in one market would hardly be possible, and it would therefore be necessary to establish several branch houses in different countries, the expense of which would doubtless exceed the cost of commissions for agents. (4) Selling outright to foreign agent. — It is the principle of the Swed- ish lumber sales policy that agents should not speculate with the stocks which they handle but only act as a middleman between ship- SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 219 pors and importers, operating on a commission basis. However, in some rare cases foreign agents may buy outright special stocks of Swedish lumber, such as small quantities of extra clear boards, etc., which they may distribute among their customers as a matter of accommodation. The cases where agents buy large quantities of lumber are rare during normal times and may be left out of consid- eration. (5) Selling outrigTit to domestic export merchant. — ^This selling policy is of a decidedly primitive character and is practiced only by mills that are unwillm^ to make any efforts to reach foreign markets. This system of sellmg is frequently seen in southern Sweden, however, M'^here it is practically the only way for peasants and small producers to dispose of their lumber. This form of selling can not be very remunerative to the producers. Export merchants buy products from all parts of the country, wher- ever they can obtain them at the lowest prices. The lumber is assembled at the various ports where the export merchants some- times maintain yards. The grading is often done in a haphazard way and the product is not very uniform. The lumber is often branded with the merchant's brand. Some of these export merchants may also act as speculators in timber lands, buying small stands or con- tracting for cutting. The lurnber is sawed in portable mills and taken dowTi to the ports for shipment. Although this system is confined almost entirely to southern Sweden, some small mills in the interior Provinces of northern Sweden sell their lumber in this way. This selling system is of small importance during normal conditions in northern Sweden. The export merchants are often large trading companies handling a variety of Swedish products for export. Their activities are con- fined mainly to selling lumber in far-away countries and markets that have not been opened by regular exporters. Although it would seem advisable to have the mills take a more active part in marketing their lumber, it can not be denied that the trading companies and export merchants perform a valuable service in extending the markets for Swedish lumber. It is also convenient for many of the large exporters to sell to these trading companies and export merchants when the market is dull. The large companies usually brand their lumber in the usual way because this often makes the lumber more easily salable for the export merchants, if the mills have a good stand- ing among the importers. As soon as a new market has been opened up by the trading companies, the exporters generally endeavor to reach it themselves. (6) Selling outright to other mills. — In all districts in Sweden many small mills at times find themselves Avith surplus stock on hand, oi which they can not readily dispose in the local market. While same of these mills may sell then- lumber to export merchants, others prefer to sell their lumber to the regular export sawmills and planing mills. These companies are often in a better position to handle this stock than the export merchants, because they have the necessary facilities for remanufacturing defectively sawn material and because they regrade the lumber before it is shipped, thus making their stock homogeneous. The export mills generally make a profit of $1.25 to $2.50 per 1,000 feet board measure by handling these stocks during normal times. 220 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. If the lumber is poorly manufactured, the export mills may prefer to nm it through the planing mill, whereas the export merchant would sell this stock rough at a discount. It is to the advantage of the Swedish lumber export trade as a whole that the export mills acquire as large quantities as possible of small lots because such procedure insures uniformity of grade when the stocks are exported, and the exporters are thus in a better position to maintain the reputation that Swedish lumber has already established in foreign markets. The small stocks defectively manufactured and graded would not obtain the same prices in the export markets u their producers endeavored to export the lumber themselves. The quality of the wood from which the lumber of the small mills is manufactured may be just as good as that used by the export mills, and as lon^ as the export-mill standards of grades are maintained no objection can justly be raised by importers. The sale of lumber by one mill to another in cases of emergency has already been explained. (7) Exporting lumher to own organization abroad. — A few enter- prising Swedish export mills have established themselves in foreign countries as importers, maintaining yards for the distribution of their products among other importers and wholesalers. Unfortu- nately the time chosen for the inauguration of this method by the Swedish export mills was not favorable, and, as far as could be learned, only one Swedish mill intends to continue this organization in the future. If the sales can be handled on a large scale, this system has many advantages similar to those of a branch house. At the start, how- ever, such concerns must have many difficulties to overcome in the way of competition and bad feelings on the part of agents and im- porters already established in the market where they operate. In old-established markets it may be questionable in many; cases whether such steps would be advisable, but in new markets with inadequate import organizations this system may be practiced to good advantage, if properly handled, in extending the markets for Swedish lumber. It has generally been the experience of the Swedish lumber exporters selling their lumber in this way that lumber alone could not be handled successfully; other building materials had to be kept in stock at the same time. It may be expected in the future that the Swedish exporters will not endeavor to handle their own lumber in foreign markets except as agents, as it is not considered good policy by most of the exporters to enter into direct competition with the foreign importers of Swedish lumber. (8) Selling direct to importers and consumers. — ^The selling of lumber direct to foreign importers is not favored in Sweden. This system has been tried out many times by different mills, but in most cases the mills have come to the conclusion that an agent can best arrange business and that this method is the cheapest way of disposing of an average-sized production. There are, however, some mills that prefer to do as much direct business as possible. Such sliipmeiits are usually made from small mills and are practically limited to countries \v4th which Sweden is connected by regular steamship lines offering facilities for shipping lumber in parcel lots. This direct business is carried on especially with the Danish market. It is a common occurrence, particularly SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 221 during late years, to see thousands of carloads of lumber being shipped through Sweden every year by small, interior mills, even in southern Norrland, transferred on the ferryboat across the narrows between Denmark and Sweden, and distributed throughout Denmark even to the German-Danish border. This lumber is often ineffi- ciently handled and sold to consumers, contractors, and wholesalers alike. Such business naturally causes dissatisfaction among agents abroad, other shippers in Sweden, and larger importers, but with extended steamship connections with other countries this traffic may increase. In some countries, however, the importers themselves have endeav- ored to stop these direct shipments to consumers. In other coun- tries the cooperation between importers is not so strong, but it is generally found that the small saving which the direct shipments may represent to the consumer does not offset the chances which he has to take in regard to obtaining satisfactory stocks. The small mills generally can not meet the requirements as satisfactorily as the larger exporters, and this fact will limit the growth of this direct trade. In isolated cases large mills may sell direct to importers who have been customers for a lon^ time and with whom they have been accus- tomed to do a direct business before the exporters made arrangement with other agents. Such exporters, however, sometimes show their loyalty toward their agents by giving them a commission on the sales made direct to customers in the agents' territories. (9) Consigning of lumber to foreign markets. — There may be cases where the consigning of lumber is justified, particularly under abnor- mal conditions, but making a practice of consigning lumber is con- sidered an inefficient and primitive way of selling lumber. It is used principally by firms of low standing, which are other-wise unable to obtain a market for their products. Consigning and dumping are practically the same tiling, because in disposing of the lumber in these ways no intelligent efforts are made to establish a permanent market. The sales are made in a haphazard way, and the consignor is not concerned about who pur- chases the stock or whether the stocks give satisfaction or not. As the material may be inspected before it is sold at auction, the buyers have to protect themselves. Consignments may in some cases be justified when a new market is to be opened , but all European mar- kets know Swedish lumber and there should, therefore, be no need of making consignments of Swedish lumber on this account. Consignments are usually made up of odds and ends left over in the yards at the end of each shipping season; they may also consist of scant or otherwise defective stocks, which the exporters would be unwilling to sell to their regular customers. These consignments may thus afford a good opportunity of disposing of such undesirable stock, but such methods, if continued, may have a depressing effect on the market. At any rate, it is more difficult for the owner of such stocks to obtain satisfactory prices when the lumber is stored in the importing countries and has already incurred heavy charges for freight, insurance, etc., and when every day of delay before a sale is made means increased expenses, such' as loss of interest, storage charges, etc. The time will come when the entu-e stock must be sold even below market prices to cover the amount of these charges, and 222 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. exporters seldom realize the expected profits on such sales. This system of selling is generally condemned, and the lumbermen have endeavored through their association to check the practice of con- signing lumber, making definite stipulations in regard to the per- centage of the total stock that each member is allowed to consign. Five per cent is now made the limit. The importers also are gen- erally opposed to consignments because they make the market unstable. Formerly the consigning of lumber was looked upon by several financially weak concerns as an easjr manner to raise money. With the improved financial conditions since the war, it is not believed that this reason will cause the Swedish lumber exporters in general to make consignments. The principal ports to which Swedish consignments are made are London and Liverpool. During the war many cargoes were shipped to the United Kingdom on consignment because the exporters were frequently in a position to secure advantageous freight rates, and there was nearly always a good demand for lumber, so that the risk of having the stocks remain unsold for any length of time was very small. In such exceptional cases consignments are justified. STANDARD CONTRACTS. It is important to consider that all the Swedish shippers are selling their lumber on a standard contract, which has been agreed upon between the Swedish and Finnish shippers, on the one side, and on the other by the Timber Trade Federation of the United Kingdom and similar associations in other importing countries. This contract is also generally adhered to by the Norwegian shippers, so that all three countries are basing their sales on uniform contracts. The following contract form is in use in Sweden. Several addi- tional clauses referring mainly to the present abnormal conditions have been eliminated in this form because it is believed that these clauses are of only a temporary nature. SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 223 Contract. (F. O. B. Form.) (Adopted by the Timber Trade Federation of the United Kingdom and the Swedish Wood' Export Association and the Finnish Saw Mill Owners' Association.) —1912— Sold to. .. Bought of. through the agency of - the wood goods hereinafter specified, subject to a variation in shipper's option of 10 per cent more or less on any or every item, but not exceeding 20 stand- ards on any one item, always provided that the total quantity is not varied except imder the provisions of clause 5. Items of two to ten standards may be varied to the extent of one standard. In the event of over-shipment of any item, buyers are not compelled to accept or pay for anything beyond the quantity and margin stated in the contract. In the event of imder shipment of any item, buyers are to accept or pay for the quantity shipped, but have the right to claim compensation for the quantity short-shipped. Each item of this contract to be considered a separate interest, to be loaded at Gefie and to be ready for shipment 'per 1st July, 1914- Other conditions as specified on the back. SPECIFICATION. Redwood 3rds -A-** About lOstdsS x9 ^£11—.. 9.5/—. 8. 10/-- 8. 10/- 8.5/—. 5. §= CQ oq 100 " 2ixt 15 " Ux5 15 " ] x5 10 " 1 x4i 25 " 1 x4 10 " 3 x9 20 " 3 x7 30 " 2^x7 10 " lix5 10 " 1 x5 Redwood 4ths ir-k 10.—.... 8. 10/—. 8. 10/—. 7. 10/—. 7. 10/—. Redwood u/s K^B 15 3 x4i 8.15/- 11 3x5 Redwood 5ths AXC 6. 10/- Torrfuru Ists S^P 16 " 3 x5 0.10/—. About 297 stds London, the 25th March, 1914. Hull, the 25th March, 1914. As Sellers' Agents, As Buyers. The Prices are in British Sterling:< 224 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. CONDITIONS. 'Sawn goods per St. Petersburg Standard of 165 cubic feet. Planed goods per St. Petersburg Standard of 165 cubic feet (nominal measure). Hewn goods per load of 50 cubic feet (Cus- toms' Calliper Measure, excepting Upper Gulf hewn balks). Firewood per fathom of 216 feet cube. All free alongside the ship. 2. Sellers undertake to supply sufficient ends, 6 to 8 feet for broken stowage only, at two-thirds price, but not exceeding 5 per cent, of the cargo unless otherwise agreed. Such ends to be regarded as included in the quantities named on the other side but to be disregarded in the calculation of average length. Shippers, to have the right to supply up to the said 5 per cent of ends at two-thirds pnce, whether required for broken stowage or not. 3. The goods are to be properly seasoned for shipment to the U. K. and shall be of the shipper's usual bracking, average length and fair specification for such descrip- tion of goods, and delivered to the ship in accordance with the Custom of the Port, the sellers not being responsible for any deterioration occasioned by circumstances beyond their control after the goods have left shippers' wharf properly protected. 4. Shiproom to be provided in due time by buyers with the customary time for loading. Buyers undertake that at least six clear days' notice shall be given to shippers direct before arrival of any steamer to load under this contract, such notice stating steamer's and charterer's name, and that full loading orders shall be in shipper's hands not later than six days before the notified due date of such vessel's arrival. 5. A margin of 10 per cent, more or less, but not exceeding 50 standards, is to be allowed to buyers for convenience of chartering, but when several shipments are made under the same contract, such margin shall only apply to the quantity by the last vessel. Should buyers under this clause demand an increase of total contract quan- lity sellers to give such increase in contract sizes, thqugh not more than double the quantity of any item. 6. Shippers' liability to load at "first open water" shall not commence until the deliveries from the wharves and quays are entirely unhindered by ice. Note. — It is suggested that a clause to this effect be inserted in the Charter Party. 7. Marine insurance of cargo and freight advance to be covered by the buyers and opened as soon as tonnage is secured. It is understood that buyer's marine risk commences if and when the goods are loaded into lighters for shipment after receipt of the notice from steamer of her expected arrival. 8. Any freight advance to be settled by cash in exchange for captain's receipt, except on firewood when loaded by sailing vessel, in which case by thirty day's draft from date of bill of lading. 9. In case the manufacture and/or shipment of any of the goods be delayed or hindered by floods, drought, ice, destruction of mill and/or goods herein specified by reason of fire, strikes, lock-out, or any similar cause, shippers shall not be responsible for any damages arising therefrom, provided prompt notice be given to the buyer, but in such event only shippers have the right dunng six (6) weeks from stipulated date of delivery of completing the contract, but on the expiration of such extended time, if shippers then declare or have previously declared their inability to deliver, buyers shall thereupon have the option to be promptly declared, of canceling the contract, or continuing the same for such date of delivery as may be mutually agreed upon, but in any event not later than the following f . o. w. A strike or lock-out of the shippers' men only shall not exonerate them from any demurrage for which the charterer may be liable under the charter, if by the use of reasonable diligence the shipper could have obtained other suitable labor. 10. It is mutually agreed that, should war, prohibition of export or blockade pre- vent shippers from shipping or buyers from lifting the goods herein specified wdthin the time stipulated in the contract, this contract shall be cancelea for goods not delivered. 11. Payment to be made on receipt of and in exchange for shipping docu- ments by approved acceptances of sellers' or authorized agents' drafts, payable in London ntfour months from date of bill of lading, or at buyer's option, in cash less 2^ per cent discount payable in London. Sellers to give notice of vessel's arrival in the case of steamers by telegraph, and buyer's option as to mode of payment to be declared on receipt of such notice. Special Agents Series No. 195. FIG. 99.— DOUBLE RESAW. FIG. 100.— RESAW. Special Agents Series No. 195. FIG. 101.— AUTOMATIC BOX MACHINE. FIG. 102.— DOUBLE RESAW FOR BO,X MATERIAL. SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AISTD LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 225 12. Should any of the goods not be removed by September 1, 1914, payment to be made in the manner provided above against approximate invoice of the said date, the goods then remaining at the risk of the buyers but at the expense of the sellers, provided, however, that if the goods are still unshipped by 31st August of the following year, the buyers shall pay 5s. per standard rent to the sellers. Buyer's liability to pay for the goods under this clause shall, however, be suspended if the failure to remove is due to any of the contingencies covered by clause 9, and the drawing date shall be postponed for a period corresponding in length to the duration of the delay. 13. No complaint or claim will be recognized by sellers upon any goods shipped under this contract, unless reasonable particulars are given to agents within 21 days from date of ship's final discharge, but any claim on the condition of the goods shall be announced within 14 days thereof. No claim shall be recognized on any item or separate parcel shipped which has been broken into; but otherwise buyers shall be at liberty to deal with any items or parcels on which there is no complaint without prejudice to their right to claim on any intact items or parcels (including separate bills of lading delivered overside) under the arbitration clause. An item or parcel shall be considered to be intact if it can be produced to the arbitrators in its entirety as discharged. 14. Property in goods to be deemed for all purposes, except retention of vendor's lien for unpaid purchase price, to have passed to buyers when goods put on board. 15. The goods to be shipped under as many bills of lading as may be reqmred by buyers, provided that the total number issued shall not exceed 5 per 100 standards, and that for any B/L in excess, buyers shall pay one guinea. 16. Should any dispute arise under this contract wmch it may be found impossible to settle by amicable aiTangement, the same shall forthwith be referred to the decision of a third party to be mutually agreed upon, or in default of agreement to two arbi- trators, one arbitrator to be appointed by the sellers and one by the buyers. Such arbitrators shall, previously to entering upon the arbitration, appoint an umpire, and the arbitration shall be subject to the English Arbitration Act of 1889, or any subsisting statutory modification thereof or substitution therefor. Buyers shall not reject the goods herein specified, but shall accept or pay for them in terms of contract against shipping documents. In the event of either side failing to appoint their arbitrator within seven days after being requested through the agents under this contract so to do, the arbitrator thus required shall be appointed by the President, or failing him by the Vice-President of the Timber Trade Federation of the United Kingdom, on the application of either party. In the case of a claim not exceeding £25, or on less than 25 standards the dispute shall, if not amicably settled, be referred to one arbitrator, and in default of the parties agreeing on his appointment, he shall be appointed by the President, or failing him by the Vice-President of the Timber Trade Federation of the United Kingdom. Every arbitrator or umpire shall be selected from members of the timber trade, or from the arbitrators approved by the Timber Trade Federation of the United Kingdom, or by the Scandinavian Sawmillers' Associations. Any award shall be final and binding upon both parties. The costs of such arbitration shall be left to the discretion of the arbitrators or umpire. In deciding as to costs, the arbitrators or umpire shall take into consideration the correspondence between the parties relating to the dispute, and their respective efforts to arrive at a fair settle- ment. This agreement shall be made a rule of court on the application of either party. The above clause not to apply in case of any of the goods being shipped to the colonies or Mediterranean ports. In the contracts the sellers are given some latitude in regard to changing the specifications. While in other countries exporters have sometimes misused this right and have shipped specifications of an entirely different nature for those desired by the importers, this com- plaint has seldom or never been heard in connection with shipments from Sweden, Norway, and Finland. The buyer also has a right to make some changes in the specifications, but the difference between the seller's right and the buyer's right in this respect is that the seller has only the right to increase or decrease the quantity of the different items, but must always ship the total quantity specified in the contract, whereas the buyer can vary the total quantity to be shipped, up to 10 per cent, but the quantities covering this variation must not exceed 50 standards (99,000 feet board measure). If the shipper is supplying excess quantities beyond the variation to which 2092°— 21 -15 226 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. he is entitled according to the contract, the importer may refuse to accept these excess quantities. If the exporter, on the other hand, supphes smaller quantities than he should according to the contract, the buyer must both pay for and accept these quantities shipped, but he can afterwards make a claim for losses caused by the exporter's failure to carry out the contract. In regard to short lengths, the seller is compelled by the contract to furnish lengths of 6, 7, and 8 feet up to and including 5 per cent of the whole cargo, and the seller also has the right to demand that tliis quantity be included in each cargo, whether short lengths are needed for stowage or not. There are no special rules covering the distribution of this stowage among the different items, and certain dimensions always are accom- panied by a larger percentage of short lengths than other dimensions dependent upon the percentage of short lengths produced by the mill in each case. The contract generally stipulates that the exporter must make up the shipment of a fair specification and this stipulation is to some extent a protection for the importer in this respect. The short lengths are not taken into consideration in calculating, the average length of the whole cargo. The contract specifies that the lumber must be properly seasoned and graded according to the usual established rules of the particular exporter. One exporter is not dependent upon the grading rules that other exporters in the same district may use. After the lumber has been removed from the dock and is properly protected in the barges, the exporters are not responsible for any deterioration. The following is the form for the bill of lading : Shipped in good order and condition by in the good steamship called the Pan, whereof Nordgren is master for this present voyage, and now lying in Gefle and bound for Hull {Dock as ordered on arrival) via other loading ports, as per charter, dated June 20, 1914 (with liberty to call at any ports in any order, to coal, or for loading or dis- charging cargo under the ice clause — No. 8 — in the undermentioned charter party, or otherwise, to sail without pilots, and to tow and assist vessels in distress, and to deviate for the purpose of saving life or property). K^B 26,339 pieces 3X9, 4^; liX5; 1X5, 4^X4 inches deals, battens and boards. of which — pieces on deck at charterers' risk. And to be delivered in the like good order and condition at the aforesaid port of Hull as above. The act of God, the King's enemies, restraint of princes and rulers, perils of the seas excepted. Also fire, barratry of the master and crew, pirates, collisions, straiidings and accidents of na\'igation, or latent defects in, or accidents to, hull and/or machinery, and/or boilers, always excepted, even when occasioned by the negligence, default, or error in judgment of the pilot master, mariners, or other persons employed by the shipowner, or for whose acts he is responsible not resulting, however, in any case from want of due diligence by the owner of the ship, or by the ship's husband or manager. unto Order or his or their Assigns, he or they paying freight for the same as per charter party dated June 20, 1914, all the terms and exceptions contained in which charter are herewith incorporated. General average payable according to York Antwerp Rules, 1890, excepting that jettison of deck cargo (and the freight thereon) for the common safety shall be allowed as general average. In witness whereof the master or agent of the said ship hath signed three bills of lading all of this tenor and date, any one of which being accomplished the others to be void. Dated in Gefle this 9th day of July, 1914- •.Quality, condition, and measure unknown. J. NOEDGREN, Captain. SWEDISH LUIMBEE INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 227 228 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. BRANDING. When the branding system was started in Sweden is not recorded but it is thought to have been in, existence for 100 years or more. The branding of lumber is in general use all over Sweden. There is no exporter of any importance in the country who does not in some way or other trade-mark his lumber for export. The Swedish brands usually designate the name of the shipper and the grade of lumber. Some mills also find it desirable to differentiate in the brand between pine and spruce and also between planed lumber and rough lumber. The effect of trade-marking lumber can not be overestimated, and it would be impossible to consider the success of the Swedish lumber exporters without giving attention to their branding system. The Swedish lumber exporters contend that unbranded lumber indicates that there is something wi'ong with the product, because the producer or exporter has shown himsslf unwilling to stand behind it. It has been mentioned that certain mills or districts obtain better prices than others. These higher prices are due in many cases to the fact that the mill or the district has been careful for years in main- taining its reputation by always shipping the lumber up to grade and otherwise carefully fulfilling its contracts. Many importers are will- ing to pay an extra charge to be assured that the lumber will be shipped strictly according to contract. The effect of the brand is not restricted, however, to the importer. The wholesalers and con- sumers generally pay as much attention to the brand as the importer and it is frequently heard abroad that customers specify the same brands year in and year out. The demand for such branded lumber therefore is being created not only by importers but also by their customers — wholesalers and consumers. It is readily seen that these conditions tend to increase the demand for the different brands of Swedish lumber and that price cutting between the exporters to some extent will be eliminated by having each mill cater to the old-established customers. The larger the clientele of the exporter, the more careful he must be to retain his customers by maintaining the established standards of grades. Indicating the grade on each piece is of the greatest importance. In case of claim, it would always be easy to arrive at a conclusion, because every piece of lumber bears the quality mark and no tamper- ing with the grades is possible. In cases where only the shipper's name is indicated on every piece of lumber or the lumber does not bear any trade-mark at all, tampering with the grades is easy and of frequent occurrence. If the importer buys lumber of one grade and sells it as a higher grade, the consumer wiU not be protected and the resulting dissatisfaction will eventually cause a decreased demand for inadequately branded stock. In the case of lumber branded with the shipper's name and the quality at the same time, it is impossible to misrepresent the quality upon which basis the lumber is sold and although the prices may be higher before it reaches the consumer, he always knows what he is paying for. In case lumber not up to grade has been shipped, no responsible shipper could afford to disregard the settling of such claims on branded stock, and knowing this, the agents handling such branded lumber are likely to work on a lower commission basis SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 229 because handling such stock involves less trouble. The brand is also a guaranty for the importer and he is willing to pay for this assur- ance of the shipper's responsibility. To show the importance that is attached to the branding of Swedish lumber, it may be mentioned that some time ago a foreign Govern- ment offered for sale at low prices stocks shipped by comparatively unknown Swedish exporters. These stocks were open for inspec- tion at the port in the foreign country. In spite of the low prices, most of the importers preferred to pay several dollars extra for branded lumber from old estabUshed concerns in Sweden, though the lumber offered by the Government was said to equal the branded lumber in quality. The branding of pine and spruce separately is not general but it is seen at times. The pine, for instance, may be branded in blue and spruce in red. Planed lumber is usually branded with a special symbol to distinguish it from rough stock. Several Swedish ex- porters give as a reason for this practice that Swedish lumber is often planed unsatisfactorily in foreign countries, and if such planed stock is sold carrying the brand of the Swedish shipper of the rough stock it may misrepresent the Swedish shipper unless there is STORA KOPPARBERGS BERGStAGS AKTIEBOLAG STOCKHOLM, SV^BDEN. (OLDEST JOINT STOCK COMPANY IN THE WORLD, FOUNDED ABOIT A. D. 1 225.) Telegraphic Address : . BERaSLAOET. STOCKHOLM. Manufacturers and Exporters of SAWN & PLANED GOODS. Port of Shipment: SKUTSKAR (Oefle District). . Sawn Goods • I SKB 1 DOM III DM IV D*M U/s Red «DM# V A*S Wrack... AWS >Torratk» A#S Slilpplns Harks I Ditcotored Redwood I F«B II F + B III FBL IV ELF Unsorted .. B For Continent only. U/s WhitewoodBBB Discol. U/s white BB Planed Coodi Ex. I. . #SKB* I.... SKB 11... DOM III.. DM U/s whilewood *SKUTSKAR*: disQolored red- wood F*B PRINCIPAL AGENTS: For the United Kingdom: S'ora Kopparbergt Bergilagi Aktiebotag Ageneu, Limited. 6 Laurence Pou/i(nr« Hut, Cannon Street, London. E. L Tel Addrets: iBergslags, London.* For France and Beiglum: Slora Koppartiergi Bergslag Socleif Anongme d'Agen ce. n. Rue d Anjou, Partt Mil. e fet. Addreii •Bergttnget. Parti.. ■ For Germany ^tora Kopparbergj Bergatag, C. m b. H . Senator Hagn-Haul AlBterdamm. W. Hamburg. I. Tel. Address tStortlkoppa/berg. Hamburg. For Dcnmaric L. Vitdau. Slormgade W. Copenhagen. For Spain and Portugal. Fig. 104.— Sample of Swedish advertisement, showing brands. some indication that rough stock was shipped from Sweden and that the defective manufacture, therefore, is due to causes beyond the exporter's control. Some firms may also make special grades and brands for dis- colored lumber. Particularly the mills cutting a considerable per- centage of the upper grades of stock may obtain a better price for discolored lumber by separating it from the other grades. Many mills have three or four grades of discolored lumber. This stock is always specially designated as discolored stock in order to prevent tampering with the grades. Sawmill companies operating several mills in different districts may have different symbols indicating the point of shipment. Some- times the mills have different symbols for each country of destina- tion, but this is not always considered good policy. There is a variety of types of brands. Usually the brands are made up of the initials of the mill or mill owner, and the different qualities may be designated by a crown, star, a plus or a minus sign, or by the order in which the letters are placed. The following are some of the Swedish lumber brands for various grades of lumber and places of shipmento 230 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. HUDIKSVALL SHIPMENT. Sawn lumber: First grade H ^ H Second grade H^H Third grade H H H Fourth grade 3 H B Unsorted grade +H H+ Fif th grade M D M Sixth grade M M M Planed lumber: First grade '^HTA'^ Second grade HT-^AB Third grade HTAB Unsorted grade H W A L L SKELLEFTEA SHIPMENT. Sawn lumber: First grade J M A Second grade RKL Third grade UND Fourth grade BAB Fifth grade N P U Sixth grade B # A - Unsorted grade BURE Planed lumber: First gi-ade B U^ RE Second grade B U* R E Third grade BAB Unsorted grade BURE Symbols are usually selected for the different grades in such a way that tampering would be difficult. Sometimes the entire name of the mill may be made the basis of the brand, and this is very effec- tive if the name is short. Some mills register their brands, but tills is not usually considered necessary, although several shippers in Sweden and in neighboring countries have taken the same branding symbols. Both in Sweden and abroad there have been published keys to the different brands. The Swedish edition is especially complete and is called the Timber Trades Handbook, published by Th. A. Askergren, Stockholm. It contains Yery valuable information in 'regard to the shipping marks in Sweden, Norway, Finland, and Russia, and general information as well about each one of these countries. The first part of the book contains data about the forests and the lumber and pulp industries in each country, and in the sec- tion containing the directory of the various exporters complete information is given in regard to the mills, their equipment, pro- duction, administration, shipping ports, and agents, and a complete record of the different brands, covering all grades and species. A book called Sliipping Marks on Timber is published hj the Timber Trades Journal, of London. This book contains a kef to the different brands for Sweden, Norway, Finland, Russia, Germany, Canada, the United States, and a few other countries. Branding in Sweden may justly be termed the backbone of the lumber export trade, and it would serve the same purposes for American lumber exporters if it were generally adopted in the United States. The branding of lumber for export in the United States might be handled in the most efficient way by having the various lumbei' associations arrange for a uniform system of desig- SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 231 Dating shippers' names, quality, species, etc. The brand could also indicate that the shipper was a member of one particular association. In this way greater uniformity would be feasible and it would be easier for the importers to acquaint themselves with the meaning of these symbols, rrobably the branding would also redound to the benefit of the reliable shippers if the association could exercise a certain control of the use of the brands by refusing membership to -notoriously dishonest exporters. It would be advisable for Ameri- can shippers to register their brands. The quality of the lumber should be indicated by the brands; otherwise it would stiU be easy for middlemen, importers, wholesalers and retailers abroad, to tam- per with the grades. TRADE JOURNALS — ADVERTISING. One lumber trade journal in Sweden has a wide circulation among the exporters in that country and in Norway, Finland, and Russia, and also among the importers in the various countries. This publi- cation, called The Swedish Timber Trades Journal, is published in Stockholm and contains valuable information on the lumber market in the different countries, besides various articles on freights, produc- tion of lumber, and matters of local interest. The leading articles in this paper are printed in English also. Advertising systems in Europe, as a whole, are not developed to such an extent as in the United States. In many cases some old- estabhshed firms contend that they are so well known that they do not have to advertise. Many fii*ms seem to have aU the business they can handle and are unwiUing to enlarge the scope of their activi- ties. In this respect business generally is conducted in a much more conservative way than in the United States. The lumber export trade in most of the European countries belongs to one of the most conservative branches of commercial activities, and the advertising of lumber or the advocating of different species of lumber for different uses is not usually seen. The Swedish lum- ber exporters do not av ail themselves of the press to further their business to any great extent. The more important Swedish exporters limit their advertising to simple statements in Swedish and foreign lumber journals, usually containing only the name of the shipper, the capacity of his mill, shipping' marks (brands), and the name of the agent handling his products. No efforts are being made to push the different products in other ways through the press or to point out the special features in connection vnth the shipments from any one exporter. In figure 104 is seen a typical Swedish advertisement of this nature, representing one of the largest shippers in northern Europe. The mere fact that this company has been established since about 1225 A. D, would probably give this company a standing without any further explanation. The importance that the Swedish exporters attach to their brands is seen from the fact that these brands are nearly always inserted in the advertisement. Occasionally Swedish lumber exporters also take an active part in properly advertising their stocks in foreign markets. Figure 91 shows such an example, giving a price list, accompanied by an ex- planation in Greek about the Swedish exporter and his products, 232 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. steamships, etc., whose lumber the importer who issues this cata- logue is handling. It must also be noted that the trade-marks occupy a very prominent place in this price list, which shows that even m so small and unimportant a market as Greece the trade- marks are considered essential for the efficient marketing of Swedish lumber. SWEDISH LUMBER EXPORTERS' ASSOCIATION. The excellent results accomplished by the Swedish lumber ex- porters in extending their markets all over the world would not have been obtained were it not for the important work of the Swedish Lumber Exporters' Association. This association has been in exist- ence for many years, but only during the last decade has it played any important part in the export trade. At present the member- ship represents the shippers of more than 90 per cent of the lumber exported from Sweden. The outsiders consist mainly of smaller mills which do not produce sufficient quantities to make any difference in the program of the exporters' organization. The main office of this association is located in Stockholm; there are several branches in theprmcipal shipping districts throughout Sweden. The membership fee paid in Sweden is rather low. During normal years the membership fees amounted to about $20,000, but at present they are somewhat higher. The expenses are chiefly for administra- tion and office expenditures, as generally money is not given out for advertisements, exhibits, etc. The principal object of this association is to maintain a certain price standard on lumber for export. In advance of each seffing season a special committee of the members decides upon the mini- mum prices for each district which the members must obtam. Before the war there was no written contract in regard to the minimum prices; the imderstanding among the members was considered a "gentlemen's agreement." Dm'ing the war, however, stricter meas- ures were taken to prevent the members from underselling one another, after the placing of orders for the AUies was put into the hands of the British Timber Controller. It was evident to the Swed- ish exporter that weakness on the part of any of their members in their selling policy would immediately have a serious effect on the prices for aU mills. Special contracts, accordingly, were signed by aU members, whereby they bound themselves to observe the rules in regard to the general selling policy, minimum prices, etc., established by the association. A board of 17 representatives from aU shipping districts was appointed by the members, and detailed minimum price lists were issued covering each dimension and grade in each shipping district. The different countries of destination were given special schedules. The prices were changed from time to time to follow the market. Special attention was given to extra charges for odd sizes, etc. The members were required to establish a certain financial guar- anty to which the association had access in case any member should break the contract, and heavy fines were imposed by the association for such breach of agreement. Furthermore, it was left to this com- mission to pass on important questions in regard to the general selling policy of the members. This arrangement is still in effect and will probably be maintained. SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 233 The members must report the details of sales as soon as they are made. This information must contain a detailed account of the terms of sale, specifications, prices, and country and region of destination, but not the name of the importer nor the port of destination. This information is communicated to the other members, who thus are able to follow the market independently of any information from the outside. This system stood its test during the latter part of the war and the Swedish lumber exporters were able to raise their prices on their products to correspond to the heavy increases for raw material and labor. This cooperation among the exporters in Sweden enabled them to deal successfully with the strongest and most powerful factor in the lumber import trade that the world has ever seen. That this coopera- tion will continue is certain, particularly since the Finnish Association has entered into a close connection with the Swedish Association, establishing a fixed relation between the base prices in the two countries. Important work was accomplished before the war by the Swedish Association in having the contracts covering lumber sales for export standardized for all mills. During the war several important changes were made in the established form of the contract, such as selling on a guaranteed rate-of-exchange basis, all of which were taken up by the association in behalf of its members. Various efforts have also been made by the association, through the district branches, to stabilize the prices on saw logs delivered at the main floating rivers. It can not be said that the association has been so successful in this undertaking as in fixing prices for lumber export. If it were only a question of competition among the asso- ciation members in regard to the purchase of saw logs, the matter would not be so difficult, but many outsiders and pulp mills offer keen competition, and the base price fixed at the beginning of a season is seldom adhered to. The curtailing of production by mutual agreement has not often been necessary. The mills generally judge for themselves in advance of each season what the prospects will be for the next sales campaign, and as they generally have the same customers year after year, each mill decides its own policy. ARBITRATION SERVICE. Before the war the association instituted an arbitration service in several of the principal importing countries. It was frequently found that importers made unreasonable claims, knowing that the exporters or their representatives could not always check up their statements. Swedish lumber experts are stationed in different lumber centers in Europe and in case of claims the assistance of these experts can be demanded. The contracts usually stipulate that the decision of these experts is to be final. In the United Kingdom, during 1914, the association experts acted in 31 cases of claims involving approximately 6,000,000 feet board measure of sawn and planed lumber. The total amount of claims demanded was about $8,100, of which about $3,200 was granted. In 12 cases the complaints were poor quality; in 3 cases poor quality and excess of wane; in 3 cases, excess of wane; in 2 cases, excess of 234 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. wane and excess percentage of short lengths; in 1 case, excess of wane, discoloration, short average lengths, etc. ; in 1 case, scant lum- ber; in 1 case, rot; in 1 case, discoloration; in 1 case, warped stock; in 1 case, careless trimming; in 1 case, scant thickness; in 1 case, de- fective tying of bundled goods; and in 1 case poor manufacturing. Two cases were unjustified claims. Considering that the United ffingdom is the most important market for Swedish lumber, the num- ber of complaints is insignificant. The experts are paid chiefly by the Swedish Exporters' Association, but their services have been considered very valuable by both ex- porters and importers. Besides their assistance in the satisfactory settling of claims, the mere presence of these men prevents many unreasonable complaints. Among the reliable importers this arbi- tration system has been looked upon with 'favor because it proves that the intentions of the Swedish shippers are to make right what might be wrong. The expense of maintaining the service is consid- erable, but it is estimated that the Swedish exporters indirectly are deriving great benefits. Tlie value of this assistance must be esti- mated not by the number of disputes that the arbitrators may settle in the exporters' favor but rather by the elimination of many com- plaints through the presence of these representatives abroad. ATTEMPT TO ESTABLISH UNIFORM GRADING RULES. Efforts made by the association to establish uniform grading rules for its members have not succeeded. This circumstance must be seen, however, in the light of the proverbially conservative policy of the Swedes in all their dealings. Certain mills long ago established a standard of grades, which is known to their customers, and change in this standard of grades would give their old-established connections reason for dissatisfaction. The association, therefore, has not been able to establish uniformity in this respect, although the question has been considered. CHARTERING BUREAU. One of the most recent and most successful activities of the asso- ciation is the establishing of a freight bureau for its members. With the increasing c. i. f. sales in Sweden, many exporters, especially the smaller ones, have lost a great deal of money on the chartering of vessels because they were not alwaj^s in a position to follow the freight market. Only the largest mills can afford to maintain a chartering and shipping department. Many mills are located at a great dis- tance from tlie principal shipping centers and often it is difficult for them to keep posted as to freights, etc. Usually, therefore, the mills have been more or less in the hands of the steamship owners. In order to remedy this condition, the association established a chartering bureau in 1915. The object of this bureau was to keep the association members informed regarding the freight market and to enable them to form their own opinion in regard to the tonnage question. It was first intended to operate merely as an informa- tion bureau, but later, the bureau's activities were extended to the chartering of tonnage for association members. From time to time, the exporters turn in to the bureau reports regarding their future SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 235 tonnage requirements, and these enable the bureau to work to better advantage. The bureau does not speculate in freights, and tonnage is char- tered only when it is needed. Opinions differed a great deal at the start regarding the usefulness of such an organization, but the asso- ciation members now seem to be very well satisfied with the results. The cost of maintaining this service is borne by the association mem- bers through a small membership fee based on a fraction of 1 cent per 1,000 feet of the total shipments of the various mills dm^ing normal years and a small commission per ton of chartered space. INFORMATION SERVICE. One of the most successful and most important activities of the association is its information service. It is difficult to find exporters better posted on conditions in the importing comitries than the Swedish lumber exporters. Aside from the fact that many of these exporters themselves have spent considerable time abroad working in various lumber offices and nave frequently traveled in the principal importing countries in Europe, they are constantly kept posted thi'ough the association with regard to events in the lumber world. The association publishes a confidential magazine, by which its members are kept informed regarding market conditions, prices, stock needed, etc., for different countries, the data being supplied by regular correspondents all over the world. Very full information is given in this way, both in regard to the matters dit-ectly affecting the Swedish exporters and also in regard to the activities of the other principal lumber-exporting countries. Information from Swedish Government officials abroad is also incorporated in these reports. The Swedish lumber exporters fully understand the value of this publication, as the Swedish papers in general contain only limited information in regard to market reports, etc. The association has also taken up the work of compiling statistics. Data are gathered from all parts of the world concerning imports and exports of lumber, and special attention is given to the other north Em'opean lumber-exporting countries. Complete import statistics for every market are also prepared, so that the members at all times can follow the development of their own business, as well as that of the other lumber-exporting countries. The association's statistics are probably unequaled. The association also warns Swedish exporters against dishonest importers and agents. Therefore a questionable deal may be made by an agent or importer once, but hardly twice. The information service is not confined to conditions affecting the lumber export trade in foreign countries. The technical problems in regard to sawmill machinery, etc., are occasionally taken up in the confidential publication, but this service has not yet been fully devel- oped. The district offices all report to the head office and these reports are published in the magazine. Such information contains reports on forest operations, floatmg, sawing, exporting, labor supply and demand, etc. The association also published statistics regard- ing stocks on hand and sales made in Finland, Russia, Norway, and Sweden. 236 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. These are the principal items covered in the confidential publica- tion. All of it is considered confidential and is reserved for mem- bers. Very little information is given out to the press. A branch of the information service, however, is devoted to press campaigns, which are carried on by the association when questions arise that are of vital importance to its members, in regard to legislation, trans- portation, taxes, tariffs, etc, COOPERATION WITH GOVERNMENT AND WITH OTHER ASSOCIATIONS. The association's influence in official circles is considerable and it is looked upon almost as a semiofiicial institution. It receives lib- eral support from the Swedish Government in many ways, as the success of the lumber export trade, which affects the whole nation's welfare, is thought by many to be dependent mainly upon this organ- ization. There are no antitrust laws in Sweden and price fixing is not contrary to the law. If the exporters operate successfully, the revenue of the Government in the form of taxes increases corres- pondingly. During the last years before the war an important step was taken by the Swedish association in seeking the cooperation of other asso- ciations in northern and eastern Europe. Especially with the Fin- nish association, the Swedish association has established very close connection and the newly reorganized association in Finland is modeled after the Swedish association. The Swedish association is also cooperating with the association in Norway; but as Norway exports mainly planed lumber and the conditions in general are somewhat different from those in Sweden, the need for close coop- eration with this country is not so pressing. With Russian lumber associations a similar plan of cooperation was started before the war, but this work did not lead up to any tangible results on account of the lack of organization among the lumber exporters in Russia. Renewed efforts are contemplated, however, when order is restored in that country. The Finnish, Norwegian, and Swedish associations and a few local Russian associations exchange reports concerning stocks on hand, prices, and sales made, ADVANTAGE OF SIMILAR ORGANIZATION FOR UNITED STATES. It would be of great benefit to establish a lumber exporters' association in the United States, to take up several of the activities in which the Swedish association is engaged. Leaving the price- fixing question out of consideration, an association of exporters in this country could offer valuable service to both exporters and importers by establishing miiform sales contracts, arbitration service abroad, a chartering bureau, etc., and could also disseminate informa- tion among American exporters regarding market conditions abroad. TERMS OF PAYMENT AND FINANCING OF LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. Considering the heavy investments that most of the Swedish sawmill plants and forest operations represent and the length of time that the operators usually must wait for their money from the time the timber is cut until it is manufactured and ready for shipment, it would not be possible in most cases for them to grant long credits Special Agents Series No. 195. Courtesy of Forester JNI. Nordquist. FIG. 105. — MINE PROPS IN PORT OF GOTEBORG. Courtesy of Forester M. Nordquist. FIG. 106.— TIES IN PORT OF GOTEBORG. Special Agents Series No. 195. FIG. 107.— SQUARE TIMBER, ISLAND OF GOTLAND. CourtL-ay of Hufarnut A/li. FIG. 103.— THE FIRST REFANUT LUMBER RAFT, CARRYING ABOUT 4,000,000 FEET BOARD MEASURE. SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 237 to importers. The cases where the exporters in Sweden carried the importers for any length of time were rare. The financing of the lumber export trade therefore, had been left to a large extent to banks or agents. It is an erroneous impression which has prevailed that the Swedish exporters were able to extend their markets abroad, mainly because they themselves granted long credits. During the war, many , changes were made in the methods of paying for lumber shipments ; but as developments since the armistice have shown that Swedish shippers are doing business on practically the same basis as before the war in regard to conditions of payment, it is more important to give attention to pre-war conditions than to the many stipulations with regard to payment that were dic- tated by abnormal conditions during the war. Before the war, the usual terms of payment in connection with the exportation of lumber were the following: Cash with order, less discount; open credit; cash against documents, less discount; draft at sight or at stated time after date of bill of lading. Only in case of shipments to new markets such as the Levant, and to unknown customers was cash required with order. It was customary to require an unknown purchaser to open a confirmed, irrevocable bank credit in favor of the exporter at one of the princi- pal financial centers in Europe, so that the exporter could obtain payment by drawing a draft against this credit, when the shipment had been made. The open credit was not used very often. By far the most common way of arranging for the payment of lumlDer for export was the drawing of drafts, either upon the im- porters direct or on the agent, who in turn coiild make special terms with the importers. The usual procedure was as follows: As soon as the ship was loaded, the exporter would draw a draft on the importer and, if the terms Avere cash, the draft was made payable at sight, less a stated discomit of 2 per cent or 2J per cent, as the case might be. Where credit was to be given, the draft was made pay- able three to four months from the date of the bill of lading. This draft was dra-wm in duplicate. The first of exchange, together with the shipping documents, was usually sent to the shipper's agent who sold the cargo and this agent immediately presented it to the im- porter for his acceptance: As soon as the draft was accepted it was retm-ned by the importer to the agent in exchange for shipping documents. If the cargo was sold f . o. b. Swedish port, the documents would be bill of lading indorsed in blank by the shipper, invoice, and specifications; and if sold c. i. f., insurance policy and charter Earty would also be included. Consular invoices also must sometimes e furnished by the shippers. When cargoes were sold on a c. i. f . basis, two drafts were generally drawn by the exporter, one payable at sight, covering freight and insurance, and the other at three to four months from date of bill of lading, covering the amount of the invoice for the lumber ship- ment alone. Only with the bill of lading in his possession would the importer be able to prove himself the rightful receiver of the cargo. The first of exchange, carrying the importer's acceptance, would then be kept by the agent and presented for collection on the date when the draft fell due. 238 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. In case the exporter should want to discount the draft, he would sell the second of exchange to a local bank; the bank would then present the second of exchange at the agent's office and would obtain the first of exchange duly accepted. The bank would there- upon attend to the collection itself. The agents generally did not charge any commission for their service, while a bank made a small charge for cashing this document. In cases where shippers have advanced money to the captain on the freight, a sight draft is drawn for this amount. In some cases, the agent would guarantee the solvency of the customer to whom he had sold (del credere) and would receive a commission, usually one-half to 1 per cent, for such services. Through special arrangement the exporter in many cases could draw a draft on the agent for the amount of the invoice, less agent's commission, and the agent, in turn, would draw on the importer, with whom he could make special conditions in regard to terms of payment. Many of the large agencies abroad maintained banking departments, but other agencies of less financial resources would make arrangements with their banks to discount the drafts drawn by them on the im- porters. In this latter way, it was not necessary for the agents to operate with large capital. Many agents, however, practically financed the importers and in this way were enabled to effect many sales for the exporter in cases where the exporter himself would not be willing to give long credit. It is also certain that the agents who financed the importers in this way were often able to exercise an important influence on the importers known to make unjust claims. The terms of pajnnent vary considerably in the different countries. In dealings with the United Kingdom, the usual terms were cash, 3 days after sight, less 2| per cent discount, or draft payable 4 months after date of bill of lading. Contracts made with British colonial markets usually called for payment in London, 3 dsijs after sight, less 2 J per cent discount. In some cases credit of 4 months after date of bill of lading was granted. The terms of contracts for ship- ments to France and Belgium were generally cash, less 2h per cent discount, or 10 days after sight, less 2 per cent, or draft payable 4 months after date of bill of lading. Special conditions cover the German market. The usual terms of payment were cash 3 days after sight, less 2 per cent discount, or cash 10 days after date of bill of lading, less 2 per cent discount, or draft payable 3 to 4 months after date of bill of lading. The condition of payment for the Nether- lands and Denmark were generally drafts payable 3 to 4 months from date of bill of lading or cash, less 2 per cent discount. Spanish importers usually paid cash, less 2h per cent discount, or by draft payable in London, 4 months after date of bill of lading. In some cases, particularly in southern Spain, longer credits were granted. For the Levant and North Africa, the exporters usually demanded bankers' confirmed credit in London, less 2h per cent discount; or, in case of well-known customers, drafts were made payable 4 months after date of biU of lading. The Swedish Exporters' Association endeavors to have cash discount limited to 2 per cent for all conntries. It is easily seen that the agents of the Swedish shippers perform a very valuable service in the financing of the lumber export trade when the shippers themselves are unable to grant the necessar}^ credit. Many importers whose reputation and standing would be SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 239 considered satisfactory might not be able to purchase an entire cargo if credit were not given. The agent also ascertains the financial standing of the importer before he makes a sale, even in cases where he does not assume any financial responsibility for his client. It must be noted, however, that the Swedish exporters always draw on their agents for the full amount of the invoice, less the agent's com- mission. To be able to draw for only a certain percentage of the invoice (not including agent's commission) would not be considered unless the exporter were notoriously unreliable, and no first-class agent would care to handle such business. The Swedish exporters operate on a financially strong basis and do not take on uncertain customers, and the agents also have the situation well in hand. Therefore the losses sustained by Swedish exporters on account of bad debts are almost negligible. In regard to payment m special cases when delivery is not accord- ing to contract, etc., see contract form on pages 223 to 225. The policy of the Swedish exporters in the near future will be to grant no credit to foreign importers. STANDARDS OF MEASURE. Although the metric system of measurement is compulsory by law, it is not universally used in Sweden in the lumber trade, because the most important markets for Swedish lumber employ the English system of measurement. In official statistics the metric measure- ment is used. There is no question that the metric measurement is far more adequate and scientific and there is a strong movement in Sweden to have it adopted universally in the lumber trade. The cubic meter is equal to 35.314 cubic feet and a cubic meter of sawn lumber is equal to 424 board feet. In the international lumber trade, Swedish lumber is sold by the Petrograd standard, which is equal to 165 cubic feet, 4.67 cubic meters, or 1,980 board feet. The above figures refer to rough lumber. In measuring planed lumber the actual sizes of the planed boards are increased by one-fourth of an inch in width and one-eighth of an inch in thickness ; this measure is called nominal measure and is made the basis of the measurements of the contents of planed boards. The planed lumber is also usually measured in Petrograd standards, but sometimes the measurements are given in square meters, square feet, etc. It must be noted, how- ever, that lumber less than 1 inch in thickness is alwa^^s figured at its actual measurement (adding I of an inch to the width and J of an inch to the thickness), and not by surface measure, as is the cus- tom in other countries. In regard to logs and hewn or sawn timber, the methods of measure- ment are very conflicting, some basing the measurement on top meas- urement and in other cases on the diameter of each log at the middle. The quantities are expressed in cubic feet, cubic meters, or Petro- grad standards. One Petrograd standard of hewn timber is equal to 150 cubic feet. One Petrograd standard of round logs is equal to 120 cubic feet if measured by caliper and 100 cubic feet if measured b}^ string. Pit props and split wood are usually measured by the cubic fathom, equal to 216 cubic feet. 240 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. RATES OF EXCHANGE. It was customary in the Swedish lumber export trade before the war to make quotations in foreign money. In selling to the United Kingdom and colonies and to some other countries quotations have usually been made in pounds sterling, to Germany in German marks, to France in francs, etc. This was possible before the war without any great risk caused by fluctuations in the rate of exchange, because the rates were fairly constant from one month to another. During the war the heavy fluctuations caused the Swedish lumber exporters to establish a fixed rate of exchange to which they all adhered. These fixed rates were as follows: £1 sterling, 18.20 crowns (par value, 18.16 crowns); 100 francs, 72 crowns (par value, 72 crowns); 100 German marks, 89 crowns (par value, 88.89 crowns) ; 100 guilders, 150 crowns (par value, 150 crowns). By this procedure the Swedish exporters prevented any unforeseen losses through fluctuations in the rate of exchange and it did not make any diff'erence whether the quotations were in foreign or in Swedish money. The exporter always knew the exact amount that he would receive in Swedish money. This system is followed at the present time and will probably continue as long as the rate of exchange is abnormal in most of the importing countries. [In this report the par value of Swedish money has been used.l The following statement shows the fluctuation in the rate of ex- change of the Swedish crown from 1914 to 1919 on London, Paris, and New York. The rate on London is in crowns per pound sterling; on Paris, in crowns per 100 francs; and on New York, in crowns per dollar. Years. London. Paris. New York. Highest. Lowest. Highest. Lowest. Highest. Lowest. 1914 19.19 19.43 17.27 16.16 16.90 18.08 18.18 16.97 15.66 12.02 13.40 16.56 77.45 77.60 62.04 58.28 65.28 65.33 72.16 61.64 55.51 44.18 49.48 48.48 3.97 4.05 3.63 3.414 3.57 4.10 3.75 1915 3.60 1916 3.312 1917 2.548 1918 2.82 1919 3.49 PRICES. The price level of lumber for export from Sweden fluctuated to some extent during the last 50 years before the war. The variations in prices have been especially noticeable after important wars, such as the Franco-Prussian War and the Boer War, etc. Shortly after the Franco-Prussian War Swedish lumber prices advanced about 100 per cent. The price in 1874 covering rough and planed lumber was as high as S23 per 1,000 feet board measure. After that time there was a sharp decline and in 1879 the price came do\\Ti to about $13. A further decline was experienced in the following years, and in 1886 the ebb was reached with a price of $12 per 1,000 feet. After 1886 the prices increased, with some interruptions, until 1913, and the price for this year, about $20, represented the highest shice 1875. In 1914 the price level was somewhat lower, but during the war the prices increased and are at present about three times as high as the SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 241 pre-war level. These abnormal prices must be attributed to the great demand for lumber in foreign countries, the limited supply from other exporting countries, and the high cost of stumpage and labor in Sweden. At present (November, 1919) prices have not shown any tendency to decline. On the contrary, one may expect higher prices in the future, as the demand will probably increase and it will take consid- erable time before Russia, which was the largest lumber-producing countr}^ in Europe, will be enabled to export such large quantities as it did before the war. Furthermore, competition among tlie northern European exporters has been regulated to some extent, and the im- porters may not count on playing one exporter against another, at least not in connection with exporters in northern Europe. Except on the west coast, it has not generally been the custom in Sweden to sell on a c. i. f. basis; that is, the mills have not generally undertaken delivery of the lumber at the port of destination and have not included charges for freight and insurance in their quota- tions. However, some mills have been in a better position than others to sell on a c. i. f . basis, as before the war a few mills in Sweden possessed their own tonnage. During the war several other Swed- ish mills either have acquired ships or have obtained a financial interest in shipping companies. It is believed that increased c. i. f . sales will be the consequence in the future and that more mills will have their own tonnage. BASIS OF PRICE QUOTATIONS. For many years it has been customary in Sweden to base quota- tions on the prices obtained by the district of Hernosand. The cor- responding prices for the other districts are figured by applying the customary dift'erence in prices between the different shipping dis- tricts and those of the Hernosand district. Before the war there were no absolutely fixed relations among the prices obtained by the different districts, but this question* was settled in 1918, when the Swedish lumber exporters through their association established fixed minimum prices for each district. The prices in different districts may fluctuate to some extent, as they are dependent largely upon freight rates. The following schedule gives the customary difference in thef. o. b. prices per 1,000 feet board measure between the principal shipping ports in Sweden and the Hernosand district, which is taken as the basis : Omskoldsvik $0.31 below basis. . Umea $0.92 below basis. Skelleftea and Pi tea $1.84 below basis. Lulea and Haparanda $2.46 below basis. Sundsvall $0.61 above basis. Hudiksvall and Soderhamn $1.23 above basis Gevle and Stockholm $1.54 above basis. Ports south of Stockholm $2.46 above basis.^ Goteborg Even up to $5 above basis. 2 During winter season. 2092°— 21 16 242 SWEDISH LUMBEK INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. It is impossible to give any general statement as to the relative value of spruce and pine limiber. Spruce was formerly sold at a heavy discount, but later the difference in price between spruce and pine decreased materially, so that immediately before the war spruce was selling for approximately 10 per cent less than pine. This^ state- ment does not hold good for all dimensions; certain dimensions of spruce were sold at the same price as pine, while other dimensions were sold at a heavier discount than 10 per cent. During the war the production of spruce in Europe materially decreased and spruce has therefore advanced in price more than pine. The main reason for this spruce shortage was the lack of exports during the war from Russia, one of the world's sources for this material. Furthermore, the pulp factories consumed large quantities of spruce logs, because this species is more suitable for pulp than pine. At present spruce and pine are generally sold at the same price, but certain stocks of spruce may be sold at a premium. In the price scales covering the different dimensions considerable variations have been experienced in years past. Considering that Swedish exporters can furnish only limited jquantities of wide stock, such stocks have naturally been sold at a higher price than the stocks of which there is an ample supply, such as narrow boards. As the Swedish stock lists may contain as many as 600 different items, it is evident that a price scale must be used in order to enable the importers to estimate the cost of the different items without having special quotations for each. Before the war the price scales used in Sweden were not definitely fixed, as the demand from one year to another would vary considerably, and also the demand for certain stocks in the different countries. It was customary to select three or four of the principal dimensions, one for each of the following groups: Planks, battens (or scantlings), and boards (or narrow boards). The relative prices of these three groups were usually not fixed but the prices of the different dimensions of each group generally had a certain relation to each other. The usual basic dimensions for which quotations were made were as fol- lows: 3 by 9 inches, 2h by 7 inches, 2 by 4 inches, and 1 by 4^ inches; but other dimensions were sometimes given. During the war, with the fixing of minimum prices, the question of a definite price scale was also settled. Some variations have been made in the present schedules, compared with the pre-war schedules, particularly with respect to the value of planks and wide boards. Again, the decreased output of Russian stock, which contains a large percentage of wide sizes, has had its important influence on the market. It must be understood, however, that the scale of prices is not absolutely definite because the exporter may deviate at times from the rules laid down by the association. Such deviations are dictated by unusual conditions, such as specifications containing excess quan- tities of any one dimension of regular stock sizes, which would at times cause extra prices, or an order calling for a large quantity of undesirable stock, which the exporter may be forced to sell at a special discount in order to dispose of this material. Such cases, however, are referred to the association, if important. The question of grading enters into consideration in connection with the relative prices of shipments from different districts; but for practical purposes the grading of lumber in Sweden may be considered SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 243 fairly uniform and it would require a detailed knowledge of conditions in the different districts to ascertain what effect the different systems of grading would have on the prices. In some cases the least satis- factory products may be sold at $1.23 to $1.84 per 1,000 feet below the prices obtained by the standard products in the same territory and in other cases the difference in price may be larger. Certain exporters have even been able to obtain $2.45 per 1,000 feet in excess of the prices obtained by other shippers in the same district, because their brands were well established in certain countries. Considering the different prices obtained by the various districts in Sweden, due consideration must be given to the question of freights and shipping facihties. For instance, the ports in northern Norrland, having only a short shipping season, must be somewhat rushed in dis- posing of their lumber, while the shippers on the west coast of Sweden can take their time in selling, because they are able to ship the year round. The same conditions apply to the shipping districts south of Stockholm. Although the Stockholm-Malmo district is usually known to have poorer-quality lumber in comparison with the Norr- land districts, the shippers in the Stockholm-Malmo district may obtain $0.61 to about $2.50 more than the shippers in the Norrland districts during the season when these latter shippers are unable to export their stock. During the summer months, however, the prices obtained by shippers in the Stockholm-Malmo district materially decrease on account of the competition with the shippers farther north. The lumber from the west-coast districts is sold at best advantage during the winter months. Lumber shipped from the port of Gote- borg usually obtains very high prices on account of the excellent shipping facilities which this port offers, having direct steamship connections with most of the foreign markets for Swedish lumber. Consequently the shippers in this port can make immediate dehveries and also ship in parcel lots. An increase of even $5 per 1,000 feet above the price obtained from the shippers in the Norrland districts is not unusual during the winter months on the west coast of Sweden' but these high prices refer only to the output of standard mills. The higher the freight rates the greater the difference in the price of lumber from the west coast and from the Norrland ports. The prices are usually quoted on an average-length basis; counting lumber 9 feet and up. Short lumber (6, 7, and 8 feet) is generally included in the cargo up to 5 per cent of the total quantity and is sold at two- thirds of the regular price. Sometimes 9, 10, and 11 foot lumber is sold separately, and this stock is usually sold at three- fourths of the regular price. If specified lengths are ordered, the S rices may be increased by $5 to $7.50 per 1,000 feet board measure. >rders from South Africa generally specify that no lumber less than 10 feet lon^ shall be shipped and also that a certain percentage of the cargo shall consist of lumber at least 20 feet long. For lumber conforming to these specifications an extra charge of $5 to $7.50 per 1,000 feet board measure is generally made. Rift-grain lumber is produced only by a few companies and in very limited quantities. One hundred per cent and more extra is charged for such stock. The same applies to heart specifications, for which there is no definite price schedule. If the exporter understands that the importer must have such stock, he may cnarge almost any price. 244 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. It has been found unprofitable to cater to this trade, however, as many claims result from sales of such special stock. In cutting extra sizes and odd stock it is usually specified that the customer shall take either all grades or at least a certain percentage of the log run at a certain reduction. Contracts of this nature generally call for lumber of unsorted grade and the conditions gen- erally are that at least 20 to 25 per cent of the fifth grade must be taken at current prices. When quoting for odd sizes the mills ascer- tain from what log dimensions they must produce such lumber. They charge not only for extra handling but also for waste of material in sa\ving; for instance, if orders caU for stock 6f -inches wide, the prices would have to be based on 7-inch ^vidth, in addition to a charge of $1.23 to $1.84 per 1,000 feet, board measure, for extra handling. Some countries, especially Denmark and the Netherlands often specify many items containing only a few thousand feet each. Evi- dently making up such cargoes causes the exporters a great deal of trouble, and extra charges have usually been made, ranging from $1.23 to $2.46 per 1,000 feet for quantities less than 10,000 feet board measure of any one dimension shipped. PRICES AT HERNOSAND FROM 1910 TO 1919. The following statement gives the average prices from 1910 to 1918 of some of the principal dimensions at first open water (f. o. w. ; lumber sold during the previous winter and autumn), f. o. b. Herno- sand. The prices are based on the usual average lengths. 1910 3 by 9 inch pine : Per M feet. First grade $41. 48 Second grade 36. 56 Tlurd grade 27. 34 Fourth grade 24. 89 Fifth grade 21.51 3 by 9 inch spruce: First grade 25.88 Second grade 24.32 Third grade 22. 74 Fourth grade 21. 17 Fifth grade 19. 61 2iby 7 inch pine, unsorted grade . . 2 by 4 inch pine, unsorted grade. 2 by 4 inch spruce, unsorted grade Pine boards, unsorted grade: 9-inch 8-inch 7-inch 6-inch 5-inch 4^-inch 4-inch Spruce boards, unsorted grade: 9-inch 8-inch 7-inch 6-inch 5-inch 4^-inch 4-inch ,...-,. 2L20 19. 05 17.20 28.26 23-35 22.74 2L51 20.28 19.97 19.05 21.63 20.43 19.83 .19. 23 18.63 18.03 17.43 1911. 3 by 9 inch pine: Per M feet. Fu-st grade $41. 48 Second grade 36. 56 Third grade 27. 34 Fourth grade 24.89 Fifth grade 21. 51 3 by 9 inch spruce: First grade 25. 10 Second grade 46. 84 Third grade 21. 95 Fourth grade 20. 39 Fifth grade 18. 82 2^by7inch pine, unsorted grade . . 21.20 2J by 7 inch spruce, unsorted grade 19.36 2 by 4 inch pine, unsorted grade. 19. 05 2 by 4 inch spruce, unsorted grade 17. 20 Pine boards, unsorted gi-ade : 9-inch 28.26 8-inch 23.35 7-inch 22. 74 6-inch 21.51 5-inch 20.28 4Hnch 19.97 4-inch 19.05 Spruce boards, unsorted grade: 9-inch..... 21.63 8-inch 20. 43 7-inch 19.83 6-inch 19.23 5-inch 18.63 4i-inch 18.03 4-inch ..-,, 17.43 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 245 ]912. Per M feet. 3 by 9 inch pine: First grade $38. 10 Second grade 33. 18 Third grade 24.42 Fourth grade 21.96 Fifth grade 19. 51 3 by 9 inch spruce : First grade 23.93 Second grade 22. 35 Third grade 20. 78 Fourth grade 19. 21 Fifth grade 17.65 2| by 7 inch pine, unsorted grade . 20. 28 2| by 7 inch spruce, unsorted grade 18.74 2 by 4 inch pine, unsorted grade. . 18. 13 2 by 4 inch spruce, unsorted grade ■ 16. 59 Pine boards, unsorted grade: 9-inch 25.81 8-inch 22.12 7-inch 21.51 6-inch 20.28 5-inch 19.05 4*-inch 18.74 4-inch 17.82 Spruce boards, unsorted grade: 9-inch 21.23 8-inch 19.03 7-inch 19.83 6-inch .\ 18.63 5-inch 18.03 4*-inch 17.43 4-inch 16.83 1913. 3 by 9 inch pine: First grade 39. 02 Second grade 34. 10 Third grade 26.42 Fourth grade 23. 96 Fifth grade 21. 96 3 bv 9 inch spruce: ' First grade 27. 06 Second grade 25. 49 Third grade 23.93 Fourth grade 22.35 Fifth grade 20.78 2h by 7 inch pine, unsorted grade. 21. 96 2^ by 7 inch spruce, unsorted grade 20.58 2 by 4 inch pine, unsorted grade . . 19. 66 2 by 4 inch spruce, unsorted grade 18. 43 Pine boards, unsorted grade: 9-inch 28. 26 8-inch 24. 58 7-inch 23. 04 6-inch 21.81 5-inch 21.28 41-inch 20.58 4-inch 19.51 Spruce boards, unsorted grade: Per M feet. 9-inch $22.24 8-inch 21.03 7-inch 20. 73 6-inch 20.13 5-inch 19.53 4i-inch 18.63 1914. 3 by 9 inch pine: First grade 39.02 Second grade 34. 10 Third grade 27.80 Fourth grade 25. 35 Fifth grade 22. 43 3 by 9 inch spruce: ■ First grade 29.02 Second grade 27. 45 Third grade 25.88 Fourth grade 24. 32 Fifth grade 22. 74 2^ by 7 inch pine, unsorted grade. 23. 04 2h by 7 inch spruce, unsorted Vade .*. 21. 51 2 by 4 inch pine, unsorted grade. . 20. 89 2 by 4 inch spruce, unsorted grade.. 19.36 Pine boards, unsorted grade: 9-inch 27.96 8-inch 24.27 7-inch 23.66 6-inch 22.43 Spruce boards, unsorted grade: 9-inch 23.44 8-inch 22.24 7-inch 21.33 6-inch 20.73 5-inch 20.13 4i-inch 20.26 4-inch 19.29 Cull stock: 2 inches and thicker 15. 67 Less than 2 inches thick 14, 44 1915. 3 by 9 inch pine: ' First grade 39. 33 Second grade 35. 64 Third grade 29. 49 Fourth grade 27. 04 Fifth grade 24. 58 3 by 9 inch spruce: First grade 28. 23 Second grade 26. 66 Third grade 25.10 Fourth grade 46. 84 Fifth grade 21.95 2h by 7 inch pine, unsorted grade. 25. 81 2| bv 7 inch spruce, unsorted 'grade 25. 19 2 by 4 inch pine, unsorted grade. . 22. 74 2 by 4 incn spruce, unsorted grade 22. 12 246 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE, Pine boards, uneorted grade: P^r M feet. 9-inch $28.55 8-inch 27.34 7-inch 26.44 6-inch 25.19 5-inch 24.64 4Hnch 21.81 4-inch 20.58 Spruce boards, unsorted grade: 9-inch : 28.26 8-inch 26.11 7-inch 25. 50 6-inch 24.89 5-inch 24.27 4i-inch 21.20 4-inch 19.97 Cull stock : 2 inches and thicker 17.82 Less than 2 inches thick 15. 02 1916. 3 by 9 inch pine: First grade 43. 93 Second grade 39. 02 Third grade 38.10 Fourth grade 35. 64 Fifth grade 32.71 3 by 9 inch spruce: First grade 40.80 Second grade 39. 25 Third grade 37. 85 Fourth grade 36. 07 Fifth grade 34. 40 3 by 8 inch pine, unsorted grade. 34. 72 3 by 8 inch spruce, unsorted grade 36. 56 2^ by 7 inch pine, unsorted grade. 33. 64 2J by 7 inch spruce, unsorted grade 35. 18 2 by 7 inch pine, unsorted grade. 35. 02 2 by 7 inch spruce, unsorted grade 35. 18 2 by 6 inch pine, unsorted grade. 33. 80 2 by 6 inch spruce, unsorted grade 34. 10 2 by 5h, 5, 4^, and 4 inch pine, unsorted grade 32. 57 2 by 5h and 5 inch spruce, un- sorted grade- 33. 80 2 by 4i and 4 inch spruce, un- sorted grade 32. 71 7-inch boards, pine, unsorted grade 34.72 Per M feet. 7-inch boards, spruce, unsorted ^ade $35. 18 4J-inch boards, pine, unsorted grade 29. 19 4J-inch boards, spruce, unsorted grade 29. 19 4-inch boards, pine, unsorted grade 28.26 4-inch boards, spruce, unsorted grade 28.26 Cull stock: 2 inches and thicker 25.19 Less than 2 inches thick 24. 58 1917. 3 by 9 inch pine, unsorted grade. . 39. 94 3 by 9 inch spruce, unsorted grade 39. 94 2^ by 7 inch pine, unsorted grade. 33. 80 2| by 7 inch spruce, unsorted grade 35. 64 2 by 4 inch pine, unsorted grade . . 33. 80 2 by 4 inch spruce, unsorted grade 34. 41 7-inch boards, pine, unsorted grade 35. 64 7-inch boards, spruce, unsorted grade 35. 64 4-inch boards, pine, unsorted grade 30. 11 4-inch boards, spruce,' unsorted grade 30. 11 Cull stock: 2 inches and thicker 25. 87 Less than 2 inches thick 25. 19 1918. Pine and spruce, unsorted grade: 9-inch planks and boards 8-inch battens and boards — 7-inch battens and boards. . . 6-inch battens and boards. . . 5-inch battens and boards. . . 4^-inch battens and boards. . . 4-inch battens and boards. . . Cull stock: 6 inches and wider 4-5^ inches wide 45.16 43.32 41.78 41.17 40.55 39.33 37.79 30.72 28.88 The following table gives the prices in 1919 per 1,000 feet board measure of different widths of pine and spruce planks, battens, scantlings, and boards, f. o. b. Hernosand, first open water: Widths. Planks, battens, scantlings. Boards. > Widths. Planks, battens, scantlings. Boards. Per Mfeet. $72. 51 60.22 57. 76 57.14 .■55. 30 Per Mfeet. $73. 73 61.45 57.76 . 57.14 55.30 Per M feel. $54. 07 52.23 52.23 52.23 Per Mfeet. S55.30 5 ^ and 5 inches 54.07 8^ inches 4h inches 52.84 4 inches 52.23 7 and 6i inches SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 247 Cull stock 6 inches and more in width sold at S43.01 and less than 6 inches wide, at $41.78 per 1,000 feet. OFFICIAL FIGURES FOR SPECIFIED DATES. The following table shows the official figures for prices f. o. b. Hernosand in January, 1912 to 1919, and in September, 1919, of various sizes and grades of pine and spruce: Months. 3 by 9 inch pine, third grade. lby4i inch pine, unsorted grade. 2^ by 7 inch spruce, unsorted grade. Months. 3 by 9 inch pine, third grade. lby4J inch pine, unsorted grade. 2k bj; 7 inch spruce, unsorted grade. January, 1912 January, 1913 January, 1914 January, 1915 January, 1916 PerMfeet. $24.37 26.33 27.29 28.26 36.06 Per Sr feel:. $18. 76 20.23 20.47 20.71 28.26 PerMfeet. $18. 76 19.98 21.44 23.39 32.65 January, 1917 January, 1918 January, 1919 September, 1919 PerMfeet. $47. 76 45.81 61.40 66.28- PerMfeet. $38.01 37.52 54.09 55.07 PerMfeet. $43.37 40.94 56.53 58. 48 The following table shows the official figures for the average export prices of Swedish pine and spruce, rough and planed, from 1902 to 1918: Pine. Spruce. Years. Rough stock. Planed stock. Rough stock. Planed stock. 1902 . PerMfeet. $17. 74 20. as 17.17 17.24 19.50 21.97 18.52 20.12 21.70 20.64 18.97 2a 30 2a 97 23. 55 31.51 40.23 44.92 PerMfeet. $19. 22 20. 50 19.22 19.29 21.03 22.03 19.27 22.22 23.65 22.79 21.31 23.00 22. 87 24. 93 32.78 4a 22 47.27 PerMfeet. $13. 98 15.86 14.44 14.75 17.12 18.09 15.56 17.33 18.44 17.72 16. 95 18.12 2a 40 22.94 31.30 38.52 43.57 PerMfeet. $17. 02 1903 19.23 1904 17.80 1905 17.81 1906 19.08 1907 20.52 1908 18.25 1909 20.38 1910 22.18 1911 .' 21.70 1912 2a 50 1913 22. 85 1914 23.37 1915 25.50 1916 33.09 1917 39.15 1918 47.27 248 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. The following table gives the average export values of lumber, planed and rough, for 1913, 1914, 1915, and 1916, according to Swedish export statistics: Kinds of wood. Planks: Pine Spruce Battens: Pine Spruce Scantlings: Pine Spruce Boards, 8| inches up: Pine Spruce Boards, 6 to 8§ inches wide: Pine Spruce Boards, less than 6 inches wide: Pine Spruce Planed boards, 8 J inches up: Pine Spruce Planed boards, 6 to 8J inches wide: Pine Spruce Planed boards less than 6 inches wide Pine Spruce 1914 1915 Per M feet. S24. 15 22.25 Per M feet. S27. 45 26.70 20. 55 20.60 24. 15 23.70 19.80 19.00 23.75 22.65 23.65 20.90 25. 55 23.80 21.90 20.40 23.85 22.90 18.00 17.70 19.95 19.85 26.45 28.10 28.50 30.30 23.70 23.50 26.35 26.40 21.20 21.85 23.10 23.35 1916 Per M feet. .'$36.00 35. 75 32.50 32.35 31.15 30.75 32.30 31.95 .30.00 30.85 26.05 26.20 34.80 38.30 34.70 34.55 30.85 31.00 REVIEW OF PRICES FROM 1870 TO 1901, For years previous to 1902, as far as 1870, an average annual figure for the export prices of both pine and spruce, planed and rough, has been supplied by the Swedish Lumber Exporters' Association as follows : Per M feet. 1870 $13.20 1871 13.55 1872 16.60 1873 20.60 1874 23.35 1875 20.30 1876 19.90 1877 20.80 1878 14.90 1879 12.85 1880 16.90 Per M feet. 1881 $16.70 1882 16.70 1883 14.60 1884 14.50 1885 14.15 1886 1L90 1887 13.25 1888 14.20 1889 14.90 1890 13.78 1891 13.35 Per M feet. 1892 $14.00 1893 14.20 1894 14.70 1895 14.20 1896 14.80 1897 16. 05 1898 16.65 1899 15.50 1900 16.90 1901 16. 60 The fluctuation in the pre-war prices of some of the principal dimensions for export is seen from figure 113, w^hich is published through the courtesy of the Swedish Lumber Exporters' Association. PER POUND ^Te/fU/VG 73. 00 'S- 14. IS It. 10 14.5 14' 13. IS 13.10 13. S 12- 12. IS h.io 12.5 iz- 11. IS 11.10 II. s II- 10 15 lo.ia 209a rt prices of Swedish lumber, DOU/TfiSP£^. POUND STCRLmS YEAR. 1864 -65 - 66 -67 OOita/^5 P£ft PouNO ^re^uffG Ft£T B N 1 \P£A STANOfi^O VEAR lea* -65 -66 -67 -feS -69 1870 -71 -72 -73 -7+ -75 -76 -77 -78 ^9 1680 -ai -62 -to -84 -es -66 -©7 -flft -©9 1690 -9t -32 ''» "9* "M -96 -97 -9d -99 1900 -01 -^ -03 -04 -OS -06 -07 -Oft -09 1910 -II -U -IJ I II 3'x9' spruce _ aver^ije 1st 2nd, jrc/anc/^fh frac/es 1 _-_^. 2'h' X 7'ptne 3rc/ gr^de exPlflNflTION I ^.,^.^ rsp.uce.unso.fedgr^d^ I I'x *f '^'pine, unsof fed grade \_ r X't'/i spruce, unsoried gr^de I rw. lf».— Export prlMA of !)iT«(1Ub lomhcr, fr SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 249 PRICES AT CENTRAL NORRLAND PORTS. The following table gives average export prices per 1,000 feet board measure, f.o.b. central Norrland ports, for various dimensions and grades of pine and spruce from 1914 to 1919: Dimensions. Grades. 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 1919 3 by 9 inches: Pine Third $27.80 26.73 23.04 21.50 20.73 20.28 $29.49 25.95 25.80 25.19 21.81 21.20 $38. 10 38.55 33.64 35.17 29.19 29.19 $39. 94 39.94 33.80 35.64 30.72 30.72 $45. 16 45.16 41.78 41.78 39.33 39.33 $60. 22 Spruce Average first, second, third, and fourth Unsorted do 2^ by 7 inches: Pine 60.22 55.30 55.30 1 by U inches: Pine do 52.23 Spruce do 52.23 The following table shows the quotations in the autumn of 1919 for different dimensions and grades of rough pine and spruce lumber, f.o.b. central Norrland ports, for shipment to the Netherlands and Germany : Planks, battens, and scantUngs. Boards. Widths. Un- sorted grade. Fifth grade. Un- sorted grade. Fifth grade. 11 inches PerMfeet. $78. 52 74.50 70.48 67.80 67.00 64.85 64.32 64.05 63.52 62.18 61.64 60.84 PerMfeet. $68. 34 64.85 64.85 63.52 63.52 61.64 60. 84 60.57 60.30 58.96 58.16 57.62 PerMfeet. $82. 00 77.18 73.16 69.14 68.34 65.66 64.85 64.59 64.32 62.18 61.64 58.96 PerMfeet. $68 34 10 inches 64 85 9 inches 64 85 Sh inches 63 52 8 inches 63 52 7 and 6J inches 61 64 6inches 60 84 5i inches . . 60 57 5 inches 60 30 4-i inches 58 16 4 inches 57 62 34 and 3 inches 64 94 For 1| and | inch lumber by 3 to 11 inches, there was an additional charge of $2.04 per 1,000 feet board measure; and for three-fourths and five-eighths inch lumber by 6 inches and more, an additional charge of $1.35. Following are quotations in the autumn of 1919 for different dimensions and grades of lumber, f. o. b. central Norrland ports, for shipment to South Africa, Australia, and British India: 3, 2|, and 2 by 9^ inches, unsorted or third grade (pine or spruce), $78.65 per 1,000 feet board measure; 3, 2|, and 2 by 9 inches, fourth grade, .19 ; 3, 21, and 2 by 9 inches, fifth grade, $73.73. These prices are based on an average length of 16 to 17 feet; there is an additional charge of $2.46 per 1,000 feet if the average length is 17 to 18 feet, and of $4.92 per 1,000 feet if the average length is 18 to 19 feet. If the average length is 15 to 16 feet, the price is $1.23 per 1,000 feet less 250 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. than the 16-17-foot basis. For a 15-foot average length the price was $66.36 per 1,000 feet for the following dimensions: 3, 24, and 2 by 7 inches; 3, 2|, and 2 by 6 inches; 1^ by 6 inches; 3 by 5^ inches; 3 b}^ 5 inches ; 3 by 4^ inches ; 1^ by 4^ inches ; 2^ by 3 inches ; 2 by 3 inches. If 14 to 15 feet is the average length, the price is $1.23 less per 1,000 feet. The prices for planed lumber are based on the dimensions of rough stock from which the planed lumber is manufactured; for instance, planed lumber having an actual measurement of | by 3f inches would be priced as 1 by 4 inches. The fixed charges for planing would be added to the prices for rough stock. Before the war these fixed charges for planing were $1.84 to $2.46 per 1,000 feet board measure and during the war about $3.69 to $4.90. Wlien prices are quoted, the basis is made 1 by 7 inches plain edge (surfaced four sides), and extra charges are made for planing to dif- ferent patterns. These extra charges for planing will no doubt be raised in the near future to correspond with revised price lists issued in Norway. Planed lumber of pine or spruce (ceilings, including bundling with wire) was quoted as follows in the autumn of 1919, f. o. b. central Norrland ports, for shipment to South Africa: 6^ inch, tongued and grooved, colonial first grade, $71.28 per 1,000 feet board measure; 6^-inch tongued, grooved, and beaded, colonial first grade, $74.96. Colonial third is $2.46 per 1,000 feet less than colonial first grade, and unsorted grade is $0.61 per 1,000 feet less than colonial first grade. These prices are based on an average length of 15 to 16 feet. For an average of 16 to 17 feet, $2.46 is added to the basis and for an average of 14 to 15 feet, the price is $1.23 less than the basis. Five- inch stock is $1.23 less than 6^-inch stock. The same prices apply to Australia and British India, but third grade is generally sold to Australia at $1.84 less than colonial first grade. The extra charges for planing are the same as those for the United Kingdom, but |-inch stock commands $1.84 per 1,000 feet board measure extra for South Africa. For Australia the following extra charges apply: |-inch stock, $1.23 extra per 1,000 feet board measure; f-inch stock and weatherboards, $2.46 extra; |-inch stock, $3.69 extra; chamfered weatherboards, $3.07 extra. Following are the prices of planed lumber (tongued-and-grooved stock), in the autumn of 1919, f. o. b. central Norrland ports, for shipment to the Netherlands and Germany: 11 inches wide, $85.26 per 1,000 feet board measure; 10 inches, $78.50; 9 inches, $74.44; 8^ mches, $71.73; 8 inches, $71.05; 7 and 6^- inches, $69.02; 6 inches, $68.35; 5^ inches, $68.01 ; 5 inches, $67.67; 4^ inches, $66.32; 4 inches, $65.64; and S^ and 3 inches, $64.96. Extra charges are made as follows: |-inch stock, $0.68 extra per 1,000 feet; |-mch stock guaran- teed to measure 18 millimeters, $2.04 extra; 1-inch stock guaranteed to measure 24 millimeters, $1.35 extra; f-inch stock, $1.35 extra; ^-inch stock, $2.70 extra. SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 251 Following are the charges for resawing rough stock and for bundling lumber : PerM feet. For bundling: Sawn and planed lumber— With string $2. 46 With wire L 23 Staves — Withbtring 4.30 With wire 3.07 For resawing: Per M Stock 6 inches and wider — feet. 1 cut $2. 46 2 cuts 3.07 Scuts 3.69 4 cuts 4.30 Stock 5^ inches and less — Icut 3.07 2 cuts 3.60 Scuts 4.30 4 cuts 4.92 Split wood (mill ends) is usually classified into first and second grades. Prices for split wood are quoted for three groups: (1) Planks and battens, (2) boards 6 inches and wider, and scantlings; and (3) narrow boards less than 6 inches wide. The difference in price be- tween groups is approximately $2.86 per cubic fathom (216 cubic feet). First grade is sold at $9.65 per cubic fathom higher than the second grade. The prices before the war were approximately $20 for first grade of the first group. During 1918 and 1919 the cor- responding price was about $60 per cubic fathom. Cement staves vary in price according to dimensions. The average price for cement staves during the period 1918 to 1919 was approxi- mately $40 to $45 per 1,000 feet board measure. PRICES IN LOWER-GULF DISTRICT. The following table shows the prices per 1,000 feet board measure of third-quality pine and unsorted-quality spruce, in some of the principal dimensions, for export from the lower-gulf district, from 1889 to 1913: Years. Third-quality pine. 3 by 9 in. 2iby 7in. 1 by 6 in 1 by 4 in. Unsorted-quality spruce. 3 by 9 in. 2iby7in 1 by 6 in. 1 by 4 in. 1889 1890 1891, 1892 1893 1894, 1895 1896. 1897 1898, 1899. 1900, 1901, 1902. 1903. 1904. 1905. 1906, 1907, 1908, 1909, 1910, 1911, 1912, 1913. $20. 28 18.43 16.90 18.43 19.36 19.36 17.51 18.43 19.97 20.89 22.43 26.42 27.04 27.34 29.19 25.81 21.81 22.74 23.35 22.43 24.58 27.34 25.81 24.89 26.42 $16.90 14.13 12.90 13.52 13.83 14.44 14.44 15.36 16.90 18.13 18.74 19.97 18.74 19.36 20.28 19.36 18.74 20.58 21.51 19.97 20.58 21.81 20.89 20.89 22.43 $15. 05 12.90 11.36 12.29 12.60 12.90 12.90 13.83 15.67 16.90 17.82 19.05 17.51 17.51 18.43 17.51 17.20 19.66 20.58 19.05 19.66 21.20 19.97 20.28 21.81 $12. 29 8.29 7.37 8.60 8.91 8.91 9.82 11.36 13.21 14.44 14.13 15.36 12.60 12.90 14.13 14.44 14.75 17.20 18.74 16.59 17.82 18.74 18.13 18.13 19.05 $16.28 14.75 13.83 15.36 15.67 15.36 14.75 15.98 17.20 16.59 17.51 20.58 20.58 20.89 19.66 18.43 18.74 21.20 21.20 20.89 22.74 23.66 22.74 22.12 24.58 $13. 52 11.97 11.05 11.36 11.97 12.60 12.90 13.83 15.67 15.67 15.36 16.90 15.98 16.59 17.51 16.28 14.13 18.74 18.43 16.59 19. 05 19.66 19.05 19.36 20.28 $13. 21 11.36 10.44 10.75 11.36 11.97 12.29 13.52 15.36 15.05 14.75 16.59 15.36 16.28 18.13 15.67 16.28 18.13 18.13 16.90 18.74 19.36 18.43 18.74 20.28 $10.75 7.68 7.68 8.29 7.68 8.29 8.60 10.75 13.21 11.67 11.36 13.21 10. 75 11.97 13.83 13.21 13.83 16.28 16.59 15.05 16.59 17.51 16.28 16.90 18.43 252 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. The following quotations per 1 ,000 feet board measure are repre- sentative of standard shipments from the lower-gulf shipping ports in April, 1913: Dimensions. 4 by 11 inches 4 by 9 inches 3 by 11 inches 3 by 9 inches 3 by 8J inches 3 by 8 inches 3 by 7 inches 3 by 6i inches 3 by 6 inches 3 by Scinches 3 by 5 inches 3 by 4| inches 3 by 4 inches 2h by 11 inches 2i by 9 inches 2| by 8 inches 2| bv 7 inches 2A by 6* inches 2J by 6 inches 2J by 5^ inches 2| by 5 inches 2| by 4% inches 2| by 4mches 2 by 11 inches 2 by 9 inches 2 by 8 inches 2 by 7 inches 2 by 6 inches 2 by 5i and 5 inches. 2 by 44 inches 2 by 4mches Boards: 11 inches 9 inches 8 inches 7 inches 6§ inches 6lnches 5 J inches Slnches 4 J- inches 4 inches 3i inches 3 inches Pine. First grade. $44. 24 43.01 44.24 41.78 31.95 31.34 30.72 30.11 44.24 41.78 31.95 31.34 30.72 30.11 44.24 41.78 31.95 31.34 30.11 I Unsorted grade. Second grade. S39.33 38.10 39.33 36.87 27.04 26.42 25.81 25.19 39.33 36.87 27.04 26.42 25.81 25.19 39.33 36.87 27.04 26.42 25.19 52.84 50.39 41.78 39.33 38.10 38.10 .37.48 37. 48 35. 64 34.72 47.93 45.47 36.87 34.41 33.18 33.18 32.57 32.57 30.72 29.80 Third grade. $30. 72 28.20 30.72 27.65 23.96 23.35 22.12 21.51 30.72 27.65 23.96 23.35 22.12 22.12 30.72 27.65 23. 96 23.35 22.12 31.34 30.72 25.81 23.96 22.74 22.74 22.12 22.12 20.89 19.97 Fourth grade. $25719" 25.19 25.19 25.19 22.12 21.51 20.28 19. 66 Pine. $29. 49 28.26 29.49 27.65 25.19 25.19 22.12 21.51 20.28 20.28 25.19 25.19 22.12 21.51 20.28 25.81 25.81 23.34 22.12 20.89 20.89 20.28 20.28 19.05 18.13 23.96 23.35 22.12 22.12 23.35 23.35 23.35 19.66 29.49 27.65 23.96 23.35 22.12 22.12 20.28 20.28 19.05 19.66 29.49 27.65 23.96 23.35 22.12 20.28 19.05 19.66 31.64 31.03 26.11 24.27 23.04 23.04 22.12 22.12 20.89 19.97 18.74 18.74 Spruce. $28. 88 25.81 28.88 25.19 23.66 21.51 20.89 20. 58 20.58 28.88 25.19 21.51 20.89 20.58 20.58 19.66 19. 66 28.88 25.19 21.51 20.89 20.58 19.66 19.66 19.04 25.81 22.12 21.51 20.89 20.89 20.28 20.28 19.36 19.36 18.74 18.74 For fifth-grade pine and spruce the prices received, f. o. b., lower- gulf shipping ports, in April, 1913, were less than those for the un- sorted grade by the following amounts: Planks, $4.30 to $4.92 less; battens and boards, $2.46 to $3.07; and discolored lumber, $2.46 to $3.07. The table following shows the quotations in the autumn of 1919 for rough lumber of pine and spruce, f. o. b. lower-gulf shipping ports, for delivery in the United Kingdom in the spring of 1920. The same prices applied to France, Belgium, Spain, Portugal, and the Mediterranean countries. Planks, battens, and scantlings. Boards. Widths. Unsorted and third grade. Fifth grade. Unsorted and third grade. Fifth grade. Per Mft. $86. 02 73.73 71.28 70. ti6 68.82 67. 59 66. 36 66. 36 66. 36 66.36 Per Mft. $71.28 68. 82 66. 98 66. 98 65. 13 63. 90 62. 67 62. 67 62. 67 62.67 Per M ft. $88.48 76.19 72.51 71.89 70.05 68. 82 67.59 66.36 65.75 63.29 I'cr Mft. .S71.28 10 and 9 inches 68.82 8J inches 66. 98 8 inches 66.98 7 and 6J inches 65. 13 63.90 5J and 5 inches '. 62. 67 61.45 60.83 3^ and 3 inches 78.35 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 253 The relative prices of other grades and dimensions than those given in the table were as follows : For | inch and f inch by 6 inches and wider, unsorted grade, $1.23 per 1,000 feet higher than boards, unsorted grade; for first-o'rade planks and battens, $9.83 higher than for third grade; for first-grade boards, $12.29 higher than for third grade; for second-grade planks and battens, $4.91 higher than for third grade; for second-grade boards, $7.37 higher than for third grade; for fourth-grade 12 and 11 inch planks, $4.91 lower than for third grade; for fourth-grade 12 and 11 inch boards, $8.60 lower than for third grade; for fourth-grade 10 and 9 inch planks, $2.46 lower than for third grade; for 10 and 9 inch boards, $4.91 lower than for third grade; and for all other dimensions, $1.84 lower than for third grade. Tlie following table shows quotations in the summer of 1919 on different dimensions and grades of rough lumber of pine and spruce, f. o. b. lower-gulf ports, for shipment to Denmark: Widths. First grade. Second grade. Third and unsorted grades. Fourth grade. Fifth grade. 12 inches . Per Mft. $105.08 100.16 95.24 85.41 78.04 76.19 75.58 74.96 74.35 73.12 71.89 70.66 Per Mft. $100.16 95.24 90.33 80.49 73.12 71.28 70.66 70.05 69.43 68.20 66.98 65.75 Per Mft. $90.33 85.41 80.49 73.12 65.75 63.90 63.29 62.67 62.06 60.83 59.60 58.37 Per Mft. 886.61 81.72 76.81 70.66 63.90 62.06 61.45 60.83 60.22 58.99 57.76 56.53 Per Mft. $66.98 11 inches 66.98 10 inches ... . . ... 65.75 9 inches 65.75 8 inches 62.06 7 inches ... . . 60.22 6i and 6 inches 59.60 5i inches .... .... 58.99 5 inches 58.37 4J inches 55.92 54.69 3i and 3 inches 53.46 For planed lumber the following additional charges were made: Tongued, grooved, and beaded stock (t. g. b.), \\ and 1 inch thick, $3.69 for planing charges added to price of rough stock; for t. g. b. stock, three-fourths and five-eighths mch thick, $4.30 planing charges added to price of rough stock. The following table shows the prices per 1,000 feet nominal measure of planed lumber (pine or spruce, surfaced on four sides), in the autumn of 1919, f. o. b. lower-gulf port, for shipment to the United Kingdom. These prices also apply to France, Belgium, Spain, Portugal, and the Mediterranean countries. Widths. First grade. Unsorted and second grade. Third grade. Fourth grade. 11 inches $92.17 79.88 68.82 68.20 67.59 66.98 $87.25 74.96 65.13 64.52 63.90 63.29 $83.52 71.28 62.67 62.06 61.45 60.83 $79.88 9 inches 67.59 7 and 6i inches 60.22 6 inches 59.60 5i and 5 inches 58.99 4 J and 4 inches 58.37 The following extra charges are made per 1,000 board feet nomi- nal measure: For tongued and grooved (t. g.), tongued, grooved, and beaded (t. g. b.), tongued, grooved, and V-jointed (t. g. v.), and 254 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. rebated and V-jointed (r. v.) stock, $0.61; t. g. b., t. g. v., and r. v., two sides, $1.23; three-fourths-inch stock, $0.61 ; five-eighths-inch stock, $1,23; one-half-inch stock, $2.46; and weatherboards, $2.46. PRICES IN LOCAL MARKETS. The local markets in Sweden are supplied chiefly by a number of small interior mills ; the export mills do not generally engage in this busmess. Occasionally, however, the export mills may dispose of part of their cull stock in the local markets. Sweden consumes most of the cull lumber locally, while the better grades of construction lumber are exported to foreign countries. The prices in the local market in Sweden for cull stock are usually higher than the prices for unsorted construction lumber abroad, because the domestic markets consume relatively small quantities, while the export lumber trade is carried on in cargo lots. The usual dimensions required in the local markets m Sweden are as follows, for both pine and spruce: 3 by 9, 8, 7, and 6 inches; 2h by 9 and 7 inches; 2 by 9, 8, 7, 6, and 5 inches; 1 and 1^ by 9, 8, 7, 6i, 6, 5i, 5, 44, and 4 inches; f by 7, 6^, 6, 5|, 5, 4J, and 4 inches. A limited quantity of one-half inch boards is in demand. In planed lumber the sizes required are f, 1, and Ih inches by 7, 6^, 6, 5h, 5, ih, and 4 inches. During the winter of 1919 the following prices were quoted in Stockholm, the largest local market in Sweden: Per M feet. 3 by 9 inches $66. 64 3 by 8 inches 61. 64 3 by 7 inches 59. 14 3 by 6 inches 58. 31 2^ by 9 inches 66. 64 2I by 7 inches 59. 14 2 by 9 inches 66. 64 2 by 8 inches 61. 64 2 by 7 inches 59. 14 2 by 6 inches 58. 31 2 by 5 inches 55. 81 1^ by 9 inches 66. 64 l| by 8 inches 61. 64 1^ by 7 inches 59. 14 Per M feet. li by 6* inches $58. 31 li by 6 inches 58. 31 1^ by 5^ inches 55. 81 1^ by 5 inches 55. 81 l| by 4i inches 55. 81 1^ by 4 inches 55. 81 1 by 9 inches 69. 14 1 bv 8 inches 63. 31 1 by 7 inches 61. 64 1 by 6^ inches 59. 14 1 by 5| inches 56. 64 1 by 5 inches 56. 64 1 by 4^ inches 55. 81 1 by 4 inches 55. 81 Three-quarter inch stock is $1.08 higher than 7-inch boards and one-half inch stock is $2.25 higher than 7-inch boards. The foregoing prices refer to gang-sawn lumber. If the lumber is sawn on circular saws, the prices are $1.08 less per 1,000 feet. The prices for pine and spruce are now the same. Previous to the war spruce was sold at approximately $2.25 less than pine. The planing charges are based on $6.66 per 1,000 feet board measure for 1-inch boards. For f-inch boards the charge is $7.83 and for ^-inch boards $10. The average length of rough stock, planks, and battens is about 14 feet and of rough and planed boards 13 feet. The prices refer to a grade corresponding to fourth grade for export, but also containing a certain percentage of fifth-grade stock. Fifth-grade stock containing a small percentage of sixth grade is sold at $2.25 discount. Cull stock, sixth grade and poorer, is sold at about $50 per 1,000 feet for all sizes. These prices represent an advance of approximately 100 per cent over the prices ruling before the war. SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AXD LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 255 Considerable quantities of torrac pine are used in the construction of houses in Sweden, PRICE-CONVERSION TABLE. Price quotations are so often given in pounds sterHng per standard that the following conversion table from pounds per standard to United States currency per 1,000 feet board measure \\dll be found convenient : Table to Convert Pounds Sterling per Petrogead Standard, Sawn and Planed Lumber, to Dollars per M Feet Board Measure (1 Petrograd Standard =1,980 Board Feet; £1=$4.8665). U. S. U. S. IT. S. U. S. U.S. sterling. cur- Sterling. cur- Sterlin g. cur- Sterling. cur- Sterling. cur- rency. rency. rency. rency. rency. i £ s. d. Dollars. £ s. d. Dollars. £ s. d. Dollars. £ s. d. Dollars. £ s. d. Dollars. 5 12.2891 11 27.0361 17 41. 7830 23 56.5300 29 71.2770 5 2 6 12.5962 11 2 6 27.3432 17 2 6 42.0901 23 2 6 56. .8371 29 2 6 71..5S41 5 5 12.9037 11 5 27. 6507 17 5 42.3976 23 5 57.1446 29 5 71.8916 5 7 6 13.2108 11 7 6 27.9578 17 7 6 42. 7047 23 7 6 57.4517 29 7 6 72. 1987 5 10 13.5178 11 10 28. 2648 17 10 43.0117 23 10 57. 7581 29 10 72. .5057 5 12 6 13.8254 11 12 6 ! 2.8. .5724 17 12 6 43.3193 I 23 12 6 58. 0663 29 12 6 72.8133 5 15 14. 1325 11 15 28.S795 17 15 43.6264 23 15 58.3734 29 15 73. 1204 5 17 6 14. 4396 11 17 6 29. 1866 17 17 6 43.9335 23 17 6 58. 6805 29 17 6 73.4275 6 14. 7469 12 29.49.39 18 44.2409 24 58.9878 30 73. 7348 6 2 6 15.0540 12 2 6 29. 8010 18 2 6 44.5480 24 2 6 59 2949 30 2 6 74.0119 6 5 15.3615 12 5 30. 1085 IS 5 44. 8555 24 5 59.0024 30 5 74.3494 1 6 7 6 15. 6686 12 7 6 30.4156 18 7 6 45. 1626 24 7 6 59.9095 30 7 6 74.6565 6 10 15.9756 12 10 30. 7226 18 10 45.4696 24 10 60. 2165 30 10 74.9635 6 12 6 16.2832 12 12 6 31.0302 18 12 6 45. 7772 24 12 6 60.5241 30 12 6 75. 2711 6 15 16. 5903 12 15 31.3373 18 15 46.0843 24 15 60.8312 30 15 75.5782 ; 6 17 6 16.8974 12 17 6 31.6444 IS 17 6 46.3914 24 17 6 61.1383 30 17 6 75. 8853 7 17.2048 13 31.9517 19 46.6987 25 61.4457 31 76. 1926 7 2 6 17.5119 13 2 6 32. 2588 19 2 6 47.0058 25 2 6 61.7528 31 2 6 76.4997 7 5 17.8194 13 5 32.5663 19 5 47.3133 25 5 62.0603 31 5 76.8072 7 7 6 18. 1265 13 7 6 32.8734 19 7 6 47.6204 25 7 6 62.3674 31 7 6 77.1143 7 10 18.4335 13 10 33. 1804 19 10 47. 9274 25 10 62. 6744 31 10 77.4213 7 12 6 18. 7411 13 12 6 ! 33.4SS0 19 12 6 48.2350 25 12 6 62.9820 31 12 6 77. 7289 7 15 19.0482 13 15 33. 7951 19 15 48.5421 25 15 63. 2891 31 15 78.0360 7 17 6 19.3553 13 17 6 34. 1022 19 17 6 48. 8492 25 17 6 63. 5962 31 17 6 78.3431 8 19.6626 14 34.4096 20 49. 1565 26 63.9035 32 78. 6505 8 2 6 19.9697 1 14 2 6 34. 7167 20 2 6 49.4636 26 2 6 64. 2106 32 2 6 78.9576 8 5 20.2772 ! 14 5 35.0242 20 5 49. 7711 26 5 64.5181 32 5 79.2651 8 7 6 20.5843 j 14 7 6 35.3313 1 20 7 6 50.0782 26 7 6 64.8252 32 7 6 79. 5722 8 10 20.8913 ' 14 10 35.6383 1 20 10 50.3852 26 10 65. 1322 32 10 79.8792 8 12 6 21.1989 ! 14 12 6 35.9459 20 12 6 50.6928 26 12 6 65.4398 32 12 6 80. 1868 8 15 21.5060 14 15 36.2530 20 15 50.9999 26 15 65. 7469 32 15 80.4939 8 17 6 21.8131 14 17 6 36.5601 20 17 6 51.3070 26 17 6 66.0540 32 17 6 80. 8010 9 22. 1204 15 36.8674 21 51.6143 27 66.3613 33 81. 1083 9 2 6 22.4275 15 2 6 37. 1745 21 2 6 51.9214 27 2 6 66. 6684 33 2 6 81.4154 9 5 22. 7350 15 5 37.4820 21 5 52.2289 27 5 66.9759 33 5 81. 7229 9 7 6 23.0421 15 7 6 37. 7891 21 7 e. 52. 5360 27 7 6 67. 2830 33 7 6 82.0300 9 10 23.. 3491 15 10 38.0961 21 10 52.8430 27 10 67.5900 33 10 82.3370 9 12 6 23.6567 1 15 12 6 38.4037 21 12 6 53. 1506 27 12 6 67.8976 33 12 6 82. 6446 9 15 23.9638 1 15 15 38. 7108 21 15 53.4577 27 15 68.2047 33 15 82.9517 9 17 6 24.2709 15 17 6 39.0179 21 17 6 53. 7648 27 17 6 68.5118 33 17 6 83.2588 10 24.5782 16 39. .3252 22 54.0722 28 68.8191 34 83.5661 10 2 6 24.8853 16 2 6 39.6323 22 2 6 54.3793 28 2 6 69. 1262 34 2 6 83.8732 10 5 25. 1928 16 5 39.9398 22 5 54.6868 28 5 69. 4337 34 5 84. 180f 10 7 6 25.4999 16 7 6 40. 2469 22 7 6 54.9939 28 7 6 69.7408 34 7 6 84. 4878 10 10 25.8069 16 10 40. 5539 22 10 55.3009 28 10 70.0478 I 34 10 84. 7948 10 12 6 26. 1145 16 12 6 40. 8615 22 12 6 55. 6085 28 12 6 70.3554 34 12 6 85. 1024 10 15 26.4216 16 15 41.1686 22 15 55. 9156 28 15 70. 6625 34 15 85. 4095 10 17 6 26.7287 16 17 6 41.4757 22 17 6 56.2227 28 17 6 70.9696 34 17 6 85. 7166 COMPARISON OF SWEDISH AND AMERICAN SOFTWOOD LUMBER. It is difficult to find any wood in the United States comparable with Swedish pine and spruce. Up to the present time Swedish lumber has faced competition only with Douglas fir and southern yellow pine, which are different in many respects from the Swedish species. 256 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. The American exporter has the g^eat advantage of being able to supply lumber havmg special qualities; for instance, rot-resisting, fire-resisting, and especially strong construction material, pattern wood, cabinet woods, etc. But he has not yet availed himsen of this opportunity by advocating his products for special purposes. The principal advantageous features of Douglas fir and southern yellow pine are the wide stock and long lengths that can be supplied. From the Swedish export statistics it may be seen that the output for export of lumber 8^ inches and wider* is only about 20 per cent and that such stock is sold at a very heavy increase above the nar- rower sizes. Swedish stock can not generally be supplied with any large quantities of lumber 20 feet and more in length, and any order calling for specified lengths commands extra charges. However, extra long and extra wide lumber is sometimes ordered only to be resawn. In South American countries, for example, long timber is frequently cut into several shorter lengths. But it is possi- ble to educate the market to order what it actually needs. A Spanish house, closely cooperating with the Swedish exporters in extending the interest in Swedish lumber, states in its Spanish price lists that "as long lengths of Swedish lumber are higher priced, customers are requested not to specify longer lengths than are necessary." Formerly South Africa took only planks which were resawn in that country. But the Swedish exporters extended their market materially by making importers understand that they could supply narrow sizes at reduced prices. The Swedish lumber has the advantage of being cut to a smaller standard of measurement than the American lumber. Swedish lum- ber is trimmed on odd and even feet and the boards are cut on the one-half inch in width and on the one-quarter or even on the one- eighth inch in thickness. Practically any size of stock can be pro- duced, but if odd dimensions are ordered an additional charge is made. MANUFACTURE. Accuracy of manufacture is the principal advantage of Swedish lumber. It is always true to size — neither more nor less than the specifications. Trade Commissioner Simmons' s investigation in South America illustrates the difference between Southern yellow pine and Swedish pine in this respect. (See fig. 70.) QUALITY. The small percentage of clears and upper grades is the most serious handicap for Swedish lumber, and here American lumber has a OTeat advantage. Otherwise Swedish stock is sound construction lumber; there are no large loose knots except in cull grades. There is a large number of knots, but thev are firmly incased and solid. Swedish lumber is very serviceable for general-utility purposes. It is of medium weight, has considerable breaking strength, and is medium hard, easily worked, and fairly rot-resistant (pine) . Of special stock, such as. rift grain, heart wood, etc., the yield is so small as to be practically negligible. Special Agents Series No. 195. FIG. 110.— TYPE OF OCEAN-GOING VESSEL USED BY INTERIOR MILLS. FIG. 111.— LUMBER PAID FOR BUT LEFT BY IMPORTER BECAUSE OF LACK OF SHIPPING FACILITIES. EXPORTERS CAREFULLY STORED THIS PARCEL WITHOUT ADDITIONAL CHARGE. Special Agents Series No. 195. SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 257 GRADING. There are no absolutely uniform grading rules in Sweden, but there is no greater variation between shipments of the same grade from any two standard export mills in Sweden than is admitted by the Ameri- can grading rules of lumber for export. The United States has to offset the theoretical advantage of uniform grading rules by the fact that (1) they are said by some to be too elastic and (2) some shippers do not maintain the grades. In Sweden the grades are not uniform for all mills, but the grades for each miU are uniform from year to year. The excellent marketing methods, the branding of every piece of lumber, planed and rough, for export, adec[uate steamship connec- tions with the principal markets, arbitration service abroad, and other factors have built up the export trade in Swedish Imnber, in spite of its inferiority in both quality and size as compared with the principal American softwoods exported. 2092°— 21 17 FUTURE OF SWEDISH FORESTS, Ll^MBER INDUSTRY, AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. The future supply of wood for the Swedish lumber and pulp indus- tries seems to be amply safeguarded by the new forest laws and the thorough understanding on the part of the larger forest owners in regard to the conservation and judicious management of their hold- ings. Recently the smaller holders also have taken a keen interest in the better management of their forests, mainly on account of the high value of forest products, and they have been greatly assisted by the work of the forest commissions in the different parts of the country. The draining of swamps and planting of cut-over areas are progressing very rapidly and no doubt will be one of the main features of the Swedish forest policy in the following decades. The aim of the Swedish forest owners will be to decrease the age of maturity for cutting. When the results of the new forest laws, re- forestation, and draming activities are realized, it is expected that the stands of the Swedish forests will be materially increased. One may therefore look forward to a higher yield of the Swedish forests in the future than they are giving at present. The cutting out of large areas of forests is out of the question because the forests are so im- portant an asset that public attention is constantly focused on them. The lumber and the pulp industry must always be among the lead- ing industries in Sweoen, Which of the two will be the more im- portant is difficult to say, as the development depends largely upon the relative demand for lumber and pulp products in the v/orld's markets. The tendency has been toward a further development of the pulp in- dustry, while it seems that the lumber industry has already reached its climax. In this connection, it must be noted that the majority of the pulp mills in Sweden are owned and controlled, wholly or in part, by the lumber mills, and that these concerns can easily change from one industry to the other when conditions warrant. It is not expected that any large number of new mills will be con- structed in southern Sweden or in southern or central Norrland. In northern Norrland, on the other hand, there are still vast areas of forests that have not been exploited to any great extent up to the present time. As these regions are principally pine forests, and as pine is not used for pulp to any great extent, it is evident that these regions will be exploited mainly by the lumber mills. The Govern- ment has the largest holdings of timber in this part of the country, and it depends a great deal upon the action taken by the State whether new mills will be constructed in the near future. It has been difficult at times, in other parts of Sweden, for a number of the mills to obtain the necessary raw material at a reasonable cost, and their capacity is in excess of their average annual output during the last few years. It would not be necessary, therefore, to construct new mills in the rest of Sweden in order to increase production. While there always will be a market for Swedish rough lumber, the prospects of the Swedish planing mills and box factories are rather uncertain. The capacity of these miUs has been increased largely 258 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 259 during the war to satisfy the abnormal demand for war material. As several countries will probably protect their native planing-raill industries by imposing a duty on imported planed stock, a large in- crease in the output of the Swedish planing mills and box factories is not to be expected in the near future. The question of manufacturing wooden articles that before the war were made from Swedish lumber in Germany and other countries has been given serious consideration in Sweden, and many of the Swedish planing mills and box factories will probably engage in such activities if the market for planing-mill products should be curtailed to any great extent. The per capita consumption of wood in Sweden is very large, par- ticularly in the rural districts, where large quantities of wood are wasted annualby for purposes which cheaper substitutes would serve just as well. If the present high prices of wood and wood products should be maintainea they will doubtless lead to a decreased domestic consumption of wood, as the lumber and pulp manufacturers would take energetic steps to obtain increased quantities of raw material. The development of waterpower in Sweden will also have an im- portant effect upon the consumption of wood in that country. The markets for Swedish lumber are well established and unless the exports of lumber from Rufesia should increase materially over the pre-war figure, the Swedish lumber exporters will probably be able to hold their present markets. It is not believed that any country other than Russia would be able seriously to curtail the markets for Swedish lumber. For the next five or ten years, therefore, one may count on annual lumber exports from Sweden of 1,800,000,000 to 2,000,000,000 feet, board measure, provided that the foreign markets can consume these quantities. Many steamship lines have been established in the last few years, and as the Swedish merchant marine is now being developed to a large extent and new steamship lines will be established in the future, the Swedish lumber exporters will have better opportunities than before to place their lumber in new markets, particularly in countries outside of Europe. For several years before the war the tendency was to spread over a larger field. Several of the far-away markets have been able to pay higher prices for Swedish lumber than the European markets. The lumber-export trade is based on an adequate supply of raw material, careful manufacturing and seasoning, and an intelligent system of exporting, which, in connection with adequate transportation facili- ties, will always maintain Sweden in its position among the leading lumber-exporting countries in the world. APPENDIXES. Appendix A.— SWEDISH IMPORTS OF WOODS. None of the three north European countries, Sweden, Norway, and Finland, has an adequate supply of hardwoods. Sweden is probably in a better position in this respect than the other two countries, but the supply of hardwoods in Sweden is not sufficient to cover the domestic demand. The hardwoods found in Sweden are birch, oak, alder, aspen, beech, ash, and a few species of minor importance. Birch is the most important of these species and the one of which there is the largest supply. Birch is used as a general-utility wood, but it is difficult to obtain clear birch logs and logs of large dimensions and as the same conditions apply to the other species mentioned, it is evident that Sweden must be dependent on other countries for its supply of the upper grades of hardwoods. This is true also of the upper grades of softwoods. The spruce and pine in Sweden must be termed common construction lumber not suitable for the highest grade joinery and finish. The imports of softwoods are small, however; hardwoods constitute the bulk of the Swedish imports of wood. The accompanying table shows the imports of foreign logs, hewn timber, and lumber into Sweden from 1911 to 1916, by principal countries of origin. (The importation of Finnish and Norwegian logs has been discussed in previous chapters.) Imports into Sweden op Logs, Hewn Timber, and Lumber, by Countries of Origin, from 1911 to 1916. Countries of origin. 1911 1912 1913 1914 1915 1916 LOGS.o Mfett. 25 97,489 17, 705 156 523 Mfeet. Mfeet. Mfett. Mfeet. Mfeet. 207 95,832 15, 528 295 454 321 63 62 101, 004 22, 320 333 1,349 259 152 55 101,211 17,091 621 715 263 82 51 80,923 124,888 188 576 84 105 169 161 196 435 535 121 539 Total 116,868 112,555 125,472 120,034 82,045 126,201 (0 185 755 336 371 52 STAVES, BOARDS, PLANKS, BATTENS, AND SCANTLINGS.d 2,997 2,252 1,643 2,622 264 1,255 2,042 1,981 5,822 440 1,658 2,157 1,313 7,896 650 1,244 1,612 1,119 5,389 1,312 Finland 7,047 648 997 1,219 1,698 667 1,109 4,206 80 113 62 299 27 456 127 338 112 52 1,164 331 28 970 253 2,036 1, 751 1,255 240 1,343 105 759 23 Total 8,863 11,939 14, 136 14,712 10,349 15,184 a Including a small quantity of hewn timber. Figures for 1911 do not show logs and hewn timber separately. Since most of the timber imported was logs, the conversion factor used was 283 board feet to the cubic meter. b Conversion factor, 353 board feet to the cubic meter. c Not stated separately in 1911. d Conversion factor, 424 board feet to the cubic meter. 260 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 261 The Swedish statistics consider the country of origin as the last country from which the lumber was shipped before it reached Sweden. Therefore such countries as Germany and Denmark, together with Belgium, Norway, and the United Kingdom, figure prominently as exporters of lumber to Sweden. It is certain that only small quantities of native species (with the exception of German oak from Germany) were exported to Sweden from these countries and that the lumber and logs credited these countries in the statistics must have originated elsewhere and been reexported or transshipped to the Swedish markets. Basing a study of the importation of foreign woods on the last normal year before the war, 1913, it is seen that Japan exported the largest quantity of hewn timber, which represented Japanese oak. The imported aspen logs came from Russia and were used almost exclusively by the match factories in Sweden. Oak logs also were imported from Russia and Ger- many. Mahogany was chiefly reexported from Germany, Denmark, and the United Kingdom; only a small portion came from the United States. Finland exported considerable quantities of staves to Sweden. No species are given for these staves in the Swedish statistics, but it appears from the Finnish export statistics that they represented pine and spruce stock. Of sawn lumber of other species considerable quantities were exported from the United States to Sweden, but the bulk of the lumber was imported from Germany. As it appears from these statistics, the United States played a comparatively insig- nificant part as a supplier of logs and lumber to Sweden, but large quantities of Ameri- can lumber were imdoubtedly included in the exports of hunber to Sweden from Germany, England, Denmark, Belgium, and other coimtries. SPECIES OF LUMBER IMPORTED. Oak has been and always will be the principal foreign species imported into Sweden. American white oak is unquestionably the most popular foreign wood in Sweden. It is claimed by the importers that this oak is more uniform in color and better man- ufactured than the oak imported from other countries. Furthermore, each piece of American oak lumber is graded and edged, although complaints were heard that the American grading rules change almost yearly. German oak planks and boards are imported in large quantities into Sweden. The German oak lumber is not edged, but is shipped and sold in the form of the logs from which it is sawn (see fig. 114). While each piece of American oak is graded and edged, the German mills base the grading on the log. The German system of selling the entire log has the advantage that the carpenters are better enabled to match the different boards and planks for cabinetmaking, so as to obtain the same figuring of wood in panels and other matched stock. Japanese oak was imported in small quantities immediately before the war and seemed to give satisfaction, mainly on account of its cheapness. The same criticisms have been offered in Sweden as have been usually heard in the United States in regard to the texture and other properties of Japanese oak. Part of this oak was imported direct from Japan on the regular liners between that country and Sweden, but some quantities were also reexported to Sweden from Germany. Swedish oak does not compare with German and American oak, being generally considerably coarser and of uneven color. While the German and American oak are used for the better class of furniture and finish, Swedish oak is used for rough work and for the cheaper class of furniture. German and American oak are used for floors, furniture, and a multitude of purposes for which these woods are especially adapted. Mahogany is used principally for furniture, finish, and similar purposes and also to some extent in ship constniction. Southern yellow pine and Douglas fir have been used to some extent in shipbuild- ing, dock construction, piling, etc., but native pine and spruce are used whenever possible, and the cheapness of the native species makes competition very keen for the two American woods. Southern yellow pine and Douglas fir have been imported, therefore, only in long and wide stock and in the upper grades, because such stock either can not be obtained in Sweden or can be had only at much higher prices. Of other foreign species imported in limited quantities may be mentioned hickory for ski stock and Hungarian ash for finish. Red gum has been imported in logs and manufactured in Sweden into veneers. Yellow poplar is used for making of veneer pattern wood, etc., and was formerly very popular, but during recent years the prices have been too high for the Swedish market to use this wood for many pui"poses. Siamese teak is used in shipbuilding and car construction, but this wood also has increased materially in price and cheaper woods are used whenever possible. No suitable substitute for this wood has been found for ship decking, etc. Austrian spruce is used for musical instruments (sounding boards, piano keys, etc.). There are a few other species of foreign woods of minor importance. 262 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES. Although Sweden can not be said to be among the most important markets for Ameri- can lumber, ihe country has many growing industries which use more or less foreign wood as raw material. Sweden is a large producer of agricultural machinery and considerable foreign wood is consumed in its manufacture. The shipyards and boat-building plants consume important quantities of foreign soft and hard woods, especially for decking, as Swedish pine is not suitable for this purpose for the better class of ships. The sash and door factories do not use foreign lumber to any great extent because the main production in Sweden is based on native lumber as raw material. How- ever, for the better grades of sashes and doors some foreign oak, mahogany, etc., are used. The furniture factories, on the other hand, probably consume the largest quantities of foreign lumber in Sweden. This industry has been growing rapidly and is not only supplying the Swedish market but producing considerable "furniture for exportation to near-by coim tries. Before the war foreign lumber was used exten- sively for furniture, but the difficulty of obtaining suitable stock from foreign coim- tries during the war forced the furniture factories to use native hardwoods. These, however, are not satisfactory. The railway-car shops also consume considerable foreign wood. For car siding Siamese teak has been used extensively for some years, but this material is now very expensive and the Swedish car shops are in the market for a less expensive wood. Before the war the plants manufacturing telephone and telegraph apparatus used considerable quantities of walnut and oak. The factories for musical instruments, firearms, airplanes, automobiles, and carriages all use foreign lumber. The veneer factories use both native and foreign logs. This industry is growing materially, being protected by a high tariff. The Swedish Government usually obtains its requirements from the Swedish importers. Foreign lumber is not used to any great extent in the ordinary construction of houses in Sweden. Interior finish, sashes, doors, and floors are made of Swedish pine or spruce, which are painted. In the better class of houses in the Swedish cities the doors and floors, besides interior finish and trim, are often made of Swedish or foreign oak. In the larger cities the houses are very solidly constructed. Par- ticularljr the Swedish oflices are elaborately equipped; oak and other high-grade lumber is extensively used. METHODS OF IMPORTATION. There are no resident agents in Sweden handling foreign lumber. The importers in Sweden have obtained their supplies of wood to some extent direct from the export- ing countries, but they have purchased chiefly through foreign agents and importers, mainly Danish and German. At times these merchants spUt up cargoes among many smaller importers in Sweden and in the neighboring coim tries. Before the war American lumber was either shipped in parcel lots to Sweden direct from the exporters in the United States without the use of middlemen or transshipped from Copenhagen, Hamburg, London, Liverpool, and other lumber centers in Europe. German lumber was generally sold by agents through personal soliciting in Swe- den, but it was often claimed that these German agents caused considerable dissat- isfaction because they sold to importers, contractors, wholesalers, and consumers alike, without paying any attention to the handhng of the lumber through the regular channels. During the latter part of the war Germany was practically the only source of supply for certain species of lumber, such as oak. The lumber was usually shipped by rail from southern Germany. Previous to the war it was frequently contended by the Swedish importers con- versant with the grading system in the United States that American lumber reex- ported from some of the European coimtries unquestionably had been tampered with; the grades sold to the Swedish merchants compared very imfavorably with the grades outlined in the American grading rules covering these species. The many middlemen between the Swedish importers and the American exporters have no doubt caused a heax-y increase in the price that the Swedish importers had to pay for this stock, thereby seriously curtaiUng the sales of American lumber and its use- fulness in Sweden. It is of no interest to give a detailed account of the prices paid before the war or during the war. because the pre-war price level will never be reached again and the prices ruling during the war were exorbitant. The present market conditions are SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE 263 unsettled, as any regular supply of foreign lumber has not yet been started, owing to shipping difficulties. The supplies of some foreign woods were very small in Sweden during the war on account of the blockade, and it was therefore a simple matter for the importers and dealers that had stocks on hand to hold them until the demand was so urgent that they could name their own prices. Mahogany, which prior to the war was usually sold at about $2 per cubic foot, was sold during the war at about $15 per cubic foot. American oak, which usually be- fore the war commanded approximately $1 per cubic foot, or somewhat less, was sold during the war even as high as at $6.50 per cubic foot. German oak was sold at about half of this price during the war, but the quality was often very unsatisfactory'. In these circumstances it is of no avail to go into the matter of prices of foreign woods, which will come down as soon as the shipping situation is relieved. In regard to native hardwoods, the following figures show the average prices per cubic foot paid for logs delivered at interior railway stations in southern Sweden from 1914 to 1918: Kinds of wood. 1914 1915 1916 1917 Cents. Cents. Cents. Cents. 21 21 27 34 29 34 40 40 17 19 19 20 11 12 13 24 11 12 13 24 13 15 15 24 1918 Oak.. Ash.. Beech Birch. Alder. Aspen Cents. The consumer, however, paid much higher prices for these native species; for in- stance, oak lumber was sold at about $1.05 per cubic foot and birch at about $0.60 per cubic foot during 1918. Russia was unable to furnish aspen logs during the latter part of the war, and this caused the Swedish match factories to use native hardwoods as raw material, which naturally increased the prices for these species. PROSPECTS FOR FUTURE IMPORTS OF AMERICAN LUMBER. Although Sweden, for reasons already given, may not offer a very important mar- ket for American lumber, it is believed that if a keener interest in this market is shown by American lumber exporters more can be done in Sweden than has been accom- plished heretofore. American lumber has not been advertised to any extent and the handling of American lumber has been left to those who were not more interested in this stock than in Siamese teak. Central American mahogany, or German oak. The importers visited in Sweden expressed their willingness to cooperate with American lumber exporters in furthering the sale of American hunber in Sweden. They should be supplied with full information regarding American lumber and its uses. The war prosperity that Sweden enjoys will result in increased building activ- ities to relieve the present scarcity of dwellings. Although the Swedes are conserv- ative, it would not take long to convince them of the merits of the better class of American soft and hard woods. The severe climate in Sweden calls for solid house construction, and as the Swedes always spend large sums on the equipment and con- struction of their homes, it is believed that American lumber should find a good mar- ket there in the coming years if properly advertised. IMPORTERS. There are comparatively few importers of foreign woods in Sweden and only a few of these importers are in a position to take any large quantities of foreign lumber at one time. This may be the reason why the Swedish importers have usually bought in parcel lots from merchants in other countries. Some of the houses handling im- ported woods are only small concerns, and many of them make a specialty of handling native hardwoods, carrying foreign wood only as a side line. The larger establish- ments maintain resawing plants for cutting logs and lumber. [The names of the principal houses m Sweden engaged in handling foreign woods may be obtained from the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce or its district and cooperative offices. In- quirers should refer to file No. EUR-12031.] Appendix p.— SWEDISH EXPORTS OF WOODS.* Table I. — Exports from Sweden of Pine and Spruce Rough and Planed Lumber from 1886 to 1918. Years. 1886-1890, annual average 1891-1895, annua! average 1886-1890, annual average 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 1909 1910 , 1911 1912 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 Rough lumberCpIanks, battens, and boards).a M feet. 1,510,288 1,651,420 1,853,471 1,563,941 1,700,661 1,776,575 1,576,432 1,673,922 1,781,562 1,515,787 1,391,314 1,249,267 1,490,302 1,496,205 1,620,838 1,669,140 1,308,984 1,690,047 1,852,753 1,040,532 1,154,704 Percent- age of total rough and planed. 94.85 93.43 89.88 87.25 88.51 86.29 86.69 87.09 88.53 87.11 86.10 86.62 84.17 84.29 86.30 85.19 83.74 88.66 90.42 91.87 91.25 Planed boards. a M feet. Percent- age of total rough and planed. 81,921 116,174 198, 131 228, 536 228, 651 282, 160 242, 146 248, 157 230, 874 224,352 224,686 193, 012 280, 221 278, 929 255, 961 290, 276 254,274 216, 232 196, 184 92, 044 110,680 5.15 6.57 10.12 12.75 11.49 13.71 13.31 12.91 11.47 12.89 13.90 13.38 15.83 15.71 13.64 14.81 16.26 11.34 9.58 8.13 8.75 Total rough and planed.o M feet. 1,592,209 1,767,594 2,051,602 1,792,477 1,989,312 2,058,735 1,818,578 1,922,079 2,012,436 1,740,139 1,616,000 1,442,279 1,770,523 1,775,134 1,876,799 1,959,416 1,563,258 1,906,279 2,048,937 1,132,576 1,265,384 a Including box shocks prior to 1907. Table II. — Value of Exports from Sweden op Pine and Spruce Planks, Battens, and Boards (Rough Stock), and of Planed Boards, from 1904 TO 1916. Years. Planks, bat- tens, and boards (rough stock). Planed boards. Years. Planks, bat- tens, and boards (rough stock). Planed boards. 1904 a $25, 535, 000 027,063,000 a 33, 002, 000 30,244,000 24,093,000 23,820,000 30,541,000 6 $4, 470, 000 6 4,612,000 6 4,636,000 4,717,000 4,200,000 4,127,000 6,429,000 1911 1912 $29,215,000 29, 818, 000 32,524,000 26,886,000 39,945,000 58,081,000 $6,218,000 5, 308, 000 1905 1906 1913 1914 6,657,000 7,091,000 6,547,000 1907 1908 1915.. 1909 1916 7,753,000 1910 a Including box shocks. 6 Including planed box shocks. Table III. — Exports from Sweden of Timber and Lumber of Different Kinds IN 1913. Kinds of timber and lumber. Cubic feet. Per cent. Kinds of timber and lumber. Cubic feet. Per cent. Pine and spruce: Rough liunber 1.54,917,580 26,448,913 26,901,353 18,875,687 14,048,871 64.1 10.9 11.2 7.9 5.9 Other native species: Round timber 362,249 47,408 903, 715 276,328 • 22.8 Plaiied lumber Hewn timber 3.0 Round timber Firewood 56.8 HewTi timber Sawn lumber 17.4 Total, other native species 1,589,700 Total, pine and 241,192,404 100.0 100.0 242, 782, 104 I Most of these tables are based on Swedish official statistics, the remainder were obtained through the courtesy of the Swedish Lumber Exporters' Association at Stockholm. 264 Special Agents Series No. 195. 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OS l-l-C -c 03 a w 0; .t: (1. 03 E g ca c E 01 1 > 1 E 4- •V c 1 > c c % w ■5 •5 1 a "5 > a "o E c c g c c c c M "> c a > E 0! j: u 0! c E •3 : 0: • c • c •OX c E "o 4-S C( c 1 c "a ft 1 1 c5 t 1 ■4-3 "o SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 271 Table X. — Exports from Sweden in 1913 of Pine and Spruce Planks, Bat- tens, AND Boards, Planed and Rough, by Countries of Destination. Countries of destination. United Kingdom France Germany Denmark Netherlands Belgium Spain Norway Portugal Italy Greece , European and Asiatic Turkey Algeria, Tunis, and Mo- rocco Egypt British South Africa Portuguese East Africa. French West Africa Other countries in Africa Australia South America Other countries , Total Rough lumber. Planks, 2 inches and more thick and 8i inches and more wide. Pine. Mfeet. 72,854 49,116 8,599 8,104 604 2,572 17,064 8,045 8,411 2,602 65 143 14,462 4,673 32,987 7,266 1,117 2,651 3,164 942 1,011 Spruce. Mfeet. 13, 549 45, 530 6,007 3,186 3,049 99 2,566 4,362 Total. 4,437 150 194 456 79 1,293 24 246,452 Mfeet. 86, 403 94,646 14,606 11,290 3,053 2,671 19,630 12,407 8,411 2,602 65 143 18, 899 4,673 .33, 137 7,460 1,573 2,730 3,164 2,235 1,035 331,433 Battens, 2 inches and more thick and 6-8J inches wde. Pine. Mfeet. 100,390 63,116 9,456 7,001 6,688 4,259 17,470 11,652 851 768 307 539 5,343 2,928 3,513 252 192 1,998 2 443 237, 173 Spruce. Mfeet. 41,867 46,811 43,776 1,453 30,327 701 5,467 7,058 24 784 '253 164 1,588 30 180,311 Total. Mfeet. 142,257 109, 927 53, 232 8,454 37, 015 4,960 22,943 18,710 859 768 307 563 6, 126 2,928 3,766 252 356 1,998 1,590 473 417,484 Scantlings, 2 inches and more thick and less than 6 inches wide. Pine. Mfeet. 48,512 10,626 7, 421 7,758 1,744 1,34(3 3,233 6,659 85 687 144 6,176 2,002 5,190 1,691 1,630 216 28 293 105,441 Spruce. Mfeet. 23,410 19,655 26, 172 659 14,674 939 394 2,920 352 Total. Mfeet. 71,922 30,281 33,593 8,417 16,418 2,285 3,627 9,579 147 552 158 90,741 85 687 188 6,528 2,002 5,337 1,691 2,295 216 580 451 196,182 Rough lumber- Continued. Countries of destination. Boards, less than 2 inches thick and 8J inches and more wide. Boards, less than 2 inch- es thick and 6 to 8J inches wide. Narrow boards, less than 2 inches thick and less than 6 inches wide. Pine. Spruce. Total. Pine. Spruce. Total. Pine. Spruce. Total. United Kingdom France Mfeet. 10,092 7,776 6,304 9,708 263 2,588 1,146 636 Mfeet. 3,408 2,301 2,441 3,608 2,209 210 87 624 Mfeet. 13,500 10,077 8,745 13,316 2,472 2,798 1,233 1,260 Mieet. 34, 894 20,903 26,443 48, 338 1,734 6,437 8,665 1,626 53 186 743 457 4,174 1,372 324 Mfeet. 8,771 6,134 20,747 14,854 11,963 1,164 1,162 396 149 24' • Mfeet. 43,665 37,037 47, 190 63, 192 13,697 7,001 9,827 2,022 53 186 743 457 4,. 323 1,372 348 Mfect. 41,810 54,628 39, 269 44,774 4,859 29,902 11,015 3,570 42 250 842 51 7,409 544 1,665 515 489 25 M feet. 20,095 56,571 46,617 20,125 25,102 15,127 2,297 1,816 Mfeet. 61,911 111 199 Germany 85 886 Denmark 64,899 29,961 45 029 Netherlands RfiljiniiTn Spain 13', 312 5 386 Norway Portugal 42 Italy 248 89 117 6,193 3,144 687 271 368 32 42 161 49 552 14' '"'464' 87" 98 248 89 166 5,745 3,144 701 271 772 32 129 259 250 Greece 842 European and Asiatic Turkey. . 26 438 77 Algeria, Timis, and Mo- rocco 7,847 644 Egypt British South Africa Portuguese East Africa. . 14 1,679 515 Other countries in Africa. Australia 263 12 73 656 153 ' ■3,'427' 306 386 12 3,500 962 87 576 25 South America 1,715 263 1,715 749 Other countries 486 Total 48,865 16,092 64,957 157,353 69,220 226,573 242, 151 190,293 432,444 272 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. Table X. — Exports from Sweden in 1913 of Pine and Spruce, Planks, Bat- tens, AND Boards, Planed and Rough, by Countries of Destination — Con. Rough lumber— Continued. Planed lumber. Countries of destination. Total rough stock. 8J inches and wider. 6 to 8J inches wide. Pine. Spruce. Total. Pine. Spruce. Total. Pine. Spruce. Total. United Kingdom France MfeH. 308,558 206, 165 97,492 125,683 15,892 47,104 58,599 32,188 9,357 4,139 2,733 1,451 42,756 14,663 44,3(i6 9,995 1,117 5,593 5,447 1,087 3,050 Mfeet. 111,100 177,002 145, 760 43, 885 87,324 18,240 11,973 17, 176 8 143 6,712 ""602" 194 456 1,522 '"8," 662' 879 631,638 Mfeet. 419,658 383, 167 243,252 169, 568 103,216 65,344 70,572 49,364 9,365 4,139 2,733 1,594 49,468 14,663 44,968 10, 189 1,573 7,115 5,447 9,749 3,929 Mfeet. 6,922 18 41 650 10 Mfeet. 10,040 8 51 616 146 Mfeet. 16,962 26 92 1,266 156 Mfeet. 43, 653 109 1,083 6,855 71 Mfeet. 38,729 93 1,038 6,817 5,853 Mfeet. 82,382 202 Germany 2 121 Denmark Netherlands 13,672 5 924 Belgium Spain 132 1,430 " '2,'426' 132 Norway 1,162 447 1,609 3,856 Portugal Italy Greece 10 368 646 59 17,576 3,505 523 "i,'666' io European and Asiatic Turkey 37 37 368 Algeria, Timis, and Mo- rocco 1 169 Egypt 59 British South Africa Portuguese East Africa.. 121 121 19, 182 3,505 French West Africa Other countries in Africa. Australia 10 212 4i' 18 990 8 2 28 1,202 8 42 919 5,989 303 301 170 21,613 762 212 1,089 27,602 South America 1,065 513 Other countries Total 1,037,435 1,669,073 9,223 12,326 21,549 83,009 79,842 162 851 Countries of destination. Planed lumber — Continued. Less than 6 inches wide. Pine. Spruce. Total. Total planed boards. Pine. Spruce. Total. Grand total rough and planed lumber. Pine. Spruce. Total. United Kingdom France Germany Denmark Netherlands Belgium Spain Norway Portugal Italy Greece European and Asiatic Turkey Algeria, Tunis, and Mo- rocco Egypt British South Africa Portuguese East Africa. . French West Africa Other countries in Africa. Australia South America Other countries Mfeet. 26, 186 145 539 11,646 212 MfeH. 19,513 154 9,217 5,390 Mfeet. 45,699 145 69? 20, 863 5,602 Mfeet. 76,761 272 1,663 19, 151 293 Mfeet. 68, 282 101 1,243 16,650 11,389 Mfeet. 145,043 373 2,906 35, 801 11,682 232 6,245 40 ,015 272 14,260 364 ,837 40 10,888 404 19,725 289 4,008 2,316 1,982 1,374 503 127 313 79 301 4,135 2,629 1,982 1,453 503 299 4,413 2,962 2,041 19,071 4,008 127 836 1,685 311 4,540 3,798 2,041 20, 756 4,008 1,328 1,097 547 ?95 3,404 44 591 1,623 4,501 44 1,138 2,257 7,298 303 483 26,007 814 805 2,740 33, 305 1,117 1,693 Mfeet. 385, 319 206,437 99, 155 144,834 16, 185 47,104 58, 963 41,025 9,357 4,139 3,032 5,864 45,718 16,704 63,437 14,003 1,117 7,850 12, 745 1,390 3,938 Mfeet. 179,382 177, 103 147,003 60, 535 98, 713 18, 240 12,013 28,064 270 7,548 2,287 194 456 2,005 26,007 9,476 1,684 Mfeet. 564,701 383,540 246, 158 205,369 114,898 65, 344 70, 976 69,089 9,365 4,139 3,044 6,134 53,266 16,704 65, 724 14,197 1,573 9,855 38,752 10,866 5,622 Total. 58,649 47,194 105,843 150,881 139,362 290,243 1,188,316 771,000 1,959,316 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 273 Table XI. — Exports from Sweden in 1918 op Pine and Spruce Planks, Battens, and Boards, Planed and Rough, by Countries op Destination. Countries of destination. United Kingdom France Germany Denmark Netherlands Spain Norway Portugal Italy Algeria, Tunis, and Morocco. Egypt British South Africa South America Other countries Rough lumber. Planks, 2 inches and more thick and 8.V inches and more wide. Pine. Spruce. Total Mfeet 79, 576 3,404 1,338 9,381 4,993 1,119 11,290 362 50 182 Mfeet 25,564 1,239 499 1,796 20,246 172 4, Mfeet. 105, 140 4,643 1,837 11,177 25,239 1,291 16,179 362 50 182 Battens, 2 inches and more thick and 6-8J inches wide. Pine. Spruce. Total Mfeet. 90,474 3,481 3,764 13,662 21,837 536 23, 526 166 Mfeet. 45,088 1,426 10,876 1,776 79,436 41 11,371 Mfeet. 135, 562 4,907 14,640 15,438 101,273 577 34,897 166 Scantlings, 2 inches and more thick and less than 6 inches wide. Pine. Spruce. Total. Mfeet. 39, 135 1,863 2, .580 11,506 10, 124 141 24,421 Mfeet. 23,039 1,245 6,071 776 37,739 12,482 Mfeet. 62, 174 3,108 8,651 12,282 47,863 141 36,903 8,607 8,607 2,047 22 24 141 18 101 10 2,065 101 151 1,073 20 1,093 180 30 210 Total. 120,324 54,407 174, 731 159,634 150, 143 309,777 91,023 81,402 172,425 Countries of destination. United Kingdom France Germany Denmark Netherlands Spain Norway Algeria, Tunis, and Morocco. British South Africa South America Other countries Total. Rough lumber— Continued. Boards, less than 2 inches thick and SJ inches and more wide. Pine. Spruce. Total Mfeet. 9,114 990 4,908 12,139 3,150 4 2,657 61 Mfeet. 2,469 327 1,115 1,659 4.884 762 Mfeet. 11,583 1,317 6,023 13,798 8,034 4 3,419 61 8 20 16 Boards, less than 2 inches thick aijd 6-8i inches wide. Pine. Spruce. Total. Mfeet. 14,054 542 15,171 83,710 8,942 152 4,309 137 "380 MfcH. 6,346 408 8,744 7,9.52 32,054 42 1,249 33,025 11,258 44,283 127.397 56,955 184,3.52 152,365 116,770 Mfeet. 20,400 950 23,915 91,662 40,996 194 5,558 137 101 439 Narrow boards, less than 2 inches thick and less than 6 inches wide. Pine. Spruce. Total. Mfee. 19, 545 1,184 32,480 75,294 9,215 30 13,613 Mfeet. 6,546 711 16,966 20, 281 62,891 9,128 915'. 121 126 Mfeet. 26,091 1,895 49, 446 95,575 72,106 30 22,741 915 121 215 269,135 Rough lumber- -Contd. Planed lumber. Countries of destination. Total rough lumber. Boards 8J inches and more wide. Boards 6-8| inches wide. Pine. Spruce. Total. Pine. Spruce. Total. Pine. Spruce. Total. United Kingdom Mfeet. 251,898 11,464 60,241 205,692 58,261 1,982 79,816 362 50 409 12,779 Mfeet. 109,052 5,356 44,271 34,240 237,250 255 39,881 46 343 241 470,935 Mfeet. 360,950 16,820 104,512 239,932 295,511 2,237 119,697 362 50 409 12,825 343 1,055 Mfeet.. 370 Mfeet. 590 Mfeet. 960 Mfeet. 10,094 1,822 Mfeet. 4,295 10 Mfeet. 14,389 France 1,832 Germany Denmark 206 49 255 8,940 69 3,095. 5,400 12,035 Netherlands 5,469 Spain Norway 1,348 442 1,790 2,081 2,073 4,154 Portugal Italy Algeria, Tunis, and Morocco. British South Africa South America 412 412 2,556 2,556 Other countries 814 8 8 8 g Total 683,768 1,154,703 2,344 1,081 3,425 25,562 14,881 40,443 2092°— 21- -18 274 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. Table XI — Exports prom Sweden in 1918 of Pine and Spruce Planks, Battens, and Boards, Planed and Rough, by Countries of Destina- tion — Continued . Planed lumber — Continued. Countries of destination. Narrow boards, less than 6 inches wide. Total planed lumber. planed lumber. Pine. Spruce. Total. Pine. Spruce. Total. Pine. Spruce. Total. United Kingdom Mfeet. 7,077 665 6 18,766 55 Mfeet. 3,158 196 60 6,956 2,930 Mfeet. 10,235 861 66 25,722 2,985 Mfeet. 17,541 2,487 6 27,912 124 Mfeet. 8,043 206 60 10,100 8,330 Mfeet. 25,584 2,693 66 38,012 8,454 Mfeet. 2(;9,439 13, 951 60,247 233,604 58,385 1,982 99,679 362 50 546 16,008 Mfeet. 117,095 5,562 44,331 44,340 245,580 255 51,902 46 343 720 Mfeet. 386, 534 France 19,513 Germanv 104,578 Denmark 277,944 Netherlands 303,965 2,237 Norway 16,434 9,506 25,940 19,863 12,021 31,884 151,581 Portugal 362 Italy 50 Algeria, Tunis, and Morocco. British South Afiica 137 261 137 261 137 3,229 137 3,229 546 16,054 343 Other countries 135 471 606 143 479 622 957 1,677 Total 43,536 23,277 66,813 71,442 39,239 110,681 755,210 510,174 1,265,384 Table XII. -Exports from Sweden of Pine and Spruce Staves, by Countries OF Destination, from 1903 to 1918. Countries of des- tination. 1903 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 1909 1910 United Kingdom Mfeet. 8,148 2,016 4,172 2,289 6,316 6,496 313 Mfeet. 7,134 5,594 3,867 1,350 3,051 9,177 24 Mfeet. 8,663 2,946 4,710 2,154 4,938 10,635 962 Mfeet. 10,989 3,275 5,184 1,883 5,982 5,403 343 1,645 105 Mfeet. 25, 585 2,950 3,117 1,916 2,875 1,059 1,770 Mfeet. 23,558 1,952 2,237 1, 940 3,080 519 1,228 Mfeet. 15,525 3,875 1,830 2, 558 1,806 396 1,586 40 770 Mfeet. 32,593 4,074 Germany 2,251 Netherlands 3,505 Belgium 986 620 Denmark 1,378 370 14 51 Total 30,120 30, 197 35,008 34,809 39, 286 34, 565 28,386 45,407 Countries of des- tination. 1911 1912 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 I 1918 United ICingdom Mfeet. 28,607 3,600 3, 673 2,774 3, 542 Mfert. 26, 888 4,370 5,289 3,330 5,017 Mfeet. 31,951 6,966 5, 261 4, 815 10,044 Mfeet. 18,417 2,714 2,235 4,629 2,433 4 3,314 5,530 184 162 Mfeet. 24, 421 Mfeet. IS, 806 144 736 5,126 Mfeet. Mfeet. 3,598 9,625 Germany 552 5,710 792 1,958 Netherlands 1,721 253 Norway 2,449 1,899 75 119 3,366 5,417 55 4,805 3,950 71 38 9,720 11,961 12,319 13,753 12,089 851 18,394 2, 1 10 Canary Islands 101 5,679 si 22 Total 46, 738 53, 732 67,901 39, 622 52,465 56,563 19,102 32,392 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 275 Table XIII. — Exports from Sweden of Pine and Spruce Laths, Molding Stock, Broom-handle Stock, Etc., by Countries of Destination, from 1903 TO 1918. Countries of destina- tion. 1903 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 1909 1910 United Kingdom Mfcet. 26,465 172 1,996 4,101 2,992 28 1,580 26 259 Mfeet. 20,595 790 2,625 5,304 1,3.56 81 1,701 18 195 Mfeet. 20,279 53 5,465 6,296 3.56 12 1,812 Mfeet. 19,788 499 4,091 5,972 784 12 1,608 4 174 Mfeet. 18,883 139 3,164 3,946 1,081 10 1,483 38 30 Mfeet. 18,390 608 4,495 4,437 400 46 2,263 8 79 Mfeet. 18, 101 87 3,683 4,639 236 26 2,380 Mfeet. 19,642 418 3,344 Netherlands 3,926 Belgium 592 12 2,077 Other countries 119 81 38 Total 37,619 32,665 34,392 32,932 28,774 30, 726 29,233 30,049 Countries of destina- tion. 1911 1912 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 United Kingdom Mfeet. 18,949 386 3,815 3,479 297 20 4 1,927 16 236 Mfeet. 18,323 572 2,758 4,803 929 44 40 1,313 14 145 Mfeet. 21,544 705 1,368 5,540 1,931 32 85 1,511 137 570 Mfeet. 17,6.36 697 1,430 6,368 495 57 8 1,756 95 174 Mfeet. 14, S24 139 180 7,752 Mfert. 13,026 103 246 8,868 Mfeet. 1,335 Mfeet. 962 Germany 748 7,381 780 Netherlands 6,188 Belgium 40 412 1,915 10 748 2,562 196 1,515 97 Denmark 2 461 Canary Islands Other count"ies 95 26 Total 29,129 28,941 33, 423 28, 716 25,357 25,589 11,175 10 48S Table XIV.- -EXPORTS FROM SwEDEN OF BoX ShOOKS, from 1907 TO 1916. Planed and Rough, Years. Rough shooks.a Planed shooks.6 Years. Rough shooks.a Planed shooks.6 1907 c. $646, 000 c 927, 000 c 1,244, 000 c 1,420, 000 c 1,755, 000 $345, 000 352, 000 353,000 .342,000 379,000 1912 $2,141,000 2, 203, 000 2, .358, 000 4, 280, 000 7,359,000 $672, 000 828, 000 1908 1913... 1909 1914 770, 000 1910 1915. 1,326 000 1911 1916... 2,415 000 a Prior to 1907, included in planks, battens, and boards. b Prior to 1907, included in planed lumber. c Pine and spruce ox).W. Table XV. -Exports from Sweden of Pine and Spruce Sawn Box Shooks, BY Countries of Destination, from 1907 to 1918. Countries of destination. IJnited Kingdom. France Germany Netherlands Belgium Spain Norway Denmark Canary Islands. . . Other countries... Total. 1907 Mfeet. 22,865 820 2,689 794 2,309 543 10, 019 6,294 46,333 Mfeet. 24, 999 1,071 4,409 1,471 2,882 204 53 9,163 4,605 48, 857 Mfeet. 26,637 1,172 2,964 584 5,227 784 149 9,025 9,701 Mfeet. 32, 827 1,090 5,514 640 4,481 55 766 253 9,068 14, 991 56, 243 69, 685 Mfeet. 32, 110 529 3,778 1,008 2,492 • 121 89 408 11,306 15, 876 67, 717 Mfeet. 39,000 909 5,423 2,894 2,746 99 202 701 15, 086 17, 607 84,667 276 SWEDISH LUMBEE INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. Table XV. — Exports from Sweden of Pine and Spruce Sawn Box Shooks, BY Countries of Destination, from 1907 to 1918 — Continued. Countries of destination. 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 United Kingdom. .. . Mfeet. 54,333 1,683 4,396 1,748 2,433 14 2,202 659 267 11,850 7,504 Mfeet. 52,553 871 2,396 2,229 141 675 1,324 699 Mfeet. 97,060 556 2,097 2,891 Mfeet. 118,345 1,491 2,926 6,273 Mfeet. 84,328 Mfeet. 91 240 France 1 699 Germany 25, 615 2,604 602 Netherlands 2 239 Belgium Spain , 42 1,034 806 255 2,241 980 69 11,828 3,891 Norway 1,679 1,028 1 428 Denmark 2*178 EgjT)t Canary Islands 11,739 5,725 11,633 2,519 311 4,017 Other countries . 4,372 Total 87, 089 78,352 118,638 148, 299 119, 582 103 758 Table XVI. — Exports from Sweden op Pine and Spruce Planed Box Shooks, by Countries op Destination, from 1907 to 1918. Countries of destination. 1907 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 United Kingdom Mfeet. 12,864 44 360 921 10 Mfeet. 9,599 MJeet. 8,866 137 55 Mfeet. 7,280 Mfeet. 6,657 188 125 Mfeet. 14,307 38 France Gflrmany 758 14 4 50 Rfilfiiim 139 Spain 826 10 8 44 71 218 5, 166 99 Norway Dfinmnrk. . . . 236 139 Canfiry Islands 131 3,849 1,703 2,596 6 2,934 6 Other countries 4,208 7,361 Total 18, 179 14,656 12,834 11,742 12,477 22, 139 Countries of destination. 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 United Kingdom Mfeet. 21,144 MJeet. 18,227 131 20 8 Mjeet. 29,058 Mfeet. 40,376 1,172 MJeet. 25,158 53 2,125 Mjeet. 13,383 France ... Germany 246 Netherlands 61 Rplgiiim ... 42 Norway 232 59 42 6 2,002 224 196 277 289 59 42 117 Egypt 26 5,516 2,299 1,832 1,220 1,125 Total 27, 263 20, 727 31,458 43,665 28,752 14,902 Table XVII. — Exports from Sweden of Pine and Spruce Split Wood (Mill Ends), by Countries of Destination, from 1903 to 1918. Countries of destination. 1903 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 United Kingdom France Germany Netherlands Belgium Spam >Jorway Denmark Other countries . . Total Citbic Jeet. 12,148,000 57,000 216,000 143,000 144,000 10,000 6,000 1,564,000 14,000 Ctibic feet 12,658,000 54,000 361,000 78,000 61,000 8,000 41,000 1,510,000 6,000 Cubic feet. 11,712,000 73,000 75,000 143,000 126,000 24,000 62,000 1,250,000 16,000 Cubic feet. 12,189,000 45,000 184,000 266,000 380,000 28,000 78,000 1,591,000 29,000 Cubic Jeet 10,477,000 33,000 100,000 253,000 64,000 17,000 130,000 1,154,000 66,000 Cu^ic feet. 8,471,000 19,000 23,000 257,000 57,000 19,000 120,000 1,218,000 71,000 Cubic feet. 8,062,000 2,000 117,000 544,000 89,000 9,000 255,000 1,189,000 49,000 Cubic teet. 7,629,000 49,000 214,000 616,000 103,000 10,000 272,000 1,295,000 214,000 14,302,000 14,777,000 13,481,000 14,790,000 12,294,000 10,258,000 10,316,000 10,402,000 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AKD LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 277 Table XVII. — Exports from Sweden of Pine and Spruce Split Wood (Mill Ends), by Countries of Destination, from 1903 to 1918 — Continued. Countries of destination. 1911 1912 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 United Kingdom Cubicfeet. 8,419,000 23,000 282,000 538,000 35,000 6,000 410,000 1,364,000 45,000 Cubicjcet. 8,371,000 37,000 196, 000 445,000 23,000 5,000 440,000 1,371,000 122,000 Cubic teet. 10,513,000 8,000 82,000 491,000 111,000 4,000 753,000 1,710,000 43,000 Cubicfeet. 5,592,000 6,000 58,000 388,000 Cubicfeet. 152,000 Cubicfeet. 176,000 Cubicfeet. 7,000 Cubicfeet. 33,000 448,000 27,000 440,000 Netherlands 126,000 2,000 4,666 723,000 1,357,000 14,000 1,537,000 1,357,000 1,001,000 1,235,000 423,000 1,665,000 45,000 1,139,000 Total 11,122,000 11,010,000 13,715,000 8,142,000 3,527,000 2,879,000 2,221,000 1,186,000 Table XVIII. — Exports from Sweden of Pine and Spruce Round Timber, Etc., 9f| Inches and More in Top Diameter, biy Countries of Destination, FROM 1903 to 1918. Years. United Kingdom France. Ger- many. Nether- lands. Norway. Den- mark. Other countries. Total. 1903 Cubicfeet. 24,675 24, 710 Cubicfeet. 7,484 Cubicfeet. 3,812 6,425 4,271 177 Cubicfeet. 561,835 313, 464 524,064 509, 238 82,920 113, 701 21,851 Cubicfeet. 3,814,059 1,422,307 644,684 1,151,415 3,210,747 526,041 511,850 538,678 404,397 772,646 1,043,362 228, 779 1,160,382 4,081,598 599,005 963, 443 Cubicfeet. 114,619 335,950 160, 227 227,544 169,616 244, 452 112,254 294,896 68, 375 49,950 W,720 37,877 41,583 20,544 12,567 14,508 Cubicfeet. Cubicfeet. 4,526,484 2, 102, 856 1904 . . 1905 176 600 237, 887 4,942 17, 403 35 988 71 46,243 1,333,422 1906 1, 888, 974 1907. 3,742 530 2,224 1,730 3, 704, 912 1908 889, 666 1909 141 2,365 1,377 665, 723 1910 282 837,986 1911.. 30,217 44, 160 23. 298 505,354 874, 452 1913 3,389 23,545 17,332 27, 746 4,201 4,236 1,553 1913 1,059 1, 223, 780 1914 565 284,553 1,445,323 1915 7,236 206, 717 142, 930 146, 707 1,659 1,694 1916 4,250,967 1917 758, 279 1918 a 1,236 979, 187 ! i a To Spain. Table XIX. — ^Exports from Sweden of Pine and Spruce Round Timber, IfJ TO 9f| Inches in Top Diameter, by Countries of Destination, from 1903 to 1918. Coimtries of destina- tion. United Kingdom. France Germany Netherlands , Spain Norway Denmark Egypt Canary Islands Other countries . . Total. 1903 Cubicfeet. 349,329 23,792 16,979 1,265,682 2,824 2,258,847 1,143,332 36,606 34,064 5, 131, 455 Cubicfeet. 197,045 37,312 25,557 973,362 4,448 4,325,097 737, 135 14, 402 18,215 6,332,573 Cubicfeet. 118, 785 40,630 27, 181 1,347,189 1,306 3,098,493 846, 247 18,921 8,154 Cubicfeet 303, 968 27,216 15,109 1,170,972 4,888,732 395,042 5,507 Cubicfeet. 347,564 24, 216 5,895 672, 712 2,937,631 490,811 4,236 4,483,065 1908 Cubicfeet. 464, 442 43, 489 1,694 548,526 1,412 5, 444, 495 582,379 50, 514 7,136,951 Cubicfeet. 617,291 26, 404 5,366 1,099,030 1,271 4, 993, 185 559, 717 2,542 35 32,970 7,337,811 Cubicfeet. 567, 448 29,617 698, 410 4,709,020 94,392 4,624 13, 167 6,116,678 2Y8 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. Table XIX. — Exports from Sweden op Pine and Spruce Round Timber, Ifl- TO 9f| Inches in Top Diameter, by Countries of Destination, from 1903 to 1918— Continued. Countries of destina- tion. United Kingdom. France Germany Netherlands Norway Denmark Egypt Canary Islands. . . Other comitries.. Cubicfeet. 375,980 26,616 71 406, 762 5,324,369 176,359 11, 755 Total ! 6,321,912 Cubicfeet. 524, 487 16,414 33, 888 628, 870 3, 579, 738 794, 744 8,543 1913 Cubicfeet.] Cubicfeet. 675,254 516,792 25,063 24,639 671 35 586, 898' 667, 700 3,348,3U! 6,491,282 113,2421 113,772 15, 49^ Cubicfeet. 180, 736 282, 612 4,169,812 68,729 6, 742 141 18,638 5,593,426 4,783,715 247 5,612! 7,590 7,820,079: 4,709,479 Cubicfeet. 26, 157 150, 272 4,446,141 54,609 10,061 4,687,240 Cubicfeet. 11,649 38, 724 5, 759, 972 18,144 565 1918 Cubicfeet. 92,092 130, 232 5, 133, 482 26, 828 388 5,829,054 5,382,968 Table XX. — Exports from Sweden of Pine and Spruce Hewn Timber, 7| Inches and More at Middle, by Countries of Destination, from 1903 to 1918. Countries of desti- nation. 1903 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 1909 1910 United Kingdom Cubicfeet. 114,800 142,200 248,350 117,150 Cubicfeet. 109, 850 140,250 238,200 Cubicfeet. 58, 100 118,500 245,100 11,300 Cubic feet. 130, 550 176,250 457,800 30,650 Cubicfeet. 145,650 140,650 408,700 Cubicfeet. 134,300 145,050 258,750 Cubicfeet. 88,300 80, 700 269,350 Cubicfeet. 87,600 92,250 Germany 297,750 350 38,150 69, 700 1,154,450 600 Spain 90,000 25,200 1,436,250 85.200 98,550 1,350,350 100,800 54,350 1,841,900 60,350 16,850 1,145,250 90, 100 2,150 426, 650 65, 550 1,750 482,950 6,900 51,150 1,100 Denmark 718,300 F.pvnt 16,850 50,800 12,400 51,500 11,400 2,700 Total 2,190,800 1,801,750 1,979,500 2,843,800 1,928,850 1,059,700 995,500 1,248,750 Countries of desti- nation. United Kingdom. France Germany Netherlands Belgium Spain Norway Denmark Kgypt :■■■- Other countries. . Total. Cubicfret. 72,250 81,450 392, 750 3,550 33,300 13,650 ,074,300 IS. 5.50 6,850 Cubic feet. 42,550 119,000 469,450 800 31,350 61,400 735, 000 7,250 Cubicfeet. 76,7.50 133, 150 625,200 2,400 49,000 13,500 994,300 5,800 Cubicfeet. 25,900 24,800 329,300 46,350 31,450 697,450 7,400 1,696,650 1,466,800 1,900,100 1,162,650 1,006,100 1,989,400 1,005,450 Cubicfeet. 31,050 2,450 125,600 12,450 4,250 43,900 780,350 6,050 Cubicfeet. 409,900 400 16,700 609,400 9,300 57, 150 884,300 2,250 Cubicfeet. 24,700 34,900 115,200 62,000 763,400 5,250 1918 Cubicfeet.. 7,500 147, 500 82,500 1,302,550 1,540,050 Table XXI. — Exports from Sweden of Pine and Spruce Small Hewn or Sawn Timber, Less Than 7| Inches at Middle, by Countries of Destina- tion, FROM 1903 TO 191S. Cotmtries of dcst'na- tion. United Kingdom. France Germany Netherlands Belgium Spain Norway Denmark Egypt Other countries . . Cubicfeet 627,000 756, 900 3, 183, 600 234,000 1,750 37,900 42,600 3,046,750 3,804,050 96,900 1904 1905 Cubicfeet 681,800 701,2.50i 2,764,500 294,0.10! 44,550 29, 950 53, 4.50 2,277,0.-.0 5,320,900 42, .550 Cubicfeet. 498, 450 688, 700 3,310,3.50 345,000 Cubicfeet 863,050 691,350 3, 578, 2,50 289, 150 • 39.0001 60,500 13,350 6,5.50 2,822,000 3,8.51,400 4,884,750 3,569,000 92, 000 308, 300 Total 11, 831, 450 12, 210, 050 12, 691, 600 13, 217, 550 13, 125, 200 10, 639, 100|13, 194, 950 11,078,550 1907 Cubicfeet 695, 450 740, 550 3,911,300 167,600 1908 1909 71,650 29,850 4,190,900 3,238,100 76, 800 Cubicfeet. 689, 150 542,900 3,066,700 92,000 37,600 26,500 3,391,800 2,726,900 65, 550 Cubicfeet. 6.52,3.50 532,200: 3,329,350 180, 850 44,500 27,600 3,343,950 4,927,250 156,900 1910 Cubicfeet. 489,350 478,000 3,179,750 60,250 24,200 59,150 32,650 3,408,700 2,951,600 394 '900 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 279 Table XXI. — Exports from Sweden of Pine and Spruce Small Hewn or Sawn Timbers, Less Than 7| Inches at Middle, by Countries of Des- tination, FROM 1903 to 1918 — Continued. Countries of destina- tion. Cubic fed United Kingdom 605, 000 France 458,0.50 Germany 2,799,200 Netherlands 1 70, 950 Belgium 9,000 Spain 14,350 Norway 18, 150 Denmark I 3, 324, 800 Egypt I 2,689,450 Other coimtries ! 860,900 Total jlO, 949,850 1912 Cubicfect. 571,100 579, 800 3, 113, 800 309,200 52, 450 55, 650 3,820,350 2, 357, 250 745, 400 11,605,000 1913 Cubic feet. 696,300 624,150 3, 292, 400 961,850 Cubicfeet. 1,528,300 235, 650 1,976,800 525,300 43,000 28,150 62,300 101,800 5,355,900 5,006,500 1,874,100 809,400 985, 800 480, 250 13,895,80010,692,150 Cubicfect. 499,600 744, 150 57,500 3,750 192, 850 4,546,000 69,400 6,113,250 Cubicfeet. 1,. 342, 950 1,350 82,500 246,200 6,300 1,173,450 5,271,300 97,400 8,221,450 1917 Cubicfect. 110,450 320,250 172,600 858, 600 3,707,800 61,950 5,231,650 Cubic feet. 46, 150 19,300 88,950 155, 700 380,000 5,001,750 23, 750 5,715,600 Table XXII. — Exports from Sweden of Pine and Spruce Railroad Ties, Countries of Destination, from 1903 to 1918. Years. United Kingdom. Germany. Nether- lands. Norway. Den- mark. Other countries. Total. 1903 Cubicfeet. 1,300,946 1,499,932 2, 194, 495 1,857,874 2,165,090 2, 758, 483 1,997,309 1,666,901 1,528,878 2,839,850 2,964,070 2,432,735 2,309,785 2,316,139 870, 110 188,326 Cubicfeet. Cubicfeet. Cubicfeet. 47, 161 50,973 15,885 52,421 63,363 21,427 1,271 7; 519 600 2,047 20,509 99,934 44,972 42,960 23,686 4,977 Cubicfeet. 4,060 2,295 69,470 9,743 27,005 17,474 24,498 8, 754 15,250 20,297 99, 475 29,511 572,001 6.50, 579 269, 727 485,340 Cubicfeet. Cubicfeet. 1 352 167 1904 l'553'200 1905 61,952 180,665 2' 341^802 2 100 703 1906 1907 2,255,458 2 800 561 1908 3,177 35 1909 2 023 113 1910 1^683; 174 1 544 728 1911 1912 a 424 6.530 1,105 2 862 618 1913... 3^084; 584 9 583 345 1914 1915 3,212 73,071 2' 929' 970 1916 6,954 3,0S9;703 1 163 523 1917 1918 625,022 1*303' 665 1 To Canary Islands. b Including 424 cubic feet sent to Canary Islands. Table XXIII. -Exports from Sweden ,of Pine and Spruce Pit Props, by Countries of Destination, from 1903 to 1918. Years. United Kingdom. France. Germany. Nether- lands. Norway. Den- mark. Other countries. Total. 1903 Cubicfeet. 3.5,374,236 37,306,064 25,135,330 27,561,358 23,447,001 21,730,221 14,897,518 17,846,233 17,956,369 15,010,160 18,798,203 16,605,402 22,096,565 15,817,118 4,208,501 3,327,166 Cubicfeet. Cubicfeet. 4,624 35 106 Cubicfeet. Cubicfeet. 712, 636 .590, 781 315,900 769,575 1,695,671 991,330 592,405 256, 137 369,626 365,920 324,019 593, 746 3,722,314 1,102,419 • 290, 837 Cubicfeet. Cubicfeet. Cubicfeet. 36,091,496 1904 459 212 8,825 282 3,777 423 37 897 339 1905 8,083 529 353 565 4,730 3,.5fi6 14,191 39,360 35,370 73,248 1,941 2,047 25,459 631 1906 32,653 28,372,940 25 143 307 1907 1908 3,389 8,931 22', 729' 282 15,579,620 18 115 325 1909 75,613 9,354 1910 35 164,533 122,420 25, 134 2,083 1911 141 918 53, 197 3,459 8,119 18' 504' 860 1912 15 538 778 1913... 247 19' 236' 170 1914 17' 277' 938 1915 25^828^939 16 921 584 1916 1917 209,682 563,847 4' 709' 020 1918 146,283 4,037,296 280 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. Table XXIV. — Exports from Sweden op Pine and Spruce Pulp Wood, by Countries of Destination, from 1903 to 1918. Years. United King- dom, Ger- many. Norway. Den- mark. Other countries. Total. 1903 Cubicfeet. Cubicfeet. Cubicfeet. 635,153 612, 632 340, 715 348, 729 525, 970 597,346 1,705 , 3,318 78, 154 1, 248, 808 843, 246 1, 777, 779 452,228 218, 966 40,983 Cubicfeet. 247,771 134, 105 69, 506 17,721 33, 888 6,566 Cubicfeet. «9,354 a 130, 080 Cubicfeet. 892, 278 1904.. 876, 817 1905 410,221 1906 t 49, 455 415, 905 1907 6,460 566,318 1908 603, 912 1909 18,568 b 107, 029 127, 362 3,318 1911 c 1912. 1,836 918 88, 285 199,586 79,990 1,259,433 1913 9,707 1014 . . . 2,471 934, 002 1915 1,977,365 1916 452, 228 1917 1 218, 966 1918 1 40 983 ( 1 1 a To the Netherlands. b To France. There were no exports in 1910. Table XXV. — Exports from Sweden of Pine and Spruce Telegraph and Telephone Poles, by Countries of Destination, from 1903 to 1918. Years. United King- dom. Ger- many. Norway. Den- mark. >>gypt. Other coun- tries. Total. 1903 . . Cubicfeet. 45, 608 165,345 239, 369 172, 1.58 72, 047 116, 949 84,508 31,734 565 13, 379 36, 077 374, 180 2,153 67, 705 Cubicfeet. 2,506 Cubicfeet. Cubicfeet. 3,353 847 49,385 24, 145 63,964 103, 782 27, 816 27, 675 43, 948 147,483 178,724 227, 297 359, 883 287, 201 185, 748 162, 662 Cubicfeet. 30,076 47, 302 20,439 19, 486 Cubicfeet. Cubicfeet. 81,543 1904 213, 494 1905 309, 193 1906 215, 789 1907.. 136,011 1908 18, 709 5,154 244, 594 112,324 1909.. 1910 1,942 3,530 61,3.51 1911 48,043 364,119 1912 199, 798 151,119 144, 730 15,497 3,459 635 66, 152 5,401 26, 228 34, 100 1913. 366, 555 1914 o529 812, 888 1915 382, 934 1916 381, 134 1917. 219, 848 1918 6 69,329 231, 991 1 a To France. 6 To the Netherlands. SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 281 Values per Unit Given in Swedish Official Statistics in 1913 for Pine and Spruce Products for Export. He.wn timber: Per cubie ioot. Minimum diameter at middle 7| inches $0. 25 Diameter 4|-7| inches 17 Diameter less than 4f inches 13 Railroad ties 17 ■ Firewood 05 Round timber; Masts, logs, etc. — * 9| inches in top diameter 25 2-9J inches in top diameter 17 Telegraph and telephone poles 17 Pit props 05 Pulp wood 08 Sawn lumber: Per M feet. Box shooks 25. 28 Staves 15. 55 Planks (minimum thickness 2 inches, minimum width 7| inches) — Kne 23. 70 Spruce 21. 30 Battens (minimum thickness 2 inches, width 5f-7i inches) — Pine 19.70 Spruce 18. 75 Scantlings (minimum thickness 2 inches, width less than 5| inches) — Pine 17. 25 Spruce 16. 95 Boards (less than 2 inches thick) — 7^ inches and more mde — Kne 26.30 Spruce 22. 10 5|-7|- inches wide — Pine 22. 00 Spruce 19. 00 Narrow boards (less than 2 inches thick and less than 5J inches wide) — . Pine 16.45 Spruce. 16. 00 Splitwood (maximum length 6^ feet) 4. 65 Lath wood 9. 48 Laths, lists, moldings, etc 8. 81 Broom handles 9. 48 Planed lumber: Boards — Minimum width 7]- inches — Pine 29. 75 Spruce 26. 40 Width 5| to 7i inches- Pine 23. 65 Spruce 23. 00 Width less than 51 inches- Pine 20.95 Spruce 21. 65 Splitwood (maximum length 6^ fe«t) 6. 32 Box shooks , 30. 33 i Appendix C— CATALOGUES. In connection with the foregoing report, Mr. Oxholm submitted the following catalogues, all in the English language, which may be seen at the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce or its district offices : Price list of sashes, doors, moldings, etc., 1911. Torroba-box catalogue. BoUuders' catalogue of sawmill machinery. 282 O 1 Hi. L/BRARy OF CONGRESS 002 81/111