ELE ^'^4"^ /■"' V- i .J ms lis iqr:i |iil 1 ifi ■ I if ill i 1 •v5> H5?)<^o THE MACMll.l.AN COMPANY NKW YOKK • Rl>ST(W • IIIK AC.O ATLANTA • SAN I'KANCISCD M ACM ILL AN & CO., Limitku I.ONHDN • UOMHAY • CAIfl' TIA MKl.lH>l'KNK VMV. \L\CM1LLAN CO OK CANADA, Ltd. TOKONTO INAIKJURATION Oh' WASHING TON (Wasliington is in llic centre; on tlio ri^lii nl" (ho picture is N'icc-jjivsident John Adams) ELHMliNTS OF UNITHD STATES HISTORY BY EDWARIJ CIIANNTNG PKOKKSSOk ()!•■ IIISTOKV IN MAKVAKl) ( NIVl'-KSITY AUTIIOU 0|- "A srilDKNTs' IIISIOHV OK TlIJi I'MIKI) SIA'rKS," KIC. IN CONSUr/rA'I'ION WITH SUSAN J. GINN I MASTI-.k's ASSIS'IANT in 'I III', II VI. Is SCHOOL, IJOSTON THE MACMTLLAN COMPANY 1 910 AU rights reserved Fjni V^'-T Copyright, iqio, By the MACiMILLAN COMPANY. Set up and electrotyped. Published June, 1910. NortooolJ 59 f83 J. S. Cushiiifr Co. — Boiwirk \- Smith Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. C^C!.Av»6555:3 PREFATORY NOTE In writing this book, the author has had in mind the presentation of the essential facts in our history in a clear, brief manner, with such explanations, by means of maps, pictures, and foot-notes, as the size of the work permitted. In its preparation the pupil's point of view and peculiar needs have been kept constantly in mind, and the author wishes to express his gratitude to Miss Ginn for her very helpful suggestions and advice. She also kindly drew many of the maps which are inserted in the text, prepared the topical reviews which follow the several divisions of the book, and devised the questions that are printed in Appendix V. He further wishes to express his obligation to Miss Eva G. Moore for many thoughtful suggestions, and especially for her aid in the preparation of the bio- graphical notes and of Appendix IV with its accompanying map. BibHographies of books of American history which are suitable for school use are now so plentiful that it has not seemed wise to add to the bulk of this volume by the insertion of such lists. In teaching American history, the fact that it is an account of a development should always be present in the teacher's mind, and each teacher should, by question and suggestion, lead the pupils themselves to look upon it as a continuous story instead of as a succession of events, some of them interesting, but more of them inexpressibly dull. The incidents themselves may be made more interesting and graphic by the use of many devices: — school plays Vlll PREFATORY NOTE and pageants, introducing leading characters in American history; and the conipiHng of picture scrap-books telling the country's story, or portions of it, by illustrations drawn from magazines, advertisements, and guide books of rail- roads, steamship lines, etc. At every stage opportunity should be grasped to connect the past history with the occurrences of the present, and to impress upon the pupils their public duties and the crucial importance of good citizenship in a self-governing state and nation. Camhridgk, Mass., April, 1910. TABLE OF CONTENTS II. III. IV. V. VI. Discovery and Exploration, 1 000-1606 The Great Discoverers . The Spaniards in the United States English Explorers French Explorers .... The North American Indians Planting of a Nation in the New World, 1607- 1660 Virginia and Maryland New England ....... New Netherland The Colonists in 1660 PAGE I 14 19 22 25 33 42 52 57 Growth of the Colonies, 1 660-1 760 The Settlement of New York and New Jersey The Carolinas ...... Pennsylvania, 1681 The French in America New France and Louisiana . Early French and Indian Wars Conquest of Canada England and the Colonies, 1763- 1775 The Thirteen Colonies in 1763 Enofland taxes the Colonists . The United Colonies The Revolutionary War Bunker Hill to Trenton, 1 775-1 776 . . The struggle for the Delaware and for the Hudson The Southern Campaigns . . , . . 65 69 74 84 89 96 105 116 122 127 135 150 160 X TABLE OF CONTENTS VII. The Critical Period, 1 783-1 789 p^^^ Confederation and Confusion . . '.. . .172 The Constitution 177 VIII. The First Three Presidents Wasliington's Administration ; the Government Organ- ized 1S4 John Adams's Administration ; Rise of Political Parties 197 Jefferson's Administration ; the Louisiana Purchase . 203 IX. Madison's Administration, 1809-1817 The War of 1812 217 The War on the Ocean 223 X. National Development Monroe's Administration, 1817-1825; Era of Good Feeling ......... 230 John Quincy Adams's Administration, 1825-1829; Party Politics ....... 235 Jackson's Administration, 1829- 1837; Preservation of the Union ........ 242 Van Buren's Administration, 1 837-1 841 ; Hard Times 250 Harrison and Tyler, 1841-1845 ; Annexation of Texas 253 Polk's Administration, 1845-1849; the Mexican War 256 XI. Slavery Extension and the Civil War Taylor, Fillmore, and Pierce's Administrations (1849- 1857); the Extension of Slavery Buchanan's Administration, 1 857-1 861 ; Secession The North and the South Lincoln's Administration; the Civil War, 1 861 . The Second Year of the War, 1*862 The Third Year of the War, 1863 The Ending of the War, 1 864-1 865 . 264 272 278 281 285 294 298 XII. Reconstruction and Reunion Johnson's Administration, 1 865-1 S69 ; Reconstruction 311 Grant's Administration, 1869-1877; Progress and Panic . . . . . . . . -313 Hayes's Administration, 1877-1881 ; Soldiers leave the South . . . . . . . . .318 TABLE OF CONTENTS XI Garfield's and Arthur's Administrations, 1881-1885; Civil Service Reform ...... Administrations of Grover Cleveland and Benjamin Harrison, 1885-1897; Confusion in Politics XIII. The Spanish War McKinley's Administration (i 897-1 901) XIV. Recent Events, 1901-1909 Roosevelt's Administration, 1901-1909; Awakening of the Public Conscience ...... Taft's Administration, 1909- .... 319 322 327 338 348 APPENDIX I. Declaration of Independence II. Constitution of the United States III. The Presidents . . . . IV. The States . . . . V. Questions . . . . . VI xxi XXV XXXV COLORED MAPS United States in 191 o Front Cover FACING PAGE North America .......... i British Dominions in North America . . . . . .105 United States in 1783 168 Claims and Cessions . . . . . . . . .176 Territorial Acquisitions . . . . . . . -193 United States in 1800 ......... 203 United States in 1803 ......... 209 United States in 1830 241 United States in 1850 265 United States in i860 ......... 272 Slavery and Secession ........ 277 Dependencies of the United States ...... 337 The World Back Cover DATES looo. Leif Ericsson finds Wineland the Good. 1492. Columbus's first voyage to the New World. 1497. John Cabot's voyage to North America. 15 13. Ponce de Leon names Florida. 1 5 13. Balboa discovers the Pacific. 15 19. Magellan sails for Asia by way of South America. 1524. Verrazano visits North America in the service of the King of France. 1 539- 1 542. De Soto and Coronado explore the southern part of the United States. 1565. F'ounding of the Spanish town of St. Augustine. 1577-1578. Sir Francis Drake sails around the world. 1605. Founding of Port Koyal (Annapolis) in Acadia by the French. 1607. Founding of Jamestown, Virginia, the first permanent English settlement in America. 1619. The beginning of negro slavery in English North America. 1619. The beginning of locgil self-government. 1620 The Pilgrims settle af Plymouth. 1630. Boston and neighboring towns settled. 1632. The Maryland Charter. 1636. Roger Williams founds Providence. 1663. The first Carolina Charter. 1664. The English conquer New Netherland. 1669. Founding of Louisiana 1682. Philadelphia founded by William Penn. 1732. The Georgia colony. 1763. Treaty of Peace between England and France. 1765. The Stamp Act passed by Parliament. 1770. The Boston Massacre. ^11 Z- '^l^G Boston Tea Party. 1774. First Continental Congress. 1775. Battles of Lexington and Concord. 1776. Declaration of Independence adopted, July 4. XIV DATES 1783. Treaty of Peace with England. 1787. The Constitution adopted by the Federal Convention. 1789. Inauguration of President Washington. 1803. Louisiana purchased from France. 1812-1815. War with England. 1820. The Missouri Compromise. 1823. The Monroe Doctrine. 1825. The Erie Canal opened. 1832. South Carolina attempts to nullify an act of Congress. 1845. Texas annexed to the United States. 1846. The Oregon Treaty with England. 1846-1848. War with Mexico. 1849. Rush of gold seekers to California. 1850. The Compromise of 1850. 1854. The Kansas-Nebraska Act passed by Congress. 1861-1865. The war for the preservation of the Union. 1863. Emancipation Proclamation. 1867. Purchase of Alaska from Russia. 1 88 1. Reform in the Civil Service. 1898. War with Spain. ELEMENTS OF UNITED STATES HISTORY Ov.Hiuvieh 70" ELEMENTS OF UNITI'I) STATl'S HISTORY !>•<« I DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATION, 1000-1606 THE GREAT DISCOVERERS I. Leif Ericsson discovers America, 1000. — In the sum- mer of the year 1000 Leif Ericsson (Lif Er'ik-son), the Northman, set sail from Norway for Greenland to visit his father, Eric the Red, who was the chief man among the Norse settlers in that country. Days, weeks, and months went by, and, at length, Leif and his companions came within sight of land. It did not seem like the coast of Greenland; in fact, it was an unknown land to them. After tarrying there to refresh themselves, they steered northward and arrived at Greenland in the autumn, rescuing a shipwrecked crew on the way. Leif's reports of the wonderful new land were so interesting that many expedi- tions were made to it. There the explorers found currants and other wineberries like those from which the Northmen made wine, — for they had no grapes in their northern home, — so they called the land Wineland, and added to it " the Good " because it was so much better than Greenland. Settlements were made there, but how long they lasted we cannot tell. Wineland was probably what we now call B I DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATION [lOOO Labrador, and perhaps its southern bounds extended as far as New England. Leif Ericsson and the Northmen, ^ therefore, were the first Europeans to come to America. They did not remain, however, and America had to be dis- covered all over again. 2. Japan, China, and India. — Leif Ericsson and the men of his time lived very simply. They had no cof- fee, tea, sugar, pepper, or other spices, and they lacked carpets, silken cloths, and countless other things which came from eastern lands. The crusaders in their ex- peditions to the Holy Land, in Asia Minor, came to know and to like these eastern luxuries. Soon kings and great nobles began to demand spices and other oriental things. Then the richer people wanted them, too. These luxuries were brought to the Mediterra- nean, especially to Venice and Genoa, by caravans ^ from 1 The Northmen were the hardiest seamen of their time. Some of them conquered England; others settled in western France, in Normandy; others sailed into the Mediterranean (iMed'i-ter-ra'ne-an) and settled in Sicily (Sis'i-li) and southern Italy. Still others sailed to Iceland, whence Eric the Red led a band to Greenland, which he so called because the name would attract more settlers to that country. - Kar'a-van, a company of travellers or merchants equipped for a long jour- ney, especially through deserts. You will probably find a picture of one in your geography. Notice the camels which are used for carrying goods across deserts. 1492] THE GREAT DISCOVERERS 3 China through central Asia, or by water from India to the Arabian Gulf, and thence overland through Asia Minor. 3. Marco Polo. — Among the Italian travellers to go to China and India in search of articles of trade and jewels was Marco Polo (Mar'ko Po'lo). After his return home he wrote a wonderful book telling about the countries of the East. He told especially of an island kingdom off the eastern coast of China, called Cipango (Chi'pan-go), which we now know as Japan. He never actually saw the island, because the Japanese were very warlike and disliked strangers. He wrote down what other people told him, and his stories attracted much attention. Gold and silver were very scarce in those days in Europe, for almost none of those precious metals was produced there. In Japan, gold was said to be so plentiful that the Japanese used it for the floors of the royal palaces, instead of tiles, and even covered the roofs of these buildings with it, as we cover our houses with tin. China, too, was a marvellous country and full of riches, and so, also, was India. The eastern trade routes, along some of which the caravans passed, met at Con- stantinople. In 1453, the Turks captured this city. They at once put an end to this commerce between China, India, and other eastern lands and the countries of wes- tern Europe. 4. New routes to the East. — Italy was the home of seamen. When there were no more goods to carry away from Constantinople in their vessels, Italian sailors went to other countries, especially to Spain and Portugal, to find employment. One of the princes of the latter kingdom was greatly interested in navigation and was constantly sending out expeditions to sail along the western coast of Africa, in the hope of finding a sea route to India. This DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATION [1492 was actually done in the year 1498 by a brave Portuguese sailor.^ 5. Early ideas about the shape of the earth. — Among other famous men to come to Portugal was Martin Behaim (Ba'him). He was a scientific German geographer. Going back to Germany in the summer of 1492, he made a globe Sketch from Behaim's Globe, with America drawn in. (Columbus thought that he sailed from 2 for 4 : in reality he sailed from l_^and discovered land at 3.> which is still to be seen and copied. Most people in those early times thought the earth was flat, but Behaim not only thought it was round, but that it was a great deal smaller than it really is and that Japan was only three or four thousand miles west of Europe instead of twelve thousand miles that we now know it to be. 6. Christopher Columbus. — The most famous of all the men to come to Portugal in these years was Christopher Columbus. He was a native of Genoa in northern Italy. He had gone to sea when a mere boy and had sailed north- 1 Vasco da Gama (Vas'co da Ga'ma) succeeded in sailing round the Cape of Good Hope and reached the coast of India, where he established a trading post. Thus the Portuguese obtained control of India and held it for over a century. 1492] THE GREAT DISCOVERERS ward as far as Iceland and southward along the western shores of Africa. Like Behaim and other scientific men of the time, he thought that the earth was round, and that Japan and India could be reached by sailing westwardly across the Atlantic. For years he tried to induce the kings The Fleet of Columbus. of western Europe to send him on an exploring expedition across the great ocean. ^ The king of Portugal was the only one who paid much attention to him, and he proved to be false. He secretly sent a captain of his own to test' 1 Columbus was born l:)etween the years 1436 and 1 451. The old accounts are very indistinct and it is difficult to find the exact date. In all he made four voyages to the New World: he discovered (i) 1492, San Salvador, Cuba, and San Domingo; (2) 1493, he led a colony to San Domingo and discovered Jamaica, Porto Rico, etc.; (3) 1498, he entered the Orinoco River and saw a part of South America; (4) 1502, he sailed along the main- land of Central America. He was called " the Admiral of the Ocean Sea " and later came tc be known as the " First Admiral " or sometimes as the " Old Admiral." He died poor and neglected in Spain in 1506. 6 DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATION [1402 the truth of the idea, while CoUimbus was waiting for his money ; but this captain was afraid and turned back before he had gone very far. Finally, the king and queen of Spain, Ferdinand and Isabella, fell in with the idea. They had very little faith that Columbus would ever come back, but the treasurer ^ of their kingdom loaned them the money to pay part of the cost of the trip, and the friends of Co- lumbus made up the rest. With three vessels, he set sail from the Spanish town of Palos (Pa'los) early in August, 1492. He first went to the Canaries and thence steered due west into the Sea of Darkness.- 7. Columbus finds America, 1492. — Columbus's crews had no belief in the truth of his ideas. Instead of taking them to India, they thought he was taking them to destruc- tion. After sailing for a time, they looked eagerly for land and fancied they saw it, even before the Canaries had faded out of sight, but it proved to be a cloud. Eight days later, thev again thought thev saw signs of land. Nearly everv day for a month thev saw one thing or another which seemed to indicate that land was not far off, but no land appeared. When, at length, the search seemed to be hopeless, they thought of compelling Columbus to turn back ; but he told them it was of no use for them to make any such suggestion, for he had started to go to India and to India he was going. At other times, they tried to trick him, — for, one night, coming on deck suddenly, he found the SiUita Maria (San'ta Ma'rea), his flagship, sailing 1 This treasurer was a Jew. Luis Sant Aui^el v^-^^^ Ang'n. It was fortu- nate that he believed in the enterprise, for Eerdinand and Isabella had no money, and the queen's jewels had long ago been pledged to carry on the wars in which these monarchs were constantly engaged. - The Atlantic Ocean, or Sea of Darkness, was supposed by the people of that time to be the abode of monsters who dragged sailors from their ships and devoured them. It was thought to have islands which were inhabited by cannibals and by creatures that were partly human and partly animal. i49-i THE GREAT DISCOVERERS 7 Straight for Spain instead of for Japan. He could not see the- other vessels, the Pinta (Peen^ta) and Nina (Neen'ya), but he knew they, too, were steering northeastwardly, be- cause they always followed a big lantern which was kept burning at the stern of his ship to guide them. He soon had the fleet headed about again for Asia and Japan. ^ The sailors were especially frightened when they ran into the midst of vast fields of seaweed that extended as far as the eye could see, for they feared that they could never get out of it again. Columbus steered northward for a while, then as soon as the sea became clear, turned westward and then south westward to get back to his former course. Finally, when the strain had become very great, they saw a notched stick in the water, and then the branch of a bush with the flowers still fresh on it. That night, as the sun went down, each one kept a sharper watch than ever before. Columbus, peering out into the darkness, saw a light flare up, go out ; again flare up and again disappear. He called one of the men to see it, but it did not again blaze out. The next morning at two o'clock, the lookout on the Pinta saw the gleam of a sandy beach in the moon- light. The fleet at once rounded to, and all hands waited eagerly for the dawn. 8. The landing of Columbus. — When the sun rose on the morning of October 12, 1492, there, in front of them, was a green, tree-covered island. Launching the small boats, Columbus went ashore. He took with him the royal standard. The captain of the other vessels had two ban- 1 Improvements in the instruments used by sailors for finding their way over the pathless sea made Columbus's voyage possible. The most important of these was the compass. It was still a very rude afiair, — only a magnetized needle tied to a straw, and floating in a bowl of water, — but it was better than nothing. To tell the time Columbus had a sand-glass that needed to be turned every half- hour instead of a watch or a chronometer such as ship captains have nowadays. 1492] THE GREAT DISCOVERERS ners of the Green Cross bearing the initials of Ferdinand and Isabella. Each letter was surmounted by a crown. Kneeling on the sand, the navigators gave thanks to God who had brought them safely so far on their perilous quest, and called the island San Salvador (San Sal'vii dor'), which meant Holy Saviour. While the Spaniards were praying, strange men and women came out of the woods The Landing of Columbus. that fringed the shore and gazed wonderingly at Columbus and his companions. They believed the white people to be gods who had come from the skies. Instead of attack- ing the intruders, they were very friendly. Later the na- tives swam out to the boats. They brought balls of spun cotton, parrots, and spears tipped with fish bones which they exchanged for glass beads and little bells. One of them had a small piece of gold hanging from a hole in his nose, and by signs told Columbus that to the southward there was an island where this precious metal was plentiful. Columbus called these people Indians, for had he not lO disco\"i:rv and exploration [1492 reached the Indies ? When Columbus returned to Spain, the news of his discoveries rapidly spread.^ In Septem- ber, 1493, with twelve hundred persons in seventeen ves- sels, he again sailed from Spain to take possession of the newly found lands and to push his explorations still further. 9. The New World is named America. — Expeditions now followed in rapid succession. In 1498, Columbus, himself, found a New World in the lands of the Orinoco (O-ri-no'ko) and northern coast of South America, and so stated in a letter to King Ferdinand. Nobody paid any attention to this statement, and very few persons knew of it because the letter was not printed until ten years later. Another Italian, Americus Vespucius*-^ (A-me'ri-ciis Ves- pu'cius), bv name, visited the lands around the Caribbean (Kar'ib-be'an) Sea, at about the time that Columbus first saw the New World. Americus wrote most interesting accounts of what he had seen. These were printed in ^ The use o{ the printing-press had become sufficiently common by this time for the news of Cohnnbus's discovery to be widespread and not to remain ahnost unknown as had been the case with the earlier voyages of the Northmen. - Americus Vespucius came from the city of Florence in Italy. He made more than one voyage to the New World and wrote several letters. He finally became the chief chart-maker to the king of Spain, and died in 1512 ignorant of the fact that the New World had been named for him. The American Portion of the WaldseemuUer Map, 1507 ^see p. 12^. This is the earliest printed map to bear the word "America" (.this part is printed in larger size on p. 10). 12 DISCOXKRY AXn KXPLORATK^X [^51.^ several languages and distributed far and wide. In one of these books Amerieus deelared that he had found a New- World. People reading- this thought that the Xew World had been diseovered bv Amerieus and so thev called it America. The name was first applied to what we call South America by a teacher of geography named Wald- seemiiller (Walt'za-miil-er). Some years later when it became certain that the northern lands, which John Cabot (§ 20) and others had found, were likewise not parts of Asia, the name America was given to the northern con- tinent, also. We still call the islands that Columbus dis- covered the Indies, but we prefix the word "West" to distinguish them from the East Indies which lie off the southern shore of Asia. 10. Balboa sees the Pacific, 1513. — On his fourth vovage in I sOJ, Columbus visited the shores of Central America and the Isthmus of Panama (^Pan-a-ma'\ The natives gave him to understand that beyond the mountains, which came down to the sea. was another i;reat water like that 'HK GRKAT insrmKRF.RS 13 over which ho had sailed. The storv did not interest him, but it did excite the curiosity of a Spaniard, Halboa (Hal-bo'a), especially because the Indians further said that on the shores of this other sea were lands rich in i;"old and silver.^ Thus it happened that one dav in 1513, Balboa, found himself on the top of a mountain, and before his eves there stretched awav in the distance the waters of a i;"reat ocean. II. Magellan completes Columbus's and Balboa's work. — In 1519. a PortUi;uese nobleman, Mai;ellan (Ma-jel'an), sailing in the service of the Spanish king, set out to dis- cover a passage, or strait, through the American continent, by which he could reach the lands of Asia. Sailing far to the south, he passed through a strait which we still call Magellan for him. From its western end, he first followed up the coast of South America for a little way. Then he steered northwestwardly directly away from land across the immense waste of water which he named the Pacific Ocean, because it happened to be calm when he first saw it. The weeks and the months passed slowlv by and still the ships held on their course. When the crews were nearly dying of starvation, they sighted some little islands where they got enough food to last them until thev reached the Philippines (Firip-pines).- There Magellan was killed by the natives. One of his vessels, the Jlctoriii, continued her westward way to the Indian Ocean, which was already known to the Portuguese. She then passed the Cape of Good Hope at the southern end of Africa and followed the western shore of that dark continent, and so northward to Spain. When these first round-the-world voyagers reached ^ The Indians were lii^ht, for Peru proved to he very ricli; but Balboa was killed before he could explore its coasts. - This discovery of the Philippines was later followed by their occupation by the Spaniards, which continued until these islands were recently transferred to the United States (^§ 419). 14 DISCOVERY AND I-:XPLORATION ^^ [1513 home with their story, they were promptly put into prison as impostors. 12. Summary. — The Northmen discovered the New World, only to forget it ; Columbus found it again. Balboa first saw the Pacific Ocean ; Magellan and his men proved that the known parts of America were far away from Japan and Asia, and that the earth was very much larger than people had formerly thought it was. Finally, the crew of the Victoria proved that the earth was a sphere by actually saiUng around it. THE SPANIARDS IN THE UNITED STATES 13. De Leon names Florida, 1513. — Explorers by the score came to the shores of what are now the southeastern states of the American Union. One of these. Ponce de Leon (Pon'thada La-on'), set out to find the land of Bim- ini, where there was said to be gold in plenty and also a wonderful fountain of youth. He landed on the east coast of Florida; but the Indians were so fierce and so numerous that he soon sailed away again without finding either the gold or the fountain.^ 14. De Soto in the Southeast. — The most famous of these expeditions is the one that was led by De Soto (Da So'to). Landing on the western coast of Florida in 1539, he and his men went northward to the Savannah (Sa-van'a) River in search of a rich city. Not finding it, they wan- dered southwardly and westwardly to Mobile Bay. None of the other Spaniards were so fierce as De Soto and his men. They brought from Spain chains of iron and dogs ^ Ponce de Leon came to America with Columbus in 1493. ^^^ saw Florida for the first time on Easter Sunday, 15 13. The Spanish name for Easter is Pascua de los Flores; hence he called the land Florida. De Leon was not the first Spaniard to see Florida, but the name he gave it came to be applied to all the territory in North America which the Spaniards claimed to belong to them east of the Mississippi. i54o] THE SPANIARDS IN THE UNITED STATES 5 of the bloodhound breed. Wherever they went, they captured the natives, chaining them together, and sometimes when the captives broke loose and ran away, they hunted them with the dogs. Near Mobile Bay, the Spaniards came to a great Indian village. T^xpecting them, the Indians had gathered thousands of armed men at that place. De Soto attacked the Indians and overcame them, The Marches of Coronado and De Soto. but during the fight most of the Spanish baggage was destroyed by fire. 15. De Soto crosses the Mississippi River. — After this disaster, De Soto marched to the Mississippi (Mis'Ts-ip'i),! which the Spaniards crossed in the vicinity of the present city of Memphis (Mem'fis), Tennessee. On the western side of the river, they marched over a large part of the state of Arkansas, and later went even as far as western Texas. While they were in Arkansas, De Soto died. His men were afraid to let the natives know of their leader's death for fear of being attacked. In the dead of night they carried De Soto's body out to the middle of the Mississippi and sunk it in the midst of the waters. All 1 This great river had already been seen by at least two parties of Spaniards; but its discovery is fijmetimes associated with the name of De Soto. l6 DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATION [1540 this they did as silently and quietly as they could. The Indians, nevertheless, missed the leader. Asking where he was, they were told that he had gone to Heaven on a visit and would soon return. The remnant of De Soto's band reached the settlements in Mexico which the Spaniards had conquered a few years earlier. 16. Story of the Seven Cities. — For centuries, the Spaniards and other people of western Europe had an idea that out in the Atlantic, somewhere, were Seven Cities in which lived rich people who had great quantities of gold and precious stones. Columbus and other seamen found island after island, but they never saw the Seven Cities. At length some shipwrecked Spaniards ^ came to the gov- ernor of Mexico with definite information that these cities were not far to the northward of the Spanish settlements in Mexico. He sent a scouting party to prove this report. The leader returning stated that the story was true, that he had seen one of the cities in the distance and that it looked larger than the capital city of Mexico. 17. Coronado finds the Pueblos, 1540. — In 1540, Coro- nado (Ko-ro-nii'do), wearing a splendid suit of gilded armor, appeared before the first of these cities at the head of a great expedition. The inhabitants did not like the looks of these Spaniards and refused to admit them within their walls. After a hard fight the Spaniards were successful and entered the first city, finding it to be an Indian village or pueblo (pweb'lo). These great Indian houses are full of interest for the student of manners and customs, but this one and others that the Spaniards captured were full of disappointment for Coronado and his men. They had ^ These refugees were four in number, one of them being a negro. They had lost their vessels on the coast of Florida, and had gone by water to the shore of Texas in boats which they built, and then overland from that place to the western shore of Mexico. i54o] THE SPANIARDS IN THE UNITED STATES 17 come to find gold and silver; they found wonderful earthen pots and woven cloth. An expedition that was sent off to the west came to a tremendous cut in the earth's surface, fully a mile in depth. At the bottom was what appeared to be a little brook flowing between steep walls ; the Indian guide said that it was really a wide river. This was the Grand Canyon (Kan'yiin) of the Colorado (Kol'o- A Fueblo. ra'do). On the east, another exploring party found great plains where there were no mountains or trees, but there, again, as in the first case, there was no gold. 18. Coronado goes to Kansas. — On the latter expedition, the Spaniards captured a native who looked more like a Turk than he did like an Indian. Not only was he unlike the dwellers of the pueblos, but he had wonderful stories to tell of a great city, far to the north, where there was gold in abundance. Coronado, therefore, took the best of his men and rode northward on horseback. Soon, he came to the immense plains or prairies of the West. These were rolling like the waves of the ocean, and nowhere was there l8 DISCOVKRY AND IvXIM.ORATK )N [1540 any mountiiin or hill to serve as a landmark for a man who might lose his way. On the plains, there were thousands upon thousands of animals that looked like wild cows, except that they were hunchbacked and had wool on their shoulders instead of hair. They were American bison or buffaloes. Near the southern boundary of the state of The Great Plains. Kansas, the Spaniards came to the great city which turned out to be a village of the Indians of the prairies. These natives were red in color, like the other Indians, but they dwelt in tents made of buffalo skins instead of in hou.ses of stone, like those of the pueblos. Again, there was no gold or silver. This last disappointment was too much for the explorers. They strangled the Turk and made the best of their way back to the homes that they had left in Mexico. In 1550, there was not a Spaniard left within the limits of the United States on the continent.^ 19. Summary. — De Leon gave Florida its name ; l)e Soto marched over the country which now comprises ^ The Spaniards fi)uiul «j[rcat (luanlities of gold and silver in Peru and Mexico. 1497] ENGLISH EXPLORERS 19 the Southern States ; and Coronado explored the South- west. The Spaniards did not value this land because they found neither gold nor silver in it. There were no Spanish settlements within the continental limits of the United States in 1550. Later (1565) St. Augustine was founded; it is the oldest town in North America (§ 26). ENGLISH EXPLORERS 20. John Cabot finds North America for England, 1497. — Like Columbus and Americus, John Cabot was an Italian, but unHke them he sailed in the service of the king of England instead of that of the monarchs of Spain. In the year 1497, he sailed from Bristol, England, in a small ship. Passing to the south of Ireland, he crossed the North Atlantic and in about four weeks anchored his ship off the coast of Asia; at least, so he said on his return to England. In reality, he landed on the shore of North America, somewhere to the northward of the city of Hali- fax in Nova Scotia. He met with no inhabitants, but he found certain tools that could have been used only by men. The next year he again sailed from Bristol, but we know nothing about his further doings. The Cabot explorations are important because it was upon them about one hun- dred years later that Queen Elizabeth based her right to send settlers to North America.^ 21. Sir Francis Drake. — In the time of Queen Eliza- beth ( 1 558-1603), P2ng]ish navigators began to take an interest in making voyages away from the coast of the British Islands. Of these seamen the greatest was Sir Francis Drake.^ Landing at a Spanish settlement, he 1 John Cabot's son, Sebastian, later entered the Spanish service and be- came a famous man. It is supposed that he sailed on this voyage with his father. 2 Hawkins and Drake and other English seamen carried specimens of the potato plant ♦o England. It had first been introduced into Europe from 20 DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATION [i57« would station his men at the gates and then invite the governor, or mayor, to pay down a handsome sum. If there was any trouble about this, Drake would capture the town and take away everything of value. After he and other English seamen had done this for some years, the Spaniards fortified their seaports so strongly that it was no longer easy to capture them. Drake then thought of sailing through Magellan Strait into the Pacific and plun- dering the Spanish towns on the western or Pacific coast, where no one would be on the lookout for him. Gaining the Pacific without any one suspect- ing it, he suddenly ap- j)eared off one of the principal towns of Peru ( 1 578). Going ashore, he and his crew found a man lying fast asleep and be- side him were several bars of silver. ** We took the silver, and left the man," so they said. Proceeding up the coast, Drake came across a great treasure ship laden with silver. She, too, proved an easy prey to the luiglishmen. With his vessel thus freighted with more gold and silver than any Englishman had ever seen at one time before, Drake sailed northward. America by the Spaniards in Columhus's lifetime. It did not become a com- mon article of food in English countries until the period of the American Revolution. Sir Francis Drake. 1588] ENGLISH EXPLORERS 21 Near the entrance of San Francisco Bay he landed, un- loaded his ship, cleaned her and repaired her rigging. While he was thus engaged, the natives of that region visited him and hailed him as their chief. In return, he took possession of the country for I^ngland, naming it New Albion, since luigland was sometimes called Albion on account of the white cliffs that bordered portions of her shores. Steering westwardly from New Albion, Drake crossed the Pacific and the Indian Ocean and ranged up the African coast, reaching England in safety, — the first commander to take his ship around the world. This ex- ploit found favor in Queen Elizabeth's eyes ; she knighted Drake on the quarter-deck of his ship and took part of the plunder as the price of her protection. 22. Sir Walter Raleigh and Virginia. ■ — One of the most famous men in P21izabeth's court was Sir Walter Raleigh (Raw'li).i Like Drake and so many other adventurous men, he was a native of the County of Devon. He was high in P^hzabeth's favor. She gave him very many valu- able things, — money and great estates, and all of Virginia, as the English called the land which they claimed on the Atlantic seaboard of North America. This had been ex- plored by men whom Raleigh had sent out. She not only gave him this land to trade in and settle, but authorized him to govern any Englishmen who might come to Virginia. Several attempts were made to plant colonies there, but they all failed, because the arrival of the great fleet from Spain for the conquest of England made it impossible to send supplies to the settlers or to spare men to protect them from the Indians. 23. The Spanish Armada. — Philip II, king of Spain, was greatly annoyed by the doings of Drake and the other 1 lie signed his name Ralegh not Raleigh. In 1792 the name Raleigh was given to tiie capital of North Carolina. 22 DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATION [1524 seamen of England, and also by these expeditions to North America, for he asserted that Englishmen had no right to go to that region. As Elizabeth paid very little attention to the complaints of his ambassador, the Spanish king decided to fit out a great fleet, or " armada " as the word is in Spanish, and send it to sink the fleets of England and conquer her land forces. Drake and the English sea- dogs met the Armada soon after it entered the Channel. Drake's ship was the Revenge^ one of the most famous vessels that ever sailed the seas. Years after, when com- manded by Sir Richard Grenville, single-handed, she fought a Spanish fleet of fifty-three. Now, she led in the attack on the Armada, sending one Spanish ship after another to the bottom or captive to England. The roar of the EngHsh guns and the skill of the seamen frightened the Spaniards so thoroughly that they have never recovered from the shock. After this crushing blow, English vessels carrying colonists could safely sail through the Spanish Indies and land their passengers on the shores of North America. 24. Summary. — John Cabot found North America. Drake and the English seamen in Queen Elizabeth's reign plundered the Spanish settlements in America. Drake visited California and sailed around the world. Sir Walter Raleigh tried to plant English colonies in North America. The Spanish king sent a great expedition to conquer Eng- land ; it was beaten off and the seas were made safer for English seamen and colonists. FRENCH EXPLORERS 25. Verrazano and Cartier visit America. — Spaniards and Englishmen were not the only Europeans to interest themselves in America. In 1524, Francis I, king of T564] FRENCH EXPLORERS 23 France, sent an Italian seaman, Vcrrazano (Ver-ra-tsa'no) by name, to explore the shores of North America. He sailed along the coast from Chesapeake Bay to the Bay of Fundy. On his way, he entered lower New York Harbor, but did not sail up to the mouth of Hudson River. Ten years later (1534), Cartier (Kar'tya'), a Frenchman born and bred, reached the American coast near where Johir Cabot had seen it many years before. Cartier sailed into the Gulf of St. Lawrence and saw the entrance of a strait which he certainly thought would lead to China. The next year he sailed through the strait and entered the St. Lawrence River. Leaving his vessel near a mighty cliff, which the Indians called Quebec (Kwg-bek'), he went up the river in a rowboat until he came to the rapids at Montreal. These barred further progress to China and were later called the Lachine (La-sheen') Rapids (the China Rapids) for that reason. 26. The French in Florida. — For years after Cartier's fail- ure to find a waterway to China through North America, French- men gave Httle heed to that region. In 1564, a band of Frenchmen made a settlement on the banks of the St. John's River in Florida, calling their post Fort Caroline. The Span- iards resented this because their vessels returning home laden with the silver of Mexico passed along the Florida coast and they did not want Frenchmen to be near. They sent over an expedition commanded by Melendez, or Menendez (Ma-ncn'deth). He killed most of the Frenchmen, drove the others away, 24 ])IS('()Vi:ry and icxim.oration [1565 and founded tlic town of St. Augustine (1565). It is still in existence and is the oldest town in the United States or in any part of Noitii America, north of Mexico. 27. The founding of Acadia and New France. Nearly fifty years now passed away before the r^rench made another attem])t to settle in North America. In 1604, Champlain ^ and a hand of colonists settled on an island not far lioni the |)resent town of Eastport in the state of Maine. They did not like this situation very well, so the next year they moved across the Ikiy of Fundy and founded the town of Port Royal (1605). It is now called Annapolis and is the oldest town in North America north of St. Aui;iistine. The country round about Port Royal they named Acadia. ('ham])lain soon returned to France, but in l6()arate iVom the stale church in JMi^laiui. Fhey were ])ersecuted by the govern- ment as much as were the Catholics. They went hrst to Holland, where' the Dutch sheltered them. In 1620, some of them determined to make anothei" remoxal. Their in- tention was to settle withi!i the limits of Virginia. They ' This laiul \\;\s really a part of the lirst great Virginia grant. New Kng- laihl, as il is to ilav, is only a small j)art of what was lirst called New iMigland. 'The bomularifs were constantly being changed, just as, later, the Northwest Territiiry (§ 207) was divided into live states. - The word " rilgrim" means wanderer. We eall thcin pilgrims because some of tluin made two pilgrimages — lirst to Holland, and tlien to America. Like the settlers at Uoston and SaUni, they weri' Puritans, but were not o( precisely the same way of religit)us thinking as the settlers of Uoston. 'MNe^Engla ' iiioit rtn.ir^u/iiliU j>am mm namiti . 'rd I ' ^U fflrJIIIi-f liAlJhcwlhy tacr.lmtthoji "*"' ''JUatfhtw thy GrtUe, .md fflory. inqUur hn ' J ny f till (.-I'lji^viirriri utia ^t^^vi^- ^^v Of Sahaaet.nimli. Cn^tllued ky ifie^.^^ Afjijhw thy Sj>,nt.aiui tr it Gloq^ (WytC, Sit,ilt0U an l\ral?f. witliouc.lut, ^oltXf. Within ^ffo,iii. i\ra/?t /it'o pft SilUtlu <- icia te btarc) ^•^Ijw: thy/'ame.n' nuiU-Btap'c Steele cu^wcMt, r"TklHtM Afl, art V,rlui, . SviAHnmptxn A» us^ ■ Cai4. John .':mith'3 M.-ip of M';w h.ri>;land. 43 .> 44 PLANTING OF A NATION IN THE NEW WORLD [1620 ^ 8 ^L/V«HS«8t-ANB -^^ SfiVrr"'-^ ^v^j^T I \///\ m '*'■* ■rii ^ mx-y^^«^.-^s^A 1 W #« left England in the Mayflower in the summer of the same year. They sailed directly across the Atlantic, and reached the New England coast in November, 1620, when the cold and stormy northern winter was not far off.^ They tried to sail southward to Virginia, but were driven back, and determined to make their settlement in New England. 48. The Mayflower Com- pact, 1620. — The Virginia Company had given the Pil- grim leaders power to govern their colonists. As they were now outside of Virginia, it was necessary to make other ar- rangements, especially as some of the emigrants said that when they got on shore they would do as they pleased. So the leaders drew up a compact (November, 1620) which obliged every one to obey the will of the majority. This was the famous Mayflower Compact. 49. The Landing of the Pilgrims The Mayflower first anchored in Provincetown Harbor at the end of Cape Cod. There the Pilgrims went ashore. While the women washed the clothes on the beach, the men explored the neighborhood. The soil was very sandy and the place did not seem very suitable for a settlement. So the leading men, with some of the sailors, embarked in a large boat which they had brought with them, and sailed along the shore looking for a more suitable spot. Toward night on the third day after leaving the Mayfloiver, a storm of snow ^ Newport's flagship was named the Susan Constant ; the two vessels that carried the first band of settlers to Maryland were the Ark and the Dove. These with Henry Hudson's ship, the Half-Moon, and the JMayJioiver, are the most famous vessels in our colonial history. \ i62o] NEW ENGLAND 45 and wind burst upon them. Fortunately, one of the sailors who had been on the coast a few years before with Captain John Smith knew the way into a near-by harbor. On Monday, December 21, 1620, they explored the shores of the harbor,! f^und what seemed to be a good place for settle- ment, and then sailed directly back across Massachusetts Bay to the Mayflower, which was still lying safely at anchor in Provincetown Harbor. 50. Death and starvation at Plymouth. — In a few days the Mayflower sailed across the bay and anchored in Plymouth Harbor. Working parties at once went ashore and began to build log-cabins for the settlers. Before they had gojie far in this work, sickness broke out among those on the ship and those on the shore. This was caused by the hardship of their long voyage, the poor food, the cold, and the storms of rain and snow. As one cabin after another was finished, those who were able removed to the shore, but it was March, 162 1, before the last passengers left the ship. In that dreadful time, nearly one-half of the settlers died. Of the eighteen wives and mothers who had graced the Mayflowers decks when she swept into Provincetown Harbor, only four were living when she sailed from Plymouth for England in April, 1621. 51. How the Pilgrims lived.— The survivors of this terrible winter found it no easy matter to keep alive for the next few years. The woods surrounding the settlement abounded in game, and the seas off the shores teemed with fish. Fishing and hunting were quite unknown to the Pilgrims, for they belonged to the English middle class whose members were not then permitted to hunt or to lit was while on this exploring trip that the Pilgrims landed on Plyn.outh rock, so the local tradition says. But it must be remembered hat the May- X:,er with the women and children and most of the men was stdl m Province- town Harbor. 46 PLANTING OF A NATION IN THE NEW WORLD i62i] NEW ENGLAND 47 fish ; these pursuits being reserved for the nobihty and great landowners. Fortunately, in the springtime, an Indian, Samoset, who could speak English appeared at the settlement, and later brought another Indian named Tisquantum. The latter was the sole survivor of the tribe that had once lived at Plymouth, for he had been captured by a slave-trader and taken to England, and thus had escaped dying of the measles or of smallpox, as the rest of his tribesmen had done. He was kind to the Pilgrims, taught them how to catch fish, how to tread the eels out of the mud with their bare feet, how to dig clams on the beach, and how to plant corn in the deserted fields. 52. Progress of the New Plymouth Colony .^ — For fifty years, the Pilgrims had no serious trouble with the Indians. This was partly because they were on good terms with Massasoit, chief of the nearest strong Indian tribe, who felt very grateful to the Plymouth people because one of their number had nursed him back to Hfe when he seemed to be dying.2 It was also owing to the valor, vigor, and good judgment of Miles Standish, their military leader. This soldier not only protected the Pilgrims from Indian attacks, but actually rescued a neighboring settlement of white men from the Indians of that region who had been greatly offended by the thieving of these settlers. 53. The settlement of Massachusetts. — Salem, Boston, and other towns in the Massachusetts Bay Colony were founded by English religious reformers who wished to es- tablish in the New World a religious state in which life and government should be modelled on the laws laid down in 1 Plymouth was the name given to the principal settlement; the colony was called New Plymouth, and included other towns in the neighborhood. In 1686, the king added New Plymouth Colony to Massachusetts (Mas'a-chu'sets). - For an account of this incident, see Channing's First Lessons, p. 49. 48 PLANTING OF A NATION IN THE NEW WORLD [163c the Bible.i The chief man of this new settlement was John Winthrop. He and many of his partners in the en- terprise were men of means and standing in their towns and villages. They got a grant of land from King Charles which they called Massachusetts from the Indian name of the country to the south of Boston Harbor. They collected a fleet of eleven ships and founded the town of Boston and neighboring towns ^ in the summer and autumn of 1630. In 1634, there were already four thou- sand colonists in Massa- chusetts, and, in 1643, this number had in- creased to sixteen thou- sand, so that Massachu- setts then contained more white people than all the other North American colonies put together. 54. Religious troubles. — The project of founding a Bible state proved to be very attractive to a great many persons in England. The trouble was that they were not all of one mind as to what was the best kind of Bible state to found. Winthrop and his followers believed that in such a state, every one should think alike on religious 1 The word " Puritan" is properly applied to all English Protestants who wanted a purer or simpler form of religion at the time of the English colonial settlement in America, The word was used at the time as a nickname. -The Massachusetts people had already established a settlement at Salem to the north of Boston; but the Great Emigration of 1630 was so unlike any other colony founding that we may well date the beginning of Massachusetts from that time. 1635] NEW ENGLAND 49 subjects, or, if they differed, that they should say nothing in opposition to what the government thought was best. They held that every one ought to go to church on Sun- day and go to the church that was provided by the govern- ment. This was the rule in England and in Virginia; the only difference in Massachusetts was that the kind of church was not just like that of either England or Virginia. 55. Roger Williams and Mrs. Hutchinson. — Among those who differed from Winthrop and the government were Roger Williams, a brilliant young Puritan minister, and Mrs. Anne Hutchinson, a gifted woman. Williams thought that the authorities ought not to compel people to attend a particular church or, indeed, to go to any church at all, if they wanted to stay at home. He also declared that the king of England had no right to American land, because it belonged to the Indians. This last idea, had it been maintained, would have destroyed all the rights which Massachusetts, Virginia, and Maryland held under the EngUsh crown. Mrs. Hutchinson thought that God had revealed himself to her in visions, and these revelations were unlike the teachings of most of the ministers. Roger Williams and Mrs. Hutchinson obtained so many converts to their views and became so strong that the authorities felt obliged to interfere. Williams was expelled from the colony, and, a year or so later, Mrs. Hutchinson and many of her followers were also sent away. 56. Northern New England. — Settlements had been made on the coast of Maine, especially on the islands, and the town of Portsmouth, New Hampshire, had been founded before Salem and Boston. When the religious troubles became acute in Massachusetts, other settlers went to these colonies. The eastern settlements were called Maine. Those about Portsmouth and in the Merrimac Valley were named New Hampshire. At a little later time, Massachu- 50 PLANTING OF A NATION IN THE NEW WORLD [1636 setts governed both New Hampshire and Maine ^ and in 1677 bought the latter province of its owners. 57. Rhode Island. — Roger WilHams and Mrs. Hutchin- son, when they were banished from Massachusetts, went southward with their followers. Williams settled the town of Provi- dence, 1636. Two years later (1638), Mrs. Hutchinson and her friends set- tled on the island of Rhode Island. Other settlements were made near by, and these all com- bined to form the colony of Rhode Island and Provi- dence Plantations. In 1663, the colo- nists of this region obtained a charter from Charles II and governed themselves as a separate colony until the American Revolution. From the begin- ning, Providence was perfectly free, religiously, exactly as the United States is to-day. Roger Williams, therefore, is 1 New Hampshire and Maine were proprietary provinces like Maryland ; that is to say, they were owned by one person known as proprietor, and not by a company or group of persons. The owner of New Hampshire was Captain John Mason; of Maine, Sir Ferdinando Gorges (Gor'jez). New Hampshire was taken away from Massachusetts by Charles II and governed as a royal province. Maine remained a part of Massachusetts until 1820, when it became a separate stat*^ 1636] NEW ENGLAND 51 justly regarded as the beginner of one of our most impor- tant principles of government. 58. Connecticut and New Haven. — Connecticut was founded by other emigrants from Massachusetts. They The Journey to Connecticut. were not turned out of the older colony, but left it because they did not Hke the way that things were going on there and also because they expected to find better farming lands in the Connecticut Valley than those of the gravelly hills near Boston. The leader of this migration was Thomas Hooker,, the first minister of the town of Cambridge. They went overland through the forests, driving their cattle before them. They settled Hartford and neighboring towns, 1635-36. Another settlement was made on the shore of Long Island Sound to the westward of the mouth of the Connecticut River by a band of colonists who came out from Eng- 52 PLANTING OF A NATION IN THE NEW WORLD [1662 land and declined to settle in Massachusetts, although the people there would have been very glad to have them do so. They called their town New Haven, because they expected it to become a great commercial port. In 1662, the Connecticut people got a charter from Charles II giving them the right to govern themselves. When this document came to America, it was found that New Haven was in- cluded within the boundaries of Connecticut. The people of New Haven would have preferred to continue as a separate colony ; but after a few years they joined the settlers of the larger colony of Connecticut, partly, perhaps, because they preferred doing that to being annexed to New York. 59. Summary. — Captain John Smith made a map of the New England coast, giving each point a name. The first permanent settlers of New England were the Pilgrims. They came to Plymouth in the Mayfloivei' in 1620. They suffered greatly from sickness and hunger, but made good their foothold on the land. John Winthrop led the Great Emigration of Enghsh Puritans to Boston in 1630, and founded Massachusetts. That colony became very pros- perous. Other New England colonies were Maine, New Hampshire, Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, and Connecticut, including New Haven. Some were settled by persons who were expelled from Massachusetts, others by those who did not hke that colony or wished to live independently. NEW NETHERLAND 60. Henry Hudson and his discoveries. — The Dutch, or the people who lived in Holland, were the most enterpris- ing seamen and traders of the first part of the seventeenth century. The Dutch East India Company had been founded before the English East India Company, and had been very prosperous. Like their English rivals, the i6o9] NEW NETHERLAND 53 Dutch wished to find a sea route to India through North America. In 1609, some of the leading men interested in this company employed Henry Hudson, an Englishman, to discover chis long-looked-for passage. They selected Half-Moon" in the Hudson River. him partly, perhaps, because he was a friend of Captain John Smith's and might have learned something from him as to the whereabouts of the strait. Henry Hudson sailed from Holland in the ship Half -Moon. At first he steered northwardly, hoping to reach India by the Arctic seas, but his progress being stopped by ice, he turned southwest- 54 PLANTING OF A NATION IN THE NEW WORLD [1609 wardly and reached North America off the coast of Maine. He then continued his southern course, until he came to the vicinity of Delaware Bay. There he turned northward and soon entered the lower New York Harbor which Ver- razano had visited many years before (§ 25). Instead of being content with the explora- tion of the harbor, he steered the HaIf-Moo7i northward into the river that still bears his name (1609).^ Proceeding up this stream, he felt sure that he had found the strait that so many men had looked for in vain. The tide ebbed and flowed as it would in a regular strait, and any moment the Ha/f-HIoon might sail around a great cliff and out into the Pacific ! As it happened, however, the tide ceased to ebb and flow, the water became fresh and too shallow for the Half-Mooii to go any farther. The strait was only a river after all. Hudson was disappointed, but at all events the '' Great River of the Mountains " which he had explored was a noble stream. He never went back to Holland because, putting into an EngHsh port with the Half-Moon, he was detained by the author- ities, although the ship was allowed to proceed without him. The next year, 16 10, some English merchants sent him to look for the strait farther north. He entered Hudson Strait, sailed around Hudson Bay, and then his men set him adrift in a small boat, because he refused to return to England before his search was done — and he was never heard from again. 1 The New Netherlanders always called it the North River. After the English conquest of New Netherland it came to be known as the Hudson. i62i] NEW NETHERLAND 55 61. The founding of New Netherland. — For some years after the return of the Half-Moon, Dutch merchants took sHght interest in the Great River of the Mountains, but slowly fur-traders began to gather at Manhattan Island at the mouth of the Hudson. One of these fur-traders, Adriaen Block by name, built a little vessel at the settle- ment and set forth on an exploring trip to the eastward. He sailed as far as Boston Harbor, and Block Island, off Narragansett Bay, still retains his name. As the years went by, the fur trade of the Hudson River became more and more valuable, and more and more Dutch merchants became interested in it. Finally, about 1621, they deter- mined to found a colony in that region, whose inhabitants would be more permanent than the shifting population of the trading stations. The name of the colony was New Netherland. The name of the Dutchman's home country was the United Provinces of the Netherlands, so that this name of New Netherland ^ was for that of the mother land as were those of New England and New France. 62. Progress of New Netherland. — One of the means adopted by the Dutch rulers of New Netherland to attract settlers was to give great tracts of land to the first rich men who would send over bands of settlers. The most famous of these great proprietors, or patroons, was Van Rensselaer (Van Ren'se-ler), a diamond merchant of Amsterdam and a director in the West India Company. His agents took possession of the land around the trading post at Albany. The company had reserved Manhattan Island for itself or Van Rensselaer would probably have seized upon that. 1 Netherlands means low lands or countries. Holland and the other United Provinces are, therefore, often referred to as the Low Countries. New Netherland was a part of the enterprises undertaken by the Dutch West India Company, which was established in 162 1, to gather riches from the Atlantic lands as the Dutch East India Company was gaining them from the countries of the Indian Ocean. 56 PLANTING OF A NATION IN THE NEW WORLD [1660 Settlements were made, not only on Manhattan Island and at Albany, but also on the western end of Long Island, on Staten Island, and on the mainland opposite Manhattan. To the town on the southern end of that island they gave the name of New Amsterdam. 63. Governor Peter Stuyvesant. — The most famous gov- ernor of New Netherland and the one to hold that post for the longest time was Peter Stuyvesant (Sti've-sant). He was a soldier who had served in the West Indies in the employ of the West India Company and was transferred to New Nether- land, perhaps, because he had lost a leg in the com- pany's service and might do very well as a governor, although not as a soldier. Coming to New Amsterdam, he found affairs in a very critical condition. The traders there and the other inhabitants were paying very little attention to any of the laws or regulations of the company. Stuyvesant went at the task of reformation so vigorously that he soon brought about order in the town, but his regulations interfered with the commerce of the place. Meantime, English settlers had come over to the eastern end of Long Island and had founded towns there. Then, too, many of the colonists, who left New England for one reason or another, came to New Amsterdam and to other Dutch towns. The English disliked seeing this Dutch settlement grow up between Virginia and New England. In time, Peter Stuyvesant. i66o] THE COLONISTS IN 1660 57 when the EngHsh and the Dutch came to blows in Europe, OUver Cromwell sent an expedition out to conquer New Netherland. The fleet was on the point of sailing from Boston, where it had stopped for reenforcements, when news arrived of the signing of peace between England and Holland, — and New Netherland was safe for a time. 64. New Sweden. — To the south of New Amsterdam, a new set of colonists had come in. These were the Swedes who founded some settlements on the southern and western side of Delaware Bay calling their colony New Sweden. For a time, Stuyvesant, viewed the growth of this new settlement with alarm, and as soon as he could, he led an expedition from Manhattan Island to the Delaware and conquered the Swedish settlers. 65. Summary. — Henry Hudson discovered the Hudson River for Dutch merchants. Dutch fur-traders made their headquarters at Manhattan Island, and slowly a colony developed. Its name was New Netherland. Its most important governor was Peter Stuyvesant. Swedish colo- nists settled New Sweden on Delaware Bay, but they were conquered by the Dutch and their colony added to New Netherland. THE COLONISTS IN 1660 66. Numbers and settlements. — In 1660, the English and Dutch colonies together contained in all between eighty and ninety thousand inhabitants, or about as many as now Extent of Settlement, 1660. (The settled area is shaded.) 58 i66o] THE COLONISTS IN 1660 59 live in the city of Trenton, New Jersey. These were scat- tered in settlements along the seacoast, from the Kennebec River in Maine to the river James in Virginia. Of these only about seven thousand lived in New Netherland includ- ing the settlements on the Delaware. Apart from the Dutch, the great mass of the colonists were Englishmen or the children of those who had come from England. There were a few French Protestants and a few immigrants from Scotland and Ireland. There were negro slaves, not only in the colonies on the Chesapeake, but also in New Nether- land and in New England. The negroes were so few ir* number in 1660 that they had not yet begun to influence the lives of even the Virginia planters, where they were most numerous. In New England, settlements were made near together and the people lived in towns. In New Netherland, there were several towns, but there were also large farms or plantations. In Virginia and Maryland, plantations were the rule, there being very few towns. 67. Government. — There were many differences be- tween the people of the several sections, but in some ways their governments were quite similar. In every one there was a governor ; in Virginia he was appointed by the king ; in Maryland and New Netherland by the pro- prietor or company in Europe; but the governors of all the New England colonies were chosen by the voters.^ Governor Stuyvesant made laws for the Dutchmen of New Netherland without asking their consent, if he could help it ; in every English colony there was a representa- tive legislative body, something like our state legislatures. These made laws which were usually presented to the gov- 1 Virginia was called a royal province, Maryland a proprietary province, Massachusetts, and later Rhode Island and Connecticut, were chartered colo- nies because they were governed by the voters in accordance with the terms of a charter or grant from the king. 6o PLANTING OF A NATION IN THE NEW WORLD [1660 ernor for his approval. These legislatures, or assemblies, consisted of two Houses.^ In New England, the members of both Houses were chosen by the voters ; in Virginia, the members of the upper House, or Council, were appointed by the king, and in Maryland, by Lord Baltimore, the pro- prietor. In every colony, the right to vote was restricted. Even in Virginia where it was freest, only a small portion of the men voted, because most of the white men were bound to service for a term of years. In Maryland, only landowners could vote ; and in Massachusetts, only those who belonged to the company could vote and no one was admitted to the company unless he were a church member.^ 68. Local government. — In Virginia, the great planters were supreme on their plantations. The colony was divided into counties which were ruled over by the leading men who were selected for this purpose by the governor. In New England, where the people were gathered into towns, all the less important matters were managed in town meet- ing, to which all the men could go, could take part in the discussion, and could vote. 69. Religion. — There were some Roman CathoHcs in Maryland, but otherwise all the colonists were Protestants. They belonged to a great many different Protestant reli- gions. In Virginia they belonged to the English state church which answers somewhat to the Episcopal church of our time. In Massachusetts and Connecticut, likewise, nearly every one belonged to the church which was favored by the authorities. In New Netherland, the Dutch Re- formed church was patronized by Stuyvesant, but so many 1 The upper House was formed by the council sitting as a law-making body; it also sat as a court of law and advised the governor in the performance of his duties. The lower House was elected by the voters for the express pur- pose of making laws and voting money. - This was later changed by order of the king so that men possessing a cer- tain amount of property could vote. i66o] THE COLONISTS IN 1660 61 of the settlers belonged to other faiths that he was obliged to tolerate them. In Maryland, religion was free, so far as Christians were concerned, for the iVEaryland Assembly had passed a law in 1649 forbidding any one to trouble any Christian in the exercise of his or her reHgion, provided that such a Christian believed a certain doctrine.^ In Rhode Island, alone, was religion absolutely free. There a man might belong to any church that he saw fit or might not belong to any church whatsoever, if that seemed to him to be best. 70. The Quakers. — In 1656, or thereabouts, there ap- peared in several of the colonies a new set of religious people who were commonly called Quakers, but who called themselves *' Friends." These people believed in the absolute equality of all men, and wore their hats in courts, even in the presence of the judges. They disapproved of fighting and all kinds of warfare. They also thought that God was still giving his messages to men and women who were willing to listen. The Quaker missionaries who came over to spread these doctrines were not well received. In New Amsterdam, Stuyvesant hung one of them by the thumbs to a beam and otherwise maltreated him. The rulers of Virginia and Massachusetts provided by law that a Quaker who should persist in coming to one of those colonies should be put to death. Four were actually exe- cuted in Massachusetts for this reason. Many more of them were whipped and fined in Virginia and Maryland as well as in New England. 71. Cruel punishments. — Not only did they whip and hang people in the colonies at this time, but they punished them with great cruelty in Europe and England. In every town or county in the colonies there were to be found 1 This was the doctrine of the Trinity. It will be seen from this that Uni- tarians and Jews were not tolerated in Maryland. 62 PLANTING OF A NATION IN THE NEW WORLD [1660 Stocks and pillory. The stock planks together on edge. At stocks. admit the neck and wrists of person who was the second time con- victed of pig-stealing was to stand in the pillory for two hours with his ears nailed to the board and at the end of that time have them cut loose. Those were the days, too, when persons were marked with a red-hot branding- iron indicating the offence for which they were punished, or were obliged to wear some unpleasant object. Old women who scolded too s were made by locking two certain distances holes were made large enough for a man's arms and legs. These stocks were placed in the public square near the court- house or the public building. The pil- lory was a kind of elevated stocks, the holes being large enough to the culprit. In Virginia, a Pillory. as a halter, about the neck, much were fastened into i66ol THE COLONISTS IN 1660 63 a chair on one end of a tilt and ducked in the nearest pond. Altogether the ideas of people in those days were so unlike the ideas that the people of our time have that it is not easy to compare the punishments of colonial days with those of the present time. 72. Summary. — In 1660, the English settlements were scattered along the coast from the Kennebec to the James. In all there were about ninety thousand colonists. Agri- culture was the chief occupation of the people, but some were engaged in commerce. Colonial governments were very similar. Government and religion were closely con- nected except in Maryland and Rhode Island. The Quakers were disliked by nearly all the colonists and cruelly treated everywhere, except in Rhode Island. 64 PLANTING OF A NATION IN THE NEW WORLD TOPICAL ANALYSIS A. I Southern Colonies New Eng- land Middle Colonies Colonists in 1660 Virginia Maryland Naming New Plymouth Massachusetts The Reason for Settl- ing. Virginia Pioneers. Settlement of James- town. Negro Slavery. White Servants. Local Self-govern- ment. Settlement. Industries. Troubles in England. The Mayflower Com- pact. Sufferings. The Way of Living. Progress. I Settlement. I Religious Troubles Maine and New Hampshire. Rhode Island. Connecticjit and New Haven. New Nether land New Sweden. Henry Hudson. I Founding. Progress. [ Gov. Stuyvesant. Number and Settlements. Government. Religion, The Quakers. Cruel Punishtnents. Roger Wil- liams. Mrs. Hutch- Ill GROWTH OF THE COLONIES, 1660-1760 THE SETTLEMENT OF NEW YORK AND NEW JERSEY 73. Charles II and the colonies. — Charles II became king in 1660 and, at once, a new period of activity began in the colonies. He sent out an expedition to conquer New Netherland from the Dutch, and leading men among his courtiers founded colonies in the Carolinas. The com- New Amsterdam. mander of the expedition to conquer New Netherland was Colonel Richard Nicolls. He reached New Amsterdam before Stuyvesant was prepared for his coming. The New Netherlanders had been at work repairing the fort on f 65 66 GROWTH OF THE COLONIES [1664 the southern end of Manhattan Island, but this was only half done when the English vessels appeared. Several days were spent in negotiation about the surrender, when Nicolls became impatient and told Stuyvesant that he would give him forty-eight hours more and then, if his terms were not accepted, he would open fire on the fort. Nicolls also told some of the leading men of New Amster- dam that if the colony was surrendered, they should enjoy favorable terms as EngHsh subjects. Stuyvesant, upon receiving Nicolls's last letter, stamped around the room on his wooden leg, tore the letter into bits, and scattered them over the floor. At the end of forty-eight hours, he was still for holding out and returning the fire of the English ships. He mounted the ramparts of the fort to fire a cannon when two Dutch ministers took him by the arms and led him away. It was in this manner that New Netherland passed into the hands of the Enghsh.^ 74. James, Duke of York and Albany. — The king's •brother was James, Duke of York and Albany, who became king, with the title of James II, on Charles's death. Charles had set about the conquest of New Netherland with a view to giving it to his brother as a great colonial property. So in his honor, the name was changed from New Netherland to New York, while the two principal towns were also named for him New York and Albany. The province which was handed over to James included all the settle- ments in New York and New Jersey, on Delaware Bay and River, and on the islands which He to the south of New England, including Martha's Vineyard and Nantucket. The king gave his brother complete rights of government 1 A few years later, 1673, New Netherland was again in the hands of the Dutch for a few months and was finally surrendered to the English in 1674. This second Dutch period of possession was so brief that we can consider the history of New York as running on continuously from its conquest in 1664. 1683] NEW YORK AND NEW JERSEY 67 over the people living in this great territory, except that any of them who v^ished might appeal to him from the Duke's decisions. James handed this great power over to Colonel Nicolls, who thus became as fully possessed of authority as Peter Stuyvesant had been. The Duke, Nicolls, and later governors made laws for the New Yorkers without asking their consent. They even col- lected money from them by the Duke's orders. In 1680, the people declined to pay these taxes any longer and James was obliged to make some other arrangement. 75. Governor Thomas Dongan. — Governor Dongan^ was an Irishman of noble family, brother of the Earl of Lim- erick, and a man of great capacity. James ordered him to summon a representative assembly chosen by the free- holders in the colony and with them to make such laws as he thought best. The Duke reserved for himself, however, the right to repeal any of these laws at any time. It was in this way that the first representative assembly met in the city of New York in 1683. It passed many laws to make the government more popular than it had hitherto been. 76. Governor Dongan defends the rights of England. — The other important event in Dongan's career as governor of New York was the making a treaty with the Iroquois by which they acknowledged themselves to be subjects of the king of England. This treaty was very distressing to the French, for the Iroquois killed the French Indians and settlers and compelled many tribes living in the interior to sell their furs to them instead of selling them to the French. This stand taken by Dongan in defence of the sovereignty of the English king over the Iroquois and their lands is 1 Dongan's name is sometimes spelled Dungan, Duggan, sometimes even Duncan. It was probably pronounced Dug'-gan. He was appointed by James and arrived in August, 1683, and was governor until 1 688, when New York and New England were united with Sir Edmund Andros as governor. 68 GROWTH OF THE COLONIES [1664 one of the most important things in the colonial history of New York and of the United States. It meant that the rich lands south of the lakes would be possessed and settled by Englishmen and not by Frenchmen. 77. The colonization of New Jersey. — The Stuart princes and kings were exceedingly generous to those of their court- iers who upheld their in- terests. Among those who had been faithful to Charles and James in the long trial of the civil wars were Ber- keley and Carteret (Kar'ter-et). Even be- fore Nicolls had com- pleted the conquest of New Netherland, James gave the lands included in New Jersey to these friends. Prob- ably neither the Duke nor Berkeley nor Car- teret realized that these lands bordered on New York Harbor and that giving away this particular bit of New York was very much against the interest of the Duke. At all events he gave it to them, and they promptly set to work to secure col- onists to make their property valuable. This they pro- posed to do by giving the lands to the colonists for an an- nual payment; but before long, they sold them outright to purchasers. The most famous man among those who bought lands in New Jersey was William Penn who later founded Pennsylvania. He was a Quaker and so were his partners. They first bought the southwestern 1663] THE CAROLINAS 69 part of New Jersey, which was settled almost entirely by people of their religious profession. The greater part of northern and eastern New Jersey was colonized by New Englanders and others who were already living in the col- onies, especially on Long Island. The Jersey colonists were so industrious and saving and so liberal to newcomers that they have always been very prosperous. 78. Summary. — Charles II began a new era of coloni- zation. Under him New Netherland was conquered, the Carolinas and New Jersey were founded. New Nether- land was renamed New York. Governor Dongan of New York cemented the friendship with the Iroquois and main- tained the rights of England against the French. Virginia - The country was very rich THE CAROLINAS 79. The beginning of the Carolinas, south of the settled parts of and fertile in many places and also was easy to get to by water. It was so far to the south of the center of Enghsh colonization that up to 1663 it had attracted little at- tention either in England or in the colonies. Some explorers had come from the is- lands which Eng- lishmen had settled in the West Indies and others had come 70 GROWTH OF THE COLONIES [11669 from New England ; but none of these expeditions had so far resulted in the making of permanent settlements in this region. The first of these, south of the Virginia line,^ was the one made by emigrants from that colony who hoped to get better farming lands there or to escape from the religious restrictions which bore hard on Baptists and Quakers in Virginia. In 1663 and 1665, Charles II gave the great territory between Virginia and Florida and extending from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific to a group of eight proprietors among whom were Berkeley and Carteret, whom we have already met in our study of New Jersey. 80. The settlement of Charleston, South Carolina. — In 1669, three vessels sailed from England for CaroUna^ with ^ ^^*':a^^ View of Charleston. more than one hundred colonists. Their voyage was ex- tremely long and dangerous. Contrary winds kept them in sight of English shores until the passengers had con- sumed all their fresh provisions. Crossing the Atlantic, they followed the extreme southern route from the Canaries 1 This was the beginning of North Carolina; but the two parts of Carolina were not definitely separated until the next century. 2 Carolina from Carolus, the Latin name for Charles. The French named Fort Caroline (1564) in honor of Charles IX of France. The country south of Virginia was called Carolana in 1629 for Charles I of England. The name Carolina was used in 1663, in honor of the second Charles. At first Charles- ton was spelled with a "w," Charlestown; but when it became a city in 1780 the present spelling was adopted. 1690] THE CAROLINAS 7 1 to the English island of Barbadoes. Because of storms and mishaps, the colonists did not see the shore of Carolina until more than half a year had passed away. The first settlement in South Carolina was made in 1670. The spot that was finally determined upon, where the city of Charleston now stands, was one of the most favorable for habitation and commerce on that coast. Between two rivers, the Ashley and the Cooper, the wharves of Charles- ton look right out to the sea, for the harbor^ is not de- fended from the ocean by islands like that of Boston or New York, but by a succession of sand-bars that stretch under the water far out into the sea. 81. The colonists and the proprietors. — Colonists came to both parts of Carolina in considerable numbers. Among them were many French Protestants or Huguenots. The people were industrious and painstaking and they would have been happy and prosperous had it not been for the ill judgment of the proprietors. These only wished to make money out of the enterprise. Whenever the colo- nists seemed to be able to pay a little more in the way of taxes, or rents, or salaries for officials, or higher prices for their lands, the proprietors were very glad and at once proceeded to demand more money from them. The colo- nists, on their part, paid very little attention to the pro- prietors' desires and demands and rebelled against them every few years. As time went on, besides these troubles over money and lands, the settlers of southern Carolina and the proprietors became involved in a religious dispute. 1 On the northern side of this harbor is one of the most famous islands in American history. It is named Sullivan's Island from Florence O'Sullivan, the surveyor of the colony, who came out on the first voyage. It was on the western end of this island that Fort Moultrie (Moo'tri) was built in the Rev- olutionary War. Almost directly opposite, on a shoal spot in the middle of the harbor, Fort Sumter was built by the United States government and was as famous in the War for Secession as Fort Moultrie was in the War for Independence. 72 GROWTH OF THE COLONIES [1703 The greater part of the colonists did not belong to the English state church of which most of the proprietors and their governor at Charleston were members. The gov- ernor succeeded in getting laws passed forcing the colo- nists to support and attend the Established Church under penalty of losing their votes for members of the assembly. The people appealed to Queen Anne. The result was that another law was made which compelled all people to pay for the established reHgion, but did not take away the vote from those who stayed away from the state services. 82. Indian troubles in Carolina. — Besides all these con- flicts with the proprietors, the people of Carolina were attacked by the natives from within and by pirates from without. In North Carolina, there was a fierce Indian tribe, the Tuscaroras (Tiis'ka-ro'raz), which w\as closely related by blood to the Five Nations of the Iroquois. These Indians attacked the North Carolina settlers again and again. The people in the southern colony sent ex- peditions to their assistance and finally drove the Tus- caroras away. These then went northwestwardly and joined the League of the Iroquois which thereafter was called the Six Nations instead of the Five Nations. In southern Carolina, the Yamassee Indians disHked the colo- nists fully as much as did the Tuscaroras in the north. The Yamassees were finally subdued, but not until many white people had been killed and much money had been paid for arms and ammunition and for the hire and food of soldiers. 83. The Pirates. — While these things were going on on land, the pirates were equally active on the water. Some- times whole fleets of piratical vessels would anchor off Charleston Harbor and capture every ship bound into that port, almost in plain view of the citizens. The most re- markable of these pirates was Blackbeard, who was so called because of his long black beard. He was extremely 1719I THE CAROLINAS 73 bloodthirsty and cruel, and delighted in torturing people. On one occasion, when in want of medicine for his crew, he anchored off Charleston Harbor and sent a boat up to the city with a demand for the things that he needed. Lest the inhabitants should think that this was a good oppor- tunity to get possession of a boat-load of pirates, they were further informed that Blackbeard had recently captured some of the leading men of that city who were then on his vessel and would surely be* hanged if his boat and crew did not return. It is needless to say that the boat returned in safety. The people of Charleston destroyed several piratical fleets, but there seemed to be no end to them. Besides the Indians and the pirates, the Spaniards and the Frenchmen attacked the southern Carolinians or put them in constant danger. All this time the proprietors did nothing to help their colonists ; on the contrary, when they had driven the Yamassee Indians from their lands, the proprietors ordered the governor to take possession of the conquered territory and hold it for them. 84. The king takes the Carolinas. — In 1719, when George I was king, the colonists appealed to him to take them under his protection and rule them as one or two royal provinces. This he did, and appointed governors, one for South Carolina, and another for North Carolina, and got Parliament to provide money to pay the pro- prietors for whatever rights they still possessed. This arrangement was made in 1728 and after that time it is right to speak of North Carolina and South Carolina as two separate colonies. 85. The colony of Georgia. — James Edward Oglethorpe ^ 1 James Edward Oglethorpe was born in London in 1696. He obtained a commission in the British army when only fourteen years old. The founding of Georgia was his greatest enterprise, but he also began the reform of prison management because he was distressed by what he saw one day while visiting the prisons. He lived to be nearly ninety years of age, and was so 74 GROWTH OF THE COLONIES [1733 (O'g'l-thorp), an English general, became greatly inter- ested in the welfare of Englishmen who could not pay their debts. He obtained a charter from King George II, giving him and other good people a piece of South Carolina. He named his proposed colony Georgia, and gathered a band of poor debtors and others and sent them over. The first settlement was made at Savannah (Sa- van'a) on the river of that name in 1733. The Spaniards thought that this new settlement was altogether too near St. Augustine. Oglethorpe spent much of his time in warring with the Spaniards. Georgia grew very slowly, and it was not until after the American Revolution that it became very important. 86. Summary. — The Carolinas were settled by people from the Northern colonies and from England by way of the West Indies. The former settlements became North Carolina, the latter South Carolina. Charleston was the most important southern town. The proprietors of Caro- lina and the colonists constantly disagreed. Finally, the settlers asked the English king to govern them as a royal province, which he did. In 1733, Oglethorpe led the first settlers to Georgia. PENNSYLVANIA, 1681 87. William Penn. — One of the greatest Englishmen of the day was William Penn.^ He was a follower of venerable in appearance in his last years that most people thought that he was even one hundred and four years of age when he died in 1785 in Eng- land. 1 William Penn was born in London in 1644 and died in the debtors' prison in London in 1718. He was converted to Quakerism while a student at Oxford. He left the Quakers to please his father, but one day, in a little village in Ireland, heard the same Quaker preacher who had converted him at Oxford. For the rest of his life William Penn was a Quaker. He was a friend of Charles H and James H, and was thus able to do a great deal for the Quakers and also to get great grants of land in America for himself. He i682] PENNSYLVANIA, 1681 75 George Fox, the founder of the Society of Friends (§ 70), and a companion of the royal brothers, Charles and James. He was the son of the famous admiral of the same name, and became a Quaker much against his father's wish. The colony of New Jersey, where there were so many different kinds of settlers and whose government was so doubtful, did not entirely suit the designs of the younger Penn. He wished to found a colony where the Quakers would be supreme and where religion would be entirely free to all Christians. King Charles fell in with this idea and gave him a tract of land which the king called Penn- sylvania, or Penn's Woods, in memory of the gallant admiral. On his part, James added the settlements on the southern side of Delaware Bay below the Pennsylvania line which had come to him as part of the conquered New Netherland. William Penn drew up an elaborate consti- tution for his great domain, in which he proposed to give his colonists self-government, retaining only enough power for himself to protect his interests in the lands and to carry out the terms of the charter of Pennsylvania. William Penn's name and liberality were known to people all over the British Isles and the countries of western Europe. When he printed and distributed his proposals for colonization, settlers at once flocked to the Delaware (1682). They came over in such numbers that within ten years of its founding Pennsylvania was a strong and prosperous colony. 88. Penn and the Indians. — One thing that helped the early prosperity of Pennsylvania was the fact that for inherited a good deal of money from his father, but lost it through employing a rascally agent, and passed the last years of his life in poverty. He was on the point of signing the paper for the sale of Pennsylvania to Queen Anne, when a stroke of apoplexy put an end to his active life. His sons deserted the Society of Friends. They retained Pennsylvania, which in time yielded them a good income. 76 GROWTH OF THE COLONIES [1683 many years the colonists had no trouble with the natives. The first Dutch colonists in Delaware had been murdered to a man by the Indians, but the later Swedish, Dutch, and EngHsh settlers had lived on very good terms with the Red Men. When Penn acquired the province, he wrote a letter to the sachems assuring them that he in- tended to be fair and liberal in his dealings with the natives of the country. He and the Quakers made every effort to carry out this promise. They forbade trading with the natives in secret, prohibited supplying them with strong drink, and tried to be fair in all their dealings with them about lands. Soon after his arrival, Penn made many treaties with them.^ The Indians had very indis- tinct ideas as to lands and their rights to them. Roger WilHams had already found this out in Rhode Island. Penn found it difficult to buy outright a given piece of land. Instead, the Indians preferred to give him rights to some vaguely described region, extending, let us say, from the Delaware westward as far as a man could ride on a stout horse in two days, or as far as one could walk in four days. One of the most famous of Penn's treaties with the Indians, of which he made a dozen or so, was that of the Walking Purchase. This tract extended as far westward as one could walk in four days. The first two days were walked in a leisurely manner by Penn and his white and red companions. The last two days were walked in quite another fashion. This time, in order to gain all the land possible, the way was laid out in advance and contests were held to select the fastest pedestrians. These held a sort of relay race in which they covered 1 One of Penn's treaties is said to have been made under a large tree at Shackamaxon. Benjamin West, the painter, a hundred years later, made a celebrated picture of this scene. The tree is no longer standing, but West's picture, although inaccurate in detail, typifies the desire of Penn and his friends for fair dealing with the Indians. 77 yS GROWTH OF THE COLONIES [1682 ninety-six miles in forty-eight hours through the wilder- ness. They went faster than the Indians could, and these complained of the way in which the thing was done. From this time on, the Pennsylvanians had constant trouble with the natives, but this was certain to come whenever the Indians became restricted as to land.^ 89. The founding of Philadelphia. — Boston, New York, and Charleston grew up naturally, as need required ; Phila- delphia was founded according to a plan which William Penn drew up in England before his departure for America. He came to the colony in 1682 in the ship \]\'Ico}}u\ Not long after his arrival, he went to the chosen site,^ and there, with the aid of his companions, began the laying out of the city. He determined to have the streets run like the lines on a checker-board, some of them being parallel to the Delaware, the others running at right angles to these. To the former set of streets he gave the names of First, Second, Third, and so on ; the latter he called by the name of trees. Spruce, Pine, Chestnut, etc. He left a broad space along the river bank for common use, and at the meetings of the principal streets he proposed to leave large squares to serve as recreation grounds for the inhabitants. Penn's plans were closely followed, except that some of the free spaces have been built over or made smaller. Settlers flocked to Philadelphia. While building their houses, many of them lived in caves which they dug out of the river's bank. Even after the houses were built, 1 The natives had no idea of buying and selling land, but thought they were simply giving the whites the right to hunt or plant corn on it for a few years. With them the land belonged to the tribe and could not be given up by one of the chieftains. On his part Penn thought that he was actually buying the territory. ^ He had already instructed his agent in Pennsylvania to pick out a site for his capital city. He told him to find some spot where the river was deep on the western bank, and, if possible, near the mouth of a navigable stream flow- ing from the west. The site selected just titted these two requirements. i7oi] PENNSYLVANIA, 1681 79 many persons continued to live in these caves. Penn's design for a city has been widely followed in our country ; but Philadelphia is one of the very few great cities which has grown up according to the first design. At first Philadelphia occupied the space between the Delaware and the Schuylkill (Skool'kil), which came into it from the west.^ It was soon found necessary, however, to extend beyond the Schuylkill and, indeed, to found other towns in the neighborhood. One of these was settled by Germans, and is still known as Germantown. 90. Quaker experiments in government. — It must not be supposed that Penn's schemes all worked out as well as did his plan of Philadelphia. On the contrary, he soon got into serious difficulties with his colonists. At the out- set, they had agreed to pay him rents for the lands which they got from him. At the time of the founding of the colony, Penn was a rich man. Not long afterwards, he lost his money and became heavily burdened with debts. Probably, at first, both he and his colonists had expected the government to be carried on without any further taxes. When Penn found himself in difficulties for money, he looked to his colonists to help him out, or, at any rate, to pay for their government. There were other causes of disagreement, and the result was that Penn thought the settlers were very ungrateful for what he had done for them. 91. The Charter of Privileges of 1701. — Penn stayed in the colony for only a short time, being compelled to go back to England to look after his affairs there. In 1699, he again visited Pennsylvania and fully expected to spend a long time there, but was again compelled to return to Eng- land to defend himself and his colonists from those who ^ Higher up the Schuylkill on the edge of the hills is Valley Forge, which is so memorable in our Revolutionary history. 8o GROWTH OF THE COLONIES [1701 were hostile to them. Before leaving, he was anxious to place the government on a footing that would be fair to himself and his children on the one side, and to the colo- nists on the other. After talking the matter over with the members of the assembly for some time, they drew up a written constitution which is called the Charter of Privileges. It is a great law, because it served as a guide for the Penns and for their colonists for three-quarters of a century until 1776, when the people of the free and sovereign state of Pennsylvania adopted a state constitution. In this Charter of Privileges, provision was made for the annual election of a legislature or assembly of one house. This body was to make all the laws which must be agreed to by Penn's repre- sentative, the governor. No law could be made, however, to take away from any one liberty of conscience in religious matters. There were many other provisions. The most notable is one stating the mode by which this constitu- tion could be altered or amended. ^ . This last is important, because it was the first time that any such provision was put into a written constitution. William Penn and his colo- nists may be looked upon as having discovered one of the great principles of our government. 92. The Colony of Delaware. — One of the things that made it very difficult for Penn and his colonists to reach any agreement was the fact that some of them Hved in Pennsylvania, which had been given to him by Charles II, and the others lived in Delaware,^ which had come to him from Charles's brother James. The people of the latter colony were afraid that they would be greatly outnumbered by the Pennsylvanians and that, therefore, their interests 1 This provided that the constitution could be amended by vote of six- sevenths of the members of the assembly with the consent of the governor. - These colonists were Swedes and Dutch, together with a few English settlers (see § 64). 1706] PENNSYLVANIA, 1681 81 would be overlooked. They wanted to be independent of the latter, and no agreement as to government could be reached until Penn consented that they should have an assembly of their own. It was in this way that Delaware became a separate colony, but she had the same governor as Pennsylvania down to the Revolution, when she, too, formed a constitution and set up a government of her own as an independent state. 93. Mason and Dixon's Line. — There was so much land in America that one would think there was abundant room Mason and Dixon's Line. for all the colonists without their having disputes as to boundaries, but this was not at all the case. Massachusetts and Connecticut had long discussions as to the boundary between them, and they both opposed the claims of the New Yorkers. The most famous of all the colonial boundary controversies was that over the line between Pennsylvania and Maryland and between Delaware and Maryland. For years William Penn and Lord Baltimore quarrelled over this matter, and then it was taken into the courts in England, 82 GROWTH OF THE COLONIES [1760 where it stayed for fifty years or so. Finally, in the mid- dle of the eighteenth century, an agreement was reached a^d two surveyors were sent out from England to mark the line on the spot. Their names were Mason and Dixon, so that the line to-day is known as Mason and Dixon's line. It is the southern boundary of Pennsylvania and is par- ticularly memorable because for a long time it marked off the slave states of the South from the free states of the North. The drawing of this line was very unfavorable to Maryland, because it took away from her a strip of land about eighteen or nineteen miles-wide, extending along her whole northern boundary. Looking at the map, any one can see how great this loss was for Maryland, especially since the Potomac River, which was the southern boundary of that colony, approaches this line so nearly that Mary- land is almost divided into two parts. 94. Summary. — William Penn, the Quaker, founded Pennsylvania. He treated the natives with great hu- manity, but after his death there were Indian troubles in Pennsylvania as in other colonies. Penn planned the city of Philadelphia before he left England, and it has devel- oped almost exactly as he wished. Penn's schemes of gov- ernment did not work well in practice. In i/Oi, he and the Pennsylvanians framed a constitution called the Char- ter of Privileges, under which Pennsylvania was governed up to the time of the American Revolution. In 1701, the settlers in Delaware were allowed to have an assembly of their own, and soon after separated from Pennsylvania. Mason and Dixon's line, marking the boundary between Pennsylvania and Maryland, is the most famous boundary line in the United States. GROWTH OF THE COLONIES 83 TOPICAL ANALYSIS New York Charles II and the Colonies. James, Duke of York and Albany. Governor Thomas Dongan. New Jersey Colonization. The Caro- LINAS Georgia Pennsyl- vania Delaware Under the Pro- prietors A Royal Prov- ince The Beginning of the Carolinas. Settlement of Charles- ton. The Colonists and the Proprietors. Indian Troubles The Pirates. North Carolina. South Carolina. The Tusca- roras. The Yamas- sees. James E. Oglethorpe. William Penn. • Penn and the Indians. Founding of Philadelphia. Quaker Experime7its in Government. Charter of Privileges of lyoi. Mason and Dixon's Line IV THE FRENCH IN AMERICA NEW FRANCE^ AND LOUISIANA 95. Champlain's explorations. — After founding Quebec (§ 27), Champlain explored the interior. In 1609, he went on an exploring expedition with a party of Indians from the St. Lawrence Valley, and dis- covered the lake that still bears his name. There, he attacked a band of Mohawk Indians of the Iroquois tribes and drove them away. Four years later, he again accompanied a war party of the northern Indians to attack the Iroquois. It was at this time that he saw Lake Huron and Lake On- tario. The Iroquois castle tUat he and the Indians assaulted proved to be one of the strongest of its kind. Champlain, seeing that his allies would never be able to capture it in the Indian fashion, set the men to work to build a wooden tower from the top of which he and his Frenchmen could fire over the castle walls, or pahsade. This took only a few hours to make ; when it was done, two hundred warriors dragged it into position. Other Indians constructed huge wooden shields under and behind which they could advance to set 1 New France was the name given to the Canadian region. 84 1671] NEW FRANCE AND LOUISIANA 85 fire to the enemies' wooden defences without being ex- posed to the arrows and stones from the fort. All Cham- plain's efforts were in vain, because the natives were ill- trained and unwilling to do things in any other than regular Indian fashion. Champlain himself was wounded. The Indians bundled him into a big basket, and thus bore him away from the scene of the battle to the lakes. He made no other discoveries, but for the rest of his life at- tended to the business of fur trader. He occupied his leisure moments in writing accounts of his adventures, which he illustrated with rude, but wonderful, drawings. One of these is given in § 32 and shows the strength and vigor with which Champlain could attack an Indian castle and afterward draw a picture of it. 96. The French on the Great Lakes. — With the French explorer always went a missionary and a trader, or, if they did not actually accompany the explorer, they followed close behind him. Before long the Jesuit missionaries to the Hurons had converted the tribes living in the triangular space formed by Lake Huron on the west, and Erie and Ontario on the south and east. Then the Iroquois came across the lakes, burned the villages, killed the Red Men and some of the missionaries, and drove the rest back to Montreal and Quebec. Farther west and north, the pros- pect seemed better, because there the Iroquois would be farther off. As years went by, the mission station at Sault Ste. Marie (Soo^ Sent Ma'ri), at the outlet of Lake Superior, became the centre of French influence in the upper lake region. In 1671, an agent of the king of France appeared at this place and took possession for his royal master of all the lakes and regions round about, stretching way to the sea on the north and west. This he did in the presence of his soldiers clad in their gayest uniforms, of Indian traders in forest garb, of missionaries in their priestly robes, and 86 THE FRENCH IN AMERICA [1679 of members of fourteen Indian tribes. He erected a wooden cross and by it a cedar pole to which was affixed a metal plate bearing the arms of the French kings. 97. La Salle on the Great Lakes. — The most famous French explorer to visit the Great Lakes after Champlain was the heroic and unfortunate La Salle. He had an idea of exploring the interior of the continent and of making the fur trade with the natives pay the cost of his explora- tions. His plan was to establish a post above the great falls at Niagara, build saiUng vessels there, and in them carry on his commerce. His first vessel was named the Griffin. In the summer of 1679, he set out in her from the upper end of Niagara River, which was not far from the modern Buffalo, and sailed westwardly along the length of Lake Erie. He then entered the wonderful Detroit River, and with some difficulty passed out of this strait, or river, through Lake St. Claire into Lake Huron. Then, after encountering a severe storm, which nearly sent the Griffin to the bottom, he reached the settlement on Mackinaw Island which had taken the place of the earher station at Sault Ste. Marie as the centre of French influence in that region. From this point. La Salle with the Griffin passed into Lake Michigan, across which he sailed until he came to an advance party that had collected a great quantity of furs. With these he freighted the Griffin and started her back to the station at Niagara, — and she was never heard from again. He himself with a party in canoes followed the western shore of the lakes southward, passing by the entrance of the Chicago River and building a fort at the mouth of the River St. Joseph. 98. La Salle on the Mississippi. — This great river had first been seen by Spaniards in its lower course. Later, the Frenchmen Marquette (Mar'ket') and Joliet (Zho'le-a') had reached its upper waters from Lake Superior. No 1690] NEW FRANCE AND LOUISIANA 87 one knew much about this great river, whether it flowed southeastwardly into Chesapeake Bay, or southwardly into the Gulf of Mexico, or southwestwardly into the Pacific. After Joliet and Marquette, other explorers had navigated the Mississippi as far south as the mouth of the Arkansas.^ La Salle determined to follow it to its ending in the sea, and thus find out what river it really was. In December, 1 68 1, he left the southern end of Lake Michigan on this great search. At first he and his expedition passed over the ice, following the general course of the Illinois (Il-li-noi') River, until the ice gave way to open water, whereon they could launch their canoes. Early in 1682, they reached the Mississippi. It was so full of floating ice that it was hazardous to proceed. They waited, therefore, until it be- came clearer. Then they embarked, and for months paddled and drifted downward, passing the mouths of many rivers, until they came to a place where the Missis- sippi, instead of receiving any more branches, itself divided into several parts. The expedition separated and went down three of these mouths, and all returning reported that they had reached the salt sea. La Salle took posses- sion of the lower Mississippi and all the region stretching from the mouth of the Ohio to the Gulf of Mexico and southwestwardly to the Rio Grande (Rio Gran'da) under the name of Louisiana (Loo'e-ze-a'na). Then they returned to Canada and to France. ^ 99. Founding of Louisiana, 1699. — Among the most famous and energetic of Canadian Frenchmen were Iber- ville (E'ber'veel') and his brother Bienville (Be'an'v^l'). In 1699, they induced Louis XIV, king of France, to send 1 Pronounced as if it were spelled Ar'kan-saw. - In 1684, La Salle led a colony to the coast of Texas. He M'as murdered by one of his own followers, while trying to reach the Mississippi overland. Some of his party returned to Quebec by way of the Mississippi and the Great Lakes; but most of them perished in Texas. 88 THE FRENCH IN AMERICA [1699 them out at the head of an expedition for the purpose of founding a colony at the mouth of the Mississippi River. Iberville was a skilful seaman, and easily found his way through the Gulf of Mexico, but made the first settlement on the shores of Mobile Bay. After exploring the river for some distance, he went back to France, leaving his brother in command in the colony. For years Bienville governed Louisiana, so that his name is more closely connected with the history of that French colony than is that of the more famous Iberville. ^ 100. Progress of Louisiana. — Within a few years the town or city of New Orleans was founded on the Missis- sippi River about one hundred miles from its mouth. Other settlements were made higher up connecting Louisi- ana with the older French colony of New France. In 1745, there were three thousand whites and two thousand negro slaves in Louisiana. New France, or Canada, had also grown very slowly, so that the French colonies, al- though they encircled the EngHsh settlements, were weak so far as numbers were concerned. loi. Summary. — Champlain set out from Quebec, dis- covered Lake Champlain, and won the hatred of the Iroquois by attacking them without reason. The Jesuit missionaries converted the natives of the Great Lakes. La Salle built the Griffin above Niagara Falls and navigated Lake Erie, Lake Huron, and Lake Michigan. In 1682, he explored the Mississippi River to its mouth, and took possession of the neighboring country for France under the name of Louisiana. In 1699, the first permanent set- tlement was made in that French province. 1 These brothers are always called from the names of their estates, Iberville and Bienville, as is the French custom. Really their names were Pierre (Peter), and Jean (John), Le Moyne (Leh-mwan'). Another example of the same custom is the name of La Salle, which properly should be Robert Cavelier (Ka'va'lya'), Sieur or Seigneur de la Salle. 1676] EARLY FRENCH AND INDIAN WARS 89 EARLY FRENCH AND INDIAN WARS 102. Englishmen and the Indians. — English colonists had much trouble with the Indians, except in the case of the Iroquois. The reason for this is to be found in the fact that the English settlements were made compactly for purposes of agriculture. The settlers took away the Ind- ian lands and turned them into farms. All along the Atlantic coast they slowly pushed the natives back from the shore. At the same time the Iroquois, who were then at the height of their power, were constantly attacking the coast tribes, so that these natives were harassed on the east by the whites and on the west by the Iroquois. In their desperation the natives turned on the whites, seeking to drive them into the sea. In this way came about a series of Indian wars. There were terrible massacres in Virginia which almost threatened the very existence of the colony. In Maryland, the Indians attacked the whites so persistently that finally the governor directed the set- tlers to shoot any lurking Indian on sight, unless he bore a white flag. The Dutch had their troubles with the coast tribes, also. This was before Stuyvesant's day. At one time the Indian raids were so fierce that settlers were killed even in the streets of New Amsterdam. In New England, the Connecticut settlers had hardly built their first log huts before they were attacked by the neighbor- ing Pequot tribe. They went to the fight with such good- will that they destroyed the tribe utterly. 103. King Philip^s War. — At first the settlers of New Plymouth Colony and Massachusetts got along well with whatever natives there were in the neighborhood, with some few exceptions. This was because most of the Ind- ians nearest the early settlements had been swept away by disease before the coming of the whites, or had died 90 THE FRENCH IN AMERICA [1675 very soon after that, or had been terrorized by the vigor of Captain Miles Standish. The fair treatment which the governors of those colonies gave to the Indians also had something to do with the half century of peace which they enjoyed. In 1675 and the years just before, a new spirit of unrest possessed the remnants of the coast tribes from Maine to the Carolinas. In Massachusetts and Virginia, they fell upon the whites and were with great difficulty put down. This contest in New England is known as King Philip's War from the name of one of the leading chiefs. The Indians had become dissatisfied with the way the whites treated them and made a desperate attempt to regain their lands. A series of combats followed. Some- times the Indians were successful, but the settlers won finally with the killing of King PhiUp. 104. Bacon's Rebellion in Virginia, 1676. — In Virginia, the Indian troubles led to a white rebellion against the governor, who seemed to be careless about protecting the lives of the settlers. Nathaniel Bacon, Jr., whose planta- tion had been attacked, took matters into his own hands and led a force against the Indians. Bacon drove the savages away and thus did a good service to Virginia ; but the governor was indignant because Bacon did not get a commission from him first. This led to trouble with the governor as well as with the Indians. This uprising is known in Virginia history as Bacon's Rebellion from the name of its leader. 105. The English Revolution of 1688. — In 1688, the English people rebelled against James II. With the help of William, Prince of Orange, who had married James's daughter, they drove him out.^ He took refuge in France, 1 William, Prince of Orange, was the leading man in the Netherlands. His wife's name was Mary, and they ruled jointly as William and Mary. After their deaths, Mary's sister Anne became queen in 1 701. 16S9] EARLY FRENCH AND INDIAN WARS 91 and together he and Louis XIV made war upon England and Holland for the purpose of getting back his throne again. The English colonists in America sympathized with the revolutionists in England. In New England, New York, and Maryland, they rebelled and turned out the agents whom James and Baltimore had appointed. The war between France and England in Europe now extended to their colonies in America. 106. The French and the Indians. — The French had generally got on very well with the Indians, except the Five Nations. For the most part the French were content to leave the Indians in their wilderness homes. The French settlements grew very slowly, so that they did not need to take much of the Indian lands for farming. Then, too, their missionaries were very successful in their efforts. The Iroquois did not like the idea of becoming Christians, but the missionaries gradually collected some of them near Montreal, converted them to Christianity, and turned them into faithful alHes. It was these Indians, under the leadership of Iberville and other daring French- men, who stole through the forests to the south of the settlements in the St. Lawrence Valley and fell upon the frontier villages of New England and New York. 107. The First French and Indian War. — The French and Indian wars lasted with gaps from 1689 to 1763.^ At first the French thought of conquering New York by a great expedition from France. If they could only do that, ^ Although the French and Indian wars were really but one war with long intermissions, we find them mentioned sometimes as four wars, the first three being named after the monarchs then reigning in England, while the fourth was termed the "Old French and Indian War." King "William's War — 1689-1697. Queen Anne's War — 1 702-1 7 1 3. King George's War — 1 744-1 748. Old French and Indian War — 1 754-1 763. 92 THE FRENCH IN AMERICA [1690 they would have the Iroquois between two fires and might subdue them. It was impossible to carry out such a great undertaking with all the wars in Europe that King Louis had on hand, so his governor in Canada contented himself with sending expeditions southward to attack the settle- ments on the frontiers of New York and New England. In the dead of night, in February, 1690, French and Indians stole silently through the open gate of the town of Schenectady (Ske-nek'ta-de) on the Mohawk River to the west of Albany. They broke open the doors of the houses, killed or captured nearly all the inhabitants, and then as silently departed on their return journey. Other parties attacked settlements in Maine and New Hampshire and even captured a fort which stood where the city of Portland, Maine, now stands. In return, John Schuyler (Skl'ler) with a few white men and a hundred Iroquois dashed down upon a French village on the St. Lawrence, opposite Montreal, killed all of the inhabitants whom they could find, destroyed their food, and goc away without suf- fering any loss. After a few years this war came to an end. 108. The Second French and Indian War. — In Queen Anne's reign, war between France and England again broke out and again there was fighting in America. Once more the French and Indians came southward through the wilderness in the midst of the cold and snow of winter. The most striking event of this conflict was the attack on Deerfield, Massachusetts, in the Connecticut Valley, early in the morning of the last day of February, 1704. For nearly twelve hours and more the raiders shivered in the gloom of a pine forest, awaiting a favorable opportunity. The town was protected by palisades, and sentries were appointed to give notice of an enemy's approach. The night was so cold and disagreeable that these soldiers, i7io] EARLY FRENCH AND INDIAN WARS 93 thinking that no one would be out in such bad weather, left their posts unguarded and went to bed. When the time came, the attackers cUmbed over the wall without opposi- tion. They killed fifty-three settlers and dragged more than a hundred away into captivity in Canada. Seventeen of them were tomahawked on the way because they could not keep up with the fighting men. Once arrived at the French settlements, the captors divided the prisoners among themselves without any regard to their family ties. Years later, many of them were ransomed by their friends, but some had lived so long with the Indians that they had adopted their costumes and habits and refused to return to their old homes. 109. Conquest of Acadia. — The wilderness north of New York and New England not only protected these savage marauders in their raids, but made it very difficult for the English colonists to march in any numbers to the conquest of New France. At the other end of the line, the settle- ments in Acadia could be easily reached by sea. There were plenty of ships in New England harbors and plenty of men to man them. So a naval conquest of Acadia was planned and carried out. After having been captured and given up several times it was finally conquered in 1710 and its name was changed to Nova Scotia. While these things had been going on in America, the war in Europe had turned out badly for the French. At the end of the war, they were glad to make peace with England even at the cost of Acadia ^ and at last recognized the Iroquois to be 1 A sad and greatly to be regretted incident of these contests was the removal of the French inhabitants of Acadia, or Nova Scotia, from their homes by order of the British governor of that province. This was done in 1755 because it was unwise to leave so large and hostile a French people within easy reach of Halifax. For although the Acadians had been English subjects for half a century they had not become at all friendly with their new masters. The carrying them away was done as kindly as it could be, but there was a great deal of hardship and suffering. 94 THE FRENCH IN AMERICA [1745 " subjects of England," which meant that attacking the Iroquois ,was thenceforward the same as attacking Eng- lishmen. 1 1 0. The Third French and Indian War. — For some years now, the French and English stopped fighting on both sides The French and Indian Wars. of the Atlantic, but in 1744, they began again. In this war also there were campaigns in northern New York which did not amount to much, except to bring ruin and suffering to a good many people on both sides. On the Atlantic coast, the colonists once more triumphed. When the French lost Acadia, they fortified a harbor on Cape Breton Island, call- ing their fortress Louisbourg (Loo' is-burg). The New Englanders determined to capture this place, and in this resolve they were assisted by an English fleet. Under the command of WilKam Pepperell, a prosperous merchant of Maine, the New Englanders sailed for this fortification in 1745] EARLY FRENCH AND INDIAN WARS 95 1745. Their troops were carried in fishing vessels and coasting schooners under the guard of one or two colonial war vessels, and were joined there by an English fleet. The colonists were very poorly off for heavy guns with which to batter down the walls of Louisbourg so that they could march in and kill its defenders. It chanced that on the op- posite side of the harbor, the French had built a battery of A heavy gun of that time. heavy guns with which to fire on vessels coming in from sea. The invaders captured this battery without any trou- ble, hauled the guns overland to their own lines in front of the fort, and with the captured weapons battered it until a part fell down ; then the French commander surrendered without waiting for a final assault. This was a wonderful feat for untrained militiamen ; but the English government returned the conquered fortress and island to France at the close of the war and the whole thing had to be done over again. III. Summary. — The English got on badly with the 96 THE FRENCH IN AMERICA [1749 Indians because they took away their lands. In return the natives attacked the settlers. The most important Indian wars were King Philip's War in 1675 and Indian troubles in Virginia in the same year. The French got on well with the Indians because they did not take their lands for settlement, and their traders and missionaries lived in the Indian villages. February, 1690, a band of French and Indians attacked Schenectady. From that time, one French and Indian war succeeded another. In 1704, was the attack on Deerfield, Massachusetts. In 17 10, Acadia was conquered and renamed Nova Scotia. In 1745, Louisbourg was captured by New Englanders and soon after handed back to the French by the king of England. CONQUEST OF CANADA 112. The French in the Ohio Valley. — We have already seen how the French settlements and posts surrounded the EngHsh colonies in the interior. The French now deter- mined to occupy the Ohio Valley, and thus gain a shorter Hne of communication between their settlements on the St. Lawrence and those in the Mississippi Valley, than the long roundabout way by Lake Michigan and the Illinois River. In 1749, a great expedition in twenty-three canoes was assembled on the southern shores of Lake Erie. From this point the Frenchmen gained the Allegheny River which they followed to the Ohio, and went down that stream as far as the Great Miami (Ml-am'i), up which they proceeded and so overland and by other rivers back to Lake Erie. During their progress, they had constantly come across English fur traders in the Indian towns. These they had warned off. They had also commanded the Indians to have no more deahngs with the English, and every now and then had buried leaden plates properly inscribed to show that this country was a part of New 1754] CONQUEST OF CANADA 97 France. They next proceeded to build forts at the impor- tant points on this route, especially where the Allegheny (Al'e-ga'ni) and Monongahela (Mo-non-ga-he'la) come to- gether to form the Ohio. This fort they called for the governor of Canada, Fort Duquesne (Dii'kan'). 113. Washington's first service. — ^This activity of the Frenchmen was displeasing to the Virginians, who regarded this country as belonging to them. Governor Dinwiddle, of Virginia, determined to send a note of warning to the French, telling them to desist from their enterprise. He selected as messenger George Washington, a Virginia sur- veyor twenty-one years of age, who had already won the approval of many important men by his sound judgment, sturdy character, and great courage. With one white man and an Indian guide Washington plunged into the wilder- ness, bearing Dinwiddle's letter. He passed by the site of Fort Duquesne, which had not yet been begun, and ascended the Allegheny until he came to the southernmost of the completed forts. He gave his letter to the French commander, and having accomplished his mission started for home. The return journey was very difficult owing to the thawing of the ice and snow, and also to the treachery of the Indian, but Washington got back safely. 114. Fort Necessity surrendered. — Dinwiddle was so pleased with the young man's enterprise that he appointed Washington second in command of a small force which had been raised to occupy the disputed region before the French could do so. The Virginians were too slow. The French drove off their advance party, occupied the cov- eted spot, began the building of Fort Duquesne, and sent an expedition into the mountains to find out what the Vir- ginians were doing. Washington with his men came upon this scouting party, fired upon them, and killed their leader. A stronger force coming from Fort Duquesne, 98 THE FRENCH IN AMERICA [1754 Washington was obliged to take shelter with his men in a hastily constructed work which was named Fort Necessity, and there he was compelled to surrender, July 4, 1754. In this way began the great war which ended in the con- quest of Canada. 115. Braddock's defeat, July 9, 1755. — The EngHsh government agreed with Dinwiddle that the French were intruding upon what rightfully belonged to the king of England and his colonists. Some regiments of regular soldiers of the British army, under the command of Gen- eral Braddock, were sent over to drive out the French. No roads led westward from the settled parts of Virginia to the Ohio Valley. There were paths and trails which had been used by Indians and fur traders, but these were not fitted for the passage of artillery and wagons carrying supplies of food and ammunition, and so it was necessary to open a road through the forests. Washington and many other colonists came to Braddock's aid, and Franklin, in Pennsylvania, saw to furnishing him with wagons and sup- plies, although the Pennsylvania government, which was still in the hands of the Quakers,^ would not give any active assistance. The way led over steep mountain passes and across many rapidly running streams. The advance was, therefore, slow. The French at Fort Duquesne were so impressed with the numbers and dis- cipline of the English army that they seriously thought of retiring without making any defence. They determined, however, to make one attempt. It happened, therefore, when Braddock and his men had crossed the last river, and had gained a point within a few miles of Fort Duquesne, that they suddenly found themselves assailed in front and on either side by Indians and white men, 1 One of the articles of Quaker faith was on no account to fight; and they steadily refused to take part in these wars. 1758] CONQUEST OF CANADA 99 fighting wilderness fashion from behind trees and anything else that offered protection. This was a kind of warfare to which Braddock and his EngUsh troops were entirely unaccustomed. They were brave and so was he, but he could think of no better way to meet this danger than to arrange his men in line and advance to the attack exactly as if he had been fighting regular French soldiers on an open battlefield of Europe. Washington and the Vir- ginians did what they could to save the day by fighting the Indians and French in their own manner, but this proved to be impossible. Braddock was mortally wounded ; retreat was ordered, and the defeated soldiers ran away, each man for himself as fast as he could go. 116. William Pitt. — For two or three years the war went on without any important success on either side. Then William Pitt, England's greatest war minister, came into power. At once there was a great change. Instead of sending old men, like General Braddock, to lead the armies in America, he picked out younger men, giving them command in America only. He gained the good-will of the colonists by offering to have them repaid by Parliament for a large part of their war expenses. Above all he used all the forces of England, the ships at sea, as well as the soldiers on land, to carry out one well-considered plan after another. Everywhere now there was victory for the Eng- hsh arms. One expedition pushed through Pennsylvania to Fort Duquesne, which was abandoned by its garrison. The English renamed it Fort Pitt. Another expedition marched up the Mohawk Valley, reoccupied an EngHsh trading station at Oswego on Lake Ontario, crossed the lake and captured a French fort on the northern side. Another expedition led by General Amherst, with whom was Briga- dier General James Wolfe, again captured Louisbourg, which has ever since been in EngUsh hands. In this year, 1758, lOO THE FRENCH IN AMERICA [1759 there was only one great disaster. This was at Ticonderoga (Ti-k5n'der-o'ga), where Lake George flows into Lake Champlain. There a superior army of soldiers and colo- nists recoiled from a smaller French force which was splendidly led by the heroic general, Montcalm (Mont-kam'). 117. The campaign of 1759. — For the year 1759, Pitt planned a most extensive series of operations. His idea Ruins of Ticonderoga. was that the English navy should keep the French naval forces in Europe and prevent any help being sent to New France. He designed that Amherst should advance from New York to the St. Lawrence by way of Ticonderoga and Lake Champlain, while General Wolfe ascending the St. Lawrence with an army of English regulars should capture Quebec.^ To make Wolfe's position secure, he was to be 1 Attention has been twice called in the above paragraph to the part played by the British navy because this isolation of the French forces in Canada is one of the best examples of th.e " influence of sea power in history " that American 1759] CONQUEST OF CANADA lOl accompanied by a strong fleet of warships. Amherst and Wolfe joining forces in the St. Lawrence Valley would have New France at their mercy. 1 1 8. The campaign in New York, 1759. — Amherst was able to carry out only a part of his share in the general scheme. When the French realized what a great force was at last to be sent against Canada, they hastily withdrew from Ticonderoga and gathered all available men at Quebec. Amherst was obHged, however, to build vessels on Lake Champlain to convey his troops and supplies to the northern end of the lake. By the time he had done this, it was too late to march to the help of Wolfe. On the west, at Fort Niagara, the English won a great victory by not only seiz- ing that post which controlled the route up and down the lakes, but also by defeating a force which had been hastily gathered from the French forts and settlements in the interior. 119. The attack on Quebec, 1759. — When Wolfe with his army and attendant fleet anchored off Quebec and he looked at the frowning fortress that guards the passage up the St. Lawrence, he at length realized the greatness of the task to which Pitt had set him. Montcalm had gathered sixteen thousand men with which to oppose Wolfe's nine thousand veterans. Quebec stands on the northwestern bank of the St. Lawrence, the fortress being on an immense cliff. Above the river is bordered by a series of steep, rocky bluffs that can be scaled at only a few points. Below, the French army occupied a strongly intrenched camp which proved to be almost unapproachable from the river, owing to the shoalness of the water along the river bank and the fortifications which the French had erected. annals afiford. Not only did the supremacy of the British naval force at Quebec prevent the succor of that place from France ; it also gave Wolfe the security of a safe line of retreat in case of need. I02 THE FRENCH IN AMERICA [1759 Farther down, the position was defended by the Montmo- rency (M6nt'm6-ren-si) River which flowed between steep banks and was almost impossible to cross, except at its mouth. If only the Enghsh veterans could get at the French force, they would make short work of them, but the great trouble was to overcome these natural defences. 120. Fall of Quebec, 1759. — For weeks and months, Wolfe tried first one thing then another. He bombarded Quebec from the opposite shore; he assailed the intrenched camp from the river. English vessels passed the batteries at Quebec and tried to find a place above the fortress where the army could land on the Quebec side of the St. Lawrence. For a time every effort failed. Almost any other man than Wolfe would have given up in despair. He determined to make one last effort. Marching the better part of his force during the night up the southern side of the river somewhat above Quebec, he placed them in boats and then in the darkness drifted slowly down to a little inlet which has ever since been called Wolfe's Cove. There a path led to the level ground on the heights above. This path had been obstructed by feUing trees across it, and a guard was stationed at the upper end. Once on shore, an advance party scrambled up the side of the cliff, overpowered the guard, and thus opened the path for the main body. When day dawned, the British found themselves on the Plains of Abraham, in sight of the walls which protected the landward side of Quebec. At once Montcalm marched his men from their camps below the city and advanced to crush the British before their whole force could be as- sembled. Although they greatly outnumbered the British, the discipline of the latter soon told. They fired faster and better and then rushing forward fell upon the Frenchmen so fiercely that they turned and fled for their lives. At this moment of victory and defeat, when the fate of 1763] CONQUEST OF CANADA 103 America was in the balance, both leaders, Montcalm and Wolfe, were mortally wounded. 121. The end of New France. — With the fall of Quebec, France lost her hold on America. The next year, 1760, Aniherst advanced on Montreal, where the remnants of the French forces were gathered. No help had come to them from France and none could come while the British held the sea. The only thing they could do was to surrender. With Montreal the governor gave over all of New France to the victors. For two years more the war continued in the West Indies and other parts of the world. In 1763, it was brought to an end by the Peace of Paris by which France surrendered all of North America, east of the Mississippi, to Great Britain with the sole exception of the island on which New Orleans stands. This, with all of Louisiana west of the Mississippi, France gave to Spain. She did this because the king of Spain had been obliged to give Florida to England to secure the return of Cuba which the EngHsh had conquered. ^ Great Britain was now the possessor of all North America east of the Mississippi, excepting the island of New Orleans which was now Spanish territory and two islands, St. Pierre (San' Pe-ar') and Miquelon (Me'ke-lon^) in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, which were given to France to serve as fishing stations. These little islands to this day belong to France and are all that remain of the once mighty French power in North America. 122. Summary. — The French occupied the Ohio Valley. Washington was sent to warn them off, but they persisted. 1 The kings of France and of Spain belonged to the royal. Bourbon (Buor'bon') family. There was a compact between the members of this family to help each other in case of need. But if the member that came to the assistance of the other should lose territory through giving this aid, he must be recompensed. France had asked Spain for assistance and was therefore obliged to make good the losses of the Spanish king. I04 THE FRENCH IN AMERICA Soldiers came from England under General Braddock to drive them away, but were utterly defeated. William Pitt, the great EngHsh war minister, took charge of affairs. In three years' time Louisbourg was recaptured, New York cleared of the French, Quebec and Montreal taken, and New France surrendered to the English. TOPICAL ANALYSIS The French in America New France AND Louisiana Early French AND Indian Wars Conquest of Canada Treaty of 1763. Louisiana The English and the Indians Champ Iain's Explorations. The French on the Great Lakes. , , „ ,. f Great Lakes. \ La Salle \ ^^. . . . _. Mississippi River. Founding. Progress. King Philip's War in New England. Bacon's Rebellion in Virginia. The Revolution of 1688 in England. The French and the Indians. [ Attack on New York. First French and Indian War Second French and Indian War Third French and Indian War The French in the Ohio Valley Fort Duquesne Louisbourg Recaptured. Campaign 0/ ij^g Attack on Maine. Attack on New Hampshire. Attack on Deerfield, Massachusetts. Conquest of Acadia. The Taking of IvOuisbourg. Return of the town to France. Location of Forts. Washington's First Service. Fort Necessity. Braddock's Defeat. Fort Pitt. In New York. The Fall of Quebec. End of New France. V ENGLAND AND THE COLONIES, 1763-1775 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES IN 1763 123. Extent of settlement in 1763. — The thirteen colo- nies ^ now extended in an almost unbroken Hne from the Penobscot River in Maine, on the north, to the St. Mary's River in Florida, on the south. The settlements were con- fined to the Atlantic slope, except that in western Virginia and in Pennsylvania, the colonists had begun to occupy some of the great valleys of the Allegheny Mountains. Almost all of the people were farmers and planters ; but Charleston, Baltimore, Philadelphia, New York, Newport, and Boston were thriving seaports. 124. Colonial governments. — In each colony there was a governor and a legislative body. In only two colonies, Rhode Island and Connecticut, were the governors elected by the voters ; in all the rest they were appointed by the king or by proprietors with the consent of the royal gov- ernment in England. The members of the assemblies were elected by the voters in every colony. In most of them, councils, the members of which were appointed by 1 From north to south the thirteen colonies were (i) New Hampshire, (2) Massachusetts Bay, which then included Maine, (3) Rhode Island and Prpvidence Plantations, or Rhode Island as it is usually called, (4) Con- necticut, (5) New York, (6) New Jersey, (7) Pennsylvania, (8) Delaware, (9) Maryland, (10) Virginia, (11) North Carolma, (12) South Carolina, (13) Georgia. These later formed the thirteen original states. The first four were the New England Colonies; the last five were the Southern Colonies, and those in between were the Middle Colonies. 105 io6 ENGLAND AND THE COLONIES [1763 the king, acted as the upper House of the legislature and also advised the governor as to the performance of his Extent of Settlement in 1763. (The settled portion is shaded.) duties and in making appointments. In all the colonies, the cities, towns, counties, and parishes carried on their own business affairs. 1763] THE THIRTEEN COLONIES IN 1763 107 125. Intercolonial communication. — Travellers went from one colony to another generally by water, but a series of wagon roads ^ extended from Boston to Balti- more. There were' no bridges over the large streams, which were crossed by means of ferries. From Phila- delphia, a road led westward. It crossed the Susquehanna River at York and th-en turned southward to the Potomac at Harper's Ferry. Thence it led through the Shenandoah (Shen'an-do'a) Valley, or Valley of Virginia, and south- ward to the Carolinas. It was along this great road that thousands of pioneers passed to clear the land on the frontiers of Pennsylvania, Virginia, and the Carolinas. 126. The coming of the foreigners. — Most of the early colonists came from England or other parts of the British 1 The word "road" here does not mean a splendid stone road like those which have lately been built in so many parts of the country. The colonial roads were hardly more than well-used cart-paths; but they differed from the Indian trails which they frequently followed in being suitable for wagons instead of only being fitted for human beings or pack animals. Io8 ENGLAND AND THE COLONIES [1763 Islands. There were a few Frenchmen, especially in South Carolina, and some Germans in Pennsylvania. In 1 710, thousands of Germans arrived in London. For a time the English government lodged the new-comers in tents and provided them with food. It then tried to find homes for them somewhere within the limits of the British Em- pire. More than a thousand of them came to America in the next few years, settling at New Berne in North Carolina and at Germanna in Virginia. Most of these, however, came to New York, but, after a while, the greater part of them went overland to Pennsylvania, where they settled near what is now the city of Reading.^ 127. The Germans. — About 1720, German immigrants began coming to Philadelphia in great numbers by the way of Rotterdam and other Dutch seaports. Some of them had money enough to pay their passage, but very many of them, when they landed at Philadelphia, found themselves indebted to the master of the ship, or, more often, absolutely penniless in a strange land. They sold their services to the first person who would pay their debts and provide them with food and shelter. Men made a regular business of going to Philadelphia and buying the services of these German laborers, whom they would take with them into the interior and sell to the farmers. Often families were obliged to separate, the parents going in one direction and the children in another ; sometimes they would never see each other again. These German ser- vants were called redemptioners.^ They soon learned to 1 Most of the Germans of this migration came from that part of Germany which lies next to Switzerland and is called the Palatinate (Pa-lat'i-nat). They are, therefore, called the Palatines (Pal'a-tins), and, as most of them were very poor, historians refer to them as " the poor Palatines." 2 They were called redemptioners, because by three or five years of service, they redeemed themselves from the debts which they owed on landing in the colony. These immigrants and their descendants are usually called the " Pennsylvania Dutch," but in reality they were Germans. 1763] THE THIRTEEN COLONIES IN 1763 109 cultivate the soil of Pennsylvania, and, when their terms of service were over, they would set up for themselves as farmers. They were very industrious and economical, so that in ten or a dozen years after landing penniless at Phila- delphia, many of them were prosperous farmers and house owners. They settled in the central and southern parts of A Farmhouse in the Middle States, Pennsylvania, in western Maryland, and in the Valley of Virginia, and in the upper parts of North Carolina. 128. The Presbyterians from Ireland. — In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, Scottish Protestants of the Pres- byterian religion had settled in the northern part of Ireland. Many of their descendants still live there, but large num- bers of these Irish Presbyterians came to America. Some of them founded Londonderry in New Hampshire, others came to Massachusetts ; but the great mass of them settled in Pennsylvania to the westward of the Germans, or followed the great road southward into Virginia and the Carolinas. At first the Germans and Irish Presbyterians did not take much interest in Pennsylvania politics, but at the time of no ENGLAND AND TIJE COLONIES [1763 the Revolutionary War they came forward and joined in the struggle with energy and determination.^ 129. Occupations of the New Englanders. — People living in Massachusetts and the other New England colonies grew enough corn and other food for their own needs and sent some away. They also engaged extensively in fishing and in building ships and sailing and managing them. Their ships not only carried the products of New England farms and fisheries, but shared with Englishmen and the ship- owners of the Middle Colonies in the commerce of Virginia and the Carolinas and of the sugar plantations of the West India Islands. Perhaps the most remarkable commercial town of colonial days was Newport on the southern end of Rhode Island. Vessels belonging to merchants of that town sailed to southern Europe and Africa, and all along the Atlantic sea-coast and through the West Indies. They carried slaves from Africa to the Southern Colonies and the West Indies and brought home great quantities of ivory, palm oil, sugar, and molasses, which were distributed throughout southern New England.^ 130. Occupations in the Middle Colonies. — The farmers of the Middle Colonies produced great quantities of food- stuffs which were shipped from Philadelphia and New York City to the West Indies and to Europe. The ship- owners of those seaports also engaged actively in the slave- trade and in carrying the commerce of the Southern Colo- 1 Among the Germans was General Muhlenberg (Mu'len berg), who fought bravely with Washington and whose brother was Speaker of the first Congress of the United States. John C. Calhoun and General Jackson were descended from Irish-Presbyterian immigrants. 2 It is interesting to think of this business activity of Newport in those early times and to contrast it with the present day, when that city has no foreign commerce whatever and is, indeed, hardly more than a summer resort for the very rich people of New York and of the other great centres of business life. This change has been caused by the railroads, which have concentrated com- merce at a few favored spots. 1763] THE THIRTEEN COLONIES IN 1763 III nies. The people of the Middle Colonies also traded with the Indians for furs, and were beginning to do a good deal of manufacturing, especially in Pennsylvania, where they mined iron ore and fashioned it into pig-iron and bars. 131. Occupations of the Southerners. — The people of Maryland, Virginia, the Carolinas, and Georgia were en- gaged entirely in agriculture. In Maryland and Virginia, they grew corn and wheat, but the production of tobacco was the principal source of their wealth. In Maryland, a thriving business town had grown up at Baltimore, but in A View of Fort George, with the City of New York from the Southwest, 1 740. Virginia, the tobacco was shipped directly from the planta- tions, which nearly always lay along the rivers. In the upper regions of North CaroHna the settlers produced tobacco, but near the sea-coast they were mainly occupied in making tar, pitch, and turpentine from the pine trees which grew abundantly there. In South Carolina and Georgia, the planters raised rice, which was sent to Europe and to the West Indies, Charleston, in South Carolina, was an important shipping port, but there were no large towns in North Carolina. 132. Population in 1763. — There were then living in the thirteen colonies more than one and a half million 112 ENGLAND AND THE COLONIES [1763 human beings. Nearly nine hundred thousand of them lived in Pennsylvania and the other colonies north of Mason and Dixon's line. In every colony, there were negro slaves, but they were so numerous in the South that there were only about one-third as many white people in that region as there were in the North. Philadelphia, Baltimore, New York, and Albany were cities; that is to say they were governed by mayors, aldermen, and common councilmen, but they were not at all like our cities in other respects. Philadel- phia was the largest of them, but nowadays a city of this size would be regarded as only a good-sized town. It was the most attractive place in the colonies, owing largely to the efforts of Benjamin Franklin. He had come to Phila- delphia from Boston some years before and had greatly interested himself in municipal improvements, such as street lighting and paved sidewalks in the busier portions of the town. 133. Negro slaves. — In the Southern Colonies, negro slaves had largely displaced white laborers, for they were better suited to work in the damp rice swamps of Georgia. Even in Virginia, they were employed on the great tobacco plantations, almost to the exclusion of white workers. In Maryland, there were still many white laborers. North of that colony, the negroes congregated in the seaport towns, but there were many of them employed on the large estates and farms in Rhode Island. The slaves were well treated as long as they worked hard and did not try to run away, but when they were punished, they were severely punished. In South Carolina, alone, the negroes out- numbered the whites, but in Virginia they formed nearly one-half of the total population.^ 1 On the great plantations of Virginia and South Carolina, the negroes lived in " quarters" by themselves, somewhat removed from the planter's house. A few of the slaves were trained to do carpenter's work or mason's work, so that 1763] THE THIRTEEN COLONIES IN 1763 113 134. Religion. — Religion was not made entirely free in any colony or state, except Rhode Island, until after the Revolution. In 1763, the old rehgious strictness was al- ready fast breaking down. Some years before, there had been a series of religious revivals. Travelling clergymen preached to great masses of the people in any large build- ing that could be procured, or even in the fields. The Methodists and some of the other Protestant sects sent missionaries to the colonies where other rehgions were supreme to convert the people to their way of thinking. Presbyterians, Methodists, and Baptists were especially successful among the settlers on the frontiers. Many colonists broke away from all churches, and belonged to no sect. Of this type was Benjamin Franklin, who collected money from his friends in Philadelphia to build a great room, or hall, in which any clergyman could preach. Maryland was the only colony where the Catho- lics were numerous in proportion to the whole population. The Protestants obtained control of the government of that colony about 1700. They passed laws to compel the Catholics to pay double taxes and, at the same time, took away from them the right to vote, so that Maryland, which had been very liberal in religious matters, was now quite the opposite. 135. Colonial schools. — Throughout the colonies, the settlers from the beginning had desired to have their chil- dren taught reading, writing, and arithmetic. In the South, the people lived so far from each other on the great plantations that it was not easy to send their children to one schoolhouse, so that there were few pubHc schools in that section. In the Middle Colonies, the people lived the large plantations were almost self-supporting, except for the expensive clothes and other luxuries that were imported from England for the master and his family. 114 ENGLAND AND THE COLONIES [1763 nearer together, but they had so many religions that it was impossible to establish a pubhc school system until the parents were willing to have their children taught without any reference to religion. In New England alone did the people live so compactly and think so nearly alike on religious matters that it was possible to estabHsh a pubhc school in each town to which all the children could go. A Colonial Schoolhouse. The instruction in these schools went hardly beyond that which pupils in the fifth grade nowadays enjoy, except in the largest towns, where there were schools and academies that fitted pupils for admission to college. In the colonies where there was no public school system, there were schools in the larger towns, and private tutors taught the children of the richer planters. Schools were also attached to many churches. These were designed for the education of the children of parents who worshipped in those churches. 1763] THE THIRTEEN COLONIES IN 1763 115 136. The colleges. — The colonists were also eager to establish colleges. Massachusetts had been founded only six years when, in 1636, its legislature voted to estab- lish an institution where young men could be trained to be ministers for the Puritan churches of New England. It took its name from John Harvard, who made it its first private gift. The Virginians had even before this thought of founding a college, but it was not until 1691 that William and Mary College was established at Williamsburg for the education of Episcopalian ministers. Soon after 1700, other colleges were founded, as Yale College at New Haven, the College of New Jersey at Princeton, and King's (now Columbia), at New York. In 1749, Benjamin Frank- lin, with the aid of many friends, founded the ** Academy" at Philadelphia, which became the University of Pennsyl- vania. Franklin's wish was that science and English might be given special attention, but his ideas were only partly carried out.^ 137. Newspapers. — The colonists also profited greatly by reading the essays and other matter that appeared in their newspapers. Thomas Jefferson is reported to have declared that if he could only have one, the government or the newspapers, he would prefer the latter, because if the people were properly instructed, they could be trusted to govern themselves. The earliest newspapers were really written letters which were several times copied and sent out once a week to subscribers. The postmasters had the best chance to get the earliest news, so that these " news- letters " were often written by them. In 1704, the post- master at Boston began to print ^ his " news-letters" instead 1 Franklin thought that too nYuch attention was paid to the teaching of Greek and Latin, which he called the *' dead languages." 2 The first printing-press in America was br(;ught to Mexico fifty years or so before the founding of Virginia. The oldest press in the English colonies was set up at Cambridge, Massachusetts, in 1638. IlO ENGLAND AND TIIK COLONIES [1763 of having them copied by hand, and the " Boston News- Lcttcr," which came into existence in this way, was piib- hshcd until the Revolution. The patriot leaders in the Revolutionary times made the fullest use of the newspapers to bring the people to their way of thinking. 138. Summary. — The thirteen colonies in 1763 extended from the Penobscot to the St. Mary's. Their govern- ments were similar, except that in some the governors were appointed by the king ; in others were elected by the voters. Intercolonial communication was very poor, and was mostly by sailing vessels. Many foreigners, especially Germans, came over to the Middle Colonies, and smaller numbers to the others. Irish Presbyterians also migrated to Pennsylvania and the Southern Colonies. Most of the colonists were farmers or planters, but many of them, especially in New England and the Middle Colonies, were engaged in shipping and commerce. The entire popula- tion was about one and one-half million. There were a few large towns, but most of the people lived in the country. In the South, negro slaves did most of the hard work on the plantations, and there were a few slaves in the Northern Colonies. There was much more liberality in religious matters than in the earlier period. Schools and colleges had everywhere been established and were edu- cating the people as were also the newspapers. ENGLAND TAXES THE COLONISTS 139. The colonists at the close of the French War. — After the conquest of Canada, the E:nglish colonists were happier than they had ever been before, for now there was no longer any danger of P^rench attack. They were glad that they were members of the greatest empire^ in the 1 The British Empire inclucled Great Britain (England, Scotland, and Wales), Ireland, the Channel Islands, Gibraltar and Malta in the Mediterra- 1763] ENGLAND TAXES THE COLONISTS 117 world and proud to be subjects of the British king. Only three years later (1766), they were on the edge of rebellion. The reason for this change of feeling was that England attempted to raise money by levying taxes on the colo- nists, without asking their consent.^ 140. Taxing colonial commerce. — There had been laws regulating colonial commerce for more than one hundred years ;2 but these had never been enforced. The most important of these old laws was one that had been passed in 1733 for the *' protection "^ of the sugar growers of the English West India Islands at the expense of the people of the continental colonies. This law was intended to make it impossible for the continental colonists to trade with the French West Indies and to make them buy all their sugar and molasses from the English planters. Nobody had paid much attention to it, and the colonists had built up a great and prosperous trade with the foreign islands. George Grenville was now prime minister. He proposed to tax more goods imported into the colonies and nean, large possessions in India, many West India Islands, and the North American Colonies. Already, it was an empire on which the sun never set. The people living in the different parts of the Empire had very different duties to perform and very different ways of thinking about their relations with the British Parliament and the British king. The American Revolution was the result of this lack of understanding. 1 The object of this taxation was to lessen the burdens of English tax- payers. Their expenses had been greatly increased by the wars with France; and the cost of governing the conquered P>ench colonies was certain to be heavy for years to come. '^ These laws were designed to confine the commerce of the British Empire to vessels owned and navigated by British sul)jects and to secure to English merchants the profits of handling the important colonial products. This policy was not unlike that of the United States at this moment, for only American vessels are allowed to trade between United States ports, including those of Porto Rico, the Philippines, and the Hawaiian Islands. 3 An industry is said to be "protected" when a law is passed which in- creases the price of imported goods by means of a tax, so that the producers at home can make goods of the same kind and sell them in competition with goods that are made more cheaply in foreign countries. Il8 ENGLAND AND THE COLONIES [1765 then to enforce the law. Had it been possible to carry out his ideas, the most important commerce of New England, New York, and Pennsylvania would have been destroyed. 141 . The Stamp Act. — Following Grenville's lead, Parlia- ment passed still another act. This was the Stamp Act, (March, 1765). According to this law, every colonist must do his most important legal writing on specially pre- pared paper which was sold by the government and bore Donatio ... jFoi ctiCrp ^feiH 0| ipiccc Of Or.;:. ;i LSSn'K- ot \?mhn\tnu oi mm oi Piece of iHn.t.on.. Re- paper, on M)Ul) ftall be incrcofreD, ut''rci-tno. ^^itten, 0? pointer?, atip Donation, Pit-- niais', cerufi- fentatton, Coiiation, o? Jnftttution of cur... o-^ Pc- 0^ jQ ^p^p X^enefice, oi anp Wtit ohJiv *". ' " Gtumcnt foz iU like Putpofc, oi mv. iRcgtflci% €iun?, CcGimontal, o? Cer-- tiflcate of m^ ST'cavcc taken in anp OnitiCifttP, acatjcnvj, CcHcac, 02 ^e^- minarp of learning, Untliiu the faiB €o!onie0 ants j&iantation^, a ^tamp DutPOf CtBO |g>ounD0. A Paragraph of the Stamp Act. the government stamp. ^ The stamp was sometimes im- pressed on the paper ; but sometimes a separate stamp was affixed to the document. Not only were law papers, such as wills and deeds of lands, taxed in this way, but every graduate of a college was to buy a thirty dollar stamp to put on his degree; and the printer of every news- paper was to pay a stamp tax of two cents for each copy that he printed. 142. The Stamp Act resisted. — The colonists at' once reahzed that they were to be taxed by Parliament when- 1 For this stamped paper the colonist was obliged to pay a higher price than he would have paid for ordinary paper; the extra money went to the government as a tax or stamp duty. 1765] ENGLAND TAXES THE COLONISTS 119 ever they used a bit of stamped paper or bought a stamp. They determined to resist, because they felt that they were already taxed heavily enough by their colonial assemblies and by the counties and towns in which they lived. Every- where there was excitement. In Boston, the townspeople visited the stamp distributor, tore down a building which he had put up for an office, and compelled him to resign his office. A mob also visited the house of Thomas A Stamp. (Instead of being pasted on to the paper, a little piece of copper or brass was used to fasten the stamp to the paper and the piece marked " 267 " was pasted over the back of the bit of copper or brass to protect the other sheets of paper or parchment.) Hutchinson, the lieutenant-governor and chief justice. They destroyed his furniture and burned up his books and papers. 143. Patrick Henry's resolutions, 1765. — In Virginia Patrick Henry ^ took thejead. He moved a set of resolu- tions in the assembly, declaring that Virginians could be 1 Patrick Henry was born in Virginia on May 29, 1736. After trying sev- eral callings unsuccessfully, he became a lawyer, and at once prospered. In 1763, he argued for the colonists the Parson's Cause, by which the ministers tried to comp^ -their colonial employers to pay them more money than was required by a Virginia law that had been vetoed by the king at their request. He declared that the veto of a good law was an act of tyranny, and that the Virginians were not obliged to pay any attention to it. He was the first gov- ernor of the state of Virginia. After the Revolution, he opposed the ratification of the Constitution, but, when it was adopted, supported Washington. He died in 1799. I20 ENGLAND AND THE COLONIES [1765 taxed only by their own representatives, and that every attempt to tax them in any other way was unjust, illegal, unconstitutional, and de- structive of the liberty of British subjects. These resolutions were printed in the newspapers through- out the colonies. They excited the people to re- newed opposition to the Stamp Act, and were called the "alarm bell of the Revolution." 144. The Stamp Act Con- gress, 1765. — In October, 1765, representatives from nine colonies met at New York in a general con- gress. Other colonies, as Virginia, would have sent representatives to the meeting, had their legislatures been in session. As it was, this congress is very important in American history, because it was the first time that representatives from many colonies had gathered to- gether without being summoned by order of the king or the colonial governors. It drew up a Declaration of Rights, stating that the colonies were entitled to the same rights as the people of England, and were not subject to taxation by Parliament, because they were not represented in that body. These ideas were held by nearly every one in the colonies, but this was the first time that they had been stated at a general meeting. 145. Parliament repeals the Stamp Act, 1766. — George III was now king of England, and had been since 1760. Patrick Henry. 1766] ENGLAND TAXES THE COLONISTS 121 He took a serious view of his kingly duties, and interfered more actively in the carrying on of the government than any English monarch had done for half a century. He was very industrious, and had a high idea of his own rights. He fully approved of Grenville's method of get- ting money from the colonists, but he did not like some other things that Grenville did. So he turned him out of office, and gave the management of affairs to a different set of men. The new ministers were very weak in ParHa- ment, and very anxious for the aid of William Pitt. That great statesman was no longer in office, and had not been for five years, but he had a few very devoted followers whose votes were needed by the ministers. Coming to the House of Commons, Pitt made a fiery speech, in which he denounced Grenville and his plan of taxing the colonists. The new ministers were at their wits' end as to what should be done with the Stamp Act. As the stamp distributors had been compelled to resign, there was no one in America who had any authority to sell the stamps or the stamped paper, if any colonists had been willing to buy them. All the accounts that came from America showed that the col- onists were violently opposed to direct taxation by act of Parliament. Benjamin Franklin was then in London. He was summoned before the House of Commons, and de- clared that the colonists would never submit to the Stamp Act, no matter how small the duties might be made, unless they were compelled by force of arms. Either the act must be repealed, or an army sent to America to enforce it. Under these circumstances the safest and easiest thing to do was to follow Mr. Pitt's advice and repeal it in every part, and this was done. 146. Parliament declares its rights, 1766. — Another part of Mr. Pitt's advice was not so favorable to the colo- nists, for, although he advised the total repeal of the 122 ENGLAND AND THE COLONIES [1766 Stamp Act, he also suggested that Parliament should pass a law declaring that it had the power to legislate for America in all cases whatsoever, including, of course, tax- ation. Following him, therefore, Parhament passed the Declaratory Act (1766), stating that it was the supreme legislative body of the empire. This act was full of trouble for the future ; but, for the present, the colonists were grateful to Parliament for repealing the Stamp Act. They thought that Pitt had befriended them and erected statues of him, and procured his portrait. 147. Summary. — The colonists were contented in 1763. The English government tried to raise money from them by taxing their commerce and making them pay stamp duties. They resisted the Stamp Act so vigorously that it was repealed. Patrick Henry's Resolutions in Virginia stated the side of the colonists. The Declaratory Act passed by ParUament stated the views of the English gov- ernment. ENGLISH SOLDIERS IN THE COLONIES 148. Enforcing the customs laws. — Although the Stamp Act was a failure. Parliament soon returned to the idea of getting money from the colonists without asking their con- sent. It lowered the rates on sugar and molasses, so that these duties would no longer be prohibitory, but might bring in a revenue. Then it laid new duties on all kinds of paper, on painter's^ colors, glass, and tea imported into the colonies. If all of these duties could be collected in America, taxes in England might be considerably reduced, — an idea that was very pleasing to the members of the House of Commons and also to the peers who sat in the House of Lords. To make it more likely that the duties would be collected, it was decided to establish a Board of Customs 1768] ENGLISH SOLDIERS IN THE COLONIES 1 23 Commissioners in America who would have the direct oversight of the collectors and other customs officials, and, being ''on the spot, would be more likely to compel these men to carry out the laws. The headquarters of the new board were established at Boston, and they soon stirred the customs officers to collect the duties. 149. Seizure of the sloop Liberty, 1768. —This vessel belonged to John Hancock, a rich and popular merchant of Boston. Being in- formed that Madeira wine had been smuggled in on board the Liberty, the col- lector of customs ordered her to be seized by men from a British man-of-war that was anchored in Bos- ton Harbor. A number of persons gathered at the wharf as her captors towed her away from the shore and anchored her undcr the guns of the warship The Bostonians could not rescue her, so, instead, they seized a small yachl belonging to the collector of the customs, carried it up to Boston Common, broke it to pieces, and burned it up. They then marched to the houses of the customs officers and of the commissioners, broke the windows, and other- wise acted unpleasantly. The commissioners were so alarmed, or said they were, that they fled with their families to the man-of-war and afterwards to the fort m the harbor. They sent urgent entreaties to General Gage, the British commander in America, and to England for 124 ENGLAND AND THE COLONIES [1768 soldiers to protect them from the vengeance of the mob and enable them to collect the duties. 150. English soldiers at New York. — There were al- ready several regiments of British soldiers stationed in the colonies. Most of them were at HaHfax in Nova Scotia or elsewhere in Canada, but a few regiments, with the headquarters of the commander-in-chief, were at New York. It was necessary to have these soldiers, or some of them, in America to keep the subjugated French Canadians in order and to prevent the Indians on the northwestern frontier from attacking the settlers and the fur traders. Following the general idea of making the colonists pay for everything that they possibly could, ParHament passed a law ordering the several colonies to provide quarters for the soldiers stationed within their limits, and to supply them with certain articles of food. The people of New York thought that this was unfair, because at first that was the only place among the old English colonies where there were any soldiers.^ They did not like the idea of being obHged to pay so much more than their regular share of the expense. They refused to provide some of the things called for, whereupon the government in Eng- land ordered the governor in New York to give his consent to no more acts of the colonial assembly until the legisla- ture had first complied fully with the English demands. 151. English soldiers at Boston. — The condition of affairs was rather different at Boston. When the soldiers arrived there to support the customs officers, the Bostonians declared that the province had provided quarters for the soldiers within the fort or " Castle " on an island ^ in the 1 New York was selected as the headquarters of the British army in Amer- ica, because troops could easily be sent from that point up the Hudson to Canada, or to the western frontiers of Pennsylvania and Virginia, or southward by water to the Carolinas and Georgia. '^ See map in § 166. i77o] I'.xcujsii S()li)1i:rs in riii'. coia^niks liarbcM- aiul that until those barracks wore fully occupietl, thov wiuiUl not ]-)roviclc lodi;ini;s iov the soldiers within the town. As the only object of havini;- the soldiers in Massa- chusetts was to have them within the town of IVxston itself to put down riots, their connnandcr refusetl to take them down to the fort, lie found shelter for them on the Com- mon, in Faneuil Hall, and in other public buildini;s. lie then applied to the authorities for the supplies which the act of Parliament reciuired the colonists to furnish. They answered that they were only obliged to furnish supplies to the soldiers in the appointed quarters. Sc^ the coming oi the troops only brought up new causes of irritation. 152. Boston Massacre, 1770. — The l>ostonians disliked this occupation of their build- ings and the Common by l^rit- ish soldiers. For nearly a year and a half, there was no actual conflict between them. On the evening of Monday, March 5, 1770, a soldier who had made himself especially obnoxious was one of the sentries on King Street, now State Street, where the custom-house stood. A crowd gathered and began taunting the red-coated soldiers and throwing mud and snow at them. Finally, this particular soldier w^as knocked down. Then the guard opened fire, killing four of the The Old South Meeting House 126 ENGLAND AND THE COLONIES [1770 townspeople and wounding several more. The bells in the churches were now rung, as if for a fire. Multitudes hastened to the scene, and refused to return to their homes until the soldiers were ordered to their barracks. This being done, the officer who commanded the guard and the soldiers who had done the firing were arrested by the sheriff and placed in the town lock-up. The next day the people met at Faneuil Hall and demanded that the soldiers should be sent out of the town to the fort in the harbor ; but the governor refused. Three or four thousand then met in the Old South Meeting House, chose a com- mittee, at the head of which was Samuel Adams, to go to Hutchinson and tell him that all the soldiers must be re- moved at once or the consequences might be terrible. Hutchinson offered to send away one regiment, but all or none was the demand, — and all were moved to the fort. Two days later the victims of the massacre were buried. Fifteen or twenty thousand persons followed the bodies to the grave or watched the procession as it passed. No such crowd had ever been seen in Boston before. 153. Custom duties removed, 1770. — The soldiers had been sent to Boston to support the customs officers in col- lecting the revenue. At almost the very moment that the Boston Massacre was going on, ministers in England were removing all these duties except the tax on tea. The head of the government was now Lord North. He was a very able, witty, good-tempered man, who was quite willing to do whatever the king wished, so long as he could enjoy the opportunities for making money that the office of prime minister then afforded. He would Hke to have removed all the duties, but the king said that one must be retained to show the right of Parliament to tax the colonists, and therefore the duty on tea was continued. 177.0 THE UNITED COLONIES I27 154. Summary. — The English government next tried to enforce the customs laws. The seizure of the sloop Liberty "^^ Boston aroused so much excitement that soldiers were sent there to protect the people. The soldiers and the Bostonians came to blows in the Boston Massacre. All but one of the obnoxious duties were removed ; but the tax on tea was kept. THE UNITED COLONIES 155. Burning of the Gaspee^ 1772. — It was not only on land but also on the sea that the attempt to collect duties by act of Parliament brought on trouble. The commissioners of the customs at Boston had fitted out several armed ves- sels to cruise along the coast and seize ships that were engaged in disobeying the laws. One of these revenue vessels was the Gaspcc. Her cruising ground was Narra- gansett Bay and other Rhode Island waters. Her captain and crew in one way, or another, won the active enmity of the Rhode Islanders. Great was the rejoicing at Provi- dence when news was brought that the Gaspce was hard and fast aground, not very far away. Boat loads of men at once proceeded down to where she lay, boarded her, not without fighting, set the crew on shore, and burned the vessel to the water's edge. This insult to the British navy aroused the authorities. Orders were sent to America that a most thorough inquiry should be held and the perpe- trators of this outrage should be taken out of Rhode Island for trial elsewhere. Not one of them could be found, because no one would tell who did it. But the threat to take colonists away from their homes to be tried for their lives was enough to renew the spirit of antagonism. 156. The Virginia Resolves, 1773. — Not only in New England was the resentment keen ; in Virginia the lead- ers looked upon the orders of the British government T28 KNCU.ANO AND TlIK COLONIKS [r;;^;; with especial abhorrencti. Under the leadership of Thomas Jefferson and Patrick Henry, the Virginia Assembly passed a series of resolutions condemning the idea of taking a man away from Rhode Island, or any other colony, for trial in luigland or in any other part of America.^ They also proposed that each colony should aj^point a committee of correspondence, so that in the future all the colonists might know just what was going on in the other colonies, and all might act together. 157. The Boston Tea Party, 1773. — The Knglish East India Company had a great tpiantity of tea in its English warehouses, much more than there would be any sale for in England for a long time. It owed a great deal of money. To help it out of its difficulties, Lord North arranged that the company might send its tea to the American colonies for sale there without paying any duties in England, pro- vided the colonists would pay the tax of threepence per l)ound as the act of Parliament required. In this way, the colonists would get their tea a good deal cheaper than did the people in pjigland, and perhaps this would make them willing to pay the duty ; but the plan did not work as Lord North ex})ected. Throughout the colonies everywhere, without any stir- ring from their leaders, the people determined to foil this attemi)t to bribe them into acknowledging the supremacy of Parliament. When the tea ships appeared in the har- bors of New York and Philadelphia, the captains and owners agreed to carry the tea back to I^ngland. At Charleston, South CaroHna, the tea was stored in a ware- house on shore, where it was safely kept until after the Declaration of Independence, when it was sold for the benefit of the people of South Carolina. At Boston, the 1 It hail knig been a vulo of iMi^Hsh law that an accuscil person had a right to be tried by a jury who lived in his own part of the country. 1774] THE UNITKI) COLONUCS I29 owners of the ships would have been very glad to have car- ried the tea back to luigland even if no freight money had been paid on it, but the governor, the collector, and the admiral of the British fleet stationed in the harbor were all determined that the act of Parliament and the customs regulations should be carried out to the letter. The Bos- tonians would have rejoiced to have had the tea carried away peaceably. As this could not be done, two hinidred of them clothed in blankets like Indians, with their faces stained copper color, and armed with tomahawks, went on board the three ships that had tea as part of their cargoes. They hoisted out the tea chests, smashed them open, and threw them over the sides of the ships to float av/ay with the tide. 158. Closing the port of Boston, 1774. — In Massachu- setts, John Adams thought that this was one of the most sublime incidents that ever happened. In London, Benja- min Franklin regarded it as outrageous and even offered to pay for the tea out of his own ])ocket. The king and Lord North went beyond Franklin and determined to pun- ish the people of the riotous town, unless they paid the East India Company for its losses. To this end, Parlia- ment passed an act closing the port of Boston until the claims of the tea merchants were satisfied. As the people of Boston and Massachusetts were likely to resist this pun- ishment. Parliament by another act suspended the charter of Massachusetts Bay and the king confided the govern- ment of that province to General Gage, the commander-in- chief of the military forces in America. The British fleet at Boston also was reen forced. The stoppage of trade and commerce caused great suffering to the people of Boston. The other colonies at once took up the cause of the distressed inhabitants of the doomed town and for- warded them supplies and money. 130 ENGLAND AND THE COLONIES [1774 159. The First Continental Congress, 1774. — The de- mand was now widespread for the holding of a general congress and one met at Philadelphia, in September, 1774. All the colonies were represented. Virginia, especially, sent a remarkable delegation, including George Washington and Patrick Henry. From Massachusetts there were the Adamses, John and Samuel ; and from New York, John Jay, who was afterwards the first Chief Justice of the United States. Indeed, all the ablest men on the side of those who opposed the claims of Parliament attended this congress, excepting Benjamin Franklin, who was then in England, and Thomas Jefferson, who was not elected by the Virginians. The principal work of this Congress was the establishment of the American Association, which was designed to secure the carrying out of a complete boycott of English merchants by refusing to import anything from that country or send anything to it.^ The plan was to elect committees in every county and town in the several colonies who should see to it that no one disobeyed the commands of the Congress. 160. Enforcement of the Association. — The earlier non- importation agreements had not been carried out very com- pletely, but this one was ruthlessly enforced. In Virginia, for instance, in each county, a committee was appointed to see to it that merchants obeyed the " laws of Congress " and Independent Companies of militiamen were formed, com- prising only men who were in favor of resistance. If one of these committees suspected that a Virginia merchant was selling goods that had been imported after the dates fixed in the Association, they would visit him, examine his books, 1 There had been several earlier non-importation schemes, one at the time of the Stamp Act and another as a protest against the duties on paper, paint, glass, and tea; but this was the tirst complete cessation of trade with Great Britain. 1775] THE UNITED COLONIES 131 and give such orders as they saw fit, which would then be carried out by the Independent Company, if the use of force was necessary. Thereupon, the EngUsh government forbade the Pennsylvanians, Virginians, and South Caro- hnians to trade with the New Englanders. The king de- clared Massachusetts to be in a state of rebellion and sent over more soldiers to enable General Gage to crush the rebels. 161. Gage's plan. — The winter of 1774-1775 was quiet enough at Boston. It was difficult to feed the sol- diers and keep them warm and they had very little to eat, but no attacks were made upon them. On the other hand, it was quite certain that it was danger- ous for them to go into the country, except in large bodies. Gage sent spies to find out what the colonists were doing and to discover where they kept their provisions, guns, and ammunition. These spies learned that quantities of such supplies had been collected at Concord and Gage decided to seize them. News of his intention somehow got to the ears of Dr. Joseph Warren, a Boston physician, and one of the members of the Committee of Safety.^ He at once sent out messen- gers to warn the people of Concord, Lexington, and other towns along the way of Gage's intentions. The most famous of these riders was Paul Revere who had already often acted as messenger in times of need. He now arranged for two lanterns to be placed in the tower of 1 The committees of safety in the several colonies or states directed the movements of the troops and in general conducted the resistance to royal officials, until regular state governments were organized. 132 ENGLAND AND THE COLONIES [1775 the Old North Church to warn the people of Charles- town that the British had left Boston by water, and this being done had himself rowed across to Charlestown. His friends there had already seen the signals, and bor- rowing a horse, he set out on his midnight ride to Lexington and Concord. ^ 162. Lexington and Concord, April 19, 1775. — Mean- while, the British had been ferried across from Boston and Battle of Lexington. started on their long march. As they proceeded, the ringing of bells in the dead of the night warned them that their coming was known. Just before sunrise they reached the green, or common, at Lexington, where a company of minute-men 2 was assembled. As these did not get out of the way fast enough to suit them, the British fired, killing and wounding several of the provincial soldiers. They then pressed on to Concord. There they destroyed a few 1 Longfellow's poem, " Paul Revere's Ride," splendidly expresses the spirit of 1775; but does not follow the facts as Paul Revere stated them. The above account is from Revere's own letter. ^ Minute-men were so named because they were supposed to be ready to respond at a minute's notice. 1775] THE UNITED COLONIES 133 barrels of flour, some wheels that had been made for mov- ing artillery, and threw some powder and ball into the river. While the British were thus occupied, the militia had been arriving in large numbers, not only from Concord, but from the towns round about. Before the " red-coats " ^ started on their return journey, they were attacked and as soon as they got clear of the town they were fired at from every stone wall, bit of woods, or building on either side of the road. Faster and faster the British retreated until finally they reached Lexington thoroughly exhausted. There they were delighted to find Earl Percy with more British troops and two pieces of artillery ; for had it not been for this succor the whole detachment would probably have been killed or captured. As it was, when they started again, the sharp shooting began from every vantage point and continued until they gained the shelter of the British fleet anchored off the wharves of Charlestown. The pursuing Americans assembled for the night at Cam- bridge and began the siege or blockade of Boston. 163. Summary. — The colonists burned the Gaspee^ a vessel employed in enforcement of the acts of Parliament. The English set on foot an investigation into this affair. This induced the Virginians to advise the appointment of Committees of Correspondence. The colonists resisted the attempt to bribe them into paying the tax on tea. At Boston, the tea was thrown into the water. Parliament punished that town by closing it to commerce. The first Continental Congress established a complete cessation of commerce with English merchants. April 19, 1775, British soldiers and American colonists began the war at Lexington and Concord. 1 The British soldiers wore bright colored clothing. Some of the soldiers that went to Concord wore three-cornered cocked hats bound with white lace, scarlet coats faced with bright yellow, scarlet waistcoats and white linen gaiters. The minute-men were in their everyday clothes. 134 EXGLAXD AXD THE COLONIES TOPICAL ANALYSIS The Thir- teen Colo- nies IN 1763 Extent of Sittlement. Governments, Intercolonial Communication. [ The Germans. Coming of the Foreigners \ The Presbyterians [ from Ireland. Occupations Population. Negro Slaves. Religion. Schools and Colleges. JVezvspapers. New England. Middle Colonies. Southern Colonies. England taxes the Colonists The English Soldiers IN Colonies Colonists at Close of French and Indian \ \ 'ars. Taxing Colonial Commerce. The Stamp Act, Jj6§ Parliament declares its Rights, IJ06. Enforcing the Custams Laws. Seizure of the Sloop "Liberty," J76S. English Soldiers at Customs Duties Remox-ed. Patrick Henr>'s Reso- kitions. Stamp Act Congress. Repeal of Act. 1766. New York. Boston — Boston Mas- sacre, 1770. The United Colonies Burning of the "Gas/^irt-." i~-2. J'irginia Resolves, JT7S- Boston Tea Party; IJJJ. Boston Port Bill, iyj4. First Continental Congress, 777^. Enforcement of American Association. Gage's Plan. Lexington and Concord, April ig, tttj. VI THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR BUNKER HILL TO TRENTON, 1 775-1776 164. The chances of victory. — luigiaiul with her trained armies, abimdaiit su]")plies of guns and ammuni- tion, and great sums of money seemed to have the advan- tage in the coming conflict. On the other hand, it must be remembered that the colonies were three thousand miles ^ away and that the French Wars had left them a united people somewhat skilled in the art of war. To be sure, the colonists had scarcely any money and few sup- plies ; but the extent of the scene of action greatly helped them. The British could capture a city — New York, Philadelphia, or Charleston — but it required so many sol- diers to hold one of them that there were not enough British soldiers left to conquer more towns or to occupy a large part of a colony. The colonies produced food and hay in abundance, but the British found it very difficult to buy these supplies from the inhabitants and actually had to bring most of the food and hay that they needed from England. Under these conditions it was impossible to maintain a large force of soldiers and horses in America. 1 Nowadays with a great steamer carrying two thousand j^eople and going from liftecn to twenly-tive miles an hour, crossing the Atlantic is a slight matter. In 1775, ^^ ^ (\GGt of eighteen sailing vessels sent from England with supplies for the army at Boston, only three had reached their destination, six months later. The following winter, therefore, the British troops and Tories at Boston had little to eat except beans and salt meat. 135 136 THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR [1775 165. The Hessians. — The American war was so unpop- ular in England that soldiers could be got only by the payment of large sums of money, — much more than King George wished to spend, — so he was forced to hire foreign troops. The largest body of these came from the little German state of Hesse, so that all of them are known as Hessians, whether they actually came from there or from other parts of Germany. The employment of the Hes- sians was a great mistake for England. As long as the fighting was between British and American soldiers, it was a family affair ; but when the king hired the Germans to fight his battles, the Amer- icans in turn thought of getting aid from foreigners likewise. 166. Bunker Hill, June 17) 1775- — For a couple of months after the Concord and Lexington fight the Americans remained quietly encamped round about Bos- ton, and the British remained equally quiet in the town it- self. In the middle of June, both sides prepared to make a new start. The Americans moved first. During the night of June 16-17, a party of them under Colonel Prescott built a redoubt ^ on top of one of the Charlestown hills. When day dawned and the British at Boston and on the ships lying in the harbor saw what had happened in the night, they were startled. Gage at once made up his mind to at- 1 This redoubt was actually built on Breed's Hill, but the battle is always known as Bunker Hill for that was the point which was first thought of for the fortification. Breed's Hill is really a part of Bunker Hill. 1775. BUNKER HILL TO TRENTON 137 tack the fortifications. He appointed General Sir William Howe to command the attacking party and ordered him to pursue the rebels into the country beyond. It was noon before the British were ferried across. Each man had with him a blanket and food for several days. As they marched up the hill, they had to cross ploughed land and Battle of Bunker Hill. climb stone walls and fences, so that their progress was slow. It was eagerly watched by the soldiers in the re- doubt and by others who had since come up and stationed themselves behind a fence that extended almost the whole way from the fort across the peninsula. These had con- structed a breastwork by putting up another fence about a dozen feet away and filling the space in between with hay from the fields round about. As the British came on, there ran along the American Hues, the command : ^3^ THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR [1775 " Don't fire ! Wait until you see the whites of their eyes ! " ** Pick off the officers ! " ** Aim at the handsome coats ! " Suddenly fire blazed all along the American front; the British went down in heaps. Some of them reached the first rail fence and even climbed over it, but they did not walk very long waist deep in hay with the Americans only ten feet away. Back went those that could. They re-formed and again came on, — with the same re- sult. There was now a halt, while more soldiers were brought over from Boston. Some reenforce- ments and a little food and ammunition came to the Americans, but a Brit- ish vessel firing across the isthmus that con- nected Charlestown with the mainland made communication with the rest of the army difficult and even dangerous. When reenforcements had at last come to the British, they charged for the third time. They could no longer be withstood by the Americans be- cause there was no ammunition in the redoubt and not much at the rail fence. Joseph Warren, who had joined Prescott as a volunteer, was killed at this time and so were others; but most of the Americans escaped over Bunker Hill and by the isthmus to the mainland. The British lost from one thousand to fifteen hundred men, killed, wounded, and missing, and the Americans only four hun- Prescott Statue, Bunker Hill. 1775] BUNKER HILL TO TRENTON 139 dred. No wonder General Greene declared that he would be glad to sell other hills to the British on the same terms. Nor is it to be wondered at that the British themselves after this kept close to Boston and to Bunker Hill. 167. Second Continental Congress meets, May 10, 1775. — Another Continental Congress met at Philadelphia be- tween the battles of Lexington and Bun- ker Hill. It at once declared that the cause of Massachu- setts was the cause of all the colonies. It adopted the army before Boston as its own and appointed George Washington commander-in-chief. He hastened to Bos- ton and assumed con- trol of the blockade of that town on July 3, 1775.1 Congress also issued a declara- tion as to the reason for taking up arms, and drew up a last petition to the king to interfere on their behalf. This was called the "olive branch " because it was looked upon by the colonists as the last chance for peace. Congress also began the formation of a little The Washington ^ Local tradition states that he took command under a venerable elm tree hard by the common at Cambridge. His first official act, as commander-in- chief, was in writing a letter to General Schuyler directing him to defend cer- tain positions. This letter was dated at the city of New York, on June 26. I40 THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR [i77S navy and issued paper money to pay the soldiers, and to buy food and clothing for them. i68. The Canada expedition, 1775-1776. — In May, 1775, Ethan Allen at the head of men from Vermont, western Massachusetts, and Connecticut seized the forts at Ticon- deroga and Crown Point ^ on Lake Champlain. These contained great quantities of guns and miHtary stores which had remained there since the last French war. Arnold's March through the Wilderness. The capture of these posts also opened the way to Canada. A large party in Congress thought that the French Cana- dians would be glad to throw off the EngUsh yoke and be- come independent, and perhaps join the United Colonies. The plan was for two armies to invade Canada ; one going by the way of Lake Champlain and the other marching northward through Maine. The two meeting at Quebec would capture that place with its English garrison. The commander of the latter force was Benedict Arnold, a most 1 See the map in § 179. 1776] BUNKER HILL TO TRENTON 141 enterprising and dashing soldier from Connecticut The march of this force turned out to be full of suffering and danger, and it reached Quebec too late to take the fortress by surprise. The other expedition, led by Richard Mont- gomery, an Irish soldier, who threw in his lot with the colonists, joined Arnold and together they attacked Quebec. The assault was made at night while a terrific storm of drifting snow and sleet was raging, and was an utter failure. Mont- gomery was killed and Arnold badly wounded. Nevertheless, the Americans kept up a block- ade of the town throughout the winter. In the spring of 1776, an army of British and Hessians came from England, drove away the Americans who had been besieging Quebec and another army which came to their relief. The Americans retired first up the St. Lawrence and then down to Ticonderoga. The British followed them there, but did not recapture the fort, and went back to Canada late in the autumn of 1776. The result of the invasion of Canada was, therefore, very disappointing. The French Canadians had been treated so well by their British con- querors and remembered so keenly their former conflicts with the New Yorkers and New Englanders that they proved to be of very little service to the Americans. 169. British attack Charleston, South Carolina, 1776. — The Loyalists,^ as all the reports that reached England as 1 The Loyalists were Americans who did not approve of fighting the Eng- lish soldiers or of declaring the colonies to be independent states. Arnold's March. 142 THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR [1776 to affairs in the South stated, were very numerous in the CaroHnas, and were determined to aid the EngUsh. A combined fleet and army under General Sir Henry Clinton and Commodore Sir Peter Parker sailed for the conquest of these two colonies. They first put in at Cape Fear River in North Carolina, where they expected to be joined by a large body of Scottish colonists who had settled in North Carolina. More than a thousand of these took up arms for the British, but they were defeated by the colonial militia, and Clinton met with so much resistance, when he tried to land, that he put his men on shipboard again and sailed for Charleston, South Carolina. The people were ready for him there, too. Under lead of the South Caro- lina general, Moultrie (Mortri), they had built a fort of palmetto ^ logs and sand on the end of Sullivan's Island, where the channel from the sea runs close to the shore. They named it Fort Moultrie for their general. Clinton landed his soldiers on the next island, but when he tried to cross over to attack the Americans, sharp-shooters on the end of Sullivan's Island drove his men back. The fleet also found that the fort was a formidable affair. The naval cannon balls imbedded themselves in the palmetto logs or in the ground without doing any injury; while the shot from the fort crashed into the wooden hulls. The fleet turned round and sailed out again. The soldiers were re- embarked, and the whole expedition steered for the North. 170. The evacuation of Boston, March 17, 1776. — Mean- time the blockade of Boston was going on. The British did not show much activity even after Gage had been ordered to England to explain the affair at Bunker Hill and the command had fallen to Sir William Howe. There were really too few British soldiers to do more than man the defences of the town. Washington on his part also had 1 Pal-met't6, a kind of palm growing in southern United States. 1776] BUNKER HILL TO TRENTON I43 great difficulties. His men were mostly militiamen ^ who had no wish to become professional soldiers. In the winter, indeed, he was obliged to make over his army, while main- taining a bold front to the enemy. Another thing that troubled him was the lack of guns with which to bombard Ethan Allen at Ticonderoga. the British Hues and powder and ball to use in them. Under Washington's direction Colonel Glover of Marble- head armed some fishing vessels and sent them out to cap- ture British ships which were bringing guns and ammunition to Boston. This they soon did. Then, in the winter, some of the guns that Ethan Allen had captured at Ticonderoga were hauled over the snow and placed in the lines before Boston. All was ready in March, 1776. Washington seized Dorchester Heights, which overlooked the town and anchorage. Howe at once put his men in boats to drive ' 1 Militiamen are citizen soldiers who drill from time to time, but do not ex- pect to be called into actual service except in emergencies, as, for instance, in guarding people and property in case of a great conflagration or some other dire necessity. 144 THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR [1776 the Americans away, as he had done at Bunker Hill, but a furious storm came up and gave the Americans time to make their position so strong that it would have been folly to have attacked it. Nothing else could be done, except to leave the town. On March 17, the British fleet with the soldiers and about a thousand Loyahsts left the anchor- age off the wharves, dropped down to the lower harbor, and soon afterwards sailed for Halifax. From that time on, there was no more serious fighting in eastern New England except in Rhode Island. 171. Independence Proposed. — The olive branch petition produced no more effect on King George than had any of the earlier prayers of the colonists for justice. He would not even read it. Instead, he declared the colonists rebels and proclaimed war against them. This last British act convinced many people in the colonies who had hitherto been doubtful as to independence that the time had now come to take the step. The hiring of the Hessians also brought many to this opinion, and justified them in appeal- ing to foreigners for aid. It was very unlikely that France or Holland or any other country would join them until they stated definitely that they were independent and meant to remain so. Even in July, 1776, many patriots did not think that the time had yet come for declaring independence, al- though they were fighting hard against the English for what they considered to be their rights. The opposition to declaring the United States a separate nation was espe- cially strong in Pennsylvania and New York. The dele- gates from the latter did not give the consent of their state until the middle of July. 172. Declaration of Independence Adopted, July 4, 1776. — The movement for declaring independence came from Vir- ginia, and the task of drawing up the declaration was given to Thomas Jefferson, who had succeeded Washington as a 1776] BUNKER HILL TO TRENTON I45 delegate from that state. Jefferson had already set forth the grievances of the colonists in some instructions which he pro- posed should be given to the Virginia delegates in the first Continental Congress, and he had just written a declaration of independence for his own state. He had the matter so much on his mind and remembered so well the state decla- ration that he had just written that he was able to sit down without notes or books and produce the immortal Declara- tion of Independence in almost exactly the same words in which it was adopted by Congress and exists to this day. The first two paragraphs of this great statement of the rights of human kind should be learned by every boy and girl (see Appendix), and always kept in mind by every one who has to do with the government of the country.^ 173. The Declaration Signed, August, 1776. — The Decla- ration was adopted on July 4, 1776, but it was not signed until the following August, except that a few copies were printed and sent to the state governors and the commander- in-chief under the signatures of John Hancock and Charles Thompson, president and secretary of Congress. It was received with great rejoicing by the revolutionists. John Adams, then in Congress at Philadelphia, wrote to his wife at Braintree, near Boston, that the declaring of .indepen- dence ought to be annually celebrated as long as the nation lived ** with pomp and parade, with shows, games, sports, guns, bells, bonfires, and illuminations, from one end of the continent to the other." 174. The Loyalists. — The Americans were not all of one mind in opposing the government of England before 1 The only important sentence that was in Jefferson's original declaration and was not accepted by Congress contained a fiery denunciation of the British king for forcing slaves upon the colonists. This was omitted to please the South Carolinians. 146 THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR [1776 the war began, or in fighting British soldiers after Lexing- ton and Concord. The Declaration of Independence also drove many of them over to the British side. In the early days the opponents of the Revolutionary policy had been called Tories, but now this name was dropped and they were known as Loyalists. Some of them stayed on their farms and did nothing, one way or the other, but many of them enlisted in the British army and fought to the end of the war.^ 175. Battle of Long Island, 1776. — As soon as the British ships sailed from Boston in March, Washington started for New York, with the greater part of his soldiers. General Howe first went to Halifax, so that it was July before he and his army appeared before New York City. From a miUtary point of view, this was the most important seaport on the Atlantic coast, since an army could go from there easily to New England or to the southward. As 1 Ferguson's Riflemen, who were defeated at King's Mountain; Tarleton's Legion, which was with Cornwallis in the South; and the Queen's Rangers, which fought in Virginia, were the most famous Loyalist regiments. 1776] BUNKER HILL TO TRENTON 147 Boston was commanded by Bunker Hill and Dorchester Heights, so New York was commanded by Brooklyn Heights on the western end of Long Island. To hold New York, Washington Avas obliged to fortify Brooklyn Heights ; and to capture New York, Howe was obliged to drive the Americans away from their fortifications. It was August, 1776, before Howe^ felt strong enough to land on Long Island. With one part of his army, he at- tacked an advanced body of the Americans which occupied high ground at some distance from their fort. With the rest of his soldiers, he marched across country in the middle of the night, and next morning suddenly thrust in between the advanced American force and the fort. He had so many more men than the Americans that most of their advanced force was captured. The British then marched to attack the fort ; but Howe had no wish to try another Bunker Hill, so he withdrew his soldiers. Washington saw that he must extricate his men at all hazards. A storm and foggy weather gave him the opportunity. With assist- ance from other regiments, Colonel Glover and his Marble- head fishermen ferried the American soldiers across to Manhattan Island. 176. Loss of New York City. — A few weeks later, General Howe made his next move to land men on Man- hattan Island, itself. To do this, he sent some warships so near to the shore that the Americans who were watching the landing-place ran away as fast as they could to avoid the cannon-balls from the frigates. Seeing them running, other soldiers also took to their heels. Many of these fugi- tives covered themselves with glory a day or two later at Harlem Heights, when they not only beat off the British, but drove them back for a mile or more. Washington had too 1 While waiting, Hessian troops had come to his aid from Europe, and Clinton had joined him from his attack at Charleston, South Carolina. 148 THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR [1776 few men to hold New York against the outnumbering forces of the enemy. He sent part of his army up the Hudson to fortify the difficult positions along the river. With the rest, he crossed over to New Jersey and retreated from one place to another until he found himself across the Delaware River in Penn- sylvania. The end of 1776 was the darkest period of the war. Most of the soldiers had been enlisted to serve until the end of the year. There was no money to be had, and without it a new army could not be placed in the field. In his place, any other man would have given way to despair ; but the greater the danger, the better Washington fought. He determined to make one great effort to revive the spirits of the people and to deal a telling blow at the British army. 177. Trenton and Princeton. — The British posts at Trenton and Princeton were held by Hessian soldiers. Those at Trenton were vigilant, one-third of them being armed and on guard every night; but their commander had not built any forts to protect his men from a sudden attack. On Christmas night, 1776, Washington and his soldiers crossed the Delaware in open boats. The river was covered with ice, so that the men experienced the greatest fatigue in breaking a passage. They landed some miles above Tren- ton and marched by two separate roads to that town. A 1776] BUNKER HILL TO TRENTON 149 violent storm of snow and hail was raging, and it was all that the men could do to keep their muskets and powder dry. Washington would permit no delay. Suddenly the troops came across the enemy's outposts. The guards gave the alarm by firing their muskets, and then fled into the town, with the Americans close upon them. A few Hessians Washington crossing the Delaware. escaped over a bridge before it could be seized, but all the rest were taken. The sight of nearly one thousand of them marching through Philadelphia as prisoners aroused the greatest enthusiasm. Volunteers now came forward, and all were willing to follow wherever Washington led. In a few days he beat another British force at Princeton, Janu- ary, 1777. He then posted his army in such a threatening position among the Jersey hills that the invaders withdrew from all their posts in the interior of that state. 178. Summary. — The conquest of the American colo- nies proved to be difficult, although the British govern- 150 THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR [1777 ment secured the aid of Hessian soldiers. The battle of Bunker Hill was fought, June 17, 1775. The second Con- tinental Congress met and took the part of Massachusetts. An expedition to Canada nearly surprised Quebec, but failed. The British likewise failed in an attack on Charles- ton, South Carolina. March 17, 1776, the British evacuated Boston. July 4, 1776, the Declaration of Independence was adopted. The Loyalists weakened the American re- sistance. The British won the battle of Long Island and occupied New York City. Washington captured one thousand Hessians at Trenton, December 26, 1776. THE STRUGGLE FOR THE DELAWARE AND FOR THE HUDSON 179. The Plan of Campaign, 1777. — General Howe now saw plainly enough that he must have many more men if he was to hold New York, on the one hand, and conquer the American armies in the field, on the other. He wrote home to England that he needed seventeen thousand men. These could not be supplied from Europe, but the government thought that it could send General Burgoyne (Bur-goin') with seven or eight thousand men from the army in Canada to join Howe at New York. This army on its way could seize Albany and other important points on Lake Cham- plain and the Hudson River, and thus cut New England off from the rest of the rebellious colonies. A few thousand men also came to New York directly from Europe. Of course, it was a dangerous thing to send Burgoyne with so few men through the wilderness and down along the river where he might be attacked at any moment ; but How^e thought that if he took his main army to Pennsylvania, Washington would have to follow him with the strongest American force and that this would make Burgoyne's task much easier and safer. Still other troops were expected 17771 STRUGGLE FOR THE DELAWARE AND HUDSON 151 from Europe, and when these should arrive, Clinton, whom he left behind at New York, could go up the Hudson to meet Burgoyne. 180. Battle of Brandywine, 1777. — At first, Howe tried to march across New Jersey to the Delaware, but he soon found that Washington was altogether too strong for him, there. So he embarked his army and sailed up Delaware Bay. It soon appeared that it would be very difficult, if not impossible, to land his army anywhere near Philadelphia. He then steered southward for Chesapeake Bay,^ but it was nearly a month before his army began its march over- land to the capital of Pennsylvania. General Howe found Washington posted at Brandywine Creek, where the road from the south crossed at Chadd's Ford. Instead of attack- ing the Americans in front, Howe sent Cornwallis with a strong force to cross the little river higher up, while the rest of his army confronted the Americans at the ford. Cornwallis marched through the wilderness by unfrequented roads and suddenly attacked the American right wing. For a time, the fighting was severe, and then Washington was obliged to retreat. From this point Howe marched unmolested to Philadelphia ; but it was some time before the British captured the forts guarding the Delaware below that city, so that they could sail up and down the river undisturbed. 181. Battle of Germantown, 1777. — Washington could not prevent the British from taking possession of the Quaker city, but he made a determined attack on one of their ad- vanced positions at Germantown. This attack was bril- liantly planned, and might have been as successful as that at Trenton, had not a dense fog come down and prevented the attacking columns from seeing what the others were ' Ordinarily this voyage would take only a few days, but the weather at this time was so calm that for weeks the fleet could make no progress. 152 THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR [1777 •^1 TICONDEROGA, r% liennlngton and breaking up the that it took him weel doing. At first everything went well. Some of the British did not retreat, but went into a strongly built stone house, and defended it. In- stead of leaving a few men to occupy the attention of that party, the divi- sion that was advancing by that route halted to capture it. This threw the whole movement into confusion, and Washington reluctantly ordered the army to retire. After Hngering awhile in the vicinity, he took his men up the Schuylkill (Skool'kil) to a strong position among the hills at Valley Forge, where they passed the following winter. 182. Battle of Bennington, 1777. — Proceeding southward from Can- ada, Burgoyne easily captured Ti- conderoga and drove away the Amer- ican forces there. When he reached the southern end of Lake Cham- plain, he found himself in serious difficulty. He was now a long way from his base of supplies in Canada, and the task of bringing food for his soldiers and ammunition for their guns was nearly impossible. Be- tween him and the Hudson lay a wooded country where General Schuyler (Ski'ler), the American commander, by cutting down trees roads delayed Burgoyne so effectively :s to go only a few miles. Not far to 1777] STRUGGLE FOR THE DELAWARE AND HUDSON 153 the east, at Bennington, were storehouses of food. Bur- goyne sent a force of Hessian cavalrymen to seize these supplies and also to capture horses for their own use. When they neared Bennington, they saw groups of men gathering in the distance, but their guide assured them that these were Loyalists. The next morning, however, under the lead of General Stark, these supposed Loyalists and others attacked the Hessians and killed or captured them almost to a man. Meantime, Burgoyne had sent another detachment to the aid of the first. This body had marched so slowly that it, too, was defeated by the Americans. 183. Battle of Oriskany, 1777. — While Burgoyne was advancing southward from the St. Lawrence, Canadian frontiersmen and Indians were advancing toward Albany by the way of Lake Ontario and the Mohawk Valley. They expected to meet Burgoyne and march southward with him. Colonel Gansevoort (Gan'se-vort) commanded the garrison at Fort Schuyler, where the road from Lake Ontario ran into the Mohawk Valley. Gansevoort refused to surrender, and General Herkimer (Her'ki-mer), with Ger- man frontiersmen from the settlements lower down the river, marched to the relief of the garrison. They fought a furious battle with the British Indians at Oriskany (0-ris'ka-ny), which was not far from Fort Schuyler. Both sides fought Indian fashion from behind trees until a terri- ble thunder-storm put an end to the conflict. Soon after the Indians became frightened at rumors of another body of Americans coming to attack them. They deserted, and the Canadians were obliged to abandon the siege of Fort Schuyler and go back to their homes. In this way Bur- goyne was left to take care of himself without the men he had lost at Bennington and without the aid he had expected to reach him from Lake Ontario. 154 THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR [1777 184. The Saratoga Battles. — General Gates ^ was now in command of the army opposing Burgoyne. Crossing the Hudson, the British marched southward on the western side. For a time all went well, then suddenly, late one afternoon, one of their three columns was fiercely attacked at a clearing in the wilderness known by the name of Freeman's Farm. They halted there for the night, and never got any farther. For a few days, the two armies confronted each other, their positions being somewhat indistinct, owing to the wild character of the region. At length, one morning, Burgoyne set out to find exactly where the Americans were. This was the opportunity, and Benedict Arnold '^ seized it. He led his men and who- ever would follow him, again and again, right into the British lines. Their centre was pierced, and Burgoyne ordered the retreat. When he again reached the crossing- place* of the Hudson, the opposite bank was held by strong bodies of New England militiamen who had gathered in great numbers. Northward and westward of him was the Adirondack wilderness, southward the American army. Burgoyne and the British soldiers stood it as long as they could, but when their food was on the point of giving out, they surrendered on condition that they should be sent to England and should not serve again in America while the war lasted.^ 1 Gates was an Englishman, an officer in the regular army who fought in the last French war and then settled in Virginia. His military knowledge attracted Washington's attention, and he was appointed adjutant-general of the army before Boston. There, his gracious bearing gained the affection of the colonists and led to his rapid advancement. 2 Arnold hail displeased Gates and been deprived of his command ; but he led his old division into the thick of the fight and really won the battle. '^ This agreement, or military treaty, is called the Saratoga Convention. When Congress realized that the Convention troops, as these returned pris- oners were called, could take the place of British soldiers in European forts and these latter might be sent to America, it refused to permit Burgoyne's army to embark for England. 17/8] STRUGGLE FOR THE DELAWARE AND HUDSON 155 185. The French Alliance, 1778. — l^cnjamin Franklin and other American agents had been in France for some time seeking aid from that country, for the French were still embittered by the loss of Canada. The French king gave the Americans money and allowed them to purchase arms and military supplies. The surrender of Burgoyne's whole army induced the king of France to make a Treaty of Alliance with the United States, by which he agreed to aid them openly. At first he gave them more supplies, and then sent fleets and armies to America.^ 186. Captain Paul Jones. — The French king and government also helped the Americans by allowing them to use French ports for the fitting out and preparing of ships-of-war. ^The most J°^" p^^' J°"^^- famous naval captain of the Revolution was John Paul Jones.^ His ship^was named the Boti Homme RicJiardy or "Poor Richard," in honor of Dr. Franklin's most famous literary production.^ In this old merchant ship which 1 In the summer of 1778, the British abandoned Philadelphia and marched overland through New Jersey to New York. Washington attacked them at Monmouth, but without success, owing to the misconduct of General Charles Lee. The latter was an Englishman, and not a member of the famous Virginia family of that name. - He was born in Scotland, in 1747, and only came to Virginia in 1773. Originally his name was John Paul ; but he now added Jones to it, soon dropping the John, so that he is known in history as Paul Jones. ^^This was Poor RichanVs Almanack. Besides the yearly calendars and other matter usually found in almanacs, Franklin inserted in his books bits of good advice : " It is hard for an empty sack to stand upright," "Many words 156 THE RF.VOLUTTONARY WAR [1778 was hardly seaworthy, and was very poorly armed, Paul Jones ran alongside one of the finest frigates in the British navy. He got so close to the enemy that his muskets shot down nearly every man on the spar-deck of the British ship. At the same time, the enemy's guns on the next deck below were firing cannon-balls through and through Jones's ship. The British surrendered ; Jones Washiiufion anJ. Lafayette at Valley Forge. removed his crew to the captured ship before his own vessel went down, and thus ended one of the most glorious naval battles in the annals of war. 187. The Winter at Valley Forge, 1777-1778. —While the negotiators at Paris were drawing up the Treaty of will not till a bushel," " God helps them that help themselves," " Lost time is never found again." This book has been translated into eighteen different languages. 1778] STRUGGLE FOR THE DELAWARE AND HUDSON 157 Alliance with France, the American army was vStarving in its winter camp at Valley Forge. There was still the old lack of money, but now added to this was want of system in buying food and supplies and bringing them to the army. For days, the soldiers were often without meat ; the clothes of hundreds of them were in tatters. Many were obliged to go barefoot over the frozen ground because they had no shoes, and some of them had no blankets with which to cover themselves at night. Wash- ington felt keenly for the suffering soldiers and declared that their heroism was deserving of all praise. 188. Lafayette and Steuben. — The Revolution had attracted to America adventurous spirits from all over Europe. Some of these were persons seeking glory ; they were anxious for uniforms and high rank, whether they deserved them or not. Others came because Ameri- can principles attracted them. Of these last Lafayette (La'fa-et') and Steuben (Stu'ben) must ever be held in grateful remembrance by all Americans. Lafayette ^ was of a noble French family. As the king would not send him to America, he bought a ship and came on his own responsibihty. When he arrived, he declared that he wanted neither rank nor pay. His winning ways so pleased Washington that he invited him to become one of his aides. A short time only was needed to convince the commander-in-chief of the sterHng quahties and high character of the young Frenchman. The second foreigner, 1 Lafayette was nineteen years of age when he sailed for America. After the American Revolution, he returned to Erance and became a leader in the early part of the French Revolution, but later fell out with the revolutionists. Going to Germany, he was imprisoned by the Austrians, and was set at liberty by the intercession of Napoleon Bonaparte. In 1824, he visited America for the last time. He traveled over the country, placed flowers on Washington's tomb, and was everywhere received with admiring affection. He went back to France and died in Paris, May 20, 1834. 1^8 THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR [1778 Baron Steuben, was a Prussian veteran, having served in the armies of Frederick the Great, the king of that country, who was the foremost soldier of his day. Steuben, too, asked neither for rank nor pay, but told Congress that he would serve for six months and then would take whatever position seemed to be fitting. It was not long before his soldier-like qualities were fully recognized. He was ap- pointed inspector-general of the army, and in this winter at Valley Forge he set to work drilling the soldiers until they became as good troops as any in the world.^ Steuben, also, made a little book, stating the duties of soldiers and officers. This was adopted by Congress and became the basis of the military system of the United States. 189. Clark's Western Campaign, 1778-1779. — While this fighting had been going on in the older settled parts of the country, George Rogers Clark,^ a Virginia soldier, had been fighting the British in the country west of the Allegheny Mountains and north of the Ohio River. He got a commission from Patrick Henry, who was then gov- ernor of Virginia, authorizing him to make this expedition. He also obtained some money and military supplies from him. His soldiers came from Virginia and from the settle- ments that had been made west of the mountains in what is now the state of Kentucky. With these Clark crossed' the Ohio River and captured the French-English settle- ments of Kaskaskia (Kas-kas'ki-a), Cahokia (Ka-ho'ki-a), and Vincennes (Vin-senz'). An Enghsh force came down 1 By this time Congress had begun to enlist soldiers for three years, or until the war should end. This permanent force was called the Continental Line. 2 George Rogers Clark w^as born in Virginia, in 1752. He learned survey- ing, moved to Kentucky, and became a leader among the backwoodsmen. The Virginia legislature granted him several thousand acres of land in the western country for his great services; but he died poor and neglected near Louisville, Kentucky, in 18 18. 1780] STRUGGLE FOR THE DELAWARE AND HUDSON 1 59 from Detroit to capture Clark and his men and to reoccupy the country ; but the Americans captured the British sol- diers and sent them to Virginia as prisoners. 190. Arnold's treason, 1780. — Benedict Arnold, the hero of Quebec and Saratoga, was grieved because Con- gress had not promoted him as he felt he deserved. Washington sympathized with him and gave him the com- General Stark at the Battle of Bennington. mand of West Point, the most important military station on the Hudson. Already, Arnold had been in correspond- ence with Sir Henry CHnton, the British commander-in- chief, and he had asked Washington for the charge of this important post that his treason might command a higher price. Major John Andre (An'dra), CHnton's adjutant- general, went up the Hudson to meet Arnold and arrange for turning over West Point to the British. Andre was captured while returning overland to New York, with plans of West Point concealed in his boots. Never dreaming for a moment that General Arnold could be a traitor, Andre was permitted to write him a note. On receiving it he made good his escape to New York, where General Clinton i6o THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR [17S0 paid him five thousand pounds and gave him a command in the British army. Washington asked the leading gen- erals in the American army to advise him as to whether Andre was a spy or not. They replied that he was a spy and he was hanged as the British had hanged a young American, Nathan Hale, a few years before, also for being a spy. 191. Summary. — General Howe won the battle of Brandy wine and captured Philadelphia, 1777. General Burgoyne led an expedition southward from Canada, and was captured with his army at Saratoga. Captain Paul Jones won a famous victory over an Enghsh ship. The winter of lyj'j-i'/'jS at Valley Forge was a time of hard- ship and of military training; 1778-1779, Clark won the Northwest; 1780, Benedict Arnold committed treason. THE SOUTHERN CAMPAIGNS 192. Capture of Charleston, 1780. — The British armies were not making much headway in the North, so General Clinton decided to send another expedition to at- tempt the con- quest of the Southern States. In the winter of 1 778- 1 779, Brit- ish soldiers cap- tured Savannah and held it against all attempts of the French and Americans to re- General Marion. take it. In the 1780] THE SOUTHERN CAMPAIGNS 161 spring of 1780, General Clinton himself came to South Carolina with a large part of his main army. He marched overland to Charleston and, after a vigorous siege, cap- tured that city with the American army that was defend- ing it. 193. Battle of Camden, 1780. — The easy conquest of the Carolinas now seemed certain. There was no regular American army to oppose the advance of Lord Cornwallis, who was left in command there when Clinton returned to New York. Patriots like Marion,^ Sumter, and Pickens harassed the British in every possible way, but could not oppose any large body of them successfully in battle. General Gates, Avith soldiers drawn from Washington's army and militia regiments from Virginia and North Carolina, marched southward to put an end to the success- ful career of Cornwallis. The two armies met late in the night at Camden, South Carolina. As soon as it was light, the British attacked with vigor. Without waiting even to receive this attack, the frightened militia turned and fled, bearing Gates himself from the field in their rush. Alone, the regular regiments of the Continental Line fought to the end. Their leader. General John Kalb, another foreign officer whose name should be held in highest honor, died after being wounded eleven times. Their officers who remained alive then surrendered. 194. Battle of King's Mountain, 1780. — Affairs seemed to be going worse than ever, when a ray of light appeared 1 A southern officer who served in these campaigns states that on one occasion Marion invited an English officer who had visited him on business to remain to dinner. They had nothing to eat except roasted potatoes served on pieces of bark instead of plates. Upon his visitor expressing surprise at the scantiness of the fare, Marion informed him that food was unusually abundant that day. Convinced that men who fought so well and so willingly on so little food could never be conquered, the Englishman resigned his com- mission and returned to his home. l62 THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR [17S0 in the west. The valleys of the Alleghenies had now been occupied by frontier settlers whose clearings extended west- ward to what are now the easternmost parts of the states of Tennessee and Kentucky. Believing that there were a good many Loyalists in the western parts of the Carolinas, Cornwallis sent Fer- guson with his Loy- alist regiment of riflemen to induce these to join the British army. The American patriots on the frontier did not like this bring- ing the war to their doors. Collecting from their scattered hamlets, they ad- vanced rapidly and with great secrecy to King's Mountain on the northernmost edge of South Caro- lina, where they found Ferguson encamped. Dividing into groups, they charged up the steep sides of the mountain, availing themselves of every possible bit of shelter. The British riflemen drove back first one body then another, but every time they returned to the attack. When most of Ferguson's Loyalists had been killed or wounded, the rest surrendered. The victors then dispersed to their homes in the valleys and on the slopes of the mountains of Virginia and the Carolinas as rapidly and silently as they had come. i78i] THE SOUTHERN CAMPAIGNS 163 195. Battle of Cowpens, South Carolina, 1781. — General Nathanael Greene ^ was now given a few regiments from Washington's army and sent to the South to gather the remnant of Gates's force, and do what he could to stem the tide of British progress. Arrived in North Caro- lina, Greene soon brought back dis- cipHne to the dis- pirited American forces. He sta- tioned himself with the main body of his troops on one Hne of CornwalHs's advance and sent Daniel Morgan, a skilful Virginia com- mander, to watch the British doings farther to the west. At the Cowpens, just over the bor- der in South Carolina, Morgan learned that the dash- mg British cavalryman. Colonel Tarleton, was coming to 1 Nathanael Greene was born in Rhode Island in 1742. His parents were Quakers, but he studied the art of war in every book he could lay his hands on. When Washington reached Cambridge in July, 1775, he found Greene at the head of the Rhode Island regiments. He was the youngest of the l^rigadier-generals, but at once attracted the commander-in-chief's attention by his military bearing and knowledge. Washington pushed him forward in every possible way, but his great reputation as a general rests mainly on these southern campaigns. Georgia and the Carolinas granted him lands in recog- nition of his services. After the war he resided near Savannah, Georgia, where he died in 17S6. ^PV Nathanael Greene. 164 THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR [1781 attack him. Morgan posted his own cavalrymen in the rear behind a hill ; on the side of the hill, he placed his best soldiers and stationed his militiamen in the front. He told these last, that if they would fire only one vol- ley, they might then get out of the way as quickly as they wished. Tarleton, feeling a contempt for the Amer- ican soldiers, dashed at them on sight. True to their orders, the mihtiamen fired and then got out of the way as fast as they could. When the British came to the continentals, they found them unyielding. Morgan then ordered his horsemen to attack and the British turned and fled, but not many of them got off alive. Without waiting even to count his prisoners, Morgan sent them off under guard to Virginia, while he himself, with the rest of his troops, marched at top speed to rejoin Greene. 196. The race across North Carolina. — Hearing of this disaster, Cornwallis at once put his whole army in motion to attack and capture Morgan. Finding that the latter had got the start of him, CornwalHs caused his soldiers to destroy everything that they did not absolutely need and thus stripped for speed took up the pursuit of Morgan's little band. Greene, too, at once put his main body in motion to join Morgan before Cornwallis could reach him. The armies, sometimes within sight of one another, raced across the state of North CaroHna, until the Ameri- cans reached safety on the northern bank of the Dan River in Virginia. Cornwallis could not follow him because Greene had secured all the boats for a long distance up and down the stream and taken them to his side of the river. 197. Battle of Guilford Court House, 1781. — While on his northward way, Greene had picked out a position at Guilford (Gil'ford) Court House as being splendidly fitted for the kind of battle that Morgan had waged at Cowpens. As soon as he had gathered soldiers enough to meet Corn- 1781] THE SOUTHERN CAMPAIGNS 165 wallis, he recrossed the Dan and marched to his chosen spot. There Cornwallis was obliged to fight him. The battle was one of the most fiercely contested during the whole course of the war. At the end, Greene was forced to retreat. The British were victorious, but Greene had dealt them such a blow that Cornwallis was obliged to leave his wounded behind and march to Wilmington where he could get more men and more supplies from the British fleet. 198. Greeners later campaign. — ^ Greene followed Corn- wallis as far as he could, but when he felt certain that the British would not stop until they got to the sea, he turned southward toward Camden, where Cornwallis had left a small force. There, again, Greene was defeated in a battle, but there, again, the British were obliged to retreat. The same thing happened in two more engagements, until the British had left the interior of South Carolina and gone back to Charleston. In this wonderful series of mili- tary operations, Greene lost every battle and won every campaign. 199. Plan of the Yorktown campaign. — From Wil- mington, Cornwallis might have gone by water back to Charleston and begun all over again. Instead, he marched northward to Virginia and fortified a position at Yorktown. Meantime, a French army had landed at Newport, Rhode Island. Washington was at New York with the main American army when word came to him that the French admiral, De Grasse, was saiUng northward, from the West Indies, with a great fleet and another body of French soldiers. Washington determined to unite all these forces with a small American army that was already in Virginia before Yorktown and with them capture Corn- walHs and all his men. This wonderful manoeuvre was so well planned and so splendidly carried out that Washington, 1 66 THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR [1781 with his soldiers and the French from Newport, marched by New York without Clinton's suspecting where they were going and reached the head of the Chesapeake at almost the same moment that the French anchored at the entrance of the bay. The British admiral at New York sailed southward to drive De Grasse off, but did not succeed. As long as the French fleet maintained its place in Chesapeake Bay, there was no hope of aid reaching Cornwallis from New York. 200. Yorktown surrendered, October 19, 1781. — The siege of Yorktown went slowly on until it became necessary to THE SIEGE OF \ TOUKTOWX \ FRENCH _, AAA AMERICAN FORCES capture two forts that protected one end of the British Hnes. This task was given to French and American forces, each having one fort. The American attackers were led by Colonel Alexander Hamilton who had been on Wash- ington's staff, but was now commanding in the field. The forts were captured with a rush and when day dawned, their guns were turned on the inner line of British de- i78i] THE SOUTHERN CAMPAIGNS 167 l68 THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR [1783 fence. Cornwallis tried to drive the Americans away from these advanced positions the next night, but could not do it. There was nothing left but surrender. On October 19, 1781, the British marched out, their band playing the good old march of the " World turned upside down," and surrendered to General Lincoln who had been appointed by Washington for that purpose. Cornwallis and Clinton returned to England to join Howe, Burgoyne, and Gage in making explanations of how it had all happened. 201. Treaty of Peace, 1783. — The royal disaster at York- town practically closed the fighting in America, but the treaty of peace was not signed at Paris until nearly two years later, September 3, 1783. The Americans who nego- tiated this treaty were Benjamin FrankHn,i John Jay, and John Adams. They secured very favorable terms, for by the treaty the bounds of the United States extended westward to the Mississippi. Moreover, the British king acknowledged them to be "free, sovereign, and independent States." It was also provided in the treaty that no more injury should be done to the Loyahsts and that debts which were owed to British merchants or other persons should be paid. 202. Robert Morris. — In war, money is almost as nec- essary as gunpowder or muskets, for the soldiers must be fed, and must be paid, so that they can send something home to buy food and clothing for their families. Wash- 1 Benjamin Franklin was the oldest of the great men of the Revolutionary period. He was born at Boston in 1706. He went to Philadelphia as a lad and identified himself with his adopted city. He has been called the many- sided Franklin because he was the first great scientific American, its earliest great man of letters, a most successful pohtician, one of the leading diplomats of his time, and a shrewd maker of constitutions. His discoveries in electricity won him a great reputation which was of exceeding advantage when he went to Paris to represent the United States there. All in all he was the shrewdest and most intellectual man of his day. 1783] THE SOUTHERN CAMPAIGNS 169 ington was oftentimes so hard pressed for money that it seemed as if his army would surely go to pieces. In Phila- delphia there lived an Englishman who had been brought Benjamin Franklin. to America, when only a boy, by his father. His name was Robert Morris. He entered the employment of a great Philadelphia shipping firm as a clerk. Because of his ability and energy, he rose rapidly from one position to another, until he became a partner in the concern. In lyo THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR those darkest days of the Revolution, in the winter of 1 776-1 777, Washington appealed to Morris for money. The latter went around among his friends, some of whom were Quakers, and borrowed fifty thousand dollars in silver and gold on his own credit, and sent it to Washington, who used it to keep enough soldiers together to defend the country. In 1781, Robert Morris was given sole charge of the finances of the country, with the title of " Financier," which an- swers to the office of Secretary of the Treasury at the present day. 203. Summary. — General Clinton captured Charleston, 1780. Cornwallis defeated Gates at Camden, but the British were beaten at King's Mountain, 1780, and at Cow- pens, 1 78 1. The American general, Nathanael Greene, conducted a series of remarkable campaigns which freed the Carolinas from the British. Cornwallis surrendered to the allied American and French armies at Yorktown, 1781. Two years later, a treaty of peace was signed at Paris. Robert Morris lent money to Washington at a most needy moment, and was made " Financier." Robert Morris. THE SOUTIIKRN CAMi'AIGNS 171 TOPICAL ANALYSIS Hunker Hill 10 Trkn'ion 1775-1776 Oi Stkugglk for IHK 1)E\.A- VVAKK ANJ; lilK ifUJ>SON ' Chances of Victory. 'J he Hessians. Second Continenlal Congress, May 10, 7775. Hunker Hill, June ly, 7775. The Canada Expedition, iJJS-itjO. British attack Charleston, South Carolina, iyj6. Evacuation of lioston, March ly, /yy6. /declaration of Independence J he Loyalists. Battle of Long Island, ryy6. Loss of New York City. Trenton and Princeton. Campaign in Pennsylvania lyyy j Burgoyne's advance from Canada, lyyy { Proposed. Arlopted July 4, 1776. Signed August, 1776. The French Alliance, lyyS Captain Paul Jones. Lafayette and Steuben. Clark's Western Campaign, ijyS-iyyg Arnold's Treason, lySo. Plan. Battle of Brandywine. Bjatlle of (iermantown. Winter at Valley J-orge. iB>attl(- of liennington. Battle of Oriskany. The Saratoga Battles, Burgoyne's Surrender. The Southern Campaigns Capture of Charleston, lySo. Battle of Catnden, lySo. Battle of King's Mountain, lySo. Battle of Cowpens, South Carolina, rySr. The Race across North Carolina. Battle of Guilford Court House. Greene's Later Campaigns. i Plan. The Yorktown Campaign \ Si(,-ge. Treaty of Peace, lySj. [ Surrender, Oct. 19. 1781. VII T]ii<: c:RiricAL i'I'.kkm). 17S3-1789 CONFEDERATION AND CONFUSION 204. Condition of the country in 1783. - The fi^luint; witli Iu\i;laiul was now ovci", but the jieople of Ihc several slates were nearly ;is hatlly olT as they had been before the sii;iiint;" ol the treaty of peace. Before the outbreak i)\^ the Revolutionary VVai", the colonies had enjoyed free- dom of trade with all j)arts of the Hiitish iMiipire, because they were parts of that eni|)ire. Now that they were in- dependent, the British government declared that American shij)s should no longer sail to the British West India Islands, and thus cut off American ship-owneis and niei- chants from a most i)rotitable conunerce. 'I'he disbanded soldicis had leturneil to their lu)mes with little money, and often with many debts han<;ini; over their heatls. In every way the old conditions were i;"onc, and the people had to make a new start. \'/av\\ one of the old thirteen colonies was now an indeiHMulcnt state, h'ach state mana«;ed its own business affairs to suit itself; some had free trade, others taxetl everythin<;- that was broui;ht in even from the next state. Thus New \'ork provided that every ])oat, even one from the Jersev side of New \'oik Harbor, must i;-o throu,i;"h the same forms, in order to land its freii;ht, as a »;reat ship (.-omini;- from lun-ope or from Africa. There was no fieedom of trade between the states as there is now, and the people of each state had to rely on their own efforts. 17a i7«^l (•()NI'l':i)l':iui seventeen years of age, his family removed to NorUi Carolina, lie had liulc book learninj^', but knew the forests as well as any R(rd Man. In his ex|)(Mli- tions to Kentucky, he was sometimes captured by the Indians, biil he always escaped. As soon as the ])la(:e in wliich he hai)pen(Ml to \>f living' bccam*: thickly settled, he moved a^ain into the wildeirK'ss. jl<- dird in Missouri in 1820. (TlTh^ 74 1787] CONFEDERATION AND CONFUSION 175 companions, and spent some time wandering through the forests. Later, he marked out the "Wilderness Road," which led from the settlements in the North Carolina moun- tains through central Kentucky. The western settlers who went over this road wished to set up a separate state gov- ernment for themselves. The Virginians did not like this. They said that Kentucky was a part of Virginia, and formed the settlements into the county of Kentucky, with a gov- ernment Hke the other Virginia counties. It was not until some years later that Kentucky was admitted to the Union as a separate state. 207. *'The Old Northwest' » —After the close of the Revolutionary War, many of the old soldiers of the Amer- ican armies bethought themselves of going to the western country and making new homes for their families in the wil- derness. Unfortunately, the region that had been conquered by Clark and his companions was claimed wholly or in part by four states. This made so much un- certainty about grants of land and forms of government that it greatly retarded emigration. Some of the states which had no right to these or other western lands suggested to Congress that all the states which claimed lands west of the mountains should surrender their rights to the United States so that these lands could be used for the benefit of all the people of the United States. This was done, and, in 1787, Congress provided a government for the Territory Northwest of the Ohio River. In this law, or " Ordinance 176 THE CRITICAL PERIOD [1785 of 1787," Congress promised that when the territory be- came thickly settled, it should be admitted to the Union as states, three, four, or five in number. Settlers now began to press into this new region. They went through Penn- sylvania to Pittsburg by wagons, and then down the river on rafts or flatboats to their new homes.^ 208. Hard Times, 1785-1786. — One reason for the emi- gration from the old states to the West was the great dif- ficulty of making a living in the older settled part of the country. When the war came to an end, every one thought that good times were coming. They spent their money freely, paying out all that they had on hand and running into debt for goods that they could not pay for with cash. Perhaps times would have been good, had not the English government done all that it could to destroy the trade of the United States. This was a very short- sighted move on the part of the British, because in this way they made it impossible for American merchants to pay for goods that they had already received or to order any more. When everybody owes money, as they did in 1786, it is the poorer people and the working men and women who suffer most ; but there was now so much distress that even the rich suffered. Everywhere, through- out the states, those who had money owing them were try- ing to collect it so that they, in turn, could pay what they themselves owed. At first they tried persuasion ; then they put their bills and claims into the hands of law- yers. Soon the courts became crowded with the cases that 1 Many of these emigrants from the older stales were Revolutionary veter- ans. Among them was a party led by General Rufus Putman which settled Marietta (Ma'ri-et'a) in 1788. Others went farther down the river and set- tled Cincinnati, which was so called from the society of Revolutionary veter- ans of that name. Marietta was made up from Marie Antoinette, the name of the queen of France, for at that time the people were very grateful to the French king for the aid which he had so recently given. Longitude West 80 from CLADIS AND CESSIONS. ly.so] TiiK C(jNS'ri'nrri()is[ 177 were brou£(ht before them. In their distress the people blamed the judges and hivvyers. 209. Shays's Rebellion, 1786. — In Massaehusetts, espe- cially, there was ^reat trouble. Led by a captain in the Revolutionary army, Daniel Shays by name, the distressed delators attended the sittings of the courts and compelled the judges to stop hearing cases and to shut uj) the court- houses. General Lincoln was placed at the head of a small body of trooi)s to put an end to these disorders. It was in the middle of winter when he started out on this errand ; the snow was deep on the ground in the western part of the state where Shays and his com])anions were gathered. Lincoln j)ursued them through a tremendous storm and, by his energetic action, in a few days ])ut an end to the ui)rising. 210. Summary. — Hard times followed the war. The government under the Articles of Confederation was weak. Emigrants from the original states sought the western country. In 1786, Shays's Rebellion occurred in Massachusetts. THE CONSTITUTION 211. The Federal Convention, May, 1787. — The troubles between the states, the difficulties of making a living any- where, and the prol)ability that the states would go to fighting each other at any time, set serious-minded men everywhere a-thinking. (ieorge Washington, Alexander Hamilton, and other leaders in the Revolutionary War now acted with younger men like James Madison of Virginia to bring about the formation of a stronger general or federal^ government. They carried out their plans so well that Congress author- ized the calling of a convention to meet at Philadel})hia in ' 'I'hc word "federal" means eoiii])<)sed of states or districts which retain only a subordinate and limited soverei^^iity. N 178 THE CRITICAL PERIOD [1787 May, 1787, to propose changes in the existmg government of the United States that would make it better fitted for carrying on the business of the country. The people had now become thoroughly convinced of the necessity of making such changes, and each state sent its best men to attend this meeting. John Adams was in England as the first American minister to appear before King George, and Thomas Jefferson was American minister in France. Otherwise, nearly all the ablest men in poHtical life came to Philadelphia, with the exception of Patrick Henry of Virginia and Samuel Adams of Massachusetts. Washing- ton was chosen the presiding officer of the convention, or meeting, and his taking so prominent a position convinced the people of the value of what was being done. Ben- jamin Franklin was there, too, and so were Alexander Hamilton and James Madison. The last named took down careful notes of everything that was said and done. These notes have been printed, and are of the greatest importance for any one who wishes to find out the reasons for the peculiar things in our system of government. 212. The Work of the Convention. — It was no easy thing to make over the government, because the people of the several states had so many different ideas and inter- ests. There were large states, like Virginia and Penn- sylvania, and small states, like Delaware, New Jersey, and Rhode Island. In the existing government all the states were on a footing of equality, Delaware having as many votes on any measure as Pennsylvania or Virginia. As there were seven times as many people in Pennsylvania as there were in Delaware, this meant that each Pennsylva- nian had only one-seventh as much to say about the affairs of the United States as each citizen of Delaware had. This seemed to be very unfair to the Pennsylvanians and the Virginians, especially if the new government was 787] THE CONSTITUTION 179 going to tax the people of the states directly without asking the consent of the state governments. On the other hand, the people of the smaller states thought that, if votes in the reconstructed Congress were to be in pro- portion to the number of people in each state, the com- bined representatives of Virginia, Pennsylvania, and Signing the Constitution, September 17, 1787- Massachusetts could legislate without the consent of the other ten states put together and directly against their interests. The way out of this difficulty was at last found by having a Congress of two Houses, and giving each state two votes in the Senate, but distributing the repre- sentatives according to the number of people living in the several states. Another very serious trouble now arose because of the great influence that slavery had in South CaroHna. l8o THE CRITICAL PERIOD [1787 Negroes were held in slavery in every state, except in Massachusetts, where they had been declared free by the supreme court of the state. In Virginia, there were many slaves. Washington, Jefferson, and Henry were opposed to slavery, but they did not know how to get rid of it. The South Carolinians beheved in slavery and wanted to have more slaves and to bring them direct from Africa. They were afraid that, if the new government was given the power to regulate trade and commerce, one of the first things that the people of the Northern States would do would be to stop the slave trade. The Northerners and Southerners also disputed as to how the slaves should be considered in counting the population. Should a slave state have representatives in proportion to all the people who lived within her borders, whether slave or free.'* The Northerners thought that slaves should not be counted for this purpose at all, partly because they had no votes ; but they insisted that they should be counted in determining the amount of tax to be paid by the slave state, because their masters regarded them as property. These were difficult questions. At last it was decided to allow each state representation according to the number of free per- sons living within it, and three-fifths of the slaves. 213. The President. — When these questions were set- tled, it was not difficult to decide upon the new frame of government or Constitution. It was decided to do away with the existing government, and to make an entirely new one. In the future, the United States of America should have a President, who should take an oath to preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution. To enable him to do this, he was made commander-in-chief of all the military and naval forces. 214. The Congress of the United States. — Congress con- sisted of two Houses, a Senate and a House of Represen- 1787] THE CONSTITUTION 181 tatives. A law was passed by them subject to the approval of the President, unless upon his disapproval it should be repassed by two-thirds of both Houses. Congress was given tremendous power; it could lay and collect taxes, borrow money, regulate commerce with foreign nations and among the several states, provide an army and navy, declare war, and make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution these great powers. The President, with the advice and consent of two-thirds of the Senators present, could make treaties with foreign nations and appoint all officers of the United States. The laws passed by Congress and treaties made by the Presi- dent with the consent of the Senate *' shall be the supreme Law of the Land," and judges in every state shall be bound thereby, no matter what the constitutions of the states might contain. 215. The Supreme Court. — To secure the carrying out of this Constitution, a Supreme Court of the United States was estabUshed whose judges hold office during good behavior and receive salaries at stated times, which can- not be diminished during their continuance in office. These judges are, therefore, independent of President and Congress. This proposed government was so unlike the existing federal union that, when it was adopted by the people of the states, it was spoken of as ''the new roof" supported by thirteen columns, one for each state. 216. **We the People.'* — When the new Constitution was ready, the people of the several states were asked to send delegates to a convention in each state which should give or refuse the consent of the people of that state to the Constitution. If the people of nine states agreed to it, it should go into force at once between those states, regard- less of the other four. The smaller states had gained so much more than they had expected that they ratified it at l82 THE CRITICAL PERIOD [17S9 once ; but the contest between the friends and opponents of the Constitution in Virginia, Massachusetts, and New York was bitter and for a long time doubtful. At length these states also agreed to it. There were now eleven states in the new union. North Carolina and Rhode Island alone holding out.^ *' We the people of the United States " had at last declared ourselves and established a strong, enduring government. 217. The election of Washington. — Even before the Constitution was accepted by nine states, and before Vir- ginia had voted for it, all eyes were turned to Washington as the first President of the United States. When the time came, every vote was cast for him. He had now been long in public life and had hoped to pass his remaining years at his beloved Mount Vernon on the Potomac, free from the cares and responsibilities of office. He yielded to public desire and set out in April, 1789, to take upon himself this great responsibility, with a mind full of misgivings as to his fitness for the place, but with a determination to do his utmost for his beloved country. His journey to New York, where the first inauguration took place, was one continued ovation. Everywhere the people turned out to greet their new ruler as he passed and to show their respect and affection for him. Triumphal arches were erected along the way and, here and there, the roads were strewn with flowers, while bands of children sang patriotic songs as he passed. On April 30, 1789, he took the oath of office in the city of New York, and a loud cry arose from the assembled multi- tude, " Long live George Washington, President of the United States! " 1 North Carolina ratified the Constitution, Nov. 21, 1789, Rhgde Island, May 29, 1790. These had no senators or representatives in the first session of the first Congress under the Constitution; but they are always included among the thirteen original states. For these states see § 123 and Appendix. 1789] THE CONSTITUTION 183 218. Summary. — Washington, Madison, and Hamilton, with other leading men, brought about the holding of a con- vention at Philadelphia, May, 1787. At this meeting the Constitution of the United States was framed. It provided for a strong federal government with a President, a Con- gress of two Houses, and a Supreme Court, and gave them all very extensive powers. In 1789, Washington was inaugurated first President of the United States. TOPICAL ANALYSIS The Critical Period, 1783- 1789 Confederation AND Confusion The Constitution The Election of w^ashington Condition of the Country in 178J. Articles of Confederation. The Western Country. " The Old Northwest." Hard Times, 1785-1786. Shays s Rebellion, 1786. The Federal Convention, May, 1787. The Work of the Convention. The President. The Congress of the United States. The Supreme Court. " We the People." 'IIII". I'lKSr IIIKI,!'. rui'.siDi-.N l\S WASHINGTON'S ADMINISi RATION ; TIIK GOVERNMENT ORC.ANIZEI) 2i(). Washiiij^ton's advisers. -(^)nu;icss ;i( omr ostiih lishnl loiii ;;iiMl (l(*|).i 1 1 mont s ol tlu' l;«)\im iiiiuMit, ami \\'ashiii:',t(>M ' lo()kr«l alxuit him lor [\\c hivst \\\c\\ to plarc at llu-ir luM(Is. l>olli John Adams ami Icllrisoii hail ic'- tmmnl liom ahroail. Adams had \h'c\\ clccicd \"\cc-\)\cs\ diMil. \\'ashin;;ton now olfnod tlu' position ol Si'iaciary ol State to Jidlcrson. l**oi SiHactaiy ol the Tioasury, ho scloctod AloxandtM" I lamilton,'-^ whose takMU as an organizer 'Cror-H- Wnsliiiii'.tiMi. lirst I'n-si,lciit i>r tlu- I'liilr.l Stales, was honi in Virginia, I'Vhmaiy 22, 17^2, nnrlil,antl traiiu-tl liinisi-ll to Ix- a sinviNoi. Ill' praitiscil his profi-ssion lor sonu- tinu-, aiul llun l>v inhcii- tann- au\ man iaj^f bi-iaini- onr ol tlu- rirhcsl nun in the i olonirs. Mis huliits ..I tluilt ami lo\ c ol iUiiri 1 rniaincl ihuui-ai lilr. II is plant ,il ions w en- anuMi;; tlu- lust nianajuil in \ii;;uiia. In tlu- I'n-iuli aiuI In.lian War. lu- lia^l li.Min (o Itoslon from Nirj^inia to arrange I't-itain iuatt(-is with the rouunaiiiKi in I hill llu-ri', ami this iomni-v inadi- Washington's lonnuandin;; li}'un- ai\il nt>l>U- l)t-arin«,' laniiliar to his rounti s n\(-n. W'liiU- a nu-n>l>i'r o( tlu- (."oiitint-ntal (oiisMi-ss, lu- was looUitl upon as possi-ssini; tlu- souiuli-st jiulj^nu-nt ol* tlu-m all. At Ins ilcalh. lu- was icrof^ni/i-a as " Inst in war, Inst in prarr, aiul Inst in tlu- lu-ails ..I I, is rounti \inrn." '•• Ali-Niiuh-i 1 lanultoi\ was hoin at Ni-vis, an islan>l in tlu- Wist hulii-s, on Jannaiv 11, 17^7. At tlu- aj;*- ol twclvi-, hi- ln-ianii- a i h rk in a Inisiiu-ss hoiisi- on tlu- island. In 177.', lu- saiK-.l loi tlu- Nortlu-rn Colonics niul the nr\t year entt-K-d Kinj^'s Collej^e, now rohnnlna I'niversity, in New York City. Although lu- was only eijj;ht<-en veais ol .iju- at the outbreak iA' the Revolu- tionary War, ht- at oiu-e took an a» live part. Atliaetint; Washinj.;ton's atten- tion by his energy mid ability, he was appointed one ol his seen-taries. and thus be^an a iViendship whieh was to have inipoil.ml eonsctpu-iiees, iu>l onlv iS, WASHINGTON'S ADM I NISTRA'l'K )N iRs ^^^l^v^^^&R^ \ ^^^^^^^^r ' ) • ^'T'^ ^ ^\ Bk^^ w ^H ^^^^K . if^^l BBp i ^■i&gl ^ 1 \ ■ hI f'-' ^5v^^ ^ -N^ "^ George Washington, during the war had impressed Washington. For Secretary of War, he chose General Henry Knox, his chief of artillery for Washington and TTamilton, but for the American ])eople. After the Rcvokition, I Iamiltt)n studied law and was successful in liis profession. He was killed by Aaron l^urr in a duel, July, 1806, His tragic death did much to put an end to the })racticc of duelling in the North. l86 THE FIRST THREE PRESIDENTS [1789 throughout the Revolution. The fourth important adviser was the Attorney-general ; for this post Washington chose Edmund Randolph, formerly governor of Virginia, who had lately distinguished himself by introducing the plan of a national government at the meeting in Philadelphia. The four heads of departments formed a sort of council for the President to which the English name of cabinet came to be applied. When we speak of these officials as advisers to the President, we must be careful to realize that he is not in any way obliged to follow their advice or even to ask it. There was also a Postmaster-general, but at this time the office was not important enough to give its holder a place in the cabinet. The other great position at Wash- ington's disposal was the office of Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States, and this place he offered to John Jay, who had acted as Secretary of Foreign Affairs for the last few years of the government of the Confederation. In his appointments to these offices,^ Wash- ington had been anxious to secure the services of the best men in the country. Franklin was now very old and grow- ing feeble, or he would doubtless have been offered some very important position, and Madison was fully occupied with securing the passage of laws in the House of Repre- sentatives, of which he was a leading member. 220. The nation's debts and how they were paid. — The United States owed money to the French and the Dutch for aid which they had given during the war. It owed even more to creditors at home, whose property had been taken in return for paper promises to pay, and to the soldiers for their services in the army. During the last 1 The Secretary of State at this time had charge of all foreign affairs, and all internal concerns that did not fall within 'the other great departments. The Secretary of the Treasury was intrusted with the management of the finances; the Secretary of War had charge of the army and the navy; the Attorney-general was the legal adviser of the government. 1789] WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION 187 few years, Congress had borrowed more money abroad to pay the interest on the existing debt, and the chances of ever getting their money baclc had seemed so hopeless to the creditors at home that most of them had sold the government's promises to pay to almost any one who would buy them, and for almost any price that he would give. Besides these national debts, there were state debts. Hamilton now proceeded to pay every cent of these debts, foreign and domestic, national and state,^ just as the government had prom- ised at the outset. Many people thought that this was very foolish, because very few persons who now held these bonds and other pieces of paper had paid very much for them. Hamilton replied that this made no difference ; if the credit of the United States was to be established, the government must pay what it had promised. After long debates and much excitement, Hamilton's plan was accepted. 221. The first national tariff. — Carrying out this plan would take a great deal of money. Hitherto the national government had raised funds only through the states. Most of these had tariffs on goods imported into them, but there was no national law for raising money by a tax on goods brought into the country from abroad. Con- 1 These state debts had been contracted to raise and equip soldiers for the Revolutionary armies and to supply them with foud and other necessaries. Alexander Hamilton. l88 TMl- llRSr rilRKK PRKSinKXTS [T780 gross now passed the first tariff act (17S0). There were then very tew mills aiul laetories. but in every part ot" the eountry there were aheaih' some industries, ami e\er\' one wanted more. This tirst taiitt' aet. therefore, was designed partl\- to briui; in mone\' h\ taxing toreign goods on impor- tatiiHi, anil partU' to protect the intant industries of the country. The lattei" it was proposed to do h\ taxing importcil goiuls at so high a rate that pec>ple could make similar giHuls in the I'nited States, although they had to pa\- their workmen more wages than laborers receixed in lunope.' 222. The Whiskey Rebellion, 1704. Hamilton was a belicNcr in strong government. lie thought the new natiiM\al government should take hold ot all the resources ot" the country at once. lie thought that the taritT would not bring in sutVicient mone\- to pa\' otl the debts quickly enough. So he proposed to ley\ a tax on all whiskev and other liquors made in the Tnilcd States. Western Tcnnsvl- vania was now well settled. The tarmers there raised large crops ot corn, much more than the\' needed (ov tood tor thcii- tamilies. ThcN' converted the surplus into whiskev, which could be carried o\er the mountains to the seaboard nuich more casih' than could the corn, trom which it was made. It was sold at riiiladelphia. and the mone\- went to pa\ tor the manutaclured goods that the western Tenn- s\l\anians needed. The makers ot w hiskcx' retused to [\iv this t.ix. rhev tlogged the men who were sent to collect it. and tired on the I'nited States marshal- when he came to ^ SupjH^so. tov o\i\mpU>. that >\ Ccnu.in tov-m.tkor >.\niUl UKU\ut".Xv.tuvo atul semi to Now Yvnk i\ k\A\ for tiflv otMUs exactly hke one which ciniKl be pro- duce^l by a New York k\o\\ maker lor one ilollar. It is clear that if nothing was vlone, no iloUs wvniUl be maiie in New York, l^ut if ilolls coniinjj in from Ciermany were taxed fifty cents each, the American manvifactvuer couUl make dolls, i^y his workmen American wajjjes, and compete with his German rival. '- A Vt\ited States niarshal corresponds roughly to the sheriff of the county. It is his vlutv to caiiY out the vnvlers ot I'nited States courts. w vshim; TON'S ammims ik \ iion I So tho .liil o{ [\\c (.DllorUu s. \\'.islnni;t(Hi tluMi scMit an .11 mv ot thiitmi thous.nul \\\c\\ uwdcv (\c\\c\a\ I loin \ l.oo.now i;oV(.Mnor ol \'ii :.;ini.i, who soon lnouj'Jil tho wcstorniMS to reason without hlooilshcil. 223. Other money matters. All these taxes ami ihities weie ei>lleeteil auil eared loi In I'niteil States t)l'tieers w ht> weie appiunted h\ \\'ashini;tiHi aiul were responsible to the treasury ileiKutnient. llannlton lhoui;lU it would be \ei\' etMwenient to establish a Uniteil States bank whieh eonld have bianeh olVues in the inijioitanl eities ol the c^ountr)'. The nione\ that the\ took in eould be dejxvsited by the I'nited Stales eolleetois in these braneh banks, or in the United Stales bank itsell. and then eould be easib' trans- lened lH^ni onc^ part ol the iOunli\' to the other and used [o pav the national expenses. 224. Dollars and cents. Heloie the Revolution, the eoKuiists used Spanish i;i>ld and siUer eoins whieh they Vhc Mint, rhil.uicMphi obtaineil in their trade with the West Indies. The most important ol these eoins was the " jMeee ol eii;ht," whieh was so (.-ailed beeause it was worth eiL;ht rials or reales.' This i^ieee i>l eii;ht was a lar^e siKer eoin ol almc^st the same si/e as our sil\ er ilollar. Indeed, it was c\dled the 1 Ki'.il, woitli .ilioui 1 J I rc-iUs. IQO THE FIRST THREE PRESIDENTS [1790 Spanish dollar in the later colonial period. It was divided into halves, quarters, and eighths. Jefferson thought it would be a great deal easier to divide it into one- hundredths, each one-hundredth being called a cent, from the Latin "centum." This system of reckoning by the hundredths is called the decimal system and is a very easy way to calculate — much easier than any other way we know. A mint, or place where coins are made, was erected at Philadelphia, and the United States began to make its own money instead of relying any longer upon foreign money.^ 225. The first census, 1790. — In 1790, for the first time in our history, the population of the United States was counted by national officers. The work was not very accurately done, but some valuable facts were learned from this census.^ For one thing, it appeared that there were nearly four million people in the whole United States, or not quite as many as now live in Greater New York City, Almost all of these people lived on tide-water or within fifty miles of it. There was no great city then in the country, Philadelphia with a httle over forty thousand inhabitants was the largest. Of the nearly four milhon people then in the United States, about one hundred and ten thousand lived west of the Alleghenies, in Tennessee and Kentucky and the Northwest Territory. Nearly all of the inhabitants were engaged in agriculture, only about one-tenth of them gaining their living from commerce and manufacturing. 1 There are four government mints in the United States : at Philadelphia, New Orleans, Denver, and San Francisco. If you will look sharply at a bright silver coin, — a dime, a quarter, a half, or a dollar, — you may tell where it was made. If there is a letter " O " on it, it was made at New Orleans ; a letter " D" would mean that it was made at Denver, and an " F" at San Francisco. If there is no letter at all, it was made at Philadelphia. 2 Census means a numbering of the people. 1794] WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION 191 226. Indian troubles in the West. — The Ordinance of 1787 guaranteed to persons who should go and settle in the Northwest Territory the rights and liberties which were guaranteed to the people of the original states by their con- stitutions; the national Constitution guaranteed freedom of trade to all the inhabitants of the United States. Emi- grants now rushed to the western country and began mak- ing settlements in every direction. During all this time, the British had kept possession of the fort and settlement at Detroit and other posts on the Great Lakes. They said they had a right to do this, because the United States had not carried out its part of the treaty of 1783.^ The British had done even more ; they had built a new fort within the treaty limits of the United States. They had also en- couraged the Indians to resist the invasion of their tribal lands by the white settlers and had supplied them with food and ammunition. 227. Wayne's Indian campaign, 1794. — Washington sent two armies against the Indians, but both were defeated. He now picked out Anthony Wayne, who had gained great distinction in the Revolutionary War. Wayne took ample time for preparation, building forts and drilling his soldiers. When at length all was ready, he marched into the Indian country and fought a famous battle in the midst of a forest where the trees had been blown down by a furious wind. On this account it is called the " Battle of the Fallen Timbers." It would seem to have been a great place for an Indian battle, because the savages could shelter them- selves behind the fallen trees and in the tall grass. But Wayne's men went on with such a good-will that the Indians fled before his second Hne could reach the battle- 1 Several of the states had made new laws to prevent British creditors from collecting the debts due to them from American merchants for goods purchased before the Revolutionary War. 192 THE FIRST THREE PRESIDENTS [1794 field. The Americans pursued the fleeing foe to the British fort which had been erected on United States soil and then burned everything in its neighborhood. The next year, 1795, Wayne signed a treaty with the Indians by which they ceded to the United States southern Ohio and northeastern Indiana, together with a small tract at Chicago and various other pieces of land. Wayne's victory and treaty combined brought peace to the frontier for fifteen years. 228. Another treaty with England, 1794. — While the Confederation lasted, the national government could not compel the states or the people to obey the treaty of peace. In the Constitution it was provided that a treaty once made should be a part of the law of the land just like an act of Congress, and could be enforced by means of the courts of the United States like any law. President Wash- ington now thought that the time had come to make another treaty with England, and thus put an end to the disputes with that country. He sent John Jay on this mission, for the Chief Justice as yet had very little of judicial business to do. Jay did not find the English gov- ernment very friendly to his country, but he made a treaty which put an end to the most difficult disputes. In some ways, this treaty was not at all favorable to the United States, and this led to stormy debates in Congress and to great meetings in which Washington and Jay were held up to scorn and hatred. 229. Treaty with Spain, 1795. — Since the United States became independent, there had been trouble with the Spaniards. They now held Louisiana and had recon- quered Florida from England, so that their territory ex- tended along both sides of the lower Mississippi and along the shore of the Gulf of Mexico, and included the peninsula of Florida. The Spaniards tried to close the navigation of the lower Mississippi to the settlers of Kentucky and 795] WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION 193 Tennessee, much to their inconvenience and indignation, for that was the easiest way to <^et their produce to market. The Spaniards also denied that the southern boundary of the United States extended as far south as had been arranged in the treaty of 1783 with luigland. Washington thought that the time had now come to end this dispute also. A treaty was made with Spain which gave to the United States the limits that it claimed. It also provided that the Americans should enjoy the free navigation of the Mississippi, and the right to de]x)sit their goods in the Spanish city of New Orleans while waiting shi])ment in sea-going vessels. 230. Trouble with France. — There was trouble with France, too. The people of that country had rebelled against their government, put to death their rulers, and then set up a repulDlican form of government. They thought that the American people ought to sympathize with them and aid them against the king of Great Britain who with other European monarchs soon attacked them. The American people sympathized with the French and would have been very glad to have given them aid, es- pecially in helping to fit out vessels for the purpose of preying upon English commerce. o 194 THE FIRST THREE PRESIDENTS [1794 231. The Neutrality Proclamation. — Washington and his advisers thought that it would be dangerous to go very far in aiding the French, since it might bring on another war with England. This might be very inconvenient and perhaps prove disastrous before the new government should have become well established. The agent ^ whom the French sent over to America was very indignant because Washington declared the United States to be.neutral''^ in this contest. He went on acting as if the American ports were French ports, and when Washington told him to stop, he appealed to the people against the President. At the request of the government a more discreet agent was sent over, and that was the end of the troubles with France for a year or two. 232. Eli Whitney and his cotton gin, 1793. — The plant- ers of South Carolina and other Southern States had grown cotton for many years, but in very small quantities, for use on the plantations. This plant produces a soft white fibre Hke wool, and can be spun into thread for weaving into cloth. The difficulty in using it to any great extent was in the fact that the seeds were so mixed with the cotton wool, and so hard to separate from it, that it took a negro slave a whole day to pick out the seeds from one pound of the fibre. Eli Whitney was a New England schoolmaster who went down to Georgia on a visit. While there, the idea struck him that it would be easy to clean the cotton if it was drawn through narrow slits in a board by the teeth of a circular saw. He made a little engine, or "gin" as he called it for short, and separated the seeds and the iibre with the greatest ease and rapidity. It was now possible to produce cotton in the South in large quantities to be 1 This agent was called "Citizen" Genet (Zhen-ay'), because the P>ench objected to titles, even one so simple as " Mr." ^ Neutral means not assisting either of two or more contending parties. 1797] WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION made into cloth in the United States, or to be sent^ land for use in the mills there. Eli Whitney's in\)\^ therefore, greatly increased the wealth-producing po\ the Southern States. It also made negro slavery very ^ ^i- itable, because in that part of the country there was plenty of vacant land where a man could grow as much cotton as he had labcjrcrs to care for it. 233. Washington's Farewell Address. — Washington was reelected President in 1792. When the end of his second term drew near, he saw the danger of too long a continu- ance of one man in the presidential office. He refused again to become a candidate, and thus began the custom of confining the President's term to eight years at the outside. Jefferson, Madison, Monroe, and Jackson served for only eight years apiece, so that now the term of the President's office is limited by custom, although there is no law to that effect. Washington announced his decision in a "Farewell Address" to the American people. "The name of American," he declared, " must always exalt the just pride of Patriotism." He urged them to beware of attacks upon the Constitution and not to encourage party spirit, but to use every effort to discourage it. " Observe good faith and justice toward all nations . . . have with them as little Political connection as possible." He retired from office in 1797, and died at Mount Vernon two years later. 234. New states. — With the success of the American Revolution, the thirteen original colonies ^ became the thir- teen original states. In Washington's administration three new states were added to the Union. These were Ver- mont, which was admitted in 1791 ; Kentucky in 1792, and Tennessee in 1796. The -land included within the limits 1 See § 123. Some detailed informali(jn about the states may be found in the Appendix. 196 THE FIRST THREE PRESIDENTS [1797 of Vermont has been claimed by New York and New Hampshire ; but the Vermonters had been governing them- selves since the beginning of the Revolutionary War. The Extent of Settlement, 1800. admission of Kentucky and Tennessee as separate states shows how fast the country west of the Allegheny Mountains was filHng up. 1797] JOHN ADAMS'S ADMINISTRATION 197 235. Summary. — The four great executive departments of the national government were estabHshed. Alexander Hamilton, Secretary of the Treasury, brought about the pas- sage of laws providing for the payment of the debts of the United States and of the separate states. The money was provided by taxing many things that were brought in from abroad and liquors made in the country itself. The Indi- ans in the Northwest attacked the settlers and defeated two armies, but were conquered by General Wayne. In 1794, a treaty with England put an end to disputes with that country, and in 1795 another with Spain secured the south- ern boundary of the United States and the navigation of the Mississippi. When the French RepubHcans tried to get aid in the United States, Washington issued the Neu- trality Proclamation. Eli Whitney invented the cotton- gin. Washington refused to be elected President for the third time. He died in 1799. • JOHN ADAMS'S ' ADMINISTRATION; RISE OF POLITICAL PARTIES 236. Federalists and Anti-Federalists. — The first politi- cal parties in our history as a nation were the Federalists ^ John Adams, second President of the United States, was born in Massa- chusetts, October 19, 1735. He fitted himself for the practice of the law, teaching school to gain the necessary money. The excitements of the Stamp Act time greatly interested him. He "became prominent in Massachusetts politics and with Samuel Adams and John Hancock went to the Continental Congress. With Jefferson and Franklin, he formed the subcommittee to draw up the Declaration of Independence and defended the policy of inde- pendence on the floor of Congress. He was the first minister to represent the United States in England. During his first audience with King George III, the latter made an incautious remark which drew from Adams the declara- tion : "I have no attachment, but to my own country." After serving as Vice-president and President, in 1801 he retired to Quincy, Massachusetts, where he lived for a quarter of a century. On July 4, 1826, he died consoling himself with the thought that "Thomas Jefferson still lives" ; but at almost the same hour that great man also passed away at his home in Virginia. THE FIRST THREE PRESIDENTS [1796 and the Anti-Federalists. These came into being when the Constitution was under discussion. The Federalists de- clared that they were in favor of a federal government, or one in which the several states gave up a good deal of power to the central governing body. They declared that all those who opposed their views were against federation for the word "anti" means "against." After the Constitution was adopted almost all the leading men throughout the country determined to give it a fair trial, so that these party distinctions almost disappeared. Hamil- ton's determination to build up, not only a fed- eral government, but a very strong one, alarmed many thoughtful and far- seeing men. These felt that he was twisting the words of the Constitu- tion out of their true meaning in order that he might carry out his wish to estabHsh a strong national government. 237. The first Republican party.— The two most promi- nent men who boldly objected to the carrying out of Hamilton's plans were Thomas Jefferson and James Madi- son. Jefferson opposed Hamilton in the cabinet as long as he could and then resigned. He saw that the best way to spread his own views would be to establish a news- paper. He was one of the most skilful party leaders John Adams. 1796] JOHN ADAMS'S ADMINISTRATION 199 America has ever had, and gathered to his standard the discontented ones of all kinds. The new party was named Repubhcan by Jefferson and his followers ; but those who did not Uke them declared that the members of this party were Democrats of the French sort. 238. Election of John Adams, 1796. — New England was the stronghold of the Federalists, while the followers of Jefferson were most numerous in the Southern States. The voters of the Middle States were divided between the two parties. In New York and Pennsylvania, political leaders had organized party machinery more thoroughly than had been done in any other part of the country. In the election of 1796, John Adams, a Federalist, who had been Vice-president for eight years, was chosen President, but the Federalist candidate for the Vice-presidency was defeated and Jefferson was elected Vice-president in his place. 239. Locating the capital. — There was great discussion as to where the capital of the United States should be. Washington was inaugurated in New York ; but that city ^ •r-r"/r-r-rfrh,( :, ) ^rr-rrr-rrfrrri ' i /.^jlCr^rrrrr/rrrr 4 / IV r -f-i— r rr-r-Krr'- ^r-rr rr-rv ; lous ',rrrr' !3f:rr:r-%.frrrrrrnr-ix ^ . rrrr^rrrrr' rr nr-i-r'-^rrrrrrrr F^r^f^ ,rr, ..T;*^!:;:?^ «\;:■f'^P'^r^^fT^^r^ -^Vrrrrrrrrfrrr^ -C'!:'^^f':!r;>;>pj.;rfrrr/-rr:>rrrrrrrn ^^^r'J-.lr rr/rrrrrrrrr-r ^r-rn rr\r ^r- ^ rr^ .iJ'nTr rrrf—' ."as i-J^^rl^ rr/rrrrrrrrr- r - ~ Plan of Washington, 1798. 200 THE FIRST THREE PRESIDENTS [1798 was so far away from the Southern States that the Caro- Knians and Virginians greatly desired a more southern location. When Hamilton's financial plans were being debated in Congress, the New Englanders and representa- tives from the Middle States favored them as a rule, while the Southerners were generally opposed to them. Partly to do away with this opposition, the scheme was hit upon of using Philadelphia for ten years and then moving to a permanent site on the Potomac River. The selection of the spot was confided to Washington. He picked out the country around the falls of the Potomac as the best place. Maryland and Virginia ceded to the United States their rights to this District of Columbia, as the site of the federal capital was termed, within which it was proposed to build Washington City as a capital. 240. The city of Washington. — Planning the new city was intrusted to a Frenchman who skilfully laid it out The White House. 1798] JOHN ADAMS'S ADMINISTRATION 20I after the fashion of a wheel, the capitol being in the center and the principal streets radiating therefrom hke spokes. At some distance from the capitol was the Presi- dent's mansion or White House, as it is called. The work proceeded so slowly that in 1800 when President and Mrs. Adams moved there from Philadelphia it was not yet fin- ished; six chambers were usable and so were two rooms on the ground floor ; but the principal stairs were not even built, and the public audience room was unfinished. The city itself was hardly more than a few scattered collections of buildings in the midst of a wilderness. 241. More trouble with France. — French governments were now changing with great rapidity, so that no sooner was an arrangement made with one government than it would be overturned, and the whole thing would have to be done over again. Washington, and after him Adams, sent ministers to France to try to smooth over the trouble, but they did not find this a very easy thing to do. The Frenchmen refused to receive an American minister be- cause the United States had not gone to war with England as they had hoped, but had made a treaty 1 with her instead. Adams then sent three commissioners to see what they could do. Certain Frenchmen^ came to them, after their arrival at Paris, and told them that they must give a quarter of a million dollars as pocket money to the authori- ties, or they would be turned out of France. If they gave the money, one of their number might return to America and arrange for the United States to lend a large sum of. money to France for war purposes. The commissioners refused to bribe the governors of France and returned home with their story. 1 This was Jay's Treaty, see § 228. 2 Instead of giving the names of these French emissaries in their letters to the Secretary of State, the American commissioners designated them by the letters X, Y, and Z, so that the incident is termed " The X, Y, Z Affair." 202 THE FIRST THREE PRESIDENTS [1798 242. Warfare with France, 1798-1799. — The excitement in America over the actions of the French was tremendous. " MilUons for defence; not one cent for tribute! " was the cry. A provisional army was raised with Washington at its head and Hamilton second in command. Vessels were built for the navy, and some French ships were captured. There was now another overturn in France, and Napoleon, the new ruler, thought he had difificulties enough in Europe without stirring up any more in America, and a treaty was signed in 1800. 243. Unpopular laws. — By this time the strife between political parties in America had grown very bitter. Some of the fiercest opponents of the Federalist policy were newspaper editors, many of whom were foreigners. The Federalists who were in control in Congress passed a series of laws to punish these men and turn them out of the country. 1 They strongly objected to being treated so, and as most of these objectors were Republicans, Jefferson and Madison took up their cause. They got the states of Virginia and Kentucky to pass a series of resolutions known as the Virginia and Kentucky Resolves, declaring against the exercise of so much power by the national government. 244. The election of 1800. — The people, with the excep- tion of the New Englanders, now turned to Jefferson. When the electoral votes for President were counted, it was found that the Republican candidates, Thomas Jeffer- son and Aaron Burr, had many more votes than Adams and Pinckney, their Federalist opponents. As Jefferson and Burr had the same number of votes, it was necessary for the House of Representatives to declare which of them should be President and which should be Vice-president. 1 These were the Alien and Sedition Laws. The word " alien " means a. foreigner who has not obtainetl the rights of citizenship. Sedition means the raising of a political commotion which is not great enough to be termed a rebellion. i8oi] JOHN ADAMS'S ADMINISTRATION 203 The Federalists had a large majority in the House. They detested Jefferson, and for a long time refused to declare him President, although every one in the country had Jefferson and not Burr in mind when he cast his ballot for the Presidential candidate.^ In the end and with a very bad grace they declared Jefferson President. 245. Summary. — Two political parties were formed, the Federalist or Hamiltonian Party and the Republican or Jeffersonian Party. In 1796, John Adams, the Federalist candidate, was elected President. In 1800, the govern- ment was removed to Washington City. There were troubles with France in Adams's administration which were ended by a treaty in 1800. In that year, Jefferson was elected President. JEFFERSON'S ADMINISTRATION; THE LOUISIANA PURCHASE 246. Jefferson's first inaugural. — Washington had had a great deal of ceremony and display at his inauguration, and so too had Adams. The latter had gone to the place where he was to take the oath of office in a coach drawn by six cream-colored horses. Jefferson ^ determined to do 1 The Constitution originally provided that the presidential electors should vote for two persons; one of whom must not be a citizen of the same state as the elector. The person receiving the largest number of electoral votes should be President; the one receiving the next largest number should be Vice- president, In the case of a tie, the House of Representatives, voting by- states, decided which should hold the first ofhce. This arrangement had worked awkwardly because in 1796, it had resulted in providing a President and Vice-president belonging to opposing parties. In case of the death of the President his political opponent would, have succeeded him, which might have led to great confusion. In 1804, the Twelfth Amendment was adopted providing that the Presidential Electors should desig^nate on their ballots which person voted for should be President and which Vice-president. 2 Thomas Jefferson, the third President of the United States, was born in Virginia, April 13, 1743. His father was a surveyor who had accumulated many large pieces of choice land. Jefferson was very studious as a boy and 204 THE FIRST THREE PRESIDENTS [iSoi Thomas Jefferson. i8oi] JEFFERSON'S ADMINISTRATION 205 away with as much ceremonial as he possibly could and to introduce democratic simplicity into his dealings with his fellow-citizens. When the time came for his inauguration, he left the boarding-house, where he was living in Wash- ington, and accompanied by a few friends walked to the capitol and read his inaugural address. In this he set forth the essential principles of American government ^ " - "^ ^91 / f u 1 jp ^H m Monticello. which were to guide him in his administration. Among these he enumerated equal and exact justice to all men, peace, commerce, and honest friendship with all nations, young man and was interested in history, constitutional law, and natural science. He had wonderful facility in putting into striking phrases the thoughts of the day. It was in 1774 that he wrote "The God who gave us life, gave us liberty." He succeeded Franklin as American minister to France^ and after his retirement from the i)residency in 1809, he lived at his charming residence of Monticello (Mon-te-sel'ld), where all the leading politicians visited him to secure advice from this greatest American political sage. He died there on July 4, 1826, fifty years after the adoption of the great Declaration which he wrote. 2o6 THE FIRST THREE PRESIDENTS [iSoi entangling alliances with none, the support of the state governments in all their rights, preservation of the general government in its whole constitutional vigor, the honest payment of our debts, freedom of religion, of the press, and of the person. 247. Reorganizing the government. — For Secretary of State, Jefferson picked out James Madison who had long been his right-hand man ; for Secretary of the Treasury, he selected Albert Gallatin. The latter was a foreigner who had come from Switzerland. He had already served in Congress and had attracted Jefferson's attention by his republicanism and by his ability to handle financial matters in debate. Jefferson and Gallatin cut down the expenses of the government to the lowest possible point. Congress, which was now in the hands of the Repubhcans, fell in with their wishes. It did away with the internal revenue taxes that had brought about the Whiskey Rebellion and thereby made it possible to discharge a very large number of tax collectors and other officers. It also provided for the reorganization of the judiciary on a much smaller scale. 248. Removals from office. — When Jefferson entered upon his duties, he found that every official was a Federal- ist. He felt it to be necessary to change the minor officers of the United States courts in order that the repubhcans might have something to say in their management. He also refused to permit commissions to be delivered to offi- cers whom Adams had appointed at the very last moment. In addition, he determined to remove a few of the most bitter Federalist partisans. All this he justified on the ground that the Republicans, having been placed in charge of the government bv the voters, had the right to control it. This could only be done by removing the Federahst officeholders, because as he said, " Few die and none re- i8o4] JKFFKRSON'S ADMINISTRATION 207 si<^n." The new policy of economy was so successful that within a few years the national debt had been greatly de- creased, although Jefferson had in the meantime conducted a successful naval war and had purchased Louisiana from France. 249. The Barbary pirates, 1801-1804. — On the north- ern coast of Africa lay a group of Barbary States. Instead of engaging in honest commerce, the })eople who lived there sailed out into the Mediterranean and into the Atlantic and captured any vessels that came in their way. luu-opean na- tions, like England and France, instead of sending fleets of war-ships to put down these f ree-booters, found it cheaper to pay them to stop capturing their vessels. As long as our commerce was under British protection, it was not molested, but when we became independent of England, the pirates began to capture our ships. Washington and Adams paid the Barbary powers in order to protect American vessels, but Jefferson decided to stop their proceedings by force. He sent one fleet after another to attack them and finally brought the corsairs to agree to keep their hands off Ameri- can ships without being paid for it. The most brilliant in- cident in this little naval war is connected with the name of Stephen Decatur who afterwards became a commodore. The American frigate Philadelphia had run aground on a shoal outside of the harbor of Tripoli ^ (Trip'o-li). Before she could get off, the Tripolitans attacked her and captured her. Later they floated her and took her into the harbor to refit her for service against the Americans. On a little vessel in the darkness of night Decatur and a volunteer crew sailed into the harbor, set her on fire, and made good their escape (1804). There were many other heroic ex- ploits in the course of this naval war, but this is the best known. ■^ The war is sometimes spoken of as the Tiipolitan War. 2o8 THE FIRST THREE PRESIDENTS [1803 250. Louisiana. — Napoleon Bonaparte now conceived the plan of reestablishing the French colonial empire in America. As one step in carrying out this scheme he in- duced the Spaniards to restore Louisiana to France. At about the time the news of this change reached America, the Spaniards at New Orleans gave notice that the Ameri- cans could no longer deposit their goods there while awaiting trans-shipment. 1 As long as Spain held Louisiana, its pos- session by a foreign power was not felt by the United States because Spain was very weak, and was growing weaker every year. With it in the hands of France, the case would be very different owing to the energy and restless- ness of the French people. The settlers of Kentucky and Tennessee and of the other western country were mostly RepubUcans and were greatly annoyed by Spain's action. Jefferson himself was aroused. He wrote to Robert R. Livingston, who was then American minister at Paris that, rather than see France in possession of Louisiana, the United States would combine with Great Britain to destroy French power upon the sea. He sent James Monroe, a Virginian, in whom he had the greatest confidence, to Paris to aid Livingston and instructed them to buy New Orleans and the country to the eastward. 251. The Louisiana Purchase, 1803. — It happened that shortly before Monroe's arrival, the French minister of foreign affairs startled Livingston by asking him if the United States would not like to buy Louisiana, — all of it, New Orleans and the rest. This was entirely beyond the instructions that Jefferson had given to Livingston and Monroe, but the possession of this great territory extending westwardly from the Mississippi River to the Rocky Moun- tains would be of such tremendous importance to the United States that the American ministers decided to exceed their 1 For this right of deposit see § 229. I i8o6] JEFFERSON'S ADMINISTRATION 209 instructions and buy it. The price paid was a little over fifteen million dollars. After the negotiators had signed their names to the treaty, Livingston said, *' We have lived long, but this is the noblest work of our lives ! " There were then thousands of people living in New Orleans, St. Louis, and other parts of Louisiana, but neither Jefferson nor any one else for a moment suggested that their consent should be asked as to whether they wished to be joined to the United States or not.^ 252. Lewis and Clark explore the West to the Pacific, 1804-1806. — Even before Louisiana was actually pur- chased, Jefferson had set on foot an expedition to explore the country westward from the Mississippi to the Pacific. For this he selected two remarkable men, Meriwether Lewis and William Clark, the latter a brother of the Revolutionary general, George Rogers Clark. Starting from St. Louis in 1804, Lewis and Clark, with a small party, ascended the Missouri in boats. When the cold weather came on, they went into winter quarters within the present limits of North Dakota. The next spring, they set out again and journeyed up the Missouri until it became so small that they could go no farther even in canoes. They then crossed over to a little stream that flowed into the Columbia River ; floating down this stream in boats, after many tremendous adventures, they came within sight of the ocean and were delighted to hear the distant roar of the breakers. That winter they spent not far from the mouth of the Columbia, and the next year, 1806, safely returned to St. Louis. In all this wonderful 1 No bounds were assigned to Louisiana in the treaty, but it included New Orleans and the neighboring country on the eastern bank of the Mississippi and all the land between that river and the Rocky Mountains with the possible exception of Texas. Its possession enabled the American people to expand their settlements beyond the Mississippi and finally to ac- quire and colonize the Pacific slope. P 2IO THE FIRST THREE PRESIDENTS [1804 journey by boat and by horseback and on foot, they met with many wild animals, grizzly bears, and rattlesnakes. But what troubled them more than anything else, even than hostile Indians, were the mosquitoes and flies which often beset them night and day. This expedition not only brought knowledge of this region to civilized men, but it was an important element in securing to the United States the land lying in the valley of the Columbia River. 253. Burros conspiracy. — Jefferson had soon come to distrust Burr, the Vice-president. In 1804, when a new election was held, Governor Clinton of New York was selected for that place and Burr was practically turned out of political life. He thought out a curious plan of con- quering some part of Texas from the Spaniards and making a settlement there. Possibly, he did not intend to join his conquest to the United States, but meant to rule it himself. The scheme was a wild one and could only have been carried out by a man who had a great deal of money and very strong and loyal friends in Louisiana. Burr started on his expedition, but before he had gone very far, Jefferson heard of it. He issued a proclamation directing all good citizens to seize Burr and his companions. Those whom Burr had trusted at New Orleans proved faithless. He tried to escape by leaving his men and gaining Spanish Florida. He was captured near Mobile and was tried for treason, but was not convicted. After this, he had no more share in public life but lived in retirement in Europe and New York until his death. 254. The first steamboat, 1807. — Thousands of years, ever since the time of Noah, people had navigated the water in sailing vessels or in boats rowed with oars. Many men had tried to arrange a steam-engine in a boat so that it could be driven against wind and tide faster than any boat had ever gone. All the early attempts had failed. Robert JEFFERSON'S ADMINISTRATION 211 1808] Fulton hit on the idea of placing paddle-wheels on the side of a boat and turning them around rapidly by means of a steam-engine within the boat itself. He interested Robert R. Livingston in his scheme and named his first boat the Clermont from the latter's estate on the Hudson When she was ready for launching, the people laughed and called her " Fulton's Folly," declaring that she would never move a foot. On August ii, 1807, to the surprise of the people gathered on the wharf, the Clcnnont moved slowly The Clermont on the Huason. away upstream. She kept on moving, reached Albany safely and in due time returned to New York. Othe steamboats were built to navigate the rivers and sounds of the coast, and then the use of them was extended to the lakes and rivers of the interior. Fulton's invention was one of the most important for the United States, because it very greatly aided in the settlement and development of the country west of the Allegheny Mountains. 2« Foreign slave trade forbidden, 1808. -When the Constitution was drawn up, the South Carolinians insisted upon allowing the importation of negro slaves from abroad for at least twenty years longer. In 1807, Congress passed 212 THE FIRST THREE PRESIDENTS [1S07 a law forbidding the importation of negro slaves after Janu- ary I, 1808. The slave trade continued between the states, but no more slaves were brought in from abroad except those that were smuggled in by way of Cuba, or over the Mexican border. 256. Troubles with England and France. — Fighting was now going on in Europe more fiercely than ever. On the one side. Napoleon had conquered nearly all the countries of the continent ; on the other side, England had driven the French and their allies from the ocean.^ This made it difficult for the two parties to continue their war- fare. EngUshmen and Frenchmen needed many things that grew in Asia or America, like coffee and cotton. These and other necessities were carried to them in neu- tral vessels,^ most of which were American. The French and the British now thought that the best way to injure the other party would be to keep the neutrals from supplying their enemies with these goods. They there- fore seized neutral vessels and sold them and their cargoes. These measures greatly distressed American commerce. 257. The English impress American seamen. — The British angered the Americans in another way. They stopped their vessels and took from them seamen whom they said were British. A good many of these were British sailors who had deserted from that naval service because they were so badly treated ; but many were Americans, for it was difficult to tell an American from an EngHshman. Moreover, the British held to the idea 1 The wars growing out of the French Revolution were ended by the Peace of Amiens in iSo2. In 1803, a new series of wars began which were caused largely by the ambition of Napoleon to make himself and the French masters of all Europe. Napoleon now called himself emperor. - A neutral vessel is one flying the flag of a nation that does not take sides with either warring party. iSoS] JKKFKRSON'S Amrixrs TRA TION 213 that "(incc an lMii;iishnian, always an l'jii;lishinan." They denied that America could naturali/.e ' an lMii;lish subject and thus make him an American. 258. The Embargo, 1807. Jefferson niii;ht well have declared war aL;ainst either hai^land or l^^-ance, or ai;ainst both of them. Instead of so doinj;', he thought that if he could cut these countries off from the suj-)plies that were carried to them in American ships, they would soon suffer so severely that they would be more just to the United States. He got Congress to pass an act forbidding any American ship to sail out of any harbor of the United States ; this was called the embargo. 259. The failure of the Embargo. — France and lu^gland were so intent on injuring one another that they paid very little attention to Jefferson's embargo. On the other hand, it occasioned great distress in the United States. It i)re- vented the southerners from sending their crops of corn and tobacco to foreign markets, and it harmed the ship owners of New England and the Middle States, because their vessels no longer had anything to do. The New Knglanders thereupon set to work building mills to weave the southern cotton into cloth and to manufacture many other things. The embargo hurt the United States so much more than it seemed to be hurting any one else, that Congress suddenly repealed it. In its place. Congress passed a law prohibiting all trade with Great Britain or France, but permitting it with other countries. This was known as the NonTntercourse Act. ^ Naturalization is the process by which a foreigner ac(iuires the rij^hts of a citizen. In the United States, such a foreigner must have Hvecl five years in that country, and must have gone through certain legal requirements. Me then receives a paper declaring that he is an American citizen. Even now foreign countries which reipiire every one to serve in the army for a few years deny the power of these papers to relieve their subjects from military duty, if they return to their old homes. 214 I'HE FIRST THREE PRESIDENTS [1807 260. Leopard diU^ Chesapeake, June, 1807. — The British now added to the excitement against them by impressing seamen, not only from merchant vessels, but actually from an American warship. This unlucky vessel was the frig- ate Chesapeake. She sailed from Norfolk, Virginia, bound to the Mediterranean. The last things that had been put aboard had not yet been stowed away and everything was in confusion when the British warship Leopard sailed alongside and demanded the surrender of four persons who were declared to be deserters from British vessels. The Americans refused. The Z — It was while the British fleet was lying off Baltimore ready to bombard the town that Francis Scott Key, a young American, visited the ships to arrange for an exchange of prisoners. He was obliged to remain on board during the fighting. All that night he watched " the rockets' red glare, the bombs burst- ing in air," and the next morning as day dawned he looked 1 While Madison and Monroe were trying to organize armed resistance to the invading British, Mrs. Madison remained at the White House. Nobody expected the enemy would enter the capital city, and she had invited guests to dinner. When word came from the President that she must flee, she put what valuables she could into her hand-bag and entering a carriage was soon out of danger. Washington's picture, valuable papers, and large silver orna- ments had been sent away a little earlier. The British officers ate the dinner that had been prepared for the President's family, and then set fire to the house. 222 MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION [1S15 eagerly at the forts to see if our flag was still waving in the breeze. In these anxious moments he composed the stirring patriotic song, "The Star-Spangled Banner." After their failure at Baltimore, the British sailed away from the Chesapeake. 273. Battle of New Orleans, 1S15. — The activity of the British in 18 14 was due to the fact that Napoleon had been overcome for a while in Europe and therefore troops could be spared for America. Besides the expeditions from Canada and to the Chesapeake, the British fitted out a great force to capture New Orleans and begin the con- quest of the Mississippi Valley. The time was well chosen, because a terrible Indian war was occupying the attention of General Andrew Jackson of Tennessee and the people of the Southwest. Jackson was a man of tre- mendous energy, and conquered the Indians in time to get to New Orleans before the British. He fortified a care- fully selected spot below the city, and then waited until the enemy marched up to within point-blank range of his muskets. The Americans fired one volley and then iSi5] I'HK W AK ON rill' OCKAX 22^ another. Hack the Hritish wont aiul camo on ai;ain, but finally after suffering;" terrible loss. the\- retreatei.1 to their ships. This glorious victory ot Jackson and his westerners was won on January 8, 1815, but a treaty ot peace (vj j8o) had already been sii;ued neceniber 24, 1S14. h\ the commis- sioners of the two powers, although the news ot this event had not yet reached the United States. 274. Summary. — Madison was elected President to fol- low Jefferson. He tried to induce the British and b'rcnch to favor Americans, but in vain. In 1811, the Indians of the Northwest attacked a body of l^'nited States soldiers at Tippecanoe, and were defeated. War was (.Icclared against Great Britain, June, 18 u. In August Detroit was sur- rendered by its commander. Perry's victory on Lake Krie in 1813 restored the American hold on the Cireat Lakes, and INIacdonough's victory on Lake Champlain in 1814 put an end to British invasions from Canada. In that year the British burned Washington and early in 1815 were terri- bl\- beaten bv lackson at New Orleans. THE WAR ON THE OCEAN 275. The American and British navies. — While all this fighting was going on, American seamen were gaining glory on the ocean. The English nay\' numbered, in those days, more than eight hundred vessels of all sizes, while there were only about a dozen fighting ships belonging to the United States. Madison thought that the best thing to do with them was to anchor them securely in the largest harbors. He reckoned without the spirit of the naval officers or of the enthusiasm of the people over naval vic- tories. Among the few American ships, there were three heavy frigates. These were built with great solidity and were armed with very powerful guns for ships of their k 224 MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION iSi2] THE WAR ON THE OCEAN 225 class. The most famous of them was the Constitution, which came to be called ''Old Ironsides" by the people. The naval authorities directed her captain, Isaac Hull, to take her from Chesapeake Bay to New York, where it was intended to station her as guardship. While on his way, he was chased by a British squadron, one of the vessels being a fast-sailing frigate, the Guerriere. The Constitution escaped, but Hull could not take her to New Vork so he went to Boston and then sailed from that port before new orders reached him. 276. Constitution and Guerriere. — After cruising for two or three weeks without sighting any vessel of the enemy, the Gucrrii're came in sight. This time she was alone and the Constitution steered straight for her. For thirty minutes the fight raged, and then the Guerriere was a wreck upon the water with seventy-nine of her crew killed and wounded. She was so badly injured that Cap- tain Hull could not take her into port in triumph. For years and years, one English vessel after another fought single ships of the enemy and in two hundred such engage- ments had lost only six. The Guerriere was a little smaller than the Constitution and not so heavily armed, but the speed with which she was destroyed startled the people of Great Britain. They declared that the Constitution was no frigate at all but was a " line of battle ship in disguise." This action was fought on the 19th of August, 18 12. Be- fore the year came to a close, two other English frigates surrendered, one to the Constitution, now commanded by Captain Bainbridge, the other to the United States, com- manded by Captain Decatur. These three British frigates were all smaller than their American captors, but on Octo- ber 17 the American warship, the Wasp, encountered a British brig, the Frolic, which was more heavily armed than was she. The result was the same. Within three- Q 226 MADISON'S ADMIXISTRATIOX [1S12 quarters of an hour the British vessel lay a wreck upon the water with ninety of her crew of one hundred and ten killed or wounded. 277. Chesapeake and Shannon. — British naval officers now realized that American victories were not due entirely to the greater power of their ships, but were more espe- cially owing to the discipline and careful training of the men behind the guns. Some of the British captains set to work to bring their ships into the same splendid condition that the American ships Were in. Among these was Captain Broke of the frigate Shafiuou. He en- countered the ill-fated C/icsapcakc off Boston Harbor. Her commander was James Lawrence. He had a fresh undrilled crew, but made a splendid fight before he was mortally wounded ; as he lay dying, he murmured to those around him, '* Don't give up the ship ! " But she was surrendered by her officers. For this exploit Captain Broke was looked upon in England as a national naval hero. 278. The Essex. — In the last year of the war most of the American vessels were securely blockaded in ports by powerful EngHsh fleets. Most of those that did get to sea were captured sooner or later. One of them, to make a long and daring cruise before she fell into British hands, was the Essex, commanded by Captain David Porter. She sailed thousands of miles away from the United States into the Pacific Ocean. For months Captain Porter cruised in the southern Pacific, occasionally picking up EngHsh whaling vessels and merchant ships. At length she was captured by two English vessels while inside a harbor near Valparaiso (Val-pa-rl'so). One of the youngsters, or mid- shipmen, on the Essex was David Glasgow Farragut (Far'- a-gut), who grew up to be the most famous admiral in our history. I Si 4] THE WAR ON THE OCEAN 227 279. Privateering. — Although the naval warships were kept in port, for the most part, by the British squadrons in the later years of the war, private armed vessels, or priva- teers, as they were called, continually got to sea and rav- aged English commerce. Some of these privateers were full-rigged ships, but others were small schooners. They carried one or more large guns and smaller ones accord- ing to their size. They sought British merchantmen, even in the waters surrounding the British islands. Their activ- ity finally made it almost impossible for merchants of Lon- don and Liverpool and other ports to send their ships to sea even on coasting voyages. The privateers brought money to their owners and helped on the national cause by making- many influential Englishmen sincerely desirous of peace. 280. The Treaty of Ghent, December, 1814. — Almost from the beginning of the contest American and British commissioners had been negotiating at Ghent (Gent). At first the British, although they were still fighting Napoleon, were not at all anxious for peace, because they hoped to conquer a good part of the United States and keep it. When this at length seemed to be impossible, they took a more lively interest in putting an end to the contest, and a treaty was signed which left to the United States all the territory that it had had at the beginning of the war. Nothing was said in the treaty about impressment, but the guns of the frigate Coistitutioi had made any such state- ment unnecessary. The worst thing about the treaty was that the rights of American fishermen to use the unoccupied coasts of Nova Scotia and Newfoundland for the purposes of drying fish, and other privileges connected with the fisheries, were not confirmed, so that since this war our fishermen have been deprived of many of their old privileges. 281. The Hartford Convention, 1814-1815. — The war had never been popular in New England, for northern 228 MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION [1815 people felt that th^y had been drawn into it, against their interests and without good reasons, by the Southerners who ruled the government at Washington. There were still a good many Federalists of the old sort living within New England. They held a meeting or convention at Hartford in Connecticut and drew up certain resolutions setting forth the rights of the states under the federal Constitution in almost the same phrases that Jefferson and Madison had used in 1 798-1 799. They also demanded that the New England states should be permitted to retain the proceeds of national taxes collected within them for paying the expenses of their own defence. Commissioners actually went to Washington to lay these propositions before the authorities there and to make arrangements for collecting New England's share of the taxes. They arrived there al- most at the same moment that news came of Jackson's great victory at New Orleans and the signing of the treaty at Ghent. They returned home amidst the laughter of the people. The war of 181 2 in its ending, therefore, was an important landmark in the growth of the spirit of American unity. It also made our people feel much more self-reliant and able to take care of themselves. For this reason it has sometimes been called the Second War of Independence. 282. Summary. — American naval vessels and seamen won great renown on the ocean, especially the frigate Constitution became famous. On the other hand, the frigate Chesapeake was captured by the British as were other vessels, notably the Essex. A treaty of peace was signed at Ghent in December, 18 14. By this the Hmits of the United States remained as they were, but the rights of fishermen in Newfoundland and Nova Scotia were limited. The New Englanders disHked the war. They held a con- vention at Hartford, 18 14, and proposed to diminish the power of the national government. THE WAR ON THE OCEAN 229 TOPICAL ANALYSIS Madison's Ad- ministration, 1809-1817 — The War of 1812 Madison elected President, 1808. Attitude of British Statesmen. Attack on Tippecanoe, 1811. War declared against Great Britain. Loss of Detroit. Invasion of Canada Perry s Victory. Battle of the Thames, i8ij. Macdonough's Victory at Platts- burg. The Burning of Washington, 1814. Appearance before Baltimore. y The "Star-Spa>?gled Banner," Battle of New Orleans, 1815. American and British Navies. " Constitution " and " Gtierriere." "Chesapeake " and " Shannott." The "Essex." Privateering. Treaty of Ghent, 1814. Hartford Convention, 1814-1815. British Expedition to THE Chesapeake War on the Ocean X NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT MONROE'S ADMINISTRATION, 1817-1825; ERA OF GOOD FEELING 283. Era of Good Feeling. — The election of Monroe, a Republican, in 18 16, marked the downfall of the Federal- ists. In 1 820, they failed to name a candidate and Monroe's election was nearly unanimous.^ He was President for eight years, 18 1 7- 1825.2 His first term was a period of rest from political strife which has been called for that reason the "Era of Good Feel- ing." As his second term came to its close, so many cf the lead- ing men in the country and in his cabinet desired to succeed him as President that the era of good James Monroe. feeling camc to a suddcn ending. 1 It is said that one of the electors purposely voted against Monroe, be- cause he was afraid that if he did not, Monroe would be unanimously chosen, and that particular elector was determined that Washington should be the only man to be thus honored, — and Washington is the only President who has ever received the votes of all the electors. 2 James Monroe was born in Virginia in 1758. He served in the army in the Revolutionary War, taking part in the capture of Trenton. He repre- sented the United States in France, England, and Spain ; was Secretary of War and then Secretary of State in Madison's administration. Monroe was 230 i8i6] MONROE'S ADMINISTRATION 23 1 284. Manufactures and the tariff. — The European wars, the embargo, and the War of 18 12 had so interfered with foreign commerce and industry that it was no longer easy to obtain manufactured goods Uke woolen cloth and steel knives from England and France and other countries of Europe. Many capitalists ^ in the United States, especially in the North, built factories and began to manufacture cloth and other commodities on a large scale. When the war was over, every one expected that prosperity would come speedily ; but the ending of the war made it possi- ble for English and French manufacturers and merchants to send over such quantities of goods and sell them so cheaply that it was out of the question'' for American man- ufacturers to compete with them. The Americans turned to Congress and asked it to put such heavy duties on foreign-made goods that it would be possible to continue to make woolen cloth and other goods in the United States. Congress did this in 18 16. The duties were raised again in 1824. The first protective tariff (§ 221) had been made in 1789; but the duties were low and there were not many of them, so that this act of 18 16 is really the beginning of our present protective system. 285. Western migration. — The years following the close of the War of 1812 saw a great migration to the states and territories west of the Allegheny Mountains. Hundreds of thousands of acres of land had been bought or seized from the Indians and opened to settlement. So rapid was one of Jefferson's favorites and the latter had declared that he had been " born for the public." In 1817, Monroe, following Washington's example, traveled through the Northern States. His kindliness and sound common sense everywhere won the regard of those who met him or listened to him. He died in New York, July 4, 1831. In 1858, one hundred years after his birth, his remains were carried to his native state and buried in Richmond, at the desire of the Virginians. 1 Capital means money, property, or stock employed in business; also credit. NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT [1S20 the growth of the western country that four states were admitted to the Union during the years 18 16 to iSu^and a fifth was clamoring for admission. The four states were Indiana and Illinois, which had formed part of the old North- west Territory, and Mississippi and Alabama. These with that part of the state of Louisiana which lies east of the Mississippi, and Tennessee and Kentucky, completed the settlement of the country between the Alleghenies and the Mississippi^ as far north as Lake Michigan. Settlers were already crossing the great riyer into Missouri Terri- tory, and in 1820. they asked to be admitted to the I'nion as a separate state. 286. The Missouri Compromise, 1820. — At the same time that the people of Missouri applied for admission to the Union, the people of Maine asked to be de- t a c h e d f r o m Massachusetts and made into a separate state. ^Lline would come h\ as a free state, but the Missouri settlers wished their pro- posed state to be a slave state. Many Northerners opposed this because they thought that slavery should 1 The fourteenth state, Vermont, was admitted in 1791 ; the fifteenth, Kentucky, in 1 792 : the sixteenth, Tennessee, in 1796; the seventeenth. Ohio, in 1S02 ; the eighteenth. Louisiana, in 1S12 ; the nineteenth. Indiana, in 1S16 : the twentieth. Mississippi, in 1S17 ; the twenty-tirst. llhnois. in iSiS: the twenty-second, Alabama, in iSio. All of these except I>ouisiana were made from the original territory of the I'nited States. For some ac- count of the states, see Appendix: for the original states, see § 123. ■:^\.j>. iS2o] isk>xrof;s administration 233 be excluded from the whole of the Louisiana Purchase, excepting- only that which was already settled in 1803. The Southerners were not at all ready to agree to this. There were then twenty-two states, eleven of them were slave states, and eleven free states. As each state has two Senators in the upj-jcr bi-anch ol Congress, the nuMnent the free states outnumbered the slave states the South- erners might lose their control of the Senate. This was especially important because the free states were in- creasing very fast in population, owing to the growth of manufacturing towns and villages of which there were none in the South. As the number of Representatives each state sent to Congress depended on }Hipulation, it was evident that the South would soon lose control of that House at any rate. Naturally, the Southerners were very sensitive about any plan that might limit slavery. The contest over the admission of Missouri was very bitter. Finally, a compromise was made and it was agreed to ad- mit Maine as a free state and Missouri as a slave state and to declare that slavery should be "forever excluded " from all the rest of the western territory that lay to the north of the southern boundary of the state of Missouri.^ This arrangement is known as the Missouri Compromise. 287. Annexation of Florida, 1819. — All this time, Spain still possessed the peninsula of hlorida and lands on the Gulf of Mexico, south of the old southern boundary of the United States, according to the Treaty of 1783.- The 1 Maine was admitted in 1S20 ; Missouri in 1S21 ; althoiii;h the contest in Congress was in 1S20. Jefterson, in his retirement at Monticello, was greatly dismayed at the *" mutual and mortal " hatred that had been aroused. lie feared it would lead to the splitting up of the Union and wrote that he re- gretted he should die in the belief that the men of 1776 had sacriliced them- selves uselessly because of the unwise ami unworthy passions of their sons. - By the Treaty of 1783, the southern boumlary of the United States was the thirty-lirst parallel from the Mississipjii to the Chattahoochee, down that river to the junction with the Flint, thence in a straight line to the source of 234 NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT [1823 American government greatly desired to gain this territory because it was a resort for runaway Indians and negro slaves, and bold, daring men who smuggled goods across our borders. John Quincy Adams, son of President John Adams, was Monroe's Secretary of State. He found the Spaniards unwilling to give up any territory to the United States. After long and persistent negotiations, hov/ever, Spain sold Florida to us (1819) for $5,000,000, and agreed to regard the line which is drawn on the colored map oppo- site page 243 as the northern Hmit of her possessions in North America.^ 288. The Monroe Doctrine, 1823. — Mexico and several South American colonies had declared themselves free from the yoke of Spain and had established republican forms of government. This aroused the monarchs of continental Europe, who sympathized with the Spanish king and were ready to assist him in forcing his former colonists to return to their obedience. The leader in this scheme was the Czar of Russia. At about the same time, Russian explor- ing expeditions visited the shores of California, which was not then a part of the United States. All these things annoyed Monroe and Adams very much. In 1823, Presi- dent Monroe sent a message to Congress, in which he declared that both American continents were no longer open to colonization by any European power, and that any interference by any such power with any independent American state would be regarded "as the manifestation of an unfriendly disposition towards the United States." the St. Mary's, and down that river to the Atlantic Ocean. This line still remains, in part, in the northern boundary of the state of Florida. 1 The Florida Treaty arranged the southwestern boundary of the United States. The northwestern boundary had been arranged the preceding year in a treaty with Great Britain to follow the forty-ninth parallel from the Lake of the Woods to the Rocky Mountains. This has remained the northern boundary of the United States. 1824] JOHN QUINCY ADAMS'S ADMINISTRATION 235 These words, which were written by John Quincy Adams, have become the basis of what is known as the Monroe Doctrine, that America is reserved for Americans. 289. Summary. — Monroe's administration was an " Era of Good FeeHng " that came to an abrupt ending in the election of his successor. The manufacturers in the Northern States brought about the passage of the tariff of 1 8 16, giving them increased protection. Rapid emigra- tion to the West brought on a contest over the question of admitting Missouri to the Union as a slave state. In 18 19, the Florida Treaty provided for the annexation of much- needed territory in the Southeast. In 1823, Monroe sent a message to Congress warning European powers to refrain from any further occupation of America. JOHN QUINCY ADAMS'S ADMINISTRATION, 1825-1829; PARTY POLITICS 290. Election of 1824. — There were four candidates for the presidency in 1824 — John Quincy Adams ^ of Massa- ^ John Quincy Adams, the sixth President, was the son of John Adams, the successor of Washington. He was born at Quincy, Massachusetts, July 11, 1767. He went abroad with his father when he was eleven years of age, and became private secretary to the American minister at St. Petersburg, when he was only thirteen. He came home, studied law, entered politics, joined the Republican party, and again went abroad, this time as minister, first to Berlin and then to Russia. He was one of the negotiators of the Treaty of Ghent, which marked the ending of the War of 181 2. He then became Secretary of State, and next President. Not long after his retirement from the presi- dency, the selectmen of Quincy waited upon him and asked him if he would consider it undignified for an ex-President to go back to Washington as a member of the House of Representatives. He replied that no person could be degraded by serving in any office "if elected thereto by the people." P'or seventeen years he led the opponents of slavery, expressing their opinions and desires so impressively and forcibly that he was called the *' Old Man Eloquent." At length, on February 21, 1848, while trying to get up from his chair to address the House, he suddenly fell insensible and two days later died in the Speaker's room, to which he had been removed. 236 NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT [1824 chusetts, William H. Crawford of Georgia, Henry Clay of Kentucky, and Andrew Jackson of Tennessee. As none of them had a majority of the electoral votes, the choice rested with the House of Representatives, voting by states. Henry Clay, who was again Speaker of the House, had the smallest number of votes and was the fourth on the list. As the Rep- resentatives had to vote for the three highest, they could not elect Clay. His friends, combin- ing with those of Adams, chose the latter, although General Jackson had received more electoral votes than had Adams. This action of the House greatly angered the Jack- son men, and they were not made John Quincy Adams. ^^^ happier by Adams appointing Clay as his Secretary of State. On the contrary, they declared that Adams and Clay had made a corrupt bargain. They assailed them both with such vigor and so persistently that people really thought that something was wrong. The Jack- son men became thoroughly organized as a party machine, and in 1828 elected their candidate President by a clear 1824] JOHN QUINCY ADAMS'S ADMINISTRATION 237 majority. Thus it happened that of all the early Presi- dents, the two Adamses alone served for one term apiece. 291. Roads and coaches. — The western country now began filling up more rapidly than ever before. A great national road had been constructed over the Alleghenies from Cumberland, Maryland, and was known as the Cum- berland Road, and, later, as the National Road, because it was constructed at the national expense. Before work was stopped, it reached central Illinois. Another favorite Hne of travel was overland by wagons, through Pennsylvania An Old Ferryboat. to Pittsburg, and then by boat or raft down the Ohio. The settlers had gone for the most part to southern or central Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois. Another line of travel was becoming more popular. The emigrant went by road from the Hudson, through central New York to Lake Erie, and then by water to the settlements on the Great Lakes. This line followed the old Iroquois trail (§ 32). Along it went stage-coaches, which were large covered wagons hung on great leather straps in place of springs. The road was fearfully rough in spots, so that these stages jolted terribly. In places it was so muddy that the wheels would sink to the hubs, and progress would be impossible. Companies, or associations of individuals, now took the matter in hand and agreed to construct a good road, pro- 238 NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT [1S25 vided they were allowed to collect tolls ^ at given points to compensate them for the money they spent in building the road and keeping it in repair. At these places gates were kept shut until the traveller had paid the toll, which depended upon the number of horses, or other animals, attached to the cart or wagon. When the sum had been paid, the gate would be swung open and the team allowed to pass through on its way to the next toll-gate. 292. The Erie Canal. — As soon as the farms of the Great Lake region began to produce wheat and other grains, it became of the greatest importance to find some easy method of getting these bulky commodities to the seaboard, whence they could be exported to Europe. It would be much cheaper to send them by canal-boat from Lake Erie to New York City than to haul them most of the way by wagons. The highest point on the line from 1 Toll is a sum paid for a privilege, as passing over a highway, or through a canal. 1S25] JOHN QUINCY ADAMS'S ADMINISTRATION 239 the Hudson to Lake Erie was less than five hundred feet above sea-level, so that it seemed possible to dig a canal along this route. De Witt Chnton was the man who pushed forward this enterprise until it was accomplished. The canal was three hundred and sixty-three miles in length, and had no less than eighty-three locks. At one place a great embankment was built, two miles long and seventy- two feet high above the level of the swamp. On the top of this they dug a place for the canal. It took over eight years to complete the whole undertaking. It was opened in 1825, Governor De Witt Clinton journeying from Lake Erie to New York City on a canal-boat. On his arrival at New York Harbor he poured into it a keg full of Lake Erie water, and thus, for the first time in the world's his- tory, a boat could go from New York City to Lake Erie and back. New York City now grew with astonishing rapidity, and in a few years became the greatest city in the country. 293. Success of the Erie Canal. — The canal justified every hope of its promoters. In one year it reduced the cost of carrying a ton of wheat from Lake Erie to New York from one hundred dollars to ten. The canal also became the highway for travellers and emigrants. The boats were fitted up with sleeping cabins, while by day the passengers could sit on the roof, being careful to crouch down whenever they came to a low bridge. Freight boats were drawn by one horse, and went very slowly. Pas- senger boats were drawn by three horses, which trotted briskly for ten miles, when three other horses and another driver reheved the first set, and so on from one end of the canal to the other. It took twenty-four hours to go in this way eighty miles, — not much more than one of the fast lim- ited trains now goes in an hour, or an hour and a half. These boats carried mails as well as passengers, and '40 NATIO X AL OFA" !•: \AlVM K N T [iS.8 wore met at all important pinnts by stai;"e-eoaches and earriages from the near by towns. Canals were now con- stracted all over the country, but in a few years the open- ing of steam railways greatly lessened the importance of most of them. 294. Early railroads. — The prosperity of New York alarmed the Pennsylvanians and IMarylanders. They de- termined to improve the modes of transportation through their states, and so win back the commerce that they had lost, or, at all events, not lose any more, because it was E g -^. ■ . ■ . ■ .■L!^.^j-. ^.'j^ ^ -'»aa g? 7 cheaper to send goods from Phila- |SS-^~ iT i^ delphia to Pittsburg by way of .l^*^Sferrl!fe>w_^h| New York and the Erie Canal than it was to send them overland bv the old road through Penn- sylvania itself. To regain some of their former importance in transportation, they opened a A Horse Locomof.ve. ncw line of travel, partly by canal and partly by railroad. This road consisted of several short sections of railroad constructed at the carrying- places between two sets of canals, and was therefore called the Portage Railroad. At one place, lines of wooden rails were laid up the side of the mountain, and loaded cars were pulled up by means of a rope and a stationary engine. The people of Baltimore were even more ambi- tious. They began the building of a railroad to connect their city with the western country. On July 4, 1828, while John Ouincy Adams was still President, Charles Carroll, of Carrollton in Maryland, the sole survivor of the signers of the Declaration of Independence, assisted in placing the first foundation-stone of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad.! 1 At first the rails on this road were set on granite blocks instead of being spiked to wooden cross ties or slet.'pers. j.SjiJ JOHN (MUNCV ADAMS'S A I )M I N l^;•|'K AI'ION j.| i 2Q5. The steam locomotive. — In llu- hc^iiniin;^, liorsi-s vvc'ix' used to draw vva<;()iis aloi^; thr liius ol lailroads, and wcTi' still tisi'd live yitais \:\\c\. '\'\\c lii st siicci-sslid stt-ani locomotive was built in l'"aii;laii(l, hut the lui<;lish enj;ines that were l)roui;lil ovci" and used on /Xmeiiean railroads wcAC not sueeesslid, hi-eause their ri_i',id Irames were not suited to ourei'ooked tiaeks. Teter ("ooper ol New \'ork hit upon the idea ol |>ullin!.; the loivvard wlu-els ol the enj;iiu; on a truck thai could adjust ilsell to the ( iirves ol' the line. Me hiiill a model en;;ine which he named the 'I'om 'rinnul). In |£R9DBIV, they arc empowered to act as KIDNAPPERS Slaye Catchers, And they haye already been actually employed in KIDNAPPIIVe, CATCBIXB, AXI^ K£EPI]fG SLAVES. Therefore, if y<»a TalneyoarUBERTT, and the Tf>(AM*e of the FugUUi€8 among joM^Shum them in erery possible manner, as so many UOVNDS on the track of the most nnfortnnate of your race. Keep a Sharp Look Out for KIDNAPPERS, and hare TOP EYE open. JUPIUUL 94« 1851. A Poster of 1851. Seward and Sumner and many others to refuse obedience to it. 270 SLAVERY EXTENSION AND THE CIVIL WAR [1856 332. The North nullifies the Fugitive Slave Law. — The Constitution provided that slaves fleeing from one state to another should be returned to their masters, but the anti- slavery people in the North would not obey it. When an agent of a slave owner appeared and claimed a negro as a fugitive from slavery, the Abolitionists rescued him from, prison or helped him to escape. In Boston it took eleven hundred soldiers and the entire police force of the city to secure the return of Anthony Burns, a negro, to his master's plantation. Then the Northern States, one after another, passed " personal liberty laws " for protecting the fugitive slaves, and forbidding state officials to aid in carrying out the fugitive slave law. The aiding of slaves to escape through the free states to Canada became so well organized that it was called the " underground railroad." ^ 333. Farming by machinery. — Steamboats, canals, and railroads now connected the farms of the West with the markets and seaports of the East. One thing prevented farming on a great scale, and that was the high wages paid to laborers. Cyrus Hall McCormick solved this difficulty for the wheat growers as EU Whitney had solved a similar difficulty for the cotton planters. This he did by inventing a machine, called a harvester, which made it possible for one man and two or three horses to do the same amount of work which six or eight men had formerly done with great difficulty. McCormick did not stop there, but he and other men went on perfecting the harvester until now it not only cuts the grain, but binds it into sheaves and threshes out the wheat, all by means of steam-power. 1 Of course, there was no actual railroad ; but the roads to freedom were so well known to the slaves and so unknown to their pursuers that this system of northern cooperation for aiding fugitive slaves to reach Canada was called the " underground railroad." :S56] THE EXTENSION OF SLAVERY 271 The fuel necessary for this steam-engine is found in the straw that is left after the threshing. Indeed, nowadays, on the very large wheat farms, the ploughing, harrowing, and everything else is done by steam-power. Harvesting in the Olden Time and in the New. 334. Summary. — Taylor and Fillmore were inaugurated President and Vice-president on March 4, 1849. Taylor died in 1850 and Fillmore became President. Two years later (1852) Franklin Pierce of New Hampshire was elected President. The discovery of gold in California attracted so many settlers that it asked to be admitted as a state. A 272 SLAVERY EXTENSION AND THE CIVIL WAR [1857 great compromise Act was passed in 1850 to put an end to the contest over slavery. Instead, it made the agitation more intense, and the Kansas-Nebraska Act in 1854 added to the excitement. The old leaders, Clay, Calhoun, and Webster died, and Douglas, Davis, Sumner, Seward, Chase, and Abraham Lincoln took the foremost places. The Northerners struggled vigorously against the enforcement of the fugitive slave law and succeeded in nullifying it. The McCormick harvester made possible the rapid growth of the great Northwest. BUCHANAN'S ADMINISTRATION, 1857-1861 ; SECESSION 335. James Buchanan elected President. — In 1856 the Democrats nominated James Buchanan ^ of Pennsyl- vania for President. Their principal opponent was John C. Fremont, the candidate of the new Republican party. This political organization included men of all shades of opinion on rnany other subjects who were united in their opposition to slavery, and especially to its extension. The Democrats were successful, but the Republican candidate received more than one million votes. This, the modern Republican party, which is still in existence, must be care- fully distinguished from the old Republican party of Jeffer- son and Madison. 336. The contest over Kansas. — In one of his speeches on the Kansas-Nebraska bill Senator Seward challenged the Southerners, saying : ** Come on, then. . . . We will engage in competition for the soil of Kansas, and God give the victory to the side that is strong in numbers as it is in ^ James Buchanan was born in Pennsylvania in 1791 of Scotch parents from the north of Ireland. He studied law and practised it for a time. He served five terms in Congress, was Secretary of State under Polk, and at different times was jpinister to Russia and to England. He was a Democrat, and was the last President of that party until the election of Grover Cleveland. Bu- chanan was never married, and died in Pennsylvania in 1868. 1857] BUCHANAN'S ADMINISTRATION 273 right." Northerners and Southerners at once began to make preparations to occupy Kansas. Young southern men appeared upon the scene, and every now and then bands of ** border ruffians" crossed over from Missouri to take part in any excitement. The Northerners proceeded in a very different way ; they organized societies whose especial work it was to send out emigrants to Kansas ; men with their wives and children who would go there and stay there. The slave- holders then tried by trickery to make Kan- sas declare for slavery, but this, too, was pre- vented. 337. ** Uncle Tom's Cabin.'* — Nothing, not even the fighting in ''bleeding Kansas," had so much to do with arousing excitement as the pubUcation of Mrs. Harriet Beecher Stowe's *' Uncle Tom's Cabin, or Life among the Lowly." The book tells the tale of slaves who go through all the pleasures and sorrows of life on a slave plantation in the old South. The story is wonderfully told, giving extreme pictures of the dark side of slavery as well as extreme pictures of the light side. Hundreds of thousands of copies were sold. The boys who read it in 1852, when it came out, and in the next few years, were the men who voted for the Republican candidates in 1856 and i860, and marched in the Union armies in the Civil War. Harriet Beecher Stowe. 274 SLAVERY EXTENSION AND THE CIVIL WAR [1859 338. John Brown's raid. — Suddenly in October, 1859, John Brown 1 and eighteen men seized the United States arsenal and armory at Harper's Ferry in Virginia. Brown's idea was that he and his little band would help on the freeing of the slaves. Soon Virginia militiamen gathered, and then came Colonel Robert E. Lee of the United States army with a force of regulars. He attacked the building in which Brown had taken refuge and cap- tured him and his men. Brown was tried on the charge of treason, and was executed. He had done his work ; for his heroic fortitude in the face of death aroused the North as it never had been aroused before. 339. Abraham Lincoln chosen President. — In 1858, Lin- coln 2 and Douglas contended for the election to the United 1 John Brown was born in Connecticut in 1800, and in 1848 moved to New York. From early life, he had been intensely opposed to slavery. In 1855, he went out to Kansas and led free state settlers in conflicts with the pro- slavery men. He was executed at Charlestovvn, Virginia, December 2, 1859. Brown's acts in Kansas and at Harper's Ferry were not approved by many leaders among the antislavery men of the North, because they thought more peaceful methods would be better. 2 Abraham Lincoln, the sixteenth President of the United States, was born in Hardin County, Kentucky, on February 12, 1809. His parents were very poor, and he taught himself by reading over and over again the few books that he was able to buy or borrow. His parents moved to Indiana and then to Illinois. Lincoln was a lad of immense physical strength, so that splitting rails was easy for him. On one occasion when he needed a pair of trousers he agreed with a woman to split four hundred rails for every yard of brown jeans dyed with white walnut bark that would be necessary to make the coveted garment. At one time he was a flatboatman ; at another a storekeeper. In the latter capacity, he earned the title of " honest Abe Lincoln " for his sterling integrity. He volunteered for service in the Black Hawk War, and was chosen captain of his company. This election gave him more pleasure than many of his greater triumphs in later life. He became a lawyer, and a dis- tinguished one. He then entered politics, served his state in Congress, and returned home to take up his law practice. The contest over the extension of slavery aroused him to renewed political activity, and led directly to his nomination for the presidency. The presidential convention was held at Chicago, and the contest was very close between Lincoln and Seward, when Senator Davis appeared bearing a pair of rails which had been split by BUCHANAN'S ADMINISTRATION 275 Abrahann Lincoln. 276 SLAVERY EXTENSION AND THE CIVIL WAR [i860 States Senate from Illinois. At the outset, Lincoln de- clared that a nation divided as the United States was could never last ; it must become all slave or all free. He and Douglas then held a series of joint debates. These were attended by thou- sands of listeners, and were widely re- ported in the news- papers. Douglas won, but Lincoln had made himself a national figure. In i860, the Re- publicans nomi- nated him for Pres- Lincoln's Birthplace. ident. The Democrats held a nominating convention at Charleston. Here Douglas was the leading candidate, but he and his followers from the North refused to accept the Southerners' demands for the protection of slave prop- erty everywhere in the Union. So the Democrats nomi- nated two candidates, and thus divided their strength. 340. Secession. — When the election of Lincoln became certain, the South CaroHna legislature called a convention. This met in Charleston in December, i860, after the elec- tion had been held, and three days later adopted a declara- tion "that the union now subsisting between South Carolina and other States under the name of ' The United States of America,' is hereby dissolved." Six other states soon joined Lincoln. This appealed to the homely instincts of the people and^ saved the day. He was nominated and later elected. It was of him that James Russell Lowell wrote, " Our children shall behold his fame, The kindly-earnest, brave, foreseeing man, Sagacious, patient, dreading praise, not blame, New birth of our new soil, the first American." iS()o] lU'CMlANAN'S Al )M I NlSTkATlON 277 South Carolina. Thcso woro Mississippi, PMoiida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas. l)oloi;.ilos lioni those states mot in a convention at Mont^omoi \' in h\d)ruai\', 1S61, a(h)i)lO(l a constitution (()V the C'ontcdcratc Slates ()[ Amciica. c-hosc jclTcrson l)a\is rrcsidcnt, and scait cHiunnissioncis to VVashin_i;ton to treat with the i;()\ei'n- ment as to the possession ot the United States property within thcar hmits. l*resident liuchanan tliou<;ht that no state had a iii;"IU to sch^hIc, hut lie saw no way to coin|)el a seceded state to return to the Union, so lie sat cpiietly in the White House at \\'ashin_<;ton and did nothini;. 341. New states. — Three new states wcae admitted to the Union in Buchanan's term. These were Minnesota (1CS58), ()rei;()n (iS5()), and Kansas (1861). The second was on the racitic slope, so that there wci'c now two states west ol the Rocky Mountains. The admission of Minnesota shows how rapidly settlement was spieadini;- in the country west of the (ireat Lakes. The depaiture of the southern memheis ol" Congress gaxe the l\e])ul)licans the op[)ortunity to admit Kansas as a free state. 342. Summary. In Buchanan's administration, most of the colonists in ivansas came from the North. But the shiveholders tried by trickery to make Kansas a slave state. Mrs. Stowe's *' Uncle Tom's Cabin " aroused renewed inter- est in the contest over slavery, which was greatly inten- sified by John J^rown's heroic death alter his seizure of Harper's Ferry. Abraham Lincoln i;ained a national repu- tation by debating with Douglas. In 1S60, the Republicans nominated and elected him President, whereu|)on South Carolina seceded from the Union. She was soon joined by six other states, which formed the Confederate States of America. Three new states weie added to the Union. 278 SLAVERY EXTENSION AND THE CIVIL WAR [1S60 THE NORTH AND THE SOUTH 343. The Confederate States, — When the federal gov- ernment showed a determination to force the seven seceding states back into the Union, the seceders were joined by four others — North CaroHna, Virginia, Tennessee, and Arkan- sas. This made eleven in all, which formed the Confederacy. Density of Population in I860. Four other slave states — Delaware, Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri — did not join the Confederacy, either because the Union men in them were so numerous or because the government at Washington was able to interfere in time to prevent them from seceding. These were known as the "border states," and their failure to join the other slave states was a great blow to the cause of secession. People living in the mountain regions of Virginia and North Caro- lina and Tennessee owned very few slaves, and were be- lievers in the Union. Especially those of the western i86o] THE NORTH AND THE SOUTH 279 counties of Virginia were opposed to the secession of that state. Congress formed them into a separate state under the name of West Virginia. 344. Other Confederate disappointments. — The leaders of secession had expected that all the slave states would go out of the Union. They hoped that California and the states of the Northwest would either join them or remain neutral, because there were many southern men in California, and the southern cotton states were the best customers of the farmers of the Northwest. These hopes were doomed to disappointment. The Californians and the northwestern farmers went into the Union cause with all the vigor of frontiersmen. The Southerners had declared that *' cotton was king" and had thought that the cotton-spinning inter- ests of England would force the government of that country to take their side in the coming conflict. England did give the secessionists war rights, and permitted privateers to be fitted out in its ports ; but the corn and wheat of the North were so necessary for its food supply that England did not dare to go any farther. 345. The strength and weakness of the North and the South. — Had all the slaveholding states followed South Carolina out of the Union, the North would still have been immeasurably stronger in numbers and wealth. Had the two parties been simply fighting like two foreign countries, there would have been not the slightest doubt but that the North would have conquered. The problem was not so simple in this case, because the South had not merely to be conquered, but to be occupied state by state and almost foot by foot. It was the old difficulty that had beset the English government in the Revolutionary War, as fast as they conquered a bit of territory, they had to keep one army there to hold it while another went into the field to fight the opposing army. Then, too, the Southern States were 28o SLAVERY EXTENSION AND THE CIVIL WAR [iS6i scantily provided with railroads and other means of trans- portation, so that an invading army had to carry along with it vast amounts of suppHes, — ammunition, clothing, and food. The Southerners, being on home territory, had their supplies nearer at hand. 346. Occupations of the people. — The two parts of the country were very unlike in the occupations of their people. The seceding slave states produced cotton and very little else ; they imported their clothing and a good deal of their food and all of their luxuries either from Europe or from the North. People of the Northern States were engaged in all kinds of occupations, — farming, manufacturing, and the building of houses, ships, and railroads. The secession of the Southern States gave the northern members of Con- gress the chance to revise the protective system so as to build up northern industries. In the four years of the Civil War, the North grew as it never had grown before, so that at the end it was far stronger than it had been in the beginning. The people of the South, in the same four years, practically did nothing except to fight and to provide their armies with food, clothing, and military equipment, as well as they could. At the close of the war, the South was exhausted. From this statement, it can be seen that the North undertook to do two things at once, while the South tried to do only one. In this way, therefore, a great deal of the extra strength of the North was diverted from the task of bringing the secessionists back into the Union. 347. The blockade. — At the beginning, the Southerners had expected to sell their cotton to Englishmen and to Frenchmen, as usual, and with the proceeds to buy what- ever they needed for use at home, and for supplving their soldiers with what was necessary for war. The govern- ment at Washington put a stop to these expectations by stationing cruisers off the southern coasts and preventing i86i] LINCOLN'S ADMLNISTRATION 281 any vessels going in or out. This was called blockading, and after the first year or so it became very effective. The Southerners did everything they could to get along without those things that they had formerly got from the North and from Europe. They made coffee out of sweet potatoes, and wove cotton and wool into home-made cloth ; but they could not provide copper for the percussion caps that were needed by the soldiers for their muskets. They searched far and wide for all the copper kettles and pans and vases, but in the winter of 1864- 1865 the supply of these gave out, as it did with countless other things, so that the end of the Confederacy was inevitable. 348. Summary. — Four other states joined the Con- federacy. The secessionists were disappointed over the failure of several border states to join them, and over the lack of sympathy in California and the Northwest. The strength of the North was disproportionate. The northern people built up their industries and fought the Southerners at the same time. The blockade deprived the Southerners of all luxuries and of many of the necessaries of life and of warfare. LINCOLN'S ADMINISTRATION ; THE CIVIL WAR, 1861 349. Lincoln's inauguration. — On the 4th of March, 1 86 1, Abraham Lincoln was inaugurated President of the United States at Washington, as all the other Presidents had been since the time of John Adams. There were rumors that the secessionists intended to prevent it ; but General Scott, the commanding general of the army, and patriotic Northerners made this impossible. In his inaugu- ral address. President Lincoln stated expressly that he had no intention of interfering with slavery in the states where it existed and, indeed, had no right to do so. He was determined, however, to use all the powers that the Con- 282 SLAVERY EXTENSION AND THE CIML WAR [1861 all th. stitution gave him to enforce the laws of the Union in all the states. 350. Lincoln's advisers. — He appointed to the high- est cabinet positions his three rivals in the race for the Republican presidential nomination. These were Seward, Chase, and Cameron, who became respectively Secretaries of State, Treasury, and War. In 1862, the last gave way to Edwin M. Stanton, '' a War Democrat," who remained Secretary of War for the rest of Lincoln's administration. For Secretary of the Navy, he picked out a prominent Republican leader, Gideon Welles of Connecticut. 351. The firing on Sumter. — The Confederates seized Ihiited States posts in the South except the fort at Key ^ West, Fort Pickens at Pensacola in Florida, and Fort Sumter in Charleston Harbor. This last was defended by Major Robert Anderson '^ and a few sol- diers of the regular army. Gen- eral Beauregard (Bo're-gard), commander of the Confederate forces at Charleston, summoned Anderson to surrender, but he refused. Thereupon, the Southerners opened fire upon the fort. It seemed to be almost impossible to re- enforce Anderson or supply him with food, but Lincoln sent an expedition to his succor. The vessels were un- able to reach the fort, and on Sunday afternoon, April 14, 1 86 1, Anderson surrendered. He was permitted to march out with colors flying and drums beating and to salute the flag with fifty guns. The bombardment had left the fort 1 Key means island. - Early in January, 1S61, President Buchanan sent the SAir of the West with men and supplies to aid Major Anderson, but the ship was fired upon by the Confederates and forced to turn back. i86i] LINCOLN'S ADMINISTRATION * 283 almost in ruins. Thus it was that the Confederates made the first attack and fired on the national flag. 352. Seventy-five thousand volunteers. — The next morn- ing, April 15, President Lincoln issued a call for seventy- five thousand volunteers to assist in enforcing the United Fort Sumter. States laws in the seceded states, and he summoned Con- gress to meet on the Fourth of July, following. The answer from the North was startling, for the flag had been fired upon. Within twenty-four hours regiments left their state capitals to answer President Lincoln's call. The first to reach Washington were Pennsylvania soldiers, who came on April 18. The next day, April 19, the anni- versary of Lexington and Concord, the Sixth Massachusetts Regiment was attacked while marching through Baltimore, from one railway station to another. This was the first bloodshed in the war, for no one had been seriously injured 284 SLAVERY EXTENSION AND THE CIVIL WAR [1861 at Sumter. They and other regiments made their way to Washington by Annapolis, and occupied the capital. 353. Bull Run, July 21. — The Southerners were even more eager to rush into the fight, and they were better prepared in the beginning because the captured United States arsenals and forts in the South were well filled with arms and ammunition. Besides, the Southerners had been drilling for some time in expectation of a conflict. At first, success was with northern soldiers who drove Confeder- ates before them in western Virginia. The main armies came together at Bull Run in Virginia, almost directly south of Washington, about thirty miles away. Generals Beaure- gard and Joseph E. Johnston commanded the Southerners, and General Irvin McDowell the Union forces. Sight-seers came from Washington to witness the defeat of the South- erners ; but it turned out the other way. For the grim determination and the soldier-like qualities of General Thomas J. Jackson carried the day for the South. " There he stands like a stone wall," some one cried, and as " Stone- wall " Jackson he was known from that time on. Suddenly, the Union soldiers broke and ran for Washington. The rout and disaster were complete, but the losses in killed and wounded were not large. This disaster stirred the North to greater endeavor. Congress authorized the Presi- dent to raise half a million men, and voted great sums of money. George B. McClellan was appointed to chief com- mand. He spent the coming winter in disciplining the raw recruits as they came from the North in thousands and tens of thousands, and formed the Army of the Potomac into a mighty military force. 354. Summary. — Lincoln, on becoming President, de- clared that he would enforce the laws throughout the whole country. He appointed his campaign rivals to the principal cabinet offices. The Southerners fired on Sumter, which 1862] THE SECOND YEAR OF THE WAR 285 surrendered. Seventy-five thousand volunteers were called for. At the battle of Bull Run, the Union army was badly defeated. The winter of 1 861-1862 saw both sides drilling and preparing for the coming campaign. THE SECOND YEAR OF THE WAR, 1862 355. Grant and Thomas in the West, 1862. — In the first two months of 1862, two northern generals appeared who were to become very famous before the war was ended. These were Ulysses S. Grant of Il- linois, and George H. Thomas of Virginia. Both were graduates of West Point, although Grant had been out of the military service for years. Thomas was a Virginian, but he thought, as did David Glasgow Farragut, that it was his duty to remain faith- ful to the Union, instead of thinking as did that other great Virginian, Robert E. Lee, that his duty lay with his state. In Jan- uary, Thomas won a battle over the Confederates at Mill Spring. In February, Grant, with some help from a naval force, captured Fort Henry on the Tennessee and Fort Donelson on the Cumberland, thus opening the navigation of these two rivers to the Union forces. In April, another federal army seized Island No. 10 in the Mississippi River, which General Thomas. 286 SLAVERY EXTENSION AND THE CIVIL WAR General Ulysses S. Grant. i862] THE SECOND YEAR OF THE WAR 287 now was free to the passage of Union vessels nearly as far south as Memphis. 356. Farragut at New Orleans. — It was of the utmost importance that the Mississippi should be in Union hands, for its whole length. For then the Confederacy would be cut into two parts, and each part would be much easier to conquer. Flag-officer Farragut was sent with a fleet to enter the river at the Gulf and open it up to New Orleans and as much farther as he could, and turn the city over to General Butler, who commanded a force of soldiers. Far- ragut's task was a very hard one, because the passage of the Mississippi up to New Orleans was defended by Forts Jackson and St. PhiHp, by obstructions in the river itself, and by a fleet of gunboats. Farragut's idea was to take his flag-ship, the Hartford^ and the other vessels of his fleet past the forts at night. He thought that if his guns were fired quickly and surely enough, they would keep 288 SLAVERY EXTENSION AND THE CIVIL WAR [1862 down the fire of the forts so that the vessels would not be much injured. After great difficulties, he got his ships into the river and in April carried them, or nearly all of them, successfully past the forts and captured New Orleans (April) which he then turned over to the soldiers. The fortifications of Vicksburg, which stood on a high bluff facing a great bend in the Mississippi, were now the only very dangerous obstructions to the navigation of the great river by Union vessels. 357. The battle of Shiloh or Pittsburg Landing. — Gen- eral Grant now moved his army up the Tennessee River to Pittsburg Landing, which was the best place for disembark- ing his troops for a campaign against Memphis (Mem'fis) and Vicksburg or into northern Tennessee or Alabama. There his army was suddenly attacked by the strong force of Confederates led by Albert Sidney Johnston. Before Grant could arrive on the scene of battle, the Union sol- diers were forced back to the river. Another Union force under Buell came up in the nick of time, and the Confed- erates were forced back with the loss of their general and many soldiers (April). General Halleck now combined all the Union armies in the West and with them took posses- sion of Corinth and Memphis (see map). 358. Confederates in Kentucky. — General Braxton Bragg was now put in command of the western Confeder- ate armies, and told to invade Kentucky in the hope that this would make Halleck and Grant let go their hold on the Mississippi Valley. Bragg started from Chattanooga (Chat'ta-nob'ga) and marched across Tennessee and Ken- tucky almost to Louisville (Lob'is-vil) on the Ohio River (see map). Buell met him at Perryville and fought such a hard battle that Bragg retreated (October). Almost three months later, the Union army, now under General Rose- crans (Ro'ze-krans), hit the Confederates another blow in iS62] THE SECOND YEAR OF THE WAR 289 the terrible battle of Miirfreesboro, which began on Decem- ber 31st and continued without pause until January 3, 1863. The western armies then went into winter quarters. 359. ** On to Richmond,*' 1862. — In the East, the cry was "On to Richmond." General McClellan with his splendid army set out to capture that city, which was not only the capital of Virginia, but the capital of the Confederate States. Instead of marching from Washington to Rich- mond, direct by way of Bull Run, he planned to take his army to the peninsula formed by the James and Rappa- hannock (Rap-a-han'uk) rivers ; to march up that penin- sula and capture Richmond, which stands at the falls of the James. The plan was an excellent one, but there were three things in the way. The first was the southern army, which had likewise been drilled and put on the best possi- ble footing; the second was the fear of the government at Washington at being left unprotected while McClellan was far away ; the third was the Confederate ironclad Mej'riniac. 360. The Merrimac and the Monitor. — The Mcrriviac had been one of the finest vessels in the old wooden Amer- ican navy. When the Union forces left Norfolk, Virginia, and the navy yard at Portsmouth opposite, they bored holes in the Merrimac, set her on fire, and left her to sink. The Southerners raised her, built upon her deck an iron struct- ure like the roof of a house with the eaves under water, gave her an iron bow, and placed some heavy guns on board. They rechristened her the Virginia. On March 8, the Virginia steamed down to Hampton Roads, where lay a fleet of United States men-of-war. She went straight at them ; the solid shot from their guns roUing harmlessly off her iron sides into the water. She sent the Congress and the Cumbei'land to the bottom, ^ and then returned to Nor- 1 Longfellow's poem of "The Cumberland " splendidly describes this battle. U IQO SLAVERY EXTENSION AND THE CIVIL WAR [1S62 folk for the night, her commander being well satisfied with the day's work. To-morrow he would come back and destroy the rest of the Union fleet. But the best-laid plans sometimes fail. That night there steamed into Hampton Roads an ironclad that had been built at New York, and looked like a '* cheese-box on a raft." Her inventor was The Monitor and the Merrimac. John Ericsson. She had a low deck upon which was a revolving iron turret in which were placed two large guns that turned with the turret. When the Virginia appeared the Monitor, for this was the name of the Union ironclad, steered straight for her. These two strange vessels fired at each other acrain and aijain and the Vin^inia rammed the Mojiitor as hard as she could, but all in vain (March). The Confederate ship steamed back to Norfolk and never again offered battle. The days of wooden fighting ships were over. In the future navies must be of iron or of steel. 361. McClellan's Peninsular campaign (April-July). — Meanwhile McClellan's soldiers were slowly marching up i862] THE SECOND YEAR OF THE WAR 291 the Peninsula. At every favorable opportunity, the Con- federates under Joseph E. Johnston attacked them. John- ston was wounded and the command of the Southern forces in Virginia fell to General Robert E. Lee^ who remained at the head of that army until the end. Stone- wall Jackson came from the Shenandoah (Shen an-do a) 1 Robert E Lee was the son of "Light-Horse" Harry Lee, a dashing soldier of the Revolution on whose military capacity Washington and Greene tVeat V relied. He was born in Virginia, in .807, and died there m .870 Se wis educated at West Point, served in the Mexican War, -d "as <,- rf the most distinguished officers of the regular army m .860. When \ rg ma seceded, Robert E. Lee felt it his duty to leave the service of the Lmted Sta es ana fight for the rights of his state. After the war he became for a few "ears the president of Washington and Lee Universuy m Vrrgm.a. 292 SLAVERY EXTENSION AND THE CIVIL WAR [1862 Valley to aid him, and the two attacked McClellan so fiercely that, although he got within sight of Richmond, he was forced back to the James River. There at Malvern Hill the Army of the Potomac beat off every attack that was made upon it (July). McClellan felt that his failure to capture Richmond was due to the government's insist- ing upon keeping General McDowell with forty thousand men at Washington, where they would be at hand in case of need. 362. The second Bull Run campaign, August. — Lee de- cided that the easiest way to get McClellan away from the vicinity of Rich- mond would be to send Jackson with part of his men toward Washing- ton. The government was greatly dissatisfied with McClellan and gave the command of the forces defending Washington to General John Pope. As soon as Lee's new movement was known, McClellan and his army were re- called, and his soldiers were ordered to be placed under Pope's command. Then fol- lowed the second battle of Bull Run in which the north- ern soldiers were again defeated and forced back toward Washington. 363. Lee invades Maryland, 1862. — Lee now thought that he would cross the Potomac and carrv the war into Robert E. Lee. 1862] THE SECOND YEAR OF THE WAR 293 the Northern States. McClellan was again hastily placed in chief command, and also crossed the Potomac into Mary- land, keeping between the Confederates and Washington. The two armies came together at Antietam (An-te'tam) or Sharpsburg as the Southerners call it (September 17). McClellan had twice as many men as Lee. He attacked with great vigor and drove the Confederates from the field with severe losses on both sides. After this vic- tory, he failed to pursue the defeated enemy. Lincoln, therefore, removed him from command and gave it to General Ambrose E. Burnside. Lee retreated again to Virginia, fortifying a strong position at Fredericksburg. There he was attacked by the Army of the Potomac, but beat the northern soldiers off with cruel loss (December). Burnside was now replaced by General Joseph E. Hooker, and the two armies went into winter quarters with the Rappahannock River between them. 364. Summary. — Grant and Thomas won important victories in the West. Farragut captured New Orleans, and the Union forces occupied the Mississippi Valley as far south as Memphis and from the Gulf upwards from New Orleans. The Confederates tried to reHeve the pres- sure in the Mississippi Valley by invading Kentucky, but w^ere obliged, finally, after two terrific battles to retire. In the East, the Army of the Potomac tried to get to Richmond by way of the Peninsula, but General Lee, now in command of the Confederates, threatened Washington and secured the withdrawal of this army. Lee invaded Maryland, but was stopped by the battle of Antietam. Both armies again went to Virginia, where the Union soldiers were beaten in an attack on the Confederate lines at Fredericksburg. 294 SLAVERY EXTEXSIOX AND THE CIVIL WAR [1S63 THE THIRD YEAR OF THE WAR, 1863 365. Freeing the slaves. — Lincoln's first thought was always how best to preserve the Union. By the summer of 1862, he had become convinced that freeing as many slaves as possible would greatly weaken the military strength of the South. The white men in the Confeder- acy were being forced into the armies ; the women and the children and the old men being left on the plantations with the negro slaves. These last cultivated the soil and produced the food that fed the soldiers in the field. Many slaves also accompanied southern armies and did a great deal of work that northern soldiers performed, as building fortifications, and driving the wagon trains. In Septem- ber (1862), President Lincoln issued a statement saying that on January i, 1863, he would issue a proclamation declaring slaves free in all the states and parts of states then in insurrection against the United States. On the first day of the New Year he issued the Emancipation Proclamation.^ 366. The situation at the beginning of the year. — Both combatants were now disciplined to war. In the East the armies had gained but little ground and were still almost where they had been in July, 1861. In the West the two forces confronted one another in eastern Tennessee. On the Mississippi, alone, had great progress been made by the Union forces. The plans of the year were to defeat 1 The words of the Proclamation are in part : " That, on the tirst day of January, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and sixty-three, all persons held as slaves within any state .... the people whereof shall be in rebellion against the United States, shall be then, thenceforward, and for- ever, free." The people of the slave states which had not seceded and also those of West Virginia joined in the movement and by state action put an end to slavery within their borders. Finally, in 1S65, the Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution was adopted, abolishing slavery as an institution through- out the United States. 1863] THE THIRD YEAR OF THE WAR 295 the Confederate armies in Virginia and eastern Tennessee; to enforce the blockade and occupy as much of the sea- coast of the Confederacy as possible ; and capture Vicks- burg and other southern posts on the Mississippi. 367. Chancellorsville. — On the last days of April, Gen- eral Hooker, or " fighting Joe Hooker " as he was called, led the Army of the Po- tomac across the Rap- pahannock and gained a position in the wilder- ness to the rear of Lee's fortified Hues at Fred- ericksburg. Bringing his army out of the forti- fications, Lee sent Stone- wall Jackson with a powerful force across the front of the Union army, but out of sight of it. Suddenly, this flank- ing force hit the L^nion right most unexpectedly. A fierce battle followed which resulted in Hooker's retreating across the river again. The Confederates were victorious in this great battle of Chancellorsville (May), but in the death of Stonewall Jackson, who was accidentally shot by one of his own men, they suffered a loss that could not be made good. 368. Lee again invades the North. — After this brilliant victory, Lee again led his soldiers into the Northern States, this time to Pennsylvania. The Army of the Potomac followed ; Hooker was displaced and the command was Stonewall Jackson. 2q6 ST.WKRY F.XTF.NSION and the CTVTL war [1S6;; iit.e of Gettysburg. given to George G. Meade. He at once pushed for the line bv which Lee had marched and compelled him hastily to turn back. At Get- tysburg, the two forces again came into contact. 369. The battle of Get- tysburg, July 1-3. — For three davs the two armies fought desperately at Gettysburg. The North- erners were driven back at one end of the line, but their position was so admirably chosen that this only made them the stronger. Finally, on the third dav, Lee hurled fifteen thousand men in one BATTLE OF _ CKTTVSBl-RO / "f^g^^..,, ,„ 1863] THE THIRD YEAR OF THE WAR 297 grand assault on the centre of the Union Hne. On they came, their front extending for a mile. Some of the Con- federates gained the top of the Union defences and a few even crossed over. Then they were flung back with dreadful slaughter. After this terrible disaster, Lee re- treated as fast as he could to Virginia. Meade followed slowly and once more the two armies went into winter quarters, just about where they had been in the autumn of 1861. 370. Lincoln's Gettysburg Address. — Gettysburg was the high-water mark of the Confederacy. No southern army again invaded the North. From this time on, the southern cause surely receded. In November, 1863, Lincoln journeyed to Gettysburg to dedicate the ground where the soldiers were buried. His address should be committed to memory by every American boy and girl. 371. Vicksburg. — During the spring and summer of 1863, General Grant and his gallant army had been work- ing towards Vicksburg, but for a time without much suc- cess. At last he broke loose from his base of supplies, and carried his army across the river below the town. The Southerners led by General Pemberton came out of their works to fight, but were driven back. Grant then besieged them, having opened communication with the North by river above the town. For weeks this siege went on, the Confederate soldiers and the families in the town suffering: terribly from the incessant cannonading and later from lack of food. On July 4, Pemberton met Grant and surrendered. 1 372. Chickamauga and Chattanooga. — Through the summer of 1863, Rosecrans and Bragg and their armies were fighting in eastern Tennessee. Bragg was obliged to abandon Chattanooga, but he suddenly attacked Rose- 1 For an early meeting between Grant and Pemberton, see § 321. 298 SLAVERY EXTENSION AND THE CIVIL WAR [1863 crans and nearly routed him (September) at Chickamauga (Chik'a-ma'ga). Had it not been for the firm stand made by Thomas and his part of the army, the Unionists would have suffered a direful disaster. After this, Thomas was placed in command and was forced back to Chattanooga, itself, where he and his soldiers suffered from lack of food. At this moment, Grant was given command of all the western armies. With part of his Vicksburg army under his most trusted general, William T. Sherman, he hastened to the relief of Chattanooga. There he defeated Bragg utterly (November), and then sent Sherman to the rescue of another Union army under Burnside that was blockaded at Knoxville. 373. Summary. — The year 1863 saw two great defeats for the North at Chancellorsville and at Chickamauga. The three victories of Gettysburg, Vicksburg, and Chat- tanooga marked the beginning of the end of the war. Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation freed many slaves ; this work was completed by the action of the border states and, finally, by the adoption of the Thirteenth Amendment. THE ENDING OF THE WAR, 1864-1865 374. The military problem. — Grant was made lieu- tenant general and was placed in command of all the Union armies on both sides of the AUeghenies. He took direct charge of the operations in Virginia, giving Sherman the command of the western army. The military problem before him was to so time the movements of all his forces that no reenforcements could go from one of the Con- federate armies to another. For the first time, military operations both east and west of the AUeghenies were to be conducted under the direction of one general. Grant's own part was to defeat and crush Lee ; Sherman's was to 1864] THE ENDIxNG OF THE WAR 2L)L) defeat and crush the army which under Bragg had so long opposed the Union forces in Tennessee and Kentucky. This army was led now by Joseph K. Johnston. At the beginning of May, 1864, Grant and Sherman left their winter camps and moved against the enemy. 375. The battles in the Wilderness, May, 1864. — Grant's movement was begun with the hope of placing his army between Lee and Richmond and forcing the latter to attack him on his own ground. Lee was too quick to be caught. While the Army of the Potomac was marching through the Wilderness, not very far from Chancellorsville, it was suddenly attacked by the Confederates in the midst of the forest. F'or two days the conflict was tremendous, but without success. Then Grant again tried to get around Lee's army ; but again Lee was too quick for him, and another battle was fought at Spottsylvania Court-house, even bloodier than the first. Then on again, to the North Anna and then to Cold Harbor. Here, the Army of the Potomac was almost within reach of Richmond, on the very ground, indeed, of McClellan's campaign. At Cold Har- bor, there was almost continuous fighftng for eleven days, but Grant could not move the Confederates from their place (June). Then, again marching across country, Grant tried to seize Petersburg, the gateway to Richmond ; but again Lee interfered in time to prevent it. Grant now besieged Lee in his Hnes at the former place. 376. Sheridan in the Valley of Virginia, August. — Now Lee tried to loosen Grant's hold on the approaches to Richmond, as he had McClellan's in 1862, by sending an expedition to threaten Washington in the hope that the government would order Grant back. The circumstances were now different ; Lincoln trusted Grant's soldier-like qualities as he had no other man's, and Grant had in Gen- eral Sheridan a lieutenant whom he trusted above all others 300 SLAVERY EXTENSION AND THE CIVIL WAR 1864] THE ENDING OF THE WAR ;oi except Sherman. The Confederates actually reached the outer defences of Washington, but there delayed long enough for soldiers to come from the lines in front of Peters- burg to push them back. They then retreated into the Shen- General Sheridan and " Rienzi." andoah Valley, or the Valley of Virginia, and Sheridan went after them. He beat them in one battle and then, while he was absent, they surprised his men, drove them from their camps, and forced them back. Sheridan was at Winchester, twelve miles away, when the sound of cannon- ading told him that his presence was needed. Mounting his horse,^ he rode toward the sound of battle. As he neared ^This was the famous " Rienzi." He was jet black with three white feet, and was given to Sheridan in August, 1863. Sheridan rode him in all his later campaigns and battles. " Rienzi " was wounded four times, but lived until 1878. After his death, the skin was carefully mounted and set up, and is still in 302 SLAVERY EXTENSION AND THE CIVIL WAR [1S64 it, he met fugitives by the hundreds and thousands fleeing to a place of safety. Shouting to them to turn back, he pressed on, the men everywhere following him. Putting his soldiers in such order as he could, he rode in front of the battle rank that all might see him, and then told them to go in. That night, they slept in their camps, and the Confederates, in turn, were the fugitives. Grant ordered Sheridan to destroy everything in the Valley, so that no other Confederate army could march along it. This he did with such thoroughness that it was said that a crow could not have flown over it, unless he carried his food with him. Sheridan then rejoined his chief at Petersburg, and the siege went on through the autumn and winter into the the spring of 1865. 377. Sherman's Atlanta campaign, May-September. — Meantime, Sherman had been doing his part of the work. Marching southward from Chattanooga, he slowly pushed Johnston back from one fortified position to another. He fought few pitched battles, but compelled Johnston to retire by making long detours around him. This constant retreat so disheartened the Confederate government that it removed Johnston and gave the task of stopping Sher- man to General John B. Hood. He fought constantly and always unsuccessfully. On September 3, Sherman en- tered Atlanta, one of the few manufacturing cities of the South. 378. Marching through Georgia, November-December, 1864. — Sherman now suggested to Grant that the best thing that he could do would be to send back part of his army under Thomas to defend Tennessee and Kentucky from Hood or any other Confederate who might appear. the Museum at Governor's Island in New York Harbor. ^Vi^chester was twelve miles away instead of twenty as stated in Read's spirited poem, and as the troops had been driven four miles back, Sheridan had only eight miles to ride. 1864] THE ENDING OF THE WAR 3^3 With the other part, sixty thousand strong, he might march through Georgia to the sea, and then, turning northward, bring his men into the fight against Lee. Grant told him to do it. Destroying Atlanta, he SQt out on his three hun- dred mile march. His army went in three divisions by General Sherman. three different roads, spreading across the country for sixty miles. As they went, they destroyed railroads, mills, and everything that could be of use to the enemy, and they took their food from the plantations as they passed. On De- cember 20, he captured Savannah and presented it to Lin- coln as a Christmas present. Resting his men for a month, he started northward through the Carolinas toward Rich- 304 SLAVERY EXTENSION AND THE CIVIL WAR [1864 mond. As he passed along inland, the Confederate garri- son of Charleston abandoned that city which had resisted all the federal efforts for three years. Finally, he reached Goldsboro, North Carolina, and there stopped to act as Grant should see fit to order. 379. Battle of Nashville. — Instead of pursuing Sherman, Hood marched northward into Tennessee and at length encamped before Nashville, to which place Thomas had re- treated. Reenforcements were now sent to the latter from Ohio and all available points. When all was ready, Thomas left his intrenchments (December 15), and in two days destroyed Hood's army as a fighting force. General Scho- field with a part of Thomas's army was then carried by rail- road and steamer to North Carolina, where he joined Sherman, making him stronger than any force the Confederates could bring against him. 380. The complete blockade. — Year by year, the blockade had been made more and more complete, since the time that Farragut had seized New Orleans and had closed the Valley of the Mississippi. Two years after this, he led his fleet into Mobile Bay, past the forts and over the torpedoes, one of which sent the monitor TccumscJi to the bottom with all her crew. Within the bay Farragut found the iron-clad Confederate ram, the Tennessee, and attacked it with his whole fleet. Now, again, the superior- ity of armored vessels over wooden ships of the older type was made clear. For, although Farragut ran the Hartforei full speed against the Tennessee, and other vessels did the same, she held out for a long time. The capture of Mobile closed another port of the Confederacy. Sher- man, marching through Georgia, seized Savannah. When he went northward again, he compelled the abandonment of Charleston, and at almost the same moment Admiral Porter and a powerful military force captured Wilmington, THE ENDING OF THE WAR 305 David Glasgow Farragut. 3o6 SLAVERY EXTENSION AND THE CIVIL WAR [1S65 North Carolina. The outlets of the Confederacy were now stopped. The end was near. 381. Lee's surrender at Appomattox. — By this time, the Confederate government could no longer feed its soldiers. Many of their families were starving at home, and success seemed hopeless, so they deserted in large numbers and went to their plantations to try to keep their wives and children alive. In this way Lee's army dwindled month after month, while Grant's was all the time growing stronger and stronger. As soon as the roads were dry enough for the passage of artillery and wagons, Grant ordered Meade, who was still in direct command of the Army of the Potomac, to gain the right and rear of the force defending Petersburg, and at the same time to attack in front. Sheridan commanded the turning movement. His resistless enthusiasm carried everything before it. Between the two attacks Lee was at last helpless. He abandoned Petersburg, and with it Richmond, and tried to escape from the net that was being drawn around him. He was too late and his army was too small, and his lack of, food made it necessary to stop to get whatever could be obtained on the line of march. On April 9, 1865, at Appomattox Court-house, he surrendered. After all was completed, and just as he was taking his leave, Lee re- marked to Grant that his army was in very bad condition for want of food, his men having had nothing but parched corn for some days, and he would have to ask him for rations. Grant consented to give them, authorizing him to send his own officers to Appomattox Station, where he could have from the railroad cars which Sheridan had stopped all the provisions that he needed. As the news of the surrender spread along the Union lines, the men began firing a salute of one hundred guns ; but Grant stopped it, as he did not wish to exult over the Confederates' down- 1865] THE ENDING OF THE WAR 307 fall. On his part, Lee again and again told his soldiers and other comrades in the Confederacy that now the duty of every citizen was to do all that lay in his power to aid in the restoration of peace and harmony throughout the once more united country. Two weeks and a half later, Sher- man received the surrender of the force that had been con- fronting him, and the war was over. 382. Cost of the war. — Over three hundred thousand men were killed or died in the service on the Union side ; probably as many more on the Confederate. The industry of the South was absolutely ruined, so that it took years for the families to again recover some of the comforts of civilized life. On the northern side, adding together what the federal government and the states spent and the greatly increased prices of everything owing to the war, the cost of the war to the nation was about seven thousand million dollars, — one-seventh of this sum would have paid for every slave. Yet after all, the war was a blessing, because it brought about a firm Union and put an end forever to the idea of secession. 383. The assassination of Lincoln. — On March 4, 1865, Abraham Lincoln was inaugurated President for the second time, with Andrew Johnson of Tennessee as Vice-presi- dent. For four years, from April, i86i,to April, 1865, Abraham Lincoln had borne the burden of the conflict, for on his shoulders was a responsibility greater than that of any general, even of Grant himself. Lincoln's mind was so broad, his sympathies so great, and his heart so tender, that he could have dealt justly with the southern people after the surrender. Lincoln's popularity with the voters of the North was so great that he could have held back those who desired to make over southern society and government. On the evening of April 14, he was shot by a half-crazed sympathizer with the southern cause who 308 SLAVERY EXTENSION AND THE CIVIL WAR THE ENDING OF THE WAR 309 saw only a tyrant in this greatest and kindliest of all Americans since Washington. 384. Summary. — Grant was placed in command of all the armies. He took direct charge of the campaign against Lee. After fighting battles in the Wilderness and at Cold Harbor, he marched to the James River and besieged Lee at Petersburg. Lee sent a force to threaten Washington, and Grant sent Sheridan to oppose it, who finally defeated the Confederates and devastated the Shenandoah Valley. In the West, Grant's trusted heutenant. General Sher- man, pushed back the Confederates to Atlanta. He then marched through Georgia to Savannah, and then north- ward through the Carolinas to Goldsboro. Thomas and Hood fought a great battle at Nashville in which the Confederate army was routed. April 9, 1865, Lee sur- rendered to Grant at Appomattox. April 14 following. President Lincoln was murdered. The cost of the war was seven thousand million dollars. 3IO SLAVERY EXTENSION AND THE CIVIL WAR TOPICAL ANALYSIS Taylor's, Fill- more's, AND Pierce's Admin- istrations, 1849- 1857 The Extension of Slavery Buchanan's Admin- istration, 1857- 1861 Secession Lincoln's Admin- istration, 1861- 1865 The Civil War Compromise of 1850 Kansas-Nebraska Act, 1S54. Old and Neio Leaders. Fugitive Slave Law Re- sisted. Farming by Machinery. Struggle for Kansas. John Brozcn's Raid. Admission of Califor- nia. Abolition of Slave Trade in District of Columbia. Fugitive Slave Law. Election of Lincoln, Secession. The North. 1861 Second Year, 1862 Third Year, 1863 Ending of the War, I 864-1 865 i860. Firing on Sumter, April. The Call for Volunteers. Battle of Bull Run, July. Capture of New Orleans, April. Confederate Invasion of Ken- tucky. McClellans Peninsular Cam- paign. Battle of Antietam, September. Assault on Fredericksburg, December. Emancipation Proclamation, yanuaty. Union Disaster at Chancellors- ville. May. Union Victories at Gettysburg and Vicksburg, yuly. Union Defeat at Chickamauga, September. Union Victory at Chattanooga, November. Grant's Wilderness Campaign, May, 1864. Siege of Vicksburg. Sherman's Atlanta Campaign, Sherman's March to the Sea. Surrender at Appomattox, April 9, jS6s. Assassination of Lincoln, April 14. XII RECONSTRUCTION AND REUNION JOHNSON'S ADMINISTRATION, 1865-1869; RECON- STRUCTION 385. Amendments to the Constitution. — Johnson,^ who became President upon Lincohi's death, tried to carry out Lincoln's policy of reorganizing the southern state govern- ments and bringing them back quietly into the Union. The Republican majority in Congress desired to recon- struct the Southern States as if they had lost all their state rights and were like territories. Johnson could not pre- vent this, because the majority in Congress was so large that it could pass any measure it saw fit over his veto.^ They adopted three amendments to the Constitution. The Thirteenth Amendment abolished slavery in the United States; another, the Fourteenth, made citizens of the negroes and declared that any southern state, which deprived any citizens of the right to vote, should have its representa- tion in Congress reduced. This same amendment also 1 Andrew Johnson was born in North Carolina in 1808 and moved to Ten- nessee in 1826. At first he followed the trade of a tailor, but educated himself and entered politics. He served in Congress, was governor of his state, and was ardently in favor of the preservation of the Union. For this reason, although he was a southern Democrat, he remained in the Senate and was nominated for the vice-presidency in 1864. He was elected to the Senate in 1875, but died in that year. 2 A bill after it has passed both Houses goes to the President for his ap- proval. If he disapproves it, or vetoes it, it must be repassed by two-thirds of the Senate and House of Representatives in order to become a law, without his approval. 311 312 RECONSTRUCTION AND REUNION [1867 forbade the Southern States to pay the Confederate war debts, and obliged them to pay their part of the Union debt. The Fifteenth Amendment provided that the right to vote should not be denied to any citizen on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude.^ 386. Seceded states readmitted. —Tennessee was the only state that at once ratified the Fourteenth Amendment, and was readmitted to the Union. Congress refused to re- admit the other seceded states until they had Hkewise adopted this amendment. In the meantime, provisional governments were formed in them and placed under the control of army officers at the head of strong bodies of soldiers. These generals brought about the adoption of constitutions acceptable to Congress in Arkansas, Ala- bama, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, and the two Carohnas. These states were readmitted in 1868. Soon afterwards, however, the Georgia members of the House of Represen- tatives were refused admission to that body, and it was not until 1870 that that state was finally readmitted with Vir- ginia, Mississippi, and Texas. Kansas, West Virginia, and Nevada had been admitted to the Union during the war. Nebraska came in in 1867, so that by the end of 1870, the Union numbered thirty-seven states. 387. Impeachment of Johnson. — Johnson had become so thoroughly hostile to Congress, even refusing to carry out laws that had been passed over his veto, that, in 1868, the House of Representatives impeached him of ''high crimes and misdemeanors." ^ After an exciting trial before 1 The Thirteenth Amendment was declared in force, December 18, 1S65; the Fourteenth on July 28, 1S68. The Fifteenth Amendment was not adopted uutil March 30, 1870, when Johnson was no longer President. It is men- tioned here because it was part of the reconstruction settlement. - He was charged with violating the Tenure of Ofifice Act, providing that no important officer should be removed without the consent of, the Senate. There were other charges, but this was the onlv one that was brought to a vote. 1869] GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION 313 the Senate, he was acquitted, there being one vote too few to convict him.i 388. Purchase of Alaska. — In 1867, WilHam H. Seward, who had been Secretary of State since 1861, negotiated the purchase of Alaska from Russia for seven million two hundred thousand dollars. There was great opposition to this at the time, because it was thought that the country was so far north and so far off that it would be of little value to the United States. It has turned out far other- wise, for Alaska has proved to be rich in gold and in coal ; and the fur of the seals that frequent the islands that we bought as a part of Alaska is eagerly sought after and brings a very high price in the markets of the world. 389. Summary. — Vice-president Johnson became Presi- dent on Lincoln's death. Three amendments to the Con- stitution were adopted, securing to the freed slaves the same rights that were granted to white persons. The seceded states were admitted on conditions. Johnson was impeached by the House of Representatives, but not con- victed by the Senate. Alaska was purchased from Russia. GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION, 1869-1877; PROGRESS AND PANIC 390. **Let Us have Peace.** — General Grant ^ was in- augurated on March 4, 1869, and served two terms. He 1 The Constitution requires a two-thirds majority of the Senators present for conviction. In this case thirty-tive voted to convict and nineteen against it, so that the change of one vote would have convicted him. 2 At Point Pleasant, Ohio, on April 27, 1822, Grant was born. His parents called him Hiram Ulysses Grant, but by some mistake this was changed to Ulysses Simpson Grant, in the paper appointing him to the United States Military Academy at West Point, New Yoru. As a boy, Grant was much fonder of horses and outdoor sports than he was of study. After graduation from West Point, he served in the army, winning credit in the Mexican War (§ 321), but not long after the close of that conflict, he resigned his commis- 314 RECONSTRUCTION AND REUNION [1869 sincerely desired to restore peace in the Southern States, but this seemed impossible. The negroes and their white allies from the North used the power given them by the amend- ments very ill. The southern whites banded together into secret so- cieties and proceeded to terrorize the negroes and the whites who acted with them. Con- gress passed force acts to put an end to the ter- rorizing of the freed- men, but they proved to be of slight use. The southern whites refused to be governed by their former slaves. Grant felt it necessary to con- tinue the soldiers in the Southern States, although public sion. For some years he lived in poverty, working first at one thing and then anotl^er, until President Lincoln's call for troops in 1861. Grant at once volunteered, and his knowledge of military matters attracted attention. He was appointed colonel of one of the Illinois volunteer regiments. When he went to take command of his soldiers, he was introduced to them by several political leaders with flowery speeches. When it came his turn to speak, he simply said, " Men, go to your quarters." His remarkable military ability and unconquerable courage soon brought him high command, and^gave him one victory after another. At Fort Donelson (§ 355) when the Confederate gen- eral saw that his case was hopeless, he asked for terms ; to which Grant replied : " No terms except unconditional and immediate surrender can be accepted. I propose to move immediately upon your works." The phrase "uncondi- tional surrender " aroused popular enthusiasm, especially as it fitted in with the successful general's initials. He was President for two terms, but is best remembered as the general, simple, modest, successful, wdio, as a boy, did not find the word "can't" in the dictionary. He died in 1885, and his body lies in a beautiful tomb on Riverside Drive, in New York City. Grant's Tomb. i873] GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION 315 opinion in the North was turning against keeping the soldiers there. 391. The first Pacific railroads. — One of the great arguments used against adding CaUfornia and Oregon to t-he Union had been their great distance from the older parts of the United States. This was now remedied by building the Union Pacific railroad from Omaha and Coun- cil Bluffs on the Missouri River to the Great Salt Lake, where it joined the Central Pacific, which ran eastward from California. The two together formed a line a little less than two thousand miles long, from the Missouri River to San Francisco Bay. Two years later, the Northern Pacific, connecting the Great Lakes with Puget Sound, was opened. These first transcontinental railroads were made possible by Congress granting thousands of acres of the national lands to their builders ; but connectmg the Pacific coast with the rest of the Union was felt to be so important that few people objected to this at the time. 392. Panic and hard times. — The Pacific railroads were not the only ones to be built. On the contrary, the years after the Civil War saw tremendous activity in railroad construction as in other business. In fact, railroads were built that were not wanted, and more manufactured goods were produced and more houses were built than people could use or live in. Suddenly, in 1873, a Philadelphia banking house, that had greatly aided the government m the Civil War, found itself unable to pay what it owed. It failed and gave the signal for widespread disaster. Fail- ures occurred throughout the country, mills were closed, and work on railroads was stopped. All this meant that hundreds of thousands of persons were thrown out of employment and millions of others had their wages re- duced. Everywhere there was suffering, and in many places riots and disorder. From this period of hardship -16 RECONSTRUCTION AND REUNION [1S76 the country recovered very slowly, so that it was not until long after Grant's retirement from office that prosperity returned. In the Far West, the times were not so hard, as is shown by the fact that Colorado was admitted to the Union as a separate state in the summer of 1876. 393. The Centennial Exhibition. — The year 1876 was the centennial or one hundredth anniversary of the adop- tion of the Declaration of Independence. It was cele- brated bv holding a great exhibition at Philadelphia. There could be seen examples of the great inventions which had made the hundred years so memorable in the art of living, — models of steamers, one of the early loco- motives, sewing machines, McCormick reapers, and in- numerable other inventions. In the city itself there was gas to light the streets, and kerosene, which had been dis- covered seventeen years earlier, and the matches for light- ing both. Steamers, railroads, and all the rest were so common in 1876 and are now, that one can scarcely believe the signers of the Declaration, at Philadelphia, in 1776, had none of them. Alexander Graham Bell had on ex- hibition at Philadelphia one of the first telephones of which he was the inventor, and the electric Hght was also just coming into use as was the type-writer. In the next few years, Thomas x\. I^dison invented the incandescent Hght, and since then electricity has been applied in countless ways, notablv in the propelling of cars through the streets. So rapidlv have these uses of electricitv multiplied within the last ten years that our age may well be called the era of electricity.^ ^ Since 1S76, the holding of great exhibitions has become common. There was the CoKmibian Exposition at Chicago in 1S93. '^^^'^ ^^ ^^' Louis in 1004 to commemorate the Louisiana Purchase, another at Jamestown in 1907 to mark the founding of the first permanent Enghsh settlement in America, and one at Seattle in 1909 to celebrate the acquisition of Alaska. Other notable exhibitions have been held, especially at New Orleans, Atlanta, Charleston, and 1S76] GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION 317 394. Alabama claims. — Many members of the English Parliament had sympathized with the Southerners in the Civil War. They had not joined them openly in making war on the United States, but they had permitted them to build and equip vessels in England which should capture and burn northern ships. The most famous of these vessels was the Alabama, which destroyed many American ships before she was sent to the bottom by the United States cruiser Kcarsargc. For years, Mr. Seward and other Secretaries of State negotiated with the British gov- ernment trying to convince it that it had done wrong in thus helping the South, and seeking to make it pay for the injuries done. In 1872, the whole matter was laid before a court of arbitration at Geneva, which awarded fifteen million dollars to the United States in settlement of all these claims. 395. Summary. — " Reconstruction " worked very badly in the Southern States. President Grant was obhged to keep soldiers there to secure the negroes in their rights. Two lines of railroad were built connecting the Mississippi Valley and the Great Lakes with the Pacific coast. A great panic began in 1873 and brought on a period of hard times. In 1876, the Centennial at Philadelphia com- memorated the one hundredth anniversary of the adoption of the Declaration of Independence. The claims of the United States government against Great Britain were settled by the payment of fifteen million dollars to the United States. Buffalo. In 1909 also the New Yorkers marked two important events in the history of their state by pageants on land and water, and by the most elabo- rate illumination of the city of New York. These celebrations were in honor of Henry Hudson's discovery of the Hudson River and Fulton's successful application of steam to the propelling of boats through the water. 2i8 RECONSTRUCTION AND REUNION [1877 HAYES'S ADMINISTRATION, 1877-1881; SOLDIERS LEAVE THE SOUTH 396. Election of 1876. — The election of 1876 was very close. Rutherford B. Hayes ^ of Ohio was the Repub- lican candidate and Governor Samuel J. Tilden of New York, the Democratic. So many disputes arose in Con- gress over counting the electoral votes that the whole matter was referred to an Electoral Commission consist- ing of five Senators, five Representatives, and five judges of the Supreme Court. After going carefully into all the circumstances this commission decided by a vote of eight to seven that Hayes was elected ; ^ and he was inaugu- rated March 4, 1877. Nevertheless, very many Demo- crats throughout the country felt that their party had been cheated out of its rights. 397. Soldiers withdrawn from the South. — Although President Hayes had risen to the rank of brigadier-general in the Union army during the Civil War, he disagreed with Grant as to the desirability of longer ruling the Southern States by means of soldiers. The United States troops were therefore withdrawn, and in a verv short time the Democrats were in control of the governments of all the Southern States. 1 Rutherford Burchard Hayes, the first of the Ohio Presidents, was born in that state in 1S22. He graduated at Kenyon College and then became a lawyer. On the outbreak of the Civil War, he at once volunteered and rose rapidly to the rank of brigadier-general. He was twice elected to Congress tind was three times governor of Ohio, before he was elected President. He died in 1S93. - The Constitution is very uncertain in its directions as to the electoral vote. It merely says. Twelfth Amendment (Appendix), *' The President of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates and the votes shall then be counted." It gives no directions as to what part shall be played by the two Houses or whether they shall be obliged to accept any certificate officially signed by the governor of any state. In 1SS7, Congress made rules for future elections. i8Si] GARFIELD AND ARTHUR 319 398. Strikes and riots, 1877. — By the summer of 1877 the conditions of labor and wages throughout the coun- try had become very critical. The train hands and other workers on the railroads struck for higher wages. The conditions were especially bad in Pennsylvania. At Pitts- burg and vicinity the coal miners and iron workers joined the railroad men. In the rioting, property worth millions of dollars was destroyed, and the confusion continued until President Hayes sent United States soldiers to restore order. 399. Summary. — The election of 1876 was disputed and could not be decided until an Electoral Commission was appointed which declared Hayes elected. He with- drew the United States troops from the South and the whites took control. In 1877, the hard times brought on strikes and riots, especially in Pennsylvania. GARFIELD^S AND ARTHUR'S ADMINISTRATIONS, 1881- 1885; CIVIL SERVICE REFORM 400. President Garfield slain. — The Republicans elected Garfield ^ and Arthur as President and Vice-president, in November, 1880, and they entered upon office in March, 1 88 1. In the following July Garfield was shot and mortally wounded, as he was preparing to take a train in the railroad station at Washington, dving from this injury nearly seven weeks later. Upon this, Vice-president Arthur- became President. 1 James Abrain Garfield was born in Ohio in I S3 1, graduated at Williams College, and became a lawyer. He volunteered for service in the Civil War and rose to the rank of major-general. In the later years of the war he was in Congress as representative from Ohio and continued to serve his state in Congress until he was nominated for the presidency in 1880. Garfield, like Lincoln, was born and brought up on the frontier and like him was a self- made man. He died September 19, 1 881. ^ Chester Alan Arthur was born in Vermont in 1830. He graduated at Union College, New York, taught school, and studied law. He was collector 320 RECONSTRUCTION AND REUNION [1881 401. Civil service reform. — Ever since Jackson's time and even before it, employment in the government offices had been given by the President and heads of departments at Washington, by the collectors and other officials scat- tered throughout the Union, to those who had worked for the party. The same thing had been true in the states The Capitol. Wasnington. and in the cities, counties, and towns. Everywhere pub- lic office had been looked upon as a reward for political services. No matter how efficient a clerk or inspector might be, he was sure to be turned out if his party lost. Garfield's slayer was a disappointed office seeker and this event at once brought the whole matter vividly before the people. Congress now passed a law providing for the introduction of reform into the civil service. This it did by establishing a commission which should hold examina- tions in different parts of the country for those who wished to enter the government service. Now, when a govern- or the port of New York and later Vice-president of the United States. At the close of his term of othce, he sought a nomination for the presidency, but was not successful. He died in New York Citv in 1SS6. iSSs] GARFIELD AND ARTHUR 321 ment official wishes to employ a subordinate, the commis- sion sends him the names of the three or five highest candidates, from which he must select one.^ 402. Rebuilding the navy. — No new, up-to-date vessels had been added to the navy since the close of the Civil War. Meantime foreign navies had been entirely recon- structed, iron vessels taking the places of the old-time wooden ones. Now, the United States began to construct a few modern ships of war. At first the work went slowly on, but recently the desire for a strong navy has so grown that Congress has voted money more freely, with the result that the United States, instead of being one of the weak- est naval powers, is now one of the strongest. Unfortu- nately, the merchant marine which was partially destroyed during the Civil War has not revived and to-day there are almost no American ships to be seen in foreign ports. As only American vessels are allowed to take part in the trade between different portions of the United States, in- cluding its dependencies, many fleets of fine steamers are owned and operated by Americans, not only along the Atlantic and Pacific coasts, but also on the Great Lakes ; but these never visit foreign ports. 403. Summary. — The slaying of President Garfield brought Vice-president Arthur into the highest office. The civil service was reformed so that admission to it is now largely by examination. New, up-to-date vessels were added to the navy until it has now become one of the strongest in the world. 1 The civil service includes the departments of the government that are not comprised in the military and naval services. The examination system does not apply to the appointment of the heads of departments, as the Post- master-general. 322 RECONSTRUCTION AND REUNION [1885 ADMINISTRATIONS OF GROVER CLEVELAND AND BENJAMIN HARRISON, 1885-1897 ; CONFUSION IN POLITICS 404. Political parties. — Many voters, especially in the northeastern states, were greatly dissatisfied with the con- duct of both the old political parties. Some of these disliked the machinery of party or- ganization. They de- clared themselves to be independent, and pro- posed to vote for the Republican or Demo- cratic candidates, as they saw fit. The regular party men called them M u g w u m p s . Then there was a People's party, which especially advocated making laws to benefit the farmers; and the Prohibition party, which wanted to put a stop to drinking intoxicating liquors throughout the country. These parties attracted so many Republican voters that, with the aid of the Mugwumps, the Democrats elected Grover Cleveland,^ of New York, President. Four Copyright, VXH, Viich, N.Y. Grover Cleveland, 1 Stephen Grover Cleveland was born in New Jersey in 1837. ^^^^ father was a Presbyterian clergyman. Shortly after his birth, the family moved to central New York. His father died when Grover, as he was always called, was only sixteen years of age, and left him penniless. Borrowing twenty- five dollars, he went to Buffalo and entered a law office. His abilities and his courage soon won him a large practice. He was elected mayor of 1895] CLEVELAND AND HARRISON 323 years later (1888), the Republican candidate, Benjamin Harrison,^ of Indiana, was chosen, but after another four years had passed away, Cleveland was elected for the second time (1892). 405. The secret ballot. — Up to this time, voting had been by ballots, which were provided by the several par- ties or by individuals. They were usually of different colors and of different sizes, so that the party workers standing near the ballot box could see which kind of ballot each voter deposited. Beginning with 1888, many of the states adopted some form of official ballot. This is pro- vided by the state itself, is marked in secret, and then de- posited in the ballot box. This system is called the Aus- tralian ballot, because it was first devised in Australia. 406. Tariff acts. — The great interest in these adminis- trations is in the tariff laws. President Cleveland was very anxious to change the tariff in the direction of lower duties, but the Republicans were so strong in Congress that, although there was a great deal of talking, nothing was done in his first administration. While Harrison was President, the Republicans reformed the tariff by increas- ing the duties in many cases. The chairman of the com- mittee of the House of Representatives, that had this matter in charge, was William McKinley, of Ohio. In Cleveland's second administration, the Democrats suc- Buffalo, then governor of New York, and later became the first Demo- cratic President since the Civil War. After the close of his second presidency, he removed to Princeton, New Jersey, and died there in 1908. Cleveland's declaration that " Honor lies in honest toil," is an inspiration to all workers. 1 Benjamin Harrison was the grandson of President William Henry Harri- son. He was born in Ohio in 1833, was a graduate of Miami University, and became a lawyer. In 1862, he volunteered for service in the Union army, and at the close of the war was a brigadier-general. He became the leader of the Republicans of Indiana, and was a Senator from that state. When his presidency was drawing to a close, in 1892, he became a candidate for re- election, but failed. He died at Indianapolis in 1901. 324 RECONSTRUCTION AND REUNION [1896 ceeded in passing a tariff act lowering the duties ; but in 1897, when the Republicans were again in power, another tariff act placed the duties back where they had been be- fore, or made them even higher. 407. The election of 1896. — The presidential campaign of 1896 was fought most fiercely. The Democrats nomi- nated William Jennings Bryan, of Nebraska, while the Re- publicans nominated William McKinley, of Ohio. The great struggle was over the question of the coinage of silver. People were feeling very poor j ust at that time because of a panic that oc- curred in 1893. They wanted cheap money, and thought that they would gain this by the un- limited coinage of silver. The Democrats eagerly seized this wuiiam J. Bryan, -^^^^ ^^^ demanded "free silver," but the greater number of the voters thought differently. McKinley was chosen by a large majority of the electoral votes. 408. New states. — In the years 1889, 1890, and 1896, seven new states were admitted to the Union. These were North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana, and Washington, all of which came in in 1889; Idaho and Wyoming in 1890, and Utah in 1896. The two Dakotas were given over mainly to wheat farming. Montana, at that time, was a mining and ranching state, but in recent years irrigation is beginning to bring it into the ranks of the fruit and vege- table producers. The new state of Washington is the north- westernmost part of that portion of Oregon which came to the United States in 1846. Like Oregon, the state of 1S96] CLEVELAND AND HARRISON 325 Washington possesses varied industries. Nowadays, the city of Seattle, on Puget Sound, is one of the most rapidly growing communities in our country. Idaho is in the heart of the Rockies, and Wyoming is on the eastern slope between Montana on the north and Colorado on the south. Both are given over to mining and grazing, and now to the industries that thrive by irrigation. The seventh state was Utah (1896). It was settled originally by the Mormons (§ 323), and its capital. Salt Lake City, and the lake on which it is situated, are full of interest. 409. Summary. — Grover Cleveland was President from 1885 to 1889, and again from 1893 to 1897; the four years between his two terms were filled by the presidency of Benjamin Harrison. These years saw the changing of the old parties and many reforms in political methods, espe- cially the adoption of the secret or Austrahan ballot. The most important struggle of the twelve years was over the tariff. The laws were changed several times, but without producing much result, one way or the other. In 1896, WilHam McKinley was elected President over WilUam J. Bryan, who had advocated *'free silver." 326 RECONSTRUCTION AND REUNION TOPICAL ANALYSIS Johnson's Administration, 1865- 1869; Reconstruction Grant's Administration, 1869- 1877 ; Progress and Panic Hayes's Administration, 1877- 1881 Garfield's and Arthur's Admin- istrations, 1881-1885 Cleveland's and Harrison's Administrations, 1885-1897 Three Amendments to the Constitution, ImpeachTnent of the President. ^Pur chase of Alaska. Progress of Reconstruction. The Trans c on titiental Railroad. Panic of iSjj. Centennial Exhibition, i8j6. Alabama Arbitration. Electoral Comtnission. Soldiers withdrawn frotn the South. Strikes and Riots, iSyj. {President Garfield slain, July, 1881. ^ Civil Service Reform. y The New Navy. Political Confusion. The Mugiirumps. The Secret Ballot. Changing the Tariff. \ Election of iSg6. XIII THE SPANISH WAR McKINLEY^S ADMINISTRATION (1897-1901) 410. Cuban Rebellion. — The principal event in Presi- dent McKinley's^ administration was the war with Spain. During all these years Spain had kept the islands of Cuba and Porto Rico in the West Indies and the Philippines in the Far East, when all her other colonies had become in- dependent. The Cubans and the Filipinos had rebelled, es- pecially the former, but Spain had so far been able to put down these insurrections. From 1868, for ten years, Cuba was in a state of rebelHon. This caused so much suffering in the island that, in 1877, President Grant interfered and advised the Spaniards to make peace with their warring colonists, which they did. Another rebellion began in 1895. This time the Spaniards seemed to be entirely unable to put down the insurrection. Year after year went on. Stories 1 William McKinley was born in Ohio in 1843. He served through the Civil War, rising to the rank of major. He then studied law and soon entered politics. He served several terms in Congress, and as chairman of the Com- mittee of Ways and Means prepared the McKinley Tariff. 327 William McKinley. 328 THE SPANISH WAR [1898 of Spanish cruelty and Cuban suffering and hardship were constantly coming to the United States. The American people became greatly stirred by this desire of their neighbors to be free from European misrule. 411. ** Remember the Maine.^^ — Early in January, 1898, the American battleship Maine anchored in Havana Har- bor to protect the interests of Americans there and to offer a place of refuge to Americans in case of need. On Feb- ruary 15, she was destroyed by an explosion, more than two hundred and fifty of her crew being killed. United States naval officers looked into the matter and decided that she had been blown up by a Spanish mine. President McKin- ley sent the report of the naval board to the Spanish gov- ernment, but, instead of apologizing, it only suggested that the whole matter should be submitted to a court of arbitra- tion. This was the last straw. Congress passed four reso- lutions, asserting that the Cubans ought to be free ; that the United States ought to demand the withdrawal of the Span- iards from that island ; that the President ought to compel that withdrawal ; and that the United States had no intention of annexing Cuba, but would leave the government and con- trol of the island to its people. Upon learning of this action, Spain refused any longer to negotiate with the American minister at Madrid, and war followed. 412. Commodore Dewey at Manila. Althousfh the war began about Cuba, the first im- portant combat took place thou- sands of miles away, in the Pacific Ocean. The American squadron, under the command of Commodore Dewey, was lying at anchor in the British harbor of 1898] MCKINLEY'S ADMINISTRATION 329 Hongkong off the southeastern coast of China, and about three days' sail from the Phihppines. Commodore Dewey was ordered to destroy the Spanish warships which were then in that part of the world. In the early morning of May I, 1898, he found the Spanish fleet lying at anchor at Manila. Slowly steaming backward and forward in front of the Spanish vessels, he sent one after another to the bot- tom, until the whole fleet was either destroyed or captured. So deliberately did he go about his work that, in the midst of the battle, he took his ships out of range that the guns might have time to cool, and the men to eat their break- fasts. Only six American sailors were injured by the return fire of the Spaniards. Not an American was killed, and none of Dewey's ships was seriously injured. This victory freed the Pacific coast of the United States from all fear of Spanish attack.^ Commodore Dewey kept pos- session of the harbor until soldiers could be sent to him from the United States, when the city of Manila was captured. 413. The fleets on the Atlantic. — As soon as war was begun, the people of the Atlantic seaboard towns became greatly alarmed. They feared the Spaniards would send over war- ships to bombard them. To prevent this, the American government laid mines in the harbors, bought merchant steamers and put a few guns on board, and established a patrol along the coast. The naval vessels ^ The Philippines had been discovered by Magellan (§ 11), and were con- quered and colonized by the Spaniards in the sixteenth century, and had remained a Spanish possession until now, with the exception of a short period in 1762, when Manila was occupied by the English. During these centuries, they had been converted to Christianity, and had progressed in the arts of civilization. 330 THE SPANISH WAR [1898 were divided into two fleets, one placed in command of Admiral Sampson, the other of Admiral Schley. There were only four battleships on the Atlantic coast, and two armored cruisers. The battleship Oregon, which had been built at San Francisco, was ordered to sail at top speed around South America to reenforce the ships under Sampson and Schley. Stopping only to take coal when necessary, she made the best of her way down the western coast of the United States, Central and South America, through Magellan Strait up the eastern coast of South America, and reached the scene of action in splendid trim, and in time to take her place in the fighting line. 414. Santiago. — The Spaniards possessed four swift- sailins: modern armored cruisers. Under Admiral Cervera A Spanish Blockhouse. (Ther-va'ra), they were sent across the Atlantic. Their movements were hard to trace, and for a long time it was very uncertain where they would reappear, and whether they would meet the Oregon on her way. At length they were reported off the Island of Martinique (Mar'ti-nek'), 1898] McKINLEY'S ADMINISTRATION 33 1 and then they again disappeared, and it was not until some time had passed before they were actually known to be in Santiago (San-te-a'go) Harbor on the southeastern end of Cuba. That harbor is very long, and its entrance so nar- row and crooked, that it was impossible to take the Ameri- can battleships past the forts guarding the entrance to attack the Spanish vessels within, as Dewey had done at Manila. It was necessary to send an army to attack Santiago by land, while the navy blockaded the entrance to the port. In this way the Spanish vessels would be either captured by the army or driven out to be destroyed by the navy. To make the blockade surer, Admiral Sampson sent in a vessel to be sunk across the entrance to the harbor, but this was not done at exactly the right place, so that when the time came, the Spanish vessels were able to get out. 415. Roosevelt and San Juan Hill. — Theodore Roosevelt was Assistant Secretary of the Navy when the war began. He at once resigned to become lieutenant-colonel of a regiment of " Rough Riders." ^ This formed part of the force which was sent under General Shafter to attack Santiago, and either capture the Spanish vessels or com- pel them to go outside where the navy could get at them. The landing was easily made on the Cuban coast, and the soldiers attacked the forts and blockhouses defending the city. The Rough Riders served on foot, as their horses could not be taken from the United States. The soldiers of the regular army, with the Rough Riders and other volunteers, rushed up San Juan (Hoo-an') Hill and cap- tured the blockhouses. The army then besieged the city, but before it surrendered the Spanish fleet left the harbor and made a dash for the open sea. 1 This regiment included adventurous spirits of all kinds; cowboys from the ranches of the West and rich polo players of the East. zz^ THE SPANISH WAR [189S 416. The destruction of Cervera*s vessels. — When the Spanish fleet came out of the harbor, the American block- ading squadron turned on them. The Spaniards steamed westward along the coast. Before they had gone far, first one of their vessels, then another, was set on fire by shells from the American ships and was run ashore to save her and her crew from going to the bottom. Only one of them, the Cristo' bill Colon (Christopher Columbus), remained afloat for any length of time. She was pursued by the Oregon and the Brooklyn, Admiral Schley's flag-ship, and was forced to surrender. But her crew sank her before the American sailors could get on board. In a few hours, this entire Spanish fleet had been destroyed (July 3, 1898); hundreds of the Spanish sailors had been killed, wounded, or drowned, and about sixteen hundred of them, including the brave old admiral, had been captured. As the American battleship Texas ranged by the stern of a beaten Spanish cruiser, the sailors began to cheer ; but Captain Philip cried out : ** Don't cheer. The poor fellows are dying ! " On the American ships only one man was killed and two wounded. 417. The capture of Santiago. — The siege of Santiago now went on more vigorously than ever. The vessels even took part in it, sending their shells high in the air over the hills that lay between them and the town. The rainy weather came on, and the American troops lying in the trenches suffered greatly, as they also did from lack of good food. The Spanish general surrendered, not only Santiago, but all the troops in eastern Cuba. On July 17, 1898, General Shafter and the American army entered the city. 418. The capture of Porto Rico. — General Nelson A. Miles, the commanding general of the United States army, now led an exDcdition to Porto Rico. Instead of landins: The " Oregon " in pursuit of the " Cristobal Colon " during the ing the battle of Santiago. 333 334 THE SPANISH WAR [1898 his men on the northern side of the island near the fortified city of San Juan, he disembarked them on the southern side near the town of Ponce (August i), so named for the old Spanish conqueror of Porto Rico who gave Florida its name (§ 13). The inhabitants, instead of opposing the invaders, welcomed them. The Americans began their march across the island to lay siege to San Juan, but before Battery in Action. they could reach that place, news came of a suspension of hostilities between the United States and Spain. 419. The Treaty of Peace. — According to the agreement as it was finally signed in December, 1898, at Paris, Spain gave up all claim to Cuba and ceded Porto Rico and other smaller West India Islands to the United States. She also ceded the PhiHppines upon the payment of twenty million dollars by the United States. Cuba was governed by the Americans for several years until a republic was established there in 1902. Even then the United States retained some rights of protection over Cuba and gave its people certain privileges in sending their products to our country. Unfor- iSgS] McKINLEY'S ADMINISTRATION 335 tunately, the self-government of Cuba has not worked very well. In 1906, internal disorders in the island became so threatening that we were again obliged to estabUsh a military government there, but three years later, in 1909, the government was again restored to its inhabitants. 420. The Philippines. — Many of the inhabitants of the Philippine Islands expected that they, too, would be given Camping in the Native Huts in the Philippines. rights of self-government as were the Cubans, and when we began to govern them as a dependent colony, a rebellion broke out. Many people in the United States were opposed to the acquisition of this far-off colony. They thought that the American republic would better go on as it had for so many years apart from the rest of the world. The insur- rection in the Philippines was put down after a good deal of trouble, and the islands have been governed wisely and 236 THE SPANISH WAR [189S well by commissions of Americans. Recently an assembly, something like our state legislatures, has been established in the islands, and still more recently, some of the principal products of the islands have been allowed to come into the United States free of duty, so that now greater prosperity and contentment seem to be hkely. In this work of recon- cihng the Fihpinos to our rule, William H. Taft of Ohio, as Governor-general of the islands, as Secretary of War, and finally as President, has borne a leading part 421. Annexation of the Hawaiian Islands. — The Hawai- ian Islands, lying out in the Pacific Ocean about one-third of the way from San Francisco to Manila, have long been associated with America. In the early days whaling ships frequently used the Hawaiian harbor of Honolulu to refit and replenish their supplies. Later, came American missionaries who converted the natives to Christianity and, finally, came capitahsts and planters who engaged in the cultivation of sugar. The American inhabitants of the islands had long wished for annexation to the United States. The position of Hawaii is important from the point of view of the protection of the Pacific coast, and now doubly important as a stopping place on the way to and from the PhiHppines. Moreover, it would be very disadvantageous to have the islands owned by a strong foreign power, Hke England or Japan. For all these reasons, they were annexed, July 7, 1898, and are governed as a territory of the United States. ^ 422. President McKinley murdered. — In November, 1900, President McKinley was elected for a second term. The new Vice-president was Theodore Roosevelt, who was 1 The United States also acquired from Spain other islands in the Pacific which are marked on the accompanying map. The most important of these is Guam, one of the Ladrone Islands. There is also Wake Island, which the United States has taken as a station on the cable line across the Pacific. DEPEXDEXCIES OF THE IMTEI) STATES. All on same stale as United States. igoi] MCKINLEY'S ADMINISTRATION 337 serving as governor of New York at the time of his nomi- nation. In September, 1901, President McKinley was at Buffalo visiting the Pan-American fair. On the 6th he was shot, while holding a reception in one of the buildings, by an insane man who came up to him as if to shake his hand. In this dastardly manner one of the kindliest and best of our Presidents was fatally wounded. He died about a week later, and Vice-president Roosevelt became President. 423. Summary. — The misgovernment of Spain in Cuba compelled President McKinley to suggest to Con- gress that the time had come for the United States to interfere. Spain thereupon declared war. May i, 1898, Commodore Dewey destroyed or captured the Spanish Pacific fleet at Manila. July 3 following, the combined squadrons of Sampson and Schley destroyed another Spanish fleet off the harbor of Santiago, Cuba. Shafter with an army laid siege to that city and captured it. General Miles with another army invaded Porto Rico. By the treaty that ended this war, Spain abandoned all her colonial possessions. The United States took possession of Porto Rico and the PhiHppines, but gave self-govern- ment to the Cubans. In 1898, the Hawaiian Islands were annexed. In November, 1900, McKinley was reelected President with Roosevelt as Vice-president. In Septem- ber, 1 90 1, McKinley was shot and Roosevelt succeeded him as chief magistrate. TOPICAL ANALYSIS Mckinley's Administration, 1897-1901 ' Cause of the Spanish War. Dewey's Vtctoiy at Manila, May, i8g8. Destruction of Spanish Fleet at Santiago, July. Cession of Porto Rico and the Philippines. Annexation of Haivaiian Islands, July. McKinley murdered, igoi. XIV RECENT EVENTS, 1901-1909 ROOSEVELT'S ADMINISTRATION, 1901-1909; AWAKEN- ING OF THE PUBLIC CONSCIENCE 424. Politics, 1901-1909. — When Theodore Roosevelt ^ was nominated for the vice-presidency, no one foresaw the great career that lay before him in the next eight years. Four Vice-presidents had succeeded to ofhce on the death of their chiefs ; none of them had afterward been elected President. In 1904, however, Roosevelt was nominated by the Republi- cans for the office of chief magistrate and was elected by a great majority over his Democratic opponent, Alton B. Parker of New York. Bryan had been a candidate for the Demo- cratic nomination, but as he Theodore Roosevelt. had already been twice de- 1 Theodore Roosevelt was born in New York in October, 1858, and grad- uated from Harvard College in 1880. He studied law, but owing to poor health spent several years upon a ranch in the West. Returning to New York, he soon became prominent in politics, serving in the state legislature and as 33^ ROOSEVELT'S ADMINISTRATION 339 feated for the presidency, the party turned to a new can- didate. Mr. Bryan's sincerity, eloquence, and personal magnetism were as great as ever, and four years later (1908) the Democrats again chose him for their standard bearer, but he was again defeated by the Republican candidate, who this time was William H. Taft. 425. Population and Immigrants. — The continental por- tion of the United States including Alaska contained seventy-six million people in 1900. This number can be compared with thirty-one millions in i860 at the time of the Centre of Population. election of President Lincoln, and five millions in 1800 at the time of the election of Thomas Jefferson. Including the island possessions the total number of people living under the American flag in 1900 was about eighty-five mil- lions.^ The United States has also greatly grown in size ;^ Police Commissioner. He held in the national government the office of Civil Service Commissioner and Assistant Secretary of the Navy. In the latter capacity, he did much toward fitting the new navy for the brilliant service that it rendered in the Spanish War. His later career is set forth fully in the text of this book. 1 The total population of the British Empire is nearly 400,000,000, and of the Russian about 150,000,000. In 1909, the total number of people living under the American flag was estimated at 96,250,000. China is supposed to contain over 400,000,000 people; so that the United States is now fourth in population of the world powers. - It is so well settled that only one new state, Oklahoma, admitted in 1907, has come in since Utah (1896). Arizona, New Mexico, and Alaska are the only continental portions of the country that are not organized as states. 340 RECENT EVEXTS [ipor in 1009 the area was a little over three and a half million square miles, which may be compared with the eight hun- dred thousand square miles at the close of the Revolutionary War.i By far the greater part of the increase in the population in the United States since iSoo, and especially in the last sixty years of the nineteenth century, has been from the coming of foreigners. From the beginning of the trou- bles which led to the Revolution, to about 1840, not many immigrants came from abroad. In 1845, a terrible fam- ine in Ireland sent thousands of Irish men and women to the United States, especially to the Middle States and to New England, and a constant stream of immi- grants from that island has been coming ever since. A few years after the beginning of this great stream from Ireland, a new immigration began from Germany. These nineteenth century German immigrants left their countrv because they had taken part in unsuccessful revolutions there and, for this reason, were obliged to leave their native land. They settled, for the most part, in the Middle West. Many immigrants came from Norway and Sweden to the United States before the Civil War. These settled mainly in the Northwest. Since the close of the Civil War, people have been coming to us more and more from the eastern and southern European countries : from Poland, Hungary, and especially from Italy. Also manv of Por- tuguese origin have come from the Azores and other islands of the Atlantic. In the most recent years attempts have been made to pass laws to keep out undesirable immigrants. 426. Growth of the railroad. — Since Jefferson's time, ^ This area does not include that of the islands, which in 1909 contained a little over 1 50,000 square miles. The British Empire is very much larger, amounting to over 11,000,000 square miles; that of Russia to over S,ooo,ooo. igoi] ROOSEVELT'S ADMINISTRATION 341 the settled area of the United States has increased in pro- portion to its total extent. Especially since the passage by Congress of the Homestead Law, in 1862, the turning of the prairie into farms has gone on at a wonderful rate. This tremendous growth is due in great measure to the rapid extension of the railroad systems throughout the country. In Europe and in the Eastern States, railroads were built to connect the large centres of population and industry ; in the West, the railroads w^ere built first and population and industry grew up along the lines. Without -"- Ik - 1 A m l^j — — irf ■- K^^^^ j| fc^ ~ - I---V' .. ■ ■1 ■ pi^ •^ v^ -• . 1 1 i • ■ 1 ai 1 H ^g^^ m i n I^^HH The Empire State Express. this, or some other means of cheap transportation, the products of western farms could not be carried to the seaboard, so that these railway lines have been of the greatest benefit. In the beginning, it was very doubtful whether the capitalists who put their money into them would ever get any returns from their investment. Those who were willing to risk their savings in such enterprises have reaped a large reward, as have those who went out to the new country and brought the land under cultivation. 342 RECENT EVENTS [1906 427. The cities. — The cities especially have grown since the adoption of the Constitution. New York had then about thirty thousand inhabitants; in 1906, Greater New York, including Brooklyn, had over four millions, or more people than there were in the whole United States in 1789. Populous cities have grown up in the West along the shores of the Great Lakes, in the Mississippi Valley, in the Rocky Mountain region, and on the Pacific coast. Of these, Chicago, with over two million inhabitants in 1906, is the greatest and, indeed, is one of the wonders of the world, not only in its marvellous growth, but in its splendid buildings, its art museums, its noble parks, and its means of uplift for the immigrant, like Hull House. 428. Manufacturing. — In 1800, there were not three steam-engines in the whole of the United States ; now, it is the greatest manufacturing country of the world. We make more steel than does any other country ; our shoes can be bought in almost any large European city; and American cotton cloth competes with that of England in clothing the natives of Africa and China. At first, the manufacturing industry was confined mainly to the Middle States and New England. More recently, it has spread to the Middle West ; and now, cotton mills, iron works, and other manufacturing enterprises are springing up in the Southern States. The South, indeed, is fast regaining its position of equality with the other sections of the country. 429. Great corporations. — The impulse given to manu- facturing by the high tariffs and by the spread of inventions and the rapid increase of capital led to the formation of great corporations like the United States Steel Company, for the production of commodities, or like the Standard Oil Company, for the supplying the necessaries of modern life. Sometimes several companies would be joined together without giving up their separate organizations. These i9o6] ROOSEVELT'S ADMINISTRATION 343 companies would all be managed by one group of capitalists who formed a " trust." These combinations of corporations have resulted in great economies of management, so that they have been able to supply the people with needed com- modities at a lower rate than would otherwise have been possible. Their size has aroused alarm because of the control that they exercise over the supply of the things that go into the construction of our buildings, lighting of our homes and shops, and even in the making of the articles of food without which we cannot live. 430. Labor unions. — The massing of laborers into organ- izations for mutual benefit, for the protection of members and their famiUes, and for securing better conditions of labor and higher wages began during the Civil War and has been going on ever since. Some of these organizations are confined to a single trade, like shoemaking, or to one occupation like running steam locomotives. Others em- brace many trades and occupations and, indeed, seek to include them all. The first of these great unions was the Knights of Labor, which was intended to include all the working-men of the country within its membership, and actually did number at one time half a million members. The American Federation of Labor was organized in 188 1 with the intention of providing a central governing body for all the labor unions. Its growth has been phenomenal. The organizing of wage-earners into these and other union's has done much to improve the condition of those who work with their hands. Recently the formation of the Civic League has brought capitahsts and labor leaders together into one organization. 431. *^The square deal.'* — Throughout his term of oflfice President Roosevelt lost no opportunity to arouse the people to the need of reforming abuses which had crept into business life and especially to improve the relations 344 RECENT EVENTS [1906 of the great corporations to the people. Many of these are called public service corporations because they perform for the people services that are oftentimes done by the government in European countries.^ There are the railroads, for example. They need the help and protec- tion of the government, and the farmers and manufac- turers could not conduct their businesses without them. The railroads had become accustomed to charging different rates to great shippers and small ones. To him who sent car-loads and train-loads of goods, they gave lower rates than they gave to him who sent only one car-load or part of a car-load. Attempts had been made to put an end to this favoring the great dealers, but so far the results had not been very satisfactory. President Roosevelt was deter- mined that every one throughout the country should have "a square deal." He was so earnest and so popular with the people that Congress passed more stringent laws which will go far to prevent unjust discrimination. 432. Preserving our resources. — President Roosevelt was greatly interested in the saving of our natural riches. He summoned the governors of the states and other lead- ing men to advise with him as to the best means of putting an end to the wasteful methods that had been so long employed in developing our farms and mines, and in using up our forests. While our country was thinly settled, rude methods of agriculture and mining were necessarily used ; but now that the population has grown to be so great, we must produce more corn to an acre and must find some means of growing new forests to replace those that are fast disappearing. 433. Improvements in living. — A great deal has been done to improve the physical condition of the American iJn Germany, for instance, the government owns the railroads; and in Glasgow, Scotland, the city owns the street car lines. i9o6] ROOSEVELT'S ADMINISTRATION 345 people by limiting the sale of liquor and by inducing the peo- ple to lead a more outdoor life. Roosevelt was himself an athlete and believed in encouragement of athletic sports. He also set on foot investigations into the methods used by the packers and manufacturers of food supplies for the consumption of our people and for exportation to other countries. The states and cities have joined in this good work, so that now a national law requires that meat shall be prepared in clean rooms and that the labels on all pack- ages of food shall truthfully state whether the food is pure or not. Great efforts are being made to teach the people how to conquer a disease called consumption, which especially attacks those who live in dark and badly ventilated dwell- ings and can be avoided and often cured by living in the open air. Medical science has also greatly advanced so that many diseases like diphtheria can now nearly always be cured. The result of this new attention to better methods of living has been to prolong the duration of life several years and to make men healthier and happier all the time. 434. Great disasters. — It must not be supposed that the people of the United States have been free from disasters. Terrible fires have more than once burned over great por- tions of our towns and cities, as the Chicago fire in 1871, and the Boston fire in 1872. Then floods, Hke the Johnstown flood of 1889, have sometimes swept away whole towns. Tidal waves and hurricanes, like that which destroyed the greater part of Galveston, Texas, in 1900, have often devas- tated low-lying cities. The greatest of all these disasters was the earthquake which visited San Francisco in April, 1906. Buildings swayed and tumbled, destroying the chimneys and thus causing fires which spread rapidly be- cause the settUng of the ground had broken the water pipes in the streets. Hundreds and thousands of men, women, 346 RECENT EVENTS [1909 and children were driven from their homes and, almost starving, were compelled to camp in the parks and public squares. Great as was the calamity, the generosity of the people of the United States was even greater. Contribu- tions of money and clothing were sent from all parts of the country, and in a few days the sufferers were made fairly comfortable. 435. The United States a world power. — The new do- minions which came to us as the result of the Spanish War On the Way around the World. The Kearsage leaving Australia. have forced the United States to interest itself in interna- tional affairs as it never had done before. Our soldiers have gone to China to act in connection with the armies of European powers ; and after Russia and Japan had been fighting one another for a long time. President Roosevelt interfered and brought about negotiations for peace which 1909] ROOSEVELT'S ADMINISTRATION 347 ended in the Treaty of Portsmouth. In December, 1907, a fleet of sixteen battleships started to sail around the world and completed their voyage on time and without mishap early in 1909. Never before had such a great naval fleet gone on so long an expedition.^ The voyage fairly marked the entrance of the United States into international poUtics as a world power. 436. The Panama Canal. — For hundreds of years peo- ple have talked about completing the work of Columbus by cutting a canal through the Isthmus of Panama, and thus PA CIFIC OCEAN OCEAN LEVEL . HII I I I l*W Jhllf''^'- ' ' " 'HII h OCEAN LEVE CANAL BOTTOM rl LEVEL OFl ARTIFICIAL / LAKI 4^ °l-- ^ CANAL BOTTOM Excavated by French Compamea Excavation to be completed, 1002 FBOFILE OF IHE PANAMA CANAL providing a western water route from Europe to India. The French were the first to seriously try to do this; but after two French canal companies had failed, the United States government took the matter in hand, and work was begun on a very large scale. The engineers in charge promised to have the canal completed in 191 5. When done, it will be one of the wonders of the world. 437. Summary. — Theodore Roosevelt became President in 1901 on the death of McKinley, and was elected Presi- dent in 1904. In the one hundred years since the elec- 1 Since the combat between the Monitor and Merrimac (§ 360) the fighting vessels of the world have been entirely reconstructed. Modern battleships and armored cruisers combine the best qualities of these historic craft. Their sides and decks are armored, as were those of the Mei'rimac, and their heavy guns are carried in revolving turrets similar to that of the Monitor. Every year these ships are increasing in size, so that the newest battleships carry immense engines, have large batteries of heavy guns, and are very fast. 348 RECENT EVENTS [1909 tion of Jefferson, the population of the United States had increased fifteen fold, and its territory had grown four and one-half times. MiUions of immigrants have come to the country since the close of Jackson's administration. These have come, for the most part, from Ireland, Germany, Scandinavia, and in recent years from Poland, Hungary, and Italy. The growth of the railroad systems has made possible the development of the country and the building up of great cities. The United States is now the greatest manufacturing country in the world. President Roosevelt aroused the people to reform abuses in business, to save the natural resources, and to live healthier and better lives. He also made the United States take part in international affairs and began the work of cutting the Panama Canal. TAFT'S ADMINISTRATION, 1909- 438. A new tariff, 1909. — President Taft ^ was inaugu- rated on March 4, 1909. He at once called a special ses- sion of Congress and urged the making of a new tariff. After the two Houses had been at work some time, the President took the matter into his own hands and in- sisted upon placing hides and other important articles on the free list, and in greatly 1 William H. Taft was born in Ohio in 1857, and graduated from Yale Col- lege in 1878. He studied law and was appointed judge of the United States Court for the Ohio District, where he gave several important decisions on cases growing out of labor troubles. President McKinley appointed him governor of the Philippines. Then he became Secretary of War in Roosevelt's adminis- tration, and held that office when he was nominated for the presidency. W. H. Taft. 1909] TAFT'S ADMINISTRATION 349 reducing the duty on lumber and some other things. He also suggested the laying of a small tax on the incomes of all corporations. Congress fell in with these suggestions and passed the new act. His administration thus vigor- ously begun promises to carry on the work of reformation which is associated with his predecessor's name. TOPICAL ANALYSIS Recent Evente Roosevelt's Administration, 1901-1909. Arousing the Public Conscience ' The United States in rgoo. Justice for All. Preserving our Resources. Great Disasters. The Panama Canal. Taft's Administration, 1909- {^iAVw Tariff. APPENDIX I DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE In Congress^ July 4, 1776^ The unanimous Declaration of the thirteen united States OF America, When in the Course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume among the Powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation. We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happi- ness. That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed. That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to insti- tute new Government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that Governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes ; and accordingly all experience hath shown, that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same Object evinces a design to reduce them under absolute Des- potism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such Government, and to provide new Guards for their ffiture security. — Such has been the patient sufferance of these Colonies ; and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former Systems of Government. The history of the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment ii APPENDIX of an absolute Tyranny over these States. To prove this, let Facts be submitted to a candid world. He has refused his Assent to Laws, the most wholesome and neces- sary for the public good. He has forbidden his Governors to pass Laws of immediate and pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his Assent should be obtained ; and when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them. He has refused to pass other Laws for the accommodation of large districts of people, unless those people would reUnquish the right of Representation in the Legislature, a right inestimable to them and formidable to tyrants only. He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncom- fortable, and distant from the depository of their Public Records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures. He has dissolved Representative Houses repeatedly, for opposing with manly firmness his invasions on the rights of the people. He has refused for a long time, after such dissolutions, to cause others to be elected ; whereby the Legislative Powers, incapable of Annihila- tion, have returned to the People at large for their exercise ; the State remaining in the mean time exposed to all the dangers of invasion from without, and convulsions within. He has endeavoured to prevent the population of these States ; for that purpose obstructing the Laws for Naturalization of Foreigners ; refusing to pass others to encourage their migration hither, and raising the conditions of new Appropriations of Lands. He has obstructed the Administration of Justice, by refusing his Assent to Laws for establishing Judiciary Powers. He has made Judges dependent on his Will alone, for the tenure of their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries. He has erected a multitude of New Offices, and sent hither swarms of Officers to harass our People, and eat out their substance. He has kept among us, in times of peace. Standing Armies without the Consent of our legislature. He has affected to render the Military independent of and superior to the Civil Power. He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws ; giving his Assent to their acts of pretended legislation : For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us : DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE iii For protecting them, by a mock Trial, from Punishment for any Murders which they should commit on the Inhabitants of these States; For cutting off our Trade with all parts of the world : For imposing taxes on us without our Consent : For depriving us in many cases, of the benefits of Trial by Jury : For transporting us beyond Seas to be tried for pretended offences : For abolishing the free System of English Laws in a neighbouring Province, establishing therein an Arbitrary government, and enlarging its Boundaries so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into these Colonies : For taking away our Charters, abolishing our most valuable Laws, and altering fundamentally the Forms of our Governments : For suspending our own Legislature, and declaring themselves in- vested with Power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. He has abdicated Government here, by declaring us out of his Pro- tection and waging War against us. He has plundered our seas, ravaged our Coasts, burnt our towns, and destroyed the lives of our people. He is at this time transporting large armies of foreign mercenaries to compleat the works of death, desolation and tyranny, already begun with circumstances of Cruelty & perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the Head of a civilized nation. He has constrained our fellow Citizens taken Captive on the high Seas to bear Arms against their Country, to become the executioners of their friends and Brethren, or to fall themselves by their Hands. He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has endeav- oured to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the merciless Indian Savages, whose known rule of warfare, is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes and conditions. In every stage of these Oppressions We have Petitioned for Redress in the most humble terms : Our repeated Petitions have been answered only by repeated injury. A Prince, whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a Tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free People. Nor have We been wanting in attention to our Brittish brethren. We have warned them from time to time of attempts by their legislature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured them by the ties of our common kindred to disavow these usurpations, iv APPENDIX which, would inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. They too have been deaf to the voice of justice and of consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity, which denounces our Separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, Enemies in War, in Peace Friends. We, therefore, the Representatives of the united States of America, in General Congress, Assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the Name, and by Authority of the good People of these Colonies, solemnly publish and declare. That these United Colonies are, and of Right ought to be Free and Independent States ; that they are Absolved from all Allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain, is and ought to be totally dissolved ; and that as Free and Independent States, they have full Power to levy War, conclude Peace, contract Alliances, establish Commerce, and to do all other Acts and Things which Independent States may of right do. And for the support of this Declaration, with a firm reliance on the Protection of Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our Lives, our Fortunes and our sacred Honor. JOHN HANCOCK. Ne-iu Hampshire — Josiah Bartlett, Wm. Whipple, Matthew^ Thornton. Massachusetts Bay — Saml. Adams, John Adams, Robt. Treat Paine, Elbridge Gerry. Rhode Island — Step. Hopkins, William Ellery. Connecticut — Roger Sherman, Sam'el Huntington, Wm. Will- iams, Oliver Wolcott. New York — Wm. Floyd, Phil. Livingston, Frans. Lewis, Lewis Morris. New Jersey — Richd. Stockton, Jno. Witherspoon, Fras. Hop- KINSON, John Hart, Abra. Clark. Pennsylvania — Robt. Morris, Benjamin Rush, Benja. Frank- lin, John Morton, Geo. Clymer, Jas. Smith, Geo. Taylor, James Wilson, Geo. Ross. Delaware — C^sar Rodney, Geo. Read, Tho. M'Kean. Maryland — Samuel Chase, Wm. Paca, Thos. Stone, Charles Carroll of Carrollton. Virginia — George Wythe, Richard Henry Lee, Th. Jefferson, Benja. Harrison, Thos. Nelson, jr., Francis Lightfoot Lee, Carter Braxton. DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE v North Carolina — Wm. Hooper, Joseph Hewes, John Penn. South Carolina — Edward Rutledge, Thos. Heyward, Junr., Thomas Lynch, Junr., Arthur Middleton. Georgia — Button Gwinnett, Lyman Hall, Geo. Walton.^ 1 The arrangement of the names of the signers has been changed from that given in the Revised Statutes. The names are spelled as in the original. APPENDIX II CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA* We the People of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect Union, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquility, provide for the common defence, promote the general Welfare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America. ARTICLE. I. Section, i. All legislative Powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives. Section. 2. The House of Representatives shall be composed of Members chosen every second Year by the People of the several States, and the Electors in each State shall have the Qualifications requisite for Electors of the most numerous Branch of the State Legislature. No Person shall be a Representative who shall not have attained to the Age of twenty five Years, and been seven Years a Citizen of the LTnited States, and who shall not, when elected, be an Inhabitant of that State in which he shall be chosen. Representatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned among the several States which may be included within this Union, according to their respective numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole Number of free Persons, including those bound to Service for a Term of Years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three fifths of all other Persons. The actual Enumeration shall be made within three- Years after the first Meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent Term of ten Years, in such Manner as they shall by Law direct. The number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty Thousand, but each State shall have at Least one Represent- * Reprinted from the text issued by the State Department. CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES vii ative ; and until such enumeration shall be made, the State of New Hampshire shall be entitled to chuse three, Massachusetts eight, Rhode Island and Providence Plantations one, Connecticut five, New- York six. New Jersey four, Pennsylvania eight. Delaware one, Mary- land six, Virginia ten. North Carolina five. South Carolina five, and Georgia three. When vacancies happen in the Representation from any State, the Executive Authority thereof shall issue Writs of Election to fill such Vacancies. The House of Representatives shall chuse their Speaker and other Officers ; and shall have the sole Power of Impeachment. Section. 3. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each State, chosen by the Legislature thereof, for six Years ; and each Senator shall have one Vote. Immediately after they shall be assembled in Consequence of the first Election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three Classes. The Seats of the Senators of the first Class shall be vacated at the Expiration of the second Year, of the second Class at the Expira- tion of the fourth Year, and of the third Class at the Expiration of the sixth Year, so that one third may be chosen every second Year ; and if Vacancies happen by Resignation, or otherwise, during the Recess of the Legislature of any State, the Executive thereof may make temporary Appointments until the next Meeting of the Legislature, which shall then fill such Vacancies. No Person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to the Age of thirty Years, and been nine Years a Citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an Inhabitant of that State for which he shall be chosen. The Vice President of the United States shall be President of the Senate, but shall have no Vote, unless they be equally divided. The Senate shall chuse their other Officers, and also a President pro tempore, in the Absence of the Vice President, or when he shall exer- cise the Office of President of the United States. The Senate shall have the sole Power to try all Impeachments. When sitting for that Purpose, they shall be on Oath or Affirmation. When the President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice shall preside : And no Person shall be convicted without the Concur- rence of two thirds of the Members present. Judgment in Cases of Impeachment shall not extend further than to removal from Office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any Office viii APPENDIX of honor, Trust or Profit under the United States : but the Party con- victed shall nevertheless be liable and subject to Indictment, Trial, Judgment and Punishment, according to Law. Section. 4. The Times, Places and Manner of holding Elections for Senators and Representatives, shall be prescribed in each State by the Legislature thereof; but the Congress may at any time by Law make or alter such Regulations, except as to the Places of chusing Senators. The Congress shall assemble at least once in every Year, and such Meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by Law appoint a difterent Day. Section. 5. Each House shall be the Judge of the Elections, Returns and Qualifications of its own Members, and a Majority of each shall constitute a Quorum to do Business ; but a smaller Number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the Attendance of absent Members, in such Manner, and under such Penalties as each House may provide. Each House may determine the Rules of its Proceedings, punish its Members for disorderly Behaviour, and, with the Concurrence of two thirds, expel a member. Each House shall keep a Journal of its Proceedings, and from time to time publish the same, excepting such Parts as may in their Judg- ment require Secrecy ; and the Yeas and Nays of the Members of either House on any question shall, at the desire of one fifth of those Present, be entered on the Journal. Neither House, during the Session of Congress, shall, without the Consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other Place than that in which the two Houses shall be sitting. Section. 6. The Senators and Representatives shall receive a Com- pensation for their Services, to be ascertained by Law% and paid out of the Treasury of the United States. They shall in all Cases, except Treason, Felony and Breach of the Peace, be privileged from Arrest during their Attendance at the Session of their respective Houses, and in going to and returning from the same; and for any Speech or Debate in either House, they shall not be . questioned in anv other Place. No Senator or Representative shall, during the Time for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil Ofiice under the Authority of the United States, which shall have been created, or the Emoluments whereof shall have been encreased during such time ; and no Person CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES ix holding any Office under the United States, shall be a Member of either House during his Continuance in Office. Section. 7. All Bills for raising Revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives ; but the Senate may propose or concur with Amendments as on other Bills. Every Bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate, shall, before it become a Law, be presented to the President of the United States ; If he approve he shall sign it, but if not he shall return it, with his Objections to that House in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the Objections at large on their Journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If after such Reconsideration two thirds of that House shall agree to pass the Bill, it shall be sent, together with the Objections, to the other House, by which it shall like- wise be reconsidered, and if approved by two thirds of that House, it shall become a Law. But in all such Cases the Votes of both Houses shall be determined by yeas and Nays, and the Names of the Persons voting for and against the Bill shall be entered on the Journal of each House respectively. If any Bill shall not be returned by the President within ten Days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the Same shall be a Law, in like Manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress by their Adjournment prevent its Return, in which Case it shall not be a Law. Every Order, Resolution, or Vote to which the Concurrence of the Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a question of Adjournment) shall be presented to the President of the United States ; and before the Same shall take Effect, shall be approved by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two thirds of the Senate and House of Representatives, according to the Rules and Limitations prescribed in the Case of a Bill. Section. 8. The Congress shall have Power To lay and collect Taxes, Duties, Imposts and Excises, to pay the Debts and provide for the common Defence and general Welfare of the United States ; but all Duties, Imposts and Excises shall be uniform throughout the United States ; To borrow Money on the credit of the United States ; To regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian Tribes ; To establish an uniform Rule of Naturalization, and uniform Laws on the subject of Bankruptcies throughout the United States ; To coin Money, regulate the Value thereof, and of foreign Coin, and fix the Standard of Weights and Measures ; X APPENDIX To provide for the Punishment of counterfeiting the Securities and current Coin of t lie United States; To establish Post Offices and post Roads ; To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries ; To constitute Tribunals inferior to the supreme Court ; To define and punish Piracies and Felonies committed on the high Seas, and Offences against the Law of Nations ; To declare War, grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal, and make Rules concerning Captures on Land and Water ; To raise and support Armies, but no Appropriation of Money to that Use shall be for a longer Term than two Years ; To provide and maintain a Navy ; To make Rules for the Government and Regulation of the land and naval Forces ; To provide for calling forth the Militia to execute the Laws of the Union, suppress Insurrections and repel Invasions ; To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining, the Militia, and for governing such Part of them as may be employed in the Service of the United States, reserving to the States respectively, the Appointment of the Officers, and the Authority of training the Militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress ; To exercise exclusive Legislation in all Cases whatsoever, over such District (not exceeding ten Miles square) as may, by Cession of partic- ular States, and the Acceptance of Congress, become the Seat of the Government of the United States, and to exercise like Authority over all Places purchased by the Consent of the Legislature of the State in which the Same shall be, for the Erection of Forts, Magazines, Arse- nals, dock-Yards, and other needful Buildings ; — And To make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution the foregoing Powers, and all other Powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any Department or Officer thereof. Section. 9. The Migration or Importation of such Persons as any of the States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be pro- hibited by the Congress prior to the Year one thousand eight hundred and eight, but a Tax or duty may be imposed on such Importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each Person. The Privilege of the Writ of Habeas Corpus shall not be suspended, CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES xi unless when in Cases of Rebellion or Invasion the public Safety may require it. No Bill of Attainder or ex post facto Law shall be passed. No Capitation, or other direct, Tax shall be laid, unless in Proportion to the Census or Enumeration herein before directed to be taken. No Tax or Duty shall be laid on Articles exported from any State. No Preference shall be given by any Regulation of Commerce or Revenue to the Ports of one State over those of another: nor shall Vessels bound to, or from, one State, be obliged to enter, clear, or pay Duties in another. No Money shall be drawn from the Treasury, but in Consequence of Appropriations made by Law ; and a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and Expenditures of all public iMoney shall be pub- lished from time to time. No Title of Nobility shall be granted by the United States ; And no Person holding any Office of Protit or Trust under them, shall, without the Consent of the Congress, accept of any present, Emolument, Office, or Title, of any kind whatever, from any King, Prince, or foreign State. Section, io. No State shall enter into any Treaty, Alliance, or Confederation ; grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal ; coin Money ; emit Bills of Credit ; make any Thing but gold and silver Coin a Tender in Payment of Debts ; pass any Bill of Attainder, ex post facto Law, or Law impairing the Obligation of Contracts, or grant any Title of Nobility. No State shall, without the Consent of the Congress, lay any Im- posts or Duties on Imports or Exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for executing ifs inspection Laws : and the net Produce of all Duties and Imposts, laid by any State on Imports or Exports, shall be for the LTse of the Treasury of the United States ; and all such Laws shall be subject to the Revision and Controul of the Congress. No State shall, without the Consent of Congress, lay any Duty of Tonnage, keep Troops, or Ships of War in time of Peace, enter into any Agreement or Compact with another State, or with a foreign Power, or engage in War, unless actually invaded, or in such immi- nent Danger as will not admit of delay. ARTICLE. II. Section, i. The executive Power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America. He shall hold his Office during the xii APPENDIX Term of four Years, and, together with the Vice President, chosen for the same Term, be elected, as follows Each State shall appoint, in such Manner as the Legislature thereof may direct, a Number of Electors, equal to the whole Number of Sena- tors and Representatives to which the State may be entitled in the Cono-ress : but no Senator or Representative, or Person holding an Office of Trust or Profit under the United States, shall be appointed an Elector. The Electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by Ballot for two Persons, of whom one at least shall not be an Inhabitant of the same State with themselves. And they shall make a List of all the Per- sons voted for, and of the Number of Votes for each ; which List they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the Seat of the Govern- ment of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate. The President of the Senate shall, in the Presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the Certificates, and the Votes shall then be counted. The Person having the greatest Number of Votes shall be the President, if such Number be a Majority of the whole Number of Electors appointed ; and if there be more than one who have such Majority, and have an equal Number of Votes, then the House of Representatives shall immediately chuse by Ballot one of them for President ; and if no Person have a Majority, then from the five highest on the List the said House shall in like Manner chuse the President. But in chusing the President, the Votes shall be taken by States, the Representation from each State having one Vote ; A quorum for this Purpose shall consist of a Member or Members from two thirds of the States, and a Majority of all the States shall be necessary to a Choice. In every Case, after the Choice of the President, the Person having the greatest Number of Votes of the Electors shall be the Vice President. But if there should remain two or more who have equal Votes, the Senate shall chuse from them by Ballot the Vice President. The Congress may determine the Time of chusing the electors, and the Day on which they shall give their Votes ; which Day shall be the same throughout the United States. No Person except a natural born citizen, or a citizen of the United States, at the time of the Adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible to the Office of President ; neither shall any Person be eligible to that Office who shall not have attained to the Age of thirty five Years, and been fourteen Years a Resident within the United States. In Case of the Removal of the President from Office, or of his Death, CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES xui Resignation, or Inability to discharge the Powers and Duties of the said Office, the Same shall devolve on the Vice President, and the Congress may by Law provide for the Case of Removal, Death, Resignation or Inability, both of the President and Vice President, declaring what Officer shall then act as President, and such Officer shall act accordingly, until the Disability be removed, or a President shall be elected. The President shall, at stated Times, receive for his Services, a Com- pensation, which shall neither be encreased nor diminished during the Period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive within that Period any other Emolument from the United States, or any of them. Before he enter on the Execution of his Office, he shall take the fol- lowing Oath or Affirmation : — " I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the Office of President of the United States, and will to the best of my Ability, preserve, protect and defend the Constitution of the United States." Section. 2. The President shall be Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States, and of the Militia of the several States, when called into the actiial Service of the United States ; he may require the Opinion, in writing, of the principal Officer in each of the executive Departments, upon any Subject relating to the Duties of their respective Offices, and he shall have Power to grant Reprieves and Pardons for Offences against the United States, except in Cases of Impeachment. He shall have Power, by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, to make Treaties, provided two thirds of the Senators present concur ; and he shall nominate, and by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, shall appoint Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, Judges of the supreme Court, and all other Officers of the United States, whose Appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by Law : but the Congress may by Law vest the Appointment of such inferior Officers, as they think proper, in the President alone, in the Courts of Law, or in the Heads of Departments. The President shall have Power to fill up all Vacancies that may happen during the Recess of the Senate, by granting Commissions which shall expire at the End of their next Session. Section. 3. He shall from time to time give to the Congress Infor- xiv APPENDIX such Measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient ; he may, on extraordinary Occasions, convene both Houses, or either of them, and in Case of Disagreement between them, with Respect to the Time of Adjournment, he may adjourn them to such Time as he shall think proper ; he shall receive Ambassadors and other public Ministers ; he shall take Care that the Laws be faithfully executed, and shall Commis- sion all the Officers of the United States. Section. 4. The President, Vice President and all civil Officers of the United States, shall be removed from Office on Impeachment for, and Conviction of, Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Mis- demeanors. ARTICLE. IIL Section, i. The judicial Power of the United States shall be vested in one supreme Court, and in such inferior Courts as the Con- gress may from time to time ordain and establish. The Judges, both of the supreme and inferior Courts, shall hold their Offices during good Behavior, and shall, at stated Times, receive for their Services, a Com- pensation, which shall not be diminished during their continuance in Office. Section. 2. The judicial Power shall extend to all Cases, in Law and Equity, arising under this Constitution, the Laws of the United States, and Treaties made, or which shall be made, under their Author- ity; — to all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and consuls; — to all Cases of admiralty and maritime Jurisdiction; — to Controversies to which the United States shall be a party ; — to Contro- versies between two or more States ; — between a State and Citizens of another State ; — between Citizens of different States, — between Citi- zens of the same State claiming Lands under Grants of different States, and between a State, or the Citizens thereof, and foreign States, Citizens or Subjects. In all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Con- suls, and those in which a State shall be Party, the supreme Court shall have original Jurisdiction. In all the other Cases before mentioned, the supreme Court shall have appellate Jurisdiction, both as to Law and Fact, with such Exceptions, and under such regulations as the Congress shall make. The Trial of all Crimes, except in Cases of Impeachment, shall be by Jury ; and such Trial shall be held in the State where the said Crimes shall have been committed ; but when not committed within any State, CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES xv the Trial shall be at such Place or Places as the Congress may by Law have directed. Section. 3. Treason against the United States, shall consist only in levying War against them, or in adhering to their Enemies, giving them Aid and Comfort. No Person shall be convicted of Treason unless on the Testimony of two Witnesses to the same overt Act, or on Confession in open Court. The Congress shall have Power to declare the Punishment of Trea- son, but no Attainder of Treason shall work Corruption of Blood, or Forfeiture except during the Life of the Person attainted. ARTICLE. IV. Section, i. Full Faith and Credit shall be given in each State to the public Acts, Records, and judicial Proceedings of every other State. And the Congress may by general Laws prescribe the Manner in which such Acts, Records and Proceedings shall be proved, and the Effect thereof. Section. 2. The Citizens of each State shall be entitled to all Privileges and Immunities of Citizens in the several States. A Person charged in any State with Treason, Felony, or other Crime, who shall flee from Justice, and be found in another State, shall on Demand of the executive Authority of the State from which he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the State having Jurisdiction of the Crime. No Person held to Service or Labour in one State, under the Laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in Consequence of any Law or Regulation therein, be discharged from such Service or Labour, but shall be delivered up on Claim of the Party to whom such Service or Labour may be due. Section. 3. New States may be admitted by the Congress into this Union ; but no new State shall be formed or erected within the Juris- diction of any other State ; nor any State be formed by the Junction of two or more States or Parts of States, without the Consent of the Legislatures of the States concerned as well as of the Congress. The Congress shall have Power to dispose of and make all needful Rules and Regulations respecting the Territory or other Property be- longing to the United States ; and nothing in this Constitution shall be so construed as to Prejudice any Claims of the United States, or of any particular State. xvi APPENDIX Section. 4. The United States shall guarantee to every State in this Union a Republican Form of Government, and shall protect each of them against Invasion ; and on Application of the Legislature, or of the Executive (when the Legislature cannot be convened) against domestic Violence. ARTICLE. V. The Congress, whenever two thirds of both Houses shall deem it necessary, shall propose Amendments to this Constitution, or, on the Application of the Legislatures of two thirds of the several States, shall call a Convention for proposing Amendments, which, in either Case, shall be valid to all Intents and Purposes, as Part of this Constitution, when ratified by the Legislatures of three fourths of the several States, or by Conventions in three fourths thereof, as the one or the other Mode of Ratification may be proposed by the Congress ; Provided that no Amendment which may be made prior to the Year One thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any Manner affect the first and fourth Clauses in the Ninth Section of the first Article ; and that no State, without its Consent, shall be deprived of it's equal Suffrage in the Senate. ARTICLE. VI. All Debts contracted and Engagements entered into, before the Adoption of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the United States under this Constitution, as under the Confederation. This Constitution, and the Laws of the United States which shall be made in Pursuance thereof; and all Treaties made, or which shall be made, under the Authority of the United States, shall be the supreme Law of the Land ; and the Judges in every State shall be bound thereby, any Thing in the Constitution or Laws of any State to the Contrary notwithstanding. The Senators and Representatives before mentioned, and the Mem- bers of the several State Legislatures, and all executive and judicial Officers, both of the United States and of the several States, shall be bound by Oath or Affirmation, to support this Constitution ; but no religious Test shall ever be required as a Qualification to any Office or public Trust under the United States. ARTICLE. VII. The Ratification of the Conventions of nine States, shall be sufficient for the Establishment of this Constitution between the States so ratify- ing the Same. CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES xvil THE AMENDMENTS. Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press ; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances. A well regulated Militia being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringfed. No Soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without the consent of the Owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law. The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be vio- lated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infa- mous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, ex- cept in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the Militia, when in actual service in time of War or public danger ; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb ; nor shall be compelled in any Criminal Case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law ; nor shall private property be taken for public use, with- out just compensation. VI. In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature Xviii APPENDIX and cause of the accusation ; to be confronted with the witnesses against him ; to have compulsory process for obtaining Witnesses in his favor, and to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defence. VII. In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise re-examined in any Court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law. Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. IX. The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people. XI. The Judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against one of the United States by Citizens of another State, or by Citizens or Subjects of any Foreign State. XII. The Electors shall meet in their respective states, and vote by ballot for President and Vice President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same state with themselves ; they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice President, and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President, and of all persons i/oted for as Vice-President, and of the number of votes for each, which lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the United States, directed to the President of the Sen- ate ; — The President of the Senate shall, in presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates and the votes CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES xiX shall then be counted ; — The person having the greatest number of votes for President, shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed ; and if no person have such majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers not exceed- ing three on the list of those voted for as President, the House of Rep- resentatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by states, the rep- resentation from each state having one vote ; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the states, and a majority of all the states shall be necessary to a choice. And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a President whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March next following, then the Vice-President shall act as President, as in the case of the death or other constitutional disability of the President. The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice- President, shall be the Vice-President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed, and if no person have a majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list, the Senate shall choose the Vice-President ; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two-thirds of the whole number of Senators, and a majority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. But no person constitu- tionally ineligible to the office of President shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States. Section i. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction. Section 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. Section i. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States ; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law ; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. XX APPENDIX Section 2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several States according to their respective numbers, counting the whole num- ber of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President and Vice President of the United States, Representatives in Congress, the Executive and Judicial officers of a State, or the members of the Legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such State, being twenty-one years of age, and citizens of the United States., or in any way abridged, except for participation in rebellion, or other crime, the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the pro- portion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such State. Section 3. No person shall be a Senator or Representative in Con- gress, or elector of President and Vice President, or hold any office, civil or military, under the United States, or under any State, who, having previously taken an oath, as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United States, or as a member of any State legislature, or as an executive or judicial officer of any State, to support the Constitution of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may by a vote of two-thirds of each House, remove such dis- ability. Section 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States, authorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned. But neither the United States nor any State shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the loss or emancipation of any slave ; but^all such debts, obligations and claims shall be held illegal and void. Section 5. The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate legislation, the provisions of this article. XV. Section i . The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. Section 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. APPENDIX III THE PRESIDENTS' President Dates State Vice-president George Washington 1 789-1 797 Virginia John Adams (1788, unanimous; 1792, Federalist) John Adams 1797-1801 Massachusetts Thomas Jefferson (Federalist) (Republican) [ Aaron Burr Thomas Jefferson (Republican) 1801-1809 Virginia I George Clinton f George Clinton James Madison (Republican) 1809 -I 81 7 Virginia [ Elbridge Gerry James Monroe 1817-1825 Virginia Daniel D. Tompkins (Republican) John Quincy Adams 1825-1829 Massachusetts John C. Calhoun (National Republican) (Democrat) J John C. Calhoun 1 Martin Van Buren Andrew Jackson 1829-1837 Tennessee (Democrat) Martin Van Buren 1837-1841 New York Richard M. Johnson (Democrat) William H. Harrison 1 841 Ohio John Tyler (Whig) (one month) (Democrat on Whig ticket) (Pres. on death of Harrison) John Tyler 184I-1845 Virginia (Democrat) James K. Polk 1 845- 1 849 Tennessee George M. Dallas (Democrat) Zachary Taylor 1 849- 1 850 Louisiana Millard Fillmore (Whig) (Pres. on death of Taylor) Millard Fillmore I 850- I 853 New York (Whig) Franklin Pierce 1853-1857 New Hampshire William R. King (Democrat) James Buchanan 1857-1861 Pennsylvania John C. Breckinridge (Democrat) 1 The party electing the President is given beneath the President's name ; the Vice-president's party is given only when it differs from the President's. xxi XXll APPENDIX THE FRESWENTS— Continued T- President Dates State Vice-president f Hannibal Hamlin Abraham Lincoln 1861-1865 Illinois < (Republican) (Republican) I Andrew Johnson (Democrat) (Pres. on death of bincohi) Andrew Johnson 1865-1869 Tennessee (Democrat) Ulysses S. Grant (Republican) I 869- I 87 7 Illinois Schuyler Colfax Henry Wilson Rutherford B. Hayes 1877-1881 Ohio William A. Wheeler (Republican) James A. Garfield 1881 Ohio Chester A. Arthur (Republican) (6 mo. 15 da.) (Pres. on death of Garfield) Chester A. Arthur 1881-1885 New York (Republican) Grover Cleveland 1885-1889 New York Thomas A. Hendricks (Democrat) Benjamin Harrison 1889-1893 Indiana Levi P. Morton (Republican) Grover Cleveland 1893-1897 New York Adlai E. Stevenson (Democrat) I Garret A. Hobart William McKinley (Republican) 1 897-1901 Ohio [Theodore Roosevelt (Pres. on death of McKinley and re elected) Theodore Roosevelt 1901-1909 New York Charles W. Fairbanks (Republican) William H. Taft 1909- Ohio James S. Sherman (Republican) 1 The party electing the President is given beneath the President's name ; the Vice-president's party is given only when it differs from the President's, '^K^ \Ct I • '«: ' ^ X ln. Abraham. 240 «. ; chosen President. 274, .270 ; biog.. 274 «. ; port., 275 ; inauguration, 2S1 ; his advisers, 2S2 : calls for \olunteers, 2S3 ; and Emancipation Proclama- tion, 294 and //. : Gettysburg Ad- dress, 207 ; ass;issinated. 307. Livii\g. improvements in. 344. 345. Livifigston. Robert R.. 211 ; and Louisiana Purchase. 20S. 209. Loi\g Island, battle of, i4(>. 147. Louisbourg. C. B.. captureti. 94, 95. 99. Louisiana, the French take possession of, 87 : founding and progress, 87, 88; purchase of. 20S, 209 and ;/. Loyalists, the. 141 and «.. 145. 140, 162. Macdonoiigh. Commodore, victory of, 220, 221. ^L^disc1n, Mrs., 221 m. Madison. James, 20O ; electeii Presi- dent. 217; administration of. 217- 228. Magellan. 13. Maine, settlements in. 49. Maine, the. blown up, 328. ^Llnhattan Island, settled. 55. 56. Manila. Commodore Dewey at. 3 28, Manufactures, beginning of. 231: growth of. 342. Marion. Gen.. lOi ; port., 160. Marquette, explores the Mississippi, 86. 87. Mar\-land, settled. 40 : industries in, 40. 41 : boundan.- dispute. 81, 82 ; invaded by Lee, 292, 293. Mason. Capt. John. 50 ;;. Mason and Dixon's Line. Si, 82. Massachusetts, settlement of. 47. 48 ; religious troubles in, 48, 40 ; King Philip's War, 69, 90; government changed, 129; Shays's Rebellion, 177- Massasoit, 47. Mayjloti.rr, see Ships. Mayflower Compact. 44. McClellan, Gen. George B., 284 ; and Richmond, 289 ; Peninsular cam- paign. 200-292. McCormick. Cyrus Hall, invents har- vester. 270. McKinley. William, and the tariff, 323 ; elected President, 324 ; adminis- tration, 3^7-337 ; port., 327 ; biog., 327 M. ; murdered, 336, 337. Meade. Gen. George G., 296. Menendez, 23. Mcrrhnac and Monitor, fight between, 289. 290. Mexican War. the. beginning, 256, 257; Taylor's campaign, 258; Scott's campaign. 259. 260; Peace, 200. Middle Colonies, occupations in, no, III. Migration, western. 231. 232. Miles. Gen. Xelson A.. 332. Mississippi River, and De Soto, 15 ; and La Salle. 86. 87. Missouri Compromise. 232, 233. Mobile Bay. Farragut in, 304. Monroe, James, and Louisiana Pur- chase, 208. 209 : elected President, 230: port.. 230; biog.. 230 ;i. ; ad- ministration, 230-235. Monroe Doctrine, 234. 235. Montcalm, Gen., 100 ; defends Que- bec, 101-103. Montgomen,-, Richard, and Canada exp)edition. 141. Montreal, surrender of. 103. Morgan. Daniel, in southern cam- paigns, 163. 164. Mormons, the. and Salt Lake City, 260. 201. Morris. Robert, and finances. 16S-170. Morse. SanToel-4V-B.,-ittv^its^ the tele- graph, 254. Moultrie, Gen., 142. INDEX Ivii Moultrie, see Forts. Mound-builders, 26. Nashville, battle of. 304. Navy, The U.S., rebuilding, 321. Necessity, see Forts. Negroes, 59 ; slavery in Virginia, 38, 39 ; in the South, 112; importa- tion of negro slaves forbidden, 211, 212. Neutrality Proclamation, the, 194. New Amsterdam, troubles at, 56. New England, early extent, 34 ; named by Smith, 42 ; settled, 42 ; Smith's map of, 43 ; occupations in, no. New France, settled, 24 ; explored by Champlain, 84, 85 ; by La Salle, 86 ; plans to capture, 100, loi ; end of, in America, 103. New Hampshire, settlements in. 49. New Haven, Conn., settled, 51, 52. New Jerse.v, colonization of, 68, 69. New ]\Iexico, seized, 258 ; becomes part of the United States, 260. New Netherland, founding and prog- ress of, 55, 56 ; conquest of, 65, 66. New Orleans, founded, 88 ; Farragut at, 287, 288. New Plymouth Colony. 47 and n. New Sweden, 57. New York, harbor! 2s : New Nether- land becomes. 66 ; Gov. Dongan and, 67, 68 ; soldiers at, 124 ; loss of, 147, 148. Newport, Sir Christopher, 35. Newspapers. 115, 116. Niagara, see Forts. Nicolls, Col. Richard, conquers New Netherland, 65, 66 ; authority of, 67. Nil! J, the. 7. Non-Intercourse Act, 213. North, the, conditions of, in Civil War, 278-281 ; situation of, 294, 295- North America, discovered, i-io ; ex- plored by the Spanish, 14-19 ; by the English, 19-22 ; by the French, 22-24; by the Dutch, 52-54. North Carolina. 70 «.. 73. Northeastern boundar\-. 253, 254. Northmen, the. i. 2 and ». Northwest, the Old, 175, 176; Indian troubles in, 191, 192. Nullification, by the South, 245, 246 ; by the North, 270. Oglethorpe, James E., founds Georgia, 73, 74; biog., 73 «. Ohio, admission of, 214. Ohio Valley, claimed by the French, 96, 97- Oregon, trouble over, 261, 262. Oregon, the, 330, 332. Oriskany, battle of, 153. Pacific Ocean, discovered by Balboa, 12, 13 ; named, 13. Palatines, the, 108 n. Panama Canal, work on, 347. Parker, Alton B., 338. Parker, Sir Peter, British commodore, 142. Parliament, and the Stamp Act, 118- 122 ; lays new duties in the colonies, 122. Parties, Political, 197-199, 202, 230, 244, 272. Pemberton, Gen., 260 n. ; at Vicks- burg, 297. Penn, William, buys New Jersey land, 68, 69 ; settles Pennsjdvania, 74-78 ; biog., 74 n. ; plans Philadelphia, 78 and n. ; dif£culties with his settlers, 79 ; his charter of Privi- leges, 79, 80. Pennsylvania, settled, 74-80 ; bound- ar\- dispute, 81, 82. Pepperell, WiUiam, commands Louis- bourg expedition, 94, 95. Percy, Earl, 133. Perry, Com. OUver H., victor>^ on Lake Erie, 220. Philadelphia, planned and founded, 78 and n., 79 ; Germans come to, 108 and n., 109 ; First Continental Congress at, 130 ; Second Conti- nental Congress at, 139. Philadelphia, the, see Ships. Philippines, the, 13 and «., 329 and n. ; ceded to the United States, 334; government of, 335, 336. Pierce, Franklin, becomes President. 264 ; biog., 264 n. Pilgrims, come to New England, 42, 44, 45 ; word explained, 42 n. ; settlement and trials of, 45, 47. Iviii INDEX Pinta, the, 7. Pirates, the, otJ coast of Carolina, 72, 73- Pitt, WiUiam, and American affairs, 99, 100, 121, 122. Plymouth, 42 ; Pilgrims settle at, 44, 45 ; death and starvation at, 45 ; progress of, 47. Polk, James K., elected President, 256 ; administration of, and War with Mexico, 256-262 ; biog., 256 ». Polo, Marco, tells about the East, 3. Ponce de Leon, 14 and n. Population, of the United States, 339, 340 ; of great empires, 339 n. Porter, Capt. David, 226. Porto Rico, capture of, 332, 334 ; ceded to the United States, 334. Portsmouth, N.H., settled, 49. Presbyterians, the, coming of, 109, no and «. Prescott, Col., at Bunker Hill, 136. Princeton, captured, 148, 149. Printing press, first, 115 «. Providence, R.I., settled by Roger Williams, 50. Puritan, explained, 48 n. Quakers, the, account of, 61 ; colony for, 75 ; government of, 79 ; and war, 98 and n. Quebec, named, 23 ; trading post at, 24 ; defence of, loi ; fall of, 102 ; attack of, 140, 141. Railroads, early, 240 ; and steam loco- motives, 241 ; first Pacific, 315 ; growth of, 340, 341. Raleigh, Sir Walter, and Virginia, 21. Randolph, Edmund, first Attorney- general, 186. Redemptioners, 108 n. Religion, troubles in Massachusetts, 48, 49. Resources, preservation of, 344. Revere, Paul, 131, 132 n. Revolution, the, causes of, 11 6-1 3 2 ; Lexington and Concord, 132, 133 ; Bunker Hill to Trenton, 135-149 ; the struggle for the Delaware and the Hudson, 150-160 ; southern campaigns, 160-168 ; Treaty of Peace, 168. Rhode Island, settled by Roger Will- iams and Mrs. Hutchinson, 50. Richmond, plan to capture, 289. Roads and coaches, 237, 238. Roosevelt, Theodore, at San Juan Hill, 331 ; elected Vice-president, 336 ; becomes President, 337 ; ad- ministration, 338-347 ; port., 338 ; biog., 338 n., 339 n. Rosecrans, Gen., 297. Rough Riders, 331. St. Augustine, Fla., founded, 24. Salt Lake City, 260, 261. Samoset, 47. Sampson, Admiral, 330 ; and the block- ade, 331. San Francisco, 21. San Juan Hill, 331. San Salvador, Columbus lands at, 7, 9. Santa Maria, the, 6. Santiago, capture of, 330-332. Saratoga Battles, 154. Savannah, settled, 74. Schenectady, N.Y., attack on, 92. Schley, Admiral, 330, 332. Schuyler, Gen., 152. Schuyler, see Forts. Scott, Gen. Winfield, 249 n. ; and the Mexican campaign, 259, 260. Secession, 276-278. Seward, William H., 268, 282, 313 ; and Kansas, 272. Shafter, Gen., 331, 332. Shannon, the, and the Chesapeake, 226. Shays's Rebellion, 177. Sheridan, Gen., in Valley of Virginia, 299-302 ; picture of, 301 . Sherman, Gen. William T., 298 ; his Atlanta campaign, 302 ; his march through Georgia, 302-304 ; port., 303 ; receives surrender, 307. Shiloh or Pittsburg Landing, battle of, 288. Ships, Santa Maria, 6 ; Pinta, Nina, 7 ; Mayflower, 44, 45 ; Half-Moon, 53-55; Welcome, 78; Griffin, 86; sloop Liberty seized, 123; Gas pee, burned, 127; Bon Homme Richard, 155 ; Philadelphia, 207 ; Leopard and Chesapeake, 214 ; Lawrence, 220 ; Constitution and the Guerriere, 225 ; United States, 225 ; Wasp and Frolic, INDEX lix Ships — continued 225 ; Chesapeake and Shannon, 226 ; Essex, 226; Hartford, 287, 304; Merrimac and Monitor, 289, 290 ; Congress, 289 ; Cumberland, 289 ; Tecumseh, 304 ; Tennessee, 304 ; Alabama, 317 ; Kearsage, 317 ; Maine, 328; Oregon, 330, 332; Cristobal Colon, 332 ; Brooklyn, 332 ; Texa^, 332. Six Nations (formerly Five Nations), 72 ; see Iroquois. Slavery, troubles over, 248, 249 ; freeing the slaves, 294 and w. Smith, Capt. John, and Virginia, 35- 37 ; names New England, 42 ; his map of New England, 43. Smith, Joseph, and Mormonism, 260, 261. Soto, Hernando de, his expedition, 14- 16. South, the, condition of, in Civil War, 278-281 ; situation of, 294, 295 ; soldiers withdrawn from, 318. South Carolina, 70, 73. Southerners, the, occupations of, in. Spain, treaty of 1795, 192, 193 ; trouble with possessions, 327, 328; and war with, 327-334 ; cedes posses- sions, 334. Spanish War, the, the Maine blown up, 328 ; Dewey at Manila, 328, 329 ; Atlantic fleet, 329, 330 ; San- tiago, 330-332 ; Treaty of Peace, 334- "Spoils System," 244. Stamp Act, 118, 119; picture of seal, 119; Congress, 120; repealed, 120, 121. Standish, Capt. Miles, 47, 90. Stark, Gen., 153. "Star-Spangled Banner," writing of, 221, 222. States, admission to the Union, 195, 214, 232 and n., 233 and n., 249, 262, 267, 277, 312, 324, 325. See Appendix iv. Steam-boat, the first, 210, 211. Steuben, Baron, 158. Stockton, Commodore, 258. Stowe, Harriet Beecher, and "Uncle Tom's Cabin," 273 ; port., 273. Strikes and riots, 1877, 319. Stuyvesant, Peter, port., 56 ; governor of New Netherland, 56, 57, 65, 66. Sumter, Fort, 71 n. ; attack on, 282; see Forts. "Taft, William H., and the Filipinos, 336 ; elected President, 339 ; ad- ministration, 348, 349 ; port., 348 ; biog., 348 n. Tariff, the, 324; first, 187, 188; of 1816, 231 ; ■ of 1828, 244, 245 ; McKinley, 323 ; of 1909, 348. Tarleton, Col., 163, 164. Taxation, 117 and «., 118. Taylor, Gen. Zachary, 249 n. ; and the Mexicans, 257-259 ; becomes Presi- dent, 264 ; biog., 264 n. Tecumseh, Indian, 218, 220. Tecumseh, the, 304. Telegraph, Morse invents electric, 254. Tennessee, the, 304. Texas, annexation of, 255, 256 ; boundary trouble, 257. Texas, the, 332. Thames, battle of, 220. Thomas, Gen. George H., in the West, 285, 286 ; port., 285. Ticonderoga, see Forts. Tippecanoe, battle of, 218. Tobacco, in Virginia, 37 and n. ; in Maryland, 40, 41 ; in the South, in. Treaties, Peace of Paris, 1763, 103; French AUiance, 1778, 155 ; of Peace of 1783, 168; with England, 1794, 192 ; with Spain, 1795, 192 ; of Ghent, 181 4, 227 ; Webster- Ash- burton, 254; of 1898, 334. Trenton, captured, 148, 149. TripoU, 207. Tuscaroras, attack North CaroUna settlers, 72. Tyler, John, nominated Vice-president, 252 ; becomes President, 253 ; biog., 253 n. " Uncle Tom's Cabin," influence of, 273. United States, the, confusion in, 172- 176 ; Articles of Confederation, 173 ; hard times, 176; the Constitution, 177-182 ; the government organ- ized, 184-196 ; and France, 193 ; trouble with Barbary States, 207 ; purchases Louisiana, 208, 209 ; sea- Ix INDEX United States — continued men impressed bj^ the English, 212- 214; War of 1812, 217-228; era of good feeUng in, 230-235 ; party politics, 235, 236 ; development, 237-242 ; hard times, 250-252 ; election of 1840, 251, 252 ; annexa- tion of Texas, 253-256 ; the Mexi- can War, 256-260; extension of slavery, 264-271 ; secession, 272- 277 ; Civil War, 281-309 ; third year of the war, 294-298 ; ending of the war, 298-309 ; progress and panic, 313-317 ; soldiers leave the South, 318, 319 ; civil service reform, 319-321 ; confusion in politics, 322- 325 ; Spanish War, 327-337 ; re- cent events, 339-349 ; a world power, 346, 347. United States, the, 225. Valley Forge, Washington at, 156, 157. \'an Buren, Martin, elected President, 250 ; port., 250 ; biog., 250 n. ; ad- ministration, 250-252. Van Rensselaer, Patroon, 55. Verrazano, visits America, 22, 23. V^espucius, Americus, New World named for, 10, 12; biog., 10 n. Vicksburg, battle of, 297. Virginia, given to Raleigh, 21 ; reasons for settling, 33, 34 ; charters of, 34 ; voyage to, and settlement of, 35- 38 ; negroes and' servants in, 38, 39 ; self-government in, 39, 40 ; Bacon's Rebellion in, 90 ; troubles with the French, 97. Virginia Resolves, 127, 128. Waldseemiiller, 12 ; his map, 10. War of 1812, the, 217-228; declared, 218, 219; Detroit surrenders, 219; Perry's victory, 220; Macdonough's victory, 220, 221 ; Jackson's victory, 222, 223 ; the war on the ocean, 223- 227 ; Treaty of Ghent, 227. Warren, Dr. Joseph, 131 ; at Bunker Hill, 138. Washington, George, sent to the French, 97 ; surrenders Fort Ne- cessity, 98 ; with Braddock, 98, 99 ; appointed commander-in-chief of the American forces, 139 and n. ; at Boston, 142, 143 ; and Battle of Long Island, 146, 147 ; and New York City, 147, 148 ; at Trenton and Princeton, 148, 149 ; and Brandy wine, 151 ; and Germantown, 151, 152 ; at Valley Forge, 156, 157 ; and Yorktown, 165-168; elected President, 182 ; his administration, 184-196; biog., 184 w. ; port., 185; Farewell Address, 195. Washington, D.C., locating and plan- ning the capital, 199-201 ; burn- ing of, 221. Wasp, the, and the Frolic, 225. Wayne, Gen. Anthony, his Indian vic- tory, 191, 192. Webster, Daniel, port., 246 ; great speech on nullification, 247, 248. Welcome, see Ships. West, the, growth of, 249. West Point, 159. Whiskey Rebellion, the, 188. Whitney, EU, invents cotton gin, 194, 195- Wilderness Battles, 299. William, Prince of Orange, 90 and n. WiUiams, Roger, religious views of, 49 ; settles at Providence, 50. Wilmot, David, and his Proviso, 265. Wineland, i. Winthrop, John, 48. Wolfe, Gen. James, and the Quebec campaign, 100-103. X, Y, Z Affair, 201 and n. Yamassee Indians, 73. Yorktown, campaign, 165-168. Young, Brigham, and the Mormons, 261. A Short History of the United States By EDWARD CHANNING Professor of History in Harvard University Revised in Constdtation with SUSAN J. GINN Master's Assistant in the Hyde School, Boston i2mo Half leather xviil + 407 + xxiv pages $1.00 net In the new edition the narrative is brought down to the beginning of the year 1910. Basing his work on deep and far-reaching study of the conditions, physical, social, and political, from which the United States is developed, the author is able to unify his facts and present them impressively, so that the pupil whose education must be completed in the elementary school will carry away with him nothing that a wider experience will compel him to unlearn, while he obtains a sound knowledge on which to establish his ideals of citizenship. While presenting the political phases of the nation's history with due fullness and precision, its economic and intellectual development is recognized as of equal importance, and the founda- tions are laid for the study of civil government. The authors knowl- edge of the philosophy of history is everywhere manifest, but nowhere more so than as the motive of the Suggestions to Teachers, which follow each section. 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