The Shepherd's Manual. 
 
 A PKACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 ON 
 
 THE SHEEP. 
 
 DESIGNED ESPECIALLY FOR AMERICAN SHEPHERDS. 
 
 HENRY STEWART, 
 w 
 
 ILLUSTRATED 
 
 ft-' 
 
 NEW YORK: 
 
 ORANGE JUDD COMPANY, 
 
 245 BROADWAY. 
 
 /9iy(^ 
 
 ^L 
 
S>F376 
 
 Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1876, by the 
 
 ORANGE JUDD COMPANY, 
 
 In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Preface v-vi 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 The Sheep as an Industrial Product 8-11 
 
 Antiquity of Slieep Husbandry— The Future of Sheep 
 Husbandry— Its Effects upon Agriculture— Demand for 
 Mutton Sheep— Value of the Wool Product— Extent of 
 Pasturage in America. 
 
 CHAPTEPw II. 
 The Summer Management of a Flock 11- 33 
 
 Selection of a Sheep Farm — Effects of Soils upon the 
 Health of Sheep— What is a Good Pasture ?— Value of 
 Certain Grasses — The Western Plains as Sheep Pasture — 
 Pastures — Fodder Crops — Root Crops— Folding Sheep — 
 Dog Guards. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 Management of Ewes and Lambs 33- 49 
 
 Marking Sheep — Record for Breeders— Management of 
 Rams— Care of Ewes— Care of Lambs— Selecting Lambs 
 for Breeders — Prevention of Disease — Dipping Preven- 
 tive of Parasites. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Winter Management of Sheep 49- 81 
 
 Barns and Sheds — Feed Racks— Feeding Value of Differ- 
 ent Fodders, Roots and Grains— Experiments in Feeding — 
 Profit of Feeding — Raising Early Lambs for Market — 
 Feeding Sheep for Market — Value of Manure — Markets 
 for Sheep. 
 
 (3) 
 
IV THE shepherd's MANUAL. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 PAGE. 
 BBEEDINa AND BREEDS OF SHEEP 81 — 142 
 
 How Breeds are Established — Improvement of Flocks- 
 Cross Breeding— Breeding for Sex— Maxims for Breeders 
 — Native Breeds — Improvement of the Merinos — The Me- 
 rino Fleece— Long- Wool Breeds— Medium and Short-Wool 
 Breeds— Foreign Breeds— Cross-bred. Sheep — American 
 Cross-breeds. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 The Structure and Uses of Wool 143-167 
 
 The Method of Growth of Wool — Its Peculiar Structure 
 — Its Composition — The Yolk — Classification of Wools — 
 Character of Merino Wool — Washing Wool— Shearing — 
 Packing and Marketing the Fleeces — Production of Wool 
 in the World— Comparative Values of Wool in Different 
 Countries — Favorable Conditions for Producing Wool in 
 the United States. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 The Anatomy and Diseases of the Sheep 16&-249 
 
 Physiology of the Sheep— The Teeth— The Bones- The 
 Vital Functions, Respiration, Circulation, and Digestion — 
 The Causes and Prevention of Diseases of the Sheep — Dis- 
 eases of the Respiratory Organs, of the Digestive Organs, 
 of the Blood — Enzootic Diseases — Epizootic Diseases — 
 Diseases of the Urinary and Reproductive Organs, of the 
 Brain — ^Parasitical Diseases of the Intestines, of the Skin 
 — Diseases of the Feet — Diseases incident to Lambing — 
 Special Diseases — Diseases of Lambs. 
 
 Table op Appboximatb Equivalent Measures 249 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 The following Manual is designed to be a hand-book for Amer- 
 icaa shepherds and farmers. It is intended to be so plain that a 
 farmer, or a farmer's son, who has never kept a sheep, may learn 
 from its pages how to manage a flock successfully, and to be so 
 complete that even the experienced shepherd may gather some 
 suggestions from it. When the author, some years ago, began to 
 keep sheep, he sought in vain amongst the published works a 
 simple practical, comprehensive book upon sheep and sheep-keep- 
 ing, suited to his necessities. The excellent works upon the 
 Merino and Fine Wool Husbandry by Mr. Randall, were the only 
 ones to be obtained that were adapted for the use of an American 
 shepherd, and these referred to a special branch of sheep husbandry 
 which is becoming every year a less and less prominent one. The 
 other books on this subject then extant, were either English works 
 or compilations from them, and were out of date and incomplete. 
 None of the works gave a description of the modern improved 
 breeds of sheep which have of late become so deservedly popular ; 
 or any full or satisfactory account of the diseases of sheep, and 
 the remedies proper for them under the modern systems of treat- 
 ment which have grown out of the more accurate scientific knowl- 
 edge of the present day ; nor could any infonnation as to the 
 vastly increased scope of this branch of agricultural industry in 
 America, be found in any book. It was necessary to learn by 
 experience — in this case, as in all others, a costly teacher — how to 
 meet the needs of the modern improved sheep in our climate and 
 (5) 
 
VI THE SHEFHERD'S MANUAL. 
 
 under our methods of culture. The results of personal experi- 
 ences of some years with the characters of the various modem 
 breeds of sheep, and the sheep-raising capabilities of many portions 
 of our extensive territory and that of Canada, most of which have 
 been visited with a view to the effects upon our sheep of the va- 
 rying climate and different soils ; and the careful study of the dis- 
 eases to which our sheep are chiefly subject, with those by which 
 they may eventually be afflicted through unforeseen accidents ; as 
 well as the methods of management called for under our circum- 
 stances, were finally gathered into the shape in which they are here 
 presented to the shepherds of America, with the hope that they 
 may be as acceptable and useful to them as they would have 
 been, when lie first undertook the care of a flock, to 
 
 The Authob. 
 New York, Iblti. 
 
The Shepherd's Manual. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 THE SHEEP AS AN INDUSTRIAL PRODUCT. 
 
 From the earliest ages the sheep has been a source of profit to 
 mankind, and its keeping and rearing an important industry. 
 Abel, the second son of Adam, chose sheep-herding as his employ- 
 ment, and although his elder brother chose to cultivate the soil, 
 the pastoral life became the favored occupation of the human race 
 in its early periods, and the more toilsome tillage of the ground 
 was followed from necessity rather than from choice. With a 
 sparse population, a scarcity of labor, but at the same time an 
 ample territory, the cultivation of flocks became in early times the 
 readiest means of providing food and clothing, increasing the com- 
 forts of man and of accumulating transferable wealth. Although 
 at first sight it is a singular circumstance, yet on reflection it is 
 seen to be a necessity of the case that the territory upon which the 
 flocks of the ancient patriarchs were fed and tended, is still the 
 home of shepherds, and that there, for forty centuries, flocks have 
 wandered from pasture to pasture under the care of their nomadic 
 proprietors. Where the physical features of the country were 
 favorable to pasturage, there the first civilized occupation was that 
 of keeping sheep, and so it remains to this day. 
 
 In view of its bearing upon the future of sheep husbandry in 
 the United States, it is important to remember this fact, that where 
 peculiarly favorable physical features of the country were present, 
 and the shepherd occupied the land, there the shepherd and his 
 flock retain possession until this day. Thus, at the time of the 
 conquest of Spain by the ancient Romans, that country was cele- 
 brated for its flocks and the quality of its wool, and to-day the 
 
8 THE shepherd's MANUAL. 
 
 Spanish Merino is equally celebrated, although through adventi- 
 tious circumstances, but chiefly political disturbances, its pre-emi- 
 nence has been lost to Spain, and other countries enjoy its fruits. 
 As civilization progressed stage by stage, and garments of man- 
 ufactured wool displaced those of skins, careful breeding began to 
 improve the fleece, and varieties among sheep became fixed in 
 type. Before the Christian era the fine wools of Italy were noted, 
 and the fineness of the fleece was cultivated to a degree unknown 
 to us of the present day. The sheep of that period were housed 
 and clothed, their skins were oiled and moistened with wine, and 
 their fleeces were combed and washed repeatedly, in order that 
 Hhc quality of the wool might be refined as far as possible. Al- 
 though this excessive refinement destroyed the vigor and impaired 
 the constitution of the sheep, yet their descendants, inferior in 
 form, as might be expected, are still fine-wooled sheep. Thus far 
 the improvement in sheep operated only towards refining the 
 fleece, and the carcass was a secondary object, only cared for so 
 far as it could serve as a vehicle for carrying the wool. The lamb 
 of the flock was considered a choice morsel, but the mature sheep 
 was neglected as an article of food. It is only in recent times that 
 the excellence of mutton has been made an object in the improve- 
 ment of sheep. At the present it is only in sparsely populated 
 countries that sheep are cultivated for wool alone, while in densely 
 peopled localities the production of mutton is of greater consider- 
 ation than that of wool, or at least is of equal value to it. At the 
 present time, proximity to, or distance from market, decides the 
 choice of breeds, and in fact this consideration alone has in some 
 cases been the moving influence in the creation of new varieties 
 or breeds specially adapted to certain localities. In a similar man- 
 ner the necessities of sheep-breeders have led them to make some 
 important modifications in their methods of agriculture, so that 
 while the character of their flocks has been changed for the better, 
 their agriculture has been improved, the product of the land in- 
 creased, and its value advanced, until profitable sheep culture has 
 become synonymous with the most profitable farming. In fact, 
 the character of the farm has been indexed by the character of the 
 flock reared upon it. This improvement has in greater part oc- 
 curred only in connection with the rearing of mutton sheep. To 
 feed these heavy bodied sheep profitably, it has been found neces- 
 sary to raise large crops of cheap roots and luxuriant green crops ; 
 and to raise these crops, the most skillful tillage, the cleanest cul- 
 ture, and the most liberal manuring have been requisite. In this 
 way the product of the soil has been vastly increased, and the 
 
PRODUCTION OF MUTTOI^. 9 
 
 sheep, directly and indirectly, has been both the gainer and the 
 means of gain. 
 
 The demand for mutton as an agreeable and cheap food is stead- 
 ily increasing. The markets of the city of New York alone re- 
 quire more than one million sheep per annum. Farmers formerly 
 habituated to the daily use of pork are becoming mutton eaters, 
 and the convenience of a few sheep upon the farm merely to sup- 
 ply the family table is now appreciated to a much greater extent 
 than ever before. This cultivation of sheep for mutton alone is a 
 branch of agriculture which is yearly becoming more important. 
 As yet we possess no native variety of mutton sheep. The carcass of 
 the "native" sheep, so called— but which is really a heterogeneous 
 mixture of all those breeds which have been brought to this coun- 
 try, and which having been permitted to increase promiscuously, 
 have perpetuated only their poorest qualities— is unworthy the 
 name of mutton ; and those flocks of imported sheep of better 
 character, such as the Southdowns, Leicesters, or Cotswolds, are 
 either allowed to deteriorate, or are kept for breeding purposes. 
 It is very true that a really good carcass of mutton rarely finds its 
 way to our markets, except from Canada, where almost the sole 
 attention is given to breeding sheep for mutton. At the same time 
 there is a demand for mutton, both of that substantial kind which 
 is represented by legs of 16 to 30 lbs. in weight, handsome saddles 
 and good shoulders, and that more delicately flavored kind repre- 
 sented by the small legs or quarters of the Welsh sheep. 
 
 Unfortunately this fact is not generally known to farmers, and 
 if it were, it is equally unfortunate that we as yet have not the 
 kind of sheep to meet the demand. Before this excellent and 
 wholesome food can become as popular as it ought to be, and 
 sheep keeping can become as profitable as it may be, farmers must 
 be better informed as to the character of the sheep needed, the 
 manner in which they may be bred, and the methods by which 
 they may be fitted for the market. This necessary information 
 must include a knowledge of the modern breeds which have 
 usurped the place of the old kinds, and the peculiar management 
 of the new races of sheep, as well as of the special crops needed 
 for fodder, and the methods of cultivating them. Heretofore in 
 place of this practical information, American farmers have been 
 treated to long dissertations upon the origin and history of the 
 sheep, and descriptions of foreign breeds which are of no possible 
 value or interest to them. 
 
 The sheep, in addition to its value as a food producer, yields to 
 its owner an annual tribute in the shape of its fleece, which in the 
 
10 THE SHEIHEKD'S MANUAL. 
 
 aggregate is a most important contribution to the comfort and in- 
 dustry of the people. In 1870 there were nearly 30 millions of 
 sheep in the United States, and the wool production in that year 
 amounted to 120 million pounds, estimating the average weight of 
 the fleeces at 4 pounds each. The value of this wool in the farm- 
 ers' hands would reach at the lowest estimate, $40,000,000. But so 
 far from being anywhere equal to the demand for this staple, the 
 supply was less than our yearly needs by a quantity equal to a 
 value of more than $40,000,000, and wool to this amount is annu- 
 ally imported from foreign countries. Besides this in wool, there 
 is annually imported with it the value of $20,000,000 in foreign la- 
 bor, which has been expended in manufacturing wool into cloth 
 and other woolen goods. Our own necessities, therefore, demand 
 an increase in the supply of wool equal to our present production. 
 This wool, if produced here, would not only use up a large quan- 
 tity of com now thrown upon the markets of the world, and 
 therefore enhance the value of that which would remain for dis- 
 posal ; but its manufacture into cloths and goods would employ a 
 large number of persons who are now engaged in raising agricul- 
 tural products for sale, and are therefore in active competition 
 with other farmers. The encouragement of sheep cultivation, 
 therefore, has a national importance, and is a subject which bears 
 directly upon the interests of farmers. To increase the wool pro- 
 duct to a par with the necessities of the country at the present 
 time, would alone involve the passage through their hands of 
 $60,000,000 yearly — an immense sum, which now goes into the 
 pockets of foreigners, instead of those of our own people. 
 
 The scope for an increase in our wool product is comparatively 
 boundless. A full third of the territory of the United States is a 
 grand sheep pasture of the most favorable character. Yast plains 
 bearing abundance of the most nutritious herbage, in the most 
 healthful climate, and the very best conditions for the profitable 
 breeding of fine and middle wool sheep, and which are valueless 
 for any other than pastoral purposes, stretch from the 100th me- 
 ridian for 500 miles west to the Rocky Mountains, and from north 
 to south for 1,500 miles. In addition to this vast tract, upon which 
 a hundred million sheep could feed and thrive with ease, there are 
 immense mountain ranges, extensive valleys, and again beyond 
 these, great plains, altogether covering a still larger area, of which a 
 great portion is admirably fitted for the pasturing of sheep. With 
 so great a scope for the cheap production of wool, it seems to be 
 a strange thing, that instead of exporting largely of this staple, as 
 we might and should do, the United States on the contrary is one 
 
PKODUCTION OF WOOL. 11 
 
 of the largest buyers in foreign markets. Again, on the Atlantic 
 seaboard there are millions of acres of land now useless that would, 
 if cleared and cultivated, make excellent sheep farms for the pro- 
 duction of the choicest mutton sheep. There are numberless salt 
 marshes upon which sheep, naturally fitted through long years of 
 adaptation for just such pasturage, could be made to yield mutton 
 of the most delicate flavor. There are also hills and rocky moun- 
 tains upon whose sweet herbage hardy races of sheep could be 
 made to thrive with profit ; and further inland, highly cultivated 
 farms, where heavy crops of green fodder and roots could be raised, 
 that might carry flocks of large framed sheep, yielding combing 
 wool — now so much used in clothing materials for both sexes, 
 and the demand for which is always ahead of the supply. And 
 further south, where it is possible to pasture sheep the year 
 round, but where those which are now kept are so neglected 
 that some of them are never shorn, there is also, vast room to 
 change the overdone cotton production for the equally easy but 
 more profitable production of wool which in that climate, by the 
 exercise of proper care, may be grown of the finest quality of 
 staple. What a vast field opens upon our view when we consider 
 the extent of the territory which we possess suitable for sheep cul- 
 ture ; and what profit and increase of national wealth is there in 
 this business to those who undertake it as the occupation of their 
 lives — not only for a short period and intermittingly, and then to 
 be abandoned for some other temporary speculative business — but 
 with a desire and determination to succeed through the exercise 
 of patience, perseverance, and skill. 
 
 CHAPTER 11. 
 
 SUMMER MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. 
 
 The selection of a suitable farm should be the first care of a 
 person who intends to devote his time and capital to the rearing 
 of sheep. To become a successful shepherd, requires that a person 
 should have a liking for the business, and possess tact, patience, 
 and perseverance sufficient to resist the temptations which may 
 arise at seasons of depression to abandon it for some other tempo- 
 rarily more promising pursuit. Having a determination to stick 
 
12 THE shepherd's MANUAL. 
 
 to his flock, he must have a farm suited to its special needs or it 
 will not thrive. Sheep cannot bear damp ; and undrained pastures 
 are fatal to their welfare. Luxuriance of herbage is not generally- 
 favorable unless the land is heavily stocked and the pasture kept 
 short and closely cropped. Old permanent meadows, in which a 
 variety of grasses are found, are better than artificial meadows 
 w^hich form part of a rotation with other crops. With a portion 
 of such permanent meadow, there may be many cultivated crops 
 grown upon the other portions of the farm upon which the sheep 
 may be folded with benefit both to themselves and the land. 
 
 The land most suitable for sheep is one that is naturally drained, 
 with a sandy loam or gravelly soil and subsoil, and which bears 
 spontaneously short, fine, herbage, largely mixed with white clover. 
 It should be rolling, and may be hilly in character rather than flat 
 and level. Any low spots or hollows in which aquatic or marsh 
 plants grow, are very objectionable, and should be thoroughly 
 drained. One such spot upon an otherwise admirable farm may 
 infect a flock with deadly disease. No domestic animal is more 
 readily afiected by adverse circumstances than the sheep, and none 
 has less spirit or power to resist them. Virgil, the ancient poet, a 
 close observer of such matters, says of them, " Oves semper infelix 
 pecus,'' (Sheep are always an unhappy flock), and many shepherds 
 since his day have found reason to hold the same belief. But the 
 experienced sheepmaster has no fear on this score. He knows 
 that a reputation for success with sheep is *' never gained without 
 merit, nor lost without deserving," and that failure is not want 
 of luck, as is so frequently declared, but the consequence of ignor- 
 ance or bad management. The careful shepherd will not wait 
 to cure, he is prompt to prevent ; and eveiy defeat is made a new 
 lesson for study and an example for future avoidance. It is by 
 long experience that shepherds have learned that the first requi- 
 site for success in their business is, the choice of a farm upon which 
 their flocks will enjoy perfect health, and that dryness of soil and 
 of air is the first necessity for their well being. By a careful and 
 judicious choice in this respect, most of the ills to which sheep are 
 subject, with all their contingent losses to their owners, are 
 avoided. 
 
 The character of the soil upon which sheep are pastured has a 
 great influence in modifying the character of the sheep. Upon 
 the kind of soil of course depends the character of the herbage 
 upon which the flock feeds. Certain soils, such as those consist- 
 ing of decomposed granite or feldspar, and which are rich in pot- 
 ash, are not generally favorable for sheep. Even turnips raised on 
 
OK SOILS. 13 
 
 such lands sometimes affect the sheep injuriously, producing dis- 
 ease under which they waste away, become watery about the eyes, 
 fall in about the flanks, and assume a generally unhealthy appear- 
 ance. Upon removal to a limestone, or a dry sandstone soil, sheep 
 thus affected, improve at once and rapidly recover. The lambs, 
 as might be expected, are most easily affected, and many are yearly 
 lost by early death upon lands of an unfavorable character. > As 
 a rule, lands upon which granite, feldspathic or micaceous rocks 
 intrude, or whose soils are derived from the degradation of such 
 rocks, should be avoided by the shepherd. Such soils are, however, 
 not without their uses, and fortunately are excellently adapted to 
 the dairy. IThe soils most to be preferred are sandstone and lime- 
 stone lands, of a free, dry, porous character, upon which the finer 
 grasses flourish. The soils which are derived from rocks called 
 carboniferous, which accompany coal deposits, or are found in the 
 regions in which coal is mined, are those upon which sheep have 
 been bred with the most success. The original home of the Lei- 
 cester sheep, as well as that of the famous Shropshires, is on the red 
 sandstone ; the Lincoln is raised on the alluvial soils based on 
 limestone ; the Cotswold has had its home for centuries on the 
 limestone Cotswold hills ; the Southdown, Hampshiredown, and 
 Oxforddowns, are native to the chalk hills and downs of southern 
 England ; the Scotch Cheviot and the hardy black-faced Scotch 
 sheep thrive on sandstone hills and mountains of trap rocks which 
 rise amongst them ; the fine wools of Yorkshire are produced on 
 magnesian limestone soils ; and to come to our own soils, we find 
 the American Merino reaching perfection on the limestone hills of 
 Vermont, beneath which fine marbles are quarried. Unfortu- 
 nately this is the only instance we possess of having given a local 
 habitation to a race of sheep in America ; but how soon we shall 
 have produced or acclimated several breeds of sheep, which will 
 take their peculiarities from the locality in which they are bred 
 and raised, is only a question of time. Peat or marsh lands are 
 unfavorable for sheep farms. Salt marshes near the coast, how- 
 ever, may be excepted from this general condemnation, as the 
 saline herbage acts as a specific against some of the parasitic dis- 
 eases — the liver-rot mainly — to which sheep are subject upon 
 marshy pastures. The Romney-marsh sheep of England are bred 
 successfully upon the alluvial soils of reclaimed marshes, and pro- 
 duce good wool and a heavy carcass. The gigantic Lincoln, the 
 largest sheep bred, originated and thrives in perfection upon 
 drained alluvial soils. 
 The dry, friable nature and porous character of the soil has as 
 
14 THE shepherd's MANUAL. 
 
 much to do with the health and growth of sheep as the geological 
 character of the rocks upon which it is based, or from which it has 
 been derived. The census returns of England show that the high- 
 est percentage of sheep to the 100 acres, is found precisely where 
 the soil is naturally drained and dry, g,nd the lowest, where clay 
 abounds, and damp, cold soils with rank, coarse herbage are gen- 
 eral. In our own country, although the time has been far too 
 short as yet for this condition to operate largely, we find the same 
 fact curiously developed, and Ohio and western Pennsylvania, 
 with their extensive coal bearing formations underlying dry roll- 
 ing fields, possess more sheep than any other district, while New 
 York, Illinois, Indiana, and Michigan, which cover an extensive 
 deposit of limestones and sandstones, with naturally dry soils, come 
 next on the list. The vast stretch of prairies in the Mississippi 
 Valley, and of plains west of the Missouri to the Rocky Moun- 
 tains, chiefly underlaid with limestones and sandstones, and especi- 
 ally remarkable for a dry, porous soil, which bears a rich carpet 
 of the best sheep pastures in the world, have already proved them- 
 selves to be well adapted to the successful growth of flocks bear- 
 ing fine and medium wools. The rich alluvial valleys of the east- 
 ern rivers where naturally or artificially drained, have been found 
 to be fitted for the production of large bodied sheep bearing the 
 lustrous combing wools. All these localities with the hills and 
 valleys of the Middle States will in course of time have their flocks 
 suitable in character to the circumstances in which they are kept. 
 But it will only be in consequence of persistence in careful breed- 
 ing and culture, that the final type for each locality will be 
 reached ; for while the effects of soil and locality are unavoidable 
 and imperative, the shepherd must be able to discover these effects 
 and aid in giving them their due development if early success is 
 to be secured. But in whatever locality it may be, if the soil 
 is not naturally drained, profitable sheep farms may be sought/ 
 in vain. The protit from sheep raising as a special business will/.j 
 not permit of high-priced lauds. Where sheep are kept only as ajj 
 branch of general farming, it may pay to drain the soil artificially ;j/ 
 but without drainage, natural or artificial, sheep cannot thriveJ 
 The sheep must ham a dry foot or disease follows. ' 
 
 Tlie character of the herbage depends upon that of the soil, and 
 the character of the sheep is governed by that of the pasture. It 
 is a very casual observer who thinks that all kinds of grass aie the , 
 same, and are equally proper for sheep. The sheep itself 
 knows better than this, and every shepherd has learned that 
 his sheep will seek particular spots in preference to others in the 
 
ON PASTURES. 15 
 
 same field. It has been well said that *' the dead earth and the 
 living animal are but links of the same chain of natural existences, 
 the plant being the connecting bond by which they are tied to- 
 gether." The flesh and wool of the sheep, therefore, are but pro- 
 ducts from the soil, and contain nothing but what has existed in 
 the plants which the sheep have consumed. When wool is clean 
 and dry, 100 pounds of it contain 17 pounds of nitrogen, and 5 
 pounds of sulphur. When the pasture is sufficiently nutritious 
 and the sheep is in good health, a quantity of soapy, greasy matter, 
 called yolk, adheres to the fleece. When this is abundant it is a 
 proof that the food of the sheep is healthful and sufficient. When 
 it is deficient, and the wool is harsh and dry to the touch, it is a 
 sign that the sheep's health is sufi'ering from defective nutriment. 
 This yolk contains a large proportion of potash. To be properly 
 nutritious, the food must contain this needed sulphur and pot- 
 ash, along with nitrogen and other necessary matters. A fair test 
 of the requisite quality of the food of the sheep may be taken from 
 the composition of the flesh and blood of the animal, for there is 
 nothing in the flesh, skin, bones, or wool that does not exist in 
 the blood. The following are the inorganic or mineral materials 
 contained in the ash of the blood and flesh of an animal : 
 
 Blood. Flesh. 
 
 Phosphate of Soda 16.77 45.10 
 
 Chloride of Sodium 59.34 ) akqa 
 
 Chloride of Potassium 6.12 j ^^'^^ 
 
 Sulphate of Soda 3.85 trace 
 
 Phosphate of Magnesia 4.19 ) 
 
 Oxide and Phosphate of Iron 8.28 V 6.84 
 
 Sulphate of Lime 1.45 ) 
 
 100.00 97^88 
 
 The bones of the sheep contain from 60 to 70 per cent of phos 
 pliate and carbonate of lime, with a little magnesia. The excre- 
 ment, both solid and liquid, of the sheep contain a large variety of 
 mineral elements, which are also necessary to the healthful animal 
 economy. The urine contains two per cent of mineral matter, 
 and the dung 13^ per cent, the composition of which is as follows : 
 
 ASH OF UKINE. 
 
 Sulphate of Potash 2.98 
 
 Sulphate of Soda 7.72 
 
 Chloride of Sodium 32.01 
 
 Chloride of Potassium 12.00 
 
 Carbonate of Lime 82 
 
 Carbonate of Soda 42.25 
 
 Carbonate of Magnesia 46 
 
 Phosphate of Lime, Magnesia, and Iron 70 
 
 SUica L06 
 
 100.00 
 
IG THE shepherd's MANUAL. 
 
 ASH OF DUNG. 
 
 Silica 50.11 
 
 Potash 8.3a 
 
 Soda ^-28 
 
 Chloride of Sodium 14 
 
 Phosphate of Iron 3.9b 
 
 Lime 18.15 
 
 Maonesia ^-^5 
 
 Phosphoric Acid *^-^^ 
 
 Sulphuric Acid '-^-"9 
 
 99.64 
 
 When it is seen how much earthy matter is needed to build up 
 a healthy organism, and supply the waste of the sheep, it is evi- 
 dent that the food must be of a character consistent with these 
 demands, and if by reason of deficiency in the soil, these matters 
 are not supplied, the animal suffers, or is not fully developed. The 
 grasses or other herbage upon which the sheep subsist, must there- 
 fore be such as will supply the peculiar needs of the animal, or 
 they must be supplemented by additional food. When sheep feed 
 upon grasses deficient in the required earthy matters, they become 
 w^eak in constitution, and predisposed to disease. To prevent dis- 
 ease and keep the flock in health, the pasture must be supple- 
 mented by other feed which will supply the deficiency, and thus 
 the cost of maintaining the flock is increased. A pasture that will 
 supply all the necessary nutriment must contain those varieties of 
 grasses that have been found by experience most suitable for 
 sheep. Of the common grasses there are several varieties which 
 have a high reputation for this purpose. The best of these are of 
 a low growth and creeping habit, with fine, short herbage. The 
 grasses known as P7dcyjn pratense, {Timothy); Arrhcnntherum ave- 
 jiaceum, (Tall Oat Grass); Poa ajunia, (Annual Spear Grass); 
 Poa pratensis^ (Kentucky Blue Grass) ; Festuca ovina, (Sheep's Fes- 
 cue) ; Poa sej'otina, (False Red-Top) ; AgrosUs mdgaris, (Red-Top) ; 
 Daciylis glomerata, (Orchard Grass,) when closely pastured ; Alope- 
 curus pratensis, (Meadow Foxtail,) with TrifoUum repens^ (White 
 Clover) ; or Planiago lanceolata, (the Narrow-leaved Plantain or Rib 
 Grass,) and some other common plants, form a desirable herbage 
 for sheep. The Buffalo Grass and the species of Boutelout, com- 
 monly called mesquit grasses of tlie west, with the large variety of 
 leguminous wild plants, make up a pasture that cannot be excelled. 
 The occasional dressing of pastures with bone-dust, salt, and sul- 
 phate of lime, is of great service, and furnishes a supply of those 
 mineral matters which are indispensable. 
 The value of the different pasture grasses are shown by the fol- 
 
VALUE OF VARIOUS GRASSES. 
 
 17 
 
 lowing table of analyses made by Professor "Way. These are of 
 the green, fresh plants as taken from the field when in full growth. 
 
 COMPOSITION OF NATURAL GRASSES, (100 PARTS,) TAKEN FRESH 
 FROM- THE FIELD. 
 
 NAMES OF GRASS. 
 
 Sweet-Scented Vernal, 
 
 (A nthoxantkum odoratum) 
 
 Meadow Foxtail, 
 
 ( Alopecurus pratensis) 
 
 Tail Oat Grass, 
 
 {Arrhenatherum avenaceum) 
 
 Yellow Oat Grass, 
 
 {Avena flavescens) 
 
 Quaking Grass, 
 
 {Briza media) 
 
 Orchard Grass. 
 
 {Dactylis gUmierata) 
 
 Hard Fescue, 
 
 {Festuca duriuscula) 
 
 Timothy, 
 
 (Phleum pratense) 
 
 Blue Grass, 
 
 {Poa pratensis) 
 
 White Clover, 
 
 {Trifolium repens) 
 
 Narrow-leaved Plantain, Rib Grass, 
 
 (Plantago lanceolata) 
 
 i 
 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 Carbonaceous or 
 
 heat producing 
 
 matters. 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 80.35 
 
 2.05 
 
 .67 
 
 8.54 
 
 7.15 
 
 80.20 
 
 2.44 
 
 .52 
 
 8.59 
 
 6.76 
 
 72.65 
 
 3.54 
 
 .87 
 
 11.21 
 
 9.37 
 
 60.40 
 
 2.96 
 
 1.04 
 
 18.66 
 
 14.22 
 
 51.85 
 
 2.92 
 
 1.45 
 
 22.60 
 
 17.00 
 
 70.00 
 
 4.06 
 
 .94 
 
 13.30 
 
 10.11 
 
 69.33 
 
 3.70 
 
 1.02 
 
 12.46 
 
 '11.83 
 
 57.21 
 
 4.86 
 
 1.50 
 
 22.85 
 
 11.32 
 
 67.14 
 
 3.41 
 
 .86 
 
 14.15 
 
 12.49 
 
 79.71 
 
 3.80 
 
 .89 
 
 8.14 
 
 5.38 
 
 84.78 
 
 2.18 
 
 .56 
 
 6.06 
 
 5.10 
 
 1.55 
 2.36 
 2.73 
 4.17 
 1.59 
 1.66 
 2.26 
 1.95 
 2.08 
 1.32 
 
 Several of these grasses — the oat grasses, quaking grass, orchard 
 grass, timothy, and blue grass, for instance — are seen to be of high 
 nutritive value, but yet some of the other grasses and plants found 
 in good pastures are not to be despised on account of their seem- 
 ingly defective character as shown by these analyses. Some of the 
 less nutritious kinds are greedily eaten by sheep, and in furnishing 
 a change of diet, as well as by reason of their aromatic properties, 
 help to stimulate the appetite and preserve the health. 
 
 Besides the grasses and other plants mentioned, there are sev- 
 eral having an aromatic or astringent character, which are pur- 
 posely introduced into pastures for their medicinal effect upon the 
 sheep. Parsley, Ynrrow, and Wormwood are the plants chiefly 
 soused. Parsley, (6'arwm Petroselinum, or Petroselinum sativum^ 
 of the older authors), is a biennial plant well known as a garden 
 herb. It is greedily eaten by sheep, and acts upon the liver and 
 kidneys, or is so supposed to act ; for this reason it has been con- 
 sidered and recommended by shepherds as a preventive of those 
 
18 THE shepherd's MANUAL. 
 
 diseases known as " rot," and red water. Hares and rabbits, which 
 are also subject to the rot, and the presence of the accompanying 
 parasite, the " liver fluke," will travel long distances in quest of 
 this herb, and ground upon which it abounds will very soon be 
 eaten bare by them. For these reasons it is usual in England to 
 sow one pound of seed per acre in permanent pastures where it 
 reproduces itself from seed. It is a biennial plant seeding the 
 second year of its growth. 
 
 Yarrow, {Achillea Millefolium), a plant of the order to which 
 chamomile belongs, is a jjerenuial bitter astringent herb natural- 
 ized in this country from Europe. Sheep are greedily fond of it, 
 and it is not to be doubted that this instinctive desire is prompted 
 by a natural need for it, not so much as a food, but as a medicine 
 and a tonic. It is usually sown in out of the way places on the 
 borders of pastures or lanes to which sheep have access, and where 
 they can go when instinctively desirous of the plant without being 
 driven, and so that it may not become troublesome as a weed by 
 unduly spreading in the pasture. It thrives best on sandy banks 
 or the hilly borders of woods upon sandy soil. The Ox Eye 
 Daisy, {ChrysantJiemum Leucanthemum), a plant of the same botan- 
 ical order with the Yarrow, is also readily fcropped by sheep, the 
 blossoms being especially attractive to lambs. Another related 
 plant, the well known Mugwort, {Artemisia vulgaris), sometimes, but 
 improperly, called wormwood, also naturalized here from Europe, 
 is greedily eaten by sheep. It is also bitter and aromatic and tonic 
 rather than nutritive. But these aromatic plants must not be sup- 
 posed to be worthless as food, for the analysis of yarrow shows it 
 to be possessed of nutritive qualities ; 100 parts of the dry herb 
 contain, according to Professor Way, as follows : 
 
 ANALYSIS OF YARROW. 
 
 Albuminoids or Flesh Formers 10.34 per cent. 
 
 Fatty Matters 2.51 " " 
 
 Carbonaceous or Heat Producing Matters. . . .45.46 " " 
 
 Woody Fiber 32.69 " " 
 
 Ash... ^ " " 
 
 100.00 " " 
 Amongst other common plants readily eaten by sheep is goose- 
 foot, or " Lamb's-quarters," {Ghenopodium album), which grows 
 plentifully all over our states and territories, being one of the most 
 common weeds upon newly broken prairies west of the Missis- 
 sippi, and whi(!h belongs to the same botanical order of plants as 
 the beet and the mangel wurtzel. In addition there are several 
 varieties of sea weed and other maritime plants which grow upon 
 
GRASSES OF THE PLAINS. 19 
 
 the shores that are useful for the subsistence of sheep. These 
 plants are rich in the mineral constituents of common salt, in 
 starch and albumen, and in some localities, flocks of sheep upon 
 the sea coasts and islands exist wholly upon this adventitious pas- 
 turage. A notable case is stated in a recent publication, of a large 
 flock of several hundred sheep which, for years, has subsisted and 
 thrived wholly upon sea weed and wild herbage on an island off 
 the coast of Maine, and there are many others in which farmers 
 adjacent to the sea coast in that state and other parts of New 
 England, subsist their sheep chiefly during the winter upon the 
 sea weed which is cast upon the shores. These cases, hov/ever, are 
 only valuable as showing how these really hardy and easily accli- 
 mated animals may be made to thrive and yield their valuable pro- 
 ducts of food and clothing, under the poorest conditions as surely, 
 if not with equal profit, as under the most favorable circumstances. 
 The value of the herbage which covers the wide plains of the 
 west cannot be predicated as yet from any chemical analysis or 
 scientiiic examinations. In the light of practical experience we 
 do not need these useful aids and helps. The fact that the grasses 
 which cover those plains have supported and fattened countless 
 millions of bufialo and antelope, and the experience already gained 
 in keeping sheep on the plains, are amply suflicient to attest the 
 nutritive value of those grasses. The Buffalo-grass, {BucJilo'e doc- 
 tyloidas), is one of the most nutritious of all grasses. Its creeping 
 root stems are always green and of great sweetness. It is low in 
 its habit as suits a pasture for sheep, and furnishes good feeding 
 the year round. Stock that have fed upon it without any help from 
 other feed have been found in spring fat and in condition for the 
 butcher. Meat produced upon this pasture has a delicate flavor, 
 is tender, and has solid fat. Milk from cows fed upon it bears a 
 cream of the richest character and the highest color. It prefers drj% 
 light soils, which are the very best soils for sheep pastures, and 
 it forces its roots to a depth, or several feet beneath the surface, 
 where it finds moisture even upon the dry plains where the annual 
 rain -fall is scarcely equal to 10 inches. One of the several kinds 
 called *' Bunch-grass," {Festuca scabrella), is another valuable grass 
 common in these regions. It is exceedingly nutritive and cures 
 on the stalk, thus affording winter pasture. Other species of Fes- 
 tuca are common, " Sheep' s-fescue " already noted, being abun- 
 dant. For hay for winter use there are many varieties of highly 
 nutritious grass. Indian or Wood-grass, {Sorghum nutans), is four to 
 five feet in hight, and is full of a rich, sweet juice, which is very 
 palatable and nutritious. There are several other grasses of almost 
 
20 THE shepherd's makual. 
 
 equal value which enable the flock-master to provide abundant 
 supplies of hay to carry his stock over those short periods when 
 pasturing is prevented by snow storms. The variety of native 
 grasses suitable for sheep pastures is thus seen to be ample, and no 
 country in the world is better provided, while few countries are so 
 well supplied with them, as are the United States and territories 
 over the whole length and breadth of their vast surface. 
 
 The stocking of the pasture must be closely loolicd to. Over- 
 stocking causes scarcity of pasture, and a deficient supply of nu- 
 triment. It also causes the sheep to take up much sand and earth 
 into tlieir stomachs with their food, which gives them an unthrifty 
 appearance, and sometimes induces disease and death. Sheep 
 pastured on overstocked fields may be recognized by the worn 
 condition of their teeth, and cases have occurred in which this test 
 has indicated a dilference of two years in their age. Four-year- 
 old sheep have exhibited the worn mouths of six-year-olds. Un- 
 derstocking is an error on the other side. Unless the pasture is 
 closely cropped, the herbage becomes hard, unpalatable, and indi- 
 gestible, and the sheep do not thrive upon it. It is a well proved 
 adage that " 24 hours' grass is best for a sheep, and 8 days' grass for 
 an ox." This indicates that the close bite of a sheep should be 
 accommodated by a very close herbage. Tne tender growth of a 
 thick, short pasture is precisely what is wanted, and if the flock is 
 not numerous enough to keep it short, the field should be divided 
 into plots, and those not cropped closely should be pastured down 
 by cattle or left to be mowed. For the better stocking of the pas- 
 tures it would be well, if practicable, to divide the flock, sorting 
 lambs and yearlings from wethers and aged ewes, and putting the 
 former upon the best and tenderest pasture. This is a point of 
 gre.it importance in the management of a flock, and should be 
 done whenever the welfare of the younger or less vigorous sheep 
 requires it. Where the range is extensive, and ample pasture is 
 provided, any supplementary provision further than an occasional 
 feed of com, oats, bran, or oil-meal, is unnecessary. These addi- 
 tional foods should be supplied whenever the condition of the pas- 
 ture requires it, and constant watchfulness should be exercised to 
 discover tlie moment when the pastures fail. It is not that the 
 growth of the sheep is arrested then, but the quality of the wool 
 suffers from the moment that the condition of the sheep begins to 
 deteriorate. The secretion which supplies the matter of which 
 the wool is formed, is then lessoned, and the fiber is weakened at 
 that particular spot. If the adverse condition continues for some 
 days or weeks, the weakened fiber forms what is called a " break" 
 
SUPPLY OF WATER. 21 
 
 in the wool. When the wool comes to be carded or combed, the 
 tension overcomes the resistance of the fiber which breaks at this 
 weak spot, and the broken fibers go to waste, " Break " in the 
 wool greatly reduces its value, and as it is wholly caused by defi- 
 cient nourishment or excessive exposure, it is a loss readily avoided 
 by proper care. Tiie extra supply of food must be judiciousl}'- 
 proportioned to the needs of the sheep, as over supply will result 
 in an equal disadvantage by unduly stimulating the condition and 
 leading to a reaction when the stimulus is withdrawn. Evenness 
 in the fleece, although it may be of poor quality, is better than un- 
 evenness, for even if there be only one short break in a fiber 
 otherwise of general excellence, the whole is reduced by this single 
 break to one-half its proper length. One neglect of a few days 
 duration is really worse for the fleece than comparatively poor 
 feeding, if it is only adhered to with regularity. Poor feeding and 
 general care, result in a gradually diminished growth and weight 
 of fleece, but yet may not aff'ect the health, while irregular feed- 
 ing affects the health and ruins the flock completely. 
 
 The supply of water is of the greatest importance. A living j 
 spring or a clear flowing stream with dry gravelly banks is the j 
 best source of supply. Wells are better than ponds or pools. 
 Stagnant water is exceedingly objectionable. Hard water is better 
 than soft, and water containing much saline or other mineral 
 matter, is a valuable help to the pasture as furnishing many neces- 
 sary substances. When water is exposed to the atmosphere it 
 deposits the greater part of any mineral matter it may contain, 
 and becomes soft. It is then rendered of less value for stock pur- 
 poses. There are some waters that contain potash, lime, soda, 
 magnesia, iron, and sulphur in combination with oxygen, carbonic 
 acid, and chlorine to the amount of 15 to 20 grains per gallon, and 
 such water is a source of nourishment to sheep. Pond or marsh 
 water is highly injurious, as is also running water in which aquatic 
 plants are found. It is from drinking such water, as much as from 
 pasturing on undrained soils, that the liver flukes, parasites always 
 accompanying the disease termed the rot, gain access to the stom- 
 ach and intestines of the sheep. A deficiency in the necessary 
 mineral matters may be obviated by giving the sheep stated sup- 
 plies of a mixture of common salt, sulphur, saltpeter, sulphate of 
 magnesia, (epsom salts), phosphate of lime, bone-dust, or fine bone, 
 with a small portion of sulphate of iron, (copperas). A small tea- 
 spoon ful of this mixture given once a week to each sheep will help / 
 greatly to a healthful condition, and resist the tendency to disease 
 caused by inferior pasture or soft water. The study of the plants I 
 
22 THE shepherd's manual. 
 
 suitable for a pasture, tlie character of soils, and the water, should 
 be part of the education of every shepherd. 
 
 The exposure of the pasture is another important consideration. 
 Long continued cold winds are productive of great discomfort and 
 sickness, and often cause serious loss amongst the flock. On the 
 sea coast, exposure to the moist sea breezes injures the quality of 
 the wool, and renders it harsh and deficient in quantity. Of two 
 adjoining flocks upon opposite sides of a hill facing north and 
 south, the sheep exposed to the north winds will be several pounds 
 less in weight, and their wool will be whiter, harsher, more uneven, 
 and less healthy looking, than those of the flock upon the south side. 
 This experience is very common. The lambs will also be less 
 thrifty. Of this, many notable cases occur every season where 
 sheep and lambs are pastured and fed for the markets. The small 
 size of sheep raised upon mountain pastures is a case in point. 
 
 Where the pasture is circumscribed or poor, it may be supple- 
 mented by sowed green crops to be fed on the ground, or cut and 
 fed in racks upon the pasture, or cut and carried to yards and fed 
 there at night in racks. Of these, rye, clover, mustard, rape, tares, 
 and oats and peas mixed, furnish an abundant supply. Rye is 
 sown early in the fall for winter and early spring feeding. For 
 this purpose it should be sown thickly, three bushels per acre 
 being a fair allowance upon fairly good soil, early in August up 
 to the middle of September. The sheep may be turned upon the 
 crop in December, and at intervals as may be found proper, up to 
 April, when it may be plowed down for a spring crop. Upon 
 light lands, where the winters admit of it, as in some of the middle 
 and southern states, this may be made an excellent means of im- 
 proving the soil ; some additional feed, as bran, pea-meal, com, or 
 cotton-seed-meal, (freed from the hull which is indigestible and 
 injurious), will much assist in this improvement of the soil as well 
 as in bettering the condition of the sheep. 
 
 After rye, clover sown the previous spring, but not pastured, 
 will come in turn. This will furnish pasture through the summer 
 if kept well stocked down, and a choice portion should be fenced 
 off for the lambs. By changing from one part of the field to an- 
 other, as one portion is eaten down, the new growth will be tender 
 and fresh. After June a part of the clover will run to seed, and 
 when the field is plowed in August or September, the seed will 
 help to re-sow the ground, which may then be sown to wheat or 
 rye. This makes an excellent preparation for these crops on lands 
 of a somewhat light character. 
 
 White Mustard, {Sinapis alba), may be sown in May or June for 
 
FODDER CROPS. 23 
 
 feeding m August and until rye is ready. It is diflQcult to eradi- 
 cate from the soil when it once becomes a weed and has been 
 allowed to take possession. But a careful farmer will have no 
 trouble if he manages the crop so as to prevent the seed beiug 
 shed. When sown in August, mustard affords valuable feed dur- 
 ing the winter, and although the ground may be covered with 
 several inches of snow, the sheep will scrape off the covering and 
 get at it. In this way a plot of mustard may furnish a green bite 
 all the winter where the snow fall is light. In the spring it should 
 be plowed dowm early and not allowed to blossom, and a spring 
 crop taken so that the ground is plowed again in the fall. Treated 
 thus, the plant cannot ripen and shed its seeds and become trouble- 
 some. Mustard has a pungent flavor, and contains a large propor- 
 tion of sulphur ; it is on this account a healthful fodder for sheep, 
 and is very much relished by them. It belongs to the botanical 
 order of Crucrferce, to which the cabbage, rape, and turnip, belong; 
 a family of plants rich in sulphur, lime, phosphoric acid, and other 
 mineral matter demanded for the sustenance of sheep. Two pecks 
 of mustard seed per acre are sown, and for a heavy crop of fodder 
 rich soil is required. 
 
 Rape, a variety of Brassica campestris, is a very hardy plant, and 
 produces a heavy burden of fodder which is readily eaten by sheep. 
 It is very similar in habit to mustard, and should be fed off in the 
 fall and winter or early in spring. Two pecks of seed are required 
 for an acre. For fall feed it should be sow^n in July or early in 
 August. Both mustard and rape succeed very well in the north- 
 ern, western, and middle states, and would thrive equally well in 
 most of the southern states if sown somewhat later and fed off 
 during the winter. These plants when sown late ripen their seed 
 early in the second year. 
 
 Turnips are a very frequent fodder crop in those parts of Eng- 
 land where sheep are largely raised, but the practice of allowing 
 them to be fed off from the ground is fast becoming obsolete, and 
 the plan of taking up the crop and cutting and feeding the roots 
 in troughs upon the fields or in yards is substituted in its place. 
 But the English climate is excessively moist, and rain falls two 
 days out of three on the average. It is for this reason, and the in- 
 jurious effect upon the sheep of the exposure upon muddy fields 
 to cold wintry rains, that the practice is falling into disuse. In 
 parts of the United States we have every advantage for making 
 use of so cheap and convenient a plan of feeding sheep upon 
 these root crops that are not injured by moderate frosts. Where 
 the fall of snow is light and soon melts away, as in Virginia, Ten- 
 
24 THE shephekd's manual. 
 
 nessee, Missouri, and the states south of these, this system of win- 
 ter feeding has been practiced for many years by the better class 
 of farmers with success. Mr. C. W. Howard, of Georgia, a 
 highly trustworthy gentleman, a farmer and a frequent writer 
 upon agricultural topics, and who has given much attention to the 
 culture of fodder crops, communicated some time ago to the Rural 
 Carolinian the following directions and facts in regard to the cul- 
 ture of turnips for sheep feeding in the open field in the south : 
 " Take a field, plow it deeply with a two-horse plow, subsoil if 
 possible, harrow thoroughly and roll. Lay off the land in rows 
 two-and-a-half feet apart, with a wide and deep furrow. If there 
 be not stable manure, apply three to five hundred pounds of Am- 
 moniated Superphosphate of Lime ; the addition of some potash 
 would be useful ; throw the dirt back with two furrows, and level 
 the ridge with a board. Use the Weathersfield drill, or some 
 other, costing about nine dollars. Sow with it two pounds of seed 
 to the acre. The Weathersfield drill opens the furrow, drops the 
 seed, covers, and then rolls it by one and the same process. When 
 the plants have formed the third leaf, which is rough, thin them 
 out with the hoe and hand to about eight inches apart, give them 
 a good plowing with a narrow scooter, and the cultivation is 
 completed. The cultivation of an acre of turnips will cost as 
 follows : 
 
 Plowing $ 2 00 
 
 Harrowing 50 
 
 Boiling 50 
 
 Seed 100 
 
 Sowing 25 
 
 Hoeing and Thinning 2 00 
 
 Plowing 1 00 
 
 Fertilizer 10 00 
 
 $17 25 
 
 " The result will vary according to the soil, the season, and the 
 cultivation. Five hundred bushels is a poor crop. One thousand 
 bushels is a good crop. Fifteen hundred bushels is an extraordi- 
 nary crop. This number of bushels, (1,550), was made last year 
 by Dr. Lavender, of Pike County, Ga. That gentleman took the 
 premium at the last Georgia State Fair. His statements deserve 
 implicit reliance. Tbey were made under oath. His process of 
 obtaining this remarkable yield was as follows : 
 
 " ' The soil was a sandy loam. Turned over a heavy clover sod 
 in June with a Dixie plow ; harrowed twice with a Nishwitz har- 
 row on the 21st of August ; ran twice in the furrow, deposited in 
 the bottom of the furrow 3,600 pounds of stable manure, com- 
 
FOLDIKG OK TURNIPS. 25 
 
 pounded with 100 pounds of the Stono Phosphate ; let it stand six 
 weeks, then applied as above stated. Cultivated with a cultivator 
 by horse power — no hoeing ; left about six plants to the yard ; 
 had only one rain on them after plowing, and that a light shower. 
 Sowed two pounds of seed to the acre ; planted by hand through 
 a guano bugle, and then rolled.' 
 
 ' ' What does it cost to raise a bushel of turnips ? If we make 
 500 bushels to the acre, the cost will be about four cents per 
 bushel; if 1,000, the cost will be about two cents per bushel. This 
 does not include gathering, storing, and marketing, because the 
 use that it is proposed to make of the turnips involves none of these 
 expenses. 
 
 " What use, then, is to be made of the crop ? Feed them off on 
 the land with sheep, the process ordinarily known as folding. 
 For this purpose a portable fence is necessary. (These are de- 
 scribed hereafter). 
 
 " The fold should not include more turnips than the sheep will 
 eat off clean in twenty-four, or, at the utmost, forty-eight hours. 
 If it be larger, the turnips will be wasted. Sheep not accustomed 
 to turnips, may at first refuse to eat them. But let them get quite 
 hungry, and then sprinkle some salt upon the turnips. After they 
 once get a taste of them the only difficulty will be to get enough 
 of them. One thousand sheep will consume an acre of turnips in 
 twenty-four hours ; one hundred in ten days and nights. With 
 these data, the size of the pen can be graduated. One- tenth of an 
 acre should be the size of the fold or pen per one hundred sheep. 
 One acre of turnips will support one hundred sheep for ten days, 
 three acres one month, nine acres three months. This is not the- 
 ory, but the result of actual experiment. The enemy of the turnip 
 is the fly. There are two means of preventing the ravages of this 
 troublesome insect. One is very thick seeding, the other is dust- 
 ing the young plants as soon as they are above ground, with un- 
 leached ashes, or air-slacked lime. After they reach the rough 
 leaf there is no further danger from this source. The thinning 
 should take place as soon as the rough leaf is formed. If this 
 thinnmg is delayed, the crop will be seriously injured." 
 
 For the northern states the culture of the turnip, ruta-baga, su- 
 gar beet, mangel, and cabbage, is as follows: the preparation of the 
 ground being alike for all, the time of sowing alone being differ- 
 ent. Sugar beets and mangels are sown from April to June, 
 the early sown crop being invariably the heaviest. Ruta-bagas are 
 sown June 15th to July 1st. Cabbage for late crop is sown in 
 seed beds in June to be transplanted in July. Yellow Aberdeen 
 2 
 
26 
 
 THE shepherd's MANUAL. 
 
 turnips are sown in July, and white turnips in July or August. 
 The soil is prepared by previous plowing and manuring, and made 
 fine and mellow ; the seed is sown in drills 30 inches apart, and 
 thinned out to 13 to 18 inches apart in the rows. A crop of roots 
 grown 18 inches apart, each root weighing 6 lbs. , will yield 34 tons, 
 or 1,100 bushels to 
 the acre. For beets 
 or mangels, 4 lbs. 
 of seed per acre is 
 required if sown 
 with a drill ; of 
 ruta-bagas and tur- 
 nips 2 lbs. of seed is 
 sown. The best beet 
 is Lane's Improved 
 Sugar Beet ; the 
 best mangel, the 
 Long Red ; the 
 best ruta-baga, the 
 
 Purple-top Swede ; the Aberdeen turnip is better than the white, 
 and nearly as good as the ruta-baga ; the white turnip has the ad- 
 
 Fig. 1.— PIT FOR ROOTS. 
 
 Fig. 3. — ^ROOT-CUTTER. 
 
 vantage that it can be sown late and follow an oat, barley, or rye 
 crop. The harvesting is done by cutting off the tops with a sharp 
 
FEEDING ROOTS. 
 
 27 
 
 hoe and plowing a furrow on one side of the row of roots, when 
 they may be pulled from the ground with the hoe or by drawing 
 a dull harrow over the field. The crop is saved by keeping the 
 roots in cellars or pits. Pits are simply conical heaps covered 
 with straw and earth suflBcient to keep out the frost, a foot of 
 straw and a few inches of earth being sufficient protection, (see 
 fig. 1). Roots should be sliced or pulped when fed, as they are 
 more readily eaten, 
 and there is no dan- 
 ger of the sheep 
 choking hy swallow- 
 ing too large pieces. 
 A simple cutting ma- 
 chine is shown in fig. 
 2. It consists of a 
 wooden wheel fur- 
 nished with long 
 knives set at an angle 
 similar to the irons 
 in a plane, which cut 
 the roots into thin 
 slices. Fig. 3 is a 
 pulper in which, in- 
 stead of knives, there 
 are 144 sharp chisel ^ig- 3.— root pulper. 
 
 points made of quarter-inch steel, (see a), by which the roots are 
 torn into shreds and reduced to pulp. 
 
 "When crops are fed upon the ground, a special arrangement of 
 temporary fences is used. These are constructed of hurdles, of 
 which there are several kinds. One of the most readily con- 
 structed hurdles is made of light stakes pointed at the ends and 
 fastened together with bars of split or sawed saplings or laths, such 
 as are shown at fig. 4. These are made in panels about nine feet 
 long, with stakes five and a half feet high. A line of these hurdles 
 is set across the field, enclosing a plot in which the sheep are con- 
 fined, until the crop on the ground is consumed. The shepherd 
 takes a light pointed iron bar with which he makes holes in the 
 ground to receive the pointed lower ends of the stakes, and drives 
 them down firmly by striking the tops with a wooden mallet. As 
 the crop is eaten, the line of hurdles is moved along the field until 
 the whole is consumed. Much economy in labor of setting the 
 hurdles may be exercised by laying out the plots in a certain man- 
 ner. For instance, if a square field of ten acres is to be fed off, the 
 
28 
 
 THE shepherd's MANUAL. 
 
 plan shown in fig. 5 will be found very convenient. The distance 
 across the field is 320 yards. This is the least length of hurdles 
 that can be used. But if the field is divided off into strips across, 
 the whole of the hurdles must be moved each time, and if the field 
 
 a 
 
 Fig. 4. — HURDLE. 
 
 is divided into eight strips, there will be seven removals of every 
 hurdle, or the whole length of netting. In the plan here shown, 
 only half this work is necessary, and a field may be divided into 
 eight sections by moving half the hurdles seven times. For in- 
 stance, plot 1 is fed by placing the 
 hurdles from a to 6, and from c to d. 
 Plot number 2 is fed by moving the 
 line from c, d to &, e. The next setting 
 of the hurdles is from c to /, the next 
 from h to g^ the next from h to z, the 
 next from 6 to A;, the next, and last, 
 from I to m. There will be eight 
 settings of 110 yards each, instead of 
 seven of 220 yards each, which would 
 be necessary should the field be fed off 
 in the usual manner of strips across it. 
 
 In place of these hurdles, netting of cocoa-nut fiber or hempen 
 cord is often used. This is supported by stakes driven into the 
 ground and hooks, (see fig. 6). Netting of this kind is made in 
 
 4 
 h 
 
 6 4 
 
 7 
 
 m 
 
 \k 
 
 d 
 
 e 
 
 Fig. 5.— PLAN FOR SETTING 
 HURDLES. 
 
PORTABLE FENCES. 
 
 29 
 
 England in lengths of 100 yards, and widths of 4 feet, at about $9 
 the°100 yards. At this price it could he imported with profit, and 
 probably cheaper than it could be manufactured here. Another 
 form of hurdles not quite so portable, but more easily moved and 
 set is illustrated at fig. 7. They are 12 feet long, and are made of 
 a stout pole bored with two series of holes 12 inches apart. Stakes 
 six feet long are put into these holes, so that they project from 
 them three feet on each side of the pole. One series of holes is 
 bored in a direction 
 at right angles to 
 that of the other, 
 and when the 
 stakes are all pro- 
 perly placed, they 
 form a hurdle the 
 end of which looks 
 like the letter X. 
 The engraving 
 shows how these 
 hurdles are made 
 and the method of 
 using them. A row 
 is placed across 
 the field. A strip 
 of ten feet wide is 
 set off upon which 
 the sheep feed. 
 They eat up all the 
 herbage upon this 
 strip and that which they can reach by putting their heads through 
 the hurdles. The hurdles are then turned over, exposing another 
 strip of forage. When this is fed off the hurdles are again turned 
 over, and so on. The cfievaux-de-frise presented by the hurdles 
 prevents any trespassing upon the other side of them, and by using 
 two rows the sheep are kept in the narrow strip between them. 
 Their droppings are therefore very evenly spread over the field, 
 and it is very richly fertilized by them. At night the sheep 
 are taken off, and when the field has been fed over, they are 
 brought back again to the starting point and commence once more 
 to eat their way along. When the crop is cut and fed to the sheep, 
 a somewhat different arrangement is made. This may be made a 
 valuable means of improving land. A badly run-down field in- 
 fested with weeds, may be cleared of rubbish, fertilized, and 
 
 Fig. 6. — SHEEP NETTING. 
 
ao 
 
 THE SHEPHEED's MAifUAL. 
 
PENNING SHEEP IN THE FIELD. 
 
 31 
 
 brought into grass or clover by judicious management in this way. 
 Portions of such a field may be set off with hurdles as before de- 
 scribed, a rough shed erected in which the sheep may be secured 
 at night, and in which an ample supply of bedding or dry earth, or 
 other absorbent is placed beneath them, and here the crop grown 
 upon another part of the farm, aided by purchased food, if such 
 be available, is fed in portable troughs 
 or racks. A very convenient rack is the 
 one shown in fig. 8. This is extremely 
 portable, and may be moved from one 
 part of the field to another with great 
 ease. Where sheep are permanently 
 kept, and fixed arrangements are made 
 for the flock, it is frequently found con- 
 venient to provide a permanent and safe 
 shed, in a central position, in which they 
 may be confined at night, and from which 
 they can be turned into different fields or 
 portions of the farm. A shed that has 
 been found very convenient in use is 
 shown at fig. 9. It is built at the center 
 of four fields, and has doors opening into 
 each of them, and is so arranged that it 
 may be entirely closed from all but the 
 one which may be in use at the time. 
 
 For the protection of the sheep at 
 night, small paddocks may be fenced in 
 around this shed, and safety from dogs 
 secured by the use of dog guards. These 
 consist of wires made to run above the 
 fence or at right angles with the top of 
 it, as shown at figures 10 and 11. 
 
 The separation of the flock into parts 
 consisting of ewes and lambs, weaned 
 lambs and weaklings, and rams and 
 wethers, is very necessary. Ewes and 
 nursing lambs should be provided with 
 the best and tenderest pastures; the weaned lambs and weak 
 sheep should have a place where they can be furnished with some 
 extra feed without interference from stronger neighbors, and 
 rams and wethers may do well enough on the coarser herbage. 
 A frequent change of pasture is very advantageous for the flock. 
 Sheep naturally love change, and after they have wandered over a 
 
32 
 
 THE shepherd's MAl^UAL. 
 
 field will become restless, and try to escape. The best method of 
 keeping them contented and quiet, is to change their pasture as 
 soon as they are observed to wander about restlessly. They are 
 
 Fig. 9, — SHEEP SHED. 
 
 then losing flesh. To restrict sheep to one kind of food for a 
 period of more than thirty days, has been found to seriously im- 
 pair their health. " Fresh fields and pastures new " are therefore 
 necessary to their welfare, and their health cannot be maintained 
 
 Fig. 10.— DOG GUARD. 
 
 Fig. 11.— DOG GFAHD. 
 
 unless this peculiarity is recognized and accommodated. It is 
 better to divide fields into paddocks where small flocks are kept, 
 
EWES AND LAMBS. 33 
 
 and where the pastures are extensive, to reduce the size and in. 
 crease the number of the fields. Where the pasture is an open, 
 un fenced tract, the flock should be driven some distance to a new 
 locality every month. 
 
 The attention of the shepherd during the summer season will be 
 constantly exercised in seeing that every portion of the flock re- 
 ceives a proper share of the pasture, that the pasture is not over- 
 stocked ; that proper shelter is provided from midday heats ; that 
 failure in pasture is immediately remedied by a supply of fresh 
 green fodder or extra food, such as wheat-bran, oil-cake-meal, or 
 corn-meal ; that pure water is supplied at least twice a day ; that 
 a certain portion of salt, or a mixture of salt and sulphur is pro- 
 vided and given regularly ; that on the first symptom of indispo- 
 sition, affected sheep are removed from the flock to some place 
 where they may receive proper care and medicine; that the 
 attacks of flies are warded off* by proper preventives ; that para- 
 sitic enemies are destroyed, and in short in caring in every possi- 
 ble way for the welfare of his charge, watching closely for the 
 most minute evidence of the first symptom of trouble that may 
 occur, always remembering that " an ounce of prevention is 
 worth a pound of cure." To this end he should study closely the 
 habits of his sheep in health, make himself thoroughly acquainted 
 with the symptoms of disease and the habits and methods of at- 
 tacks of those living enemies which trouble the flock, and be pre- 
 pared by adequate and exact knowledge of the proper preventives 
 and remedies, to apply them instantly, correctly, and effectively. 
 
 CHAPTEE III. 
 
 MANAGEMENT OF EWES AND LAMBS. 
 
 In the management of sheep, how to procure the most profit 
 from the flock is the greatest consideration. It is not exactly how 
 to increase the flock most rapidly, nor to produce the heaviest 
 carcasses or fleeces, but to produce such animals as will return the 
 most money for the expenditure and labor involved. In some lo- 
 calities the sale of an early lamb will ];)ring in more money than 
 that of the mother with its fleece. Where there is a market 
 for lambs, it is evidently the most profitable to keep such sheep, 
 
34 
 
 THE SHEPHERD S MANUAL. 
 
 and to keep them in such a way as will produce the highest priced 
 lambs. Where mutton is the most profitable, there a diflFerent 
 management must be adopted, and frequently a different breed of 
 sheep must be kept. Where wool only is the object, still another 
 different course will be chosen. Whichever end is to be gained, 
 the care of the breeding ewes and the lambs will be a subject of 
 much solicitude. But what would be a proper course in one case 
 would not be at all proper in another. A few general principles 
 are involved in the management of ewes and lambs, which will 
 first be explained, after which the special management proper to 
 be adopted for each special case will be considered. 
 
 The period of gestation of the ewe is 150 to 153 days. Five 
 months in round numbers may be taken as the period during 
 which the ewe carries a lamb. The coupling of the ewes and 
 rams should be so timed, that the lambs may be dropped at the 
 most desirable season. It will be found a great convenience to 
 mark the rams and ewes, or such of them as may be selected to 
 breed stock animals from. Where a small flock only is kept, or 
 where special care 
 is given to the im- 
 provement of the 
 breed, every sheep 
 should be marked 
 by a number, that 
 the time of its coup- 
 ling may be noted, 
 and the date of the 
 expected birth of 
 the lamb be known. The best method of marking is by means of 
 metallic ear marks, (fig. 12), made by C. H. Dana, of West Lebanon, 
 N. H., inserted in the ear in different ways, to distinguish the sexes 
 easily. The method of keeping these records may be as fol- 
 lows : A book is provided which is ruled with six columns. At 
 the head of these columns are written the number of the ewe, that 
 of the ram, the date of service, the expected time of the lamb's ap- 
 pearance, the date when it is actually dropped, and any remarks 
 worthy of note. The following diagram exhibits this clearly : 
 
 Fig. 12. — METALLIC EAR-MARKS. 
 
 No. of Ewe. 
 
 137 
 
 No. of Bam. 
 4 
 
 When served. 
 
 To Lamb. 
 
 Feb. 26, '76 
 
 Lambed. \ Remarks. 
 
 Feb.28,'76l Twins. 
 
 Sept. 26, '75 
 
 Under the head of remarks should be written anything that may 
 be desirable to remember in regard to the character of the produce 
 of the animals coupled. A ewe that produces a fine, large, activ6 
 
CARE OF THE RAM. 35 
 
 lamb, that is a good nurse, and that rears a profitable market 
 lamb, or that rears twins successfully, is a valuable animal to re- 
 tain in the flock so long as she remains productive. Such ewes 
 have been kept until 10 or 13, or even 16 years old, and to be able 
 to identify a ewe of this kind is very necessary when the greatest 
 profit is the object sought, and more especially in those cases when . 
 the special business is to rear market lambs or increase the flock f 
 rapidly. No more than 30 ewes should be apportioned to one- 
 ram in any season, unless he be a full grown one and in vigorous 
 health, and it would be well to observe the rules laid down in a/ 
 succeeding chapter especially devoted to breeding, for the man- 
 agement of the ram at this season. If the ram is equal to the 
 work, 50 ewes may be given to him, but it is better to err on the 
 safe side in this matter, as overwork simply means barren ewes 
 and loss of lambs. At the breeding season the ram should be 
 smeared upon the brisket every day with a mixture of raw linseed 
 oil and red ocher, so that he will leave a mark upon each ewe that 
 may be served. As the ewes are served they are to be drafted 
 from the flock and placed in a field or yard by themselves. Two 
 rams should not be kept together in a small breeding flock, as 
 quarreling and fighting are certain to result and great damage 
 may occur. If two rams are necessary, each may be used on 
 alternate days. Wethers are a nuisance in a flock of ewes at this 
 season, disturbing them and keeping them and themselves from 
 feeding. A plan followed with advantage where the flock consists 
 of heavy bodied sheep, and where the necessary attention can be 
 given, is to keep the ram in a yard or paddock by himself, out of 
 sight of the ewes, and to allow a wether to run with them. As 
 each ewe comes in season, the wether singles her out and keeps 
 company with her. On the return of the flock from the pasture 
 at night, the ewe or ewes in season are turned in to the ram until 
 they are served, when they may be removed at once, or left with 
 him until the morning. In the morning, if any ewes have come 
 into heat during the night, they may be served before the flock is 
 turned into the pasture. This is continued until it is known that 
 all the ewes are in lamb. By this method a ram may be made to 
 serve double the numbfer of ewes that he would if allowed indis- 
 criminate access to them, and exhaust himself in useless and need' 
 less repeated exertions. 
 
 As soon as the ewes have been served, the time of each is entered 
 in the record as previously described. They are carefully pre- 
 served from all worry by dogs and needless driving or handling. 
 Peace and quietness at this season will tend to the production of 
 
36 THE shephekd's manual. 
 
 quiet and docile lambs. The shepherd should make himself very 
 familiar with them, and by giving salt or meal in the hand, or a 
 small dish, reduce them to a condition of perfect docility. Any 
 ewes that have either refused the ram or have failed to breed, 
 should be dosed with two ounces of epsom salts and be stinted in 
 their feed for a few days to reduce their condition. This will 
 generally be effective in bringing them into season. Good fair 
 condition is better than an excess of fat, but ewes in poor condi- 
 tion cannot be expected to produce other than poor, weak lambs ; 
 neither will an excessively fat ewe produce a strong lamb. Some 
 extra food will now be needed by the ewes, and should be given 
 at first in small quantities. Bran, crushed malt, and crushed oats 
 and corn mixed, are the best kinds of food. Oil-cake, either of 
 cotton-seed or linseed, unless used with great caution, is not always 
 a healthful food for ewes in lamb. Any food that actively affects 
 the bowels, either way, is to be avoided. Half a pint a day may be 
 given of the first mentioned foods, and a change from one to an- 
 other may be frequently made. So long as pasture is to be had, 
 this allowance will be sufficient. When the winter feeding com- 
 mences, the ration of grain should be gradually increased until, at 
 the period when lambing time approaches, a pint daily is given. 
 Cold watery food is highly dangerous at this time, and roots 
 should not be given in large quantities, nor at all unless pulped 
 and mixed with cut hay and the grain. Turnips or other roots 
 that have been highly manured with superphosphate of lime has 
 been said by several experienced English breeders to be pro- 
 ductive of abortion. Water should be given in small and frequent 
 quantities. It is best to have running water or w^ater from a well 
 always at hand for the ewes. If the ewes have not heretofore been 
 kept apart from the rest of the flock, they should now be sepa- 
 rated. The general treatment of the ewes up to this time should 
 be such as wUl keep them free from all excitement, and in good, 
 healthful condition. The record should now be consulted, and as 
 the ewes near their time they should be removed into a part of the 
 stables or sheep barn, where each one can have a small pen to 
 herself. These pens should be made so that light can be shut out 
 if desired. Here they are permitted to drop their lambs in perfect 
 quiet ; by this means few ewes will disown their lambs, and no 
 lambs will be lost by creeping into feed racks or out of the way 
 places. The pens should not be larger than 5x4 feet. As soon 
 as the lamb is dropped and the ewe has owned and licked it, and 
 the lamb has once sucked, all danger, except from gross careless- 
 ness, is passed. The ewe will be greatly helped by a drink of 
 
CARE OF THE EWE. 
 
 37 
 
 slightly warm, thin oat-meal gruel well salted. The lamb will be 
 benefitted by a teaspoonful of castor oil, given in new milk, if the 
 first evacuations do not pass away freely. These are apt to be 
 very glutinous and sticky, and by adhering to the wool to close 
 the bowel completely unless removed. Warm water should be 
 used to soften and remove these accumulations. The anus and 
 surrounding wool should then be smeared with pure castor oil. 
 If the lamb is not sufficiently strong to reach the teats and suck, it 
 should be assisted once or twice. Any locks of wool upon the 
 ewe's udder, that may be in the waj^ should be clipped. If the 
 lamb is scoured, a 
 teaspoonful of a 
 mixture of one 
 pint of peppermint 
 water and one 
 ounce of prepared 
 chalk should be 
 given ever}'' three 
 hours, until it is 
 relieved. When 
 the ewe refuses to 
 own the lamb, she 
 may be confined 
 between two small 
 hurdles, as shown 
 in fig. 13. Two 
 light stakes are 
 driven in the 
 ground close to- 
 gether to confine 
 the ewe's head and keep her from butting the lamb. If she is 
 disposed to lie down, as some obstinate ones will do, a light pole 
 is passed through the hurdles resting upon the lower bar beneath 
 her belly. Thus confined during the day, she is helpless, and if 
 the lamb is lively, it will manage to get its supply of food. The 
 ewe should be released at night. One day's confinement is often 
 sufficient to bring an obstinate ewe to reason. 
 
 A twin lamb, or one deprived of its dam, that may need to be 
 reared by hand, may easily be fed upon cows' milk. A fresh 
 cow's milk is the best fitted for this purpose. Ewe's milk is richer 
 in solid matter than that of the cow, and the addition of a tea- 
 spoonful of white refined sugar to the pint of cow's milk will 
 make it more palatable to the lamb. At first not more than a 
 
 13.— HURDLES FOR EWE. 
 
38 
 
 THE SHEPHERD'S MAKUAL. 
 
 quarter of a pint of milk sliould be given at once. The milk should 
 be freshly drawn from the cow, and warmed up to 100 degrees 
 before it is fed. A convenient method of feeding milk to a lamb 
 is to use a small tin can with a long spout, such as is used for oil. 
 An air-hole is punched in the cover or cork and a piece of sponge 
 covered with a cloth is tied upon the end of the spout. The flow 
 is thus made easy and equal, and the lamb sucks in a natural man- 
 ner. The accompanying illustration, (fig. 14), shows the method. 
 A very short time is sufficient to familiarize the lamb with this 
 kind of foster mother. To encourage the flow of milk in the ewe 
 
 Fig. 14. — FEEDIKG LAMBS. 
 
 and the corresponding growth of the lambs, the food of the ewes 
 should be of the best character. Clover hay, bran, and crushed 
 oats, with some pea-meal, are the most preferable foods, produc- 
 ing a rich milk in abundance. The ewes must not be allowed to 
 fall off in condition, or the lambs will fail. During mild weather, 
 sugar beets may be given in moderate quantity with advantage, 
 but mangels or Swede turnips, (ruta-bagas), should be avoided as 
 too watery and deficient in nutriment, and productive of scours in 
 the lamb. In cold weather roots are apt to reduce the tempera- 
 ture of the animal too suddenly if given in any but small quanti- 
 ties, and consequently decrease the flow of milk. Pea straw is a 
 favorite and nutritious food for sheep, but it will be found profit- 
 
DOCKH^G AND CASTKATING LAMBS. 39 
 
 able to give only the very best at hand to nursing ewes. The 
 after growth and condition of the lambs will greatly depend upon 
 the maintenance of a thrifty and continuous growth during the 
 first three months of their existence. 
 
 At the age of a week the operations of docking and castrating 
 the male lambs, may be safely performed. At this age the young 
 animal suffers but little, there is no loss of blood, and the wounds 
 heal by the first intention. The rough and ready method of clip- 
 ping off the tail an inch from the rump, first drawing the skin 
 upwards, and of clipping off the scrotum and testicles altogether 
 with a pair of sharp sheep-shears, will be found perfectly safe if 
 done before the lamb is two weeks old. The nerves being very 
 slightly sensitive at this time, the painful, and when later per- 
 formed, dangerous operation of emasculation is only slightly felt, 
 and within an hour a lamb bereft of tail and generative organs 
 will frequently be seen skippmg playfully in the sunshine. To 
 dock an older lamb is a more troublesome operation. To do this 
 with facility, a block of wood about a foot high, a sharp, broad 
 chisel, and a wooden mallet, are required. The operator stoops 
 with bended knees, the block being in front of him, takes the lamb 
 with its head between his knees and its tail in his left hand, hold- 
 ing the chisel in his right hand. Backing the lamb's rump up 
 close to the block, he lays the tail upon it, and drawing back 
 the skin of the tail up to the rump, holds the chisel lightly 
 upon the tail close to and below the fingers of the left hand. 
 "When all is ready he directs an assistant to strike the chisel 
 smartly with the mallet, by which the tail is instantly severed » 
 about two inches from the root. A pinch of powdered bluestone : 
 (sulphate of copper), is placed on the wound, and the lamb is re- '' 
 leased. To castrate an old lamb with safety, the scrotum should 
 be opened by a long free incision with a sharp knife at the lower 
 point, the animal being at the time turned upon its back and 
 secured in that position. The scrotum should be held in the 
 hand tightly enough to keep the skin tense. The cut should be 
 made only through the skm and coats of the testicle, and not into 
 the gland, by which a great deal of pain is spared to the anunal. 
 The gland will escape from the scrotum at once if the opening is 
 made large enough. It may be taken in the left hand and the cord 
 and vessels scraped apart, not cut, by which bleeding is prevented 
 and healing made more certain and rapid. The opening being made 
 at the bottom of the scrotum, allows the blood and any pus that 
 forms in the wound, to escape freely. It might probably be bene- 
 ficial to insert a small plug of tow in the wound, projecting out of 
 
40 THE SHEPHEKD'S MANUAL. 
 
 it a short distance to prevent the edges from healing until the in- 
 flammation lias subsided. This method of operation is a safe one, 
 and if it is neatly done, the losses need not be one per cent, while 
 frequently three lambs out of five may be lost by any other 
 method. 
 
 While the lambs are still with the ewes, and although the ewes 
 may be well fed with a special view to the thriftiness of the lambs, 
 yet a supply of additional food for the latter will be of great ad- 
 vantage to them. To furnish a young animal with all the food 
 that it can digest, and that of the choicest character, is to create a 
 sturdy, thrifty, strong constitutioned animal that will be prolific 
 in reproduction and long lived. To advance the maturity of 
 an animal is also to lengthen its life, for it matters not at which 
 part of its productive career we add a year, it certainly, so far as 
 profit is concerned, lives a year longer for us. If a yearling ewe 
 can be made to produce a healthful, strong lamb, or a lamb can be 
 brought by care to maturit}' for the market at eighteen months in- 
 stead of thirty months, this result is simply equal to a profit of 40 
 per cent. And feed is the agent by which this profit is secured, of 
 course made available by proper care in selecting the breeding 
 stock. To provide the means whereby the lambs may procure the 
 extra feed needed for their rapid development, many contrivances 
 have been brought into use. Generally these are modifications of 
 the plan of providing a pen or yard adjoining that in which the 
 ewes are kept, with " creep holes " in the fence through which the 
 lambs can gain access to it. In this yard some feed, consisting of 
 oats, rye, and wheat bran ground together very finely, is placed in 
 troughs or boxes, and lightly salted. They will soon find this, and 
 will resort to it several times a day. A very simple and conve- 
 nient " lamb creep" is figured at fig. 15, and has been illustrated 
 and described in an English journal, the Agricultural Gazette. It 
 is ver}'- frequently used by English farmers, and is worthy of being 
 adopted by us. It consists of a small double gate or two half gates 
 set at such a distance apart that the lamb can easily force itself 
 through between them. An upright roller on each side of the 
 opening assists the lamb in getting through the space, and prevents 
 it from rubbing or tearing its wool. The gates are pivoted at top 
 and bottom, so that they will open a little cither way ; a wooden 
 spring being fixed so as to keep them closed after the lamb has 
 passed in or out. The lambs pass in or out at will. Creeps of 
 this kind can be made so as to occupy a panel of fence or a gate- 
 way, and of a portable character, so that they can be easily fixed 
 to the fence-post on each side bv a wire or withe, and removed 
 
WEANING LAMBS. 
 
 41 
 
 when no longer needed. But, by whatever means it maybe done, 
 the lambs should be supplied with some additional concentrated 
 and nutritious feed. As a gentle laxative in case of constipation, 
 a few ounces of linseed oil-cake-meal will be found sufficient, and 
 far better than physic. Linseed oil, (raw), or castor oil, a tea- 
 tspoonful of either at a dose, will be found safe and effective for 
 either constipation or diarrhea, unless of a serious character. 
 As lambs progress towards the period for weaning, the extra 
 
 Fig. 15.— LAMB CKEEP. 
 
 food should be gradually increased, unless they can be removed 
 to a good pasture of short, tender grass. In this case even a small 
 allowance at night on their return to the fold will be beneficial. 
 The weaning should be very gradually done. The sudden remov- 
 al of the lambs from their dams is injurious to both. It too ab- 
 ruptly deprives the lambs of their most easily digested and most 
 agreeable food. It forces them to load the stomach with food for 
 which it is hardly yet prepared, and suddenly arrests theh* growth 
 
42 THE shepheed's manual. 
 
 both by a stinting of food and by the nervous irritation conse- 
 quent upon their sudden deprivation. The dams in full flow of 
 milk, thus at once deprived of the means of relief, are subjected 
 to the engorgement of the udder, with the consequent congestion 
 of all the organs connected therewith. This shock is very injuri- 
 ous, and frequently produces inflammatory disorders of the blood 
 or garget. To avoid these ill effects of the sudden change, it is 
 well to remove the lambs to a distant pasture, along with some 
 dry ewes or wethers for company. The novel experience of a 
 fresh pasture will cause them to forget their dams, and they will 
 utter no complaints nor manifest any uneasiness. At night they 
 should be turned into the fold with the ewes, whose full udders 
 they will speedily relieve. By withdrawing any extra feed hith- 
 erto given to the ewes, somewhat gradually, (in no case is it wise 
 to make a sudden change in the management of sheep), their sup- 
 ply of milk will gradually decrease, and in two weeks the whole of 
 the lambs may be weaned with perfect safety to themselves and 
 the ewes. 
 
 After having been weaned, the lambs should have the first 
 choice of pasture and the best and tenderest cuttings of the fodder 
 crops. Many farmers have found it advantageous in every way 
 to turn newly weaned lambs into a field of com in the month of 
 August. The corn is too far grown to be injured, the suckers 
 only will be nibbled by the lambs, and the weeds which grow up 
 after the corn is laid by, will be eaten closely. The lambs also 
 have the benefit of a cool shade, and where such a field can be 
 conveniently applied to this purpose, there are several reasons 
 why it might well be done. 
 
 The condition of the ewes must not be neglected at this time. 
 The chief danger is in regard to those that are heavy milkers. 
 Such sheep should be closely watched, and the milk drawn by 
 hand from those whose udders are not emptied by the lambs. 
 The first approach to hardness or heat in the udder should be 
 remedied by an immediate dose of an ounce of epsom salts dis- 
 solved in water, and mixed with a teaspoonful of ground ginger. 
 The next two days 20 grains of saltpeter should be given each 
 morning and evening, to increase the action of the kidneys. These 
 remedies will generally relieve the udder, and will tend to greatly 
 reduce the secretion of milk. If hay is given in place of grass, 
 and the ewe confined in a cool darkened pen, the diying up of the 
 milk will be hastened. 
 
 As the improvement of the flock can be better made from within 
 than by giving the sole attention to bringing new blood from 
 
SELECTION OF LAMBS FOK BREEDIKG. 43 
 
 without, it will be very important to select the best lambs, both of 
 rams and ewes, for breeders. The selection should be made 
 chiefly in reference to the purposes for which the flock is kept, 
 and strength of constitution, rapidity of growth, size, tendency to 
 fat ; fineness, length or quality of wool, and prolificness and cer- 
 tainty of breeding, in the parents as well as, so far as can be 
 judged of, in the lambs themselves, should be made the tests by 
 which the selection is determined. If the production of early 
 lambs for market is the object, the produce of those ewes which 
 bring single lambs of large size and quick growth will be chosen v 
 to increase the flock ; if the production of mutton sheep, then those \ 
 lambs from ewes which drop twins, and are good nurses, ought to / 
 be kept ; and if wool of any particular kind is desired, then the 
 selection should be made chiefly in reference to that. On no ac- 
 count should weakly lambs, or those ewes which are poor nurses, 
 or fail to breed, or which exhibit tenderness of constitution, or are 
 wanderers, or of uneasy, restless dispositions, be retained ; but 
 such unprofitable animals should be closely weeded out and fat- 
 tened for sale or for slaughter. The choice of ram lambs is of 
 chief importance, for the influence of the ram runs through the 
 flock, while that of the ewe is confined to her produce alone. To 
 select a lamb for a stock ram is a matter requiring a knowledge of \ 
 the principles of breeding, and some tact and experience. The lat- ) 
 ter qualifications cannot be acquired from books, but must be 
 gained by practice ; nevertheless, much as to the selection of lambs 
 may be learned from a careful consideration of what will be found 
 in the succeeding chapter, which is specially devoted in part to 
 this important branch of the shepherd's knowledge. 
 
 The proper age for breeding diflfers with the class of sheep bred. / 
 The Merino is not mature enough for breeding until fully two or 
 three years old. Other breeds which mature more quickly are 
 ripe for breeding as yearlings, but there is nothing gained by suf- 
 fering any sheep less than a year old to reproduce. A young ram 
 in its second year may be allowed to serve a few ewes, if he is \ 
 vigorous and well grown. A ram at two years may serve 30 ewes | 
 in a season, and after that from 50 to 60 or 70, according to the 
 manner in which he is kept, and if he is restricted to no more than ^ 
 one or two services of each ewe. The strength and vigor of the 
 lamb certainly depends on that of the ram by which it is sired, as 
 well as on the condition and character of the ewe. Ewe lambs of 
 less than a year old should be kept in a separate flock by them- 
 selves where they may not be disturbed by the rams. The second 
 year they are capable of breeding, and if they have been well 
 
 7 
 
44 THE shepherd's makual. 
 
 cared for, will produce as large lambs and as many twins as older 
 sheep. The young ewes having their first lambs are apt to be ner- 
 vous, and need careful attention at yeaning time ; it is then that 
 the great convenience resulting from having a docile and friendly 
 flock, well acquainted with, and confiding in, their shepherd, is 
 manifest. The young ewes should not be put to the ram until the 
 older ones are served, so that they will not drop their lambs until 
 the spring is well advanced, and the pressure upon the shepherd 
 becomes lighter. As a rule they are poor nurses, and if the season 
 is cold, will lose many lambs. If they are not allowed to have 
 lambs until April or May, so much the better ; it will then be neces- 
 sary to keep them from the ram until November and December. 
 Difficulty in parturition is sometimes experienced with young ewes, 
 and assistance is often needed. This should be given with the 
 utmost gentleness and tenderness. When the presentation is all 
 right and natural, and the fore feet appear, but difficulty occurs in 
 ejecting the head, a very slight and slow drawing upon the feet 
 may help the ewe in expelling the lamb. Sometimes in her ner- 
 vous struggles the head may be turned backwards, and does not 
 appear when the fore legs have protruded. In this case the lamb 
 should be gently forced backwards, and the hand or fingers, well 
 oiled with linseed oil, and the finger nails being closely pared, are 
 inserted, and the head gently brought into position, when it will 
 be expelled without further trouble. For more difficult and ab- 
 normal presentations, the services of an experienced shepherd will 
 be needed, but such cases are very rare, and will very seldom oc- 
 cur if the flock has been carefully attended to, and has not been 
 overdriven, or worried by dogs, or knocked about by horned cattle. 
 When a ewe loses her lamb it is best to make her adopt one of 
 another ewe's twins. This may be done by rubbing the skin of 
 the live lamb with the dead one, removing the dead one and shut- 
 ting up the ewe and live lamb together in a dark pen. When a 
 lamb loses her dam, it may be given to a ewe that has lost her 
 lamb, or from which her lamb has been taken, or with care it may 
 be brought up by hand without difficulty. In every considerable 
 flock it will pay to have a fresh cow on hand at the lambing sea- 
 son, to fill the place of foster mother to disowned or abandoned 
 lambs, or to assist those whose dams for any reason are short of 
 milk. 
 
 The question as to when a lamb becomes a sheep, although of 
 no practical utility, has sometimes been of sufficient importance 
 to require a decisive reply. A legal decision was given in an 
 English court not long since, which is probably as reasonable as 
 
PEEVENTION OF DISEASE. 45 
 
 we may expect, and may be accepted as being authoritative. The 
 question arose out of the killing of some sheep on a railroad by a 
 passing train, and it was denied that the complaint was properly 
 made, the animals being lambs, and not sheep. The judge decided 
 that lambs ceased to be lambs, and became sheep as soon as they 
 had acquired their first pair of permanent teeth. This change of 
 teeth generally occurs when the lamb is a year old. At this period 
 the middle pair of the first teeth drop out, and a pair of the per- 
 manent incisors appear. At one year and nme months, two more 
 of the first teeth are dropped and two more permanent incisors, 
 one on each side of the former pair, appear. Nine months later, 
 two more permanent incisors appear in a similar manner, and nine 
 months later still, another pair are produced, so that at three years 
 and a quarter the sheep has eight permanent incisors or nippers, 
 and is then called a full-mouthed or perfect sheep. These periods 
 of dentition are irregular, and in some of the early maturing 
 breeds, the first pair of permanent teeth will appear before the 
 end of the first year, and at 16 months, four permanent incisors 
 may be found. The earlier maturity of the high bred and high 
 fed races of sheep, such as the Leicester, Cotswold and Shrop- 
 shire, sometimes amounts to a gain over the common breeds of 
 nearly a year in time, and full-mouthed sheep of no more than two 
 years and a half old are not uncommonly met with. 
 
 The diseases to which lambs are subject are but few, and those 
 are mainly the result of carelessness in their management. The 
 lamb, which appears so delicate and tender an animal, is really 
 hardy, and resists much ill treatment, else with, so little consider- 
 ation as they usually receive, the race would soon become almost 
 extinct. Damp and cold are especially to be guarded against in 
 the spring, and filthy yards at all seasons. With clean pens and 
 dry, clean bedding, they will resist the severe dry colds of a north- 
 em January, and thrive and grow while snow storms rage, if 
 only well sheltered. Sunshine has a remarkable effect upon 
 lambs, and the warmth of the sun will often revive and strengthen 
 a weak lamb that appears past relief. Extremes of damp and im- 
 pure air in close pens, and bad drinking water, will produce diar- 
 rhea and paralysis, and these are the chiefly fatal disorders to 
 which they are subject. Constipation is produced by want of 
 proper laxative food, and permitting them to feed on dry, withered 
 herbage that has lost its nutritive qualities beneath the storms of a 
 winter. If the directions as to their treatment heretofore given, 
 are followed, there will rarely be any need of remedial measures, 
 and prevention will be found better than any amount of cure. If, 
 
46 THE shepherd's manual. 
 
 notwithstanding all possible care, some weakly lambs are found 
 to require treatment, the simple purgatives already mentioned in 
 this chapter, viz : a teaspoonful of castor or raw linseed oil will be 
 found effective, after two or three doses, in removing the trouble- 
 some matter from their intestines, and restoring the bowels to 
 healthful action. If in any case, a stimulant seems to be needed, 
 as when great weakness and prostration are present, the safest is a 
 teaspoonful of gin, given in a little warm water with sugar. A 
 still more gentle stimulant and anodyne, but one very effective in 
 prolonged diarrhea, is prepared by adding to a pint of peppermint 
 water, one ounce of prepared chalk, a teaspoonful each of tmc- 
 ture of opium and of tincture of rhubarb ; it is worthy of the 
 name given to it by shepherds, viz : " lambs cordial," and at the 
 lambing season no shepherd should be without a supply of it. 
 The dose is a teaspoonful for a lamb of a few days old, up to a 
 tablespoonful for one of a month. Exposure to cold rains should 
 be specially guarded against, and if by inadvertence a lamb is found 
 chilled and rigid from such exposure, it may generally be restored 
 by m.eans of a bath of warm water and a teaspoonful of warm sweet- 
 ened gin and water. After the bath the lamb should be gently 
 dried, wrapped in a warm flannel, and placed near a fire or in a 
 wooden box in a gently heated oven of a common stove. Where 
 the flock is large, and the kitchen is not within reach, the shepherd 
 should have the conveniences of a shed and an old cooking-stove 
 in which he can keep a fire suflScient to heat a water bath, and pro- 
 vide a warm bed in the oven for any lamb that may need such 
 attention ; if the flock numbers several hundred head in all, 
 there will seldom be a day in our changeable spring seasons when 
 there will not be one or more patients to be treated. The specific 
 diseases to which lambs are subject will be found treated of at 
 large in Chapter VII. 
 
 As the season progresses, and shearing time for the ewes has 
 passed, the lambs will be found covered with ticks, unless care has 
 been exercised to free the flock from this tormenting pest. These 
 ticks are wingless, broad, plump, dark red insects, about a quarter 
 of an inch in length, and covered with a very tough and leathery 
 integument. They are known scientifically as Melophagus (minus, 
 and produce a puparium which is nearly round in shape, red in 
 color, and as large as a radish seed or duck shot. The legs of the 
 tick are short and stout, and it adheres with great tenacity to the 
 wool. By means of a proboscis as long as its head, it pierces the 
 skin and sucks the blood of its victim to such an excess that when 
 numerous, they have been known to almost entirely empty the 
 
REMEDY FOR TICKS. 
 
 47 
 
 veins and deprive a lamb of life. The draft upon the vitality of 
 lambs infested with ticks is very great, and sufficient to arrest their 
 growth altogether. To rid the flock of these pests is therefore a 
 necessary labor ia the spring or early summer, and if need be, 
 again in the autumn. The easiest remedy is to dip both sheep and 
 lambs, as soon as the sheep are shorn, and again in August or 
 September, in a decoction of tobacco mixed with sulphur. Coarse 
 plug tobacco, or tobacco stems, which are cheaper than the leaves, 
 and equally effective, are steeped in water at a boiling heat, but 
 not boiling, at the rate of four pounds to twenty gallons of water. 
 
 Fig. 16.— DIPPING SHEEP, 
 
 One pound of flowers of salphur is then stirred in the liquid, which 
 is brought to a temperature of 120 degrees, and kept so during the 
 dipping by the addition of fresh hot liquor. During the dipping, 
 the mixture is kept stirred to prevent the sulphur from subsiding. 
 The dip may be conveniently placed in a trough or a tub large 
 enough to allow of the immersion of the sheep or the lamb, which 
 is taken by the feet by two men and plunged into the bath at the 
 temperature mentioned, where it is held for a minute or two until 
 the wool is thoroughly saturated. The animal is then placed in a 
 pen with a raised floor sloping on each side to a trough in the 
 middle, along which the superabundant liquor escapes into a pail 
 or tub placed to receive it. The method of dipping, (shown at 
 
48 
 
 THE shepherd's MANUAL. 
 
 figures 16 and 17), is calculated for small flocks, or for a few hun- 
 dred lambs. For larger flocks, a larger tank is provided, 12 feet 
 long, three feet wide, and four feet deep. A fenced platform leads 
 from a pen in which the sheep are gathered, up to the edge of the 
 dipping tank, and the sheep are taken one by one from the pen, 
 led up the platform, and pushed into the tank in which the dip 
 is sufiiciently deep to cover them. As the sheep plun^-e into the 
 dip, they are seized, and kept beneath it, except the head, which 
 alone ig sufi"ered to emerge above it. If m their struggles a little 
 of the dip should enter their nostrils, no harm results, but the hot 
 tobacco water is, on the contrary, often beneficial to those sheep 
 which are afi'ected by catarrh or grub in the head, and the violent 
 sneezings which follow may help to free them from these trouble- 
 some parasites which often inhabit the nasal sinuses. The sheep 
 are rapidly passed 
 from hand to hand 
 along the tank un- 
 til they reach the 
 end, where there is 
 a sloping plank 
 upon which they 
 can walk up to 
 another platform. 
 Here they are al- 
 lowed to remain 
 while the excess of 
 dip is squeezed 
 wool 
 
 Fig. 17.— TROUGH FOB DIPPING LAMBS. 
 
 IS 
 
 from their 
 From this 
 
 the 
 
 liquid drains into tubs, and is carried to the boiler to be re- 
 heated, and then returned to the tank for use again. The cost of 
 dipping a large flock, numbering several thousands, in this man- 
 ner twice in the season is five cents a head, and the improvement 
 in the quality of the wool, which results from the cleansing of the 
 skin from dust, grease, and the accumulated refuse of its secre- 
 tions, and its increase in quantity consequent upon the greater 
 comfort of the sheep and their escape from the persecution of 
 ticks and other parasites, is estimated at 20 cents per head, so that 
 the cost is repaid more than three-fold. The comforting knowl- 
 edge to the humane shepherd that his flock is freed from a most 
 annoying torment, is also something, which, although it docs not 
 enter into a pecuniary calculation, and is not measured by dollars 
 and cents, yet is not on that account unworthy of consideration. 
 
WINTER MANAGEMENT. 49 
 
 There is no greater satisfaction to the owner of a flock, who cares 
 for his sheep, and takes pleasure in their welfare, and in a measure 
 loves the gentle Idndly animals, and is interested in managing them 
 so that they may enjoy all the comfort possible for them, than to 
 know that, so far as any efforts of his are concerned, nothing is 
 left undone that can add to their contentment, and that they are 
 spared every discomfort and pain that it is possible to prevent. 
 
 CHAPTEE IV. 
 
 WINTER MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. 
 
 The change from green, succulent food, to that of a dry and 
 concentrated character, is one that needs to be cautiously made. 
 As the summer departs and the fall rains occur, succeeded in their 
 turn by the more rigorous storms of winter, conditions arise which 
 call for a complete change of management on the part of the shep- 
 herd who looks for profit from his flock. It may be a question 
 with some if quality of feed or shelter is the more important con- 
 sideration in the best management of sheep. Certainly abun- 
 dant experience has shown that with the most careful and 
 judicious feeding, sheep, which when well tended are in reality 
 hardier than are generally supposed, have passed safely and 
 thriftily through a winter's storms with no more shelter than 
 that afforded by an open shed; and that they have of their 
 own free will refused the shelter, and have chosen to rest upon 
 the bare snow, at times when the air has been dry and clear. But 
 no case has as yet ever occurred in the experience of any shepherd 
 in which sheep have thrived without well selected, proper, and 
 abundant food, and cases are always occurring in which sheep 
 are greatly injured by excessive carefulness in this matter of 
 shelter. To feed well and judiciously, may therefore be 
 regarded as the first duty and interest of the shepherd ; and to 
 shelter the flock only so far as to maintain it in healthful con- 
 dition, avoiding exposure to unusual rigors of heat or storm, 
 will be not exactly a second duty, but one that attaches to this 
 first interest as being intimately associated with it rather than 
 separated from it. Nevertheless, as before a flock can be fed, it i§ 
 3 
 
50 
 
 THE shepherd's MANUAL. 
 
 necessary to liave a store of food and a feeding place, it may be 
 well to consider first the subjects of shelters or barns, feed racks, 
 and facilities for watering. 
 
 The first requisites for the comfort of sheep in their winter 
 lodging are a dry clean floor, a tight roof, and abundant ventila- 
 tion. The site of a sheep-house should therefore be well drained, 
 and of such a character that it can be kept clean and free from 
 filth. It should, if possible, be on high ground which slopes each 
 way from it, but at any rate it should slope to the south or south- 
 east. The house should be well roofed and provided with rain 
 troughs and spouts to carry the water away from the yard into 
 either a covered drain or a cistern. It should be open at the front, 
 protected only by a projecting roof, and the walls, if of boards, 
 need not be battened over the joints, as the air which will enter 
 
 Fig. 18.— SHEEP BABN. 
 
 through these cracks will be no more than will be needed to keep 
 that within fresh and pure. Some more carefully protected shelter 
 must be provided for the use of yeaning ewes and young lambs, 
 in a part of the house or in another building, but until the appear- 
 ance of the lambs is looked for, this warmer shelter will not be 
 needed. The loft over the lower apartment will be used for stor- 
 ing hay or other fodder, and space for this purpose may be econ- 
 omized by having the upper floor only so far above the ground 
 floor as will allow the shepherd a comfortable passage beneath it. 
 A building which is well arranged and convenient is shown in 
 figures 18, 19, 20, and 21. The following description with the 
 illustrations are taken from the American Agriculturist. It con- 
 sists of a barn, shown at fig. 18, about 20 feet wide, 16 feet high 
 
BARl^S AND SHEDS. 
 
 51 
 
 from basement to eaves, and as long as desirable. This is intended 
 
 to store the hay or fodder. The posts, sills, and plates are all 8 
 
 mches square, the girts and braces are 4 inches square, the beams 
 
 3x10, are placed 16 inches apart, and are cross-bridged with 
 
 strips, 3 mches wide. The hay is piled inside, so that the feed 
 
 passage below, over 
 
 which there are trap- 
 doors, is left uncov- 
 ered. The hay is 
 
 thrown down through 
 
 these doors, and falls 
 
 upon a sloping shelf, 
 
 which carries it into 
 
 the feed racks below, 
 
 (see fig. 19). The 
 
 basement under the 
 
 barn is 8 feet high, 
 
 and is of stone on 
 
 three sides; the front 
 
 is supported by posts 
 
 8 inches square, and 8 
 
 feet apart. Between 
 
 each pair of posts a 
 
 door is hung upon 
 
 pins, (fig. 20), which 
 
 fit into grooves in the 
 
 posts, so that the door 
 
 may be raised and ^^^' 19.— section of BuiLDiNa 
 
 fastened, in such a manner, as to close the upper half of the space 
 between the posts; or be Jield suspended half way, leaving the 
 whole open; or be shut down and close the lower half; or be 
 removed altocrether. By this contrivance at least half the front 
 
 of the basement must be left open, 
 whether the sheep be shut in or out. 
 The floor of the basement should be 
 slightly sloping from rear to front, so 
 that it will always be dry. Fig. 21 shows 
 the plan of the basement. The feed- 
 passage is shown at c; the stairway to the root-cellar at b, and the 
 root-cellar at a. Fig. 19 gives a section of the whole barn. The 
 hay-loft is above, and the passage-way and the doors, by which the 
 hay is thrown down to the feed-racks below ; as well as the sloping 
 shelf by which the hay is carried into the feed-racks are showa 
 
 Fig. 20. — HANGING DOOK 
 FOR BARN, 
 
62 
 
 THE shepherd's MAKUAL. 
 
 Below the feed-rack is tlie feed-trough for roots or meal. A door 
 shuts off this trough from the sheep at the front, while the feed is 
 being prepared, and when it is ready, the door is raised, and held 
 up to the feed-rack by a strap or a hook. The feed-rack is closely 
 
 ^ ^ ^^^vx^^^x,^xs\<^\\^x^^^^\\<\^^^^v,^^w ^^v^^^^^NA^^\^^^ 
 
 cv 
 
 c 
 
 lllllllltilllllll 
 
 Fig. 21. — GEOmSTD PLAN OF BARN. 
 
 boarded behind, and this back part, which is in the feed-passage, 
 slopes forward to the front, so as to carry the hay forward to the 
 bottom. The front of the rack is of upright slats, smoothly 
 dressed, two inches wide, and placed three inches apart. The 
 boards of the feed-trough are smoothly dressed and sand-papered, 
 and all the edges are rounded, so that there is nothing by which 
 the wool may be torn or rubbed off from the sheep's necks. It 
 "will be seen by this arrangement, that there is no dangerous thing 
 
 SHEEP SHED FOB A SMALL FAEM. 
 
 by which a sheep or a lamb might be hurt, nor a place where it 
 can get into mischief. The root-cellar is at the rear of the base- 
 ment, and is reached by the stairs already mentioned. The cost 
 of the barn here described, if built of pine or hemlock lumber, in 
 
BAENS AND SHEDS. 
 
 53 
 
54 
 
 THE SHEPHEED'S MAKUAL. 
 
 a plain manner, and of sufficient size to accommodate 100 sheep, 
 would be from $300 to $500. 
 
 Another sheep-house suitable for small farms, that is designed 
 for small flocks, is shown at figure 22. It is altogether open 
 in the front on 
 the ground floor, 
 and is intended 
 to face to the 
 south. This is a 
 very cheap and 
 convenient shed 
 for a small flock ; 
 it has an enclosed 
 yard attached to 
 it. A shelter in- 
 tended for a large 
 flock is shown at 
 figure 23. This 
 building was 
 erected by Mr. 
 George Grant, of 
 Victoria, Kansas, 
 for his flock of 
 7,000 sheep. The 
 walls are of stone, 
 and the roof of 
 boards. The main 
 structure is 570 
 feet in length, 
 and the three 
 wings are each of 
 eqfual length. The 
 width of each of 
 the sheds is 24 
 feet, and the hight 
 of the walls 10 
 feet. At one cor- 
 ner of the " cor- 
 ral," which is the name given on the western plains to such sheds 
 as this and other enclosures, is the shepherd's house, in which he 
 resides, and is at all times near his flock, and able to render imme- 
 diate attention. A shed of this character is rather costly in its 
 construction, and a small capitalist would find it beyond the limit 
 
 Fi"-. 21. — MR. SHAW'S SHEEP SHED. 
 
BARNS AKD SHEDS. 
 
 55 
 
 of his resources. One of a ctieaper construction and less perma- 
 nent character, but nevertheless of equal value for shelter so long 
 as it lasts, is shown in figure 24. This shed was built by Mr. 
 Shaw, of Syracuse, Kansas, and v/as found to answer every pur- 
 pose. It is made of posts set in the ground, which support a single 
 sloping roof that is thatched with coarse hay from the river bot- 
 toms adjacent to his location. The enclosure contains a windmill, 
 watering trough, stack-yard, and feed-racks, and is intended to 
 accommodate a flock of 300 to 300 sheep- The length of the en- 
 closure is 200 feet, 
 and the width 100 
 feet, making in all 
 600 feet of shed. 
 Figure 25 represents 
 the sheep-fold of 
 Mr. Henry Nason, 
 of Orange C. H., 
 Virginia, in which 
 his flock of 300 ewes 
 is sheltered from 
 the weather as well 
 as from dogs and 
 thieves by night. 
 This flock is kept 
 mainly for the pro- 
 duction of early 
 lambs for market. 
 Especial attention 
 is given to the com- 
 fort and care of Fig. 25.-plan of mr. nason's shed. 
 
 the ewes and the lambs, and warm separate pens are provided for 
 them when they require them. The yard, «, is 100 feet square, 
 divided by a hurdle fence, shown by the dotted lines, into as many 
 portions as may be desired. The entrance is at 6, where there is a 
 gate hung upon a post, c, in such a way as to open or close each 
 half of the yard. The yard is enclosed on three sides by a 
 shed 10 feet high, with a roof sloping both ways. The ground 
 floor, 7 feet high, is appropriated for sheep pens, and the three 
 feet above for a hay loft. The shed is 12 feet wide, and has a 
 row of separate pens 6 feet wide, upon the north side. On the 
 other sides there are narrow doors for the sheep, seen at <f, d, and 
 sliding shutters, <?, e, 8 feet long, and 3i feet high, which are also 
 used for entrances to the shed. The yard is closed at the front by 
 
56 THE shepheed's manual. 
 
 a fence 10 feet liigh. There are no outside windows, and only two 
 doors, and but one of these, that at /, is locked from the out- 
 side, so that the turning of one key secures the whole enclos- 
 ure from trespassers. There is a second yard, 150 by 135 feet, 
 upon the south side of the sheep yard, with an open shed facing 
 the south, and divided into pens 9 feet deep, for cows or sheep, 
 and a pig pen 35 feet square, at the south-east of the sheep yards. 
 These sheds are made of inch boards, nailed up and down upon 
 the frame work, and the roof is of boards, with a sufficient pitch to 
 shed rain perfectly. 
 
 In estimating the size of the sheds required for any given num- 
 ber of sheep it will be safe to allow 10 square feet of floor to each 
 sheep, when a yard adjoining the shed is provided, and there is 
 abundant ventilation in the shed ; and 12^ square feet when there 
 is no yard, but only the most ample ventilation by means of boards 
 at the eaves, to be let down, and trap-doors in the roof to be 
 opened. Space may be economized if thought desirable, and the 
 expense of the sheds reduced, by having a second floor for the 
 sheep which is reached by means of a sloping passage-way of 
 planks upon which cleats are nailed crosswise to afford a foothold. 
 Sheep will readily ascend a gang-way of this kind, and will choose 
 the upper in preference to the ground floor. The upper floor 
 in this case must be made perfectly close and tight, of matched 
 boards tarred at the joint^s, and ample dry bedding should be pro- 
 vided to absorb all the moisture. This floor should not be 
 less than seven feet above the ground floor ; this will secure suf- 
 ficient ventilation if the lowe^: doors are double, and the upper 
 halves are kept open, and there are a sufficient number of open 
 windows or ventilating boards or spaces. A shed 20 by 50 feet 
 will comfortably contain 100 moderate-sized sheep ; 75 large Cots- 
 wold or Leicester sheep have been accommodated in a lean-to shed 
 of this size, with ventilating boards and traps in the roof. In 
 this shed there was a ventilating board arranged near the bottom 
 by partly opening which, a plenty of fresh ah* could be admitted. 
 On the whole, the sheds with a half open front, that may be closed 
 wholly or partly, with a yard adjoining, will be found preferable 
 to those which are made to be entirely closed. 
 
 A convenient bam which furnishes space for shearing, room for 
 the storage of wool, pens for lambs and ewes, and lofts for fodder 
 and straw, with ample open sheds and a roomy yard, is shown at 
 figure 26. It can be made larger or smaller, to suit the needs of a 
 large or small flock. The main building, of which this is a repre- 
 sentation, is raised four feet from the ground upon posts, and the 
 
BARNS AITD SHEDS. 
 
 57 
 
 space tlius gained furnishes additional shelter. This barn has the 
 advantage of being suitable for a cattle barn in case sheep-keeping 
 is abandoned for a 
 time, and is well 
 adapted to either west- 
 ern or eastern sheep 
 or stock farming. 
 As perfect cleanliness 
 and pure air are ne- 
 cessary to the health- 
 fulness of the flock, 
 the matter of litter in 
 the sheds and yards, 
 as well as the drain- 
 age of the roof and 
 floor, are to be well 
 provided for. Eaves- 
 troughs, gutters and 
 waste-pipes should be 
 provided and made 
 to discharge into a 
 drain, which will car- 
 ry the rain water be- 
 neath the ground, 
 away from the yard. 
 The litter should be 
 dry, plentiful, and of 
 a kind that is absorb- 
 ent. If plentifully 
 given, and if the right 
 kind, it may be allow- 
 ed to accumulate for 
 the whole winter 
 without removal, and 
 in so doing there will 
 be less odor in the 
 shed than if it were 
 cleaned out weekly. 
 The litter and the 
 droppings are trod- 
 den down very compactly, and the mass being thus kept from 
 the access of air, only a very slow decomposition occurs which 
 gives off no more smell or vapor than can be absorbed by the fresh 
 
58 THE shepherd's MANUAL. 
 
 litter daily thrown down in the shed. Hardwood sawdust, dry 
 seasoned peat or swamp muck, forest leaves, dried spent tan- 
 bark, long or cut straw, chafl", or even sand, make veiy good litter 
 and absorbents. If a supply of these materials can be procured, 
 sufficient for daily use in a crowded pen or yard, the straw, which 
 would otherwise be needed for this purpose, may with great 
 economy be reserved for fodder. If straw or corn-fodder cut into 
 small pieces, is fed in the racks once a day, there will be a certain 
 portion pulled out on to the flo<jr which will add to the litter. If 
 straw is used for litter, it should be cut into chaH", which will 
 much facilitate the removal of the manure in the sprmg. This is 
 especially convenient if pea straw is used, for when a quantity of 
 pea straw and manure is trodden together, they form such a 
 tangled mass that it is a most tiresome labor to fork it up and re- 
 move it. Corn-stalks should not be thrown under foot for the 
 same reason. If it is thought proper to remove the litter and 
 dung periodically, every week for instance, then the floor should 
 afterwards receive a heavy coating of dry litter. In case the ma- 
 nure is removed, it should not on any account be heaped in the 
 yard. It will undergo an active fermentation and become hot, 
 giving forth clouds of vapor in damp weather, and at all times 
 pungent gases. Some of the sheep will choose the manure heap 
 to lie upon at nights, and every one that is suffered to do this will 
 inevitably sicken, and become affected with catarrh or pneumonia, 
 or lose its wool in patches. Either the litter should not be cleaned 
 out at all, or it should be removed to a distance from the yards. 
 It is easy to manage matters either way, so that the air of the shed 
 will be pure and free from offensive smell, if proper attention is 
 given, and the shepherd is watchful and careful of the condition 
 of the floors of the shed. 
 
 The feed-racks should be so made that the sheep can procure 
 their feed without tearing the wool from their necks or filling 
 their fleeces with dust, chaff, or hay-seed. The floor of the loft 
 should be made close and tight, using either matched boards or 
 double boards laid so as to break joints, and prevent the droppmg 
 of dust from above. A rack for hay or straw should be made in 
 the manner shown at figure 27 ; it should be 3^ feet high at the 
 front. The bars are only three inches apart. They should be 
 made of ash, chestnut, or oak strips, dressed and smoothly sand- 
 papered, and an inch thick by one and a quarter wide. The front 
 of the rack should slope backwards at the top 3 or 4 inches, This 
 prevents hay or clover dust from falling out upon the sheeps* 
 heads. At the rear of the rack sloping boards are fitted, so that 
 
FEED RACKS. 
 
 59 
 
 as part of the hay is eaten, the rest falls down to the front where 
 the sheep can reach it. The end of the rack should be closed with 
 bars in the same way as the front, so that young lambs cannot 
 creep in and get lost. For want of this precaution a fine lively 
 young lamb will sometimes get into a tight place, where it may 
 become chilled and die. This rack may be made of any length, 
 and should ex- 
 tend all round the 
 shed in order to 
 give the greatest 
 possible extent 
 of feeding room. 
 The form of this 
 rack prevents the 
 sheep from 
 thrusting their 
 heads between 
 the bars and 
 wearing the wool 
 from their necks, 
 or from stran- 
 gling themselves 
 by getting their 
 heads fast be- 
 tween the bars, which they will do with many of the racks in 
 common use, of which the bars are frequently too far apart. 
 
 For feeding cut or pulped roots, or fine feed, such as bran-meal 
 or grain, a rack made on the plan of that shown at figure 8 on 
 page 31, will be useful. The rack there figured is a portable one 
 intended for use in the field or yard, but a fixed rack similar to it 
 may be made in the shed if desired. The bars placed over the 
 rack prevent the stronger sheep from crowding the weaker ones 
 from their feed, and getting more than their share, and also pre- 
 vent the more active ones from leaping into the trough in their 
 eagerness to procure an undue portion of food. 
 
 The variety of foods suitable for the winter feeding is extensive. 
 Hay, straw, pea and bean haulm, corn-fodder, roots of various 
 kinds, com, oats, peas, rye, buckwheat, cotton-seed and linseed 
 oH-cake-meal, and bran, furnish a variety of food from which a 
 proper choice can readily be made. The relative feeding values 
 of these various substances used as food, will determine their rela- 
 tive money values, and as these difier and fluctuate from time to 
 time, it is often necessary, to secure the most profit on the feeding. 
 
 Fig. 27.— FEED-RACK. 
 
60 
 
 THE shepherd's MANUAL. 
 
 to choose the food that is most economical in use, although it may- 
 be the highest in price. Clover hay is the most valuable single food 
 for winter use, if it has been cut when in blossom, cured so as to 
 preserve all its good qualities, and kept free from damp and mold. 
 Where the main object in view is the production of market lambs 
 clover hay should furnish the chief subsistence of the ewes. It 
 will also be found preferable as the staple and cheapest fodder 
 when sheep are purchased for feeding for market, and the most 
 rapid growth of flesh is desirable. Well cured pea straw will be 
 chosen by sheep next to clover hay and before timothy or any 
 other hay. Oat straw is readily eaten by sheep, and is a healthful 
 food, especially if harvested before the oats were dead ripe. Bar- 
 ley, wheat, and rye straw will help to keep life in a flock, but are 
 not sufficiently nutritive to contribute much to the growth of flesh 
 or wool, and should be used only as adjuncts to roots and grain, 
 or oil-cake-meal. Rye straw is apt to be sprinkled with dust of 
 ergot, a fungus which is frequently found growing on the heads of 
 rye, and which has a highly injurious effect upon pregnant ewes, 
 producing abortion or premature births of the lambs. Rye straw 
 is also frequently the cause of great inflammation of the stomachs 
 and intestines of sheep, from the penetration of the mucous coats 
 by the sharp awns or beards of the heads. Cases have occurred 
 in which the stomachs of sheep fed on rye or bearded wheat straw, 
 have been found after death thickly studded with the beards, 
 which caused inflammation of the coats of the stomachs and con- 
 sequent death. Such straw should be avoided as food, and used 
 only for litter. The haulm of beans when well cured and saved, 
 is both palatable and nutritious, and the leaves of corn-stalks fur- 
 nish a food which is useful as a change of fodder, but is not nutri- 
 tious enough of itself to support sheep in good condition. The 
 relative values of the various dry fodders above mentioned may be 
 estimated from the following tables, in which their composition 
 and the proportion of actual nutritive matter contained are given. 
 
 COMPOSITION OF HAT, STRAW, AND CORN-FODDER. 
 
 m 100 PAETS OP 
 
 Meadow Hay.. . 
 Red Clover Hay 
 
 Pea Straw 
 
 Bean Straw 
 
 Wheat Straw... 
 
 Rye Straw , 
 
 Barley Straw... 
 
 Oat Straw 
 
 Corn Fodder..., 
 
 Water. 
 14.3 
 
 Ash 
 
 Organic 
 Matter. 
 
 Ilesh 
 Form- 
 ers. 
 
 Fat, 
 Starch, 
 (& Gum. 
 
 6.2 
 
 79.5 
 
 8.2 
 
 41.3 
 
 16.7 
 
 6.2 
 
 77.1 
 
 13.4 
 
 29.9 
 
 14.3 
 
 4.0 
 
 81.7 
 
 6.5 
 
 35.2 
 
 17.3 
 
 5.0 
 
 77.7 
 
 10.2 
 
 33.5 
 
 14.3 
 
 5.5 
 
 80.0 
 
 2.0 
 
 30.2 
 
 14.2 
 
 3.2 
 
 82.5 
 
 1.5 
 
 27.0 
 
 14.3 
 
 7.0 
 
 7S.7 
 
 3.0 
 
 32.7 
 
 14.3 
 
 5.0 
 
 m.i 
 
 2 5 
 
 38.2 
 
 14.0 
 
 4.0 
 
 82.0 
 
 3.0 
 
 39.0 
 
 Crude 
 fiber. 
 
 30. 0~ 
 
 35.8 
 
 40.0 
 
 34.0 
 
 48.0 
 
 54.0 
 
 43.0 
 
 40.0 
 
 40.0 
 
FEEDII^G VALUE OF HAY AKD STKAW. 61 
 
 The composition of clover hay here given is of that cut when in 
 blossom. If cut when ripe, this hay has 4 per cent less of flesh- 
 forming material, 9 per cent less of fat, starch, sugar, and gum, or 
 material for forming fat and sustaining respiration, and over 12 per 
 per cent more of crude fiber or indigestible matter. 
 
 COMPAEATIVE NUTRITIVE VALUES OF HAY, STRAW, ETC., 
 IN ONE HUNDRED PARTS. 
 
 Meadow Hay (as the basis) is estimated at 10.0 
 
 Clover Hay 13.5 
 
 Pea Straw 16.5 
 
 Bean Straw 18.6 
 
 Wheat Straw ; 3.0 
 
 Rye Straw 1.6 
 
 Barley Straw 3.0 
 
 Oat Straw 1.8 
 
 Corn-fodder, (leaves), (estimated) 3.5 
 
 The different quantities of these several fodders which would 
 have to be fed to produce equal nutritive effects, may be tabulated 
 as follows, each quantity given being equivalent to 10 pounds of 
 common meadow hay of mixed grasses of standard quality. 
 
 QUANTITIES OF VARIOUS FODDERS EQUAL TO 10 POUNDS OF 
 HAY IN FEEDING VALUE. 
 
 Meadow Hay 10 pounds. 
 
 Clover Hay 8 " 
 
 Pea Straw 6 " 
 
 Bean Straw 51/2 " 
 
 Wheat Straw 53 " 
 
 Rye Straw 61 " 
 
 Barley Straw 53 " 
 
 Oat Straw 55 " 
 
 Corn-fodder 40 " 
 
 The last two tables must be taken with some qualifications. 
 The values of these different articles of fodder are subject to very 
 great variations, arising out of the conditions of their growth 
 and the time and manner of harvesting, curing and preserving 
 them. With the single exception of corn-fodder, however, the 
 estimates here given will approach very nearly the actual feeding 
 values as found in practice; the coni-fodder will be found of 
 somewhat higher value than indicated by the above figures, esti- 
 mated from a comparison of its constituents with those of oat 
 
62 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL. 
 
 straw. Generally, those "who have fed this material largely, and 
 who have taken pains to harvest it when the corn is just glazed, 
 and before the frost has stricken it, and to cure and house it care- 
 fully, will agree that it at least more nearly approaches in value to 
 good meadow hay than to oat straw, while some careful, intelli- 
 gent, and observant feeders will insist that is very nearly, if not 
 quite equal as fodder, to ordinary meadow hay. The impossibil- 
 ity of subsisting sheep upon straw will be manifest when its value 
 Is compared with that of hay; for if 3 pounds of hay would sup- 
 f)ly a sheep of 100 lbs. live weight with sufficient nutriment to 
 maintain it in a thriving condition, as it should do, 17 to 20 lbs. of 
 straw would be required as an equivalent, which is a quantity that 
 no sheep could possibly be made to consume. Therefore, when 
 sheep are wintered in the straw yard, unless they have a sufficient 
 supply of grain along with the small quantity of straw they can 
 be made to consume, they must live in a state of semi-starvation, 
 a condition in which unfortunately not a few flocks are expected 
 to exist. Roots furnish a staple food of the greatest value for 
 winter feeding of sheep. When fed in proper quantities, their 
 laxative effect healthfully opposes the tendency of dry hay or 
 straw to produce costiveness, and in addition they supply a con- 
 siderable proportion of needed phosphates and sulphur for the 
 growing animal and its fl-eece. But if fed in excess, the large 
 quantity of water they contain, and their large bulk, especially 
 when they are fed in the winter, reduce the temperature of the 
 animal too much, and gradually act unfavorably on the health. 
 When ewes in lamb are fed roots in any but very small quantities, 
 abortion is frequently produced, and this ill effect has been noticed 
 more conspicuously when the roots have been manured heavily 
 with superphosphate of lime. This has been noticed by some ex- 
 tensive feeders and breeders in England, where that fertilizer is 
 largely used in root culture, and their experience should serve as 
 a warning to us. The reason assigned for the loss of lambs by 
 abortion when many turnips are fed, is not only that the foetus is 
 affected by the presence of a mass of very cold matter in the stom- 
 ach of the ewe, but that there is an irritation produced in the in- 
 testines by this unacceptable food, which causes the death and ex- 
 pulsion of the foetus. Nothing of the kind has occurred in flocks 
 that have been largely fed on cooked roots, supplied at such a 
 temperature that would prevent a chill to the animal. It may, 
 therefore, be understood that it is the low temperature, generally 
 near freezing, and often below it, at which the roots are given, 
 and nothing in the roots themselves that act thus injuriously. 
 
FEEDING VALUE OF ROOTS. 
 
 63 
 
 Knowing this, the ill effect likely to be produced, may easily be 
 avoided. 
 
 The roots that are generally fed to sheep are sugar beets, man- 
 gels, ruta-bagas, yellow turnips, and white or cow-horn turnips, and 
 are to be preferred in the order in which they are here enumer- 
 ated. Their comparative nutritive value may be gathered from 
 the following table, the estimates in which are from analyses by 
 Drs. Voelcker and Lankester : 
 
 TABLE OF THE NUTEITIVE ELEMENTS OF ROOTS. 
 
 IN 100 PARTS OF 
 
 Sugar Beets 
 
 Mangels 
 
 Ruta-bagas.. 
 
 Yellow Aberdeen Turnips 
 White Globe Turnip 
 
 Considering the large quantity of water contained in them, roots 
 may be considered as highly nutritious food, and when fed in con- 
 junction with dry fodder, and in proper proportions, are greatly 
 conducive to the health and growth of the sheep. Their effect 
 upon the quality of the wool, especially the lustrous wool of some 
 of the long-wool sheep, is very favorable. The proper quantity 
 of roots to be given depends upon the kind of sheep. As a 
 safe guide, it may be estimated that one bushel of roots will be a 
 sufficient daily allowance for 10 sheep weighing 150 lbs. each, live 
 weight, if along with the roots, 1^ lb. of hay and i lb. of meal or 
 bran per head be given. The question of food rations will, how- 
 ever, be considered at length in another place. 
 
 Grain, or preparations of grain of various kinds, furnish the 
 concentrated foods, which are found needful to maintain sheep in 
 a healthful condition, or to induce rapid growth and fattening for 
 market. These foods exist in abundant variety, but no one alone 
 can be fed with the greatest benefit for any length of time. A 
 change of food is both acceptable to, and healthful for sheep, and 
 the difference in the money value of these articles of food, which 
 exists at nearly all times, makes it necessary to exercise a judi- 
 cious choice in this respect, in order to secure the greatest profit. 
 The feeding value of these various substances used as winter feed 
 for sheep, varies greatly, as may be seen from the following table ; 
 
64 
 
 THE SHEPHEED'S MANUAL. 
 
 COMPARATIVE NUTEITIVE VALUES OF GRAINS AND GRAIN 
 
 PRODUCTS. 
 
 m 100 PARTS OF 
 
 Corn , 
 
 Oats 
 
 Barley 
 
 Peas , 
 
 Rye 
 
 Beans 
 
 Buckwheat 
 
 Cotton-seed-cake without husks. , 
 
 Peanut Cake . . 
 
 Linseed Cake 
 
 Bran, (Wheat) 
 
 Bran, (Rye) 
 
 Shorts, (Wheat) 
 
 Malt Sprouts 
 
 Malt 
 
 
 § 
 
 g 
 
 »^ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 5^, 
 
 -o 
 
 ^ 
 
 •^? 
 
 ■S.? 
 
 ^ 
 
 *§ ^ 
 
 s 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 14.4 
 
 10.0 
 
 68.8 
 
 5.5 
 
 14.3 
 
 12.0 
 
 60.9 
 
 10.3 
 
 14.3 
 
 9.0 
 
 65.9 
 
 8.5 
 
 14.3 
 
 22.4 
 
 52.3 
 
 9.2 
 
 14.3 
 
 11.0 
 
 69.2 
 
 3.5 
 
 14.5 
 
 25.5 
 
 45.5 
 
 11.5 
 
 14.0 
 
 9.0 
 
 59.6 
 
 15.0 
 
 8.3 
 
 41.0 
 
 *33.4 
 
 9.0 
 
 11.0 
 
 40.00 
 
 t38.5 
 
 4.5 
 
 11.5 
 
 28.3 
 
 41.3 
 
 11.0 
 
 13.1 
 
 14.0 
 
 50.0 
 
 17.8 
 
 12.5 
 
 14.5 
 
 53.5 
 
 15.0 
 
 11.65 
 
 11.75 
 
 64.42 
 
 8.29 
 
 8.0 
 
 23.0 
 
 44.7 
 
 17.5 
 
 4.2 
 
 8.8 
 
 76.3 
 
 8.0 
 
 * Of this 16 per cent consists of oil. t Of this 11 per cent consists of fat 
 
 2.1 
 3.0 
 2.5 
 2.5 
 2 
 3.5 
 2.4 
 8.3 
 6.0 
 7.9 
 5.1 
 4.5 
 4.2 
 6.8 
 2.7 
 and oil. 
 
 The analyses here given, however, are but an obscure guide as 
 regards the comparative values of the different substances for pro- 
 ducing fat. It is very important to arrive at a clear idea of this 
 in feeding sheep, because the quality of the wool depends greatly 
 upon the secretion of a requisite amount of yolk which consists in 
 great part of oil and a matter approaching in character to wax, 
 to say nothing of the desirability of rapidly producing fat. The 
 fat-forming elements in any article of food consist of starch, sugar, 
 gum, oil, and fat, all carbonaceous matters, or matters rich in car- 
 bon, with the addition of certain proportions of hydrogen and 
 oxygen. The chemical composition of these elements is very sim- 
 ilar, and in some of them is nearly identical. Thus an animal fed 
 upon starch or sugar, may become fat, and it is well known that 
 bees fed upon sugar are able to produce either honey or wax from 
 this food. In the processes of digestion and assimilation, starch, 
 sugar, and gum, are changed to fat. This fat is either consumed 
 in the process of respiration, or is stored up in the tissues of the 
 body, and increases the weight of the carcass. But in the con- 
 sumption of food rich in starch, a much larger portion is necessary 
 to produce a given weight of fat, or a given result in the process 
 of respiration, than is required of a food rich in fat or oil. The 
 relative values of fat or oil, and starch, as nutritive elements, is as 
 one of the former to two and a half, nearly, of the latter, or exact- 
 ly, as 10 is to 24 ; that is, 10 lbs. of oil or fat will go as far in pro- 
 ducing fat or in maintaining respiration, and the natural heat of 
 
SELECTION OF FOOD. 65 
 
 the body, in wliich process carbon is used up, as 24 lbs. of starch 
 or sugar. Thus any food that contains 10 per cent of fat is of equal 
 value to another which contains 24 per cent of starch. On ref- 
 erence to the table it will be found that corn contains 68.8 per 
 cent of fat formers, while cotton-seed-cake contains only 33 per 
 cent. But corn contains 5 per cent of fat, and cotton-seed-cake 
 16 per cent. The relative values of the two substances will 
 therefore be as follows : 
 
 starch, Fat^ \ Equivalent Total 
 
 Sugar, etc. or S to Starch. Fat-formers. 
 
 Corn 63.8 5.0 or 12.0 75.8 
 
 Cotton-seed-meal 17.5 16. or 38.4 55.9 
 
 If the quantities of flesh-forming elements of each are added to 
 the above totals, it will be seen that cotton-seed-cake having four 
 times as much flesh-formers as corn, is the cheaper food of the 
 two. Again, whole flax-seed contains 55 per cent of fat-form- 
 ing elements, but as 37 per cent of these consists of oil, which is 
 equivalent to 88.8 per cent of starch, the total fat-forming power 
 of flax-seed is therefore equal relatively to 106.8 per cent in pure 
 starch. Cotton-seed free from the husk, and flax-seed, are there- 
 fore the most nutritive articles of feed for fattening. It is worth 
 while here to call attention to the high value of the peanut after 
 the oil is expressed, as food for stock animals we possess. As a 
 substitute for oil-cake-meal where it cannot be procured conve- 
 niently, the following mixture has been suggested, viz : 
 
 Ground Linseed 40 lbs. 
 
 Wheat Bran 60 " 
 
 Flour of Bone : 4 " —104 lbs. 
 
 The constituents of which per 100 lbs. are : 
 
 Flesh-formers, (albumen) 27 lbs. 
 
 Fat-formers, (fat 11 pei cent) 51 " 
 
 Ash or Saline Matter 7 " 
 
 Water 15 " —100 lbs. 
 
 This makes a most valuable combination of feeding substances for 
 a young growing animal, or a ewe giving milk. The greater nu- 
 tritive value of fat is explained by physiologists from the fact that 
 it is directly digested and assimilated, and enters into the circula- 
 tion and nutrition of the animal without change, except a very 
 fine mechanical division of its particles. On the other hand, starch 
 and sugar undergo a series of chemical transformations in the 
 course of which much of their volume and effect are expended. 
 
 In choosing a variety of food then, for a special object, as for 
 instance the feeding of a young growing animal ; or the fattening 
 of a mature animal and the sustenance of a sheep that produces a 
 
66 THE shephekd's manual. 
 
 fleece rich in oil or yolk, as that of a pure-bred Merino, those 
 foods which would furnish abundant flesh should be chosen for the 
 one, and those rich in starch and oil for the others. By thus 
 choosing judiciously and skillfully, there is an economy in the cost 
 of the food, and the object sought is gained at the least expense. 
 
 Much may be gained by varying or mixing the food of an ani- 
 mal so as to stimulate the appetite ; for a healthy animal will in- 
 crease in weight in proportion to the food consumed so long as di- 
 gestion and assimilation are perfect. If a sheep only eat 3 lbs. 
 of hay per day, but will eat and digest in addition 6 lbs. of sliced 
 turnips or beets, with a pound of bran sprinkled upon them, a 
 manifest advantage is gained. If changing the hay for straw, 10 
 lbs. of turnips and 1 lb. of bran or oil-cake-mcal can be consumed, 
 the money value of the food ma)'^ be reduced, and the sheep be 
 equally well fed. 
 
 In estimating the amount of a sheep's food, it is necessary to 
 take into consideration the age and condition of the animal. 
 Whether it be in a growing state or in a state of maturity, its 
 weight, and also the drain upon its vitality, as in the case of a ram 
 serving a number of ewes daily ; or a ewe in lamb, or suckling a 
 lamb or a pair of them. On this account it is absolutely necessary 
 to grade the flock and provide different quarters for those which 
 need special feeding or care. As a guide for the estimation of a 
 proper quantity of food, and for a judicious selection of the kinds 
 which may be fed, it will be useful to consider the following 
 instances. 
 
 In an experiment recently made by Dr. Voelcker, the chemist 
 of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, four sheep 
 were fed for seven weeks upon 196 lbs. of clover hay, 49 lbs. of 
 linseed-cake-meal, and 3,743 lbs. of mangels ; equal to a daily ra- 
 tion for each of 1 lb. of clover hay, 4 ounces of linseed-cake-meal, 
 and 191 lbs. of mangels. 
 
 The nutritive elements contained in this daily ration were equiva- 
 lent to 4i ounces of flesh formers, 53i ounces of fat formers, and 
 4| ounces of mineral matter. 
 
 UpoA this mixed diet the sheep thrived and gained weight -as 
 follows : 
 
 Gain in 
 weight. 
 
 171/4 lbs. 
 171/4 " 
 17 « 
 20 " 
 
 
 Weight at 
 commencement. 
 
 Weight at 
 end of 7 weeks. 
 
 No.l 
 
 No. 2 
 
 No. 3 
 
 No. 4.... 
 
 153 lbs. 
 334" 
 170 " 
 135" 
 
 1701/4 lbs. 
 
 1511/4 " 
 187 " 
 155 « 
 
EXPERIMEKTS IN FEEDING. 67 
 
 The gain on the average was equal to one pound in three days ; 
 or an increase in weight of one pound for every 56 lbs. of food 
 fed ; or for every 62 ounces of dry matter contained in the food. 
 This is a very good instance of a typical fattening food for an or- 
 dinary sheep of this size. The results of a large number of exper- 
 iments made in feeding roots to sheep, go to show that 150 lbs. of 
 ruta-bagas, or mangels, fed in open yards, or 100 lbs. fed in yards 
 with sheds for protection, may be expected to produce one pound, 
 of increase in live weight. When li lbs. of a mixed feed of oil- 
 cake and peas were given daily, along with 18^ lbs. of ruta-bagas, 
 fed under shelter, the gain was equal to 2 lbs. for every 100 lbs. of 
 roots, and 4^ lbs. of mixed peas and oil-cake ; showing that 4i lbs. 
 of peas and oil-cake produced an increase of one pound in the live 
 weight. A number of experiments in feeding clover hay with 
 linseed-oil-cake-meal, have established the fact that, allowing 6 lbs. 
 of oil-cake-meal for one pound of increased live weight, it required 
 11 to 13 lbs. of hay to make an equal gain. In feeding peas and 
 beans with roots and hay, 8 lbs. of the mixed grain was found to 
 produce an increase in weight of one pound. When oats were fed 
 with the roots, there was one pound, of increased weight for 7 lbs. 
 of the grain. When barley was substituted, 6 lbs. of the grain 
 produced a gain of one pound. These interesting experiments are 
 recorded in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, Vol. 
 I, p. 169; Vol. VII, p. 295; Vol. VIII, pp. 27, 28, and 256; Vol. 
 X, p. 358, and the Highland Society's Transactions ; and are sub- 
 stantiated by experiments made by Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert, of 
 Rothamstead, in which they found that 272^ lbs. oil-cake, 252^ 
 lbs. clover hay, and 3,753 lbs. ruta-bagas, fed together, produced 
 100 lbs. of increase. These results must of course be accepted as 
 subject to variations in the quality of the various feeds, the kind 
 and condition of the sheep, the state of comfort and repose in 
 which they are kept, and the care and attention given to them. 
 But making every allowance for contingencies, it may be safe to 
 estimate from these results, that the relative quantities of the diflfer- 
 ent feeds required to produce one pound of flesh, are as follows 
 
 Ruta-bagas fed in open yards 150 lbs. 
 
 Ruta-bao;as fed under cover 100 " 
 
 Good clover hay 12 " 
 
 Beans or peas \[ 8 " 
 
 Oats [[[ 7 a 
 
 Barley ..'.'.'.'. 6 " 
 
 Linseed-oil-cake-meal ,,\\ q " 
 
 L]*Dseed-oil-cake-meal, and peas mixed ...'. 4i" 
 
 The last quantity mentioned, curiously enough corroborates the 
 
68 THE shepherd's manual. 
 
 personal experience of many shepherds, and the remark heretofore 
 made to the effect that much is often gained by varying or mixing 
 the diet of sheep. In this instance the same effect is gained by the 
 use of three-fourths the quantity of the mixed feed, as by the 
 whole quantity when given separately. The actual money cost of 
 the feed may thus be estimated nearly enough for all practical 
 purposes. In estimating the values of the kinds of food more 
 commonly used in the United States and Canada, there are but 
 few really trustworthy data to depend upon, as the careful experi- 
 mental feeding of animals for scientific information, has rarely 
 been attempted. We have nevertheless amongst the current agri- 
 cultural literature of the day, many recorded results contributed 
 by careful and eminently capable and trustworthy men. From 
 amongst these the following have been selected as being practical 
 and to the purpose. In an article communicated to the Country 
 Gentleman, by the Hon. George Geddes, of Fairmount, N. Y., in 
 May, 1875, are given, the cost of feeding, and the gain in weight of 
 290 sheep fed by Mr. O. M. Watkins, of Onondaga County, during 
 the previous winter, and particularly the cost, etc., during the 
 month of January. The flock consisted of 100 grades, being half 
 Merino and half Cotswold ; another 100 that were Merinos, and 90 
 were called full-blooded Cotswolds, (probably high grades). All 
 these sheep were fed alike, each having one pound of com daily 
 — half of it fed early in the morning, the other half at sunset. 
 Straw and chaff were fed during the day, and one feeding of hay 
 at night. The corn was worth 80 cents for 60 pounds, the hay $10 
 a ton. The quantity of hay fed was reported as equal to 1.3 
 pounds to each sheep per day — making 40 pounds for the month, 
 worth 20 cents. The corn for the same time was worth 41 cents, 
 making the cost of corn and hay for each sheep for the month, 
 61 cents. 
 
 The 100 Merino and Cotswold grades increased from 117^ lbs. each 
 to 1281^ pounds, this being a gain for each sheep of lOf pounds, and 
 making the cost of each pound 5.67 cents. The 100 Merinos weighed 
 Jan. 1, 94^ pounds each, and Feb. 1, lOli pounds— gaining 7i pounds 
 each, at a cost of 8.4 cents. The 100 so-called full-blooded Cots- 
 wolds weighed 118 pounds each Jan. 1, and Feb. 1, 123| — ^gaining 
 only 5^ pounds each, at a cost of 11.6 cents per pound. Upon 
 these facts, Mr. Geddes comments as follows : " The manure made 
 during the time by these sheep, I consider worth more than the 
 manure that would have been made by the same number of pounds 
 of beef cattle. Thirty-two steers, each weighing 1,000 pounds, 
 would almost exactly equal the total number of pounds of these 
 
PROFIT IN FEEDING. 69 
 
 tliree flocks of sheep when they were weighed in the yards on the 
 1st day of January. All the labor involved in feeding and taking 
 care of the sheep, would not equal that of cleaning the stables for 
 the steers. Mr. Watkins purchased the 390 sheep well, and sold 
 them well, and he reports his winter's doings with them as follows : 
 
 Cost of 290 sheep, (nearly 4c. per lb.), $1,260 61 
 
 do. 435 bushels of corn, at 80c 348 00 
 
 do. 13 tons of hay, SIO 130 00 $1,738 61 
 
 Feb. 28th, sold 270 at $8 each 2,160 00 
 
 do. do. 18 culls, $4 each 72 00 
 
 Two sheep got cast ; sold pelts for $2 each. 4 00 2,236 00 
 
 Profit $497 39 
 
 " This pays over $1.71 for the trouble of buying and selling and 
 risk on each sheep, if we call the manure pay for the labor of carmg 
 for the sheep. The price of hay is here very low this season, but 
 corn is very high. Straw and chaff we consider as of but little 
 value for manure, unless worked over by the feet of some animal, 
 and used as an absorbent for their manure. For this reason we 
 credit the sheep with the work of converting a large quantity of 
 straw and chaff into available food for plants. 
 
 *' I do not give Mr. Watkins' experience as an average, for it is 
 far better than any average that he can make for a series of years. 
 Nor do I think it is by any means conclusive as between the 
 breeds of sheep that he fed. The grade Merino and Cotswold I 
 sold him the 21st day of last December. They were all ewes, 3 
 and 3 years old, and were a very even, and in all respects a desira- 
 ble lot. The other flocks I did not see, but I suppose, from in- 
 formation, that they were not so even or desirable ; and sheep here 
 usually called full-blooded Cotswolds, come from Canada or the 
 border, and are not very good, perhaps they are mostly the culls 
 of the flocks they came from. After all reasonable allowances 
 have been made, the lesson of this winter's work of Mr. Watkins 
 is certainly that sheep are much more profitable makers of meat 
 than steers, such as can be bought m Buffalo in the fall of the year, 
 and they are still better manufacturers of straw and other coarse 
 forage into manure." 
 
 Both the facts here given, and the relator's comments, are very 
 valuable. From the statement as to feed and gain in weight, the 
 following deductions as to the value of the corn fed for producing 
 increase of weight, may be made. Taking the three flocks, we 
 have the following results for each, accepting the feeding value of 
 hay as previously given, as a basis for a portion of the increase : 
 
70 THE shepherd's MANUAL. 
 
 GRADE MERINO AND COTSWOLD, AVERAGE GAIN, lOf LBS. 
 
 Feed consumed. Gain in weight. lbs. of feed for 1 lb. of gain. 
 
 40 lbs. of hay. 31/4 lbs. 12 lbs. 
 
 30 lbs. of corn. 71/2 lbs. 4 lbs. 
 
 MEKINOS, AVERAGE GAIN, 71/4 LBS. 
 
 Feed consumed. Gain in weight. lbs. of feed for 1 lb. of gain. 
 40 lbs. hay. 81/4 lbs. 12 lbs. 
 
 30 lbs. corn. 4 lbs. 71/2 lbs. 
 
 COTSWOLDS, AVERAGE GAIN, 5V4 LBS. 
 
 Feed consumed. Gain in weight. lbs. of feed for 1 lb. of gain. 
 40 lbs. hay. 81/4 lbs. 12 lbs. 
 
 30 lbs. corn. 2 lbs. 15 lbs. 
 
 These different flocks were evidently uneven in quality, and as 
 Mr. Geddes, who sold the first flock to Mr. Watkins, is an excellent 
 and experienced farmer and stock feeder, it may easily be sup- 
 posed that the sheep were in excellent condition and well pre- 
 pared for fattening. The productive value of corn, in the case of 
 this flock, may well be considered as exaggerated, as in the other 
 instances it would be diminished by reason of the poorer quality 
 of the sheep. A mean may therefore be taken, and the gain result- 
 ing from feeding the corn estimated as between the two gains 
 of 4 and 7^, thus giving an average of about 6 lbs. , and bringing 
 corn to an equality of value with barley or linseed cake, if not 
 showing it to be superior to either. If the result of feeding the 
 first flock be taken as the basis for the estimate, it would certainly 
 show com to be a feed of the highest value for fattening sheep ; 
 but one result can hardly serve as a basis upon which to found 
 such a rule. Mr. R. J. Swan, of Geneva, N. Y., in a communica- 
 tion in the Third Vol. of Rural Affairs, stated his plan of winter 
 feeding ; he gives to each hundred fattening sheep, two bushels, 
 (126 lbs.), of corn, or the same quantity of oil-cake-meal per day, 
 with wheat straw in racks three times a day, up to the 1st day of 
 March ; afterwards feeding hay instead of straw, and reducing the 
 corn or oil-cake-meal one-half. The lambs are fed hay three times 
 a day, with three pecks of oil-cake-meal, or corn-meal, per 100. It 
 is to be presumed that hay is fed ad libitum, although this account 
 would have been more satisfactory had the quantity fed been 
 stated. In a prize essay by Mr. Jurian Winne, of Albany County, 
 N. Y., the following hints for the winter feeding of sheep are 
 given : " By feeding liberally with roots, and not too much grain, 
 during the first week at least, the change from green feed to dry 
 will be less apt to affect the sheep. In feeding, unless a person 
 can do it himself, which is very seldom the case, the feeder should 
 
METHOD OF WHITER FEEDING. 71 
 
 be instructed with great care, liow much grain is to go to each 
 yard or stable according to the animals it contains. An over-feed 
 at the commencement is almost sure to bring on the scours, and 
 after the sheep are over it, it will take at least two weeks' good 
 feeding to put them where they started from. My mode, to avoid 
 mistakes, is to number my yards and stables, and count the sheep 
 in each yard and stable — allowing to each sheep one-half pint of 
 grain per day to start with, unless they have been fed grain pre- 
 viously, when I allow a little more. I then make out a schedule 
 thus : No. 1 — 60 sheep at one-half pint per day is 15 quarts, which 
 divided into two feeds, is 7i quarts to a feed ; so I write on the 
 schedule, * No. 1 — 60 sheep must have 7i quarts at a feed morning 
 and night,' — No. 2 at the same rate according to number, and so 
 on until I get them all. This paper is tacked up in the place 
 where the feed is kept, and by going with the feeder a few times 
 to show him and see that he makes no mistakes, if he is a good 
 man he can do it as well as the farmer himself. As soon as the 
 feed is to be increased, a new schedule is made out accordingly, 
 and so on, until the sheep are fed one quart each per day, when I 
 consider them on full feed, especially if the feed is corn, beans, or 
 oil-meal, or a mixture of either. If oats or buckwheat compose 
 part of their feed, they should have a little more. Regularity of 
 hours is very important. Sheep should not be fed one morning at 
 five o'clock, the next at six, and the third at seven. Our rule is 
 this : Grain and oil-meal are fed at half-past five a.m. As soon as 
 the grain is finished, hay is given — no more than the sheep will 
 eat clean. The different yards and stables are carefully fed each 
 day i}i tlie same order, which is important to avoid confusion and 
 mistakes — beginning with No. 1, and so on through the list. 
 After breakfast, water is given, going around twice to see that all 
 are well supplied. The roots are next cut, (ruta-bagas, which I 
 consider best), and of these to my present stock of about 350 sheep, 
 I am now feeding 10 bushels a day. At eleven o'clock straw is 
 fed. Twelve is the dinner hour, and immediately after dinner the 
 roots are fed. The troughs and tubs are now all examined, and 
 replenished with water if necessary — also salt, salt and ashes, 
 browse, litter, and anything else that may be needed, is supplied. 
 The evening and next morning's feeds of grain and oil-meal are 
 next prepared, and hay got ready for both night and morning. 
 At 4 P.M. feeding the grain is again commenced, followed as before 
 by hay, after which the water tubs and troughs are emptied and 
 turned over, and the work is finished for the night." 
 The value of roots for winter feeding is very inadequately esti- 
 
72 THE shepherd's manual. 
 
 mated in the United States, but it may be well questioned if a flock 
 of sheep can be profitably or successfully kept without them. A 
 certain portion of water must be taken with the food every day. 
 The more intimately this is mixed with the food, the better for the 
 digestive process. In faeding 12 lbs. of roots to a sheep 80 to 90 
 per cent, or 4^ to 5 qts. of water are given in them. By the pro- 
 cess of mastication the water is intimately mixed with the solid 
 matter, and a semi-liquid pulp is formed exactly fitted for the ru- 
 minative and digestive processes of the stomach. By cutting or 
 pulping the roots, and sprinkling or mixing the ration of meal, 
 bran, or grain, upon or with them, the whole food reaches the 
 stomach in the most appropriate condition possible. Digestion 
 proceeds uniformly, the stomach does not need to be supplied 
 with a large quantity of water at any time, and its solvent juices 
 are not diluted and weakened. The bowels act regularly, and 
 constipation, one of the most troublesome disorders of the flock 
 when on dry food, is avoided and prevented. But the daily ration 
 of roots must be apportioned with care and judgment. For lambs 
 5 to 6 lbs. daily will be sufficient ; for two-year-olds and mature 
 sheep, 10 to 15 lbs. will be an ample allowance ; the smaller quan- 
 tity being enough for a Southdown, and the larger for a full grown 
 Cotswold, Leicester, or Lincoln. For a Merino a much less 
 quantity should be apportioned, as this breed cannot produce a 
 fleece of good quality, or great weight, without being supplied with 
 enough oily matter to secrete the large amount of yolk which their 
 fleece contains. 
 
 Of all the roots usually grown, the sugar-beet is the best for 
 sheep, being the most palatable, and containing the greatest pro- 
 portion of solid nutritious matter. For every 100 sheep to be fed 
 with roots at the rate of ten pounds per head per day, during the 
 feeding season of 5 months, about 4 acres devoted to this crop will 
 be required, yielding about 18 tons, or 550 to 600 bushels per acre. 
 This is a small estimate, and only half the yield of a good or a 
 possible crop, but is near that of our average crops. The amount 
 of food necessary to keep a sheep in good thrifty condition has 
 been determined to be 15 pounds of actually dry substance per 
 week for each 100 lbs. of live weight. As grain and hay contain 
 about 14 per cent of water, this allowance will be equal to about 
 18 lbs. of hay or grain, or nearly 3 lbs. per day. But as for the 
 perfect digestion of the food, a certain bulk is requisite, the mixed 
 daily ration should be composed of such proportions of bulky and 
 concentrated food, that 7 to 9 pounds are required to produce an 
 increase of one pound in live weight. From the data previously 
 
liAISING LAMBS FOK MAKKET. 73 
 
 given, it will not be difficult for the intelligent reader and shepherd 
 to arrive at a correct judgment, and conform his plan of feeding 
 to the peculiar circumstances of his flock, and with a view to the 
 greatest profit. 
 
 EAKLY MARKET LAMBS. 
 
 There are some special ©bjects in the winter feeding of sheep 
 which require particular methods of management to ensure suc- 
 cess. In regard to feeding store sheep, and when the chief object 
 is the increase of the flock, and the healthful growth of the fleece, 
 nothing need be said be3'^ond what has been given in the jDreced- 
 ing pages. But special management is needed for the production 
 of early market lambs, and for the fattening of sheep purchased to 
 ensure profit both in money and manure ; in regard to these cases 
 some special explanation may be pertinent. The production ot 
 market lambs, if rightly managed, may be made very profitable. I 
 Tins business maybe followed on a suitable farm anywhere within. 
 150 miles of a good market. The markets for lambs arc found 
 chiefly in the large cities, Washington, New York, Boston, Phila- 
 delphia, Baltimore, and Albany being the chief eastern markets, 
 and St. Louis, Cincinnati, and Chicago, the chief western ones. 
 Some few of the southern cities offer good markets for lambs early 
 in the spring, April, Ma}'', and June are the months when the 
 prices are the most remunerative ; after June the prices per pound 
 for lambs are but little more than those for sheep. In April and 
 May, a lamb weighing 40 pounds will often sell for $10. Those 
 farmers who make the raising of early lambs a special business, 
 follow one of two methods. In one case they keep a permanent 
 flock of ewes, selected for their good . character as nurses and 
 milkers, quiet in disposition, docile, and easily managed, and ready 
 to act as foster mothers to other lambs whose mothers have 
 been sent away. The other plan is to purchase, late in the sum- 
 mer, a flock of ewes, as well selected as may be, from which to 
 raise a crop of spring lambs ; the ewes are then shorn, and after- 
 wards fattened and sent to market before the year is complete. 
 Which of these two methods would be the best to adopt depends 
 upon circumstances. The first plan needs for its successful opera- , 
 tion a farm suitable for pasturing sheep, or which has at least 
 sufficient suitable summer pasture for the flock. For the second 
 plan little or no pasture is required ; a rough field in which the / 
 ewes may run while being fed for market, or a run upon the clover 
 sod to be plowed for corn in May, being all that is required. A 
 4 ! 
 
74 THE shepherd's manual. 
 
 stock of ruta-bagas, which keep in excellent condition until June, 
 if needed so long, is provided as a substitute for grass while the 
 ewes are being fattened. This latter plan is well suited as an 
 additional industry upon grain or dairy farms, in which some 
 additional capital may be turned over with a prospect of its being 
 returned in less than a year with a gain of 100 per cent in money, 
 besides a valuable addition to the manure heap. 
 
 The selection of ewes and a ram from which to raise market 
 lambs, is the chief point for consideration, the wool being a sec- 
 ondary object. The form of the sheep and their temperament are 
 the first points to be regarded in their selection ; but if the flock is 
 to be kept permanently, it is best to procure sheep which will 
 yield a good fleece as well as a good lamb, as this will add to the 
 profit. Single lambs of good size, are more profitable than twins, 
 which will generally be of smaller growth. It matters little 
 about the breed, as this is not a point with the marketmen, although 
 a black-faced Southdown is most in favor with them, because of 
 / 1 its usual plumpness and fatness. A lamb from a grade Merino 
 ewe, and a Southdown or Shropshire ram, is fat at any age, and is 
 soon ripe for market, and will sell better than a larger lamb that 
 is more bony and less plump. A cross from a grade Merino ewe 
 and a Cotswold ram, is the next best lamb, if not altogether as 
 good a one. A large bodied, short-legged, broad backed, native 
 ewe, with some Merino and Southdown blood in her composition, 
 is, perhaps, all things considered, the best sheep that can be chosen 
 for a dam. A pure bred Southdown, Shropshire, or Cotswold ram, 
 makes the best sire, the preference to be given in the order in 
 which they are here named. Ewes that produce twins should be 
 weeded out of the flock, and those which bring a large lamb, and 
 have plenty of milk, and are gentle and kind to their lambs, should 
 be kept as long as they will breed. Ewes have been kept until 13 
 years old that have yearly brought and raised a lamb to maturity 
 for market, without missing a season, or losing a lamb. One ewe 
 of this kind may be made to pay the interest on $100 each year, 
 and it would be well to raise the ewe lambs of such choice dams 
 to replenish the flock. Some ewes will j-aise twins, and by skill- 
 ful management, a ewe whose lamb has been sold may be made 
 to foster another lamb, or at least be forced to help feed it. If the 
 ewe shows any reluctance to adopt the strange lamb, she should 
 be confined in a small pen, at stated times, and the hungry lamb 
 turned in to her. The lamb will generally succeed in getting all 
 the milk from her. If she is more than usually reluctant, she 
 should be held while the lamb sucks, or be confined in stanchions 
 
CHOOSING THE EWES. 75 
 
 (as described in a previous chapter), for a time, until she becomes 
 reconciled. The ewes thus made to serve as foster mothers will, 
 after two or three seasons, accept the situation, and readily adopt 
 the second lamb. In some flocks a lamb has occasionally sucked 
 three ewes, and in some cases, some enterprising lambs will forao-e 
 around and get a meal from any ewe that will permit it to suck. 
 It will be necessary to curb the enterprise of such lambs occasion- 
 ally, lest they rob the others. When a flock of ewes is purchased 
 each year, in August or early in September, they must necessarily 
 be picked up in the most convenient manner, either from passing 
 droves, or some well known drover may be engaged to procure 
 1 them.' Fairly good ewes may generally be procured by either of 
 / these methods for about $3 per head. In selecting ewes from a 
 / drove, care should be taken to examine the teeth to ascertain their 
 \ age, and none less than three or four jijars old, or what are called 
 "full mouthed" ewes, should be chosen. The ram should be 
 chosen in this case'lis'iii^the previous one. Whatever breed may 
 be selected, compactness of form and vigor should be looked for, 
 rather than size ; a moderate sized ram, with a large roomy ewe, 
 will produce a better lamb than a pair of the opposite characters. 
 High condition in the ram is not desirable ; a mejieJxJair condition 
 is more conducive to certainty in getting lambs ; nor in this busi- 
 ness is it best to confine the ram ; the exercise with the flock being 
 better for the animal's health than confinement. If the flock is 
 too large for the one ram, it should be divided and separated, or 
 two rams used, each being shut up on alternate days ; no more than 
 50 ewes can be served by one ram in the time during which the 
 service is required — or at most 40 to 60 days — for this is the time 
 during which the season for selling lambs continues. The ram 
 shojild-aot be lesslhan three years of _ age. As ewes go five months, i 
 or about 150 days with young, those ewes that are served in the 
 latter part of August will have lambs in January, and these lambs, j 
 without any forcing, can be made marketable in April. All of the ' 
 lambs should be dropped before the middle of March, and it will 
 be found advisable and convenient to so apportion the ewes to be 
 served, that the dropping of the lambs may be spread over the 
 whole of this period as regularly as possible. The presence of 
 dogs about a flock of this character should not be permitted. 
 They are not only entirely useless, but are really an annoyance and 
 an injury. After the lamb is a few days old, if thought necessary, 
 it may be taught to suck some warmed, sweetened cow's milk, and 
 any help to its growth, in the shape of extra food, will be useful. 
 There is danger, liowever, of over-feeding a young lamb, which 
 
76 
 
 THE SHEPHERDS MAKUAL. 
 
 may be worse than under-feedmg it, and caution is to be exercised 
 in this respect ; no more should be attempted than to encourage q 
 healthy, thrifty growth. After the lamb is four weeks old, it may 
 be taught to lick some fine brau, with a little salt mixed with it, or 
 a little sifted oatmeal. As a rule, it will be safer to depend on 
 increasing and enriching the ewe's milk, rather than to forc& the 
 lamb to swallow food which its stomach is not as yet able to com- 
 pletely digest. It is highly important to prevent the lambs from 
 being annoyed and depleted of their blood by ticks or other vermin. 
 To this end the ewes should be dipped in the fall to rid them of 
 ticks, and if a few should appear in the spring upon the lambs, 
 they should be freed from the insect pests by careful hand-picking, 
 
 Fig. 28. — ^PACKING BOX FOR LAMBS. 
 
 repeated if necessary. In case the ticks should be too numerous 
 for hand-picking, the lambs may be dipped. This will be abso- 
 lutely necessary if they are to be kept until after the ewes are 
 shorn, as then the ticks will leave the ewes on which they are 
 unsheltered, and seek refuge in the closer fleeces of the lambs. 
 When this happens, the growth of the lambs is suddenly stopped, 
 and it is often the case that some of them are tormented until they 
 finally die. 
 
 The marketing of the lambs is one of the most important parts 
 of the business so far as profits are concerned. As has been said, | 
 the early lambs bring the highest prices, but it may be that the later ; 
 lambs will be found the most profitable, as being less costly and/ 
 troublesome to rear. When the proper market has been found,; 
 
PROFIT IK RAISING LAMBS. 77 
 
 and a trustworthy commission agent to whom they can be sent for 
 sale has been selected, the method of packing for shipment should 
 be well considered. A roomy box, in which the iamb can stand 
 or lie, but cannot turn round, should be procured for each lamb. 
 Figure 28 represents a crate in which the author has shipped many 
 lambs to market without a single case of accident from any cause. 
 The size is 36 inches long, 34 inches high, and 18 inches wide. It 
 is made of lath 2 inches wide by 3 quarters thick. The best fast- 
 ening for the top was found to be four pieces of soft twisted tarred 
 hempen cord of the kind known as lath twine, and used for tying 
 bundles of laths, at the saw mills. This form of box is also suit- 
 able for shipping stock lambs ; these have been safely sent in them 
 from New York to Charleston, S. C, and also as far as Denver, 
 Col. In case of shipping to a distance, a bag of feed is tied to one 
 of the upper corners of the box, containing suflScient to last through 
 the journey, and a feed trough is fixed at each end of the box, so 
 that in case the lamb is carelessly put in Wrong end foremost, or 
 happens to turn around, a trough is ready for use where it is 
 wanted. On the shipping card should be plainly printed directions 
 to the express agent to give half a pint of feed and water twice a 
 day to the lamb. Shipments for short distances should always 
 be made by express, so that there may be no delays. The time of 
 shipment should be so arranged that the commission agent may 
 be on hand to attend to the lambs on their arrival. For distances 
 of not over 100 miles, the time of travel is so short that no feed or 
 water is needed on the way, but the lambs may be fed lightly 
 and watered before they are placed in the boxes. In this way the 
 lambs travel with so little inconvenience that no loss of weight 
 occurs, a matter which, when the price is 25 cents a pound, is 
 worth consideration. The business of marketing lambs is exten- 
 sively carried on in the neighborhood of large cities in the east, 
 and thousands of ewes are yearly purchased in Ohio and western 
 parts of New York and Pennsylvania by drovers from New Jersey, 
 and eastern New York, and Pennsylvania, in the early fall, for 
 selling to farmers who keep them over winter, raise lambs the 
 next spring, and sell lamb's fleeces, and the fattened sheep within 
 twelve months, and repeat the operation yearly with great profit. 
 As an illustration of what may be done in this way, the following 
 may be cited : " Fifty-five ewes were purchased at $3 per head, and I 
 until winter were pastured in a rough field at the rear of the farm,! 
 where they more than earned their keep and care, by the service 
 they performed in destroying weeds. The account for one year, 
 opened and kept expressly for this flock, is as follows : 
 
78 THE shepherd's maitual. 
 
 Db. 
 
 Cost of 55 sheep $165.00 
 
 Value of hay, turnips, bran, meal, and oil-cake, fed. 205.84 
 
 Freight and charges on 24 lambs 7,93 
 
 Balance of profit and loss 145.64 
 
 $524.40 
 
 Ck. 
 
 24 early lambs sold at from $7 @ $10 each $192.00 
 
 8 lambs, @ $4.50 36.00 
 
 12 lambs, @ $3.50 42.00 
 
 8 lambs kept, @ $4.00 32.00 
 
 9 lbs. pulled wool, @ 30c 2.70 
 
 182 lbs. of wool, @ 35c 63.70 
 
 52 sheep on hand ( 3 killed by dogs) 156.00 
 
 $524.40 
 
 This leaves a profit of nearly 100 per cent, on the original cost 
 of the sheep, and in addition a large pile of valuable manure, of 
 which no account was kept." 
 
 FATTENING SHEEP FOR MARKET. 
 
 Where the distance from market prevents profitable shipments, 
 and the home market furnishes insufficient encouragement to 
 breed early lambs, the purchase of sheep for fattening may be 
 made a special business with great advantage. In this business 
 the proper choice of sheep and shrewdness in purchasing are as 
 necessary to success as are skill in feeding and choice of proper! 
 food. Where grades of Leicester or Cotswold sheep, such as ar^ 
 known in the American markets as Canada sheep, can be secured^ 
 those are the most profitable to purchase. The next best sheep ar^ 
 grade Southdowns ; but little profit is to be made out of our native\ 
 sheep in feeding them for mutton. They are„ppor feeders, and j 
 difficult to clothe with flesh or fat, and the farmer who would pur- ; 
 chase sheep to feed for profit, should avoid them. He had better j 
 keep such sheep for breeding, crossing them with a thoroughbred! 
 Cotswold ram and feeding the produce. J 
 
 A statement given by Mr. Jurian Winne, of Albany Co., N, Y., 
 in the Annual Kegister of Rural Affairs for 1867-8-9, will be found 
 of interest. In this case two lots of sheep from a large flock were 
 set apart for feeding ; they consisted of 60 grade Leicesters from 
 Canada, and 61 Merinos; they were weighed Feb. 10th, and a 
 careful account was kept of the food consumed during 46 days, up 
 to March 28th, when they were weighed and sent to market. 
 The selection was simply made as a test, and to avoid the trouble 
 
VALUE OF SHEEP MANURE. 79 
 
 of keeping an accurate account of the whole flock, which were 
 treated in exactly the same manner as these. The following 
 figures give the result : 
 
 Feb. 20, 60 s^rade Leicesters weighed 8,870 lbs. 
 
 March 28, 60 grade Leicesters weighed 9,878 lbs. 
 
 Gain in weight 1,008 lbs. 
 
 Feb. 20, 61 Merinos weighed 6,909 lbs. 
 
 March 28, 61 Merinos weighed 7,389 lbs. 
 
 Gain in weight 480 lbs. 
 
 Cost of feed for the first lot $174.43 
 
 Cost of feed for the second lot 144.78 
 
 Against the cost of feed there are the gain in weight at lOf and 
 10. i cents a pound respectively, the advance in price upon the 
 whole weight, consequent upon the improved condition of the 
 sheep, and the manure left. On the wlioie, there was a profit upon 
 the first lot and a loss on the second one. Experience teaches that 
 the proper selection of the breed of sheep is a very important con- 
 sideration. It would be wise for such as have not had experience, 
 and who do not understand how to choose sheep for feeding, as 
 well as how to feed and market them judiciously, to avoid the 
 business, until by small ventures, they have learned how to succeed 
 with larger ones. To buy judiciously is the great point, for " a 
 flock well bought is half sold." 
 
 Value of Matsure. — The manure of sheep is naturally rich ; 
 their mastication and digestion are so perfect that seeds of weeds 
 are utterly destroyed in the passage through their intestines, and 
 additional value is readily given to the manure by feeding a por- 
 tion of concentrated food, such as oil-cakes, corn-meal, or bran. 
 The urine and dung of the sheep are both very rich in fertilizing 
 elements. The urine contains 28 parts in 1,000 of urea, which is a 
 highly nitrogenized substance, and 12 parts in 1,000 of salts, rich 
 in phosphoric acid ; the remainder is water. The fresh dung con- 
 tains : 
 
 Of water 68.0 per cent. 
 
 Animal and vegetable matter 19.3 per cent. 
 
 Saline matter or ash 12.7 per cent. 
 
 100.00 per cent. 
 
 The organic matter is rich in nitrogen, so much so, that 36 parts 
 of the dung contains as much nitrogen as 54 parts of horse dung, 
 63 parts of pig's dung, 125 parts of cow's dung, and 100 parts of 
 mixed barn-yard manure. The manure yielded is dry, and con- 
 tains less water than that of other farm animals ; thus for 100 lbs. 
 
80 THE SHEPHEKD'S MANUAL. 
 
 of dry fodder, tlie horse or cow yields 216 lbs. of fresh manure — 
 equal to 46 lbs. dry — while the sheep gives but 128 lbs. of moist 
 manure — equal to 43 lbs. dry. It ferments very quickly, and needs 
 therefore to be kept solidly packed under foot, and free from 
 access of air, or to be turned frequently when heaped in the yard. 
 When the manure, made in the ordinary course of feeding, pos- 
 sesses this high relative value, it may readily be believed that when 
 fattening sheep are highly fed with stimulating food rich in albu- 
 men and phosphates, the starch and oil only being assimilated in 
 the production of fat, and the others being used only in part — 
 their dung forms a very rich and valuable manure. This is thor- 
 oughly well understood by English farmers, who practise the 
 feeding of sheep more v>^ith a view to the value of their manure 
 than for profit in other ways, and it is unfortunate for us that we 
 do not so thoroughly appreciate this as to practise it ourselves. The 
 following quotation from a paper upon this subject, read by an 
 English farmer at a meeting of a farmers' club, and reported in an 
 English agricultural journal, very clearly sets forth this view : 
 
 " The manurial value of oil-cake, when used regularly on a farm, 
 can scarcely be over-estimated, the dung made in the stalls being 
 so vastly enriched as to enable it to be spread over an extended 
 acreage, with better results than could possibly be obtained from 
 the same bulk alone, whatever the area to which it might be ap- 
 plied, and the efiect is discernible on the color and quality of the 
 pasture for a much longer period. The improvement effected on 
 grass-land by cake-fed stock is an example of the utility and value 
 of this excellent food which every one can understand, its action 
 in this way being quicker, and so distinct as to be unmistakable. 
 With sheep the improvement is peculiarly striking when netted 
 [confined by nets or hurdles] over a pasture field and largely cake- 
 fed, the droppings, both liquid and solid, being so regularly dis- 
 tributed over the surface, that every rootlet is reached and nour- 
 ished, and the herbage is accordingly forced into extraordinary 
 luxuriance." 
 
 Another special branch of sheep keeping, which offers advan- 
 tages to farmers favorably situated for it, is the raising of a good 
 class of sheep to meet the demands of those who purchase for the 
 purpose of raising lambs, or for winter feeding and fattening. 
 Where markets are too distant to enable these branches of sheep 
 husbandry to be profitably followed, a good class of stockers or 
 drover's sheep might be raised. Half-bred, long-wool mutton sheep 
 could be raised in every w^estern state and shipped to the great cen- 
 tral markets of Kansas City, Chicago, St. Louis, Buffalo, and else- 
 
BREEDS OF SHEEP. 81 
 
 where, to be disposed of to drovers, or to farmers themselves who 
 are seeking a supply of store sheep. This would give an oppor- 
 tunity of increasing the supply of long wool, so much needed, and 
 of decreasing that of fine wool now too plentiful to maintain prices 
 satisfactory to fine wool growers. The season for marketing these 
 sheep would be in August and September, the time in which they 
 are most in demand, and one in which the western pastures gener- 
 ally fail. It may be that in a few years, at some or all of these 
 points, and many others, there may yet be seen great sheep mar- 
 kets at stated periods, something like those of Ireland, Scotland, or 
 England, at which 40,000 to 80,000 sheep arc offered for sale, and 
 bought and paid for in a couple of days. When sheep breeding 
 becomes fully developed in America, these markets will probably 
 have been found needful, and have grown and developed from 
 necessity, as has been the case elsewhere, and such an economical 
 and convenient division of labor as this may become a regular and 
 systematic part of the business of sheep farming. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 BREEDING AND BREEDS OF SHEEP. 
 
 The strength and vigor that results from the fixity of type, 
 which is so marked a characteristic of wild races of animals, come 
 through what is called the natural selection of parents. It is the 
 natural force and strength of the most vigorous in perpetuating 
 their kind, together with the hardening influences of exposure, 
 which give them their strong constitution and great power to 
 resist misfortune. The race is perpetuated only by the strongest, 
 because weaker members perish from the hardships necessarily 
 borne by a wild race, or are driven ofi" or destroyed in the desper- 
 ate conflicts which occur between the males at the breeding season. 
 To gain strength and vigor, the most skillful breeder could follow 
 no more effective course than the one here indicated. The natural 
 power possessed by the thoroughbred male animal to transmit his 
 qualities, which power is recognized amongst breeders by the 
 term " prepotency," fixes the type of the race which through this 
 influence becomes homogeneous ; every member presenting exactly 
 the same character in form and habit. But when a race of ani- 
 
82 THE shepherd's manual. 
 
 mals becomes domesticated, necessities arise which call for some- 
 thing more than mere vigor of constitution, although this should 
 always remain a vital point in the breeders estimation. The sole 
 aim of the stock breeder is profit, and this lies not so much in a 
 long life as in early maturity. The total result of six or ten years of 
 the life of a wild animal is crowded into two or four years of a 
 domesticated one. The capacity for consumption of food, and the 
 ability to turn a larger quantity of food into flesh or wool in a 
 shorter time are gained by the skill of the breeder, and in course of 
 time the quality of the product is refined and improved until hardly 
 a semblance of the original stock remains in the highly-bred, im- 
 proved animal. The rapidity with which these effects have been 
 produced by some of the most skillful sheep-breeders is wonderful, 
 and the names of Bakewell and Webb will be remembered, and 
 then* successes perseveringly emulated for many years to come. 
 Ko animal is more easily improved in character, and none yields 
 more readily to the breeder's art, than the sheep. But the reverse 
 is also true, for if on the one hand success rapidly rewards the 
 successful breeder, failure as rapidly warns the unsuccessful one 
 that he has made a mistake, and must immediately retrace his 
 steps. 
 
 The management and selection of any existing breed of sheep, or 
 of the production of any new breed or variety, must be a question 
 of profit. The point for the farmer to consider is, what kind of 
 sheep will pay him best to keep, taking into consideration his 
 locality, his soil, the crops he can conveniently raise with which 
 to sustain them, and his markets for disposing of his wool and his 
 animals, whether as lambs or as store sheep, or fat sheep fit for 
 the butcher. For want of thorough acquaintance with the habits, 
 characteristics, and peculiarities of the various breeds, many a 
 farmer has made a fatal mistake, and failed, when otherwise he 
 might easily have been successful. The results of these mistakes 
 in selection, and errors of management, have led to much dis- 
 appointment and disgust. One of the most serious errors of our 
 breeders and farmers, is the endeavor to maintain up to a 
 certain standard of excellence in this country, in spite of all the 
 differences of climate and varieties of food, the highly bred races 
 of English sheep, which have been imported from time to time. 
 Nearly every flock of all the pure races has failed to keep up to 
 the original standard, although new importations have been added 
 to them. The farmer who has purchased a few sheep from such 
 flocks, being without the requisite knowledge as to their manage- 
 ment, or not possessing the fittuig food for them, has found them 
 
SELECTION OE BREEDING ANIMALS. 83 
 
 to dwindle away from day to day until only a sorry remnant has 
 been left wliich has been finally absorbed into a flock of hardier 
 natives, or has disappeared altogether. Had these farmers judi- 
 ciously purchased male animals only, and used them, under 
 proper restrictions, for the improvement of their native sheep, 
 they would in time have possessed flocks which they could have 
 managed successfully and profitably, and have secured a perma- 
 nent type suited to their locality and circumstances. But the 
 improvement of a flock by breeding requires much patience and 
 perseverance, and a fixed idea of some result to be gained. In 
 breeding, good results rarely come by hap-hazard or accident. 
 There must be a distinct end in view, and there must be appropri- 
 ate and painstaking eflbrts made to reach that end. The breeder 
 must have a clear idea, not only of what he wants to gain, but of 
 what he wishes to get rid of, and he must know the character of 
 his flock intimately. One who knows all this can so accurately 
 describe the kind of ram he needs to improve his flock, that a 
 conscientious breeder from whom he may purchase the needed 
 animal, can choose him as well, if not better, than he can himself. 
 
 In breeding to improve a flock, the qualities of both parents 
 must be considered, remembering that the male exercises the 
 greater influence in determining the character of the ofl'spring. A 
 pure-bred Cotswold ram, crossed upon a Merino ewe, for instance, 
 will produce an ofi*spring that much more resembles himself than 
 it does the dam. This principle is well recognized amongst breed- 
 ers. Nevertheless, the very best of the females should be chosen, 
 and the faulty lambs culled out each year, until the finest only 
 remain. During this time it would be prudent for the farmer to 
 retain no males of his own breeding, but to secure by purchase or 
 hire from some capable professional breeder, such changes of 
 males as may be necessary. Much good may be done by unselfish 
 breeders in the way of letting pure-bred rams for a fair considera- 
 tion to neighboring farmers who may not have the means to 
 purchase one outright. Bj changing rams occasionally, two 
 farmers may very profitably help each other without expending a 
 dollar for the necessary new blood. 
 
 The points sought for in rams, with which to improve a flock, 
 are those which directly add to the value of the sheep, or those 
 which are evidence of the possession of valuable qualities. Thus 
 the abundance of yolk, or the fineness of the wool, or its curl, or 
 the depth or form of carcass, upon which depends the quality and 
 the quantity of the fleece, are esteemed in the Merinos ; in the 
 Southdown, the small head and leg, and small bones, with the 
 
84 THE shepherd's manual. 
 
 ! black muzzle and legs are highly regarded, as these denote quick 
 fattening properties, and hardiness of constitution. The breadth 
 of shoulder, the straightness and levelness of the back, the breadth 
 of loin, and the spring of the ribs and rotundity of the frame of 
 the Cotswold, Leicester, and other heavy -bodied sheep, indicate 
 capacity for feeding and digestion, and laying on of flesh, and are 
 therefore regarded as valuable points. Large bones are an unfavor- 
 able point, as they denote an abstraction of nutriment which 
 should otherwise go to the formation of flesh and the greater 
 value of the carcass. The absence of horns, for the same reason, 
 is desirable in sheep bred for mutton. A soft, mellow feeling of 
 jskin and the tissue underneath, and a softness of the fleece, are 
 i indicative of a tendency to the rapid formation of fat. A round 
 i frame and broad loin indicate the existence of abundant flesh, 
 'where it is the most valuable, and a general squareness of the out- 
 line of the figure proves the existence of large muscular develop- 
 ; ment and consequently heavy quarters. In short, for sheep which 
 are not kept solely for the production of wool, what is wanted is, 
 all the flesh possible with no more bone than can carry it, and that 
 the flesh should be where it will be the most valuable, viz : on those 
 parts which bring the highest prices on the butchers' stalls — the 
 loins and quarters. Where wool is the sole object, weight and 
 fineness of fleece alone need to be considered. Where wool and 
 mutton are each equally sought for, the matter becomes compli- 
 cated by many considerations, each of which should be studied 
 with a view to give the preponderance to those which have the 
 greatest special or local importance. 
 
 In crossing breeds, we seek to Increase the size, unprove the 
 shape, or hasten the maturity of the sheep; or improve the length, 
 quality, or closeness of the fleece. But it will not do to select at 
 random any ram which may happen to possess the qualities 
 desired, without regard to some affinity of character with the 
 ewes, lest lambs should be produced that are weak in constitution, 
 or shapeless mongrels, through too wide a disparity between the 
 parents. Experience has shown that the Leicester ram has made 
 a greater improvement with long-wool sheep than with the short-/ 
 wool breeds, and that the Southdown has made a mdfe^sijcc^sful 
 first cross upon the latter. The^Cotswold has been very success- 
 fully crossed upon the Merino, the Hampshire-down, the South- 
 down, and other races, and as the parent of cross-bred races, this 
 most valuable breed has gained the highest reputation. As a rul§,\ 
 the first cross between a superior and high-bred race, and an infe-| 
 rior one, produces the best sheep for breeding together ; further \ 
 
CHOICE OF A RAM. 85 
 
 crosses often produce animals which, deteriorate in breeding, the 
 progeny regaining more of the character of its inferior pr.rcatage, 
 and losing that of the superior one. Judgment and caution are 
 needed in selecting those results which have been successful, and in 
 rejecting those which are unfavorable, also in continuing the inter- 
 breeding for a sufficient length of time to eliminate all the defects 
 which may reappear at times in the progeny. It is only after 
 several generations that animals can be produced, which may be 
 permitted safely to perpetuate their kind without further careful 
 selection. During the intervening period, very close watchfulness 
 is necessary ; the form of the animal, the preponderance of the 
 desired points, as well as those that are not desirable, the charac- 
 ter of the fleece, and the soundness of the animal's constitution, ' 
 should all be patiently studied. Great contrasts between breeding 
 animals should be avoided, as being dangerous to uniformity, and 
 a gradual approach to a desired end by several steps will be found 
 more certainly effective than to endeavor to attain it by one or 
 two violent efforts. 
 
 The selection of rams for breeding is a matter of the greatest 
 importance. Not only the character of the flock, but the number 
 of the lambs, to some extent, depend upon this. For general \ 
 purposes, the ram should be chosen for his i)erfection of shape 
 and fleece, rather than for his size or weight. For mutton sheep, 
 whether long wool or medium wool, a round barrel, broad loin, 
 fine bone, short legs, close wool, especially upon the back and 
 loins, small head, full fore arms and thighs, and a mellowness of 
 flesh within the fore legs upon the ribs, where a poor sheep 
 never carries any fat, and in general an evenness of excellence, 
 rather than any special single point of superiority, whether 
 of size of body, or length, or weight of fleece, should be 
 sought. A very heavy, large-bodied ram, will probably pro-'^ 
 duce very irregular lambs, which will disappoint the breeder ; 
 while a well knit, more even, smoother but smaller ram, will pro- 
 duce lambs "of great uniformity and resemblance to himself, and 
 very frequently, and especially so if out of well selected ewes, 
 greatly surpassing him in size of carcass at maturity. In breeding 
 from a large ram upon small bodied ewes, unless there is some 
 special reason against it, a ram with a small head should be chosen, 
 and the ewes selected should be wide across the loins, with a broad 
 rump and wide pelvis. From a disregard of this it is sometimes 
 the case that severe labor or death in parturition occurs amongst 
 the ewes. In the first coupling of the young ewes, the greatest 
 care should be exercised in selectinsc the ram, for its influence may 
 
8G THE SHEPHERD S MAKUAL. 
 
 and sometimes will extend beyond his own immediate progeny, 
 and modify that of future sires upon the same dams. While this 
 influence of the first male is not so general as to aflford a basis for 
 a rule, yet observation has shown it to be of sufiicient force to 
 entitle it to the consideration of careful breeders. The influence 
 of the ram upon the sex of the progeny, is something equally 
 worth considering, although it is as yet somewhat undetermined. 
 In theory it is supposed to be exerted through a natural provision) 
 by which the fecundity of a race increases along with the better', 
 opportunities it enjoys for its subsistence. Thus it is reasoned,' 
 when animals are well fed and cared for, and are not allowed to' 
 breed early, their produce will be in greater part females, permit-} 
 ting a more rapid increase, in consistence with their more favor-^ 
 able opportunities for development. On the contrary, when ani- 
 mals are sparely fed or exhaustively used, and allowed to breed 
 early, the tendency of nature is to restrict the production by the 
 birth chiefly of males. This theory receives confirmation through ) 
 the tendency of the early breeding and exhaustively producing 
 Jersey cow to have male calves, and through some observed facts 
 in sheep breeding. 
 
 One of the facts directly pertinent to this matter is recorded in 
 the Annales de V Agriculture Franraise, as follows. It was proposed 
 at a meeting of the Agricultural Society of Severac, to divide a 
 flock of ewes into two parts, that an experiment might be made to 
 test the question of breeding for sex. One flock of ewes was put 
 into an abundant pasture, and was served by very young rams. 
 The other flock was put into a poorer pasture, and was served by 
 rams not less than four years old. The result is given in the tables 
 which follow ; the flock from which the excess of female lambs 
 was expected, being served by rams 15 months to 18 months old, 
 produced three twin buths, and the flock expected to yield the 
 most male lambs, and which was served by rams over 4 years old, 
 produced not one double birth. 
 
 Flock for female lambs served by rams under 18 months old . 
 
 Sex of the Lambs. 
 
 Age of Ewes. Males. Females. 
 
 Two years old 14 26 
 
 Three years old 1(5 29 
 
 Four years old 5 21 
 
 Total 35 76 
 
 The excess of female lambs in this flock is very remarkable, as 
 is also the excess of male lambs shown in the next table. 
 
ESSENTIALS TO SUCCESS. 87 
 
 Flock for male lambs served by rams over 4 years old : 
 
 Sex of the Lambs. 
 
 , » 
 
 Age of Ewes. Males. Females. 
 
 Two years old 7 3 
 
 Three years old 15 14 
 
 Four years old 32 14 
 
 Total 55 31 
 
 The result certainly justified the expectation, but it can scarcely 
 be held to be anything more than suggestive for further research 
 or experiment, rather than conclusive for the founding of a rule. 
 The following well considered remarks made by the Hon. A. M. 
 Garland, editor in charge of the sheep and wool department of the 
 National Live- Stock Journal, at a meeting of the Madison Co., (111.) 
 Farmers' Club, May 8th, 1875, are sufficiently valuable and perti- 
 nent to be recorded here : " One essential to successful breeding is 
 a persistent endeavor to attain the standard that has been fixed 
 upon by the breeder as his idea of the perfect animal. While the 
 sheep will be found to conform more readily than any other ani- 
 mal, except perhaps tha dog, to certain well understood physio- 
 logical laws, the attainment of all the desired characteristics, and 
 their incorporation into the life and constitution so as to insure 
 transmission with the desired force and certainty, is a labor involv- 
 ing not alone judgment and taste, but patience as well. Mythology 
 tells us of the goddess who leaped full-armed from the head of 
 Jove ; but the attainment of perfect ends without the employment 
 of patient and laborious means, is not among the blessings that 
 surround the business man in this material age. He who expects 
 to accomplish in a year what others have only completed in a life- 
 time of labor, is pretty surely doomed to gather the bitter fruit of 
 disappointment, and the chances arc largely in favor of pecuniary 
 loss as well. It required over fifty years of labor, and care, and 
 study, to bring the nine-pound fleece rams imported by Humphrey 
 and others, up to the 25 and 30 pound shearers that head a number 
 of the flocks of the present day. The highest types of the Cots- 
 wold and Southdown are the result of an expenditure of time, and 
 money, and study, equal to that bestowed upon the Merino in the 
 United States in the last half a century. Such facts as these afford 
 small encouragement for those young men who see visions, and 
 those older ones who dream dreams, of a speedy fortune and an 
 assured fame by the establishment of an intermediate breed of 
 sheep — one that will combine in a single animal the good qualities 
 of all the breeds and the weak points of none. Any of the estab- 
 
88 THE shepherd's manual. 
 
 lished types will improve what is known as our common native 
 sheep, sufficiently to justify the payment of a fair price for a choice 
 ram. Grades from these flocks of common sheep, bred towards 
 the long wools, the Downs or the Merinos, will be found profita- 
 ble stock to the average farmer. Care should be had to breed all 
 the time in the same direction — that is, always using the best rams 
 of their kind within reach, having due regard to prudence in 
 making the purchases. The first cross will usually show a greater 
 change from the standard of the coarse-wooled mother than subse- 
 quent ones, though an occasional cropping out of her less desira- 
 ble characteristics may be expected, but should not discourage the 
 efi'ort at improvement as persistent crossing by pure-bred rams 
 will bring its reward in a sightly flock of grades, that can be de- 
 pended upon to reproduce their characteristics with reasonable 
 certainty." 
 
 " In and in " breeding, or breeding between near relatives, is a 
 subject which has given rise to much discussion, and to much 
 diversity of opinion. The truth seems to be that close breeding 
 up to a certain point is necessary to secure a fixed type, and when 
 judiciously done, it may be the means of securing most valuable 
 results. The English sheep breeders who have become most noted 
 for their successes, have bred very closely, a most conspicuous 
 example being Mr. Bakewell with his improved Leiceslers. Proba- 
 bly no race of animals were so closely interbred as this. But it is 
 questioned by some breeders if the limit of safety in this respect 
 has not been overstepped, for no race so strongly exhibits in their 
 defects the evil results which follow from too close breeding for 
 any considerable length of time. The small light bone, the bald- 
 head, the prominent glassy eyes, the thin, delicate skin, the ten- 
 dency to tuberculous diseases, and other scrofulous affections, all of 
 which are characteristic of some classes of the Leicesters, are the 
 very evils which are known to follow from too close sexual affini- 
 ties. Safety certainly lies in the avoidance of this sort of breeding 
 to any great extent, and as a general rule for ordinary breeders, it 
 may perhaps be laid down, that to breed a ram to his own lambs 
 may be permitted, but to breed to the second generation of ofi"- 
 spring should be avoided. To change the ram the second year 
 would be to act on the side of safety, and except in rare instances, 
 and for the attainment of clearly apprehended results, this should 
 be the limit of close breeding. To breed a ram to his own ewe 
 lambs is regarded as safer, and not so close breeding as breeding 
 full brother and sister together, and yet to attain certain desired 
 ends, this is and has been done, and will often be done by breeders. 
 
MAXIMS FOR BREEDERS. 89 
 
 It may be questionable, however, if the results sought might not 
 be as certainly and more securely gained by using less closely re- 
 lated animals. Mr. Edwin Hammond, a noted breeder of Ameri- 
 can Merinos, who has done much to develop this breed, seldom 
 used rams with which to make his crosses that were not of his 
 own flock. His famous ram Sweepstakes, came from a closely 
 in-and-in bred family ; but because the most skillful breeders have 
 succeeded in producing conspicuously favorable eficcts, it must 
 not be concluded that other less capable breeders or farmers who 
 know but little of the science of breeding, can hope to achieve any 
 satisfactory measure of success. Besides, it should be considered 
 that we only hear of the successes of these breeders. Theu* fail- 
 ures are at once put out of the way, and no record is made of 
 them ; in fact a portion of their skill, and not an inconsiderable 
 portion either, consists in instantly recognizing their failures, and 
 in summarily disposing of them. 
 
 In summing up these few general remarks upon breeding, the 
 following may be accepted as maxims for guidance to those as yet 
 not familiar with the principles of the art. Breed for some well un- 
 derstood object. Learn and know the character of every ewe and 
 ram in the flock. Remember that the male gives his impress upon 
 the progeny most strongly. Purity of blood in the male is an 
 absolute necessity. It is cheaper to pay a fair price for good rams 
 to a capable breeder, who makes the production of breeding ani- 
 mals his business, than to attempt to raise one's own breeding 
 stock. Animals that are not pure-bred, when coupled, tend toward 
 reversion to the inferior stock rather than to progression towards 
 the superior. Animals, as sheep, that are easily impressed favora- 
 bly, as easily retrograde ; the rule works both ways. To feed well, is 
 the co-efficient of, to breed well ; without good feeding good breed- 
 ing is of no avail. Breeding lays the foundation, feeding builds on 
 that. The first cross is the most effective, the next is but half as 
 effective, and so on until, as in the increasing fraction Vq, ^/a, "'/s, 
 Vic, ^V32, Vc4, etc., etc., unity is approached by diminishing 
 quantities, and is thus never reached ; so the higher we breed the 
 less advance is made in proportion. That a type so fixed that the 
 breeders care in selection can ever be relaxed will never be reached. 
 
 NATIVE BREEDS OF SHEEP. 
 
 The Mexican Sheep. — Since the first discovery of America 
 by Europeans, more than four centuries ago, there have been nu- 
 merous importations of sheep into both South and North America. 
 The first of these importations consisted doubtless of the common 
 
90 THE shepherd's MANUAL. 
 
 native sheep of Spain, designated by Dr. L. T. Fitzinger, the 
 author of a paper upon the races of domestic sheep of Europe, 
 (presented to the Imperial Academy of Science in Vienna, in 1860), 
 as the landscJiaf^ or common rustic sheep, {Ovis aries). This sheep 
 bore a very meager fleece of coarse wool. It is probable that all 
 that part of the American continent which became subject to its 
 Spanish discoverers, including the islands of the West Indies, was 
 stocked with tbis common race. At that period the Spanish gov- 
 ernment very jealously gCiarded the Merino sheep, and forbade 
 their exportation, even -to their own American colonies. It is 
 known, however, that a few Merinos were occasionally smuggled 
 into Peru, and that to these was due the superior character of the 
 wool of that country, which exists up to the present century. 
 Elsewhere, however, the character of the dominant race of sheep 
 was very inferior, and it now so remains ; the imports of wool 
 from South America into the Uaited States being coarse in quality, 
 and rating only as among the third class. Of a similar character 
 to this is the race of sheep known in our western territories as 
 " Mexican." Their origin is clearly the same as that of the native 
 South American sheep, and their appearance is identical with that 
 of the sheep represented in ancient Spanish paintings as the ordi- 
 nary race of the country, the property of the peasantry. It may 
 be concluded as most probable, if not certain, that this race, one 
 of the ten primitive or distinct original races which inhabited Eu- 
 rope, as determined by Dr. Fitzinger, (whose classification is con- 
 firmed by other scientific men), unaltered by more than three 
 centuries of acclimatization, is now represented by the bulk of the 
 flocks which roam over Mexico, Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, 
 parts of California, and more recently Colorado. These sheep are 
 hardy, wiry animals, weighing about 40 pounds, and yielding when 
 unmixed with any Merino blood, a fleece of about two pounds of 
 coarse wool. Of late this inferior race has been improved to 
 some extent by crossing with pure Merinos from Vermont and 
 other eastern states, and is found to make an excellent basis 
 whereon to build up an improved and useful race. These sheep 
 are of but little value, and in flocks are sold and bought at about 
 $1.50 per head. The business of shipping rams westward to sup- 
 ply this demand, from almost every state where Merinos are kept, 
 has already reached respectable dimensions, and is rapidly increas- 
 ing. The result cannot fail to build up, in course of time, a valua- 
 ble class of native sheep well suited to these localities. These 
 improved sheep produce a fleece weighing about 4 pounds of grade 
 Merino wool, which will supply to a very great extent local manu- 
 
NATIVE BEEEDS. 91 
 
 factories of such woolen goods as are in demand in the western 
 country, and thus render the far western states independent, so 
 far as regards their supply of woolen manufactures, of the eastern 
 factories. 
 
 The Virginia Sheep. — A native race of greater pretensions, 
 and far greater value than the preceding, sprung from the first 
 importation of English sheep in Jamestown, Ya., in 1609. The 
 original settlers of this new Dominion w^ere in part men of wealth 
 and position. The stock they imported would naturally he of the 
 best that could be obtained, and the favorable climate of the 
 country for sheep-raising, would tend to preserve the sheep from 
 degradation. Repeated importations of excellent sheep were 
 made during the succeeding two centuries, by prominent Virgin- 
 ians, amongst whom were the Washingtons, and various members 
 of the Custis family. Thus was founded a class of more than 
 usually good, heavy bodied, long-wool sheep, which still exists and 
 is famed for producing excellent early market lambs. Of late 
 years considerable Leicester, Cotswold, and Southdown blood has 
 been mingled with the old stock. Although the Virginia sheep 
 can hardly claim to be considered as a distinct breed, yet they 
 certainly furnish a very good basis upon which, by careful selec- 
 tion and interbreeding, to found a breed thoroughly well adapted 
 to the locality, as they are already acclimated and possess estab- 
 lished qualities. 
 
 The Improved Kentucky Sheep. — An account of the efforts 
 which have been made to produce native varieties of sheep, would 
 not be complete without the mention of what has been called the 
 " Improved Kentucky Sheep." This breed or race originated with 
 Mr. Robert Scott, of Frankfort, Kentucky, who crossed the com- 
 mon native sheep of the locality, with Merino, Leicester, South- 
 down, Cotswold, and Oxford-down rams. This was begun about 
 40 years ago, by selecting 30 native ewes, which were bred 
 to a selected Merino ram. The yearling ewes of this cross were 
 bred to an imported Leicester ram. The ewes of this cross were 
 served by an imported ram of the Southdown breed. The pro- 
 duce of this cross were then bred to a ram of mixed blood, three- 
 fourths Cotswold and one-fourth Southdown. The next two 
 crosses were made by Cotswold rams, and the next by an Oxford- 
 down ram. The produce of the last cross were bred to Cotswold 
 rams again. This brought the flock up to 1855, when a mixed 
 Cotswold, Oxford, Leicester, and Southdown ram was brought 
 into service. After this the rams produced by this very mixed 
 
92 THE SHEPHEKD's MAKUALo 
 
 breeding were used. In 1867 Mr. Scott furnished an account of 
 his slieep for the annual report of the Department of Agriculture 
 for 1866, in which he gave some very flattering testimonials which 
 he had received from various parties, to whom he had sold his 
 sheep, with pictures of rams and ewes of his flock. At that time 
 his flock consisted of about 200 ewes and 50 yearling rams. Since 
 then nothing further has been made public regarding this so-called 
 improved sheep. Unfortunately the system of breeding followed 
 by Mr. Scott could not have any definite or favorable result, as it 
 is opposed to all the principles from which favorable results could 
 have been anticipated. An animal thus produced could not be 
 anything else than a mongrel, and although it might at first pre- 
 sent a promising appearance, yet no certain characteristics could 
 be expected to appear in its progeny. No such hasty process as 
 this could be made permanent, for there had been no fixed type 
 produced by any of the crosses upon which to build a further cross, 
 to be in turn fixed permanently upon the race. No " breed " has 
 ever been thus produced, nor can a " breed " by any possibility be 
 established by this course of breeding while physiological laws re- 
 main in force. This example is here cited as a warning and a 
 caution, rather than as one to be followed by those persons who 
 have an ambition to found a new or improved breed of sheep. 
 
 The American Merino. — One of the most successful instances 
 of the fortuitous results of sheep breeding, exists in the establish- 
 ment of the American Merino. In a Treatise upon the Australian 
 Merino, by J. R. Graham, superintendent of an extensive sheep 
 station on the Murray River, (published in Melbourne, in 1870), 
 the following testimony is given : " Of all imported sheep, those 
 of our first cousins, the Americans, are the best. The best rams 
 imported into Melbourne of late years were some American rams." 
 This coming from so capable a judge, and in competition with the 
 best selections of Merino sheep to be procured elsewhere in the 
 world, may be taken without question as proof that the American 
 Merino is the best sheep of its class in the world. It is therefore 
 interesting to trace the course through which this breed has been 
 brought to its present excellence, which enables it to stand alone 
 on its own merits, beyond any capability of further improvement 
 by any variety of Merino sheep now existing in any part of the 
 world. 
 
 The history of the American Merino commences with the 
 present century, and with importations of choice sheep from 
 Spain. The honor of the first importation seems to belong to Mr. 
 William Foster, of Boston, who managed, *' with much difficulty 
 
THE AMERICAN MERII^O. 93 
 
 and risk," to bring with him from Cadiz, two ewes and one ram. 
 Unfortunately his enterprise came to naught, for presenting these 
 valuable and costly sheep to a friend, this friend made them into 
 mutton and ate them. This same friend afterwards paid $1,000 
 for a Merino ram. One ram was imported in 1801, and was used 
 on the farm of a French gentleman, Mr. Delessert, near Kingston, 
 N. Y. This animal weighed 138 lbs., and his fleece, well washed 
 in cold water, weighed 8 lbs. 8 ozs. He was a very fine ram, and 
 finally founded a valuable flock on the farm of E. J. Dupont, near 
 Wilmington, Del. Later in the same year, Mr. Seth Adams, of 
 Zanesville, Ohio, imported a pair of Spanish Merinos, which re- 
 ceived a premium at the fair of the Massachusetts Agricultural 
 Society the next year. In 1802 Mr. Livingston, the American 
 Minister to France, sent two pairs of French Merinos home to his 
 farm on the Hudson River. In 1807, Mr. Livingston imported 
 some choice Spanish ewes from France, and in 1808, his flock be- 
 gan to acquire a wide reputation, his rams selling for $150 each, 
 and half-blood ewes and rams for $12 each. In 1802, Colonel 
 Humphreys, the American Minister to Spain, sent 25 rams and 75 
 ewes, selected from the choicest flocks in Spain, to Derby, Con- 
 necticut. From what particular family of Merinos these sheep were 
 selected, does not appear, the evidence, however, seems to point to 
 the fact that tliey were Infantados, or sheep from the flock of the 
 Duke of Infantado, one of the chief grandees of Spain at that 
 period. This flock was bred and improved by Col. Humphreys, 
 with much success. At the death of this gentleman, in 1818, his 
 flock was scattered, and only two or three then obscure farmers had 
 the luck, or precaution, to preserve them pure and distinct. On 
 the rise of the Merinos into their future high reputation, these for- 
 tunate persons were brought into notice as the possessors of flocks 
 of pure Merino sheep. But the most extensive and noteworthy 
 importation, and that which gave form and character to the 
 American Merinos, was that of the Hon. Wm. Jarvis, the Ameri- 
 can Consul at Lisbon, in 1809 and 1810. This consisted of 3,850 
 sheep of the flocks of Paulars, Negrettis, Aqueirres, and Montarcos 
 of Spain. Tliese flocks, consisting of nearly 50,000 head, had 
 been, for political reasons, confiscated and sold by the Spanish 
 government, with other property of the four grandees who had 
 owned them. 
 
 Of the imported sheep, 1,500 came to New York, 1,000 to Bos- 
 ton, and the remainder to Philadelphia, Baltimore, Alexandria, 
 Norfolk, Richmond, Portland, Wiscasset, and Portsmouth. An- 
 other shipment of 2,500 followed in 1810, and were distributed 
 
94 THE shepherd's manual. 
 
 between New York and Boston. These sheep were of the prime 
 flocks of Spam, and Spain's loss was our gain. Mr. Jarvis re- 
 served 350 of the sheep for his own Use. A few other minor im- 
 portations of Spanish sheep were made by other parties in 1810 and 
 1811. The knowledge that we had thus obtained the verj best 
 sheep in the world, started a speculative fever, which was increased 
 by the war with England in 1812, when Merino wool sold for 
 $2.50 a pound. Imported rams were eagerly purchased for $1,000 
 to $1,500 each, and ewes sold for $1,000 a head. Many flocks of 
 pure or grade sheep were started in all parts of the country, and 
 much care was taken in the breeding of them. This lasted until 
 the peace of 1815, when sheep that were valued at $1,000 a head, 
 in 1809, sold for $1.00, and of course all interest in breeding then 
 ceased. Afterwards, under the stimulus of various protective tar- 
 ifls, the business revived, and fine wool-growing again attracted 
 attention. 
 
 In 1824, 77 Saxon Merino sheep were imported by G. & T. 
 Searle, of Boston, and this was followed by several other importa- 
 tions by the same parties. By bad management much loss resulted 
 to the importer?, and in consequence of the poor quality of the 
 sheep, the whole business was a failure for all concerned, includ- 
 ing the purchasers. The iuferiority of the Saxon breed was mani- 
 fest, and these sheep, which yielded a fleece of but 2^ to 3 lbs. per 
 head, could not compete with the Spanish sheep, which produced 
 4^ lbs. of well washed wool per head, of nearly equal value, al- 
 though not quite so fine as the Saxon wool. The Saxon sheep 
 have all disappeared since 1846. Then the American Merino came 
 into general favor. This class of sheep, in 1840 to 1845, consisted 
 of several families of distinctly marked varieties, due chiefly to the 
 various courses of breeding followed by their several owners. The 
 distinguishing peculiarities of these families consisted mainly in 
 their size and bight of carcass, length and fineness of wool, the 
 pendulous dewlaps and skinfolds of the rams, and the amount of 
 yolk in the fleece, and its consequent greater weight and darker 
 color. Up to the period in question, the choicest flocks were to 
 be found in New England, on account of the greater care there 
 taken in breeding. Some of the Connecticut and Vermont breed- 
 ers had taken great pains to improve their flocks, and much emu- 
 lation existed amongst them in this respect. Gradually, diflfer- 
 ences became merged and blended by the continued purchase of 
 rams by the owners of defective flocks, from the more careful 
 breeders, and finally only the two families, the Paulars and the 
 Infantados continued to be bred as distinct in all parts of the 
 
INCREASE OF SIZE AND FLEECE. 
 
 95 
 
 country. Since then these separate families, their crosses, and those 
 between them and other pure flocks, have been greatly improved. 
 The carcass has become larger and heavier, and the fleece has 
 been increased in weight. This is shown by the following table, 
 taken from a more extensive one published about 70 years ago by 
 Petri, who visited Spain for the express purpose of examining the 
 Spanish sheep, and from some measurements made by the Hon. 
 H. S. Randall, of Cortland, N. Y. , and published in his valuable 
 work on " Fine Wool Sheep Husbandry," as well as from number- 
 less well authenticated weights of fleeces. The table is as follows : 
 
 NAMES OP FLOCKS. 
 
 Negretti Ram , 
 
 '' Ewe 
 
 lufantado Ram 
 
 " Ewe 
 
 Guadeloupe Ram , 
 
 " Ewe 
 
 Estantes of Sierra de Some Ram . . . 
 '■ " " " Ewe.., 
 
 Small Estantes Ram 
 
 " " Ewe 
 
 American Merino Ram 
 
 Ewe 
 
 " " Ewe 
 
 " " Ewe 
 
 lbs. 
 97 
 67 
 
 mx 
 
 70 
 
 97 V 
 69 " 
 
 mx 
 
 Q2X 
 
 42 
 
 30 
 122 
 114 
 122 
 100 
 
 
 zn. 
 
 S^ 
 10 
 9 
 9 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 QM 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 is 
 
 in. 
 19 
 
 17 
 18 
 
 nx 
 
 18 
 14 
 18 
 14 
 15 
 13 
 10 
 10 
 10 
 11 
 
 ^, 
 
 zn. 
 26 
 25 
 27 
 25 
 26 
 25 
 24 
 25 
 21 
 18 
 28 
 28 
 29 
 27 
 
 zn. 
 
 54X 
 50X 
 55 
 
 51>^ 
 
 53 
 
 47 
 
 511/2 
 
 48 
 
 43>^ 
 
 38 
 
 47 
 
 47>^ 
 
 48 
 
 47 
 
 "k. 
 
 s 
 
 zn. 
 4914 
 49>^ 
 50 
 47 
 53X 
 45 
 50^ 
 46 
 38 
 34 
 523^ 
 49>^ 
 51 
 48»i 
 
 tn. 
 15 
 13 
 12 
 12 
 12 
 
 ioy, 
 
 12 
 11 
 10 
 
 8 
 11 
 11 
 
 9 
 
 8X 
 
 '^ 
 
 zn. 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 614 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 61/2 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 e5 
 
 zn. 
 
 6 
 
 43^ 
 
 6 
 
 5>^ 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 G 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 These difierences, it will be observed, occur in those respects 
 which add greatly to the value of the animal, the heavier weights 
 of carcass, the shorter neck, the shorter legs, and the very greatly 
 increased width of loin. All these points of improvement tend to 
 show an animal of excellent physical vigor and constitution. 
 
 As to the fleece : in 1800 to 1813, the imported Merinos yielded 
 3^ to 4 lbs. of brook-washed wool, in the ewe, and 6 to 7 lbs. in the 
 ram. The heaviest fleeced ram imported, that of Mr. Dupont, 
 produced 81 lbs. of brook-washed wool. In 1845 the product had 
 increased to 5 lbs. for some small flocks, and 9 lbs. for rams. Mr. 
 Stephen Atwood, of Vermont, reported in this year that his heavi- 
 est ewe's fleece was 6 lbs. 6 oz., and his heaviest ram's fleece, 12 
 lbs. 4 oz. In 1849, a ram, belonging to Mr. Randall, produced 13 
 lbs. 8 oz. of well washed wool. Up to this period the Merinos 
 had been under a heavy cloud, and improvement had not occurred 
 so rapidly as it has done since then. The weights of the fleeces of 
 
9(5 • THE shepherd's manual. 
 
 those early days of the American Merinos are far surpassed now, 
 and the average of some small flocks reaches over 10 pounds of 
 washed wool. Many remarkable reports of recent shearings might 
 be selected from various agricultural journals, which go to show 
 a greatly increased production of wool per head, and the reports 
 may doubtless be accepted as in the main correct. In the Ohio 
 Farmer of June 19th, 1875, are reported weights of some fleeces of 
 pure-bred American Merinos, viz : of a flock of 44, an aged ram's 
 fleece weighed 30 pounds ; 34 yearling ewes' fleeces w^eighed 410 
 lbs. 3 oz., an average of over 12 pounds, and 9 aged ewes' fleeces, 
 108 lbs. 7 oz., an average of 12 pounds. The wool was 3 inches 
 long, of a clear white color, and therefore free from excessive 
 yolk. Also of a flock of 80 ; 19 ram lambs, average age 13^ 
 months, sheared 325 J lbs., average 17 lbs, 2 oz. per fleece; 13 
 rams, 3 to 6 years old, sheared 325^, or 17 lbs. 5 oz. per fleece ; 48 
 ewes produced 668 lbs. 6 oz., or 14 lbs. nearly per fleece. The 
 extreme weights of the ram lambs' fleeces were from 14 lbs. to 30 
 lbs. ; of the rams, 14 lbs. to 34 lbs. 4 oz. , and of the ewes, 13 lbs. 
 to 18 lbs. These fleeces, being doubtless unwashed, would shrink 
 one-third in washing. In the Michigan Farmer of July, — , 1875, 
 the weight of 16 fleeces is reported at 168^ lbs. of washed wool, 
 an average of 10^ lbs. each ; 10 ewes yielded 91 lbs. ; 3 yearling 
 rams produced 454- lbs., and three yearling ewes 33 lbs. The 
 Detroit Tribune^ about the same time, reports a flock of 43 
 ewes and wethers which produced 399 lbs., an average of 
 about 9J lbs. of washed wool. Seven yearling rams sheared 
 100| lbs., being 13 months' growth of wool; one of these fleeces 
 weighed 15 lbs., and the sheep after shearing weighed 49 lbs. One 
 6-year ram sheared 19 lbs. unwashed wool. Another flock of 33 
 ewes produced 318 lbs. of wool, washed on the slieeps' backs 9 
 days previously. These reports are selected at haphazard, upon 
 casually glancing over a few of the papers which are in the habit 
 of jDublishing news of this character, sent by know^n correspond- 
 ents. In all these cases the names and addresses are given with 
 the reports, but are withheld here, as they are in no way excep- 
 tional, or surpass the reports of the flocks of numberless other 
 farmers or breeders. Indeed, many thoroughly trustworthy re- 
 ports are constantly being given of greater weights of fleece than 
 any of these. The following reports of the weights of the premi- 
 um fleeces sheared at the annual meeting of the American Wool- 
 Growers' Association of 1875, may be given as finally conclusive 
 of the fact under consideration, viz : the gradual improvement and 
 present high value of the American Merino in the hands of Ameri- 
 
DESCEIPTIOK OF THE AMERICA]Sr MERIN'O. 97 
 
 can breeders, until it has now no superior in the world as a wool 
 bearer, or as an improver of inferior races of sheep. 
 
 Weight of Sheep. Weight of Fleece. Age of Fleece. 
 
 1st Premium Ram 180 V2 lbs. 29 Ibg. 11 mo. 21 days. 
 
 2iul '• " 148 11)s. 23 lbs. 13 oz. 1 yr. 4 " 
 
 1st " Ewe. 108 lbs. 17 lbs, 3 oz. 11 mo. 22 " 
 
 2-yr. old Ewe not entered for pr. 22 lbs. 8 oz. 1 yv. 5 " 
 
 It is impossible, in the limited space that can be here devoted to 
 this breed, to rehearse the means by which these sheep have been 
 gradually brought to this excellence. For these details the reader 
 who would study the subject of fine-wool sheep breeding, is referred 
 to the excellent work of Mr. Randall before referred to, in which 
 it is treated of at length. The portrait on the next page gives 
 a remarkably accurate general view of a first class American 
 Merino ram. It represents the ram " Golden Fleece," bred and 
 owned by E. S. Stowell, Cornwall, Vermont 
 
 The description of a high bred American Mermo, of such excel- 
 lence as may be readily found in numerous flocks at the present 
 time, may be summed up as follows, giving prommence to the 
 several most important characteristics, viz : 
 
 I The Carcass should be plump, medium size, round, deep, not 
 long in proportion to roundness, the head and neck short and 
 thick ; the back should be straight and broad, the breast and but- 
 tock full ; the legs short, well apart, and strong, with heavy fore- 
 arm and full twist. This compact figure indicates a hardy con- 
 stitution, ease of keeping, and good feeding properties. 
 
 Skin. — The skin should be of a deep rich rose-color, thin, mel- 
 low, loose, and elastic on the body. This indicates a healthy, well 
 conditioned animal. A pale or tawny skin indicates impurity of 
 blood, or at least weakness of constitution, and is therefore ob- 
 jectionable. 
 
 Folds and Wrinkles. — These arc permissibl? to a certain extent. 
 The fashion in this regard has doubtless passed beyond the bounds 
 of wisdom, and excessive wrinkling or folding of the skin is un- 
 sightly and useless, if not worse. In shearing, it causes a waste of 
 time, and gives no adequate return in wool. A deep, soft, plaited 
 dewlap on both ewes and rams, and some slight wrinkles on the 
 neck of the ram, satisfied the early breeders in this respect. While 
 heavy neck-folds on the ram, and short ones back of the elbow 
 and on the rump, are tolerated by breeders at the present time, yet 
 it is simply fashion, and adds nothing to the value of the animal, 
 but on the contrary is dearly paid for in the increased cost of 
 shearing. An exception to this may be taken in respect of rams 
 5 
 
98 
 
 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL. 
 
THE FLEECE. 99 
 
 to be used in improving the poor, smooth-skinned native race 
 common on the western plains, in which case a heavy yolked and 
 much wrinkled ram may be found desirable. 
 
 The Fleece. — A sheep bred exclusively, or chiefly, for wool, must 
 necessarily be valued in proportion to the value of the fleece. The 
 wool of a pure-bred Merino of any value, should stand at right 
 angles to the skin, presenting a dense, smooth, even surface on the 
 exterior, openmg nowhere but in those natural cracks or divisions 
 which separate the fleece into masses. These masses should not 
 be small in size, or they indicate excessive fineness of fleece ; a 
 quarter of an inch is the limit in this respect ; nor too large, lest 
 the wool be coarse and harsh. The length should be such as, com- 
 bined with thickness of staple, will give the greatest weight of 
 fleece. Medium wool is generally in greater demand than fine 
 wool, and it is more profitably produced. Two to three inches is 
 probably the most desirable length of fleece for pi'ofit. A change, 
 however, is taking place in this respect, since the practice of 
 combing Merino wool has become general, and three inches 
 and over is a frequently desired length of fiber. It is not 
 desirable to have the face covered with wool long enough to fold 
 up in the fleece. If the eyes are covered with such wool, the sheep 
 is either blinded, or the wool must be kept clipped close. The 
 ears should be small, with a coat of soft mossy hair about half 
 way to the roots, and for the remainder, covered with wool. A 
 naked ear is very objectionable. Evenness in quality in every 
 part of the sheep is very desirable, ifair growing up through the 
 wool on the thighs, the neck-folds, or scattered through the fleece 
 here and there, is not to be allowed. The wool should be sound, 
 that is, of even strength from end to end of the fiber. It should 
 be highly elastic and wrinkled, curved or wavy. The number of 
 these curls, or waves, to the inch, is not so much a test of excel- 
 lence as their regularity and beauty of curvature. A folding back 
 of the fiber upon itself is not so desirable as a gentler curve. (See 
 Chapter on Wool). 
 
 Pliancy and Softness to the feeling in handling, is an excellent 
 test of quality, so much prized by manufacturers, that practiced 
 buyers will sometimes form an accurate judgment of a fleece by 
 handling it in the dark w.ith gloved hands. 
 
 Yolk. — To what extent the yolk should exist in the wool of the 
 Merino, is a matter of dispute, and in some degree a matter of 
 taste. A certain portion of yolk is absolutely necessary to the 
 existence of a good fleece, and beyond this it is questionable if any 
 
100 THE shepherd's MANUAL. 
 
 excess of yolk answers any good purpose. This is considered at 
 some length in the Chapter on Wool, where it naturally belongs. 
 When it is in such excessive quantity as in a fleece which weighed 
 19ilbs. before washing, and only 4 lbs. afterwards, it is decidedly 
 objectionable, except in the case of a ram chosen to impart greater 
 yolkiness to a flock which is deficient in this respect. In general, 
 as wool is the object sought, no more yolk is necessary than the 
 quantity required to promote the growth of the fleece and to keep 
 it in good condition, soft, pliant, and thoroughly well lubricated. 
 
 FOREIGN BREEDS.— LONG- WOOL SHEEP. 
 
 Long-wool sheep are properly natives of the rich low-lands of 
 England, which are productive of abundant, succulent, nutritious 
 pasture. But there have been great improvements in agriculture 
 during the past century, which have enabled farmers' to produce 
 enormous crops of clover, artificial grasses, and roots, and to pur- 
 chase large supplies of rich concentrated foods, such as the various 
 oil-cakes. As one result of this improved agriculture, the long- 
 wool sheep have been taken from the alluvial lands where they 
 originated, to the uplands, where they have greatly increased in 
 number, and also improved in character. The fact that these large 
 bodied, heavy fleeced sheep have been found far more profitable 
 than the lighter short-wool sheep, has been the all-sufiicient cause 
 of this adaptation of the race to new conditions, for profit is the 
 moving power in every industry, and what is, is simply because it 
 is profitable, and for no other reason in this day of eager search 
 for increased comfort and wealth. The profit of long-wool sheep 
 consists not only in their weight of meat and fleece, but in then* 
 rapid growth and early maturity. In the change of locality allud- 
 ed to, and from circumstances of feed and management, some of 
 the ancient breeds have disappeared altogether, and other breeds 
 have been much changed by extensive crossing with the most popu- 
 lar and higbly bred of them. The long-wool sheep of the present 
 time may be divided into two classes ; one of wdiicli still remains 
 localized in low rich alluvial soils, and drained marshes of certain 
 parts of England ; this, includes the Lincoln and the Romney 
 Marsh breeds. Tlie other class belongs to dry arable plains, or 
 farms devoted to grain, grass, and root crops, and other specialties 
 of mixed farming. This class includes the Leicester, Cotswold, 
 and Oxford-down breeds. 
 
 The Lincoln is the heaviest bodied sheep in existence. In 
 1826 a three-shear sheep of this breed, (40 months old, or about 
 
THE LliifCOLN SHEEP. 
 
 .101 
 
103 THE SIIErnEllD's MANUAL. 
 
 that age), was sliiughtered in Eugland, which dressed 9Gi lbs. the 
 quarter ; a two-shear sheep dressed 91 lbs. per quarter, and a 
 yearling dressed 71 lbs. per quarter. In a report on Lincoln sheep, 
 it is stated that thirty 14-months-old wether lambs, slaughtered at 
 Lincoln Fair, averaged 140 lbs. each, dressed weight, and 100 to- 
 gether of the lambs clipped 11 lbs. of washed wool apiece. The 
 usual practice of the Lincolnshire breeders is to feed the sheep 
 until about two years old, when they will have yielded a second 
 fleece weighing 10 to 14 pounds, and will dress 130 to IGO lbs. 
 dead weight j'or the butcher. The wool of this breed is very long 
 and lustrous, measuring nine inches and over. The origin of the 
 present highly improved breed, was a race of heavy-bodied sheep 
 which in its pure state is now practically extinct. It inhabited the 
 low alluvial tlats of Lincolnshire, and the adjoining localities, on 
 the eastern coasts of England. These sheep were large and coarse, 
 with a long, ragged, oily tlcece, which nearly swept the ground. 
 They fed slowly, but nuide much inward fat, and their meat was 
 well flavored, fine grained, juicy, and not too much overlaid with 
 fat on the outside. A century ago tliis was the established char- 
 acter of these sheep. When the improved Leicesters of Mr. Bake- 
 well came into notoriety, the intelligent Lincolnshire breeders ob- 
 tained some of his rams, and by admixture of their blood, in time 
 established a distinctl}^ new breed. In connection with a system 
 of farming, in which heavy crops of roots and green fodder were 
 the chief productions, this improved breed became fixed in its 
 character as the heaviest producers of mutton and wool in the 
 world. In one instance 26i lbs. of wool was taken from a 14- 
 months old lamb. From 1862 to 1870, the majority of prizes for 
 long-wool sheep at English fairs, were taken by the Lincolns, but 
 it was not until the former date, that the breed was given a dis- 
 tinct place as a separate class at these shows. Since then it has 
 achieved great prominence, and become very popular for crossing 
 upon other breeds, for the production of feeding sheep, and for its 
 yield of long, lustrous, and worsted wools. The Lincoln requires 
 the best and richest soils, and succulent herbage, and can only 
 thrive under the best management and very high farming. At 
 present it is questionable if we in this country have any place in 
 our agriculture which this sheep can profitably fill, unless it be in 
 a very few instances, where the highest skill of the breeder is ex- 
 ercised under peculiarly favorable conditions of soil and climate. 
 A fine flock of these sheep was imported by Mr. Richard Gibson, 
 of London, Canada, and has been carefully and successfully culti- 
 vated by him. A portion of Mr. Gibson's flock has been recently 
 
THE KOMKEY ilARSH SHEEP. 
 
 103 
 
104 THE SHEPHEKD's MANUAL. 
 
 purchased by Mr. William A. King, of Minneapolis, Minn. Mr. 
 George Grant, of Kansas, also has a flock. Their adaptability to 
 our climate is therefore in a fair way of being thoroughly tested. 
 
 The Romney Marsh Sheep.— This breed is also an inhabitant 
 of low, alluvial lands. Its home is in south-eastern England, in 
 the extensive marshes of the county of Kent, which are ditched 
 and diked in the same manner as those of Holland. It has ex- 
 isted there from time immemorial, and has fed on the rich clay 
 lands which are so productive of herbage as to be capable of carry- 
 ing 14 sheep to the acre. This breed has also been much improved 
 by crossing with Leicester rams. It is hardier than the Lincoln, 
 and survives much neglect. It is rarely sheltered, even in severe 
 weather, and the lambs are generally pastured during the winter 
 in the stubbles upon the adjoining uplands, where they undergo 
 many privations. It is not improbable that this hitherto neglected, 
 but valuable and hardy sheep, could find suitable homes upon our 
 eastern coasts, and rich river flats, where it would serve a better 
 purpose than the more highly bred and delicate Leicester, in im- 
 proving, or displacing, our less valuable native sheep. The charac- 
 teristics of the Romney Marsh sheep are : a thick, broad head and 
 neck, long carcass, flat sides, broad loin, full and broad thigh, 
 neither heavy nor full fore-quarter, thick, strong legs and broad 
 feet; wool long, somewhat coarse, and coarsest on the thighs; 
 much inside fat, and a favorite animal with the butcher. There is 
 a tuft of wool on the forehead. The fleece weighs from 7 to 10 
 pounds, is of long staple, sound quality, and bright and glossy ; 
 it is in demand by French and Dutch manufacturers for a sort of 
 mohair fabric known as *' cloth of gold," {Drap cCor). At three 
 years old the wethers dress from 100 to 130 lbs., and the ewes 
 from 70 to 90 lbs. After a moderate amount of crossing with the 
 Leicester, it was found that to persevere further in this direction 
 tended to make these sheep less hardy, and the cross was at once 
 abandoned. Inter-breeding amongst the cross-bred sheep main- 
 tained the improvement without sucrificing the hardiness and 
 vigor of constitution, which renders this breed so well adapted to 
 its bleak and wind-swept pastures. 
 
 The Leicester.— It was more than a hundred 3^ears ago that 
 the old Leicester sheep fell into the hands of Mr. Robert Bakewell. 
 They were then large, heavy, coarse animals, having meat of a 
 poor flavor, a long and thin carcass with flat sides, large bones, and 
 thick, rough legs. They were poor feeders, and at two or three 
 years old made 100 to 130 lbs. of mutton. The wool was long and 
 
THE LEICESTER SHEEP. 
 
 105 
 
 i||iiii||ll|MNiii;[iiiiiiiiiiiiiMi<i'iiiiiiKiin!'WN/in[iiiiiit/i/iiiviiiiMiiiiiiiiimi;iiiiiifii'iiiiiiii''ini^ 
 
106 THE shepherd's MA2^UAL. 
 
 coarse, and of only moderate value. By a course of breeding, 
 about wbich lie was very reticent even to Ms friends, and which 
 he kept secret from other breeders, Mr. Bake well totally changed 
 the character of these sheep, and built up for himself a reputation 
 as a successful breeder, which is second to that of no other in the 
 world. Of his system of breeding, the most that is known is, that 
 he commenced with the inferior, old Leicesters, selecting the best 
 of them he could find. He apparently used any animal whatever, 
 without reference to breed or color, nor did he regard relationship, 
 if he considered those coupled together would be most likely to 
 produce the results that he wished to attain in the ofispring. 
 His object was to produce an animal that would yield in the 
 shortest time, and with the least consumption of feed, the largest 
 amount of flesh and fat, meanwhile not neglecting the fleece. His 
 ideal sheep was to him precisely what the desired Short-horn was 
 to the Culley Brotliers, Mr. Bates, or Mr. Booth ; and all these 
 breeders gave their whole soul to the attainment of their one 
 single object. The Culley Brothers were pupils of Mr. Bakewell, 
 and it is but just to give him some share of the honor attained by 
 these originators of the Short-horn. Each of these breeders bred 
 in-and-in, both frequently and closely, and each of them went out- 
 side of the breed he was building up and improving for foreign 
 blood, when anything was to be gained by it. It is stated of Mr. 
 Bakewell that he used sheep of six or seven different breeds, and 
 one visitor to his establishment, reported that, in going about the 
 stables alone, early one morning, before IVIr. Bakewell had risen, 
 he saw a black ram, but a very magnificent animal, hidden away 
 in a pen. In course of time his success was recognized by the best 
 test — that of the market value of his sheep. He began in 1755 ; in 
 1760 his rams were let for an annual sum of about $4 each. In 
 1780 he received $50 for the season's use of a ram. In 1784 the 
 price was raised to $525. In 1786 one ram was let for $1,575. In 
 1789 he received $6,300 for the use of three rams, all born at one 
 birth ; $10,500 for seven others ; and $15,750 for the use of the 
 remainder of his flock. Twenty-two hundred dollars was paid by 
 each of two breeders for the use of one ram for their flocks alone, 
 he reserving one-third of his use for himself, making the yearly 
 value of this one ram equal to $6,600. After his death, Bake well's 
 system of close breeding was followed by his successors, but with 
 the effect of reducing the value of the breed to the farmer. The 
 sheep became delicate, and weakened in constitution, reduced in 
 size, less prolific, and less careful of their lambs. New blood, 
 chiefly of the hardier Cotswold, has been of late years introduced 
 
THE COTSWOLD SHEEP. 107 
 
 with the effect of restoring their lost qualities. The modern im- 
 proved Leicester is without horns ; with white face and legs, a 
 small, fine head, bare on the poll; a large, bright, and very promi- 
 nent eye ; square and deep neck and shoulders ; straight, flat, broad 
 back ; deep body ; hind quarters tapering somewhat to the tail, and 
 not so square as in the Cotswold ; clean legs, and fine bone. The 
 flesh is good, but overloaded with outside fat. The fleece is fine, 
 glossy, silky, white, and of but moderate length, averaging 7 to 8 
 pounds in weight. The skin is thin, soft, and elastic, and of a 
 very delicate pinkish tinge, when the animal is in full health. The 
 Leicester cannot by any means be called a hardy sheep, as it requires 
 good keep, careful shelter, and skillful treatment to maintain it in 
 thriving condition. When ailing it gives way at once, and de- 
 clines rapidly. It matures rapidly and early, and at twelve months 
 old wlien well fed, will dress 100 pounds, and at two years reaches 
 a weight of 150 pounds. A four-year-old ram in prime condition 
 has weighed 380 pounds live weight. For use in this country, the 
 Leicester cannot compete with the Cotswold, nor is it fitted in any 
 way to become the farmer's sheep, excepting in very rare cases, 
 when its services might be desired to refine a Cotswold cross in the 
 hands of a breeder who thoroughly understands his business. 
 
 The Cotswold. — This breed has become so common in Ameri- 
 ca, and has been bred so extensively without fresh importations of 
 new blood, that it may well be adopted as a native sheep. Many 
 excellent flocks are now self-sustaining, and under their American 
 nativity, lose nothing of their original excellence. The Maple 
 Shade flock, originally the property of Mr. John D. Wing, of 
 Dutchess County, N. Y., but some years ago divided, and now 
 owned by other parties, is one of many instances of the successful 
 acclimatization of this most valuable sheep. The Cotswold has 
 an ancient history. It is said to have been introduced into Eng- 
 land from Spain, by Eleanora, Qaeen of Henry II, of England, in 
 the twelfth century. Although there is nothing more than tradi- 
 tion to support this, yet there is some corroboration of it in the 
 fact that in Spain there has long existed, and is now, a breed of 
 coarse, long wool sheep not unlike the original Cotswold in some 
 respects. It is known, however, that in fifty years after this early 
 date, the wool of the Cotswold sheep was a source of material 
 wealth, and was jealously guarded by law. Three centuries after 
 this, (in 1467), permission was granted by the English king, Ed- 
 ward lY, as a royal favor, to export some of these sheep to Spain. 
 They were originally very coarse animals, with thick, heavy 
 fleece, well adapted to their home upon the bleak exposed Cots- 
 
108 
 
 THE shepherd's MA:bfUAL. 
 
DESCRIPTION OF THE COTSWOLD. 109 
 
 wold liills. So valuable and staple a breed could not long remain 
 witbout improvement. Naturally, the sweet nutritious herbage 
 of the limestone soil covering these hills, favored this improve- 
 ment, and as the pastures became enclosed, and agriculture im- 
 proved in character, the flocks improved with it. When the Lei- 
 cester became the most popular sheep of England, it was made to 
 assist in this course of improvement of the Cotswolds. It gave to 
 the breed a better quality, a smoothness and refinement, and a 
 greater aptitude to fatten, while it did not lessen its ancient hardi- 
 ness of constitution. The modern Cotswold is still capable of en- 
 during hardship and exposure, and is at home on all sorts of soils. 
 It produces a large carcass of excellent mutton, and a heavy fleece 
 of valuable combing wool, adapted by its peculiar character for a 
 class of goods of wide consumption, it being in demand for vari- 
 ous manufactures from the small matters, such as worsted dress 
 braids, up to various kinds of cloths for men's and women's 
 garments. Moreover the breed matures at an early age. It is 
 not unusual to find sheep of 120 lbs. and over, at a year old. A 
 full-grown sheep, exhibited at a Christmas cattle market in Eng- 
 land, dressed 344 pounds, or 86 lbs. per quarter. The weight of 
 the fleece should average 8 lbs. for a flock of all kinds, and some 
 of our naturalized flocks surpass this weight of fleece. Many 
 ewes have shorn 11 lbs. each. The fleece of " Champion of Eng- 
 land," whose portrait is given on the opposite page, weighed 18 
 lbs., and the fleeces of the ewes of the same flock, weighed from 
 11 to 16 lbs. The description of a well bred Cotswold is as fol- 
 lows : The face and legs are white, but sometimes dashes of 
 brown or gray derived from the original stock, may be found on 
 both face and forelegs. The head is strong and massive, with 
 sometimes a Roman nose, without horns, and having a thick fore- 
 lock of wool upon the forehead. The neck and forequarters are 
 not so square and heavy, nor the brisket so prominent, as in the 
 best Leicesters, but the hind quarters are square, full, and broad, 
 and the thigh solid and heavy. The back is straight and broad, 
 and the ribs well sprung, giving a round body ; the flanks are 
 deep; the legs are clean, of moderate length, but the bone is not 
 so fine as in the Leicester. The general style and appearance is 
 good and attractive, and indicative of a vigorous, active, and hardy 
 animal, and a prime mutton sheep. They are active and well 
 fitted for gathering a living upon a pasture in which a Leicester 
 would hardly thrive. The lambs are active and hardy, and the 
 ewes are good mothers. The fleece is closer upon the back than 
 that of the Leicester, and only in aged rams exposes the skin along 
 
110 THE SHEPHEED'S MANUAL. 
 
 the middle. The wool sometimes reaches a length of 9 inches, and 
 although coarse, is soft and mellow. lu some of these sheep, the 
 fleece is beautifully waved. No breed is more valuable for cross- 
 ing than this. It has helped to establish several permanent cross 
 breeds ; the Oxford-downs and the Shropshires in England ; a 
 Cotswold-Merino in Germany, and another of this cross, which is 
 well under way in this country, and last, but not least, a very 
 promising cross breed, originated on the Beacon Farm, Long 
 Island, by Mr. William Crozier, and called the Beacon-downs. It 
 has, moreover, been used to produce many cross-bred market 
 sheep in various parts of England, and is extensively used by our 
 sheep-raisers in the production of market lambs. Being capable 
 of adaptation to almost any locality, and producing a wool which, 
 both in its pure state and in its grades, is of wide availability in 
 the woolen manufacture, it may justly claim to be the most valua- 
 ble sheep we have acquired, and to promise a more extended use- 
 fulness than any other we at this time possess, or can probably 
 procure. 
 
 The Oxfokd-downs.— This is one of the newly established 
 cross-breeds, which has made a favorable reputation, and promises 
 to become permanent. It has already been introduced here, and 
 has made its appearance on several farms, the owners of which 
 possess more than usual enterprise. It is classed among the long- 
 wool sheep, but it is only since 1862 that it has gained the honor, 
 or has been awarded the justice of a separate class at the English 
 fairs. It has rapidly extended its domain in England, and as a 
 wool and mutton producer, firmly holds all it gains. It originated 
 in a cross of a Cotswold ram upon a Hampshire-down ewe, made in 
 or about the year 1830, by Mr. Twynham and several other farmers, 
 of Hampshire, England. The produce was a sheep heavier than the 
 dam, and resembling the Cotswold in size and fleece. The wool, 
 however, was finer and firmer than that of the Cotswold, and 
 from five to seven inches in length. The first cross rams and 
 ewes were bred together, no further cross being made. By con- 
 tinued care the best points have been preserved, and the constitu- 
 tion and character of the first cross have been maintained. The 
 result is, a sheep that is found profitable to feed on a mixed farm ; 
 hardy, producing at 14 months old a carcass of 80 to 88 lbs. , and a 
 fleece of 8 or 9 lbs. of wool, which is in great demand in the 
 worsted manufacture. By good feeding these weights are much 
 increased. At the Smithfield, (London), fat cattle show of 1873, 
 a pen of three 22-months-old shearlings weighed alive 895 lbs., or 
 an avera2:e of 298 lbs. each. Rams have been known to shear 20 
 
THE OXFORD-DOW]^ SHEEP. 
 
 Ill 
 
11:3 THE shepherd's MAis"UAL. 
 
 lbs. of wool for their first fleece. The Oxford-down has a head 
 much like a Cotswold, with a tuft on the forehead, but with dark 
 face and legs, which are derived from its other parent, the Hamp- 
 shire-down ; a thick set somewhat curl}-- fleece, a round barrel on 
 short legs, and yields, when less than two years old, a mutton con- 
 sidered by its friends as superior to the Southdown of the same 
 age, but inferior to it when older tlian two years. Its native 
 locality is a district at the foot of the Cotswold hills, an area of 
 mixed soils, abounding in springs, and requiring much draining. 
 At particular seasons in the winter, neither the Cotswold nor the 
 Southdown could be made to thrive upon these wet soils, but the 
 cross-bred sheep have successfully withstood the inconvenience 
 without being aifccted with the usual disease of the district, such 
 as giddiness, or water on the brain. They have been found very 
 profitable feeders, requiring but little purchased food, and stand- 
 ing the exposure incident to folding upon green crops in the winter, 
 without difliculty. Good rams of this breed bring about $60 per 
 head at the ram sales. 
 
 MEDIUM AND SHORT-WOOL SHEEP. 
 
 The Shropsihre Sheep. — The Shropshire is one of the cross- 
 bred sheep that owes its origin in part to the Cotswold, the other 
 parent being an original breed of sheeii common to the district, 
 and known as the " Morfe Common " sheep. This word *' com- 
 mon " does not express quality, but is used here as referring to an 
 unenclosed tract of land known as "common land," or public 
 property ; such tracts formerly existed in many localities in Eng- 
 land, and to a considerable extent in the early settlements in New 
 England. These sheep of Morfe Common, (which was a tract of 
 600,000 acres of land), were the original stock upon which crosses 
 of Cotswold, and afterwards of Leicester and Southdown, were 
 made at various periods. This course of improvement appears to 
 have been begun about 1793. From the unequal admixture of 
 blood, the Shropshires vary somewhat in character, sometimes 
 possessing the character of a short-wool, and sometimes that of a 
 medium-wool sheep. The original sheep was horned, black or 
 brown faced, hardy, and free from disease, producing 44 to 56 lbs. 
 of mutton to the carcass, and a fleece of 3 lbs. of moderately fine 
 wool, which was used in the cloth manufacture. After three- 
 quarters of a century of cultivation, they are now without horns, 
 with faces and legs of a dark or spotted gray color ; thick, meaty 
 neck- well shaped, rather small and fine head ; neat ears well set 
 
THE SHllOPSniliE bHEEP. 
 
 113 
 
ll-i THE shepherd's MANUAL. 
 
 on the head ; broad, deep breast ; straight back ; a good, round bar- 
 rel ; and clean legs with strong bone. They are very hardy, thrive 
 well on moderate keep, are quickly fattened, and produce at two 
 years old, 80 to 100 lbs., or even 120 lbs. of excellent meat, which 
 brings the highest price from the butcher. The ewes are prolific 
 and good mothers. The fleece is heavier than that of the South- 
 down, being longer and more glossy, and w^eighs on the average 
 about 7 lbs. of marketable wool. The portraits on the preceding 
 page are of some members of a flock imported from England 
 in 1874, by Mr. J. T. Hoyt, of Suisun City, California. This 
 sheep possesses many valuable qualities for our uses, and promises 
 to make a satisfactory farmer's sheep in localities where medium 
 wool and choice mutton are profitable, and where the flocks have 
 to depend upon pasture for the greater part of their support. Its 
 close, well set fleece, and hardy constitution, will also help to carry 
 it through considerable exposure and variable weather, without 
 injury. Prize rams have sold in England for $500 each, but at the 
 annual ram sales, the prices run from $50 to $150. There are sev- 
 eral flocks of this breed kept in difi"erent parts of the United 
 States and Canada, which promise to become sources of supply. 
 
 The Southdown. — The modern improved Southdown de- 
 scended from an old established breed of sheep, which have inhab- 
 ited the hilly portions of England from the most ancient periods 
 of known history of that countr}'-. In the southern part of the 
 country, and in the counties of Sussex, Kent, Hampshire, and 
 Dorsetshire, there is a range of low hills, underlaid with chalk, 
 which descend gradually on the south to the sea coast, and on the 
 north mero^e into rich cultivated lands. These low hills or 
 " Downs," have a dry soil, and are covered with a rich, sweet, 
 short, dense herbage. Upon this favorable soil the ancient breed 
 throve without special care, and w^hen skillful breeders, emulating 
 the success of Mr. Bakewell with the Leicesters, commenced to 
 improve it, they speedily raised its character. At first the Sussex 
 or Southdown sheep were small, and with few good points ; long 
 and thin in the neck, narrow in the forequarters, high in the 
 shoulders, low behind, sharp on the back, and with flat ribs ; their 
 only good points being a good leg. Their mutton, however, chief- 
 ly from the excellent character of their pasture, w^as of the best 
 flavor, and highly valued. By the careful attention of Mr. Ellman, 
 of Glynde, the defects were weeded out, and after 50 years of con- 
 stant selection of breeding animals, he brought his sheep into 
 repute and favor, as the first of the short-wool breeds. Mr. Jonas 
 Webb, of Sufl'olk, continued the course of improvement from 1822, 
 
THE SOUTHDOWN SHEEP. 
 
 115 
 
 i^ 
 
 fc' 'ii;iiiiiuni'i^iili-."i'= '^VW "■'' 
 
110 THE SHEPnEUD'S MANUAL. 
 
 but it was only in 1840 that he gained a premium for his stock at 
 an exhibition. After this he took a prize at every exliibition of 
 his sheep, and m 1843 the Highhind Society paid him the compli- 
 ment of having portraits of his prize sheep taken for the museum 
 at Edinburgh. In 1855 "Webb's Southdowns were exhibited at the 
 Paris exhibition, and a ram, for which $'^,G00 had been refused, 
 was presented to the Emperor Napoleon. Since Mr. Webb's 
 death, many breeders have made a wide reputation witli the 
 Southdowns, and at the present time they hold the position of 
 being decidedly the best mutton sheep in the world. As yearlings 
 they yield 75 to 80 lbs. in dressed weight, of the choicest meat in 
 the market, and a flock of high chai-acter will produce an average 
 of G lbs. to the fleece of a wool in demand for flannels and soft 
 goods. The ewes are prolific breeders and excellent mothei-s. 
 These sheep, as they are now bred, are without horns and with 
 dark brown or black faces and legs. The size is medium ; the 
 bod)' round and deep ; the forequarlers are wide and deep, and the 
 breast is broad. The back is broad and level ; the rump square and 
 full, and the thigh full, and massive. The legs are short with line 
 bone. The form is smooth, even, tine, and symmetrical, without 
 coai'seness or augularitj'- in any part. Tiie habits of these sheep 
 are active, and they are docile and contented. Tluy are able to 
 accommodate themselves to any district, or style of farming, where 
 moderately good pasturage is to be had, and are well suited as 
 gleaners upon an arable farm. jMr. Webb's farm was mostly all 
 mider tillage. For the improvement of our native sheep in a par- 
 ticular direction, they are not to be surpassed, and in tliis respect 
 they rival the Cotswold. Indeed, there is scarcely a cross-bred 
 race of sheep in England, or Europe, but has been indebted to the 
 Southdown for some of its smoothness, rotundity, hardiness of 
 constitution, and excellence of flesh. It is an excellent feeder, its 
 Iambs are active and hardy, and as the producer of market lambs 
 from grade or pure Merino ewes, the Southdown ram has no su- 
 perior, or equal, if the favor with which the dark faces and legs 
 of the lambs are received by butchers is considered There are no 
 fatter lambs come to market than those of a cross of Southdown 
 and Merino. The Southdown has become thoroughly naturalized 
 in America, and its dark face and compact fleece, impervious to 
 the heaviest rains, have left their mark upon a large proportion of 
 our natives, ranking in this respect next to the Merino. 
 
 The HAMPsniRE-DOWNS. — The Hampshire-downs have of late 
 rapidly risen in favor. Previous to our late war, many of them 
 were imported into the southern states under the impression that 
 
THE nAMPSUIKE-DOVVN SHLEK 
 
 117 
 
 .1 
 
118 THE SnEPHEKD'S MANUAL. 
 
 they surpassed their rivals aud progenitors, the Soiithdowns, in 
 adaptation to the climate. Amidst the vicissitudes of a state of 
 war, no stock so rapidly sutlers and disappears as sheep, and as 
 Spain lost her ]\Ierinos in the French war of last century, so it is 
 j)robahle that the south has lost her Hampshire-downs. It is a 
 valuable race of sheep, occupyiui;- a place ^vhcre a larger animal 
 than the Southdown is required. It originated in a cross made 
 about 70 years ago between a native, white-faced, horned sheep of 
 the district, and the pure Soutluknyn. The prepotency, or natural 
 vigor aud force of the Southdown ram, entirely changed the char- 
 acter of the breed in a few generations. The horns disappeared, 
 the face became black, the frame was made more compact, the 
 back broader and straighter, the barrel rounder, the legs shorter, 
 and the quality of the flesh superior. The cross retained its 
 ancient hardiness, its Roman nose, and massive head, and large 
 size. It became, in fact, a larger Southdown, maturing at an early 
 age, and fatting rapidly. The large size of the lambs of this breed 
 make it specially valuable under certain circumstances ; at a year 
 old they weigh SO to 100 lbs. The fleece reaches a weight of G to 
 7 lbs. of wool suitable for combing, being longer than that of the 
 Southdown, and not so line. The mutton of the ITampshirc-downs 
 is not overloaded with fat, and has a good proportion of juicy, well 
 flavored, lean meat. This breed is occasionally crossed with the 
 CotswoU, when it producers a wool more valuable for the worcted 
 manufactures than tliat of the pure Cotswold. 
 
 The Dorset Sheep. — This is a breed which inhabits a district 
 in the south of England, where it has been preserved intact for a 
 long period. It has some very valuable characteristics, one of the 
 chief of which is its fecundity, and its ability to breed at an early 
 season. The Dorset ewes take the ram in April, yean in Septem- 
 ber, and the lambs arc fit for market at Christmas. A large pro- 
 portion of the ewes produce and raise twins or triplets. A flock 
 is mentioned owned by Mr Pitfield, of Bridport, Dorset, Eng., con- 
 sisting of 400 ewes, which raised 555 lambs in one season. The 
 ewes are ready for the ram immediately after 5'eaning, and may 
 thus produce two crops of lambs in a year. Where market lambs 
 can be disposed of, this peculiarity may be turned to good account, 
 and with great profit. Both rams and ewes arc horned. They 
 have white legs; white, broad, and long faces, with a tuft of wool 
 on the forehead; black nose and lips ; low, but broad shoulders ; 
 straight back and deep, fuh brisket ; the loins are broad and deep ; 
 the legs are rather long, but light in the bone, A related and 
 neighboring breed known as " Pink-nosed Somersets," have pink 
 
THJ:: DOK.SET SHEEP. 
 
 119 
 
 'll»)ili!!;i|||.';.']iini'"i':i'iii:'i"r!':iniiriiiirii)i:.'li!|i 
 
120 
 
 THE shepherd's MANUAL. 
 
 noses, and are not so valuable. The Dorsets arc hard}', very quiet 
 and docile, and submit to any reasoua]>le management with facili- 
 ty, adapting themselves readily to changes. They mature early, 
 ■weigh 100 lbs. dead weight, at two years old, when folded upon 
 turnips alone, for which kind of feeding they are well suited. The 
 fleece is close and heavy, yielding C lbs. of white, soft, clean wool 
 adapted to combing purposes. The lambs are sheared for their 
 fleeces of " lambs wool." When crossed with the Southdown, the 
 Dorset ewes produce mostly single lambs, which, when shorn, yield 
 
 
 Fig. 30. — DORSET EWES OF MR. pitfield's FLOCK. — {From a rhotograpli.) 
 
 about 2 lbs. each of valuable wool, and make, when mature, a 
 larger and better feeding sheep, with a heavier and flner fleece 
 than the dams. A few Dorsets have been introduced into Vir- 
 ginia, but have attracted no notice beyond the simple fact of their 
 existence there. They certainly possess some valuable points for 
 our use which should make them good subjects for experiment. 
 
 The Cheviot. — The Cheviot hills traverse the boundary be- 
 tween England and Scotland. These hills have given their name to 
 a very hardy breed of sheep, the origin of which is perhaps some- 
 what fancifully dated back to the attempted invasion of England 
 by the Spanish Armada. When this formidable and dreaded fleet 
 was wrecked upon tlie stormy British coasts, it is said that some 
 of the sheep with which the ships were provided, swam ashore and 
 escaped to the^e hills, where they bred and multiplied. They 
 were originally small, light-boned, hardy sheep, and were spread 
 over most of the hilly part of the Scottish lowlands. A hundred 
 years ago the attention of breeders was drawn to the Cheviots, and 
 they were greatly improved in size and value. It is said that a 
 
THE CUEVIOT BUEi::P. 
 
 VZi 
 
 6 
 
122 THE shepherd's manual. 
 
 Lincolnshire cross was used for this purpose, and that a Leicester 
 cross was tried and failed. It is now a most useful breed, and 
 when fed upon sweet, dry herbage, produces a very choice mutton, 
 much sought after by the epicure. It is without horns, the head 
 and legs white, but sometimes, though rarely, dun or speckled, the 
 face good, but strong featured and massive ; the eyes lively ; the 
 body long, set upon clean, fine legs ; the hindquarter and saddle 
 full and heavy ; the forequarter light, as in all mountain breeds, 
 and in habit they are quiet, docile, and submissive to restraint. As 
 a mountain breed they stand first in every respect, and yet are 
 very useful lowland sheep. They fatten quickly on turnips, after " 
 pasture, without grain, and make a di-essed weight of 80 lbs. at 3 
 years old. The ewes are good mothers, and the lambs are very 
 hardy, spending the whole season on the hills without shelter, ex- 
 cept in drifting storms of snow, when, without protection, they 
 would be in danger of being buried in the drifts. The final dispo- 
 sition of the Cheviots, when full grown, is to be sold to southern 
 farmers, who raise a crop of cross-bred lambs by a Leicester ram, 
 and fattening the ewes when the lambs are weaned, sell both to 
 the butchers, turning over their capital with interest within one 
 year. Upon good pasture the fleece becomes fine, and sells for a 
 higher price than when they are fed upon coarse grass. The 
 fleece yields about 5 lbs. of medium wool, which furnishes the 
 material for the useful and fashionable Scotch tweeds and Cheviot 
 cloths. No wool is in greater or steadier demand than this class 
 of clothing wool. 
 
 The Black-Faced Scotch Sheep. — This breed is without 
 doubt the oldest in Scotland. The story of its origin is obscured 
 by tradition. It is known, however, to have existed, much as it 
 now is, for several centuries, having disputed possession of the 
 hills whereon Norval's " father fed his flock," with the wolves and 
 foxes of the semi-civilized period, which preceded the last political 
 settlement of Scotland with England. Since the union of the two 
 countries, great improvements have taken place m Scotch agri- 
 culture, and the Black-faced sheep have gained with it. They are 
 a homed breed, the horns of the ram being massive, and spirally 
 curved. The face is black, with a thick muzzle ; the eye is bright 
 and wild ; the body square and compact, with good quarters and 
 abroad saddle. They are very muscular and active, and remarka- 
 bly hardy, able to endure the privations incident to a life of con- 
 tinual exposure upon bleak and storm-beaten mountains. Only 
 the heaviest snow-drifts, followed by thawing, freezing, and crust- 
 ipg of the snow, overcome them. They instinctively herd together 
 
THE BLACK-PiCED SCOTCH SHEEP. 
 
 323 
 
 ' / f p' ' 
 
124 THE shepherd's manual. 
 
 in storms, and although completely bm*ied in a snow-drift will 
 manage to push the snow from their bodies and form a cave over 
 them, in which they will live upon what scanty herbage may be 
 within their reach, until help comes. Thus buried, these sheep 
 have lived for two or three weeks before they have been found 
 and extricated. After every storm the shepherd's first duty is to 
 explore the drifts and release the imprisoned sheep and lambs. 
 This hardiness fits them for their roving life upon their rocky 
 heather-covered pastures, the heather in part furnishing their sub- 
 sistence. They dig the heather from beneath the snow, or feed 
 upon it when all else is covered. They are docile, and easily 
 handled with the help of the sagacious Colley dogs, and are gen- 
 erally sufiiciently able to help themselves in emergencies. Their 
 activity is such that the dog is sometimes unable to head off" a 
 straying flock, or even to get abreast of it when instinctively 
 bound to change their abode. Three days before a storm they are 
 on the alert, and seek lower ground and shelter. At lambing 
 time, the ewes find retired spots, and year after year return to 
 the same locality to rear their lambs. When removed from their 
 native haunts, they have been known to journey night and day a 
 distance of 60 miles, and to swim a large river, to return to their 
 old pasture grounds. As an instance of the sagacity and activity 
 of the sheep, it is recorded that a small flock which were thus on 
 the way to a former pasture ground, were obstructed by a canal 
 which had to be crossed. As they could not easily pass this ob- 
 stacle, the flock, headed by an old wether, traveled along the bank 
 until they overtook a canal boat which was passing along in the 
 center of the canal. The cunning wether sprang on to the boat 
 and thence to the opposite bank, the whole flock following in In- 
 dian file. These sheep are kept in large flocks, sometimes of sev- 
 eral thousand, and frequently of one to four thousand. The 
 lambs will survive a surprising amount of cold and hunger, and are 
 on their feet almost at the moment of birth. The ewes take the 
 greatest care of their lambs, and will remain with them for several 
 days, even after accidental or untimely death. 
 
 The mutton of this breed is of peculiarly fine flavor, and the 
 saddles are in great request. The carcass weighs about 65 lbs., and 
 the fleece averages about 3 lbs. of washed wool. The breed im- 
 proves easily under the care of a judicious breeder, but the natural 
 qualities of this sheep are such that it is fitted for a place where 
 no others would profitably thrive, and a change in its character 
 that would cause it to lose this quality would unfit it for its posi- 
 tion, and deprive it of its chief value. How vast the room in our 
 
THE WELSH MOUNTATiq^ SHEEP. 125 
 
 exposed mountain localities, or on our unsheltered northern plains, 
 for such a sheep as this ; a race hardy and self-dependent, and 
 that would produce choice mutton, and a fleece well adapted for 
 rural manufactures of coarse cloths, carpets, blankets, and rugs. 
 
 The Welsh Mountain Shjiep. — This breed is said to be one 
 of the indigenous races of Britain. Formerly, it probably roamed 
 over hill and lowland of the whole of Wales and adjoining parts 
 of England. Of late, more profitable breeds have usurped its 
 place in the cultivated lowlands, and have driven it into the re- 
 motest pastures or stretches of barren moor, bearing onl}^ gorse 
 and heather, upon the sides and summits of the Welsh mountains. 
 Here it has so far found a resting place, furnishing those very 
 small, but highly appreciated legs and hind quarters, which are 
 valued on the tables of wealthy Englishmen as the rarest deli- 
 cacies. These legs weigh about 4 lbs., and the whole hind quar- 
 ters from? to 10 lbs., and are sold at the confectioner's and fancy 
 grocer's shops, at two or three times the price of ordinary mutton. 
 A recollection of the tender sweetness of one of these Welsh legs 
 is apt to give a higher appreciation of these small sheep than 
 might be profitable for a farmer to entertain, yet it is a question 
 if there are not many localities amongst our mountain ranges, 
 where flocks of these small hardy sheep could be kept with profit. 
 As might be expected, these sheep are hardy and good nurses to 
 their lambs, rarelj'- producing more than one, except when crossed 
 vs^ith improved breeds. The rams are homed, but ewes rarely 
 so ; their faces are white, rusty brown, speckled, or gray. The 
 head is small and is carried high ; the neck long ; the shoulders 
 low ; the rump high ; the chest narrow ; the sides flat ; and the 
 girth small. The average fleece yields about 2 lbs. of wool, the 
 best of which furnishes the material for the valued Wel»h flannel, 
 which never shrinks in washing, and of which sheets and blankets 
 are made that last a lifetime. The Welsh wool is all home-spun, 
 3,nd is woven at home into all sorts of clothing and domestic 
 goods ; the farmers and their families being wholly clothed in 
 woolen. The cloths are home dyed, either black, blue, or red. 
 The red cloth furnishes the materialfor the women's cloaks, which 
 are universally worn, and which, when a French army landed on 
 the Welsh coast, in 1797, were mistaken by them for the red coats 
 of British soldiers, and hd to their immediate and unconditional 
 surrender before the mistake was discovered. This race of sheep, 
 comparatively so puny, is a source of much comfort and wealth to 
 the Welsh people, and attempts to supplant it by the Cheviot and 
 Black-faced sheep, have so far failed. No other sheep can com- 
 
126 
 
 THE SHEPHEED S MANUAL. 
 
THE SPAI^ISH MERIKO SHEEP. 127 
 
 pete with them on their native mountain tops, and none are more 
 profitable on the lowland pastures, than a cross upon them of 
 small pure-bred Southdowns, Cotswolds, or Leicesters. The flocks 
 usually kept number from 50 to 500 head. 
 
 The Spanish, French, and German Merinos.— The Merinos 
 of Spain, France, and Germany, although they now possess dificr- 
 cnt characters and habits, have the same origin. The French, 
 Saxon, and Silesian flocks, were all originally from Spain. The 
 Spanish Merino existed as a distinct race 2,000 years ago, and the 
 fine robes of the Roman Emperors were made from the wool of 
 the Spanish flocks. There is no history or tradition as to their 
 origin which can be accepted as reasonable by any practical 
 shepherd. It is probable, however, that the fine wooled 
 sheep, which we read of in the ancient histories, were rather 
 the natural product of very favorable conditions of soil and 
 climate by which inferior races were greatly improved, than of 
 any direct efforts to breed them up to a desired standard. Yet 
 luxurious Romans may undoubtedly have created a demand for 
 fine wools, which Spanish shepherds knew how to produce by 
 coupling suitable animals, for the art of breeding was well under- 
 stood in those ancient days, and many of the maxims of modern 
 breeders are simply reproductions of those in vogue as long ago as 
 the early Christian era. The finest sheep of Spain, when they 
 first attracted notice, were found widely scattered over that coun- 
 try, divided into varieties occupying distinct provinces, and those 
 varieties, again, were subdivided into large flocks, owned by 
 wealthy proprietors, each of which flocks possessed such marked 
 characters as would entitle it to be considered as a distinct family 
 or sub-variety. The system of culture by which these various 
 families became possessed of their special characteristics, are well 
 described in an essay by Dr. R. R. Livingston, which was pre- 
 sented to the Society for the Promotion of Useful Arts, of New 
 York, in the year 1809. It is unnecessary here to do more than to 
 refer to this work. It is sufficient to record the fact that, at a 
 very early period of modern history, Spain possessed the only 
 valuable flock of fine wool sheep in the world, and that all other 
 naturalized races of Merino, our own included, have been derived 
 from that country. It may be added, that to a great extent, if not 
 altogether, Spain has lost her pre-eminence, and breeders do not 
 now resort thither for fresh importations. The Spanish sheep are 
 estimated to number ten millions, in which are included Merinos 
 of the two now remaining families, the Infantado or Negretti, and 
 the Escurial, and various other fine and coarse wool sheep. The 
 
138 THE SHErUEKDS MANUAL. 
 
 Negrctti sheep arc of more interest to us than any other of the 
 Spanish sheep, as it is of this breed alone that any are now 
 brought to this country. The Escurial sheep are of little value to 
 us, either for breeding or crossing Avith our own. They are rep- 
 resented here by the iSaxon and JSilesian Merino, which have de- 
 scended from them, as will be hereafter explained. The Merino 
 cannot thrive in a moist climate. A wide range of dry, upland 
 pasture is necessary for them, and they do not require a very nutri- 
 tious herbage. Wet pastures are very unhealthful for theu*., and 
 the liver rot and diseases of the lungs carry them otl* from a large 
 flock by thousands, in unfavorable seasons. On this account, the 
 Merino has not thriven in England, and it now exists and thrives 
 in those countries only where the climate is dry and warm, or 
 even hot. 
 
 TuE French Merino. — As this variety has been imported to 
 some extent into the United States, and possesses some value for 
 crossing upon our native Merinos, or other sheep, it is important 
 to notice its character and peculiarities. It originated from an 
 importation of a flock of over oOO Spanish sheep, selected from 
 the finest flocks of Spain in 178G. This flock was placed upon a 
 public farm, for the improvement of stock, at Rambouillet, near 
 Paris. In the selection from various sources, it appears that the 
 flock was of a mixed character, but by ctu'cful breeding, through 
 a coui-se of years, the ditferences became merged into a breed of 
 sheep, which surpassed its ancestors, in the opinion of its French 
 owners. It was in increased size of carcass and weight of fleece, 
 tliat the improvement was chiefly, if not wholly, made. In 1835 
 they became the largest pure Merinos in existence, with remark- 
 ably loose skin, and immense neck-folds. In 181.2 there were 
 flocks of these sheep in France, whose fleeces weighed 14 lbs. for 
 ewes, and 20 to 24 lbs. for rams. At this time a flock was imported 
 into this country by Mr. D. C. Collins, of Hartford, Ct. The wool 
 of these sheep was considered by a competent judge as equal to 
 the best Spanish Merino wool. It was of a brilliant, creamy color, 
 on a rich, soft, pink skin, which was loose and wrinkled. Their 
 form was fine, their constitution excellent, and in size they were 
 much larger than the American Merino. In 1846, Mr. Taintor, 
 also of Hartford, commenced to import these sheep. Ilis rams 
 sheared from 18 to 24 lbs. of unwashed wool, and ewes from 15 to 
 20 lbs. The ewes weighed alive from 130 t(^ 200 pounds, and the 
 rams from 180 to 300 pounds. There was much less yolk or gum 
 in the fleeces than in those of the Spanish sheep, and there was 
 consequently less loss in washing the wool. 
 
THK VRESCn HEiilSO fiUBKF. 
 
 120 
 
 Th« Freneli Merino «oon »pread tUrow^h i\ui noriiumi uiaUtM, 
 but tiihny htiUAh'Sii iHXinma dimtitiiiiioA with tUfilr UmtUirutihn^ 
 an rjnti\t:irt'A\ with ttj'i Bpanihh hrft^^l/j, and tU';y rapidly f<rU int/> 
 t\\h\ii\()r. TU'iy wc.rti not iiiUai tor our rou;;li tarrxiin^^, aud re- 
 qnirt'A more vMra tb^in Aw)'?rix;an f^rmfira are IsicVmcA to give U* 
 tliC'ir nt/x-k. Tij'; b<;Kt of iheh^; aniwtals were found, witit proper 
 care, U> Uj profitahte, but the inferior on/« were entirely worth- 
 lii«>. Und/;r hueh eircunifctaar;e« it i» not mirprhilnf/; that they 
 Hhoiild falJ out of the ra/^^^j in <x>njp^;tition with natural i//;d Bf/anifch 
 MerinoH, whieh, evrn when inferior, were HtiJI valuable, in propor- 
 ti/>n Ui ttie goo^l qualitiii« tiixjy retaixiefJ. In Franrxi tiie Kerta^>« 
 
 Fig. 4^1— FBEHfOH MEBIjro. 
 
 have favorably competed with tb'; Enjrlihh brf-'idn as rnutt>on she^^p, 
 and it in only rewntly that the Fn^nch aji^rieijltural journaiji 
 are bejrinnin^^ U> cjnnpare the profits from the Bouthdowns with 
 thone from tb'^ Merin^^. 
 
 At tbe Vienna International Exhibition in 1873, the French 
 Meri nrm were largely represented, and were very favorably 
 noticed. The Kpf^;imen8 tbere exbibit<jd were large and well 
 formed, tbe hkin wa-s free from lart.^e foMK or wrinkles, and tbe 
 wool wa» long, fine, strong, and thickly wH on the skin. The beKt 
 of tbem, bowever, came from Germany. Tbe ram, whose portrait 
 hi here given, was exhibited by Ilerr KannenU-rg, of Gerbin, near 
 
130 THE SHEPHEKD'S MANUAL. 
 
 Kosternitz, in Pomerania. Its wool was 3 inches in length, very 
 thick upon the skin, very equal in quality, of fair strength, and 
 covered the legs and ears. The sire of this ram clipped 27 lbs. of 
 unwashed wool, which, when washed in hot water, yielded 17 lbs. 
 of clean wool. Ferdinand Schwartz, of Lappenhagen, exhibited 
 a French, (Rambouillet), Merino ram, whose fleece weighed, un- 
 washed, 31:1^ lbs., equal to 15^ lbs. of washed wool. This animal 
 had three neck-folds, but no "rose" or rump fold. His wool was 
 2f inches long, and thickly set upon the skin. 
 
 Prince Schaumberg-Lippe, of Post Stalitz, Bohemia, exhibited 
 some combing or delaine wool Merinos, of French blood, whose 
 fleeces were of the extraordinary length of 5 to 7 inches. The 
 yield of the whole flock, of more than 800, is said to average 14^- 
 lbs. per head of unwashed wool, which shrank in scouring in the 
 factory, 58 per cent. It is impossible to consider the excellent 
 points and intrinsic merits of the well bred French Merino, and its 
 poor success, so far, in this country, without being forcibly remind- 
 ed of the lack of wisdom of a course frequently and periodically 
 pursued by American breeders and farmers, and nowhere more 
 strikingly shown than in the past experience of our sheep husbandry 
 with its sudden and excessive vicissitudes. The ' ' ups and downs " 
 of this industry, every few years, is one of the strangest manifesta- 
 tions of unsteadiness ever recorded in any pursuit. It is unfortu- 
 nate for us that we can hardly restrain ourselves from over san- 
 guine expectations on the one hand, or on the other hand, when 
 results do not meet our anticipations, from the utmost depression. 
 Being too ready to form opinions, and to act in obedience rather 
 to our sudden impressions than to our mature judgments, we enter 
 into new enterprises without consideration, and abandon them in 
 a panic. Thus a thing excellent in itself, and of inherent value 
 to us, is extolled to the skies without justice at the outset, and 
 then with equal want of justice, is condemned and sacrificed as 
 utterly valueless, because it has failed to turn all it touched into 
 gold. This is the history of all our agricultural manias. And the 
 French Merino has been made the subject of just such exalted ex- 
 pectations, and of just such deep deuunciatio is. Yet there is a 
 place for this breed in our agriculture which it will hold and keep 
 at some period in the future in spite of past adverse experiences. 
 
 The Saxon MEKmo.— In 1765 the King of Spain, on the appli- 
 cation of his brother-in-law, Prince Xavier, sent 300 Merinos of 
 the Escurial family into Saxony. These sheep, naturally the finest 
 wooled and the least hardy of the Spanish flocks, were so bred as 
 to still further increase the fineness of the fleece, and to diminish 
 
THE SAXON MERIKO. 131 
 
 their strength of constitution. The ewes yielded from a pound 
 and a half to two pounds of washed wool, and the rams from two 
 to three pounds. The wool was almost free irom yolk, and re- 
 mained clean and wiiite ; the staple was from one Inch to an inch 
 and a half in length. The body of this sheep w^as thin, the legs 
 long, the neck long and thin, the skin pale, and the constitution 
 weak. Yet the beauty and extreme fineness of the wool were 
 such (a fiber, not of the finest, measuring V84o of an inch in dia- 
 meter) that it overbore the objections to the defects of the sheep. 
 While this is the general character of the Saxon sheep, there are 
 a few breeders who have striven wdth success to give them more 
 size and greater compactness of form. 
 
 The management of the noted Saxon flock of Baron Sternberg, 
 from which most of our recent importations of these sheep have 
 been made, is worthy o£ note here. This flock consists of 1,200 
 head : 600 ewes, 100 rams. 250 lambs, and the rest wethers and 
 yearlings. They are kept in one large brick stable, 330 feet long, 
 63 feet wide, and 30 feet high ; this is well ventilated, and made 
 to be closed in severe weather. The ewes, rams, etc., are kept in 
 divisions separated by hurdles, supported by stakes driven into 
 the floor. In these are placed fodder-racks and feed troughs. 
 Above the stable are hay and straw lofts, floored with boards, 
 which are covered with several inches of beaten clay. The litter 
 and manure remain in the stable six months at a time, until it is 
 in a compact, solid mass, three or four feet thick. The sheep are 
 stabled here from November to April, and foddered on straw, hay, 
 turnips, and brewers' grains. In summer they are taken out to 
 graze from 9 to 13 in the forenoon, and from 3 in the afternoon 
 until sunset. Great care is taken in coupling the ewes ; those 
 rams being selected that are needed to cover defects or improve 
 weak points in the ewes. Mere fineness of wool is not aimed at. 
 The greatest possible size of carcass compatible with tine clothing 
 wool, and a fleece at least 2J lbs. in weight, are the desired objects. 
 The weak and inferior Iambs are killed off when young, and the 
 flock is rigorously weeded of all but healthy animals. The value 
 of the land upon which this flock is kept with profit is $200 to 
 $300 an acre. The importation of Saxon Merinos into the United 
 Slates have shown that this breed cannot, under ordinary circum- 
 stances, profitably compete with other varieties of Merinos, on ac- 
 count of the cost of the shelter and extra care needed for its 
 proper management, and the smallness of the fleece. The supe- 
 rior fineness of the wool does not bring a sufficiently high price to 
 make up for the deficiency in weight. In competition with the 
 
Vd'Z THE SHEPHERD S MANUAL. 
 
 American or French Merino, tlie Saxon has been found unprofita- 
 ble for the production of wool in the present condition of the 
 woolen manufacture, yet there may occur cases in which it can be 
 made useful at some future time, w^hen the demand for very fine 
 wool may return under the influence of the changes of fashion. 
 
 The Silesian Merino. — The Silesian Merinos have become 
 already a successfully acclimated breed in the United States. This 
 breed became established through importations from Saxony as 
 well as from Spain. The flock out of which the only importa- 
 tion into America was made, became naturalized in Silesia by an 
 importation of Infantado and Negretti Merinos, in 1811, by 
 Ferdinand Fischer, of Wirchenblatt. Mr. Fischer personally se- 
 lected 100 Infantado ewes and 4 Negretti rams, and these sheep 
 have been interbred without admixture from that date to the 
 present. So careful has been the breeding, that since its com- 
 mencement over 60 years ago, the pedigree of ever}'" sheep of the 
 flock has been recorded. This purity of blood is one of the most 
 valuable characteristics of the flock in question, in which, having 
 acquired an offshoot from it, we are especially interested. Perfect 
 purity of blood gives force, or, to use the breeders' phraseology, 
 prepotency to the breed used in crossing on other races, and in- 
 sures uniformity of improvement. If this general opinion of 
 breedei*s is founded on fact, as must be admitted, then the value 
 of the flock to be referred to, can hardly be questioned, and it 
 might truly be designated as pure Spanish, instead of, by reason 
 of its accidental location, Silesian. As it is, how^ever, generally 
 known as Silesian, and is as well entitled to that name as are the 
 French Merinos to theirs, it is convenient to continue its use. The 
 American Silesian Merinos w^ere imported from the fleck of 3Ir. 
 Fischer, by the late Mr. Wm. Chamberlin, of Dutchess Co., N. Y., 
 from 1851 to 1856. In all, 213 ewes and 34 rams were imported. 
 The ewes shear from 8 to 11 pounds of unwashed wool, the rams 
 from 12 to 16 pounds. The wool is from two inches and a half to 
 three inches long, dark on the outside, without gum, but with 
 plenty of oil of a white and free, but not sticky, character. The 
 ewes weigh, alive, from 110 to 130 lbs., and rams from 145 to 155 
 lbs. They are hardy, good breeders, and the ewes are good nurses. 
 After some years' experience with them, Mr. Chamberlin has 
 stated that they do not deteriorate, but that the wool grows finer, 
 without losing in the weight of the fleece. They mature slowly, 
 and do not reach their full size until four years old ; after eight or 
 nine years they become lighter in weight. The mature sheep are 
 as large as the ordinary American Merino. The Silesian is simply 
 
CROSS-BRED SHEEP. 133 
 
 a very high-bred Spanish sheep, resulting from the union of two 
 of the best families, and bred for more than half a century for a 
 particular purpose by one breeder, or what is r-'^ally equivalent to 
 that, a father and son. The fleece is superior in fineness to that of 
 any other Merino wc possess, and for a really fine wool, is un- 
 rivalled. It Is fortunate that the Silesian Merino begins its career 
 ill America under such favorable auspices, and that tiie shepherd 
 in charge of the flock, Mr. Carl Heyne, so thoroughly under- 
 stands its requirements and management. It is to be hoped that 
 the conservative and judicious management of this flock will help 
 to establish it success-fully, and to launch it on a long course of use- 
 fulness. Kams and ewes of this flock are already being distributed 
 by sale tliroughout the country, and the original flock now numbers 
 over 800 head. One peculiarity in Mr. Heyne's management, 
 is especially noteworthy ; the lambs are yeaned very early in the 
 winter. This is of course a matter of choice on the part of the 
 shepherd, but it involves the greatest excellence of management, 
 and the provision of roots for the maintenance of the nursing 
 owes, along with a perfect arrangement f(;r shelter and warmth 
 during the winter season. It is obvious that few American breed- 
 ers, and still fewer farmers, would find it possible or profitable to 
 incur the necessary expense of this sort of management for the 
 amount of profit realized from the wool alone. 
 
 Cross-bred Sheep. — It is a somewhat suggestive fact that just 
 now the most profitable sheep in Eunjpe are cross-bred. The 
 cross-bred races in England are what the English farmers perti- 
 nently designate the "rent-paying sheep, " that Ls, that there is more 
 money in them than in any others. TIjc cross is ma<le between 
 the strictly mutton sheep and the strictly wool-bearing sheep. 
 The sheep raised chiefly for wool are of slow growtli and late in 
 maturing. The high-bred mutton sheep are high feeders, and re- 
 quire the most careful treatment. They have been refined so 
 highly that they no longer possess the requisite constitution, nor 
 are they so prolific as to satisfy the wants of farmers who depend, 
 not upon t!je high prices obtained by breeders for their stock, but 
 upon those offered by the purchasers of meat and wool, who can 
 only give what the inexorable necessities of the markets enaljle 
 them to pay. The cross-bred sheep are of quick growth and early 
 maturity ; their mutton is acceptable in the markets ; their fleeces 
 are of wide adaptation to woolen manufactures, and they are 
 easily fed and make a greater weight of marketable meat with a 
 comparatively small consumption of food. In Mr. Lawes' experi- 
 ments, related in the Royal Agricultural Journal, it was found that 
 
134 THE SHEFHERD's MAis^UAL 
 
 the cross-bred sheep could be fed more cheaplj^, for the same 
 weight of flesh, than the pure breeds, with but one exception, 
 that being the Cotswold. The same necessity to make the most 
 profit on the least expenditure, exists with American as with the 
 English, French, and German farmers, and we are discovering, as 
 they have done, that the cross-bred sheep bring the most money 
 to their owners. In England, through the operation of this fact, 
 there has been established for some years past a system of ram 
 sales, at which breeders of pure blood sheej) offer their surplus 
 rams for sale or for hire by the year. By this means farmers are 
 enabled to select for themselves such breeding animals as they 
 may need. These sales are attended by purchasers from all parts 
 of Europe, Australia, and South America, and also by a few of the 
 more enterprising breeders of the United States and Canada, or 
 their agents. At the Vienna Exposition of 1873, where there were 
 exhibited several cross-breeds of sheep which were highly satisfac- 
 tory, the favorable results of this system were prominently set 
 forth. The most conspicuous of these was 
 
 The Cotswold-Merino. — These are fine examples of sheep. 
 They are without horns, with bare faces resembling the Cotswolds, 
 but with the pink noses of the Merino; the ears are slightly 
 drooping, and the top-knot shorter and less abundant than in the 
 Cotswold. The wool is much finer than in the Cotswold, very 
 bright, with good curl, thickly set on the skin, and well filled 
 with liquid yellow oil, but free from solid yolk or gum. The 
 fleece is better closed than that of the Cotswold, and is easily kept 
 free from dirt and dust. The flesh is firmer than that of the Cots- 
 wold, and thicker than in the Merino, both back and ribs being 
 well covered. The girth taken over the wool averages 5 feet 8 
 inches. The wool is scant below the knee and hock. This is the 
 character of the first cross. When interbred without further 
 crossing, this character has been well maintained. The cross-bred 
 animals and their produce are of strong constitution, mature 
 quickly, becoming prime fat at 12 to 14 months old, and weigh 
 alive at that age 140 to 148 pounds. The flock from which some 
 of the specimens exhibited at Vienna were taken, numbered 340 
 head, and was bred by the Moravian Sugar Factory Company, of 
 Keltschan, Austria. The sheep are fed upon waste beet pulp from 
 the factory, a small quantity of oats, hay, and oil-cake, in addition 
 to clover pasture and mangels, which completes the round of the 
 year's feeding. The mutton is held in high esteem, and brings 
 the extreme price of 8 cents per pound, live weight, after the 
 fleece is sheared. 
 
THE MERIKO CROSSES. , 135 
 
 There are many other flocks similarly bred in Austria and Hun- 
 gary, and all are reported as being equally satisfactory. In refer- 
 ence to these sheep, a German agricultural journal published in 
 Vienna, in its issue of June 2, 1873, remarks as follows : " Wd 
 cannot sympathize with the complaints of the admirers of high, 
 fine wool, looking as we do upon the farmer as a merchant who 
 must keep up with the times, and supply the wants of the market. 
 As the public have ceased to ask for the very fine cloth which was 
 so highly valued 50 years ago for its beauty and durability, no one 
 can complain that the manufacturer turns his attention to cloths 
 of coarser quality, suitable to the present public taste. When the 
 manufacturer no longer requires so much of the high, f ne wool, 
 the price falls, and the farmer ceases to produce an article that is 
 no longer profitable." There could certainly be nothing more 
 pertinent to our own case than this. The same need has found its 
 same remedy here, and the Cotswold-Merino is largely bred for 
 the production of market lambs, and some of our best breeders are 
 giving their attention to the establishment of permanent flocks of 
 this cross, with promising results. 
 
 The Southdown-Merino. — This cross has been tried with 
 success in Germany upon a middle quality of land, not sufficiently 
 productive to support the heavier bodied Cotswold-Meriuos. The 
 first crossbred sheep possess good feeding qualities, and when bred 
 together without further crossing, keep well up to the standard of 
 the parents. The Arch Duke Albrecht has a flock of 1,400 of this 
 cross, of which some specimens were exhibited at Vienna. The 
 wool is rated as middle fine, weighing 3^ Ibs.-to the fleece in the 
 shearlings, and 3 lbs. in the two shearlings. This cross made 
 upon grade Merinos, is very common in the United States, where 
 early market lambs are produced, there being no fatter, better, or 
 more desirable lambs to the butcher, although there are heavier, 
 than those from this cress. As in the Cotswold-Merinos, the first 
 cross is the best for interbreeding. 
 
 The Leicester-Merino. — This cross is a somewhat unusual 
 one, and does not appear to have been made with a view to the 
 permanent establishment of a new race of sheep, except in rare 
 instances where the possession of a suitable breed of Merinos and 
 the taste of the proprietor have been coincident. In one case only 
 has the effort to establish this cross been reported in any publica- 
 tion of wide circulation. The history of a flock of about 500 Lei- 
 cester-Merinos, bred by M, E. "Pluchet, of Trappes, France, given 
 to the Central Agricultural Society, of France, in January, 1875, is 
 
136 
 
 THE SHEPHEKD'S MAKUAL. 
 
THE COTSWOLD CROSSES. 137 
 
 published by Eugene Gayot, the well known writer upon live 
 stock, in the Journal d' Agriculture Pratique^ of the 37th of May 
 following, with a portrait of one of these sheep which is reproduced 
 here. The course followed by Mons. Pluchet during the 36 years 
 of his persevering effort is very suggestive and instructive. He 
 commenced in 1839 by coupling his Rambouillet Merino ewes, 
 weighing about 68 pounds when dressed for the butcher at 3 years 
 old, with a pure Leicester ram of moderate size. The effort to 
 produce what he wanted, by one cross only, failed. At first the 
 lambs were too small, and the fleece was too light. Greater suc- 
 cess was made by crossing the half-blood ewes with rams of 
 quarter Leicester blood. The produce, containing three-eighths 
 Leicester, and and five-eighths Merino blood, were much improved, 
 giving a much longer and better fleece than the half or quarter, 
 bloods. After continuing a course of breeding the produce of 
 this cross together, up to 1856, a new type of animal, entirely dif- 
 ferent from its ancestors, resulted. The carcass was much larger 
 than in the Merino, the wool was not so long as that of the Lei- 
 cester, but finer and softer ; the face was free from wool, and the 
 head was square, with large, prominent eyes. The bone was 
 remarkably fine ; the flesh solid, and the ewes were prolific and 
 remarkably good nurses ; but neither the carcass nor the fleece 
 were sufllciently heavy to be profitable. The ewes of this cross 
 were coupled with a pure Leicester ram, and the produce being 
 eleven-sixteenths Leicester, were again crossed with rams of three- 
 eighths Leicester, or of the previous cross. The sheep thus pro- 
 cured were Si- sixteenths Leicester and 7i-sixteenths Merino, or 
 nearly half bloods. The close in-and-in-breeding of this cross 
 gave a race of sheep that, when fed on the same pastures as the 
 original Merinos, produced exactly the same dead weight of meat 
 of superior quality at 24 months, that the Merinos gave at 36 
 months, and a fleece weighing 9J lbs. in the yolk, which sold at a 
 higher price per pound than the Merino fleece. Under the cir- 
 cumstances in which Mons. Plachet was placed, the result was 
 very profitable, and the new race he originated occupies a place 
 which neither of the original parents was able to fill. Under a 
 system of close breeding, without fresh admixture, the quality and 
 character of this flock are maintained, and the ewes continue to 
 be both prolific of lambs and milk, and are excellent nurses. 
 
 Cotswold-Leicester. — A very handsome cross-bred is pro- 
 duced by the union of the Cotswold ram with the Leicester ewe. 
 The fleece of this cross is of a silky fiber, beautifully waved and 
 curled. The wool partakes of the fineness and luster of the Lei- 
 
138 THE shepherd's manual. 
 
 cester, and the strength and weight of the Cotswold. It is in 
 great request for the manufacture of fine dress braids, and is 
 sought by the manufacturers chiefly in Canada, where the cross 
 is most common. The cross is hardier than the pure Leicester, 
 and yields a fine mutton, but when bred together, the produce 
 is very apt to deteriorate. The portrait given on page 139 repre- 
 sents a ewe bred by Mr. Burdett Loomis, of Windsor Locks, Ct., 
 and very much resembles one bred by the author. 
 
 CoTSV/OLD-SouTHDOWN. — The Southdown is par excellence the 
 mutton sheep of the world. But mutton alone is not profitable ; 
 there must be a fleece as well as the carcass, to repay the cost of 
 feed and care. The Cotswold is a profitable wool bearer, but its 
 mutton is not so desirable as that of the Southdown, nor is its 
 fleece adapted to a wide variety of uses in manufacture. If the 
 excellencies of the two breeds could be combined, and better mut- 
 ton than the Cotswold, and a better fleece than either be produced 
 by amalganaating the difi'erent bloods, a desirable result would be 
 reached. In this lies the whole secret of the desire to produce 
 cross breeds. In the efibrt to reach this result, all the cross breeds 
 have been obtained. It cannot be supposed that sheep breeders 
 have yet reached the limit of profitable crossing. The constant 
 change in the public taste for cloths, dress goods, and fabrics, and 
 the new-found needs and capabilities of various and peculiar local- 
 ities, will ever operate to cause new crosses and combinations of 
 breeds, and to furnish opportunities for the skillful exercise of the 
 breeder's art. The Cotswold and the Southdown bloods flow 
 together in more than one firmly established cross breed, but with 
 other admixtures. Efi'orts to combine these two breeds alone, and 
 to produce a new race which shall be more profitable than either 
 alone, have been made of late both in this country and in Germa- 
 ny. In the latter country the Moravian Sugar Factory Company, 
 previously mentioned in this chapter, have formed a flock of 
 cross-bred sheep which successfully answers the purpose of pro- 
 ducing mutton and a wool which, for certain manufactures, is 
 desirable and profitable. 
 
 In the United States, Mr. William Crozier, of Beacon Farm, 
 near Northport, Long Island, has commenced to breed a flock 
 and found a race which he calls the Beacon-downs. His suc- 
 cess so far has been encouraging. A description of this sheep 
 with the portrait, from which it is here reproduced, appeared in 
 the American Agriculturist of June, 1875. The flock was com- 
 menced six years ago by crossing Southdown ewes with a Cots- 
 wold ram, and the first cross, being very satisfactory, was interbred. 
 
THE COTSWOLD-LEICESTER SHEEP. 
 
 139 
 
140 THE shepherd's MAKUAL. 
 
 It was found to maintain its original character perfectly, produc- 
 ing a sheep which yielded a fleece of wool closer and finer than 
 that of the Cotswold, but not so long, weighing from 11 to 13 lbs., 
 and a much heavier carcass of mutton of a quality equal to that of 
 the Southdown which weighed, at three years old, 150 lbs. The 
 ewes are prolific, the lambs strong, healthy, and maturing quickly, 
 reaching a live weight of 140 to 160 lbs. at twelve months. They 
 are found to be equally suitable to the light pastures of Long 
 Island, with either the pure Southdown or the pure Cotswold, and 
 are perfectly at home beneath the hot summer suns of our climate. 
 It is a coincidence which is not at all remarkable, being founded 
 on common necessities, that in producing this and other crosses, 
 the Germans and ourselves have taken up the same materials to 
 work with. The climates of both the United States and southern 
 Germany are similar ; the summers are hot and dry, and the win- 
 ters compel the use of preserved and dry food for a considerable 
 length of time. The breeds wbich would be suitable to the mild, 
 moist, and even climate of England, are not exactly adapted to 
 Germany or the United States, and we must hesitate to follow, or 
 must follow with great caution, the lead of the English breeders. 
 But the example or success of the Germans may be made more 
 safely applicable to our circumstances, inasmuch as the conditions 
 in both cases are similar. This coincidence is a proof of the fact 
 that in working out these changes, breeders and farmers are forced 
 to follow certain natural laws, and that as they work in conform- 
 ity thereto, they succeed, but when they oppose these laws, they 
 must necessarily fail. It is in exact accordance with this fact that 
 we find it difiicult or impossible to preserve, for any length of time, 
 the condition of sheep imported from England, more especially 
 of the more highly refined breeds ; but that we can easily accli- 
 mate their produce, or build up cross breeds which will be more 
 profitable and convenient for us to keep. With our wonderful 
 diversity of climate, soil, and surface, and with the varied demand 
 for staples for manufactured fabrics, there is opened a field for 
 the exercise of the breeder's skill in producing new races to accom- 
 modate these conditions, and to meet these demands, which is 
 hitherto unexampled in the history of agriculture. This is no 
 mere matter of conjecture. It has been clearly demonstrated by 
 experience and practice. Wool of the cross between the Cots- 
 wold or Leicester rams on Merino ewes has been imported into 
 New York from New Zealand and Australia, for some years past, 
 to meet the demands of the manufacturers of delaines and other 
 staple goods. Our wool-buyers have been in the habit of going to 
 
THE VALUE OF CKOSS-BRED SHEEP, 
 
 141 
 
142 THE shepherd's MANUAL. 
 
 those distant countries to select wools suitable for tlieir needs 
 which they cannot procure at home. The heavy expenses involved 
 act as a protection to this industry here, not to speak of the pres- 
 ent import duty levied on foreign vf ools. Large quantities of this 
 cross-bred wool are also used in England, where it cannot be pro- 
 duced so cheaply as here. It would be strange indeed if we can- 
 not, with our vast territory, equally favorable in climate and soil 
 with those distant regions of the southern hemisphere, at least 
 compete on equal terms with the shepherds of those countries, 
 more especially as we enjoy an immense advantage, which they 
 do not, in having a market at our very doors for the mutton which 
 these sheep so profitably produce. In short, the production of 
 American cross-bred sheep offers a most enticing field for experi- 
 ment and labor both to the skillful breeder and the enterprising 
 farmer. For the first in keeping up a supply of pure bred rams, 
 and in improving their quality so as to meet the demand of the 
 farmer ; and for the latter in seeking out, selecting, and using these 
 pure rams on our native sheep with proper knowledge, judgment, 
 and skill, so as to supply the demands of our own manufacturers 
 at least, if not those of other countries. To do this there must be 
 an actual contact and interchange of ideas and experiences be- 
 tween the woolen manufacturer and the breeder and farmer, by 
 means of which the needs of the one and the opportunities and 
 duties of the others, may be mutually explained and made known. 
 Neither branch of our native wool industry can flourish as it 
 should and might without this interchange of views and the 
 recognition of an identity of interest. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 WOOL— ITS STRUCTURE AND USES. 
 
 Wool in its character and structure in no respect differs from 
 hair. When hair is soft, pliable, and of a spiral or wavy form, it 
 is what we call wool. Wool, like hair, is the outer covering of 
 some species of animals, and is a growth from the skin. The skin 
 of an animal is a composite structure consisting of two portions, 
 the outer and insensible layer called the epidermis, and a highly 
 sensitive, vascular and nervous layer beneath this, called the 
 
STRUCTURE OF WOOL. 
 
 143 
 
 derma. It is in the derma tliat the hair is rooted, and from it 
 that it is nourished. The hau', (or wool), consists of two portions, 
 the shaft, or that which pierces through the epidermis and forms 
 the outer coat or fleece, and the bulb or root which is imbedded in 
 the derma. The bulb of the hair is rooted in a gland called the 
 hair follicle^ and from this it derives the cells which form the outer 
 surface of the hair. These cells are converted into flat scales, in- 
 closing the interior fibrous structure of the hair, and as they are 
 successively produced, they overlap like shingles on a roof, or the 
 scales of a pine cone, forming the imbricated coat of the hair to 
 be hereafter described at length. Rising into the hair bulb is the 
 hair germ, which furnishes the hair with nutrition, and the ele- 
 ments of its growth. On each side of the hair follicle is a gland 
 which secretes a viscid fluid. These glands, known as the sebace- 
 ous glands, open by small canals into the sheath of the hair. Other 
 
 Fig. 47.— SECTION OP SKIN HIGHLY MAGNIFIED, SHOWING THE GROWTH 
 
 OF THE HAIR. 
 
 sebaceous glands open independently upon the surface of the epi- 
 dermis. They secrete a fluid which serves to lubricate the skin, 
 and in the sheep supplies the oil and yolk that fill that pur- 
 pose for the fleece and prevent any injury to the wool by con- 
 tinued rubbing, or " cotting," or felting, in consequence of the 
 wearing and friction, while upon the sheep's back. In a healthy 
 skin this secretion with those of other glands, (called the sudor!- 
 
144 
 
 »C3 
 
 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL. 
 
 parous glands), which are situated in the derma, amount to a total 
 quantity which surpasses that of the evacuations from both the 
 bowels and kidneys. 
 
 In tig. 47 is shown the structure both of the skin and the hair, 
 the engraving, (from Chauveau's Comparative Anatomy of the Do- 
 mestic Animals), representing a section of the skin highl}' magni- 
 fied. The epidermis is shown at A, the derma at B, the hair follicle 
 at c, the sebaceous glands at 1, the bulb or root of the hair at 2, the 
 hair at 3, a fat cell at 4, a sudoriparous or sweat gland at 5, and at 6 
 the excretory duct of this gland, or pore of the skin. 
 
 Hair or wool is composed of three layers. The outer one, the 
 epidermis, is very thin, consisting of the flattened cells or scales 
 overlapping as previously mentioned. In wool these imbricated 
 scales are highly developed, and fill a most important ofllce, giving 
 
 a 
 
 Fig. 48.— APPEARANCE OF WOOL WHEN HIGHLY MAGNIFIED. 
 
 to it much of its value as a material for the manufacture of cloth. 
 When examined by a microscope of high power, a fiber of wool 
 presents the appearance shown in fig. 48. The discovery of the 
 serrated surface of wool which is generally attributed to Mr. 
 Youatt, was previously announced by M. Monge, in Atuiales de 
 Chimie, in 1795. This serrated or toothed surface confers upon wool 
 its felting property. When wool is carded it is torn to pieces and 
 mixed and twisted in every direction. The waved or curved 
 structure of the fiber of some qualities of wool aids in this twieting 
 and entangling of the fibers, (see fig. 49), and the points of the 
 scales projecting as so many minute hooks hold the entangled 
 mass together closely and firmly. Pressing, rolling, or beating 
 
CHARACTERISTICS OF WOOL AND HAIR. 
 
 145 
 
 the wool together, causes it to adhere in a compact mass, in 
 other words causes it to felt firmly together, and the more 
 firmly, the more it is rolled, beaten, or worked. These scales 
 are very minute and numerous; in the length of one inch of a 
 fiber of fine Saxony wool, there are no less than 2,720 of them ; in 
 Southdown wool there are over 2,000, and in the Leicester wool 
 there are over 1,800 of them to 
 every inch. Upon the whole sur- 
 face of a fiber of Merino wool one 
 inch long and V750 of an inch in 
 diameter, there are over 23,000 of 
 these points. The more numer- 
 ous they are, and the more waved 
 or curled the wool, the better its 
 felting quality. 
 
 The second layer, the cortical 
 substance, is the thickest portion of 
 the fiber. It also contains the 
 coloring matter. It is fibrous and 
 striped lengthways. The central 
 portion of the fiber consists of the 
 medullary substance, or marrow, 
 and occupies a narrow, irregular 
 cavity. Hair or wool is not hollow or tubular, as is frequently 
 supposed, but solid, and consists of these three portions. The fiber 
 grows from the root, and increases by addition of cells continuous- 
 ly formed in the follicle. It is thus seen that the growth and per- 
 fection of the wool depends in the most intimate manner upon 
 the nutiition and perfect health of the animal. An interesting 
 and valuable addition to the natural history of wool and hair has 
 recently been made through some investigation ordered by the 
 Secretary of the Treasury of the United States, for the purpose of 
 identifying the presence of sheeps' wool in manufactured goods, the 
 materials of which are ostensibly the hair of the cow and calf. 
 The investigations were made by Professors John L. LeConte and 
 J. J. Woodward, of Washington, D. C, with the help of a micro- 
 scope magnifying nearly 100,000 times, (810 diameters). The full 
 report of these investigations is published in the Bulletin of the 
 National Association of Wool Manufacturers, Vol. V, No. 7, 1875, 
 (Boston), a publication of the greatest value to intelligent wool- 
 growers as to all woolen manufacturers. After describing the well 
 known structure of hair and wool, the report proceeds : " But not- 
 withstanding this similarity of structure, most of the individual 
 7 
 
 Fig. 49. — FIBERS OF WOOL,. 
 
146 THE shepherd's manual. 
 
 hairs of the cow and calf arc so unlike the majority of those of 
 the wool-bearing animals in their size and shape, that it might 
 seem easy to make the distinction. They are much shorter, much 
 thicker at their base, taper rapidly towardk> the point ; the medulla 
 occupies a larger proportional part of the whole hair, and the free 
 edges of the scales of the cuticle, which are so disposed as to form 
 from twenty to forty imbrications to the ^'looth of an inch, lie 
 quite smoothly upon the surface of the hairs, so that their con- 
 tours, as seen under the microscope, closely approximate continu- 
 ous lines. These characters are so well marked that the coarser 
 hairs of the cow and calf can readily be distinguished from the 
 woolly hairs of any of the wool-bearing animals. On the other 
 hand, however, the majority of the woolly hairs of the sheep offer 
 a combination of characters which are never found in the hairs of 
 the cow and calf; namely, each of these hairs extends from half 
 an inch to several inches in length without any medulla, and 
 without perceptible taper. They present at frequent but irregular 
 intervals, well marked, one-sided, more or less spirally arranged 
 thickenings of the cortical substance, which give to the wool its 
 curly character. The mean diameter of each hair varies from 
 Yeooth to the Vioooth of an inch, or even less ; and the scales of the 
 cuticle are so arranged that their free edges project somewhat^ 
 forming well-marked imbrications, of which usually from fifteen 
 to thirty can be counted in the Viooth of an inch. The fine hairs 
 of the goat and kid, from the Vioooth to the '/soootli of an inch or 
 less in diameter, also run from half an inch to an inch or more, 
 without perceptible taper, without medulla, and are clothed with a 
 cuticle resembling that of sheep's wool, but are almost^ or alto- 
 gether, devoid of the irregular thickenings of the cortical sub- 
 stance which characterizes the latter. Similar hairs are found in 
 certain deer, and some other animals, but never on the cow or 
 calf." The report is accompanied bj' highly finished lieliotype 
 illustrations of samples of different kinds of hair and wool. 
 The chemical composition of pure, dry wool, is as follows : 
 
 COMPOSITION OF PURE WOOL. 
 
 Carbon ^ 49.35 per cent. 
 
 Hydro2:en 7.57 " " 
 
 Nitrocren 15.86 " " 
 
 Sulphur 3.66 " " 
 
 Oxygen 33.06 " " 
 
 100.00 " *' 
 
 The fibers of fine wool are very closely seated upon the skin. 
 The pure Merino has from 40,000 to 48,000 fibers on a single 
 
'JJ/K yOLK OF WOOL. 147 
 
 gquare incli ; the ori;^nnal coarBC woolcd breedg bavc from 5 fm to 
 6,W0 fifwflon an inch. The twentieth cr^>ft8 of a pure Moiino 
 ram uprjn a coarwe wool ra^;^^ had no morr; than 25/X>0 fitx tb to fh^ 
 square inch; thiK fact bJjowh very forcibly how Ion;,' a prriod 
 it may take to remove the e/fectH of one croBB, for if tluB Htatc- 
 ment be true, the presence r^ only %„,,„,„ (1,bs than one'mil- 
 lionth part), of impure blood in BuHicient Uj reduce the finr-nesft of 
 the fler^;e nearly one-half. The yolk which is g^x-ret^d from the 
 glandH ol the nkin in an alkaline Hubstance, partaking of thr- r-har- 
 acter of a 8oap. At its necretion it In liquid, and in f;ome breeds 
 of Bheep It remains in this state, moistening and softening the 
 fleece ; jn other breeds, particularly some families of the Mr-rinos 
 the yolk thickens or drien into a sort of gum or wax of an or.nge 
 yellow color, which adheres to the wool in 8r;ales,and greatly adds 
 to Its weight. The yolk or - suint " has been found by l)r 
 Voelcker to consist of a combination of fatty acids with potash" 
 fonnjng a potash soap which is soluble in water. When dried* 
 the yolk contains 00 rx;r cent of fatty compounds, with some nitro* 
 gen, and 41 per cent of mineral matter, of which from 00 U) 84 pr-r 
 cent is potanh. In some places this potash is profitably recovered 
 from the refuse liquid of wool washings. In November, 1805, 
 Maumen^j and Uogelet communicated to the Chemical Society of 
 Paris, the details of their experiments on the nature of suint, 
 which led them to take out a patent for the manufacture of potash 
 salts from this source. They showed that suint is made up of 
 TiJiutral fatty salts containing much potash, but not more than 
 traces of soda, and rarely even that; that the soluf>le portion 
 yields on evaporation and calcination a mixture consisting mainly 
 of carbonate of potassium, with chloride, sulpliate, phosphate, and 
 alumino-silicate of potassium in smaller quantities, also a litfle 
 lime, magnesia, and oxide of iron and maDganese, the average 
 composition being 
 
 Carbonate of potassiam 80 78 
 
 CMorJde " " a\f. 
 
 SuJpfjate " " ..il. *.'.*.'.'.'.'.'.*.*.*.'.'!.'.'.','.'.*]."" 2 83 
 Other substances ''.'.'.'....'.'..'.'.'...'.'.'.... 4.2 1 
 
 The yolk soluble in water forms from 30 to 22 per cent of the 
 weight of the fleece, and besides this, the fleece contains from 7 to 
 10 per cent of oil, which is not removed in ordinary brook wash- 
 ing unless it be in part dissolved by the action of the supera- 
 bundant potash of the soapy yolk. When the oil and yolk 
 are removed by washing, the wool becomes harsh and dry to 
 
148 THE shepherd's MAl^UAL. 
 
 the touch. The presence of a considerable amount of yolk in the 
 fleece is justly supposed to indicate a superior quality in the wool, 
 and while excessive yolk is undesirable, it is a disputed point just 
 when that excess begins. A fleece of Merino wool that loses one- 
 half in washing, can scarcely be said to have an excess of yolk. 
 Many breeders do not hesitate to go beyond this, and insist that 
 no amount of yolk can be called excessive. In this view they are 
 supported by the high authority of Mr. Youatt, who has said : 
 *' farmers never bestow a thought on yolk, and neither understand 
 nor care about it ; this question without doubt will some day be 
 regarded as one of the very cardinal and essential points of the 
 sheep." Mr. Randall, our highest authority on fine wool, in his 
 work previously referred to, does not favor the production of yolk 
 to an excessive extent. He very justly remarks that when manu- 
 facturers cease to pay the same price for excessively yolky wools 
 as for those which are only moderately yolky, the breeding of 
 sheep that produce four pounds of yolk for one pound of wool, 
 must go out of fashion. Perhaps this matter may safely be left in 
 the hands of the manufacturers, who are not apt to pay for what 
 they do not want ; and while they continue to buy excessively 
 yolky wool, it will be most profitable for the farmer to produce it. 
 
 CLASSIFICATION OF WOOLS. 
 
 Wool is generally classed as short and long. It is also graded as 
 superfine, fine y medium^ and coarse. The terms carding and combing 
 wools are no longer suflSciently distinctive, as many kinds of wool 
 are now combed that were formerly carded, and the continued 
 improvement of combing machinery gradually adds to the list of 
 combing wools. Merino wools of less than three inches in length 
 are now combed, as are the short wools of the Southdown grades. 
 It is very important for wool-growers to know exactly the wishes 
 and needs of the wool manufacturers, and to seek this knowledge 
 should be their constant aim. At present, and for some time past, 
 the coarse and medium wools have, in many parts of the country, 
 borne the same price as the finest Merino w^ools ; in some markets 
 fleeces of one-quarter and half-blood Merinos have sold for more 
 than those from full-blood animals. The quotations of wool in the 
 New York Mercantile Journal of July 29th, 1875, were as follows : 
 
 NEW YORK, MICHIGAN, AND INDIANA WOOLS. 
 
 Super Saxony fleece 50c.@52 c. 
 
 Full blood Meriuo 50c.@52 e. 
 
 i to i blood Merino 48e,@50 c. 
 
 Common fleeces 45c.@47ic. 
 
 Combing wool ' 60 c. 
 
VALUE OF MEDIUM WOOLS. 149 
 
 OHIO AND PENNSYLVANIA WOOLS. 
 
 Choice Saxony fleece XX 50c.@53 c. 
 
 Full blood Merino X : 48c.@50 c. 
 
 i blood Merino 50c.@54 c. 
 
 i blood Merino 45c.@47sc. 
 
 ILLDJOIS, WISCONSIN, AND IOWA WOOLS. 
 
 Super Saxony 45c.@50c. 
 
 Full blood Merino 45c.@50c. 
 
 i blood Merino 46c.@50c. 
 
 The demand of manufacturers is clearly for medium wools, the 
 yroduce of half-bloods or grade Merinos, or of crosses of Merinos 
 with Southdowns. The chief difficulty in wool-growing is the 
 tendency on the part of farmers to run in a crowd upon the same 
 variety and quality ; at one period it will be fine wool, at another 
 combing wool, and often they arc led to breed without knowledge 
 or judgment. A great variety of wools is needed to meet the de- 
 mands of manufacturers, and when a farmer has become possessed 
 of a flock of the right sort, his best course is to keep to it, and not 
 change because a temporary decline in his class of wool discour- 
 ages him for a season. In addition to these grade Merino wools, 
 there is a constant and increasing demand for combing wools for 
 worsted and coarse fabrics. 
 
 Combing wools are those fitted for a process known as combing, 
 which consists in drawing out the fibers so that they are straight 
 and parallel, the shorter portions of the wool called "noils" being 
 removed by the operation. The fibers are then spun into worsted 
 yams ; the ends of the fibers being covered in the spinning, these 
 yarns are smooth and lustrous. In carding, the fibers are placed 
 in every possible position with regard to each other ; the ends 
 projecting from the yarn, form a nap in the woven fabric which 
 covers and hides the threads. Carding wool must therefore be 
 short and full of curls ; combing wool, on the contrary, needs to 
 be long and free from curls and of a bright and lustrous surface. 
 Long Merino wools, although they are combed for making fine 
 cloths without nap, and for delaines, cashmeres, coburgs, and other 
 dress goods, are not designated combing wools, but as delaine 
 wools. Common flannels require in their manufacture the coarsest 
 common native wools up to medium Merino wools. For fine 
 flannels, fine to the finest wools are used; for blankets, the most 
 ordinary native wools, *' noils," medium Merino wools and South- 
 down and grade Southdown wools are used. For shawls, all 
 grades of Merino wools, up to picklock, are used ; some fleecy 
 varieties arc made of worsted combing wools ; felted cloth skirts 
 and other goods are made of the lowest grades of wool, but the 
 
150 THE shepherd's MANUAL. 
 
 finer kinds, as piano and table covers, are made of medium Merino 
 wools. Knitted goods, such as undershirts, vests, drawers, hose, 
 etc., require a great variety of wools from the lowest qualities up 
 to the high grades of Merino ; certain fancy varieties requiring 
 the finer kinds of combing wools. Fancy cassimeres, meltons, 
 beaver cloths, and overcoatings, require chiefly medium grades of 
 Merino wool, a small quantity only of the finer grades beino- re- 
 quh-ed for the best qualities. For mixing with shoddy, which is 
 an extensive manufacture, the finest and longest Merino wools are 
 found the most profitable, as such wool carries the greatest quan- 
 tity of the short fiber of the substitute. Ladies' cloths, cloakings, 
 and thm dress goods require fine long Merino wool ; the finest 
 and longest Merino wool is used for men's fine worsted coatings. 
 Serges, moreens, alpacas, lastings, mohair lusters, furniture dam- 
 ask, reps, bunting for flags, webbmgs of all kinds, sashes, 
 picture cords, tassels, and soft goods, such as nubias and shawls, 
 braids and bindings, are all made of the long combing wool 
 of the Lincolns, Leicesters, and Cotswolds, or their grades. 
 For various carpets, coarse Texan or Mexican and California 
 wools are used, and similar grades of foreign wool known as Chili 
 and Cordova carpet wools. This enumeration indicates as closely 
 as need be, what kinds of wool the American farmer may grow 
 with safety and without risk of wanting a market. Considering 
 that the imports of wool of many of the grades mentioned, and of 
 the recapitulated woolen goods, amount every year to fifty mil- 
 lions of dollars or over, there would certainly seem to be no danger 
 that the farmer will lack a profitable market for any kind of wool 
 he may find it convenient to grow. 
 
 PURE AND GRADE MERINO WOOL. 
 
 It will be noticed how large a proportion of the foregoing man- 
 ufactures derive their material from the Merino, either directly in 
 its pure state, or indirectl}'' as grades or cross breeds. Some infor- 
 mation as to the character of the Merino wool, and the tests by 
 which superior breeding animals may be known and selected for 
 the improvement of native sheep, will therefore not be out of 
 place. The character of a Merino fleece may be judged by the 
 following tests, viz : 
 
 Strength of Fiber. — This is indicated by the amount of grease in 
 the wool, abundance of oil or yolk indicating a healthy condition 
 of the animal. The first sign of disease is a change in the charac- 
 ter of the secretions, and the skin being the chief secreting organ 
 of the body, it is there that the change may be soonest noticed. 
 
HOW TO JUDGE WOOL. 
 
 151 
 
 The moment the health of the sheep fails, the growth of the wool 
 is arrested, along with the secretion of the oil or yolk, and the 
 continuity of the strength of the fiber is destroyed to the great 
 reduction of its value. 
 
 Fineness. — In a perfect fleece, the wool should be equally fine 
 over the whole body ; coarser wool may be looked for, if any- 
 where, on the top of the shoulders and the rump, and a weaker 
 quality on the breast and belly. The finest wool is but V1200 of 
 an inch in thickness, ordinary wools Vtso to Vsao of an inch in 
 diameter. 
 
 Curl.—ThQ curl of the wool is very important. This is the 
 waved or crimped character of the fiber which in the perfect wool 
 consists of minute bends or crimps. There should be a perfect 
 regularity in these waves, which ought not to be so abrupt as to 
 appear as folds. In very fine wool there should be at least 30 of 
 these waves to the inch in length. (See <Z, e., fig. 49.) 
 
 Thickness. — This quality refers to the closeness of the fibers 
 upon the skin. A pure Merino should have from 40,000 to 48,000 
 fibers upon every square inch of its skin. The weight of a fleece 
 must necessarily depend on this characteristic. 
 
 Closure of the Fleece. — The closure of the fleece on its outer 
 surface is of great importance, for the reason that a well closed 
 
 fleece is im- 
 pervious to 
 
 dust and dirt 
 
 which would 
 
 otherwisefind 
 
 its way into 
 
 the wool and 
 
 injure its 
 
 quality. The 
 
 closure is ef- 
 fected by the abundance of yolk 
 which gathers at the ends of the 
 wool, and mats the fibers together. 
 The viscid gum gathers dust, that 
 coats the fleece with a black surface, which feels to the hand 
 as a firm crust. When the crust is pressed the elasticity of 
 the fleece is at once perceived. Upon parting the fleece to inspect 
 the wool, the experience or ignorance of the operator is at once 
 perceptible. He should grasp the fleece at the points of the fibers 
 with the fingers and thumbs of both hands, and part the surface 
 
 T2/Zy.^- 
 
 Fig. 50. 
 
 Fiff. 51. 
 
152 
 
 THE SHEPHEED'S MANUAL. 
 
 
 Fig. 53. 
 
 ¥ig. 53. 
 
 gently, exposing the wool to the skin. The wool, on opening the 
 fleece, should appear beautifully white and glossy, or rich yellow 
 or orange colored, according to the style of the sheep. The fleece 
 is then closed carefully without allowing any dust to fall down 
 into the opening. The appearance of the open fleece should be 
 banded with varying colors of light and darker yellow or orange, 
 as in fig. 50, or when opened, as 
 a cup in fig. 51. A well closed 
 fleece will exhibit a surface as 
 shown at fig. 52, and a badly 
 closed one will appear as at fig. 
 53. The well closed fleece is di- 
 vided into small sections, which 
 are tabular or flat and smooth 
 upon the surface ; when the fleece is uneven in length, it cannot 
 close well, and a few fibers only are matted together ; the surface 
 is then dotted and not smooth ; this forms the defect known as 
 " toppiTiessy The defects in wool may be enumerated as follows : 
 
 " Stripy " or Watery Wool^ generally shows itself in inferior ani- 
 mals on or near the shoulder, where the best wool ought to be. 
 The wool subject to this defect is devoid of those beautiful natu- 
 ral curves or waves which are characteristic of really good wool. 
 When compressed in the hand, it has no elasticity, and handles in 
 a dead and lifeless manner, more like flax than wool. Such wool 
 is only fit for making inferior goods. This defect is a sure 
 proof of impure blood, and no sheep exhibiting it should be bred 
 from. 
 
 Toppiness is not of much importance as affecting the quality of 
 the wool, but it indicates a defect in the breeding of the sheep. It 
 has already been described. When this defect, however, extends 
 to a matting together of the wool at the ends of the points, a 
 quantity of noils are made in working the wool, and there is a 
 waste. When toppiness is found in the fleece of old sheep, it be- 
 comes a more serious objection, as it is quite possible that a lamb's 
 fleece may be toppy by reason of uneven growth in its early life, 
 and after having once been shorn, the defect may not reappear. 
 
 Broad-topped Wool is seriously defective, and very decidedly 
 reduced in value ; no animal having this defect should be kept in 
 a flock having any pretentions to character for excellence. It 
 consists in an interlacing of the ends of the fibers which are split 
 from the top downwards. The fleece appears in good condition 
 superficially, with a good even top, but the surface is divided into 
 
DEFECTS OF WOOL. 153 
 
 broad masses or " tops," and when one endeavors to part these to 
 examine the wool, the mass is found to be almost felted together, 
 and must he torn apart. This matted wool is dead, and breaks off 
 in the process of manufacture, causing very great loss of material. 
 
 Felty Wool is that which has a tendency to felt together on the 
 sheep's back. The defect is caused by an absence of yolk, and in 
 highly yolked sheep, by a continued wet season, which washes 
 the yolk from the fleece. It is a direct result of low condition 
 from poor feed, or of chronic ill health. Some sheep are consti- 
 tutionally subject to "felty wool," and should be weeded out of 
 the flock. 
 
 Cloudy Wool is that which adheres together from the bottom of 
 the fleece upwards, but not in so great a degree as in felty wool. 
 A flossy appearance is discovered at the bottom of the staple, 
 which is removed by the comb. In clothing wools this is not so 
 objectionable as in combing wools ; in the latter the floss is thrown 
 out and becomes waste. This is also a constitutional defect, and 
 sheep so affected should be weeded out of an otherwise good flock. 
 
 Kemp is very easily detected, and although it may be found in 
 but a few spots at first sight, it indicates that it exists all through 
 the fleece. It consists of coarse, white hairs, projecting from the 
 surface of the fleece, on the face, the forearm, the inside of the 
 flank, and in rams on the scrotum also. Whenever it is apparent 
 in these places, it will invariably be found through the greater 
 part of the fleece, chiefly on the whole of the belly, half-way up 
 the sides, on the rump, thighs, and shoulder. In these places, 
 short white hairs will be found in the staple, at the roots of the 
 wool ; and as these hairs will not take any dye, they injure the 
 fleece for the manufacture of dress goods or fine cloths. Kemp 
 lessens the value of the wool nearly or quite one-half, and should 
 make a breeding animal worth no more than its weight as mutton. 
 On some heavily wrinkled Merino sheep, these kempy hairs may 
 be seen on the edges of the wrinkles, and on the back of the head, 
 but nowhere else. But it is even then a fatal objection to such 
 sheep as breeders, for this is kemp, and maj'^ appear in all the pro- 
 duce of such sheep, and there can be no certainty but some of the 
 produce may be badly affected. 
 
 Break in wool renders the fleece absolutely worthless for any 
 combing purpose, and however fine the staple, or otherwise good 
 in quality, it can only then be manufactured into a class of goods 
 for which inferior wool is used. It is exactly what its name im- 
 plies. When a brcachy staple is taken and stretched, it parts with 
 
154 THE shepherd's MAis^UAL. 
 
 great ease at the middle or some portion of its length. There 
 is a weak spot, and if the fiber is examined with a microscope, it 
 will be found very much attenuated at that spot, and of a dull, 
 dead appearance. From what has been already said about the 
 structure and growth of wool, it will be easily understood that 
 when by bad management, neglect, starvation, overfeeding, irreg- 
 ularity in feeding, want of water, or any other evil which affects 
 the condition or health of the sheep, the growth of the wool is 
 temporarily stopped, even for a day, this suspension of growth 
 must inevitably be marked by a weakness in the fiber, which can 
 never be remedied. As the wool grows, this weak spot is carried 
 forward, and if the evil is soon removed and the sheep recovers 
 quickly, it is still there and there it remains. No defect is so fre- 
 quent as this ; to avoid it, the flock must be kept with perfect 
 regularity, and must receive no check for however short a time it 
 may be. This involves the most skillful and careful management, 
 which is unfortunately too rare. Regular poor feed may make an 
 inferior staple, but one worth more than a breachy staple, which 
 may result from one single neglect in the course of a season. Want 
 of water causes more break in wool then any other evil to which 
 sheep are subjected by careless owners or ignorant shepherds. 
 
 Uniformity in the fleece covers many minor defects, and to de- 
 termine the evenness or uniformity of the fleece, the shoulder is 
 first examined. Here the finest and best wool should be found. 
 Taking this as the standard, the wool from the ribs, thigli, 
 rump, and breech, is compared with it ; the nearer the latter ap- 
 proaches this in quality, the better. If it is all equal in fineness, 
 the fleece will be " e'sen " in regard to fineness. If the wool on all 
 the parts mentioned is reasonably regular in length, and near to 
 the standard in this respect, the fleece is " even^' as regards length 
 of staple. The density is then tested. The hand is closed upon a 
 portion of the rump and on the loin, and if the fleece is found to 
 be as dense and elastic or springy on those parts as it is at the 
 shoulder, the fleece is " even " as regards density. A perfect fleece 
 wfll be found of nearly equal fineness from the shoulder to the 
 thigh; of nearly equal length at the shoulder, rib, thigh, and back; 
 of equal density on the shoulder and across the loins, and free 
 from any of the defects before mentioned. 
 
 Most of the points here indicated, both as regards defects and 
 good qualities, refer to other wools as well as to that of the Meri- 
 no; those points which depend on the peculiar character of 
 Merino wool and its excessive yolkiness will be readily understood 
 as necessarily applying to that alone, and those which depend on 
 
WASHING WOOL. 155 
 
 the organic structure of wool and the condition of tlie sheep, to 
 all sorts of wool alike. 
 
 Wool in its natural condition contains many impurities, dirt of 
 all kinds, sand, dung, and the usual secretions of the skin, and be- 
 fore it can become fitted for the uses of the manufacturer, it must 
 be freed from these impurities. The wool-buyer, who generally 
 comes between the farmer and the manufacturer, does not demand 
 that the wool should be thoroughly cleansei], but only freed from 
 its grosser impurities. No washing that the farmer could give 
 his fleeces would be sufficient for the purpose of the manufacturer, 
 who scours the wool in hot soapsuds before he can cleanse it suffi- 
 ciently. But nevertheless, the buyer prefers the fleeces to be 
 partly cleansed, and this partial cleansing is what is generally 
 known as " brook washing." 
 
 Washing the Wool on the sheep's back is the usual practice. 
 There are several methods of doing this. Where a brook or river 
 can be used for the purpose, all that is needed is to choose a place 
 where the water is waist deep, and the bottom is gravelly. A 
 muddy or sandy bottom is to be avoided, as it will be impossible 
 to prevent some of the bottom from being stirred up and mingling 
 with the fleece. Cases have been known in which such a bottom 
 has been chosen for this purpose with the special object of adding 
 to the weight of the fleece by the admixture of sand. It is hardly 
 necessary to say that this mode of cheating can never be profita- 
 ble ; if one lot of fleeces thus adulterated be palmed ofi* upon the 
 buyer, his remedy may be a severe one, and at the best the cheat 
 will not be forgotten. Generally, however, buyers are not to be 
 imposed upon, but look sharply enough after then* own interests 
 to discover all attempts at dishonesty, and to make the perpetrator 
 pay soundly for his error. In washing and making up wool, the 
 most thorough honesty will be found to pay well in the long run, 
 and a reputation for fair dealing will often be found to have a 
 direct money value, especially when the market happens to be 
 against the seller. 
 
 Soft water is to be preferred for washing wool. Hard water 
 leaves the wool harsh and dry to the hand, and detracts from its 
 appearance in the market. Soft water leaves the wool soft and 
 mellow, and it more rapidly recovers its tone and elasticity when 
 washed in water free from lime. The ground having been chosen, 
 the sheep should be closely penned upon the bank of the stream ; 
 the side of the pen next the stream should be narrow, with a pas- 
 sage-way leading to the water. A plank platform, projecting over 
 the bank, from which the sheep can be plunged directly into the 
 
I-' /-> 
 00 
 
 THE shepherd's MANUAL. 
 
 water, is very convenient. The washers enter the stream and re- 
 ceive the sheep from the hands of the drivers, plunging them 
 bodily beneath the surface, two or three times. In catching the 
 sheep and handling them in the water, the assistants should avoid 
 pulling the wool. If a sheep is hauled around by the wool, the 
 skin is bruised, and the wool is injured and weakened at the 
 bruised spots. To catch a sheep it should be seized with the right 
 hand by the hind leg above the hock, firmly with the whole hand, 
 yet without unnecessary violence. The pressure upon the sinew 
 above the hock joint paralyses the leg for a 
 moment, and the sheep will rarely struggle. 
 The left hand is then slipped around the 
 breast, and the shepherd has perfect control 
 of the heaviest sheep, without pulling in the 
 least upon the wool. A crook, fig. 54, is a 
 convenient implement with which to catch 
 wild or unruly sheep. It is quietly passed 
 in front of the leg, which is seized and held 
 while the shepherd secures the sheep in the 
 way described. After the sheep is thorough- 
 ly soaked, the animal's head is held above 
 water, while the fleece is shaken and squeezed, 
 so as to free it from dirt. As many as pos- 
 sible of the tags and matted locks around 
 the breech should be opened and cleansed. 
 When this has been done, the sheep is 
 passed to another washer, who finishes the 
 washing, and directs the sheep to the bank, squeezing the water 
 from its fleece as it emerges from the stream. A clean, grassy 
 bank should be chosen. Some long wool sheep, with heavy fleeces, 
 which hold a great quantity of water, may need some help to get 
 upon their feet as they reach the bank. Ewes that have not 
 lambed should be handled carefully in the washing, although it is 
 rarely, in well managed flocks, that ewes are allowed to be in lamb 
 at this time. 
 
 This method of washing is often very disagreeable and injurious 
 to those who practice it. Where ague is prevalent, or where 
 rheumatism is feared, it is better to choose some other plan. A 
 rough dam may be made in a small stream, and a spout placed in 
 the dam, beneath which the sheep may be washed. A sparred 
 roadway may be laid across the stream, t!i rough which the water 
 will escape. By wearing rubber thigh boots, and a rubber apron, 
 the washers may be kept dry, and avoid the danger of long con- 
 
 Fig. 54. —CROOK. 
 
WASHTKG THE SHEEP. 
 
 157 
 
 tinued exposure to cliilly water. In fig. 55 is an illustration of 
 this method of washing. For a large flock, the spent may be 
 made to extend across the whole dam, so that several sheep may 
 be washed at the same time, each sheep being passed from hand 
 
 vNXf^' 
 
 Fig. 55. — ABBANQEMENT FOB WASHING SHEEP. 
 
 to hand, until finished by the last one. With sufficient help, one 
 sheep per minute may easily be washed by this method. After 
 the sheep are washed, they should be kept in a clean field, and in 
 a clean yard at night, for the week at least before shearing, to per- 
 
158 THE shephekd's manual. 
 
 mit the fleece to dry and to regain suflacient yolk to recover a soft 
 and mellow handling. 
 
 Tagging and Teimming the Feet. — If the sheep are very- 
 dirty, and have not been kept trimmed about the tail, it is advisa- 
 ble that they should be tagged before they are washed. The 
 coarse soiled tag-locks about the hinder parts, and the belly of the 
 rams and wethers, may be clipped off in the spring and thrown 
 into a basket or barrel to be soaked and washed by themselves. 
 The same time will be the most convenient to trim the feet, which 
 is a more necessary thing to do than is generally supposed. The 
 toes of old sheep, upon soft pastures, will grow long and turn up, 
 and cause lameness, or the soles and edges of the hoof will become 
 ragged and worn, the horn turning under at the edges. In this 
 condition the feet gather filth or small stones and gravel, which 
 work into the hoof and cause disease. Foot-rot is in many cases 
 thus engendered. The feet should then be trimmed at washing 
 time, if not oftener. A sharp knife may be used to pare the ragged 
 edges of the hoof and the sole, and toe nippers to shorten the toes. 
 A pair of common wire-workers' cutting nippers may be used for 
 the latter purpose. The edge of the nippers should be filed sharp, 
 with the bevel on the inside, and brought to a smooth edge with 
 a piece of oil-stone. 
 
 iSHEAKiNG. — Shccp should not be shorn until the weather has 
 become warm and settled. May is the usual time for shearing in 
 the northern states. The tools of the shearer are a pair of shears, 
 and if desired, a shearing-bench upon which sheep may be placed 
 to avoid the necessity of his stooping so much as is required when 
 the sheep are laid upon the floor. The common shears with a 
 thumb piece upon one side, and an easy spring no stronger than 
 will be sufficient to make the shears open freely when released 
 from pressure, is the best tool for the shearer. Several new and 
 patented shears have been introduced, which the inventors claim 
 may be used even by inexperienced persons without danger of 
 cutting the sheep's skin. A trial of these shears does not support 
 this claim, and the common shears are not yet superseded by any 
 of these so-called improvements. The shears should be brought 
 to a fine, sharp edge upon a fine oil-stone. The bevel of the cut- 
 ting edge should be about 35 degrees, or somewhat more than that 
 of a common pair of scissors, and less than that of a plane iron. 
 
 The floor of the shearing room should be kept perfectly free 
 from straw, chaff, or litter, and if a boy is kept constantly at work 
 with a broom in his hand removing dirt, tags, and rubbish, his 
 
SHEARING. 159 
 
 time will be well employed. The shearer has better control over 
 the sheep when en the floor than on the bench, and the handling 
 is not the same under both circumstances. In shearing on a bench 
 the shearer catches the sheep b}^ the left hind leg, backs it towards 
 the bench, and rolls it over upon it. He then sets the sheep on its 
 rump, and standing with his left foot upon the bench, lays the 
 sheep's neck across his left knee, with its right side against his 
 body. The two forelegs are then taken under the left arm, and 
 the fleece is opened up and down along the center of the belly by 
 small short clips with the shears. The left side of the belly and 
 brisket are then sheared. The tags are clipped from the inside of 
 the hmd legs and about the breech, and thrown upon the floor. 
 They should be swept up at once and gathered into a basket, and 
 by no means allowed to mingle with the fleece wool. The breech 
 is then shorn as far as can be reached. The wool from the point 
 of the shoulder is then clii)ped as far as the but of the ear. The 
 wool is shorn around the carcass and neck to the foretop, pro- 
 ceeding down the side, taking the foreleg and going as far over 
 the back as possible, which will be two or three inches past the 
 back bone. When the joint of the thigh, (the stifle), is reached, 
 the shears are inserted at the inside of the hock and the wool shorn 
 around the leg back to the thigh joint. The wool over the rump 
 is then shorn past the tail. The sheep is now completely shorn 
 on one side, and two or three inches over on the otber side, along 
 the back from neck to tail. It is then taken by the left hind 
 leg, and swung around with the back to the shearer, leaving 
 some wool beneath the left hip, which will ease the position of the 
 animal, and keep it more quiet. The wool is then shorn from the 
 head and neck down the right side, taking the legs and brisket on 
 the way. The fleece is now separated. The job is completed 
 by clipping the tags and loose locks from the legs. 
 
 To shear on the floor, the sheep is set upon its rump, with the 
 head thrown back beneath the left arm of the shearer, and its 
 back toward him. The wool is then opened at the neck, and 
 clipped downwards in regular lines on the right side from belly to 
 back, and over the spine as far as possible on the other side in 
 much the same manner as has already been described. The sheep 
 is then laid on its shorn side, and the shearer, kneeling on the left 
 knee, and straddling the sheep, with the left foot laid over the 
 sheep's neck, removes the fleece from the left side, and finishes 
 by removing tag locks from the legs and scrotum. In bad shear- 
 ing, the greatest injury to the fleece takes place on the back, and is 
 caused by the operator not raising his hand, so as to keep the 
 
ICO THE shepherd's MANUAL. 
 
 points of the shears close down to the skin. This is known 
 as " cutting through ; " it takes place when the sheep is being 
 shorn on one side; and, in shearing over the back, the points of 
 the shears cut nearly or quite through the fleece, from the inside 
 to the out ; then, wlien the animal is being shorn on the other, or 
 " turning out" side, the shears are again pointed upwards, and the 
 cuts on the first and last side overlap each other, causing the fleece 
 to part in two halves all along the back. No good shearer makes 
 second cuts ; the fact that wool has been left by the first cut 
 proves that the shears have not been held properly ; and the wool 
 removed by a second cut being perfectly useless, entails a severe 
 loss on the maiuifacturcr, and greatly low^ers the repute of the 
 brand in the markets. Cutting through, and a habit of continually 
 making second cuts, are the most objcct'onable characteristics of 
 the unskillful shearer. A sheep may be shorn so close as to satisfy 
 the most exacting emplo3^cr, and yet it may be shorn very badly ; 
 and the only conclusive test of good shearing, or the reverse, is to 
 be found not on the outside of the animal, but on the inside of the 
 fleece. 
 
 When the sheep's skin has been unavoidably cut in shearing, 
 each cut should be smeared with tar, which will prevent flesh flies 
 from depositing their eggs in the wound, and probably avoid after 
 trouble. 
 
 It is said to be a fact that newly shorn rams are incapable of 
 breeding until their fleeces have recovered considerable growth. 
 Some evidence in support of this assertion is given in a pamphlet 
 published in Australia, in which the author, Mr. J. R. Graham, the 
 superintendent of an extensive sheep " station " on the Murray 
 River, states that in a flock of 4,000 ewes and 100 rams newly 
 shorn, he had but 1G5 lambs, and on another occasion a flock of 
 100 ewes, wliich w^ere drafted with 4 rams, newly shorn, produced 
 only 9 lambs. On another station when the ewes were coupled 
 with newly shorn rams, there were not 5 per cent of lambs. This, 
 if a fact, is more curious than important in this country, where, 
 except in California, sheep are not shorn near the breeding season. 
 If wool were not shorn, it would be shed annually, or its growth 
 would be rendered uneven, and its fiber weakened at the season 
 when the coat of an animal covered with hair is usually shed. A 
 fleece that is sufierod to grow for two seasons, shows very dis- 
 tinctly the division between the growth of each year. This, how- 
 ever, occurs only in those countries where the winter and summer 
 climates differ considerably, and where the transition from one to 
 the other is sudden. Where the climate is nearly even throughout 
 
TYING FLEECES. 
 
 101 
 
 the year, as ir California or Australia, the fleece will continue to 
 grow on, witiiout cliaiij.^(;. At least tliis is the case with tlic Meri- 
 no, whose fleece has l)een known to grow to a length of 22 inches 
 in a continuous period of six years in Australia. In California a 
 fleece was shorn in 1874, which weighed 52 pounds; this was 
 doubtless tiie result of two or three years' growth. The retention 
 of the fleece for an indefinite period is a peculiarity of the Merino, 
 which is not known to app(;rtain to any other variety of sheep. 
 
 Packing the Fleece. — The manner in which the fleeces are 
 made up has no little influence upon the price at which the wool 
 Vrill sell. Wool buyers prefer to have the fleece loose, liglit to 
 
 Fig. 56.— TA.BLE FOE TYING WOOL. 
 
 handle, and elastic ; and tied up so that it can be easily opened if 
 need be. The method of packing in Ohio and Western Pennsyl- 
 vania, is to lay the fleece upon a table, turn in the head and tail, 
 tlien the flanks, and roll it up in a neat roll, tying it with a string 
 at each end. Tliis method is shown in figure 06. Sometimes the 
 fleece is tied with one more string across the ends, but this is 
 rarely necessary, excepting wlien the wool is very short. A fleece 
 thus tied is light, easily handled, sIjows the quality of the wool, 
 and can be felt all through. The efTect of the manner of putting 
 up the fleece is seen in the following quotations taken from the 
 wool market report of Coales Bros., PJiiladelphia, of July Isl, 1875. 
 
162 
 
 THE shepherd's ma:n^ual. 
 
 Ohio, Pennsylvania, and W. Va. fleece 50e.@53c. 
 
 New York, Michigan, and Wisconsin fleece, XX.,46c.(&48c. 
 Illinois, Iowa, and Missouri fleece, XX 45c.@47c. 
 
 The difference of 4 to 5 cents per pound is the value of the extra 
 care in making up the fleeces. The difference is even greater than 
 this, for New York, Michigan, andWisconsin wools of better qual- 
 ity than some Ohio 
 wools, are bought 
 at the regular rates 
 quoted, simply be- 
 cause the Ohio 
 fleeces come to 
 market in better 
 shape. This is no 
 unreasonable dis- 
 tinction, as will be 
 seen when the man- 
 ner of sorting wool 
 is explained fur- 
 ther on. 
 
 There are various 
 kinds of wool tables 
 for packing the 
 fleece other than 
 that shown in figure 
 56. One in common 
 use in New York is thus described in the American Agriculturist 
 of May, 1872, with the accompanying^engravings, to which the 
 letters refer. It is made of three boards one inch thick, and 
 twelve inches wide. 
 
 r^'^^^r;^3S^ _^ 
 
 The center one, fig. 
 57, is divided at 
 equal distances at 
 a, a, and connected 
 with hinges open- 
 ing u p wards. The ^ 
 two outside boards 
 are joined to the ^ 
 center square by 
 hinges at b, 5, 5, 5, 
 also opening upwards, 
 away the wood underneath so that they may lie flush with the 
 boards when pressed down. At d, d, d, d, make a cut one inch deep 
 
 Fig. 57.— PLAN OP WOOL TABLE. 
 
 Fig. 58. — WOOL TABLE CLOSED. 
 
 At c, c, c, c, screw on the springs, cutting 
 
PACKING WOOL. 
 
 163 
 
 with a thin saw, to hold the ends of the strings. A hook is made, 
 {e, fig. 58), of hard wood, one inch thick and fourteen inches be- 
 tween the jaws, and the box is done. 
 
 To use it, first fix the strings from the cuts d, d, d, d, in the di- 
 rection of the dotted lines on fig. 58. Lay the fleece with the 
 
 clipped side down- 
 wards on the 
 boards, bring up 
 the sides, which 
 secure by placing 
 across them the 
 hook, as in fig. 58 ; 
 then close the ends, 
 which the springs 
 will keep in their 
 places ; tie the ends 
 of each string tight- 
 ^__5~ ly over the wool; 
 
 '■x.^-^y^y^y/xyyxy ^^^ remove the 
 '^^^^^^^^' hook, and the box 
 will fall back, leav- 
 ing the fleece tight- 
 ly packed and tied. 
 Nothing should 
 be tied up in the 
 fleece, nor should 
 coarse twine nor too 
 much twine be used. 
 All tags and waste 
 wool should be 
 scrupulously kept 
 out of the fleece, as 
 it should not only 
 look good, but 
 should he good. 
 This observing of 
 little thin ITS is one 
 
 Fig. 59.— PACKING WOOL. 
 
 of the ways in which wool growing is made a profitable business. 
 Tag locks and dirty wool should be washed in a tub with soft soap 
 and cold water and sold by itself. The soft soap tends to give tub- 
 washed wool a mellow handling free from harshness. 
 
 When the grower ships his wool to a distant market, he necessa- 
 rily packs the fleeces in bales. The bale should be solidly packed 
 
164 THE shepherd's manual. 
 
 both for economy in freight, which in light bulky articles, is 
 charged according to bulk and not by weight, and for the better 
 condition of the fleeces on their arrival at their destination. A 
 convenient method of baling the fleeces, is to hang the sack from 
 a trap-door in the wool loft, as shown in figure 59. The fleeces are 
 handed or thrown to the packer, who places them in the sack, 
 pressing them down close with his bare feet, and, as he reaches the 
 top, with his Imees ; a handful of tags is put in each corner of the 
 sack and tied tightly to make a handle by which the package can 
 be hauled about in its transportation to market. When filled, the 
 bale should be plainly marked with the exact weight, tare, and 
 net weight, upon one of its sides. 
 
 Sorting. — When the wool reaches the dealer, it undergoes a 
 process of sorting. The same fleece contains wool of various de- 
 grees of fineness, and it must be prepared for the manufacturer, 
 who purchases only exactly what he nesds for his particular use. 
 The fleece is unrolled, and the sorter selects the fine locks from 
 the coarse ones ; the neck, shoulder, and side wool from the thigh, 
 and haunch wool ; and this from the belly and breech wool. Each 
 fleece is sorted into from six to ten diflferent qualities, which are 
 selected by the sorter with surprising quickness and certainty. A 
 well rolled fleece is much more quickly handled than one made up 
 disorderly, and the saving of the time of a highly paid workman, 
 is of itself sufficient to enhance the value of a well packed fleece 
 over that of an opposite character several cents a pound. 
 
 The final disposition of the wool, after it has reached the manu- 
 facturer, is not within the limits of this book, although the vari- 
 ous processes of scouring, dyeing, oiling, plucking, carding, comb- 
 ing, breaking, drawing, roving, spinning, reeling, and weaving, 
 are all of the greatest interest to the wool growei-, as relating very 
 intimately to his share of the general industry, and showing how 
 far the best management of his flock goes to ease the labors, and 
 facilitate the operations, of the numerous artisans concerned in all 
 these various branches of the manufacture, and consequently 
 adding to the value of his raw product. The perfection of the 
 various processes cannot be better illustrated than by the facts 
 that in only ordinary spinning, a pound of wool is made to extend 
 three-fourths of a mile ; in superfine spinning, it stretches to a dis- 
 tance of 22 miles; and that the very finest woolen yarn hitherto 
 spun, will reach a distance of 95 miles for every pound. Fifteen 
 hundred fibers of the finest wool laid side by side will cover only 
 one inch of space, and 2,225,000 of them placed compactly to- 
 gether, will make a bundle only one inch square. How much evil 
 
WOOL PRODUCTION OF THE WORLD. 
 
 165 
 
 then may the ignorance or carelessness of the shepherd or the 
 wool-grower, work to the possible benefit to the world through 
 this industry, by reducing the value of a staple upon which so 
 much of the labor of mankind is expended. 
 
 The wool production of the whole world is estimated by Mr. H. 
 C. Carey, at 1,800,000,000 lbs. This estimate is rendered proba- 
 ble by comparison with the estimates of the production of those 
 countries of which we have more or less accurate knowledge 
 through oflQcial reports. An estimate of the number of sheep and 
 pounds of wool produced in the following countries in 1866, 
 made by the London Statistical Society, and published in their 
 journal, here reproduced. To this is added in the last column 
 the number of sheep mentioned as existing in those countries 
 in the official reports of their governments published since that 
 date: 
 
 TABLE OP SHEEP AND WOOL PEODUCTIONS OF THE FOLLOWING 
 COUNTRIES IN 1866. 
 
 COUNTRIES. 
 
 Millions 
 
 Sheep and 
 
 Lambs. 
 
 Millions 
 lbs. Wool 
 Pi'odvced. 
 
 Tears. 
 
 Mllions 
 
 Sheep and 
 
 Lambs. 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 34.1 
 
 37.4 
 
 1.7 
 
 8.4 
 
 10.0 
 
 45.3 
 
 1.6 
 
 1.7 
 
 1.9 
 
 25.3 
 
 1.0 
 
 0.6 
 
 30.4 
 
 22.1 
 
 11.0 
 
 16.6 
 
 0.4 
 
 8.5 
 
 32.8 
 
 160.0 
 
 152.2 
 
 6.1 
 
 28.8 
 
 38.0 
 
 90.8 
 
 6.1 
 
 6 4 
 
 7.0 
 
 52.1 
 
 6.2 
 
 3.5 
 
 91.2 
 
 74.4 
 
 24.8 
 
 31.1 
 
 1.3 
 
 7.6 
 
 117.6 
 
 1873 
 1874 
 1874 
 1874 
 1865 
 1863 
 1871 
 1865 
 1871 
 
 1871 
 1866 
 1872 
 1865 
 1867 
 1871 
 1867 
 1873 
 1874 
 1872 
 1872 
 1863 
 1867 
 1872 
 
 29.4 
 
 Australia 
 
 45.0 
 
 Tasmania 
 
 New Zealand 
 
 1.5 
 11.6 
 
 Cape of Good Hope 
 
 9.8 
 
 Russia 
 
 45.1 
 
 Sweden 
 
 1.6 
 
 Norway 
 
 1.7 
 
 Denmark 
 
 1.8 
 
 Germany 
 
 
 Holland 
 
 .8 
 
 Belgium 
 
 .5 
 
 France 
 
 24.0 
 
 Spain 
 
 22.0 
 
 Italy 
 
 11.0 
 
 Austria, including Hungary 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 20.0 
 0.4 
 
 Greece 
 
 2.5 
 
 United States 
 
 *34.0 
 
 Prussia 
 
 1.5 
 
 Wurtemberg 
 
 .5 
 
 Bavaria 
 
 Saxony 
 
 2.0 
 .3 
 
 Portugal 
 
 2.4 
 
 Total 
 
 289.0 
 
 964.6 
 
 
 
 * Lambs not included. 
 
 It will be noticed that this list is unfortunately very knperfect, 
 and that those countries only are mentioned whose product enters 
 into commerce, and which is published in government reports, and 
 is therefore more easily figured up by the statistician than that of 
 such countries as the states of Northern Africa, Asia, and South 
 
166 
 
 THE shepherd's MAKUAL. 
 
 America. The average weight of fleece, the relative value of the 
 wool per pound (in American dollars and cents), and the yearly 
 income from each sheep, in wool, is given in the following table : 
 
 TABLE OF THE PRODUCE AND PRICE OF WOOL AND YEA.RLY 
 VALUE OF THE FLEECE IN THE FOLLOWING COUNTRIES IN 1866. 
 
 COTJNTEIES. 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 Australia 
 
 Tasmania 
 
 New Zealand 
 
 Cape of Good Hope. 
 
 Russia 
 
 Sweden , 
 
 Norway 
 
 Denmark 
 
 Germany 
 
 Holland 
 
 Belgium 
 
 France 
 
 Spain 
 
 Italy 
 
 Austria 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 Greece 
 
 United States 
 
 General average. 
 
 Poimds 
 
 Price per 
 
 Wool 
 
 pound of 
 
 per SJieep. 
 
 wool. 
 
 4.7 
 
 .25 
 
 4.1 
 
 .37 
 
 3.5 
 
 .38 
 
 3.4 
 
 .27 
 
 3.2 
 
 .33 
 
 2.0 
 
 .21 
 
 3.7 
 
 .19 
 
 3.7 
 
 .17 
 
 3.7 
 
 .23 
 
 2.1 
 
 .41 
 
 6.0 
 
 .19 
 
 6.0 
 
 .18 
 
 3.0 
 
 .18 
 
 3.5 
 
 .41 
 
 2.2 
 
 .21 
 
 1.9 
 
 .38 
 
 3.0 
 
 .18 
 
 3.0 
 
 .14 
 
 5.4 
 
 .40 
 
 3.6 
 
 .26 
 
 Annual 
 
 Revenue 
 
 per sheep. 
 
 1.17 
 
 1.51 
 
 1.33 
 
 .90 
 
 1.05 
 
 .42 
 
 .68 
 
 .62 
 
 .85 
 
 .85 
 
 1.14 
 
 1.08 
 
 .54 
 
 1.45 
 
 .46 
 
 .72 
 
 .54 
 
 .42 
 
 2.16 
 
 .94 
 
 The most striking item in the above comparison is the greatly 
 larger annual revenue derived from each sheep in America than 
 elsewhere. When we take into account along with this, the lower 
 price of our lands, the American shepherd will be seen to have a 
 far more profitable business than that of any other sheep owner in 
 the world. Much of this advantage is doubtless due to the higher 
 prices received by the wool-grower through the operation of the 
 protective duties levied upon foreign wool. Some of it is cer- 
 tainly due to the greater weight of the fleece consequent upon the 
 improvement which has been made in our sheep. With two ex- 
 ceptions the average weight of American fleeces is the highest in 
 the list. But by far the greater advantage exists in the higher 
 comparative price of wool, which is only exceeded very slightly in 
 two instances, those of Spain and Germany, and in these countries 
 the bulk of the wool is of the finer sorts which bear a high market 
 value. The benefit accruing to wool-growers by the present tariff 
 is unmistakable, and although this is not the place to discuss the 
 question, it continuance would certainly seem to be very desirable. 
 
 The following table gives the number of sheep, (omitting lambs), 
 enumerated in the decennial census reports of the United States 
 for the years named : 
 
KUMBER OF SHEEP IIT THE UNITED STATES. 16? 
 
 STATES AND TERRITOKIES. 
 
 Alabama 
 
 Arizooa 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 California 
 
 Colorado 
 
 Connecticut .'. 
 
 Dakota 
 
 Delaware 
 
 District of Coumbia. 
 
 Florida , 
 
 Georgia 
 
 Idaho .*...' 
 
 Illinois .V. 
 
 Indiana ..', 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Kansas * 
 
 Kentucky '. 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 Maine 
 
 Maryland ,.' 
 
 Massaclmsetts 
 
 Michigan 
 
 Minnesota 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 Missouri , 
 
 Montana 
 
 Nebraska 
 
 Nevada 
 
 New Hampshire 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 New Mexico 
 
 New York 
 
 North Carolina .'. . . 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Oregon 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 Rhode Island 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 Texas.. 
 
 Utah 
 
 Vermont 
 
 Virginia 
 
 Washington 
 
 West Virginia. 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 Wyoming 
 
 Total 28,477,951 
 
 1870. 
 
 Number. 
 
 241,934 
 803 
 161,077 
 2,768,187 
 120,9:^8 
 83,884 
 1,901 
 23,714 
 604 
 26.599 
 419,465 
 1,021 
 1,568,286 
 1,612,680 
 855,493 
 109,088 
 936,765 
 118,602 
 434,666 
 129,697 
 73,560 
 1,985,906 
 132,343 
 232,732 
 1,352,001 
 2,024 
 22,725 
 11,018 
 248,760 
 120,067 
 619,438 
 2,181,578 
 463,435 
 4,928,635 
 318,123 
 1,794,391 
 23,938 
 124,594 
 826,783 
 714,351 
 59,672 
 580,347 
 370,145 
 43,063 
 552,327 
 1,069,282 
 6,409 
 
 1860. 
 
 Number. 
 
 1850. 
 Number. 
 
 370,156 
 
 202.753 
 1,088,002 
 
 117,107 
 
 193 
 
 18,857 
 
 40 
 
 30,158 
 
 512,618 
 
 769,135 
 
 991,175 
 
 259,041 
 
 17,569 
 
 938,990 
 
 181,253 
 
 452,472 
 
 155; 765 
 
 114,829 
 
 1,271,743 
 
 13,044 
 
 352,632 
 
 937,445 
 
 2,355 
 
 376 
 
 310,534 
 
 135,228 
 
 830,116 
 
 2,617,855 
 
 546,749 
 
 3,546,767 
 
 86,052 
 
 1,681.540 
 
 32,624 
 
 233,509 
 
 773,317 
 
 753,363 
 
 37,332 
 
 752.201 
 
 1,043,269 
 
 10,157 
 
 included with 
 
 332,954 
 
 22,471,275 
 
 371,880 
 
 91,256 
 
 17,574 
 
 174,181 
 
 27,503 
 
 150 
 
 23,311 
 
 560,435 
 
 894,043 
 
 1,122,493 
 
 149,960 
 
 1,102,091 
 110,833 
 451,577 
 177,902 
 180,651 
 746,435 
 80 
 304,929 
 762,511 
 
 384,756 
 
 160,488 
 377.271 
 
 3,453,241 
 595.249 
 
 3,942,929 
 15.382 
 
 1,822,S57 
 
 41,296 
 
 285,551 
 
 811.591 
 
 100,530 
 
 3,262 
 
 1,014.122 
 
 1,310,004 
 
 Virginia. 
 124,896 
 
 21,723,220 
 
 The increase since the last census, (1870), in the western states 
 and territories, is very great. For instance, the estimated clip of 
 wool m California, as reported by Messrs. E. Grisar & Co., of San 
 Francisco, for the three decennial periods named, and for 1875, 
 was as follows : 
 
 JSi 175,000 lbs. 
 
 iSSX 3,055,835 " 
 
 rtL% 30,072,660 " 
 
 ^®'^ 43,533,333 <♦ 
 
168 THE shepherd's manual. 
 
 While some of this very great increase will result from the rapid 
 improvement in the character of the sheep, yet there is neverthe- 
 less reason to suppose that the number of sheep in California now 
 reaches at least 5,000,000, which is nearly double the number of 
 1870. 
 
 In Colorado, persons engaged in the sheep industry, estimate 
 the flocks to amount to about one million ; and in the neigh- 
 boring territories of Dakota, Wyoming, New Mexico, and Arizo- 
 na, this industry has become so wonderfully developed during the 
 past five years, that a reasonable estimate would give the whole 
 present number of sheep pasturing upon those plains as at least 
 2,000,000, where in 1870 there were little more than 120,000. The 
 profitable character of the business of rearing sheep upon these 
 magnificent and costless pastures, is tending to still further attract 
 the attention of stock men and capitalists, who are establishing 
 flocks in almost every available portion of these territories. A 
 business in which capital used with care and skill returns a profit 
 of 75 per cent, cannot fail to become developed with rapidity in 
 so favorable a locality. What the limit of the productive capacity 
 of these broad pastures may be, it would be hazardous to attempt 
 to prognosticate. 
 
 CHAPTEK VIL 
 
 THE ANATOMY OF THE SHEEP; ITS DISEASES 
 AND THEIR REMEDIES. 
 
 GENERAL VIEW OP ITS ANATOMY. 
 
 The structure of the sheep more nearly resembles that of the 
 ox than any other of the domestic animals. It possesses a less 
 degree of nervous energy than the horse, ox, or pig, but it is capa- 
 ble of enduring greater extremes of heat and cold with less incon- 
 venience, and possesses a more vigorous digestion than those ani- 
 mals. The most of its nervous energy is expended on its diges- 
 tive and assimilative functions, and the least proportion upon its 
 sensitive and locomotive organs. None of our domestic animals 
 so completely digests coarse fodder, or so thoroughly and profita- 
 bly turns the most nutritious food into flesh and fat as the sheep. 
 
THE BONES. 
 
 1G9 
 
 In this respect it is the most valuable and profitable feeder the 
 farmer can make use of ; at the same time no other animal is so 
 feeble and defenseless, nor so soon succumbs to disease of a debil- 
 itating or exhausting character. Its circulatory system being 
 weak, it is on the other hand comparatively free from inflamma- 
 tory diseases, to which the horse and ox are especially subject. 
 
 This peculiarity of the character of the sheep may be inferred 
 from a view of its skeleton, fig. CO, in which the small space occu- 
 
 Fig. 60. — SKELETON OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 pied by the heart and lungs, is very marked in comparison with 
 the large abdominal space which gives ample room for the diges- 
 tive organs. The bones of the sheep number 336, including 32 
 teeth. These bones are disposed as follows : 
 
 Vertebral column 43 
 
 Head, (without teeth) 28 
 
 Teeth, (in the adult) 32 
 
 Thorax or chest 27 
 
 Shoulders 2 
 
 Arms and forearms 6 
 
 Fore feet, (20 in each) 40 
 
 Pelvis 2 
 
 Thighs and legs 8 
 
 Hind feet, (19 in each) 38 
 
 22C 
 
 The structure of the head of the sheep is such as to secure great 
 strength. In homed sheep, the upper portion of the skull is more 
 strongly built than in tlie polled or hornless ones. This structure 
 is necessary to protect the brain from the shocks consequent on 
 the mode of warfare of the rams, which are pugnacious animals, 
 8 
 
170 
 
 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL. 
 
 and especially of those -whicli are armed with heavy horns. The 
 skull consists of two tables or plates, half an inch or more apart, 
 the outer thick and tough, the inner hard and brittle. These 
 plates are connected by ridges of bone, which divide the space 
 between them into compartments called sinuses. This structure 
 gives the skull exceeding strength and ability to resist blows and 
 punctures by sharp substances. The bones of the head are joined 
 together by sutures or dove-tails, which are also conducive to ex- 
 treme strength. In this manner the brain is protected, and the 
 horns are provided with a solid and elastic foundation. The form 
 of the head is shown in figure 61, in which 1 is the occipital bone ; 
 2, parietal bone ; 3, core of right frontal 
 bone; 4, the left core covered by its horn ; 
 5, superciliary foramen ; 5\ channej des- 
 cending from it ; 6, lachrymal bones ; 7, 
 zygoma ; 8, nasal bones ; 9, supermaxili- 
 ary bones ; 10, premaxiliary bones ; 10\ 
 its internal process; 11, incisive opening. 
 The cavity which contains the brain is 
 less than a third the size of the rest of the 
 skull, the larger portion being devoted to 
 the functions of eating and smelling. 
 The space devoted to mastication is large, 
 and the space occupied by the nostrils, 
 which are the breathing passages, rela- 
 tively small. Most of the bones of the 
 face are hollow, and are divided into sev- 
 eral sinuses and cells by which the head is rendered light and 
 strong. The sinuses and cells are lined with membranes which 
 secrete mucus, and are therefore called mucous membranes. The 
 inner cavity of the skull is lined with several membranes which 
 still further add to its strength, and to the security of the brain. 
 The teeth of the sheep consist of incisors or cutters, and molars or 
 grinders. There are 8 of the former, all being upon the lower jaw, 
 and 24 of the latter. Upon the upper jaw, in place of cutting 
 teeth, the sheep has, in common with most of the ruminants, a 
 cartilaginous plate or cushion, upon which the teeth of the lower 
 jaw impinge when the mouth is closed. The sheep has no canine 
 teeth or tusks. There is a long space of the jaws on each side be- 
 tween tlie incisors and molars, which is destitute of teeth. The 
 milk teeth, or deciduous or temporary teeth of the sheep, are 
 twenty in number; the eight incisors on the lower jaw, and three 
 molar teeth on each side of both jaws or twelve in all. The two 
 
 Fig. 61.— BONES OP A 
 
 kam's head. 
 
THE TEETH. 171 
 
 central front teeth appear either before or soon after birth, and in 
 about three weeks after birth, the whole of the twenty temporary- 
 teeth appear. The first change in the teeth occurs at the age of 
 three months, when the lamb cuts a permanent molar tooth. The 
 next change also occurs at the back of the mouth, when at nine 
 months old, another, the second permanent molar tooth appears. 
 At one year old the lamb has but eight permanent teeth, or two at 
 the back of each side of each jaw. The age of fourteen months is 
 marked by the appearance of two permanent incisor teeth at the 
 center of the front of the jaw. In judging of the age of a sheep, 
 the condition of the molars may be studied with advantage. If a 
 sheep is certified to be not exceeding one year old, and the fifth 
 molar, (the second permanent one, and the last one on each jaw), is 
 found to be sharp on the edges and but slightly worn, the age may 
 be regarded to be properly stated, even though the central pair of 
 front teeth have already appeared. But if these teeth are well up 
 and the last molar is worn and smooth, and there is a space be- 
 tween this tooth and the angle of the jaw, the sheep is certainly 
 over a year old. The sixth molar tooth is in its place at the age 
 of eighteen months, and this is the only test of this age of the 
 sheep. The second pair of front teeth, one on each side of the 
 first pair, appear at twenty-one months of age, and at two years 
 are fully grown and stand well up from the gum and level with 
 the first pair. After the sixth molar is cut, the three forward and 
 temporary molars are replaced by permanent teeth, which are 
 fully grown at the age of twenty-Seven months. At two years 
 and a half the third pair of front teeth have become fully grown, 
 although in some forward sheep of the quickly maturing breeds, 
 these teeth may appear at two years of age. Generally they indi- 
 cate an age of two years and a half. At the age of three years, in 
 the Cotswolds and other forward breeds, the fourth and last pair 
 of front teeth appear ; but in other breeds they are not present 
 until three and a quarter or three and a half years. The sheep is 
 then what is known as " full mouthed." The following table of 
 the periods of dentition will be found useful in determining the 
 age of a sheep : 
 
 At one month, 8 temporary front teeth and three temporary molars on 
 each side of each jaw. 
 At three months, a permanent molar is added to these three. 
 At nine months, the second permanent molar appears. 
 At fourteen months, two permanent incisors appear, (as a, a, fig. 62). 
 At eighteen months, the third permanent molar appears. 
 At twenty-one months, there are four permanent incisors, ( a^a, fig. 63). 
 
172 
 
 THE shepherd's MANUAL. 
 
 At twenty-seven months, the temporary molars are changed, and per- 
 manent ones appear. 
 
 At thirty months, there are six permanent incisors, {a, a, fig. 64). 
 
 At thirty-six to forty-two months, there are eight permanent inci- 
 sors, (a, a, fig. 65). 
 
 It has been decided in an English court of law, that a lamb be- 
 comes a sheep when the first pair of permanent incisors have ap- 
 
 Fig. 62. 
 
 peared. When the mouth is full toothed, the sheep is considered 
 as mature, or full grown, when the teeth begin to show signs of 
 wear, the sheep is *' aged." 
 
 The composition of the bones of the sheep and of the marrow 
 contained in their cavities differs in no respect from that of the 
 bones and marrow of other domestic animals. Bone consists of 
 animal matter and earthy salts ; usually in the following propor- 
 tion, viz : phosphate of lime, 55 per cent ; carbonate of lime, 4 per 
 cent ; phosphate of magnesia, 3 per cent ; soda, potash, and com- 
 
 Fig. 64. 
 
 Fiff. 65. 
 
 mon salt, (chloride of sodium), 3 per cent, and 35 per cent of gela- 
 tine. These proportions differ to some extent with the kind of 
 bone, its solidity, and the age and condition of the animal from 
 which it is taken. The bones of the skeleton are joined together 
 by means of cartilages, or ligaments, which form what are known 
 as articulations. Where the bones move one upon another, their 
 ends, or the parts brought in contact, are covered with cartilage. 
 Every bone is enveloped in a highly sensitive lining or membrane 
 called the periosteum. Although the bones seem to be solid and 
 insensible matter, chiefly composed of earthy salts, yet they are 
 highly sensitive, and are formed of tissue which is penetrated by 
 
THE STRUCTURE OF BONE. 
 
 173 
 
 66. — THE HAVERSIAN 
 CANALS. 
 
 an infinite number of minute canals known as the Haversian canals 
 which are from V200 to V2 500th of an inch in diameter. These canals 
 are parallel to the length of the bone, and frequently communicate 
 together, forming an intricate net-work, which may be seen when 
 
 a section of the bone made lengthwise 
 is highly magnified, as shown in figure 
 66. In a cross-section of the bone 
 these canals appear as at fig. 67, being 
 surrounded by concentric layers, a, 
 through which radiating tubes, 5, of 
 the minutest size, penetrate. 
 
 The periosteum is a highly vascular 
 and nervous membrane which covers 
 the entire bone, except the cartilagi- 
 nous surfaces which move upon each 
 other at the joints. It connects the 
 outer surface of the bones with the 
 tendons, ligaments, and muscles. 
 
 The marrow is a fatty, pulpy sub- 
 stance, which fills the central canals 
 and the spongy tissue of the bones. It is pink in color, and 
 contains merely a trace of fat in young animals, but as age ad- 
 vances, it becomes yellow and less solid, and contains 96 per cent 
 of fat. The bones are penetrated and lined within and without 
 with numerous arteries, veins, and nerves. Some of these arteries 
 penetrate the bones by appropriate openings, and divide into 
 branches which form a net- 
 work that lines the inner 
 surface of the bones, and 
 another that penetrates the 
 substance of the marrow. 
 Other arteries penetrate the 
 spongy portions of the 
 bones, and others form a 
 net-work which belongs to 
 the periosteum, and which 
 enter the substance of the 
 bones by means of the 
 Haversian canals. Veins accompany these arteries, and are 
 very numerous where the spongy tissue is abundant. Nerves are 
 abundant in the marrow and the spongy tissue, but few in the 
 compact tissue. Portions of the vertebras are remarkable for the 
 numerous nerves they contain. By means of the arteries and 
 
 <2-^ 
 
 CROSS-SECTION OF BONE. 
 
174 THE shepherd's manual. 
 
 veins, the bones receive nutriment and means of growth or repair, 
 and by means of the nerves they become sensitive. 
 
 The skeleton or frame work is clothed with flesh or muscular 
 tissue. The muscles consist of bundles of fibers which possess the 
 power of contraction when excited by sensations communicated 
 by the nerves. The muscles are very diversified in shape, some 
 being spread out in fan shape, some being thick and bulky, and 
 some long and thin. The fibers are intermingled with fat or with 
 cellular membrane. It is in the abundance of the cells which con- 
 tain the fat, and in the power to assimilate food to supply the fat, 
 that a sheep of a good breed or character is distinguished from one 
 of a poor or bad character. The abundance of fat cells both within 
 and upon the surface of the muscles gives the soft mellow hand- 
 ling which distinguishes an excellent mutton sheep. The muscles 
 are either directly connected by the ends of their fibers to the peri- 
 osteum or covering membrane of the bone, as in the scapula or 
 shoulder blade ; or the ends are gathered together closely and in- 
 terlaced with the stronger fibers of the tendons or ligaments which 
 are attached to the bones. By the contraction of the fibers of the 
 muscles and tendons, the movements of the joints are made. In 
 the muscular portions of the sheep consists the whole value of the 
 carcass to the butcher, and the whole art of the breeder and 
 feeder of those heavy-bodied breeds, known as mutton sheep, 
 is concentrated in the effort to increase the muscular development 
 in those parts of the carcass, as the loins and legs, the meat of 
 which is most highly valued. The muscles are enclosed in the 
 skin which forms the covering of the animal. The protecting coat 
 of the animal grows upon the skin. This is either hair or wool, 
 both being of similar construction and composition, differing only 
 in form or degree of fineness and texture. 
 
 The brain occupies the cavity of the skull, and is the central seat 
 of sensation and intelligence. From it proceeds the spinal marrow, 
 which is a continuation of the brain, and which occupies a cavity 
 through the center of the spine or backbone, from the head to the 
 tail. The brain is largely supplied with blood by means of the 
 carotid arteries, and the jugular veins serve to return the blood 
 from the brain to the heart and lungs. In the sheep the brain is 
 very small as compared with the size of the bodj'-, its average 
 weight being but 4J ounces, while that of the dog is 6^ ounces. 
 This difference in the development of brain reasonably accounts 
 for the superior intelligence of the shepherd dog, one of which 
 easily controls and guides the movements of a thousand sheep. 
 
 The nerves proceed from the brain and spinal cord, and peni 
 
THE VITAL FUNCTIONS. 175 
 
 trate in a net- work of the most astonishing fineness to the remot- 
 est portion of the body, every portion of which, however minute, 
 being endowed by the nerves with the faculty of sensation. In 
 the sheep there are forty pairs of nerves, ten of which proceed 
 from the brain, and thirty from the spinal cord. Each of these has 
 its plexus, or system of branches and net-work. The nerves con- 
 sist of bundles of white filaments or threads. The different senses, 
 sight, smell, hearing, taste, and touch, are supplied by the nerves, 
 which proceed directly from the brain. Another important brain 
 nerve is the par vagum, or pneumo-gastric nerve, which proceeds 
 to the heart, lungs, stomach, liver, and the bronchial or breathing 
 apparatus. It is this nerve which gives the breathing, circulating, 
 and digestive organs their power of motion independent of the 
 will. Any injury or disease of this nerve affects these vital func- 
 tions, and its division or destruction occasions instant death. The 
 spinal nerves convey both sensation and motion. The spinal cord 
 of the sheep weighs one ounce and three-quarters. 
 
 The vital functions of an animal are respiration^ circulation., and 
 digestion or nutrition. By the first the system is supplied with 
 oxygen, which is one of the sources of animal heat and is the agent 
 by which the blood is purified. By the second, the tissues or 
 living structure of the animal are supplied with nutriment and 
 relieved from dead and used up matter, and by the last the blood 
 is replenished with fresh supplies of nutritive elements. 
 
 Respiration commences at the moment of birth and continues to 
 the moment of death. It consists of an inspiration or in-drawing 
 and an expiration or out-forcing of air. The motions necessary 
 to these alternate actions are made by the diaphragm, a membrane 
 which divides the chest from the abdomen. When this membrane 
 is relaxed it is convex or rounded towards the chest. When its 
 fibers contract, it is straightened or flattened, and of course en- 
 larges the cavity of the chest and causes a rush of air to fill the 
 enlarged space. This alternate contraction and relaxing of the 
 muscles of the diaphragm cause the motion of the chest, which is 
 observed in breathing. A corresponding movement is also made 
 in the abdomen, as may be noticed in the flanks of hard driven 
 animals. The lungs occupy the largest portion of the cavity of 
 the chest, and enfold the heart. They are two in number, the 
 left and the right ; the left lung is divided into two parts, called 
 lobes ; the right is divided into four lobes, of which one is curved 
 around the heart. Fig. 68 shows this peculiarity, 1, 1, being the 
 right lung ; 2, 2, the left : 3, the trachea or windpipe ; 4, the heart ; 
 5, the carotid arteries ; and 6, the vena cava., or great vein which 
 
176 
 
 THE shepherd's MAKUAL. 
 
 carries the blood which has circulated through the body to the 
 heart, from which it is forced to the lungs for purification. The 
 lungs are composed of a spongy, highly elastic mass of cells. 
 When the cavity of the chest is enlarged by the contraction of the 
 diaphragm, this elastic mass swells and fills the cavity. The cells 
 enlarge, and vacuums are formed in them to fill which a stream of 
 air is immediately directed. The air 3 
 
 rushes through the nostrils into the 
 trachea or windpipe, and thence into 
 the bronchial tubes, which penetrate 
 the mass of the lungs in all direc- 
 tions, as the branches and twigs of a 
 tree. By these bronchial tubes, air 
 is carried into every portion of the 
 lungs, where it meets the blood 
 brought thither from every extremity 
 of the body by means of the vena cava 
 through the heart. In this contact 
 the blood, loaded with impurities, 
 and deprived of the oxygen which 
 is needed for the support of the 
 body, parts with its load of offensive 
 matter, and takes up from the air 
 whatever oxygen it requu'es to re- 
 store it to a state of purity, and to 
 enable it to fulfill the functions of 
 circulation once more. The air having performed this office, is 
 expelled from the lungs by the relaxing of the muscles of the 
 diaphragm, and is expired. The expired air is highly charged 
 with carbonic acid and vapor of water, nearly the whole of its 
 oxygen having been absorbed by the blood. It is also charged 
 with other products of the constant decomposition or waste of the 
 tissues of the body, or of unnecessary matters which have entered 
 the circulation through the digestive organs. 
 
 Circulation consists in the constant motion of the blood from 
 the heart through the arteries to the inner and outer surface of 
 the body, and through every tissue of which the body is composed ; 
 thence back by the veins to the heart ; thence to the lungs, where 
 it is purified and fitted to again serve for the nutrition of the body ; 
 it is then sent from the lungs to the heart to start again upon its 
 round to the extremities. 
 
 The blood is the most important part in the system of an animal. 
 It consists of a white fluid colored red by very small globules, 
 
 Fig. 68. — THE LUNGS EN- 
 VELOPING THE HEART. 
 
THE CIKCULATIOI^ OF THE BLOOD. 
 
 177 
 
 Fig. 69.— DIAGRAM OF THE OIROTJLATION. 
 
 called the blood corpuscles. From the blood the tissues of the 
 body derive materials for theh- nutrition, growth, or repair and 
 for their secretions. The blood is replenished with new matter 
 from the digestive organs, which dissolve and prepare the food 
 for this purpose. To carry on circulation, an apparatus is pro- 
 vided which consists of the heart, the arteries, the capillaries which 
 form the connecting link between the extremities of the smallest 
 branches of the arteries and those of the veins; the veins- the ar- 
 teries of the lungs ; the lungs with their capillaries, and the'veins of 
 the lungs. There is thus a double circulation as it were, which 
 may be readily understood by a reference to the diagram, fig. 69, 
 
 in which G D represents 
 the left auricle of the 
 heart, which forces the 
 blood through the arteries 
 E, in the direction of the 
 arrows to the fine net- 
 work of the capillaries; 
 then to the veins F, and 
 thence to the right auricle 
 of the heart, A B. From 
 - this it is forced through the right ventricle which opens from the 
 right auricle into the pulmonary artery Q, still following the course 
 indicated by the arrows, into the net-work of the capillaries of the 
 lungs, from which it is conveyed by the pulmonary vein H, into 
 the left ventricle, whence it passes to the left auricle, on the same 
 course over again. The heart is a mass of very strong muscular 
 fiber, having the four cavities just mentioned, and being supplied 
 with valves which regulate the flow of the blood. The muscles of 
 the heart contract and expand with regularity, performing what 
 we usually term its " beats," four times or thereabouts for every 
 inspiration of the lungs. In a young sheep the heart beats 80 to 
 90 times in a minute ; a full grown one, 70 to 80 times, and in a 
 very old one, 55 to 60 times. At each contraction the blood is 
 forced through the arteries and their branches to the capillaries. 
 These capillaries are exceedingly small, being from V2000 to Vssooth 
 part of an inch in diamet(«-, and inosculate or join together again 
 and again, forming a net- work of the closest character, so close 
 that the finest needle cannot penetrate the skin or membranes any- 
 where without wounding one or more of them, and causing an 
 escape of blood. While circulatmg in this net-work of capillaries, 
 the blood gives up to the tissues amongst which it circulates, the 
 materials needed for their growth and increase, and also to sup- 
 
178 THE shepherd's manual. 
 
 ply th3 waste of matter caused by every mechanical movement of 
 the animal; for every contraction of the fibers of the muscles 
 causes a decomposition and destruction of some portion of their 
 substance. Hence is explained the waste of matter or loss of 
 weight caused by excessive exertion or insufficient food. Here 
 the blood also absorbs the dead, used up matter created by this de- 
 composition and destruction of tissue, and carries it off from the 
 system. This it does by means of the skin, the kidneys, and the 
 lungs, through which the blood is filtered as it were of matters 
 useless to the system by means of these capillaries ; and the excre- 
 tions of perspiration both sensible and insensible, that of the urine, 
 with some others, are thus thrown oft. In this manner the blood 
 becomes depleted of its nutritive properties, and absorbs the wastes 
 of the system in its intricate course through these infinitely small 
 capillaries. It enters them from the arteri^ a bright red, and 
 leaves them a dark, blackish purple fluid. It courses onwards 
 through the veins loaded with impurities, to the lungs, which it 
 enters still a dark fluid ; here it passes through a second set of 
 capillaries much finer than the former, in which it is exposed to 
 pure air contained in the cells of the lungs ; the carbonaceous mat- 
 ters it contains come in contact with the oxygen of the air, and are 
 decomposed, burned in fact, giving forth the heat needed for the 
 continuance of life ; when the blood thus rendered pure, leaves 
 the lungs a bright red once more, again fitted to fulfill its func- 
 tions. Before entering into the lungs, the blood receives a new 
 supply of matter from the lymphatic vessels, called lymph, which 
 is derived from the digested food. The vessel which conveys the 
 lymph or chyle, is called the thoracic duct, and passes upwards 
 into the cavity of the chest in close contact with the vertebrae or 
 spine. The temperature of the blood of the healthy sheep is 100°. 
 The blood is now believed to possess vitality ; while its circulation 
 exists it is fluid, and when it is dead it coagulates. The cause of the 
 coagulation of the blood is not known, and there is a diflference 
 between its coagulation in and out of the body. If a part of the 
 body be wounded, the blood which escapes from the divided ves- 
 sels, coagulates between the edges of the wound, forms a clot of 
 organized material, throws out new vessels, and gradually restores 
 the wounded parts. It is this coagulating property which saves 
 the life of a wounded animal and directly leads to recoveiy ; if 
 the blood remained fluid, the least wound would cause a flow 
 which would not stop until the vessels were empty and the animal 
 dead. The constituents of the blood are exactly those of flesh. 
 Digestion is the process by which food is taken into the body, 
 
DIGESTION. 179 
 
 masticated, dissolved by the stomach and intestines, and rendered 
 fit for absorption by the lacteals and lymphatics, and assimilation 
 by the blood. The parts concerned in digestion are the lips, teeth, 
 and tongue, the salivary glands, the gullet, the stomacli, the intes- 
 tines, the liver, the lacteals, and the thoracic duct which connects 
 the digestive process with the direct function of circulation and 
 nutrition. The lips are used by the sheep in gathering its food, 
 very much as they are used by the horse, and to a much greater ex- 
 tent than by the ox. The sheep's lips are thin, and very active in 
 their movement. The upper lip is divided by a groove, or fissure, 
 80 that each half can be moved independently of the other. The 
 sheep possesses no muffle or broad space between the nostrils on 
 tlM3 upper lip, which in health secretes a liquid which appears in 
 small drops upon its surface, as in the ox. The teeth have been 
 already described. Their office is well known. The tongue serves 
 to convey the food to the teeth, and from the teeth to the gullet, 
 and also the cud from the gullet to the teeth. The salivary glands 
 secrete a fluid which moistens the food during mastication, and 
 which also possesses some of the character of a solvent, or a pre- 
 paratory digestive agent, in being able to convert starch into solu- 
 ble dextrine and sugar, and thus prepare it for digestion by the 
 stomach. The glands are three in number, and are named the 
 parotid, the submaxillary, and the sublingual. The first is situated 
 at the outside of the angle of the lower jaw ; the second is placed 
 on the inside of the lower jaw, near the angle ; and the third is 
 beneath the tongue. Ducts from these glands give out the saliva 
 naturally whenever the membranes of the mouth are excited by 
 the presence of food ; or unduly, as in some diseases which cause 
 an excessive secretion of the fluid. The gullet conveys food or 
 drink from the mouth to the stomach. The pharynx is the upper 
 part of the gullet, by which it is connected with the mouth. It is 
 separated from the larynx, the entrance into the windpipe or air 
 passage, by a cartilaginous lid called the epiglottis, which, when 
 food is swallowed, closes the larynx and allows the food to slide 
 over it. The pharynx, gullet, stomach and intestines, together 
 form what is termed the alimentary canal. The gullet, also called 
 the oesophagus, is a very strong, muscular tube, lined with insensi- 
 ble white membrane. The fibers of the muscles run spirally 
 around the tube, in opposite directions, and thus cross each other. 
 By the contraction of these muscles, gradually extending down- 
 wards, food is carried into the stomach ; while by their contrac- 
 tion in an upward direction, the food is brought back to the 
 mouth to be masticated the second time in the process of rumina- 
 
180 
 
 THE SHEPHERD S MANUAL. 
 
 Fig. 70. — EIGHT SIDE OF THE 
 STOMACH. 
 
 tion. The food taken up by the lips and teeth is ground and 
 mixed with saliva in the mouth, passed backwards by the action 
 of the tongue to the gullet, and then forced into the stomach. 
 
 The stomach of the sheep consists of a large irregular sac or pouch, 
 divided into four compartments, generally referred to as distinct 
 
 stomachs, or the first, second, third, 
 and fourth stomachs, (see figs. 70, 71, 
 and 72), or the rumen or paunch, 
 seen at b ; the reticulum or honey- 
 comb, c ; the omasum or manyplies, 
 d-^ and the abomasum, or rennet, or 
 true digestive stomach, e. The gul- 
 let is seen at a, and the duodenum at 
 /. The functions of the stomachs 
 of the ruminating animals are known 
 only somewhat obscurely. Anatomy 
 only teaches their form and charac- 
 ter, and leaves all the rest in doubt, 
 or to be decided by experiment and 
 observation. From the structure of 
 the stomachs we are able to form a generally complete idea of the 
 process of digestion which goes on within them ; of some of the 
 details there is nothing certain as yet to offer. The first two 
 stomachs are placed parallel to each other, and the gullet ends 
 almost equally in each, as seen at a 
 in fig. 72, which shows the inside 
 formation of the stomachs. The 
 second stomach, c, communicates 
 with the third by the oesophagean 
 canal, g^ which opens into the third 
 stomach, (not seen in figs. 70 and 71), 
 and ends there. The fourth stomach 
 is connected with the third by a 
 distinct opening. The paunch, 5, is 
 the largest compartment, being four 
 times the capacity of the other three 
 together. It is divided into four in- 
 complete compartments by muscular 
 walls, and is lined with a membrane covered by a multitude of soft 
 pillars compressed closely together, which make an uneven surface. 
 The second stomach, c, is lined with cells having five or six sides 
 from which it takes the common name, the honeycomb. These 
 two compartments, or stomachs, are in reality one, the latter being 
 
 Fisr. 71.- 
 
 -TiEPT SIDE OF THE 
 STOMACH. 
 
THE STOMACH, 
 
 181 
 
 -nSTTERIOR OF THK 
 STOMACH. 
 
 simply an appendage of the former. The oesopbagean canal which 
 leads from the second stomach to the third, performs a very im- 
 portant function in the act of rumi- 
 nation, or it is supposed with reason 
 so to do, as will be explained further on. 
 The third stomach or "manyplies," 
 in the sheep the smallest of the stom- 
 achs, is lined with a number of leaves 
 or folds, placed lengthwise, by which 
 the surface is greatly increased. The 
 fourth stomach joins the thirds and 
 communicates with it by an opening 
 immediately opposite to the cesopha- 
 gean orifice. The fourth stomach is 
 lined witli a membrane which secretes 
 the gastric juice, the true digestive 
 solvent. It opens directly into the duodenum or small intestine. 
 
 RuminaUon, or chewing the cud, is a process which distinguishes 
 a class of animals, known as ruminants, from all others. For the 
 performance of this process the complicated stomach above de- 
 scribed is provided. To understand this important alimentary 
 process, it is necessary to ascertain first, into which of the stom- 
 achs the food passes after its first mastication ; second, in what 
 manner and by what process the food is rejected by these stom- 
 achs and returned to the mouth for a second mastication ; third, 
 to which of the stomachs is the food finally transmitted for com- 
 plete digestion. 
 
 Some careful experiments, by the French physiologist, Flourens, 
 have to a great extent determined these questions ; and the com- 
 parative anatomist, Chauveau, has summed up the functions of the 
 stomachs of ruminants as ascertained from every modern source 
 of information as follows : 
 
 1st. The rumen is a sac in which the food swallowed during 
 feeding time is held in reserve, and is softened, and whence it is 
 carried to the mouth during rumination. 
 
 2nd. The reticulum partakes of the functions of the rumen, to 
 which it plays the part of an accessory or reservoir ; the food con- 
 tained in it being always diluted by a larger quantitj'- of water. 
 
 3rd. The cesophagean canal carries into the omasum the food 
 swallowed the second time, or after rumination, or even those por- 
 tions of food wMch tlie animal swallows in very small quantity and 
 in a finely divided or softened condition the first time. 
 
182 THE shephekd's mai^ual. 
 
 4th. The omasum completes the maceration or reduction of the 
 food to a sufficiently fine condition for digestion, by pressing it 
 between its leaves. 
 
 5th. The ahomasum is the true digestive stomach, and finally 
 dissolves the food by its gastric secretion. 
 
 In these processes the oesophagean canal performs a peculiar func- 
 tion. The ordinary food of the ruminating animal is coarse in 
 texture, and when swallow^ed is bulky. When it enters into the 
 stomach and meets the opening of the oesophagean canal, it forces 
 open, by its bulk, the muscular lips of which the opening is com- 
 posed, and drops partly into the first, and partly into the second 
 stomach. M. Flourens has satisfied himself, by careful experi- 
 ments upon a living sheep, that w^hen the animal ruminates, a por- 
 tion of the food swallowed previously and now contained in the 
 first and second stomachs — which are really one— is forced by a 
 contraction of the stomach into the oesophagean canal, and this then 
 contracting, closes all the other openings except that of the gullet, 
 and at the same time compresses the morsel of food into a pellet or 
 ball, which is immediately forced by the upward muscular con- 
 traction of the gullet into the mouth. When it has been chewed 
 and mingled with the copious secretion of saliva which takes place 
 during rumination, it is again swallowed. Being now softened 
 and in a semi-liquid condition, it passes over the lips of the open- 
 ing of the canal, without forcing them apart, into the second 
 stomach, and enters the third stomach ; a small portion of it only 
 escaping into the first and second stomachs. When fine or semi- 
 liquid food is first swallowed, it follows exactly the same course, 
 the same being true of water when drank. From the third stom- 
 ach the food passes on to the fourth stomach to be finally disposed 
 of. It has been found that the pellets of food, returned to the 
 mouth for rumination, are of the precise size, shape, and form of 
 the portion of the oesophagean canal between the first and third 
 stomachs. Sheep have been dissected with these pellets ready 
 formed in the canal for transmission to the mouth. 
 
 The intestines of the sheep are of great length, being twenty- 
 eight times longer than its body. In the duodenum, which is the 
 upper portion of the intestines that directly communicates with 
 the lower orifice of the stomach, the partially digested mass of 
 food undergoes still further changes. As it passes from the stom- 
 ach it is termed chyme. In the duodenum the chyme is mingled 
 with the bile, which comes from the liver, and the pancreatic juice, 
 a secretion of the pancreas, or " sweet-bread," and becomes fitted 
 
THE LIVER. 183 
 
 for absorption by the lacteals which communicate with the intes- 
 tines. It is now termed chyle, and is a white milky fluid which 
 enters the thoracic duct and mingles with the blood as previously 
 described. The refuse and insoluble portion of the food, with un- 
 used portions of the bile pass on through the lower intestines, and 
 is discharged by the rectum as dung. 
 
 The liver is a large organ with the appearance of which almost 
 every person is familiar. It is called a gland, because its office is 
 to secrete a fluid which is peculiar to it, and it is the largest gland 
 in the body. Its secretion is called the bile. Its position in the 
 body is below the diaphragm and adjacent to the stomachs, with 
 the third of which it is in direct contact. It is enveloped in the 
 peritoneum or membrane which covers and also encloses the whole 
 of the contents of the abdomen, and forms as it were a sac or bag, 
 one-half of which is doubled into the other half. The liver in sub- 
 stance is granular, consisting of grains, or lobules, from one-tenth 
 to one-twentieth of an inch in diameter. Its color is reddish 
 brown. The lobules of which it is composed are closely packed, 
 and are held together by fine tissue and a net-work of minute 
 veins and ducts. Each lobule is connected with a blood vessel at 
 its base, and another vessel comes from the center of the lobule 
 and joins the former one at its base. Between these two is an 
 exceedingly fine net- work of capillary vessels similar to those pre- 
 viously described. By means of arteries and veins called portal 
 canals, which enter and ramify through the substance of the liver, 
 the blood is carried into and through the substance of each lobule 
 in streams of exceeding fineness. From the blood thus passing 
 through the lobules, the gall or bile is secreted by small cells not ex- 
 ceeding Vioooth of an inch in diameter, and is collected into minute 
 vessels called biliary ducts, from which it is gathered into larger 
 ducts, which pour their contents into the great bile ducts. There is 
 a receptacle in the liver of the sheep known as the gall-bladder, to 
 which the gall is carried from the hepatic duct by another duct 
 named the cystic duct. "When the gall contained in the gall-blad- 
 der is required for use, it returns by the same duct into the hepatic 
 duct, and thence into the great bile duct which ends in the duo- 
 denum, below the stomach. 
 
 The gall is an alkaline fluid of composite character, containing 
 soda, two peculiar acids, (glycocholic'and taurocholic, the latter of 
 which contains sulphur) ; mucus ; cholesterine ; stearic, oleic, and 
 lactic acids, with potash and ammonia, and a peculiar coloring 
 matter. It is in fact a sort of liquid soap. The bile is poured 
 into the duodenum by the great bile duct. Near this duct is 
 
18"4 THE shephekd's manual. 
 
 another from which flows the secretion of the pancreas or 
 sweet-bread. This fluid is slightly alkaline and very similar to 
 the saliva. Its ofiice is supposed to be to change the undissolved 
 starch in the chyme into sugar, and to form an emulsion with the 
 oil or fat of the food, and prepare it for absorption directly into 
 the blood or into the lac teals. The office of the gall is to neutral- 
 ize the acidity of the chyme derived from the gastric juice, which 
 is an acid fluid, to assist in the transformation of starch into su- 
 gar, and the absorption of oil or fat. It is the chief agent in 
 changing the chyme of the stomach into the chyle, which is the 
 perfected source of nutrition of the blood. The perfect action of 
 the liver is therefore absolutely necessary to the sustenance and 
 the life of the animal. The quantity of gall secreted by the liver 
 of the sheep every twenty-four hours is from 3 to 5 pounds. The 
 whole of this, however, is not destroyed in the performance of its 
 office, but a large portion is taken into the system in the circula- 
 tion, the surplus being regained from the blood by the secreting 
 cells of the liver and again returned for duty to the intestines. 
 Another office of the liver is to prepare crude albuminous matter 
 of the blood for final absorption into it. It is also able to form 
 sugar from other carbonaceous matters conveyed to it in the chyle 
 absorbed by the lacteal vessels. Thus the liver acts as a filter, in 
 separating detrimental matters from the blood, besides supplying 
 a necessary agent in digestion, as well as for respiration. Its im- 
 portance in the animal functions cannot be over-estimated. 
 
 Tim lacteals are a series of small absorbent vessels which form a 
 net-work in connection with the coats of the intestines, and pro- 
 ceed to the thoracic duct, where they terminate. They exist much 
 more numerously in connection with the small intestines than 
 with the lower ones. Their chief seat is the mesentery, which is 
 the thin membrane which supports the small intestines. The lac- 
 teals enter the numerous glands of the mesentery, and pass 
 through them, uniting to form larger vessels and becoming fewer 
 and fewer in number, being finally reduced to two or three ducts 
 which end in the thoracic duct. The lacteals absorb the chyle, 
 which is presented to them in the intestines, convey it to the glands 
 in which it is enriched and perfected, and thence convey it to 
 the vessels which terminate in the duct from which the new nutri- 
 tive matter is poured into the large vein near its junction with the 
 heart, to enter into the circulation. 
 
 The chyle is very similar in its composition to the blood, differ- 
 ing from it chiefly in the absence of coloring matter, or the red 
 globules which give the color to the blood. It coa/julates on 
 
THE EXCKETORY OKGAKS. 185 
 
 being allowed to rest, although the clot is softer than that of the 
 blood. 
 
 The tJioracic duct extends from the loins to the neck, and its 
 course is along the spine. It is the principal trunk of the absorb- 
 ent system, and, as has been explained, is the connecting link be- 
 tween the digestive organs and the circulatory system, as the pul- 
 monary artery and vein is the connecting link between the circu- 
 latory and respiratory system. 
 
 llie splee7i\a another organ which is very important, as being the 
 seat of a rather obscurely understood disease, known as splenic 
 apoplexy. It consists of a spongy mass of tissue of a mottled blue 
 or purplish gray color. It is suspended near the great curvature 
 of the stomach, but of its functions nothing is precisely known. 
 It is supposed to act as a reservoir of blood for the portal vein ; it 
 is also supposed to destroy the red globules of the blood, as it 
 has been discovered to contain blood globules in a state of decom- 
 position. It is, however, known that, in the course of researches 
 to discover the uses of this gland, animals from which it has been 
 removed have recovered from the operation, and have continued 
 to live in apparent good health. The fact of its engorgement 
 with blood in the disease of ruminants known as splenic fever or 
 apoplexy, and its increase of volume in certain bilious disorders, 
 would tend to show that its functions are in some way closely 
 connected with the circulation, and perhaps with the digestive 
 processes and nutrition. 
 
 The Urinary or Excretory Organs. — The urine is separated from 
 the arterial blood by the kidneys. These organs, with the liver 
 and the lungs, are employed in the purification of the blood. The 
 liver separates compounds abounding in hydrogen, the lungs those 
 which abound in carbon, and the kidneys those abounding in ni- 
 trogen. The nitrogen eliminated through the kidneys exists in 
 the form of urea, a crystalline substance which readily decomposes 
 and gives off its nitrogen in the form of ammonia. There are two 
 kidneys, one each side of the spinal column. The kidneys are 
 attached firmly to the loins ; in the sheep they are shaped like a 
 bean, and are imbedded in fat. They perform a double oflBce, or 
 two separate functions, one being to discharge from the blood any 
 excess of water that may accumulate in it ; the other being to rid 
 the blood of excess of saline matter and the products that result 
 from the waste of the tissues. The blood enters the kidneys by 
 arteries, and the urine, separated as by a filter, through a very com- 
 plex system of capillaries, flows into two white ducts termed ure- 
 ters, which pass it onwards to the bladder. The urine of the 
 
186 
 
 THE SHEPHEED'S MAI^TUAL. 
 
 sheep is not so copious as that of the cow in proportion to its size, 
 but possesses a larger proportion of salts. The following is an 
 analysis of sheep's urine : 
 
 Water 96.0 per cent. 
 
 Urea with some albuminoids and coloring matter 2.8 " " 
 Salts of potash, soda, lime, magnesia, silica, iron, 
 alumina, and manganese 1.2 '* " 
 
 100.00 " 
 
 In fig. 73 is shown a section of the substance of the kidney 
 highly magnified, in which appear the uriniferous, (urine carrying) 
 ducts or tubes, («, a), surrounded by the secreting glandular sub- 
 stance, {b, b)y which is enclosed in the net- work of the arteries, 
 (c, c), and the fibrous tissue, (<?, d). 
 
 The bladder is situated in the pelvic cavity, or the lower part of 
 the abdomen. It is composed of two coats, the outer one being 
 muscular, and capable of contracting so as to expel its contents. 
 One half is enveloped in a third coat, and the other half in the 
 
 tissue of the pelvic 
 region, and masses of 
 fatty matter. The mus- 
 cular coat consists of 
 fibers placed in various 
 directions, lengthwise, 
 crosswise, oblique, and 
 spiral, so that in the act 
 of contraction the blad- 
 der is reduced in size 
 Fig. 73.-STBUCTTmE OP THE KIDNEY. evculy and in every 
 
 direction. A strong muscle encircles the opening, from which the 
 urine is discharged, and which is called the neck of the bladder. The 
 contraction of this muscle closes the neck and retains the contents, 
 its relaxation opens the orifice and allows the contents to be ex- 
 pelled. From the neck of the bladder proceeds the urethra, by 
 which the urine is discharged. In the ewe the urethra is very 
 short, in the ram it is much longer, and passes down from the 
 anus along the abdomen to the extremity of the penis. The func- 
 tions of the bladder are very important. It serves as a reservoir 
 for the urinal fluid which is constantly secreted by the kidneys 
 and retains it until a considerable quantity has been accumulated, 
 and thus spares the animal from otherwise continually dribbling 
 away the urine as it is secreted. 
 
 The Reproductive Organs. — These are entirely different in the 
 
THE KEPRODUCTIVE ORGANS. 187 
 
 male and female. The female organs are more abundantly devel- 
 oped than those of the male, and have more intricate functions to 
 fulfill. They consist of two secreting organs called ovaries, which 
 are charged with the elaboration of the ovum or egg ; the uterine 
 tube through which the ovum passes on leaving the ovary; 
 the uterus or womb in which it rests after its impregnation, 
 and in which it remains until it is fully developed ; and the 
 vagina or canal through which the foetus or youug animal when 
 perfected is discharged. In addition there are two mammae or 
 milk-producing glands enclosed in the skin, and attached to the 
 lower part of the abdomen and inner parts of the thighs, each of 
 which has a set of secreting glands and milk ducts flowing into 
 a tube which has its orifice in the teat. These milk glands are 
 called the udder. The ovum is a cell about Viooth of an inch in di- 
 ameter, which is contained in another cell or ovisac, of which the 
 ovaries contain a certain number. At stated periods called the 
 oestrum or condition of " heat," the ovaries become excited and 
 distended, and discharge one (or more) of these ovisacs, which, par- 
 taking of the condition of the ovaries, becomes distended and bursts, 
 releasing the ovum, which, when it is brought into contact with 
 the impregnating fluid of the male in the uterine tube, undergoes 
 a change, enters into the uterus, and in course of time becomes a 
 living animal. When the female is not brought into connection 
 with the male at the season of heat, the ovum undergoes no change, 
 but passes on to the uterus, where it is absorbed. The impregna- 
 ted ovum, when it reaches the uterus, becomes grafted upon its 
 lining membrane and draws directly from the mother's blood the 
 materials for its development. 
 
 In the male the reproductive organs consist of two glands, which 
 in the ram are suspended in a sac between the thighs. This sac is 
 called the scrotum. The glands, called the testicles or testes, are 
 each enclosed in four envelopes, being separate and distinct from 
 each other. One of these envelopes is a portion of the peritoneum 
 or lining of the abdomen, which descends through an opening in 
 the abdomen. This opening remains afterwards, and it is thus 
 that in castrating the ram, the inflammation which often takes 
 place, spreads into the abdomen and destroys the animal. The 
 glands are oval in shape, and consist of a grayish pulp. They are 
 attached to the spermatic cord and artery, and their function is to 
 secrete the spermatic or impregnating fluid, which is alkaline, and 
 contains minute filaments not larger than Veooo to Ysoooth of an inch 
 in length. These filaments possess the power of independent 
 movement for some days after their expulsion from the organs of 
 
188 THE shepherd's manual. 
 
 the male. A canal or duct called the vas deferens, leads from the 
 testes to the outward and exposed male organ. In the ram this 
 organ has at its extremity a small spiral appendage called the 
 vermiform, (or worm-like), appendage. This has a very narrow 
 orifice, and is often on this account the seat of obstructions which 
 are diflScult to remove. 
 
 The testicles of the ram are very large in proportion to its size, 
 and the whole reproductive powers are highly vigorous, enabling 
 him, when well nourished, to serve effectively a hundred ewes in 
 a season. 
 
 OBSERVATIONS ON THE DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 In judging of the symptoms of disease in the sheep, it is neces- 
 sary to take into account the nature, constitution, and habits of 
 this animal. The diseases of the sheep are numerous and more 
 generally fatal than those of other domestic animals. The diges- 
 tive organs of the sheep are largely and powerfully developed, and 
 its capacity for the production of blood is very great. Yet its 
 needs for this large supply of blood is not to support its nervous 
 system, which is feebly developed, nor its muscular exertion, of 
 which it is incapable to any great extent, nor its circulation, which 
 is onl}'- of inferior amount, but the surplus must necessarily go to 
 the production of flesh, fat, and wool. In the sheep, therefore, 
 the production of flesh, fat, and wool, is the chief of its functions, 
 and the greater part of its vitality is expended in this way, leaving 
 but a small amount to sustain the comparatively weak vascular 
 system. The sheep is unable to sustain severe muscular labor ; and 
 slow movement, except for very limited periods, is all that it is 
 capable of. From the small brain development of the sheep, its 
 weak nervous and circulating system, it is to a great extent free from 
 diseases of an inflammatory character. From the large exercise 
 of its digestive powers, it is to be expected that diseases of the di- 
 gestive organs should be frequent and serious, and this we find 
 to be the case. From the same causes that render it compara- 
 tively free from diseases of an irritating character, it with more 
 than usual readiness succumbs to those in which debility and the 
 exhaustive effects of parasites are the chief features. Indeed it is 
 to the attacks of parasites, both external and internal, that sheep 
 owe their most troublesome and fatal disorders. Infectious or 
 contagious diseases have greater scope for action amongst sheep 
 than amongst other domestic animals, by reason of their gathering 
 together in large flocks, and thus being more exposed to unwhole- 
 
THE DISEASES OF SHEEP. 189 
 
 some influences than those animals which are usually kept singly, 
 or which when kept in large numbers, naturally break up into 
 small separate herds. .The structure of the foot, and tlie manner 
 of the growth of the crust and sole are such as to subject it to dis- 
 ease in that organ from which other animals are free. In the 
 management of a flock of sheep, it is necessary to bear in mind the 
 peculiarities and habits, so that the watchful care of the shepherd 
 may be given as far as possible to exercise precautions which may 
 prevent disease. Fortunately our climate is so well adapted to 
 these peculiarities and habits, that our flocks suflfer from far fewer 
 diseases than those of other less favorable climates, and at present 
 many diseases prevalent in other countries are unknown to us ex- 
 cept by report. Precautions to be efi'ective must be intelligently 
 exercised, and it is only by thoroughly understanding his flock 
 that the shepherd can know what to avoid and wliat to do. The 
 symptoms which indicate approaching disease should be instantly 
 recognized, or the threatened danger cannot be averted. Then the 
 timely remedy may be employed, which is rarely ineflective, while 
 that which comes later is rarely serviceable or eflcctive. The 
 remedies to be administered must be consistent with the peculiar- 
 ities of the sheep. Possessing but a weak vascular and nervous 
 system, and a small supply of circulating blood, bleeding is rarely 
 called for, and can be employed only with danger of doing harm 
 in place of good. For the same reason tonic and stimulating med- 
 icines are more frequently needed, and may be given in larger 
 doses. Purgatives, especially saline ones, for the same reason, 
 always demand an accompanying stinmlant. 
 
 Purgative are frequently called for, as the digestive organs 
 so abundantly developed and largely exercised, are readily dis- 
 eased or disordered, and disturbance of the system rarely occurs 
 without sympathetically or otherwise involving those organs. 
 The veterinarian used to study the diseases of the horse, and to 
 apply his reasoning to the peculiarities of that animal, is too apt to 
 lose sight of the vast surface of the stomachs of the slieep, the in- 
 sensibility of much of this surface, and the fact that medicine ad- 
 ministered with the food or in solid form, will most probably fall 
 into the rumen, where it will be ineflfective. So too the shepherd, 
 who consults veterinary works, will be misled to a great extent, 
 and be induccil to believe the too common idea that it is folly to 
 physic a sheep, and the best treatment is to cut its throat at once, 
 III treating sheep, purgatives are useful to reduce fever, to lower 
 inflammation, and to restore tone to the stomach and liver. They 
 should always be given in a liquid form. Of all the purgatives, 
 
190 THE shepherd's MANUAL. 
 
 Epsom Salts and Linseed Oil (always raw) are the most suitable 
 and effective. The action of stimulants given along with a purga- 
 tive is always beneficial. 
 
 Stimulants, of which Ginger, Gentian, Aniseed, and Pepper- 
 mint-oil are the most usual and useful, restore the tone of the 
 stomachs and excite them to action, thus aiding in the operation of 
 the purgative, which might otherwise still further enfeeble them. 
 
 Bleeding, when it is necessary in the outset of inflammatory dis- 
 orders or local excitements, should be performed by operating on 
 the veins under the eye (see fig. 76) or the ear ; the inside of the 
 fore arm is a convenient place ; when a large quantity is to be 
 taken, the jugular vein of the neck may be opened by first cut- 
 ting off some of the wool, pressing the vein with the finger, and 
 cutting it lengthwise — never crosswise — with a sharp lancet. Never 
 less than two ounces or a wine-glassful should be taken, and rarely 
 more than half a pint. 
 
 In referring to the diseases hereinafter treated of, as far as 
 possible, the causes to which they may generally be attributed, 
 with the means of prevention, will be given. The remedies men- 
 tioned will be those to be given to a full-grown animal, for lambs, 
 one-half or less of the doses should be given, and for very young 
 lambs, still less should be given. 
 
 The most prolific causes of disease are over-feeding, under-feed- 
 ing, irregularity of feeding, want of water, drinking impure water, 
 impure air, damp, and over-driving. If these were avoided there 
 would be but little complaint of the frequent troubles, difficulties, 
 and losses in keeping sheep. While they exist, medicine, at the 
 best, is but a temporary expedient, effective only during the time 
 in which extra care is used. When this care is allowed to relapse 
 the trouble will infallibly recur. 
 
 CAUSES, PREVENTION, AND TREATMENT, OF DISEASES 
 COMMON TO SHEEP. 
 
 DISEASES OP THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 
 
 Catarrh is very common during the fall, winter, and spring. It 
 will be found on close observation to be rarely absent in any flock. 
 In our dry climate, subject, however, to sudden changes of temper- 
 ature, catarrh, or cold, is mostly due to exposure to damp in open 
 yards, or to too high a temperature in sheds or pens, rather than to 
 exposure to the weather in open fields. Flocks that are more care- 
 
DISEASES OF THE LUKGS. 191 
 
 fully tended and housed than usual, are found to be more subject 
 to it than others. Of two flocks equally well fed, but one of 
 which is carefully shut up every night and protected (?) from every 
 draft of fresh air, and another whose bed is the snow in an open, 
 airy, dry yard, it will be the first that will be troubled with cough 
 and discharge from the nose, while the latter will be free from it. 
 Fresh air, ample ventilation in partly open sheds, dry yards and 
 clean, dry bedding, and protection from chilling rain-storms in 
 winter, with whatever protection may be needed immediately after 
 shearing, should the weather be cold and rainy, will generally be 
 amply sufficient to prevent any trouble from this complaint. Chas- 
 ing by dogs and consequent over-heating, and over-driving, are 
 certain causes, and these should be carefully avoided. The judg- 
 ment of the shepherd should be exercised in exceptional cases, act- 
 ing always under the general rule that dry cold is rarely hurtful 
 to sheep, while they suffer from wet or damp cold, and that moist, 
 warm, steamy, close atmosphere, especially when confined in sta- 
 bles, will inevitably produce cold or catarrh, which if not at once 
 remedied will generally result in serious disorders of the lungs. 
 This disease consists of inflammation of the lining membrane of 
 the throat, windpipe, nostrils, and the sinuses of the head. It 
 produces an increase of the secretion of mucus and consequent ir- 
 ritation and coughing. When long continued, the cough becomes 
 dry and deep seated, showing that the lungs are involved. 
 
 The treatment consists in removal of the causes, good nursing, ad- 
 ministering slightly warm mucilaginous drinks, as oat-meal gruel or 
 linseed tea, along with a gentle stimulant, such as half a teaspoonful 
 of ground ginger. The antiseptic effect of a small quantity of clean 
 pine tar rubbed upon the sheep's nose, some of which the animal 
 will lick off and swallow, will be beneficial. If there is fever, and 
 the nose is dry and hot, the following may be given, viz : 
 
 Epsom Salts , V2 ounce. 
 
 Saltpeter 1 dram. 
 
 Ground Ginger 1 dram. 
 
 This should be mixed with molasses and placed on the back part of 
 the tongue with a long, narrow bladed wooden knife or spatula. 
 The animal's head should be held up until the whole is swallow^ed 
 in repeated small quantities. Or the dose may be mixed with 
 thin gruel and administered by means of a small horn. 
 
 BronchUis is simply a deep-seated catarrh which affects the bron- 
 chial tubes or air passages in the body of the lungs. It is danger- 
 ous, inasmuch as the inflammation readily spreads and affects the 
 lungs. In bronchitis the cough is more severe than in catarrh, 
 
192 THE shepherd's MAI^UAL. 
 
 the pulse and the respiration are both quickened, there is some 
 fever, and the appetite fails. The treatment is the same as that 
 prescribed for catarrh, but to be continued longer, changing the 
 dose to the following, to be administered for three or four days, 
 reducing the quantity of saltpeter gradually one-half. 
 
 Linseed-oil 1 ounce. 
 
 Saltpeter 1 dram. 
 
 Powdered Gentian 1 dram. 
 
 Bleeding must not be attempted in this disease. Quietness is in- 
 dispensable, and a clean, airy, but solitary, pen should be provided, 
 and a plenty of pure, fresh water supplied. 
 
 Pneumonia or Inflammation of the Lungs. — This is a more fre- 
 quent disease than is generally suspected. Many sheep exhibit 
 the peculiar symptoms of pneumonia, and are too far gone for re- 
 covery before their too careless owners are aware that they are 
 affected. High-bred imported sheep, the Leicester more particu- 
 larly, are very liable to this disease, which is generally fatal to 
 them. It consists of inflammation of the substance of the lungs, 
 and frequently follows neglected attacks of bronchitis, the inflam- 
 mation easily and quickly passing from the lining membrane of 
 the air-passages to the cellular tissue of the lungs. Washing in 
 streams of cold spring water, or sudden chills from exposure to cold 
 showers, quickly succeeding hot weather, or when heated with 
 driving, or after shearing, or too close penning in warm stables in 
 cold weather, are the usual causes. It is rarely that this disease 
 develops fully without previously passing through the earlier 
 stages, or without some serious mistake in the management of the 
 sheep; and it is only by instant attention and proper treatment 
 that its usually rapid and fatal course can be arrested. 
 
 The symptoms are a quick and labored breathing with painful 
 heaving of the flanks ; a painful cough ; discharge of thick yellow 
 mucus from the nostrils, high fever, and great thirst ; hard, quick 
 pulse ; constant grinding of the teeth, together with loss of appe- 
 tite and rumination. On examination after death, the lungs are 
 found to be hard and gorged with blood, and if thrown into water 
 they sink to the bottom. The disease usually terminates in death 
 in from twenty-four to thirty-six hours. 
 
 Treatment is of no avail unless commenced immediately. Bleed- 
 ing from the jugular vein, until the animal staggers, is the first and 
 most effective remedy. If found necessaiy, this should be repeated 
 in six hours. Two ounces of Epsom salts should be given imme- 
 diately after the bleeding ; if this does not cause free purging, one 
 ounce more may be given in three hours. Copious purging is not 
 
DISEASES OF THE LUIJGS. 193 
 
 to be dreaded in this disease with sheep as with the horse. Injec- 
 tions of thin oat-meal gruel, strained, should be given every two 
 hours. After the bowels have been well evacuated, the following 
 may be given twice a day in oat-meal or linseed gruel : 
 
 Powdered Digitalis 1 scruple. 
 
 Nitrate of Potash 1 dram. 
 
 Tartar emetic 1 scruple. 
 
 to be continued several days. As soon as the sheep improves and 
 begins to move about, a pint of gruel may be given every three 
 hours with half a dram of powdered Gentian. Warm drinks of 
 dissolved gum Arabic, or linseed-meal tea, in which a little honey 
 is dissolved, will be useful. The nostrils should be freed from 
 accumulated mucus by washing or sponging with a mixture of 
 equal parts vinegar and water, or of one ounce of acetic acid with 
 a quart of water. Some of the acidulated water should be squeezed 
 into the nostrils to clear them as far as possible. 
 
 One dram doses of tartar emetic alone have been given with 
 benefit in this disease. As it is in nearly every case avoidable by 
 proper care and precaution, and is rarely cured when once well 
 seated, it will be by far the best policy to prevent its occurrence. 
 
 Pleurisy^ or inflammation of the membrane covering the lungs 
 and the lining of the cavity of the chest, is produced by the same 
 causes as pneumonia. It frequently accompanies this latter dis- 
 ease. It most frequently follows the careless washing of sheep or 
 their exposure to cold winds with wet fleeces, or from a severe 
 chill after having been sheared. After an attack of this disease, 
 and a seeming recovery, an adhesion of the lungs to the sides of 
 the chest often takes place which prevents the sheep from thriving 
 and keeps them in poor condition, from which they cannot be 
 recovered. Wide-spread causes, chiefly those arising from the un- 
 favorable condition of the weather, sometimes affect the flocks of 
 extensive districts, and lead to the supposition that the disease is 
 epizootic or contagious. This, however, is not the case. 
 
 Prevention consists in watchful care to protect the sheep from 
 sudden change of the weather at a time when they are more than 
 usually exposed to its ill effects ; also from a too sudden change 
 from housing to open pasturing in the spring. All sudden changes 
 in the management of sheep should be made with caution, a 
 change, even from poor to rich feed, may produce this or other in- 
 flammatory diseases, and care must be exercised in this respect. 
 
 The symptoms are similar to those of inflammation of the lungs ; 
 more pain is experienced, and the sheep exhibits more distress, 
 sometimes moaning in agony. After death, the cavily of the chest 
 9 
 
194 
 
 THE shepherd's MAKUAL. 
 
 is found filled with fluid ; the surface of the lungs is highly in- 
 flamed, and covered with livid patches, but their substance is not 
 afiected. Generally no trace of disease is found elsewhere. 
 
 The treatment consists in copious bleeding as for pneumonia, 
 but more blood may be taken with benefit. The following may 
 be given : 
 
 Powdered Digitahs 1 scruple. 
 
 Nitrate of Potash 1 dram. 
 
 Nitrous Ether, (Spirits of Nitre) 2 drams. 
 
 to be administered in linseed-meal or oat-meal gruel twice a day 
 for four or five days. When recovery be- 
 gins, the following tonic may be substituted : 
 
 Sulphate of Iron Va dram. 
 
 Infusion of Quassia or Chamomile .. 1/4 pint. 
 Ground Ginger 1/2 dram. 
 
 If the animal is valuable, it may sometimes 
 be saved after the efiusion of serum in the 
 chest has occurred to a considerable extent, 
 by tapping the cavity with a trochar and 
 canula, (fig. 74), and drawing off the fluid. 
 When this effusion has taken place, it may 
 be discovered by tapping the sides of the 
 chest, when a dull dead sound only is heard ; 
 also by a gurgling sound during expiration, 
 which is painful and difficult. The trochar 
 is inserted cautiously between the eighth and 
 ninth ribs, and the canula left in the opening 
 through which the fluid flows. Generous feed- 
 ing and great care are needed after tapping. 
 
 DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 
 
 GhoJcing. — Sheep are not often troubled 
 with obstructions of the gullet, except when 
 fed upon cut or sliced turnips, or permitted 
 to consume the shells of turnips which have 
 been scooped out by them in the field. When 
 a sheep is thus choked, the head is held 
 down, saliva flows from the mouth, breath- 
 ing is difficult, and the stomach becomes dis- 
 tended with gas, or air swallowed in the ef- 
 forts to dislodge the obstruction. When this occurs, the sheep's 
 head should be raised and held firmly between one man's legs, 
 
 Fig. 74. — TROCHAR 
 AND CANULA. 
 
COSTIYENESS. 195 
 
 while another pours a teaspoonful of linseed oil or melted lard 
 down the throat and endeavors by gently manipulating the gullet 
 to work the obstruction downwards. If this is ineffectual, a pro- 
 bang should be used. This is a flexible thin rod, as the wash rod of 
 a rifle, or a piece of light rattan or other tough elastic material. A 
 soft ball of tow, or of strips of linen cloth is securely fastened to the 
 end of the rod. This is well soaked with sweet oil or lard, and 
 gently inserted mto the gullet until it meets the obstruction, when 
 it is to be forced downwards without violence, a few gentle, but 
 smart taps on the upper end with a light stick being generally 
 more effective than continuous pressure. If the lining of the gul- 
 let is injured in the operation, and the sheep refuses to eat, gruel 
 or other liquid food should be given until the soreness disappears. 
 If the obstruction cannot be removed in this way, the sheep had 
 better be slaughtered. If it is a valuable animal, an effort which 
 is frequently successful, may be made to save it by cutting open 
 the skin and the gullet upon the obstruction, and removing it. The 
 opening in the gullet is then closed by a stitch made with a sur- 
 geon's curved needle, and the wound in the skin closed separately 
 in the same manner. The sheep should be securely held during 
 this operation. Soft food should be given until the wound is 
 healed. (See Treatment of Wounds). 
 
 Costiveness — Stretches. — This complaint is more frequently a 
 sjnnptom of disease than a disease itself. Yet it frequently occurs 
 when changing the flock from pasture to dry food. The dung 
 then becomes dry, hard, and scanty, and is discharged irregularly. 
 The termination of the bowel is red and inflamed, and when void- 
 ing dung, the sheep grunts or moans as with pain. Care in chang- 
 ing the food is a preventive, and a few ounces of linseed-cake-meal 
 daily will obviate the difficulty. Injections of warm soap and 
 water, or of one ounce of linseed-oil, will relieve the bowels, and 
 one ounce of linseed-oil given by the mouth will generally bring 
 about a cure. 
 
 When the costiveness is of long continuance, from neglect, the 
 sheep may be perceived stretching itself, spreading the feet apart, 
 raising the head, curving the back, and extending the abdomen. 
 This may also occur from obstruction of the bowels, which, how- 
 ever, is rare with sheep, but is most frequently caused by costive- 
 ness. A. teaspoonful of Sublimed Sulphur, (Flowers of Sulphur), 
 mixed with a small quantity of molasses or lard, may be placed on 
 the tongue to be swallowed, once a day, for a week. A regular 
 allowance of a mixture of four ounces of Sulphur with one pound 
 
196 THE shepherd's MAl^UAL. 
 
 of salt, placed where the sheep can have access to it at will, is a 
 sure preventive of costiveness. 
 
 DlarrTiea or Scours. — A looseness of the bowels, without pain, 
 fever, or other complications, frequently occurs when sheep are 
 turned to pasture in the sprmg, or turned on to rich succulent 
 green food, as clover, rape, or turnips. It is sometimes perceived 
 when they are exposed to the hot sun in early spring without 
 shelter. It is not dangerous of itself, but as the disease very 
 quickly interferes with the process of nutrition, the blood is soon 
 affected, and the more serious blood disorder, dysentery, super- 
 venes. Diarrhea may generally be prevented by careful regula- 
 tion of the food, and avoiding sudden changes, and the regular 
 supply of salt. It is quickly subject to proper treatment, which 
 consists of the administration of astringents and cordial prepara- 
 tions. The followmg mixture should always be kept on hand by 
 the shepherd, ready for instant use : 
 
 Prepared Chalk 1 ounce. 
 
 " Catechu 4 drams. 
 
 " Ginger 2 " 
 
 " Opium V2 " 
 
 to be mixed with half a pint of peppermint water and bottled for 
 use. Two large tablespoonfuls of this is given night and morning 
 to a sheep, and half as much to a lamb, always previously shaking 
 the mixture well. Cotton-seed-cake-meal is both an excellent pre- 
 ventive and remedy for this complaint, and a supply should be 
 kept for use. Half a pound a day should be given to a sheep. 
 
 If any mucus or glutinous substance appears in the dung it is 
 a proof of the existence of irritating matter in the intestines, and 
 a laxative should be given previously to the above. This may be 
 
 Linseed-oil 2 ounces. 
 
 Powdered Ginger 1 dram. 
 
 OK 
 
 Epsom Salts 1 ounce. 
 
 Ginger i/^ dram. 
 
 Gentian 1/2 dram. 
 
 to be given in infusion of linseed-meal. 
 
 Hoven, or distension of the mmen, is not uncommon in sheep. 
 It consists in the formation of gas in the first stomach, or rumen, 
 by which it is so much distended as to press injuriously upon the 
 diaphragm or membrane which encloses the chest. This prevent- 
 ing the contraction of the diaphragm interferes with the respira- 
 tion. It appears as an enlargement of tlie left side of the abdomen, 
 by which the skin is tightly drawn until in apparent danger of 
 
BLOATING. 197 
 
 bursting. It is caused by the rapid fermentation in the stomach 
 of very succulent green food, which has been greedily swallowed 
 while wet with dew or rain. The stomach may at the time be 
 disordered, and its digestive powers impaired ; or the distension 
 may be produced by other diseases of which it is an attendant or 
 a symptom. In such a case it indicates a decrease or chemical 
 change of the alkaline secretions of the rumen. The treatment 
 should be immediate, lest suffocation ensue. An alkaline fluid 
 poured into the rumen, frequently alleviates the symptoms and 
 removes the trouble. This may be 
 
 Ammonia Water {Aqua Ammonice) 1 teaspoonful. 
 
 Water 1/2 pint. 
 
 to be administered through a horn. A hollow, flexible probang, 
 which should be kept for this purpose may be inserted through 
 the gullet into the rumen, by which a means of escape for the 
 gas may be made. The alkaline liquid mentioned may be 
 poui'ed into the stomach through the tube of the probang, or 
 an opening may be made through the flank into the rumen with 
 the trochar and canula, (fig. 74), or by a small bladed knife. This 
 opening should be cautiously made at the spot where the greatest 
 swelling is found. In the latter case a quill should be inserted 
 into the hole to allow the gas to escape. If the passage be stopped 
 by solid matter, a wire may be put through the quill to restore the 
 opening. The ammoniacal liquid previously mentioned, or a solu- 
 tion of a teaspoonful carbonate of soda in quarter of a pint of 
 water may be injected through the quill with a common syringe. 
 Afterwards the following may be given with the horn : 
 
 Epsom Salts 2 ounces. 
 
 Ginger 1 dram. 
 
 Water 1 Pi^t. 
 
 If the production of gas still continues, a dram of chloride of lime 
 dissolved in water will tend to remove the gases generated by the 
 now decomposing food. 
 
 Where none of these appliances are at hand, the following sub- 
 stitutes may be used, viz: Flour, lard, and salt, to form a bolus 
 mixed with one dram of carbonate of ammonia, at the early stage, 
 or one dram of chloride of lime at the later stage. Small boluses 
 of this mixture to be placed on the root of the tongue or into the 
 gullet, so that they may be swallowed. Sulphuric ether is some- 
 times given in doses of two drams each in cold water, it is a valu- 
 able stimulant and antispasmodic when the animal becomes rigid 
 or convulsed. 
 
198 
 
 THE shepherd's MANUAL. 
 
 The after treatment should he tonic, and the food should be 
 
 light and not bulky. Bran 
 or oat-meal, scalded and 
 "well salted, and given 
 with 1 dram of ginger 
 would be useful. The 
 return to copious green 
 food should be gradual, 
 until the stomach has re- 
 gained its tone. 
 
 Poisoning. — At certain 
 seasons sheep are tempted 
 to devour injurious herbs 
 or plants. St. John's- 
 wort, when frequent in 
 pastures, produces sore 
 mouth and irritation of 
 the intestines, which 
 quickly disappear when 
 the sheep are removed to a 
 more wholesome pasture. 
 The Sheep-Laurel, Lamb- 
 kill, or narrow-leaved Kal- 
 mia, {Kalmia angustifolia) 
 (see fig. 75), is eaten by 
 sheep which have access 
 to it at certain seasons, 
 chiefly during the winter 
 and spring, and is often 
 fatal to them. The symp- 
 toms of poisoning are dis- 
 inclination to move, froth- 
 ing at the mouth and nose, 
 lessened pulse, stagger- 
 ing gait, and blood-shot 
 eyes. Immediate attention 
 should be given, as death 
 generally occurs within 
 twelve hours. To dilute 
 the mass of poisonous 
 food, and to expel it 
 Fig. 75.-SHEEP-LAUBEL. f^om the system as soon 
 
 as possible, is the proper treatment. This may be done by 
 
DISEASES OF THE BOWELS. 199 
 
 giving two ounces of Epsom salts in a pint of warm water, and re- 
 peating the dose of water without the salts in an hour. Injections 
 of warm soap suds will help to remove the injurious matter from 
 the bowels. To prevent the danger of poisoning by carefully re- 
 moving all injurious plants from the pastures or fences around 
 them would be the obvious duty of the careful shepherd. The 
 large leaved Laurel, {Kalmia latifolia), is also eaten occasionally by 
 sheep. In England, the yew tree, which is common in hedges, 
 causes the loss of hundreds of sheep every year. Sheep should 
 not be allowed to feed on pastures which have been dressed with 
 gypsum, lime, soot, or any chemical fertilizer until after one or 
 two copious showers have washed the herbage clean. 
 
 Inflammation of the Bowels.— This disease, (the braxy of the 
 English shepherds), is not frequently met with in this country, 
 except as an adjunct to some complicated inflammatory blood dis- 
 ease. It, however, sometimes occurs as the result of continued in- 
 digestion, or the consequence of feeding upon dry, innutritions 
 pasture, combined with bad water in hot weather. The first 
 symptoms are weeping and redness of the eyes, weakness and 
 staggering, loss of appetite and rumination, inaction of the bowels, 
 swelling of the flanks, high fever, and difficult breathing, a puck- 
 ered up appearance of the mouth and nostrils, which gives a pecu- 
 liar wo-begone and pained expression to the face ; a tight skin 
 and rapid emaciation. After death, the stomach is found filled 
 with putrid food, and distended with gas; the bowels are gangre- 
 nous and in a state of decomposition ; the liver is partly decom- 
 posed and filled with degenerated bile ; the spleen is gorged with 
 blood, softened, enlarged, and not unfrequently ruptured, ulcer- 
 ated, and exhibiting a seriously diseased condition. The latter ap- 
 pearance seems to identify this complicated and fatal disease with 
 the splenic apoplexy or Texan or Spanish fever of cattle. Death 
 is often very sudden, many sheeep left in apparent health at night, 
 being found dead in the morning ; at the most, two or three days 
 is the usual course of this disease. 
 
 To prevent it, when circumstances favor its appearance, an abund- 
 ant supply of pure water and a change of pasture should be provid- 
 ed. Low grounds should be avoided, and everything done that can 
 ameliorate the circumstances of privation in which the flock may 
 be temporarily placed. It is not epizootic, and the removal of the 
 causes will prevent the spread of the disease. A supply of salt, 
 mixed with one per cent each of sulphate of iron, ginger, and gen- 
 tian, to be given every evening to the sheep on their return from 
 pasture, will be a useful preventive. The treatment should con- 
 
200 THE shephekd's manual. 
 
 sist of bleeding from the jugular vein, at the first appearance of the 
 disease. Bleeding from the vein on the abdomen has also been 
 practiced with success. Mild aperients — an ounce of Linseed or 
 Castor Oil or Epsom salts— are useful, and should be followed by 
 twice daily doses of one dram of Sulphite, (not suliDhate), of Soda. 
 The food should be liquid and demulcent, such as oat-meal gruel, 
 infusions of linseed or solutions of gum arable. Except the ani- 
 mal is a very valuable one, it will be hardly worth while to at- 
 tempt a cure in acase of serious character, as the recovery is slow, 
 and the following debility is of itself often fatal, after a costly and 
 protracted course of treatment. 
 
 Concretions of Foi'eign Bodies in the Stomach. — Sheep are some- 
 times observed to purposely swallow earth in small quantities. In 
 pasturing green fodder crops or roots, much earth, and sometimes 
 small stones, arc swallowed. In eating hay, or other dry fodder, 
 foreign matters, such as nails, pieces of wire, or glass, will some- 
 times find their way into the stomachs. All these matters cause 
 much irritation, and sometimes death. The trouble is shown by 
 a suspension of the appetite, the sheep lag behind the rest, stand 
 for long periods without moving, grind their teeth, poking out the 
 nose, and depressing the ears. When the fiank is pressed a grunt 
 of pain is heard, and there is violent purging. When these symp- 
 toms are observed, and the sheep are known to have been in 
 danger of swallowing any of these substances, this cause may be 
 suspected. 
 
 The only treatment that can be of Use is to give daily doses of 
 one ounce of Epsom Salts, and feed scalded bran or corn-meal in 
 the shape of thick mush in order to remove the foreign matter 
 with the food if possible. If this will not be taken, oat-meal or 
 corn-meal gruel should be given copiously with the horn. 
 
 Balls of wool and earthy matter are sometimes found after death 
 in the stomachs. Thcso are gathered by the sheep nibbling them- 
 selves when irritated by lice, ticks, or scab. Generally they exist 
 without suspicion of their presence until death occurs, and in 
 many cases without known ill effect on the animal. It would be 
 safe to avoid possible danger in this direction by keeping the flock, 
 especially the lambs, free from parasitical and irritating insects. 
 
 Congestion of the Lixer. — When sheep are highly fed upon stim- 
 ulating food, and have but little or no exercise, the liver is apt to 
 become gorged with blood. This fullness of blood is termed con- 
 gestion. It is occasioned by disordered digestion, and when it 
 exists to a serious extent, occasions further complications of this 
 
DISEASES OF THE LIVER. XCl 
 
 important organ. It produces constipation, dullness, and a yellow- 
 ish tinge of the eyes. As soon as this latter sign appears, there 
 should be no delay, lest inflammation supervene. 
 
 The treatment consists in giving an active purge, to be repeated 
 every morning, until the bowels are in their usual healthy condi- 
 tion, the yellowness of the eyes has disappeared, and the appetite 
 has returned. The purge may be the following, given in molasses 
 placed upon the tongue : 
 
 Epsom Salts 1 ounce. 
 
 Calomel 3 grains. 
 
 The patient should be supplied with slightly warm drink soon 
 after swallowing the medicine. 
 
 Inflammation of the Liver. — By neglect, the disease, last men- 
 tioned, may result in inflammation of the liver. When this hap- 
 pens the system becomes fevered; the nose and mouth hot and 
 dry; the breath fetid ; the ears cold; the eyes pale and glassy; 
 the pulse is irregular ; breathing is slow, and the expirations short 
 and sudden ; the dung is dry, hard, black, and glazed with a greasy 
 yellowish-green mucus ; the urine is highl}'- colored, scanty, hot, 
 and smells disagreeably. Pressure on the right side, near the 
 short ribs, produces pain, and the animal moans. 
 
 The treatment consists of purgatives and injections. For a pur- 
 gative, the following may be given twice a day in infusion of lin- 
 seed or gum arable or in molasses, well mixed together and placed 
 on the tongue : 
 
 Sulphate of Potash 2 drams. 
 
 Calomel 5 grains. 
 
 Powdered Opium 1 grain. 
 
 Injections of warm water and castile soap may be given until the 
 bowels act freely. 
 
 When improvement occurs, and the appetite returns, great care 
 in feeding should be observed, and only the most easily digested 
 food should be given. Pulped sugar beet, scalded clover-hay 
 chafi", linseed-meal, boiled malt, or sifted corn-meal, may be given 
 with linseed tea for drink, or water acidulated with a few drops 
 of aromatic sulphuric acid. 
 
 DISEASES OF THE BLOOD. 
 
 The blood being the very foundation of the life of the animal, 
 must exist in a state of purity, or ihe vital functions are at once 
 disordered. Anything, therefore, that vitiates the blood or unfits 
 it for the proper performance of those functions which have been 
 
202 THE shepherd's manual. 
 
 already explained, produces what is known as blood diseases, or 
 diseases originating in and communicated to various organs by 
 the blood. These may be classified as follows : 
 
 1. Diseases arising from an impaired, increased, or arrested 
 function, or process, viz: rheumatism, plethora, anaemia, scrofula, 
 dropsy. 
 
 2. Diseases called enzobiic because arising from animal poisons, 
 originating either within the subject, or communicated by the same 
 poisons originating in other animals, viz : influenza, dysentery, 
 red-water, heaving or after pains, navel-ill in lambs, black-leg or 
 quarter-ill or anthrax fever. 
 
 3. Diseases arising from animal poisons of unknown origin, and 
 which are highly contagious, and freely communicated from one 
 subject to another, hence called epizootic diseases, viz : Epizootic 
 aphtha, small pox. 
 
 Fortunately these diseases so fatal in their operation, and so un- 
 controllable in their course, are easily prevented by proper precau- 
 tion and ordinary hygienic or sanitary measures. Also in the salt, 
 sulphite of soda, we have a valuable remedy against those ferments 
 which are the active agents in the majority of blood diseases. 
 
 Rheumatism. — This disease is attended with considerable fever, 
 constitutional disturbance, and the presence of acid matters in the 
 blood. It affects the serous membrane, as the coverings of the 
 joints, the substance of the tendons and ligaments, the enveloping 
 membranes of the heart, lungs, spinal marrow, bones, muscles, and 
 the brain. As it has a disposition to change its locality almost in- 
 stantaneously, and to pass from one joint to another, or one part 
 to another, (a process known as metastatis), and affects all these 
 important parts of the body, the seriousness of the disease is evi- 
 dent. It consists in a peculiar inflammation of the parts affected 
 which causes acute pain when they are called into action. When 
 it passes from the acute to the chronic state, it causes serious 
 changes in the structure of the joints affected. Its symptoms are 
 general uneasiness and stiffness, a diminished or capricious appe- 
 tite, and sometimes, suspended rumination. The dung is hard and 
 scanty, and the urine is high colored and deficient in quantity. 
 One of the joints is found hot and swollen; in an hour or two 
 ■ this is relieved, and another is found affected. It generally attacks 
 in spring those animals which have been half starved or exposed 
 to cold or damp during the winter. Rams, which have been over- 
 worked the previous season, are often affected. Young ewes are 
 rarely troubled with it. If not remedied by proper treatment, the 
 
DISEASES OF THE BLOOD. 203 
 
 animal suflFers from continued fever, general prostration, severe 
 pain and emaciation, and eventually dies miserably. The treat- 
 ment consists of a moderate purgative at first, such as : 
 
 Epsom Salts 3 ounces. 
 
 Spirit of Nitrous Ether 4 drains. 
 
 Ginger 1 dram. 
 
 to be followed by 
 
 Sulphate of Potash 3 drams. 
 
 Sulphuric Acid 20 drops. 
 
 Water V* pint. 
 
 to be given dissolved in water night and morning. Protection 
 from cold and damp, and soft, laxative food are required. Lin- 
 seed-meal, either solid or made into gruel, ic a useful addition to 
 the food. As this disease is apt to become chronic, the patient 
 should be fitted for the butcher as soon as possible. A rheumatic 
 ram will beget rheumatic lambs. 
 
 Plethora consists in a too rapid production of blood, by which 
 the system is engorged, and important organs become congested. 
 It is caused by over-feeding with rich albuminous food, and is 
 counteracted by a simple purgative, or bleeding from a vein on the 
 face or the jugular. Its effects appear in a flushed condition of 
 the visible membranes, labored breathing, staggering and sleepi- 
 ness. It never occurs except in animals in high condition, such as 
 those prepared for exhibition, and which in case of over fatigue, 
 or excessively hot and damp weather, suffer greatly, and sometimes 
 fatally, from engorgement of the vessels of the lungs or brain, or 
 both. 
 
 Anmrnia or Pining.— This term, "the bloodless condition," in- 
 dicates the nature of the disease. There is a condition to which 
 sheep may be brought by the effects of dysentery, or by parasites 
 in the lungs or intestines, which much resembles this disease. But 
 there is an abnormal state of the blood caused by imperfect nutri- 
 tion, which is in itself a disease, and not a symptom. When from 
 continued wet weather the pasture becomes rank and watery, the, 
 flock appears at first in an excellent and thrifty state, but in » 
 few days the animals are found lying listless, with drooping heads 
 and ears, watery eyes, and the expression of the face miserable 
 and painful. A few days afterwards the skin is tightly drawn, the 
 wool becomes of a peculiar bluish cast, the skin beneath of a 
 pearly white color, the eyes arc also of a pearly bloodless appear- 
 ance, and death is busy in the flock. On dry, rich clover pastures 
 the same effects are sometimes experienced. The disease never 
 appears on steep, rocky hill sides, where the pasturage is short and 
 
;;i04 THE shepherd's manual. 
 
 sweet, nor on those pastures -wliich are scant, but yet nutritious, 
 and intermixed with coarse herbage ; nor on lauds that are abun- 
 dantly supplied with lime. It is impossible to know beforehand 
 whether the pasture will produce this effect or not, as it seems 
 most probable that the geological character of the soil has most to 
 do with it. But when ouce a farm, a pasture, or a field, is found 
 to induce this ailment, sheep keeping may be abandoned upon 
 it, unless the flock can be immediately changed to some other part 
 of it where it will thrive. A change from a pasture field to a corn 
 field, where the picking amongst the hills furnished but scanty 
 feed, has been found to produce an immediate change for the bet- 
 ter. No treatment, other than a change of locality, can be indi- 
 cated, and if the farm does not supply this, the flock must be dis- 
 posed of or removed. The disease unfortunately is not well un- 
 derstood, for it is sometimes found very destructive to lambs and 
 yearlings, which are chiefly afl'ectcd by it. It is frequently 
 confounded with a parasitical disease hereinafter referred to, but 
 a post-mortem cxmiination of a subject will easily identify it as 
 being different from it as shown by the absence of parasites in the 
 stomach, lungs, or air-passages. An adequate supply of supple- 
 mentary food would of course act as a remedy, but the cost of 
 this would defeat its object and render the flock unprofitable. 
 
 Scrofulri — Tuberculosis. — This disease is almost surely fatal in 
 course of time, although at first the sheep subject to it may be 
 brought, by proper treatment, into condition for the butcher. It 
 is a question, however, if the flesh of scrofulous animals can be 
 safely consumed as food, but yet many such go yearly to the 
 butchers to be thus disposed of. It would certainly seem that the 
 use of such animals as food should be carefully avoided, and the 
 sale of their flesh prevented as injurious to the public health, for 
 no taint is more readily conveyed to the system than scrofula. It 
 is supposed to consist of a diseased condition of the blood, by 
 which the l3anph, or white, serous, uncolored portion of it is unfit- 
 ted to nourish properly the tissues of the body and to be built up 
 into organized matter. Lest the accumulation of this imperfect 
 blood should embarras the system, it is deposited in various parts 
 where it is productive of least inconvenience, and the nutrition of. 
 the body goes on, as well as it may, with the remainder of the 
 blood tlius separated from the useless and injurious portion. But 
 it is frequently the case that there is not suflTicient left to supply 
 the waste of the tissues, and a gradual falling off in condition oc- 
 curs. The symptoms of ''consumption," a very significant term, 
 as the chief organs are slowly consumed, then appear. The pulsa- 
 
ENZOOTIC DISEASES. 205 
 
 tions of the heart are loud, so as to be heard on applying the ear 
 to the ribs ; the pulse is feeble, the appetite irregular, and a slight 
 cough exists, caused by the efforts to throw off the accumulating 
 and offending matter from the lungs. In time, the glands of the 
 body become loaded with the deposited matter ; those of the throat 
 and neck, the parotid and submaxillary, being most commonly 
 and extensively affected, and greatly swollen. The symptoms 
 gradually increase in intensity, and there is much fever and ema- 
 ciation, with discharge from the nose and eyes. The skin is tight 
 and pale, and the body appears almost free from blood, as in 
 anaemia. At this period there is no help for the animal, for death 
 is only a question of time. 
 
 The treatment in the earlier stages is to administer some of the 
 preparations of iodine, such as the following : 
 
 Iodide of Potassium 5 grains. 
 
 OR 
 
 Iodide of Iron 10 grains. 
 
 to be finely powdered and mixed with molasses, and placed on the 
 root of the tongue, so that it is swallowed. The above dose to be 
 given daily. The latter preparation is to be preferred. The 
 swellings may be rubbed daily with iodine ointment. No scrofu- 
 lous animal should be used for breeding, as the disease is heredi- 
 tary. High-bred sheep are the most subject to this disease, and 
 " in-and-in breeding" tends greatly to produce it. 
 
 In some localities an enlargement of the glands of the neck, 
 similar to the disease known as goitre in mankind^ is frequent 
 amongst sheep. This is supposed, doubtless with reason, to be 
 caused by the water drank, as in such cases the removal of the 
 flock to distant pastures has led to the disappearance of the dis- 
 ease. The occurrence of the symptoms above described, however, 
 will be sufficient to indicate the true character of scrofula as dis- 
 tinguished from any accidental swelling of the glands. 
 
 Dropsy consists in the effusion of a watery or serous fluid in the 
 abdomen. It is accompanied with inflammation of the lining 
 membrane of the abdomen, the peritoneum, from which the fluid 
 is secreted. It is caused by feeding upon rank, succulent, watery 
 herbage, by which the blood is insufficiently nourished. A 
 change to dry food, or scanty but more nutritious pasture, allevi- 
 ates the disease at once. A cure is generally cllected by the use 
 of diuretics, aperients, and tonics. The treatment will be the ad- 
 ministering of the following, or such others as may produce the 
 desired effect : 
 
206 THE shepherd's makual. 
 
 Nitrate of Potash 1 dram. 
 
 Sulpliate of Soda 1 ounce. 
 
 Ginger 1 dram. 
 
 If the animal is in low condition, the sulphate of soda may be re- 
 placed by the following, viz. : 
 
 Linseed-oil 3 ounces. 
 
 ENZOOTIC DISEASES. 
 
 Infliienza.— This disease being due to causes which occur over 
 an extended locality, is liable to affect a large number of animals 
 at the same time. It is erroneously supposed to be infectious. It 
 consists of inflammation of the nasal and bronchial passages, con- 
 siderable fever, and great prostration, with general disturbance of 
 the system. There is redness and weeping of the eyes, running at 
 the nose, cough, great weakness, loss of appetite, indigestion, with 
 impaction and sometimes hoven, or distension of the rumen. It 
 is prevalent after continued cold and damp weather, and is most 
 severe where the ground is low and undrained, or in river bottoms 
 or valleys, where morning and evening mists abound. "When 
 these conditions occur, the flock should be kept on high, dry 
 ground, or in dry, sheltered yards, and carefully protected. Their 
 food should be somewhat improved, linseed-oil-cake or corn-meal, 
 buckwheat, oats, or rye, being added. A dose of the mixed salt 
 and sulphur, (1 quart of salt with 4 oz. of sulphur), should be given, 
 and any ailing sheep should be well nursed and treated to warm 
 gruel. These precautions will generally prevent a serious attack. 
 
 The treatment, when the disease becomes severe, is to give a 
 light dose of some saline purgative, such as 
 
 Epsom Salts V2 ounce. 
 
 Ginger 1 dram. 
 
 in a quarter of a pint of water, or mixed with molasses or honey. 
 For a large flock the medicine may be mixed in bulk in proper 
 proportions, and a quarter of a pint given to each sheep by means 
 of a horn. Those more seriously affected should receive the fol- 
 lowing, viz : 
 
 Tincture of Aconite 10 drops. 
 
 Solution of Acetate of Ammonia 1 ounce. 
 
 To be given every four to six hours, decreasing the aconite at each 
 dose until five drops only are given, when it may be suspended, 
 and only repeated in an emergency 
 i^ If the eyes are much inflamed, they should be washed with a 
 
ENZOOTIC DISEASES. 207 
 
 solution of one grain of sulphate of zinc, and 20 drops of lauda- 
 num, in one ounce of water. After recovery, the feed should be 
 laxative and nutritious ; bran mashes, and boiled oats, or corn- 
 meal mush, with a little powdered ginger or gentian, and a pinch 
 of powdered blue vitriol, (sulphate of copper), in each mess, would 
 be useful. If not readily taken in the food, this tonic may be 
 given for a few days in honey or molasses. Shelter is absolutely 
 necessary during treatment and recovery. 
 
 Dysentery may be distinguished from diarrhea by its more se- 
 vere symptoms, there being much fever ; the dung is mixed with 
 blood and mucus, has a fetid smell, is discharged frequently, and 
 is generally in hard lumps and scanty ; it is also voided with pain, 
 and the sheep arches its back and moans in its passages. The 
 wool feels harsh, and after a short time may be pulled off in hand- 
 fuls. Sudden changes of pasture, from poor to rich, or from rich 
 to poor ; dry, indigestible food ; scanty or impure water ; severely 
 hot and damp weather sucli as produces rust in grain, and neglect- 
 ed diarrhea, are the chief causes. Where large flocks are kept on 
 extensive ranges, the best course is to remove to some other pas- 
 ture, where the water is good, the ground high and dry, and other 
 favorable conditions abound. The treatment proper for this dis- 
 ease is to give a laxative in the first instance, as follows : 
 
 Linseed-oil . . 2 ounces. 
 
 Powdered Opium 2 grains. 
 
 to be given in linseed tea or oat-meal gruel. The linseed or oat- 
 meal should be continued several times during the next twenty- 
 four hours, both as nutriment and for its soothing qualities. The 
 next day, and for several days, the opium should be repeated with 
 one dram of ginger. An occasional dose of linseed-oil may be 
 given if thought necessary. It can do no harm, in any event, if 
 given every other day. The effect of a hot sun, in an unshaded 
 pasture, is very aggravating to this disease. Sheep suffering from 
 it should be kept, if possible, in a cool shed, and separated from 
 the rest of the flock. A pasture that has been occupied by such 
 sheep will certainly infect others that may feed upon it during 
 warm weather, the dung conveying the poison to the herbage. 
 
 Red-Water. — When sheep are suffered to pasture upon succulent 
 green crops, such as rape, mustard, or turnips, late in the fall or 
 in the early winter, and the fodder is covered with hoar frost or 
 sleet, or when they are forced to scrape their food from beneath 
 the snow, swallowing a large portion of snow with their food, or 
 when the stock water is drawn from filthy ponds or sloughs, they 
 
208 THE shepherd's makual. 
 
 are subject to a peculiar disorder wliich often affects the majority 
 of the flock quite suddenly, and is known as red-water. In this 
 country this disease is rare, being known chiefly in the south-west 
 and west, along with the last mentioned disease and some other 
 disorders originating from exposure and unwholesome food or 
 water, under the general name of murrain. The symptoms of 
 this disease agree with those of a so-called " unknown and new 
 disease" affecting sheep in the west, which has been described 
 recently by correspondents of the Agricultural Department at 
 Washington. The sheep affected appear dull and stupid, and 
 stagger, carrying the head upon one side, the eyes are staring, and 
 sometimes blind, and the bowels are obstinately costive. They 
 die in a few hours. When opened the belly of the sheep is found 
 filled with a red fluid wrongly supposed to be blood. There is 
 also general congestion of the principal organs. 
 
 As a preventive, the use of salt is recommended, and a table- 
 spoonful of pine tar given to each sheep every ten days has been 
 found useful. A pound of Epsom salts dissolved m water with 
 two oz. of ground ginger, may be given to every ten sheep. The 
 simple removal of the causes and a brisk purgative or diuretic 
 would doubtless lead to a recovery if given in time. When 
 inflammation occurs from neglect, the bowels become affected, and 
 death is rapid. The peculiar nature of the sheep makes treatment 
 at this stage almost hopeless, but if it is attempted, that prescribed 
 for inflammation of the bowels would be proper. 
 
 After-Pains in Ewes^ or parturient apoplexy, arises in conse- 
 quence of a feverish condition at the time of lambing. It oc- 
 curs about the second or third day, and its presence is shown by 
 panting, straining, heaving of the flanks, a staring look, scanty 
 and high colored and strong smelling urine, costiveness, and swell- 
 ing and redness of the external hinder parts, which finally be- 
 come purple and black. After death the whole system is con- 
 gested, and the veins filled with black blood ; the uterus or womb, 
 is charged with pus, the absorption of which poisoning the blood, 
 is the cause of death. This disease is easily prevented by reduc- 
 ing the condition of the ewes when it can safely be done. The 
 safe time is some weeks before lambing, when a gentle purgative 
 should be given and the food gradually reduced. A bran mash 
 with 15 grains of saltpeter may be given daily for a few days. A 
 very gradual course of depletion only should be adopted. If, 
 after lambing, trouble is anticipated, the appearance of the ewe 
 should be closely watched. If the pains occur, the following 
 sedative should be given at once : 
 
ENZOOTIC DISEASES. 209 
 
 Camphor i/a dram. 
 
 Laudanum 60 drops. 
 
 These are mixed with molasses and placed on the tongue ; the 
 dose may be increased one-fourth for large ewes when the pains 
 are excessive. One ounce of solution of acetate of ammonia may 
 be given four hours afterwards, and repeated twice at equal inter- 
 vals. If a fetid discharge takes place from the vdgina, a solution 
 of one dram of chloride of lime to a pint of warm water may be 
 injected. The food of the ewe should consist principally of infu- 
 sions of linseed or oat-meal gruel. Bleeding is injurious, as are 
 also violent purgatives. 
 
 Black Leg^ Quarter Ml, or Anthrax fever, is known as the 
 *' black spauW of the English shepherds, the ckarbon of the 
 French, and as one of the " murrains " of our western states, 
 where it is most frequent in this country. It affects young and 
 thrifty sheep, and is rarely found amongst old or poor stock. It 
 appears in the spring or early summer, and also in the fall months ; 
 and mostly in wet seasons, when the pasture, under the fervid heat 
 of the sun and unusual moisture, grows luxuriantly. Then the 
 sheep, with vigorous appetite, gorge themselves to repletion, the 
 digestive organs are overtaxed, the blood is disorganized, and be- 
 fore any trouble is suspected, the sheep drop and suddenly die. 
 When the carcasses are examined, and the vrool which leaves the 
 skin at the least touch, is removed, the body is found to be swollen 
 and blackened in large patches, chiefly on the forequarter, the 
 flank, or the hindquarter. Air is gathered beneath the skin, and 
 on opening the body, it is found decomposed and filled with black 
 blood. If the flock is then observed, some will be found lame 
 and limping, and on examination the sides or quarters will be 
 found swollen, and when the hand is passed over these spots, the 
 wool readily comes off", and a crackling sound is heard from the 
 motion of the air or gas collected beneath the skin. The mouth 
 and tongue are found to be inflamed and blistered, and the eyes 
 red. The urine is dark, the bowels constipated, and the dung 
 when discharged is bloody. By and by the animals are unable to 
 stand, and fall upon the side, stretch out the limbs, and protrude 
 the tongue ; the belly is swollen, and in a few hours the sheep is 
 dead. The disease is much worse in rich bottom lands, or moist, 
 black soils, and rarely appears on hilly ground, or gravelly, 
 dry soils. To prevent this disorder, it is only necessary to pre- 
 vent the causes, to ensure regular feeding, and avoid' sudden 
 changes from poor to rich food or the reverse. The treatment 
 
210 THE SHEPHEKD'S MAKUAI. 
 
 should be an immediate purgative. The following may be given 
 in oat-meal gruel or any other thick mucilaginous Hquid : 
 
 Sulphate of Soda 2 ounces. 
 
 Flowers of Sulphur 1 ounce. * 
 
 Powdered Myrrh 1 scruple. 
 
 A teaspoonful of spirits of nitrous ether in a pmt of water may be 
 given in six hours afterwards. If taken at the commencement of 
 the symptoms, this treatment will probably be effective, but if 
 later, the uncertain remedial action of nature alone can be de- 
 pended on. 
 
 EPIZOOTIC DISEASES. 
 
 Aphtha^ or "foot and mouth disease," which has grievously 
 affected the herds and flocks of Europe, is not unknown in Ameri- 
 ca. Fortunately our drier climate, or some other preservative in- 
 fluence, has very greatly circumscribed the course of this disease. 
 It has appeared in various parts of the country, but only sporadi- 
 cally, or in scattered cases, and never yet has it swept over an 
 entire district. Nevertheless, no one can be sure that it never will 
 so appear, and as an isolated case requires the same treatment as 
 any other, it is well that the disease should be described here. It 
 is a true blood disease, belonging to a class of eruptive fevers aris- 
 ing from a poisoning of the blood, and is highly contagious under 
 favoring circumstances. It affects alike cattle, sheep, pigs, hares, 
 and rabbits. It appears as an eruption of watery blisters upon the 
 lips and tongue, and between and around the hoofs. The first 
 symptoms are a fit of shivering, succeeded hj fever, cough, and an 
 increased pulse. This is succeeded by a failing of the appetite, 
 tenderness over the loins, flow of saliva from the mouth, and 
 grinding of the jaws. Blisters, small and large, appear on the 
 mouth and tongue, which break and become raw, causing great 
 pain. The feet are swollen and also covered with blisters, which 
 break and become sore, causing the animal to walk with difficulty 
 and shake its feet or kick or lie down persistently. In from ten 
 to fifteen days the disease runs its course, in favorable circum- 
 stances, and the animal recovers gradually, and is never affected 
 afterwards. Otherwise the symptoms increase in severity, the 
 sheep lose condition rapidly, from inability to eat or move about ; 
 the hoofs are sloughed off, and sometimes even the bones of the 
 feet are cast off, leaving only a stump. In-lamb ewes when 
 affected, abort. It is considered, where this disease is virulent, 
 that the cheapest and most effective plan is to stamp it out by the 
 
SHEEP POX. 211 
 
 slaughter and burial of every infected animal, and the removal of 
 those that are well. In the simple form, a single brisk purgative, 
 such as two ounces of Epsom salts, with a small quantity of gin- 
 ger, generally results in a cure ; to repeat the dose is dangerous. 
 The mouth should be washed in the following solution twice a day : 
 
 Alum in powder } o^pce. 
 
 Tincture of MyiTh 1 fluid ounce. 
 
 Water 1 ^^^rt. 
 
 The feet, if affected, should be washed with soap and water, or 
 with a weak solution of sulphate of copper, then dressed with car- 
 bolic ointment ; and afterwards bound up in a cloth so as to keep 
 sand or dirt from irritating the sensitive surfaces. Sulphur should 
 be burned in the sheds as a disinfectant and purifier, and the drink- 
 ing water should be acidulated with one dram of aromatic sul- 
 phuric acid to a gallon of water. All sick animals should be 
 isolated. 
 
 8heep Pox, or variola, is a formidable and fatal disease, which is 
 very frequent in the central and eastern parts of Europe, and has 
 recently been introduced into England by means of importations 
 of infected sheep. Although unknown in its severe type in this 
 country, yet we have no security against its introduction at any 
 day. It is recorded in a German publication that on one occasion 
 every sheep in a whole district was swept off by this disorder, the 
 sheep dying without any apparent reason, as though they had 
 been poisoned. The only known preventive is artificial inocula- 
 tion by means of lymph taken from one of the mildest cases. 
 These communicated cases are exceedingly mild. The practice of 
 housing sheep is very productive of this disease, and it is when 
 sheep are kept in small flocks and well supplied with fresh air and 
 general good care that the disease makes no headway. Whenever 
 our flocks shall be overcrowded, and poorly cared for, this disease 
 may be apprehended. Sheep-pox is not identical with the human 
 small-pox, but is yet of the same type, produced by the same 
 causes, has very similar characteristics, and is equally contagious. 
 It cannot, like that of the cow, be communicated to mankind, nor 
 to other animals than sheep, even by inoculation, and belongs ex- 
 clusively to them. It is a true blood poison, caused originally by 
 the absorption of impure matter into the blood, probably through 
 the lungs, and the course of the disease is an effort of nature to 
 throw off the poison by the eruptions which appear on the skin. 
 There is a period of incubation of the disease, which lasts nine 
 to eleven days after infection, and during which no symptoms 
 whatever appear. After this the sheep sicken, refuse food, and 
 
212 THE shepherd's manual. 
 
 suflFer from quickened breathing, a hot, dry skin, an unquenchable 
 thirst, redness of the eyes, and a discharge from the nostrils. 
 At this period the eruption occurs on the body just as in the hu- 
 man small-pox. The bare skin under the arm-pits shows the first 
 indications of the eruption. Pustules or pimples surrounded with 
 a red ring, (the areola), appear, and gradually after three days, 
 come to a head, and take on a white appearance. It is at this 
 stage of the disease that the matter is collected and preserved for 
 the purposes of inoculation. The symptoms decrease at this stage 
 and the sheep improve. The pustules dry up and form scales or 
 scabs which fall off and lea^e m their places "pits" or marks. 
 But it may be that these pimples run together or become " conflu- 
 ent" and ulcerate. If this happens, the sheep almost invariably 
 die. Otherwise the recovery is rapid. 
 
 Treatment by medicine is entirely unavailing. Good nursing 
 of the patients, and the use of sustaining stimulants with laxative 
 and demulcent food includes all that can be done. Linseed-meal, 
 rice-meal, and oat-meal, made into drinks, and given warm, with a 
 small quantity of sugar, or molasses and ginger, will be sufficient 
 in the shape of food. Pure soft water made slightly warm, and 
 acidulated with a few drops of aromatic sulphuric acid, should be 
 given for drink. 
 
 Hopeless cases should be ended at once. If at the last stage the 
 symptoms become worse, and the pimples, instead of becoming 
 brown and drying up, ulcerate, and run together in chains, the 
 animal should be killed and buried in a deep pit with plenty of 
 lime thrown on the carcass. Every portion of the dead animal 
 will convey infection, and in no case should the wool be taken 
 from it, unless it be at once tub- washed in boiling hot soap-suds. 
 
 On the appearance of the disease in a neighborhood, the unaf- 
 fected sheep should be inoculated. A quantity of the matter from 
 the white pimples is kept in bottles and diluted with w^ater to the 
 consistency of cream. A needle mounted in a wooden handle — 
 a shoemaker's curved awl will answer the purpose excellently — 
 is dipped into the fluid and is thrust beneath the skin of the fleshy 
 part of the tail. This rarely fails to communicate the disease 
 which is so slight as seldom to interfere with the feeding of the 
 flock. In a paper published in the Journal of the Koyal Agricul- 
 tural Society of England, Vol. XXV, Part 2, 1864, w^ritten by a 
 gentleman w^ho had had charge of flocks of Merinos varying from 
 a few thousand up to twenty-five thousand, in Russia, and who 
 always practiced inoculation, the author states that although the 
 sheep under his charge were constantly exposed to contagion 
 
DISEASES OF THE BLADDER. 213 
 
 from neighboring flocks, in which thousands died from neglect of 
 this precaution, yet lie nemr lost a single adult animal from the dis- 
 ease. In those countries where the disease prevails, every shep- 
 herd has an inoculating needle amongst the implements of his 
 profession. 
 
 As we are as yet exempt from this disease, and as it is readily 
 communicated by contact with the skin or fleece of a diseased 
 sheep, and with the present rapid communication between this 
 country and Europe, an animal might easily reach here within its 
 period of incubation, constant watchfulness should be exerted 
 to prevent its importation. That we shall always be exempt, is 
 too much to reasonably hope for. 
 
 DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. 
 
 The urine of a healthy sheep is alkaline. Under some circum- 
 stances the urine becomes acid. This abnormal condition pro- 
 duces a disordered condition of the highly sensitive urinary or- 
 gans. If the flow of the urine is obstructed, it is absorbed into 
 the circulation, and a variet}^ of diseases are produced, all of 
 which have one constant distinguishing symptom, viz : the strong- 
 smell of urine given out by the other secretions of the system, but 
 especially by the secretions of the skin. The blood is poisoned 
 by the absorption of the matters which the urine should have car- 
 ried off, and a high condition of fever is consequently produced. 
 Male animals are more frequently affected than females, by reason 
 of the peculiar structure and length of the urinary canal, already 
 described. Fattening animals are especially subject to urinary 
 disorders, and such need close inspection and great care. 
 
 Inflammation of the Bladder is the most frequent of the urinary 
 diseases. Feeding upon second growth clover, which often con- 
 tain lobelia, St. John's-wort, rag weed, and other irritating plants ; 
 or upon excessive quantities of corn- meal, or drinking hard wa- 
 ter, are the chief causes. The acid and consequently irritating 
 character of the urine inflames the inner coats of the bladder. The 
 inflammation spreads to the muscular substance around the neck 
 of the bladder, and this is contracted, closing the opening. 
 
 Retention of Urine is therefore the direct consequence, and this 
 involves the serious complications alreadj^ mentioned. The symp- 
 toms are uneasiness, constant lifting the hind feet and stamping 
 with them, spreading them out and straining in the endeavor to 
 void urine. As the attempt is abandoned, the animal moans in 
 pain. There is general disturbance of the system, fever, and costive- 
 
214 THE shepherd's manual. 
 
 ness. The remedy is to bleed copiously from the neck and to 
 give the following to a large animal. 
 
 Linseed-oil 2 ounces. 
 
 Laudanum. 2 drams. 
 
 For smaller animals the dose should be reduced proportionately. 
 If there is no improvement the second day, the bleeding should be 
 repeated from the other side of the neck, and one ounce of linseed 
 oil be given daily until relief is procured. Diuretics and saline 
 purgatives should be avoided. After improvement the food should 
 be light, and infusions of linseed-meal or of gum arable, would be 
 useful. 
 
 Sediment in the Urinary Canal. — Highly fed sheep, or those 
 fed on dry pastures, which are deficient in water, or those care- 
 lessly denied a full supply of water in winter, when they are fed 
 grain in less or greater quantities — rams and wethers especially — 
 are those which are subject to this disorder. Females, from the 
 large capacity of the canal, are never, or very rarely, affected. But 
 in male animals the peculiar appendage, called the vermiform, or 
 ■worm-like appendage, through which the canal finds its exit, be- 
 ing very small, an easy obstruction is offered to the passage and 
 discharge of any sandy or muddy deposit of the urine. Small 
 stony concretions are often discovered attached to the wool or 
 hairs around the vent on the belly of the sheep. When these are 
 noticed, extra care should be exercised to give abundant water by 
 which the deposit may be dissolved and carried away. When the 
 deposits have been arrested in this narrow passage, the urine is 
 seen to pass drop by drop and the animal exhibits great pain and 
 uneasiness. All the symptoms of retention of wine then appear. 
 The treatment is to place the animal on his rump and draw the 
 penis out of the sheath. It will be found inflamed and tender. 
 It should be fomented with warm water, and the urethra or canal 
 below it gently pressed with the fingers to force out the urine and 
 with it the sediment. If this is successful even in part, some 
 sweet-oil should be applied to the parts, and a rather large dose 
 of linseed-oil be administered along with an antispasmodic to act 
 on the neek of the bladder, viz : 
 
 Linseed-oil 3 ounces. 
 
 Extract of Belladonna 10 grains. 
 
 On the following day the urethra should be again examined, and 
 the manipulation be again repeated. One dram of Carbonate of 
 Potash should then be given, dissolved in water, three times 
 a day. If fever is present, the belladonna may be repeated, 
 but only in case of urgency. No saline purgatives are to be 
 
DISEASES OF THE URIN'ARY ORGAiq-S. 215 
 
 given in affections of the bladder. If the sediment cannot be passed, 
 it will be necessary to remove it by an operation. A lengthwise in- 
 cision is made, with a small sharp knife blade, at the junction of 
 the vermiform appendage with the urethra, on the lower surface, 
 and the stones or gravel are removed by pressure. It may be dis- 
 covered in this manner, that the obstructions exist all along the 
 urethra, in which case there is no hope of recovery, and the ani- 
 mal may be slaughtered. In case of wethers the vermiform 
 appendage of the penis may be cut off at once. In rams it may be 
 saved if possible, although it is not absolutely necessary for suc- 
 cessful stock getting. It may be well, however, to be on the safe 
 side, and save the part out of respect to the generally accepted be- 
 lief that it is needful. It is known, however, that many rams 
 which had lost the part by this operation, did not lose their useful- 
 ness in consequence. 
 
 Calculi^ or stone in the bladder. For this disease there is no 
 remedy, and if after the fact has been ascertained by the previously 
 described operation, or in any other way, the animal may be killed. 
 
 Clap or Oonorrhea. — This disease affects the sheath and penis 
 of the ram The first symptoms are very similar to those of sedi- 
 ment in the urethra. There is great pain in urinating, and the 
 urine comes by a few drops at a time. In course of time a white 
 acrid discharge escapes, and this, in case of neglect causes ulceration, 
 which may destroy the organ. Rams thus affected should not be 
 used, as the disease is contagious, and the symptoms are aggrava- 
 ted. The causes are excessive work and want of cleanliness. The 
 treatment consists of turning the animal on its back, withdrawing 
 the penis gently, holding it with a soft linen cloth wetted with the 
 lotion mentioned below, until all the diseased parts are seen. 
 The organ is then bathed and washed thoroughly with the follow- 
 ing lotion, viz : 
 
 Spirits of Camphor 4 ounces. 
 
 Sugar of Lead 1 ounce. 
 
 Sulphate of Zinc 2 ounces. 
 
 Water 1 quart. 
 
 Mix and bottle for use. If any of the ewes have become diseased 
 by contact with a diseased ram, a soft linen cloth may be wrapped 
 around the finger, dipped in the solution, and inserted in the parts 
 until they are thoroughly washed. Or a portion may be injected 
 with a syringe. A daily dressing should be given until a cure 
 commences, afterwards twice a week will be sufiicient. One ounce 
 of linseed oil should be given every other day until the mine 
 passes freely. The food should be laxative, and nothing stimulat- 
 
216 
 
 THE shepherd's MANUAL. 
 
 ing should be given until a cure is effected. Copious demulcent 
 drinks should be given, such as infusions of linseed, oat-meal, or 
 gum arable. 
 
 DISEASES OF THE BRAIN. 
 
 Water on the Brain^ {Hydrocephalus). — This is a constitutional 
 fault which is present in the ewe, or the ram, used in breeding. It 
 exists in the lamb at birth, and the head is generally so unnatur- 
 ally enlarged that it is killed as not worth raising, or it dies before 
 it has arrived at maturity. If there are many cases in a flock, the 
 ram should be changed ; if the ewes are at fault, they should be 
 disposed of by feeding for the butcher. There is no cure, and an 
 animal so deformed is a disagreeable object at the best, and it 
 should be destroyed at birth. 
 
 Apoplexy — Staggers. — Some of the high-bred sheep, the Leices- 
 ters more especially, as well as some native sheep that have been 
 poorly kept and fed, are subject to occasional attacks of giddiness 
 and blindness, in which they stagger about and run against walls, 
 fences, or other obstructions, evidently unable to see. The attack 
 comes on suddenly, the sheep stops and stands staggering, or still 
 
 moves on its former course 
 with eyes dilated and prom- 
 inent, but unconscious of 
 impediments. The appear- 
 ance of the eyes and mem- 
 branes shows that the vessels 
 of the head are full of blood, 
 and post-mortem examina- 
 tions have shown the brain to 
 be highly congested, and some- 
 times the vessels ruptured. 
 Pressure of blood on the brain 
 Plethora from continued high 
 feeding, or from indigestion or other disturbance of the condition 
 of the digestive organs, produces this determination of blood to 
 the headf Removal of the causes, depletion of high conditioned 
 animals, by saline purgatives, or the restoration of the tone of poor 
 conditioned ones by good food and tonics, tend to a cure. Bleed- 
 ing from the facial vein (a, fig. 76), is often useful in extreme cases. 
 Inflammation of the Brain {Phreniiis).— The causes which pro- 
 duce apoplexy, if long continued, result in inflammation of the 
 brain, and this produces frenzy. The aflected animals are very 
 
 76.— THE FACIAL VEIN. 
 
 is the cause of these symptoms. 
 
DISEA.SES OF THE BRAIK AND NERVES. 217 
 
 violent, dashing hither and thither regardless of danger or damage 
 to themselves. Lambs thus affected leap and throw themselves 
 about as if in violent play, until they fall and die in convulsions. 
 The only remedy is copious bleeding from the neck, and active 
 purging with salts. In this case no accompanying stimulant is 
 needed, and for a full-grown animal, the dose may be increased 
 one-half above the usual quantity. There is always congestion of 
 the brain accompanying this disease, and treatment must be in- 
 stant, lest in the muscular excitement the vessels of the brain be 
 ruptured and sudden death ensue. 
 
 Paralysis — Trembles. — This disease is a different manifestation 
 of the effects of pressure of blood upon the brain from the two 
 diseases previously described. In this disease, in addition to the 
 base of the brain, the spinal marrow and the nervous system con- 
 nected therewith are affected, the congestion occupying a consid- 
 erable portion of the vertebral canal. Its effects are varied. In 
 some cases the animal loses the power over some of its limbs ; the 
 hinder half of the bodies of some are lendered incapable of mo- 
 tion ; in others, the sheep stands, trembles violentl}", with the 
 head drawn back or to one side, the jaws are tightly closed, and 
 froth is forced through the teeth and lips ; the breathing is hur- 
 ried, and the fit which lasts for a short time, recurs at short inter- 
 vals. At other times the animal, which may appear perfectly 
 well, will suddenly spring from the ground, scream, and fall dead. 
 Others will fall deprived of motion, and remain sprawling, with 
 limbs stretched out, until they die of starvation. The power of 
 swallowing is gone, and there is generally very great difficulty of 
 breathing in consequence of the affection of the pneumo-gastric 
 nerve and the resulting paralysis or spasmodic condition of the 
 muscles of the throat and chest. Animals in poor condition sub- 
 jected to cold and exposure, suffer mostly from this peculiar form 
 of disease. 
 
 The treatment proper to these varied cases, depends upon 
 whether the patient is in the active or collapsed condition. On 
 the first attack, bleeding from the facial vein is the proper remedy, 
 and generally gives immediate relief. But after the animal has 
 passed through this stage, a condition of collapse follows, and in- 
 stead of depletion, the opposite course is necessary to be taken, 
 ionics and stimulants are then needed. Warm milk or gruel, 
 sweetened and mixed with ginger, followed by a teaspoonful of 
 aromatic spirits of ammonia, or one scruple of carbonate of ammo- 
 nia, mixed with gum water of cold linseed tea, should be given. 
 If the bowels are constipated, a dose of linseed-oil (but no salts), 
 
 10 
 
218 THE shepherd's makual. 
 
 should be given. The body may be swathed in a rag dipped in 
 hot water, to which an ounce of ammonia water has been added. 
 On recovery, the food should be generally, improved in character, 
 and a daily dose of one scruple of sulphate of copper may be 
 given with some meal, or mixed with molasses and placed on the 
 tongue. This disease is the most frequent one of the kind from 
 which our flocks suffer. 
 
 Epilepsy is a very similar disease to the preceding. It occurs 
 chiefly in young or poor sheep which are turned out to feed early 
 in the morning when the herbage is covered with hoar-frost or 
 snow. The rumen being chilled, causes the blood to determine to 
 the brain, and the animal becomes convulsed. No treatment can 
 avail anything, but prevention is everything. 
 
 Lockjaw^ which is a violent excitement of the nervous system, 
 sometimes occurs in consequence of exposure to wet and cold, and 
 sometimes in consequence of injury to the nerves through the vio- 
 lent twisting of the spermatic cord and vessels in the operation of 
 castration. The jaws are closed, but can be moved laterally, and 
 there is grinding of the teeth ; the head is bent round, the neck 
 twisted, and one or more of the limbs are rigid. In this condition 
 the sheep may remain a day and then die, or if it remain longer it 
 may recover. A warm bath, if the sheep is not too large, is use- 
 ful ; and the animal should be kept warm and in a quiet place. A 
 dose of two ounces of Epsom sails should be given, followed by 
 two drams of laudanum after two hours. Warm gruel, with a 
 quarter of an ounce of ginger, should be given two or three times 
 a day. Quiet and warmth are indispensable to a cure. 
 
 Palsy. — This disease consists in a total suspension of action in 
 the nervous system, generally in consequence of exposure to se- 
 vere cold and wet. Lambs that are thoroughly chilled by cold 
 rain and winds, or newly shorn sheep similarly exposed, are the 
 most frequent subjects. Ewes having been exhausted by pro- 
 tracted labor, or by abortion ; or newly dropped winter lambs, that 
 have been neglected, also suffer from it. Heavy feeding on man- 
 gels or watery roots has been known to produce it, and it has 
 been stated recently that roots grown upon land that has been 
 heavily dressed with superphosphate of lime, have produced this 
 complaint in several English flocks. It is very questionable if the 
 phosphate has any direct agency in producing it. The sheep suf- 
 fering from it lie totally helpless, the whole body being incapable 
 of movement, the respiration is almost stopped, and the eye is 
 dead looking and lifeless, the eyelids quivering occasionally. 
 
PAEASITICAL DISEASES. '219 
 
 The treatment consists in the application of warmth, and a 
 
 stimulant such as mustard or ammonia and sweet-oil rubbed on 
 
 the brisket and the spine. The following dose may be given twice 
 
 a day, viz : 
 
 Spirits of Nitrous Ether 2 drams. 
 
 Powdered Ginger 1 " 
 
 " Gentian 1 " 
 
 Warm drinks should be given at short intervals. If the animal is 
 
 purged, the chalk mixture prescribed for diarrhea should be given. 
 
 If the palsy is not relieved by this treatment, the following may 
 
 be given : 
 
 Tincture of Nux Vomica 4 drops. 
 
 OR 
 Strychnine V4 grain. 
 
 diffused in a quarter of a pint of linseed gruel, and the dose slightly 
 increased, afterwards repeated. In the case of a valuable animal, 
 this potent medicine should be given with great care, or only by a 
 veterinary surgeon. 
 
 PARASITICAL DISEASES OF THE INTESTINES. 
 
 Parasites which infest animals are divided into two classes, in- 
 ternal parasites called entozoa, and externa,! ones which are called 
 epizoa. Since the natural history of microscopic animals and 
 those which undergo changes only to be discovered by the use of 
 the microscope, has become better known, much in regard to some 
 peculiar diseases of animals, is now understood. Formerly it was 
 believed that spontaneous generation of minute animalculae could 
 occur, and that parasites were " bred " by diseased matter. What 
 was then supposed to be the consequence of certain diseased con- 
 ditions is now known to be the cause of them, and the whole subject 
 of parasitical disease is in course of satisfactory explanation. But 
 as yet there is much to learn, and the investigation of the subject 
 is surrounded with diflSculties. The most important of all the in- 
 ternal parasites which injuriously affect the sheep is undoubtedly 
 that known as 
 
 Tlie Liver Fluke, the distoma hepaticum of Rudclphi, or the 
 fasciola hepatica of Linnaeus, which inhabits the gall bladder and 
 ducts, and penetrates the substance of the liver. Its presence 
 in this organ produces disorder of its functions and a diseased con- 
 dition of the animal known as 
 
 TJie Hot, or tlie Liver Hot. — This disease has been the most 
 dreaded by the shepherd for centuries past. It has carried off 
 
220 
 
 THE SHEPHERD S MANTAL. 
 
 Fig. 77. — SHEEP AFFECTED WITH 
 BOT. 
 
 millions of sheep in a single year, in Australia and South America, 
 and is very prevalent in Europe. In 1830 two million sheep died 
 in England of this disease. It exists in America both in imported 
 sheep and the native flocks, and thousands die every year of it 
 without their owners having knowledge of the cause. The symp- 
 toms of the disease are, however, very marked and signiLcant. In 
 
 the healthy sheep the conjunc- 
 tiva, or the membrane which 
 covers the eyeball in front, and 
 lines the eyelid, is brilliantly 
 red ; so much so, that those un- 
 used to observe these things 
 closely, would suppose the eye 
 to be highly inflamed. When 
 afiected with the rot, the con- 
 junctiva is pale and eyeball 
 yellowish. When this sign ap- 
 pears, and the sheep is found to 
 be ailing, it is certainly infested with flukes. There are other 
 symptoms which indicate less certainly this disease, because they 
 are found present in other ailments also, but this symptom is pe- 
 culiar to this parasite. As the 
 disease progresses, dropsy is 
 always present, and a wa- 
 tery tumor or bag appears 
 beneath the lower jaw. The 
 skin is pale and bloodless, 
 and the wool is dry, harsh, 
 ragged, and readily parts 
 from the skin. The skin is 
 drawn tightly, and the spine 
 is arched and prominent, as 
 seen in figure 77. The ap- 
 petite is irregular, and de- 
 praved, and the thu-st excessive. These symptoms increase until 
 the sheep dies completely emaciated. 
 
 The fluke is a member of a family of sucking worms (similar to 
 the leeches), known as distomae. It is a flat, oval shaped animal 
 more thickly conical in front, and has a sucker or mouth. Where 
 the thicker part joins the flatter hinder part, there is a second 
 sucker upon the underside. In figure 78 are shown the full grown 
 flukes as taken from the gall ducts of a sheep, and in figure 79 are 
 represented immature flukes from the same animal. The fluke is 
 
 78.— MATURE FLUKES. 
 
THE LIVER FLUKE. 
 
 221 
 
 Fiff. 79. 
 
 a highly organized animal. It possesses a branched intestinal 
 canal and digestive organs, seen at figure 80, and a fully devel- 
 oped circulatory system seen at figure 81. These figures are life- 
 size. The fluke possesses the power of self-impreg- 
 nation should a second individual not be present 
 for copulation. It propagates by means of eggs, 
 which are produced in great numbers, and which 
 pass with the bile into the intestinal canal, from 
 whence they are voided with the dung of the sheep. 
 The eggs need to be washed by rain or flood into 
 stagnant water to become developed. The embryo, covered with 
 cilise or arms — the locomotive organs — leaves the shell and swims 
 in the water. It is then believed, from our present knowledge of 
 its habits, to penetrate the bodies of snails or other amphibious 
 molluscs, and thus pass a stage of its existence. These soft-bodied 
 molluscs being swallowed by the sheep which graze in low, moist 
 pastures, along with the herbage ; the parasites contained in them 
 are introduced into the stomach, 
 from which they pass by the 
 gall ducts, into the liver, and 
 thus complete the round of their 
 existence. They collect in 
 masses, sometimes closely pack- 
 ed in the gall ducts, obstruct the 
 flow of the gall, and set up 
 irritation, and thus produce 
 jaundice, by which the mem- 
 branes are colored yellow. At 
 this first outset of the disease 
 the sheep seems to thrive and 
 make fat rapidly, but the fat is 
 highly colored, especially that of the kidneys and brisket. Some 
 English feeders have purposely exposed their sheep to the flukes 
 to hasten the fattening. But this stage passed, the structure of 
 the liver becomes changed from the irritation and pressure; the 
 gall ducts become enlarged into extensive cavities, which are filled 
 with flukes and their eggs. The pain thus caused makes the ani- 
 mal restless and thin. The partial destruction of the liver, and 
 stoppage of its functions, causes diarrhea, dropsy, and the disor- 
 ganization of the blood, which constitute the fatal rot. The 
 course of this disease is rapid. At the latter end the whole system 
 is deranged. The breath is offensive, a deep distressing cough with 
 fever racks the animal, the skin is covered with yellowish and 
 
 Tier. 80. 
 
 Fia:. 81. 
 
232 THE shepherd's manual. 
 
 black patches ; the abdomen enlarges from the accumulated fluid ; 
 the animal is very weak, and lies with its head thrust out, solitary 
 and separate from its fellows until it dies. On opening the sheep, 
 the whole carcass is literally rotten. Yellow serum follows the 
 knife everywhere, the abdomen being filled with it. The liver is 
 found full of hard spots and ulcers, and the ducts filled with flukes. 
 The treatment consists wholly in prevention or in attention at 
 the first stages. When the rot has become developed, no medi- 
 cine avails anything. It is wholly and surely prevented by keep- 
 ing the sheep on dry pastures and away from stagnant water. The 
 fluke there can find no development. Low pastures should be 
 drained, ponds fenced ofi*, and well water used for drinking pur- 
 poses. Hay from low grounds may even communicate this dis- 
 ease. When these preventive measures cannot be wholly carried 
 out, the sheep should be abundantly supplied with salt, and on 
 the first appearance of suspicious symptoms, the following mixture 
 should be administered, viz : 
 
 Saltpeter : IV2 ounce. 
 
 Powdered Gino^er 1 " 
 
 Carbonate of Iron (colcothar of vitriol) V2 " 
 
 Salt 1 pound. 
 
 Boiling water 3 quarts. 
 
 The above to be mixed, and when nearly cool, 9 ounces of spirits 
 of turpentine are to be added. The whole is bottled in quart bot- 
 tles for use, and when administered should be well shaken to mix 
 the ingredients thoroughly. 
 
 Infected sheep should be kept from food all night, and on the 
 following morning, before feeding, each should receive two ounces 
 (a wine-glass full) of the mixture by means of a horn. No food 
 should be given for three hours. The medicine is repeated every 
 fourth day for two weeks. 
 
 Sheep may live and thrive, and yet carry flukes. How many 
 they can tolerate without serious injury, is a question that will 
 probably never be satisfactorily answered. It is proper that the 
 shepherd should be always on his guard against them, for the 
 reason that this animal is now known to be native in this country 
 as well as in almost the whole world. Deer, antelopes, and hares 
 have been found infested by them. A careful and trustworthy 
 naturalist, Mr. Joseph Batty, a member of Prof. Hayden's explor- 
 ing expeditions, has discovered over a hundred flukes in the liver 
 of one hare in Minnesota. A fluke, of which figure 82 is a draw- 
 ing from nature, reduced one-half, was taken by Mr. Batty from 
 the liver of a deer in the winter of 1874-5. The liver in question 
 
THE LUNG THREAD-WORM. 
 
 223 
 
 Fig. 82.— FLUKE 
 FROM A DEER. 
 
 was filled with them, and a number of them are now preserved 
 in the museum of the Smithsonian Institute at Washington. The 
 author found them (along with numerous specimens of strongylus 
 filaria in the lungs), in the flock of South - 
 downs belonging to Koyal Phelps, Esq., of 
 Babylon, L. L, and also in his own Cotswold, 
 Leicester, and native sheep, which had been 
 allowed to pasture occasionally along the banks 
 of a stream, and to drink for a whole summer 
 at a running spring in which many watercresses 
 and other aquatic plants grew. In these cases 
 the medicine above prescribed brought about 
 an entire cure. 
 
 As the course of the disease is rapidly ex- 
 haustive, sheep that are aflfected should be well 
 fed witli nutritious and easily digested food ; 
 a pint per day, for each sheep, of linseed-oil- 
 cake-meal mixed with bran, will be of the 
 greatest service on their recovery, or as soon as the appetite returns. 
 The Lung Stronyle. — The " lung thread- worm," {strongylus 
 filaria)^ lives in the wind-pipe, the bronchial tubes, and the tissues 
 of the sheep's lungs. It is a white, thread-like worm, from one 
 inch to three inches in length. Its natural history is supposed to 
 be as follows. The worms present in the lungs breed and produce 
 eggs, which contain fully developed young, wound up in a spiral 
 form in a thin shell. These embryos soon leave the shell and 
 move about in the tubes, causing great irritation and a secretion of 
 mucus, upon which they feed and grow. It is not certainly known 
 as yet if the sheep in the violent coughing caused by the irritation 
 expels any of the eggs or young worms, and that they then pass a 
 portion of their existence in the open air, finding their way into 
 the lungs of fresh bearers by the trachea in the passage of the 
 food through the mouth or gullet, or from the stomach in the act 
 of rumination ; or if the worm completes its whole existence in 
 the lungs of its bearer. It is most probable that the former sup- 
 position is the true one, as it explains the fact that the worms are 
 often found in young lambs in such quantities as to cause suffbca- 
 tion. Besides, it is known that flocks which follow other sheep 
 upon pastures, or which feed upon fields that have been manured 
 with sheeps' dung, have been attacked with this disease. An in- 
 teresting case in point is stated by a Pennsylvania correspondent 
 of the Country Oenileman of March 25th, 1875. Some ram lambs 
 were pastured in a field upon which their dams had been kept the 
 
224 THE shephekd's mahual. 
 
 previous year, and which had been top-dressed with manure from 
 the sheep sheds. Nineteen out of forty of the lambs died. The 
 following year twenty-three lambs died, and the post-mortem of the 
 physician showed the fact that the larynx and trachea were cov- 
 ered on their inner surface " with a frothy mucus, generally white, 
 but here and there of a yellowish hue," also in this mucus were 
 " several worm-lilie bodies about one-half a line in diameter, and 
 from one to two inches in length." Under the microscope these 
 proved to be articulates, some of which contained what seemed 
 to be ova. A microscopic examination of the mucus showed these 
 ova in various stages of development. The worm -like bodies were 
 undoubtedly the lung thread-worms under consideration. For 
 several years afterwards the lambs which pastured on the top- 
 dressed meadows took the disease and died. The symptoms which 
 indicate the presence of this worm are a loss of condition, a con- 
 stant and severe cough, a dropsical condition, as shown by the 
 watery tumor beneath the throat, and a pining and wasting away. 
 The skin is pale, and the eyes pearly, and bloodless. After death 
 there is no sign of disease, except the presence of the worms in the 
 lungs and windpipe, and complete emaciation. The means of 
 prevention are obvious. Pastures or meadows should not be top- 
 dressed with sheeps' manure unless they are to be plowed and 
 sown to grain crops, and if a pasture is found to be infected, it 
 should be plowed up and re-sown. All sheep having the charac- 
 teristic cough should be fattened and killed. 
 
 The treatment proper in this case is the same as that recom- 
 mended for the liver fluke, and the mixture mentioned on page 
 222, should be administered as there stated. Turpentine and salt 
 are found to be almost sure remedies for internal parasites of all 
 kinds, and extra feeding to resist the draft upon the system will be 
 useful. 
 
 Hydatids or Bladder - Worms. — The association of the dog with 
 the sheep upon farms, is productive of much mischief in addition 
 to the vast annual slaughter of the latter occasioned thereby. The 
 great majority of dogs are infested with tape-worms. The eggs 
 of the tape-worms discharged in the dung of the dog upon fields 
 and pastures are swallowed by the sheep with the herbage, and the 
 larval state of the worms is developed within their bodies, either in 
 the lungs, the abdomen, or the brain, causing disease which is 
 often fatal. The larvae of the tape-worm exist in the shape of 
 watery bladders, or sacs, which contain the undeveloped worms. 
 These peculiar creatures are known as bladder- worms or hydatids. 
 
HYDATIDS OK TAPE-WORMS. 
 
 225 
 
 One of these occupies the abdominal cavity of the sheep, and is 
 called the 
 Diving Bladder-wo7'm, Gysticercus UnuicolUs or C. tmnia margina- 
 ia. These bladders are often free in the 
 abdomen, are sometimes enclosed in the 
 fat, and sometimes are attached to the 
 liver and intestines. They are pear- 
 shaped, and in size from that of a walnut 
 to that of a hen's or even a goose's egg. 
 These bladders or cysts, when fed to a 
 dog, have produced the mature tcenia 
 marginata upwards of three feet in length 
 in the course of three months. The eggs 
 of this tape-worm have been fed to lambs, and have produced the 
 hydatid, or bladder-worm, of which hundreds were found in the 
 abdomen of some of the lambs, which died soon after receiving 
 the eggs. 
 
 Figure 83 is a representation of the Gysticercus tenwicollis, with 
 the head turned out- 
 wards, and with the 
 head contained within 
 the neck of the blad- 
 der. Another of these 
 hydatids is the 
 
 Many-headed Blad- 
 der-worm, or Gysticer- 
 cus tosnia ecMnococcus, 
 — This finds a home 
 in the lungs and liver 
 of the sheep and other 
 ruminants, and also 
 infests mankind. Fig- 
 ure 84 is an illustra- 
 tion of the liver and 
 lungs of an infected 
 sheep. As many as 
 several hundred cysts 
 have been taken from 
 one sheet) This is a 
 most dangerous para- ^^^- 84.-LimGS infected with hydatids. 
 
 site, for if taken into the human stomach, it may produce " bladders" 
 in the brain, as it actually has done in well authenticated cases, 
 which are certainly fatal. The cysts reproduce themselves by a 
 
226 
 
 THE SHEPHERD S MANUAL. 
 
 species of budding, and thus rapidly increase and spread through 
 the bodies of their bearers. The most common of these hydatids is 
 The Brain Bladder-worm, or Gmnurus cerebralis. — This produces 
 the common disease known as turnside, or giddiness, in which the 
 sheep turns its head to the left or right, and walks round and 
 round in a circle in the direction in which the head is turned, 
 until it falls giddy and exhausted. The presence of this parasite 
 has been discovered in the liver of our gray squirrel, and in rab- 
 bits, as well as in numerous sheep in this country. In the sheep 
 it is generally found in the brain, although it is not peculiar 
 to that organ. It is only there, however, that it produces the 
 usual disastrous effects upon the sheep. Figure 85 represents the 
 
 Fig. 85.— HYDATID IN THK BRAIN. Fig. 86.— BRAIN WITH FOUR HYDATIDS 
 
 bram infested with but one hydatid {a) ; in figure 86 it has four of 
 them (a, &, c, d). In size they are from that of a pea up to that of a 
 hen's egg. The hydatid is a bladder filled with a viscid fluid, and 
 covered on its outside surface with marks or oval slits. These 
 slits are the spots to which flask-shaped appendages are affixed 
 within, and are the openings which lead to the interior of these 
 appendages. On examination with a common pocket lens, a por- 
 tion of the bladder appears as in figure 87. The appendages are 
 the necks and heads of the immature tape-worms, each head hav- 
 ing four suckers and a series of hooks which are characteristic of 
 the mature creatures, and by which they afterwards attach them- 
 
HYDATIDS IN^ THE BRAIK. 
 
 227 
 
 E[TDATID3 MAGNIFIED. 
 
 selves to the coats of the intestines, while they suck the juices 
 therefrom. These heads increase by a process of budding, and 
 often amount to dozens, and sometimes hundreds in number. The 
 pressure exerted by these bladders upon the brain, produces the 
 peculiar symptoms exhibited, and the act of turning to one side or 
 the other, helps to determine the seat of the hydatid in the body 
 of the brain, which 
 is found to be on 
 that side to which 
 the sheep turns. 
 The natural histo- 
 ry of this parasite 
 is as follows : 
 When the head of 
 a sheep, containing 
 the bladder-worms 
 of this species, is 
 devoured by a dog, the larvae are transformed within him into 
 tape-worms. This worm {toenia ccentcrus) at maturity, or its eggs, 
 being voided by the dog upon the grass of a pasture, are swallowed 
 by the sheep, are hatched in its stomach, and penetrate all parts 
 of the body, perishing everywhere except in the brain, which is 
 its usual habitation. There they develop, remaining dormant, 
 until chance favors their round again. Old sheep are rarely 
 affected by this parasite, the lambs suffer chiefly from them. One 
 infested dog will void thousands of eggs which not only escape 
 with the dung, but being attached to the anus, are carried about 
 and dropped in a multitude of places. 
 
 To prevent the spread of this parasite, it is necessary only to 
 prevent the heads of affected sheep from being devoured by dogs 
 or hogs, or to keep dogs from the pastures. The heads of sheep 
 dying from the disease should therefore be burned, and not thrown 
 out. The treatment of sheep subject to the parasite consists in an 
 operation by which the skull is pierced and the bladder punctured, 
 when the water in it escapes and is absorbed, leaving the worm to 
 perish. The pressure and irritation upon the skull causes some 
 absorption of its substance, and a soft spot is caused over the blad- 
 der. This may be eisily felt by pressure of the finger. A curved 
 awl may then be inserted through the skull and the bladder pierced ; 
 or by means of a tubular saw (or trephine), a round piece of bone 
 is cut out of the skull, a flap of the skin first being laid back, and 
 the bone being lifted, the bladder is laid bare and removed. The 
 skin is relaid and held in place by a stitch or plaster, and the 
 
228 THE shephekd's manual. 
 
 wound lieals. No other remedy than these is safe or certain, and 
 these frequently fail. This class of parasites possesses some 
 importance to the shepherd, not only from the loss occasioned 
 amongst his flock, but from the danger of the results to the 
 consumers of mutton. The farmer's or shepherd's own dog may 
 be the means of injury to his flock, and he should take means to 
 free the dog from the tape- worms by means of proper medicines, 
 of which the powdered areca nut is the most efiective, as well as 
 to prevent vagrant dogs from stocking his pastures. 
 
 The areca nut is administered as follows. Previously, one scru- 
 ple of jalap, for a dog of 20 to 30 pounds in weight, should be ad- 
 ministered, and a brisk action of the bowels set up. This may 
 also be procured by giving the dog a quantity of butter or any of 
 the common purgatives. Immediately afterwards half an ounce 
 of the powder of areca nut is to be given in pills or in some ac- 
 ceptable food. Some locks of tangled wool dipped in grease or 
 melted fat are given at the same time to be swallowed. The 
 worm is killed or paralyzed by the areca nut, is entangled in the 
 wool, and all together are expelled by the purge. The mass should 
 be immediately burned or buried at a perfectly safe depth in the 
 ground. Applied to every dog at intervals of three months, this 
 treatment will free them from tape-worms, and prevent danger of 
 the sheep becoming infested with them. 
 
 Tape-worms^ {tcenia plicata), in the intestines. The sheep them- 
 selves are sometimes infested with mature tape-worms. This is 
 easily explained by the possibility of the sheep swallowing along 
 with their pasture some of the eggs which may have been voided 
 by any of the numerous bearers of these worms, both domestica- 
 ted and wild. It has been stated that the intestinal tape-worm is 
 very rare, if not unknown, in sheep in this country. This would 
 seem to be erroneous. A correspondent of the National Live 
 Stock Journal of September, 1875, from Missouri, reported his 
 lambs all dying of a strange disease in which the first symptom 
 was a falling off in condition, followed by a mild diarrhea. This 
 occurred in June, and continued up to August, when 30 out of 60 
 were dead, and nearly all the remainder were ailing. On exami- 
 nation after death, the small intestines were found " packed full 
 of tape-worms." This can hardly be a unique case, and we may 
 very well conclude that tape-worm in the intestines is one of the 
 parasitical diseases that we have to combat. 
 
 Generally the symptoms developed by the presence of tape- 
 worms are voracity of appetite, alternating with a refusal of food ; 
 loss of condition, desire to swallow earth, stones, sand, or ashes ; 
 
PARASITES OF THE SKIl^. 229 
 
 the passage of soft dung, mixed with mucus, which becomes 
 attached to the vent and tail, causmg a very filthy condition ; and 
 the evidence of internal pain. The sheep finally dies greatly ema- 
 ciated. There is no means of prevention, as the eggs may be 
 dropped by rabbits, squirrels, skunks, and other wild animals 
 which frequent the fields. The treatment most efiective is to 
 administer turpentine as follows : 
 
 Linseed-oil 3 ounces. 
 
 Spirits of Turpentine V2 to 1 ounce. 
 
 This should be repeated twice a week for two weeks. If this 
 is not effective, 3 ounces of the Powdered root of Male Fern 
 may be given. The dose to be repeated in one week. In six 
 hours after this is administered, a purgative of linseed-oil should 
 be given. The food should be of the best kind until the lost con- 
 dition is restored. 
 
 Tape-worms in any of their forms of life, affect only young sheep 
 and lambs. When sheep attain the age of two years they are safe 
 from them, and it is very rare indeed that one older than this be- 
 comes infested with them. 
 
 Hair-worms in the Intestines. — A species of " hair-worm" called 
 from its peculiar formation tricocephalus, is not uncommon in 
 sheep. It infests the stomach and intestines, causing obstinate 
 diarrhea, and rapid wasting of flesh. These worms burrow their 
 heads into the membrane lining the organs, and suck out the 
 juices. The irritation produces diarrhea, which submits to no 
 treatment while they remain. A cough is often present along 
 with the diarrhea. Other species of worms, of habits identical 
 with these, and producing the same injurious effects, also infest 
 the sheep, but more particularly lambs and j^earlings. Salt in doses 
 of half an ounce, given on alternate days with one dram doses of 
 sulphate of iron, the salt being given on one day and the iron the 
 next, is a ver}'- sure remedy for this class of parasites, and the dis- 
 eases which result from their presence. To counteract the debili- 
 tating effect of these parasites, the food should be of the most nu- 
 tritive and digestible character, and linseed in some shape should 
 not be omitted. 
 
 PARASITES AND PARASITIC DISEASES OF THE SKIN. 
 
 Of the epizoa or external parasites of the sheep, the most formid- 
 able is the Scab insect, or Acarus scabiei. This is a minute mite 
 which attaches itself to the skin and penetrates the surface, lodg- 
 ing itself in the tissues and causing intense irritation or itching, 
 
230 
 
 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL. 
 
 and the secretion of a serous exudation wliich dries upon the sur- 
 face and forms a scab. This disease was well known to ancient 
 shepherds, and an exact description was given by the poet Virgil 
 in his Georgics. It is mentioned by the historian Livy, as being 
 very virulent in his time. But up to a very recent date the cause 
 of the disease was not correctly known. Youatt's work on the 
 sheep, published in 1840, by the English " Society for the Diflfusion 
 of Useful Knowledge," states it to be caused by bad keep, starva- 
 tion, over-driving, dogging, exposure to cold and wet, and other 
 causes of a suppi^ession of the perspiration. He mentions the acari 
 as carriers of the disease, but not as the cause. In an attempt to 
 account for the origin of the insect, he makes the following re- 
 marks, which in the light of our present knowledge are a curious 
 relic of the ignorance which existed 40 years ago, and which has 
 not yet quite passed away. " Physiologists are beginning to ac- 
 knowledge the working of a mysterious but noble principle — the 
 
 springing up of life 
 under new forms, 
 when the com- 
 ponent principles of 
 previous beings are 
 decaying, or have 
 seemingly perished. 
 Thus, if we mace- 
 rate any vegetable 
 substance, the fluid 
 will teem with my- 
 riads of living be- 
 ings, called into 
 existence by the 
 process we are con- 
 ducting, or rather 
 by that power of 
 Nature, or that prin- 
 ciple which was bestowed by the author of Nature, that life 
 ceasing in one form shall spring up in others, and this while the 
 creation lasts. Thus we have probably the hydatid in the brain 
 of the sheep, and the fluke in its liver ; parasitical beings, which 
 we recognise in no other form and in no other place. They were 
 the product of the disease of the part. In like manner the acarus 
 of scab may be called into existence by the derangements which 
 oiir neglect, or unavoidable accident, or disease, may have made in 
 the skin of the sheep. Scab may be, and is, of spontaneous ori- 
 
 88.— FEMALE SCAB INSECT, 
 
THE SCAB-MITE. 231 
 
 gin, as well as the product of contagion ; and the acarus, having 
 sprung into life within the pores of the skin, obeys the laws of all 
 living beings as to its after existence and multiplication." 
 
 It shows with what caution speculations should be indulged in, 
 and how much safer it is to saj " we do not know," than to haz- 
 ard explanations which may be wide of the truth and misleading. 
 It has long been known that the origm of the existence of all ani- 
 mal life is an e^g produced and fecundated by parents, and the 
 scab-mite being no exception to this law, comes forth from an egg 
 and springs into life just as a chicken does. In both cases the egg 
 is deposited and hatched, and produces the mature animal. The 
 female scab insect, seen at figure 88, is larger than the male, 
 which is shown at figure 89, magnified 
 2,500 times. One male suffices for many 
 females, and is longer lived than the 
 female. The latter dies after producing 
 her eggs, which she deposits in the pores 
 of the skin, or in the furrows of the scab 
 which she has helped to produce. Her 
 eggs are numerous, and being hatched in 
 three days, her progeny increase rapidly. 
 One female acarus can produce a million 
 and a half of progeny in 90 days. This 
 facility of increase explains the rapidity Fig. 89.— male scab 
 with which the disease spreads through a 
 
 flock, and proves the necessity for instant and energetic remedies 
 or eflfective preventives. 
 
 The symptoms first observed are restlessness and uneasiness, and 
 the observant shepherd will have his suspicions aroused and search 
 for the cause on the first appearance of these symptoms amongst 
 his flock. As the disease progresses, the sheep are found rubbing 
 or scratchmg themselves, or biting or nibbling amongst their 
 wool. The attention should then be directed to the parts rubbed 
 or bitten. If scab is present, the skin will be at first white in 
 color and of a thicker texture than the rest, and moist or covered 
 with a yellow exudation. Later these parts are covered with scab 
 and the wool falls off or becomes loose. If a lock of this wool be 
 laid upon a sheet of white paper, the mites will be seen with the 
 unaided eye, as they crawl from it. If the disease is neglected, 
 the scabby spots enlarge and increase in number, the wool appears 
 ragged all over, and falls off in patches. Upon these bare spots 
 dense brown or yellow scales are seen, and if the sheep can reach 
 a fence or a post, the scabs are rubbed until they bleed and be- 
 
232 
 
 THE shepherd's MANUAL. 
 
 come sores. The condition of tlie sheep falls off rapidly, and it 
 becomes a wo-begone object, such as is shown in figure 90. 
 
 The treatment is by dipping in a liquid which penetrates and 
 softens the scab so that it can be removed, and which poisons the 
 insect. There are many preparations used for this purpose, some 
 of which are objectionable on account of their poisonous proper- 
 ties, such as mercurial or arsenical compounds, and which are 
 no more effective than the following perfectly safe one. This 
 consists of tobacco and sulphur in the proportions of four ounces 
 of the first, and one of the second, to the gallon of water. The 
 water is brought to a boiling heat, and the tobacco, either coarse 
 cheap leaf or stems, which are equally good, is steeped, (but not 
 boiled), in it until the strength is exhausted. The sulphur is then 
 
 Fig. 90. — SHEEP AFFECTED WITH SCAB. 
 
 stirred in the liquid. When it has become reduced in tempera- 
 ture to 130 degrees, it is ready for use. The sheep are entirely 
 immersed in the liquid so that the wool is completely saturated. 
 Hard crusts of scab are broken up and removed with care, and 
 the raw surfaces are well washed with the decoction. The dip- 
 ped animals should be kept in a yard until the wool no longer 
 drips, lest the pasture should be fouled, and the sheep sickened by 
 the tobacco juice. After ten days the dipping is repeated to de- 
 stroy any newly hatched mites. With care the most badly in- 
 fected locality may be completely freed from this pest, and it will 
 never appear if the sheep are dipped twice each year as a preven- 
 tive. The gain in the growth of wool and in its improved quality 
 will more than repay the cost of the operation. (See page 48.) 
 
 The Sheep Tick {Melophagus ovinus), has been already referred 
 to (p:ige 48); if the process of dipping, just described, is regularly 
 practiced, this parasite will be easily vanquished, and its annoying 
 presence prevented. This insect propagates only by single eggs, 
 or rarther the perfect pupa is expelled singly from the female, 
 
THE SHEEP-TICK. 
 
 233 
 
 which is therefore termed pupiparous ; it does not, therefore, in- 
 crease very fast, and is easily kept under. It is too well known 
 to need minute description, its dark 
 red, tough, leathery-skinned body be- 
 ing a most conspicuous object, when 
 the wool of almost any sheep in the 
 country is examined. The pupa and 
 mature sheep-tick, greatly magnified, 
 are shown at figure 91. 
 The Sheep-louse {I'richodectes 
 ovis), is known as the red 
 sheep-louse. Its head is of a 
 red color, and the body pale 
 yellow, marked with dark 
 bands. It is found on the side ^'^' 91--sheep-tick aub pupa. 
 
 of the neck of the sheep, and the inner parts of the thighs and 
 arms. It causes much irritation, by which the sheep is impelled 
 to thrust its head between the bars of gates or 
 fences, or to kick and stamp with its legs. Oc- 
 casionally sheep are found strangled by becoming 
 fixed in their attempts to rub their necks, or with 
 their legs broken in attempts to rub them upon rails. 
 Lice are rarely found on the yolky wooled sheep, but 
 on the drier fleeced breeds they often cause much 
 unsuspected mischief. Those sheep which are regu- 
 larly dipped, are also free from this pest. To rub 
 the parts mentioned with the following preparations 
 is generally an easy remedy. 
 
 Lard 1 pound. 
 
 Flowers of Sulphur 2 ounces. 
 
 Creasote 20 drops. 
 
 one pint of sweet oil may be substituted for the lard. This louse 
 
 is small, and the illustration, figure 92, is of one highly magnified. 
 
 The Sheep Gad Fly {(Estrus oms). — This is a most troublesome 
 
 pest, causing much discomfort to the sheep. It is a fly with two 
 
 wings spreading over one inch, and a stout body over half an inch 
 
 in length. In the summer months they disturb the sheep in the 
 
 pastures by the efforts they make to deposit their eggs upon the 
 
 animal's nostrils. When they succeed in their eff'orts, the sheep 
 
 often becomes half frantic, and races violently over the pasture, 
 
 sometimes seriously injuring itself by becoming overheated. 
 
 Where the fly abounds, the sheep crowd together and stop feed- 
 
 mg, holding their noses to the ground, and stamping with their 
 
 Fig. 92. 
 
 SHEEP LOUSE. 
 
234 THE shepherd's makual. . 
 
 fore feet. The grub, when hatched from the egg, crawls up the 
 nostril, and lodges in the sinuses of the head, where it remains 
 feeding upon the mucus secreted by the membranes, until the fol- 
 lowing spring. In entering the nostrils and in leaving them, they 
 cause much irritation to the sheep. The remedy lies in prevent* 
 ing the fly from laying its eggs, and this is done by smearing the 
 nostrils of the sheep with tar, diluted with grease or butter. This 
 is both distasteful to the fly and fatal to the egg. By preparing a 
 pailful of the mixture, and smearing the noses of the sheep with a 
 brush, as they pass one by one through a half opened gate, every 
 morning during fly time (July and August), the sheep will be 
 spared much annoyance. When grubs are crawling down the 
 nostril early in spring, they may be quickly dislodged by blowing 
 tobacco smoke into the nose through a pipe. 
 
 The Maggot, so called, is a formidable enemy of the sheep. It 
 is the larvae of the common flesh fly {8arcop7iaga carnaria), the 
 blue-bottle fly {musca CcEsar), and the meat fly {musca mmitorid), 
 all of which deposit their eggs or living larvae upon decaying ani- 
 mal matter. When sheep are wounded by accident, or are allowed 
 to become filthy when troubled with diarrhea, these eggs or larvae 
 are deposited in vast' numbers ; the ovaries of a single Sarcopha- 
 gus having been found to contain 20,000 eggs. The maggots soon 
 become active, and spreading from their quarters, attack the skin, 
 which they irritate and cause to secrete a serous fluid. In time 
 the skin is pierced, and the flesh suppurates and wastes away, 
 being devoured by the multitude of maggots which crawl upon it. 
 In wet seasons the mischief is greatly increased. To prevent them 
 it is necessary to carefully remove the wool from about the tail so 
 that filth may not gather ; to watch for any accidental wound; and 
 in warm wet weather, for any dirty tags of wool upon which the 
 flies may deposit eggs. In case any maggots are found, there is 
 no better application than common crude petroleum, or whale-oil, 
 both of which arc repulsive and fatal to fly and maggot. A sheep 
 that is '* struck " with maggots will remain separate from the flock, 
 and may be lost sight of unless the flock is counted at least once 
 a day, and the straggler found. Weaning time, when the ewes 
 may suflfer from caked udder, is an especially critical period, and 
 then extra watchfulness is called for. 
 
 DISEASES OF THE FEET. 
 
 Sheep are subject to many disorders of the feet. The structure 
 of the sheep's foot is different from that of the horse. It possesses 
 
CON^TAGIOUS FOOT-ROT. 235 
 
 no laminae which connect the outer crust or horn with the sensi- 
 tive parts within, but the crust is connected with the bone by a 
 vascular structure, by which it is also secreted. The growth of 
 the hoof of the sheep is not from the coronet downwards, as in 
 the horse, but from the whole inner secreting surface. In this lies 
 both the weakness of the sheep's foot, and the rapidity with which 
 repairs are made, when it is injured or diseased. The wall or 
 crust surrounds the outside of the foot, and turns under at the 
 edge of the sole and toe, and it is impossible to distingush where 
 the crust ends, and the sole begins, both being so much alike in 
 structure. The crust is harder and tougher than the sole, which 
 is soft and elastic, like India rubber. As the toot wears down by 
 contact with the ground, the crust is worn off to a sharp edge upon 
 the outer margin ; when the wear and growth balance each other, 
 the foot is in perfect condition ; but when either is greater than 
 the other, the conditions of disease are at once established, and 
 unless removed by proper treatment, lameness occurs. 
 
 Another peculiarity of the sheep's foot is the interdigital canal, 
 which commences in a small opening about one inch above 
 the foot, passes downwards and backwards between the toes 
 and ends in a pouch which is curved upwards upon itself. 
 The canal is covered with hair, and is studded with glands which 
 secrete an oily fluid. This fluid overflows at the opening, and 
 moistens the skin between the toes, preventing chafing and sore- 
 ness. The peculiar structure of the foot of the shesp, under unfa- 
 vorable circumstances, gives occasion to several serious diseases. 
 Of these the most frequent and important is 
 
 Foot-rot. — This disease is contagious, and may spread through 
 the flock, if preventive measures are not taken. It consists of an 
 inflammation of the whole hoof, the formation of blisters upon 
 the heels and between the toes, which break and form discharging 
 surfaces, and in a few days, ulcers, which suppurate and excrete 
 fetid matter. The fore feet are the most usually affected. When 
 this happens the sheep may be observed to go around feeding 
 painfully upon their knees. If no attention is given, the hoof is 
 lost in course of time, and a wounded stump only is left. It is 
 caused at first by wet pastures in which the feet become foul, the 
 horn becomes detached under the sole, and harbors filth which 
 softens the sole, and influences the vascular tissue beneath it. 
 Neglect completes the conditions under which the disease oc- 
 curs. The treatment should be immediate on the appearance of 
 the first lameness, for when the ulcerative stage has arrived, the 
 cure is long and difficult, the whole condition of the animal being 
 
236 THE shepherd's manual. 
 
 involved. As soon as lameness is perceived, the sheep should be 
 examined. All raw, loose, or diseased horn should be cut away 
 with a sharp knife ; any excessive growth of horn at the toes 
 should be removed, and if any pus or matter is found beneath the 
 horn, that should be pared away until it is all exposed. The feet 
 should then be washed clean with carbolic soap and water twice a 
 week, and after each washing a piece of tow or lint dipped into 
 ' the following mixture should be bound on the foot and between 
 the digits, viz : 
 
 Oxide of Copper 4 ounces. 
 
 Arsenic 1/2 " 
 
 Acetic Acid 3 *' 
 
 Honey 8 " 
 
 Or the foot may be thoroughly smeared with the following oint- 
 ment, viz : 
 
 Finely Powdered Blue Vitriol 1 pound. 
 
 Verdigris V2 " 
 
 Linseed-oil 1 pint. 
 
 Pine Tar 1 quart. 
 
 This will dry on the foot and will not be washed oflF by the wet 
 grass as a solution would be. 
 
 The following remedy is in general use amongst French and 
 German shepherds : 
 
 Chloride of Mercury (Corrosive Sublimate) 15 grains. 
 
 Acetate of Copper 30 " 
 
 Sulphate of Zinc 30 " 
 
 Hydro-chloric Acid (muriatic) 2 drams. 
 
 Water 2 ounces. 
 
 The diseased parts to be touched daily with a feather dipped in 
 the above solution. In case the disease has made considerable 
 progress, and the sheep are found feverish and generally ailing, 
 each sick one should receive, according to circumstances, a dose 
 of one to two ounces of Epsom salts dissolved in half a pint of 
 water. At the expiration of two days the following should be 
 given, viz : 
 
 Nitrate of Potash 1/2 ounce. 
 
 Flowers of Sulphur 1/2 " 
 
 mixed with molasses and placed on the tongue until swallowed. 
 This may be repeated once a week until the feet are well. 
 
 When the disease becomes virulent, the foot is swollen, sinuses 
 are formed, and ulceration progresses until the whole foot is 
 deeply involved, and the sheep fails to eat, loses flesh, and is in a 
 condition of fever from blood poisoning by the absorbed matter. 
 
COMMON FOOT-KOT. 237 
 
 The case is tlien often unmanageable except at greater cost than 
 the value of the sheep. Fortunately such a termination rarely 
 occurs, unless through great neglect or the most unskillful man- 
 agement. In such a case the foot should be washed, the loose and 
 separated horn removed with care, and the foot poulticed with a 
 warm carrot or turnip poultice twice a day for three days, and the 
 following should be administered at once : 
 
 Epsom Salts 2 ounces. 
 
 Laudanum 1 dram. 
 
 After the feet have been cleaned by the poultice, the treatment 
 before mentioned should be continued until recovery is made. 
 The patient being unable to move without great pain, should be 
 kept in a pen with a clean floor free from straw or chafl", or any- 
 thing that would irritate the foot or convey infection elsewhere. 
 
 A method recommended by the Hon. H. S. Randall, who has 
 successfully treated many of his own flock in this manner, is to 
 procure a large tub or trough in which three sheep can stand at 
 one time, and to pour into this tub a hot saturated solution of blue 
 vitriol (sulphate of copper), until it is four inches deep. The 
 sheep having had their feet washed, and all loose horn pared off, 
 are placed in the tub on their feet and held there by an assistant. 
 The first sheep is kept in the foot-bath until the fourth is ready to 
 go in, when it is taken out ; when the fifth goes in, the second is 
 turned out. Thus each sheep remains in the bath about ten min- 
 utes, giving time for the solution to penetrate every part of the 
 diseased hoof. After the bath, the sheep are kept in a dry grass 
 field. One application of this remedy served in every case, to 
 make a complete cure. This troublesome disease is rarely known 
 in this country upon dry pasture, and generally yields at once to a 
 simple paring of the feet and shortening of the overgrown toes, a 
 cleansing from all filth or irritating matter, and a dressing with an 
 astringent ointment such as the first above mentioned. 
 
 Common Foot-rot or Gravel, is not contagious, and being the re- 
 sult of accidental circumstances, is cured by their removal, together 
 with simple auxiliary treatment. It consists of an inflammation 
 of the internal parts of the foot, the formation of matter, its escape 
 at the top of the hoof, the separation of the horn or crust from 
 the diseased parts, and as a matter of course, extreme lameness. 
 It is caused by an excessive wear of the crust of the hoof upon 
 stony, gravely pastures, or by excessive growth of the crust or 
 toe, in low moist meadows. In either case, foreign matter enters 
 between the crust and the sole, and pressing upon the sensitive 
 
238 THE shepherd's manual. 
 
 parts beneath, causes iDflammation, which not being at once rem- 
 edied, increases with the above results. The means of prevention 
 are obvious. 
 
 The treatment consists in removing the offending matter with 
 great care and tenderness by means of the knife or a small probe, 
 as a knitting needle or wire, cleansing the foot, and washing it in 
 astringent and antiseptic solutions, such as the following : 
 
 Chloride of Zinc 1 ounce. 
 
 Water 1 quart. 
 
 sulphate of copper or sugar of lead may be substituted for the 
 chloride of zinc. In very bad cases the treatment for malignant 
 foot-rot should be adopted. Removal from wet pastures is neces- 
 sary to a cure, and for some time afterwards, or the trouble will 
 quickly recur. 
 
 Epizootic aphtha (foot-and-mouth disease), is highly contagious, 
 and will rapidly spread through a flock. It affects the feet as well 
 as the lips and tongue. The treatment has been already described 
 in this chapter. 
 
 Inflammation of the Inter digital Canal. — This is of frequent 
 occurrence when sheep are driven upon sandy or dusty roads, are 
 pastured on sandy lands, or are permitted to lie in muddy yards. 
 Offending matter enters the canal and causes inflammation, which 
 spreads to the interior of the foot, and results in swelling and great 
 tenderness. Removal of the irritating matter by means of a small 
 probe or the trimmed end of a feather dipped in oil, and bathing 
 the foot in warm water and vinegar, are generally sufficient to re- 
 move the trouble. When sheep become lame, and the foot is 
 found hot, with no sign of outward cause, this may be at once 
 suspected. 
 
 Canker of the foot is a very obstinate disease. It consists of in- 
 flammation of the sole of the foot, which gives way to a growth 
 of spongy sprouts instead of the natural hoof, and a discharge of 
 white curdy matter which has a most offensive odor. It is a simi- 
 lar disease to thrush or canker of the frog in horses. The most 
 frequent causes are folding the sheep in yards or sheds, where the 
 dung is allowed to collect in a mass which ferments and heats, and 
 from neglected cases of common foot-rot or inflammation of the 
 interdigital canal. 
 
 The treatment consists of the removal of all the separated hoof 
 at the first and every future dressing, along with any that may 
 appear sound, but has dead offensive matter beneath it. The foot 
 should then be washed in a solution of one dram of chloride of 
 
DISEASES IJ!TCIDENT TO LAMBING.' 239 
 
 zinc in a pint of water, and a pledget of tow or lint dipped in a 
 mixture of one part of common (not fuming) nitric acid with 
 three parts of water, should be applied to the whole of the cank- 
 ered surface. This should be repeated frequently, until a cure is 
 made. 
 
 LAMBING AND DISEASES CONNECTED WITH IT. 
 
 The number of lambs raised in proportion to those that are 
 dropped is far less than it ought to be. Probably ten per cent of 
 the lambs annually dropped, are lost through- negligence or want 
 of simple methods of protection. Many are lost through neglect 
 of the condition of the ewes. The laanbing season is one that calls 
 for great patience on the part of the shepherd, rather than for 
 great skill. A well disciplined flock, well provided with shelter 
 and quiet retreats for the ewes, will raise a larger proportion of 
 lambs than a neglected one. Dogs about a flock at lambing time 
 are an unmitigated nuisance, and cause many losses. When the 
 lambs begin to drop it is not difficult to discover those ewes that 
 will come in, in twenty-four hours. The parts become red and 
 swollen, and the udder swells and fills. It is at this period that 
 the ewes need close watching, both to discover anything that may 
 go wrong, and to render assistance when it is needed. If the ewes 
 have been carefully tended, there is rarely any difficulty encoun- 
 tered that may not be overcome by simple measures, yet amongst 
 the most carefully tended flocks there will be some occasional 
 cases which will call for the treatment herein described as ap- 
 plicable to the disorders mentioned. 
 
 There is rarely any necessity for manual assistance to the ewes 
 at lambing time. Sometimes in cases of protracted labor it will 
 be necessary for the shepherd to ascertain if the lamb is in proper 
 position, with the fore feet and head first ; if it is, the ewe may be 
 left alone with safetv. If the position is unnatural, help should 
 be given by an experienced shepherd. If no aid can be obtained, 
 it is dangerous for an inexperienced person to assist, lest he may 
 be too hasty and rough in his help. If the lamb is presented in 
 such a manner that it cannot be expelled, it should be gently 
 forced back again by some person with a small hand, the hand 
 being smeared with sweet-oil. It should then be gently brought 
 into such a position that the feet shall be presented first, with the 
 head lying upon them, and not doubled back. If the hind parts 
 are presented, the feet should be gently brought up after the lamb 
 
5^40 " THE shepherd's MANUAL. 
 
 has been pushed back. If the placenta or after-birth has not 
 come awa}^ in due season, it may be gently pulled by the hand, 
 when it will be generally expelled in a short time. If the ewe is 
 weak, a little warm gruel, sweetened and flavored with ginger, 
 may be fed with a spoon or given with a horn. It is the 'poor, lean, 
 badly kept ewes which suffer most in lambing ; those in good condi- 
 tion, or even fat, rarely experience any difficulty. 
 
 Parturient Femr rarely attacks our native sheep, but imported 
 sheep are sometimes subject to it. It generally occurs within a 
 few days of lambing. The first symptoms are refusal of food, 
 twitching of the hind legs and ears, dullness and stupidity ; the 
 head is carried down, the eyes are half closed, and a dark colored 
 discharge flows from the vagina. If the lamb is now dropped it 
 is dead, but the ewe, if kept quiet and well nursed, will generally 
 recover in two or three days. But if the lamb is not then expelled, 
 the symptoms grow worse, the ewe suflers from fever, and moans 
 with pain, and the discharge is very oflTensive. The lamb, if ex- 
 pelled at this stage, is in a high state of putrefaction, and the ewe 
 falls into a condition of collapse, from which she rarely recovers. 
 If the lamb is not expelled, the ewe dies. 
 
 The treatment should consist of the removal of the ewe from 
 the flock to a quiet pen, on the first appearance of sickness. She 
 should be well cared for, and fed with warm gruel of linseed or 
 oat-meal. As soon as the dark colored discharge occurs, the lamb 
 is almost certainly dead, and beginning to decompose, and its re- 
 moval is necessary. The vagina should be washed with warm 
 water, and the finger, smeared with the extract of belladonna, 
 should be introduced into the passage every three hours until it is 
 sufficiently dilated to allow of the expulsion of the lamb. Two 
 tablespoonfuls of the following medicine should be given twice a 
 day, viz : 
 
 Calomel 8 grains. 
 
 Extract of Hyoscyamus 1 dram. 
 
 Linseed Tea V2 pint. 
 
 At the same time a quarter of a pint of the following should be 
 given alternately with the above : 
 
 Epsom Salts 8 ounces. 
 
 Nitrate of Potash 1/2 " 
 
 Carbonate of Soda 2 " 
 
 Water , 1 pint. 
 
 The above mixtures should be shaken up before giving them. 
 
GARGET. 241 
 
 After the bowels have been operated upon, these mixtures are 
 omitted, and the followmg given : 
 
 Nitrate of Potash V2 ounce. 
 
 Carbonate of Soda 1 *' 
 
 Camphor 1 dram. 
 
 Gum Water 8 ounces. 
 
 An eighth of a pint to be given twice a day. The ewe should be 
 fed chiefly upon thin oat-meal gruel and milk, or infusion of lin- 
 seed. After the lamb has been expelled, the uterus should be in- 
 jected with warm milk and water, or if there is a very offensive 
 discharge, one dram of chloride of lime dissolved in a pint of 
 warm water, should be injected instead of the milk and water. 
 
 Abortmi.— This disease is not frequent amongst sheep, and 
 when it occurs can almost always be traced to the excessive use of 
 roots in cold weather, when the ewe is heavy with lamb. It has 
 also been known to occur in consequence of, or after, the heavy 
 dressing of turnip or mangel land with superphosphate, the crop 
 having been fed to the ewes, but this is probably in consequence 
 of the greater succulence of the roots so grown, rather than the 
 direct action of the phosphate. The distension of the stomach 
 with cold, watery food, so greatly reduces the temperature of the 
 abdominal viscera as to destroy the life of the foetus, which is pre- 
 maturely expelled, with all the disagreeable consequences to the 
 ewe described in the preceding paragraph. Chasing by dogs is a 
 very frequent cause. 
 
 The treatment is preventive and alleviative. Caution in feeding 
 roots to in-lamb ewes in any but small quantities, or in avoiding 
 fright, excessive exertion, and worrying, will prevent its occur- 
 rence. When it has happened, the following may be given with 
 some nourishing liquid food, viz ; 
 
 Epsom Salts , 1/2 ounce. 
 
 Laudanum 1 dram. 
 
 Powdered Camphor 1/2 " 
 
 The latter two only may be repeated the second day. 
 
 Garget. — This disease consists of inflammation of the udder or 
 milk glands. It rarely occurs, except in those ewes which have 
 lost then- young and are not supplied with foster lambs, or when 
 the teats are not opened readily by the new-born lamb ; or at 
 weaning time. If the ewe is in good condition, and has a large 
 flow of milk, which is not drawn off, the udder becomes gorged, 
 inflamed, and finally festers and suppurates. In this way some 
 ewes may lose part or the whole of the udder, and their useful- 
 ness as breeders be destroyed. It is also occasioned by allowing 
 11 
 
242 THE shepherd's manual. 
 
 a nursing ewe to lie in the wet and cold in the pasture or the 
 yards. In the summer time, when lambs are taken from the ewes 
 and sent to market, a ewe may become gargeted, and if neglected, 
 may become a victim to myriads of maggots which will breed in the 
 festering udder. Ewes are thus lost occasionally. It is obvious that 
 prevention will be most effective. When garget has occurred, the 
 Treatment is to give a purgative and diuretic to reduce the flow 
 of milk and any fever that may exist. This may be the following : 
 
 Epsom Salts 2 ounces. 
 
 Nitrate of Potash 2 drams. 
 
 Ginger 1 " 
 
 to be given in water, and repeated in twenty-four hours. The 
 udder should be bathed in warm water, and a solution of carbon- 
 ate of soda be injected into the teats by a small metal syringe, and 
 afterwards milked out. The disease may result in the permanent 
 injury of the udder, or the closing of one or both of the teats, in 
 which case the ewe should be discarded as a breeder. 
 
 Inversion of the Uterus may occur in cases of severe labor, 
 when the ewe is weak. The womb is turned inside out, and pro- 
 trudes from the body as a red bladder. From ignorance this is 
 sometimes cut off, and the ewe destroyed. The parts should be 
 gently washed in warm water and cleansed from all foreign mat- 
 ter. The ewe should then be held so that the hinder parts are 
 raised, and with a small hand well greased with sweet-oil, or pure 
 fresh lard, the womb should be returned, gently working it into 
 its natural position by the thumbs or fingers. The finger nails 
 should be closely pared, lest they may wound the tender parts. 
 A needle with a strong linen thread or fine catgut, should then be 
 passed through the skin upon both sides of the vagina, and tied 
 so as to form a loop across it which will prevent the uterus from 
 again protruding ; 20 to 30 drops of tincture of opium should be 
 given in some warm gruel, and the ewe left to rest upon a soft bed 
 in perfect quiet with her hind parts raised above the level of her 
 head, for several days. 
 
 SPECIAL DISEASES, OPERATIONS, AND ACCIDENTS. 
 
 OpMhdlmia. — This is a disease of the eye frequently caused by 
 cold, or by grazing in stubble fields, when the straws of the stub- 
 ble will occasionally wound the eyes. It is perceived at once by 
 the tenderness and redness of the organ, a flow of tears, and a 
 discharge of pus from the corner of the eye. It is readily cured 
 
CASTRATIOiq^ OF RAMS. 243 
 
 by washing the eye with a solution of four grains of sulphate of 
 zinc in an ounce of warm water, and keeping the sheep in a dark 
 stable for a day or two. If the eye is seriously inflamed, and the 
 sheep distressed with pain, give a dose of an ounce of Epsom salts 
 dissolved in water, and twenty drops of laudanum may be added 
 to the zinc solution above mentioned with good effect. 
 
 Castration.— This necessary operation should be performed as 
 early as possible, as there is less danger of evil effects following it 
 than when the lamb is older. The lining membrane of the scro- 
 tum is a continuation of that of the abdomen, and when inflam- 
 mation follows the operation, it is readily communicated to the 
 abdomen, and peritonitis or inflammation of the membrane lining 
 the cavity and enveloping the bowels results, and this is generally 
 fatal. A lamb a week old may be deprived of the whole scrotum 
 and testicles, by one stroke of a pair of shears, without any danger 
 or the loss of more than a few drops of blood. But when the 
 lamb has become some months old, the organ has become fully 
 developed as to nerves and vessels, and a more careful operation 
 must be performed. An excellent method is for the operator to 
 sit upon a long bench, with one of the lamb's hind legs beneath 
 each of his thighs, the head and fore legs being held by an assist- 
 ant. Taking the scrotum in the left hand, he presses the testicles 
 towards the lower end, making the skin tight and smooth. He 
 then makes a free incision with a sharp knife at the bottom of 
 the scrotum beneath each testicle; the membranes which sur- 
 round them are cut through, the cords and vessels which are at- 
 tached to them, are scraped, not cut asunder, and the operation is 
 completed. To castrate a mature ram, an incision is made at the 
 bottom of each compartment of the scrotum, each testicle being 
 removed separately, the cords and vessels being always scraped 
 asunder. The main point to secure is, to have the wound at the 
 bottom of the scrotum, so as to allow the pus, which will form 
 within it, to escape. If this pus is retained in the wound, it 
 becomes absorbed, inflammation is communicated to the adjacent 
 parts, and a fatal termination is likely to ensue. To prevent 
 this, a small lock of wool is sometimes left in the wound, by 
 which it is kept open and the danger averted. 
 
 Docking. — This operation should be performed on all the lambs 
 when a week or two old. It is then but slightly painful. The 
 best method is to take the lamb between the knees, holding its 
 rump closely against a block of wood. Then drawing the skin of 
 the tail towards the rump, with the fingers of the left hand, a 
 
244 THE shephekd's maj^ual. 
 
 sharp chisel is held by the right hand upon the tail, below the 
 fingers, and two inches from the rump ; a boy gives the chisel a 
 smart rap with a light mallet, and the tail is severed at one stroke 
 with a smooth cut which leaves the bone Id a good condition to 
 heal quickly. A pinch of powdered copperas may be placed on 
 the stump of the tail to stanch any bleeding, and to keep off flies. 
 
 j Fractures of the limbs sometimes occur through neglect to let 
 down bars when sheep are entering or leaving a fold or field, or 
 through other accidents. .These are easily repaired by bringing 
 the broken ends of the bone together in the proper position, and 
 binding the limbs in splints of wood. The splints should be 
 wrapped with strips of cloth to prevent them from chafing the 
 limbs, and the bandage should be made secure, but not so tight as 
 to interfere with the circulation. The bandage should be worn three 
 or four weeks, and if occasionally examined, there will be no need 
 to shut up the patient from the rest of the flock. An excellent 
 splint is made by soaking coarse brown paper in water and wrap- 
 ping it around the broken limb and then binding it with bandages 
 of muslin. When the paper dries a very firm support is given if 
 sufiicient is used. 
 
 Wounds^ either punctured, incised, or lacerated, may occur from 
 a variety of causes. When a sheep is wounded, the first thing to 
 be done is to wash the wound with a soft cloth or sponge and 
 warm water. If blood flows freely from an important artery, and 
 it cannot be stanched by the use of brown sugar or powdered cop- 
 peras, the bleeding end of the artery should be sought, and twisted 
 two or three times, which will usually stop the flow. A sheep 
 will rarely bleed to death, except from a wound which severs the 
 arteries or veins of the throat. It may faint from loss of blood, 
 and the flow may then, or soon afterwards, stop. If the wound 
 is a clean cut with smooth edges, it should be closed, the 
 wool being clipped around it, and two or more stitches taken 
 through the skin at the edges, by which they may be kept together. 
 The stitch should be passed through the skin in two places directly 
 opposite each other on either side of the wound ; the thread 
 should then be tied tightly enough to keep the edges in contact, 
 but no more, and the ends cut off. Other similar stitches are to 
 be made, and the wound is dressed upon the surface by smearing 
 it with an ointment of tar and powdered blue vitriol. If the 
 wound is punctured and deep, it should be dressed by injecting 
 with a syringe a few drops of compound tincture of benzoin, and 
 inserting in it a plug of lint or tow dipped in the same. This will 
 
DISEASES OF LAMBS. 245 
 
 keep the wound open until it lieals from the bottom. If allowed 
 to close before the bottom is healed, an abscess will be formed 
 which will need to be opened. If the wound is in such a 
 position that the pus formed cannot escape freely, it should be 
 removed twice a day by means of a feather or a swab of linen 
 at the end of a small stick, and the plug soaked in tincture of 
 benzoin inserted. If any foreign matter, such as a splinter of 
 v/ood, remains in the wound, it must be removed, if necessary 
 by enlarging the wound, before it can heal. A wound that is dif- 
 ficult to heal from its depth and narrowness, may sometimes be 
 made more tractable by opening and enlarging it at the top. 
 Lacerated wounds will need to be treated as both incised and 
 punctured wounds. Where the torn parts can be brought to- 
 gether, stitches should be made, and where the flesh is separated 
 from the surrounding tissue, the fragments may be cut off. The 
 deeper parts should then be treated as punctured wounds. Such 
 wounds are long in healing, because skin is reproduced only from 
 the edges of the sound surface. As many of the lacerated por- 
 tions of skin as possible should be brought together, so as to form 
 edges from which the new growth may start. It will be a ques- 
 tion if the value of the sheep in this case will repay the time and 
 labor spent in treating it. If not, to take its skin at the outset 
 may be the most advisable course. To cure a large wound in the 
 fly season is a work of much trouble. 
 
 Sprains are not uncommon accidents in a large flock. They are 
 reduced very easily by rest, and the use of a liniment such as 
 
 Olive-oil 1 pint. 
 
 Ammonia Water 2 ounces. 
 
 DISEASES PECULIAR TO LAMBS. 
 
 Lambs frequently fall victims to some diseases which seem to 
 aifect them more virulently than they do grown-up sheep, or else 
 the young animal having less strength or vitality than the mature 
 one, more easily succumbs to those diseases. In its earlier life 
 it is also affected with some disorders peculiar to its condition. 
 These diseases call for special treatment. The most troublesome 
 ailment to which lambs are subject, are those of the digestive or- 
 gans, and chief amongst this is 
 
 Diarrhea or " White Scours". — In the unweaned lamb diarrhea 
 takes the form generally known as *' white scours." This appears 
 
246 THE shepherd's manual. 
 
 as a liquid discharge of a white color, which is simply the passage 
 through the bowels of undigested milk. It is caused by a change 
 in the quality of the ewe's milk, which is not coagulated in the 
 lamb's stomach, and remains as an irritative agent, exciting the 
 bowels to undue action, by which the milk is discharged soon 
 after it is swallowed, almost without change. The food of the ewe 
 probably has much to do with this, as the trouble is most frequent 
 when the ewe is fed upon rank, succulent, watery herbage, or an 
 excess of roots. When this cause does not exist, it arises from a 
 disordered condition of the lamb's stomach. When the former 
 cause is suspected, the ewe should be treated. The food should 
 be changed to other kinds of a more solid and nutritious cliarac- 
 ter. A poorer pasture should be provided, or hay be given for a 
 few days, along with some crushed oats and corn, or malt, linseed, 
 cotton-seed-meal, bran, or peas. The lamb should receive the 
 following daily, until recovered, viz : 
 
 Linseed-oil 1 teaspoonful. 
 
 Essence of Ginger 5 drops. 
 
 When the cause exists within the lamb, two teaspoon fuls of the 
 following astringent mixture may be given night and morning, 
 after the before mentioned has operated, viz : 
 
 Prepared Chalk 1 ounce. 
 
 Powdered Catechu 4 drams. 
 
 " Ginger 2 " 
 
 " Opium V2 " 
 
 Peppermint Water 1 pint. 
 
 to be mixed. Shake before administering. 
 
 Sometimes the discharge consists of a pale, greenish liquid, sim- 
 ilar to whey ; this is the result of indigestion, as the food of the 
 lamb taken in excess is coagulated in the stomach, and accumu- 
 lates sometimes to several pounds in quantity. When this occurs, 
 in addition to the looseness and color of the dung, the lamb is 
 dull, walks moodily behind the ewe with its head drooped, and 
 the abdomen is hard and swollen. The following should then be 
 given twice, viz : Carbonate of Magnesia, half ounce, mixed in 
 water, to be followed by half an ounce of Epsom salts in a teacup- 
 f 111 of water, after which the astringent medicine should be given. 
 This course of treatment should be followed in case of the " green 
 scours,'''' which may happen after weaning, when the lamb is 
 turned upon clover pasture. Sometimes the presence of worms in 
 the stomach and intestines will cause a looseness of the bowels. 
 In such a case the discharge from the bowels will be mixed with 
 
DISEASES OF LAMBS. 247 
 
 slime or mucus. The treatment should then be as follows : give 
 to a year-old lamb 
 
 Linseed-oil 1 ounce. 
 
 Powdered Opium 3 grains. 
 
 Starch 1 ounce. 
 
 mixed in boilmg water to make a draught. A teacupful of rice 
 water should be given twice a day. The above to be repeated the 
 second day. After the irritation of the bowels is removed, give 
 the following: 
 
 Linseed-oil 2 ounces. 
 
 Spirits of Turpentine ^ drams. 
 
 to be repeated weekly for a month if considered necessary. 
 
 Constipation.— When this occurs, the dung is scanty and at long 
 intervals passes in lumps, which are glazed and hard. There is 
 pain at the times of discharge, which is evmced by the arching 
 of the back, and peculiar but expressive actions of the lamb. The 
 treatment consists in injections of warm water, with two or three 
 half-ounce doses of linseed-oil, given at intervals of six hours. 
 The food should consist of oat-meal, or linseed gruel, sweetened 
 with molasses ; if it will not be taken in that way, it should be 
 given by means of a horn. 
 
 Spasmodic Colic produces severe pains, occurring in paroxysms. 
 The lamb falls and struggles, or remains with eyes fixed, as if 
 convulsed. It is generally an accompaniment of constipation, and 
 always of indigestion. The treatment is to give the following 
 mixture, viz : 
 
 Tincture of Rhubarb 1 dram. 
 
 Carbonate ol Soda 1 " 
 
 Warm Water sweetened with Molasses 2 ounces. 
 
 This should be administered slowiy with a spoon. After the 
 spasms are relieved, give half an ounce of linseed-oil. 
 
 Paralysis. — This disease may occur through a severe chill or 
 exposure to cold rains, or as a symptom of chronic indigestion 
 from inaction of the stomach. The latter is to be suspected when 
 the appetite is depraved, and sand, earth, and coarse matter is 
 eagerly swallowed. In the former case, a warm bath, with fric- 
 tion upon the spine, with spirits of turpentine, or ammonia water, 
 followed by a few days nursing, may be found useful. In the 
 latter case, the symptoms and post-mortem appearance show that 
 the base of the brain, the spine, and the nervous system proceed- 
 ing to the stomach are ajQfected. The lamb suffers severely as if in 
 great pain. It is unable to rise upon its hind legs, and is con- 
 
248 THE shepherd's manual. 
 
 vulsed with spasms ; the teeth are ground together, and the breath- 
 ing is quick and hard, and death generally results. The only defi- 
 nite directions that are likely to result favorably, are to prevent 
 the disease by watching the condition of the lamb after it is 
 weaned, and to provide such food as shall keep it in a thriving 
 condition. Poverty of blood being the direct cause, any treat- 
 ment that will avoid that condition will be helpful. A small 
 quantity of linseed-cake-meal, bran, or ground oats, should be 
 given daily after weaning, and until the first winter is past. Lambs 
 of rapidly growing breeds cannot endure stinting in food, the de- 
 mands of their constitution must be supplied to its full capacity, 
 or the health suflfers, and instead of becoming simply poor and 
 stunted, they become diseased. Disease thus induced cannot be 
 expected to submit to medicine, and the only natural remedy is 
 apt to be applied too late to be of service. 
 
 Pale Disease, Husk, Verminous Bronchitis. — This disease con- 
 sists in the presence of worms in the air-passages of lambs. These 
 produce great irritation and violent coughing. The interruption 
 thus resulting to the aeration of the blood in the lungs, causes gen- 
 eral disturbance of the system. The appetite fails, the condition 
 rapidly falls ofi", and anoemia, "pale disease," or "the bloodless 
 condition," takes place, beneath which the lambs rapidly sink. 
 How the worms, in large numbers, find their way into the air-pas- 
 sages of so young animals, is a query which as yet cannot be satis- 
 factorily solved. They are there, however, and that fact must be 
 sufficient for the shepherd. These worms are a species of sirongy- 
 lus or thread worm, closely akin to the fatal "gape-worm " (also 
 a strongylus), which destroys so many young chickens. It is the 
 same species which inhabits the lungs and bronchial tubes of the 
 sheep. The lamb being less robust, is carried ofi" with greater ease 
 by these attacks, than the full-grown sheep. Prevention is the 
 best remedy. Lambs should not be allowed to follow sheep 
 upon the same pasture, nor to pasture upon meadows that have 
 been top-dressed with manure from the sheep stable or yards. No 
 medicine can reach the lungs, except through the blood, and but 
 few afiect them in this way. Sulphur, turpentine, and assafoetida, 
 are in part exhaled through the lungs, and these medicines alone 
 can be depended upon to reach these parasites. 
 
 The treatment recommended, therefore, is to administer the fol- 
 lowing, viz : 
 
 Linsced-oil 1/2 ounce. 
 
 Spirits of Turpentine V2 dram. 
 
 Assafoetida 20 grains. 
 
TABLE OF MEASURES. 249 
 
 to be given early in the morning, for three successive days, before 
 feeding or turning to pasture, and no feed to be given for three 
 hours afterward. Afterwards the following to be given daily : 
 
 Molasses or Honey 1 pound. 
 
 Flowers of Sulphur 4 ounces. 
 
 one tablespoon ful to be given every morning for ten days. 
 
 The food should be of the most nutritious and digestible char- 
 acter, and if the appetite fails, the food, until the appetite returns, 
 should be given by means of a horn, in the shape of gruel or infu- 
 sions of oatmeal, linseed, or corn-meal, sweetened with sugar. 
 
 TABLE OF APPROXIMATE EQUIVALENT MEASURES. 
 
 For the more ready use of the prescriptions mentioned in the 
 preceding chapter, the following table of approximate equivalent 
 measures is here given : 
 
 FLUID MEASUBES. 
 
 One teaspoonful = One fluid dram. 
 
 One tablespoouful = Half a fluid ounce. 
 
 One wine-glassful = Two fluid ounces. 
 
 One tea {not coffee), cupful = A quarter of a pint 
 
 One tumblerful = Half a pint. 
 
 It will be more convenient, as well as more accurate, to have an 
 apothecary's graduated glass, which is not very expensive, and 
 will allow all the needed measurements to be made in a single 
 utensil. This is a conical glass upon a foot, and provided with a 
 lip to pour from ; they may be had of the capacity of one or two 
 ounces up to a pint ; one of four ounces will be the most conve- 
 nient ; the measures are marked on the glass, the sign f 3 standing 
 for fluid dram, and f 1 for fluid ounce ; Ss is used for half of either. 
 
 A set of apothecary scales and weights may be bought for a 
 dollar or less. The grain weights are of thin sheet brass, with 
 number of grains indicated by dots. 3 stands for scruples, and 3 
 for dram ; the number of each being indicated by numerals follow- 
 ing the sign ; Ss is used for half of either. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Abortion, Prevention of 241 
 
 After-pains in Ewes 208 
 
 ♦American Merino, Description of 
 
 the 92 
 
 Analysis of Ash of Urine 15 
 
 " " Dung 16 
 
 Fodder 60-61 
 
 " Grains 64 
 
 " Manure 79 
 
 " Roots 63 
 
 " Wool 146 
 
 Yolk 147 
 
 Anatomy of the Sheep 168 
 
 Anaemia, Treatment of 203 
 
 Anthrax Fever, Treatment of 209 
 
 Aphtha, Treatment of 210 
 
 Apoplexy, Treatment of 216 
 
 ♦Barn for Sheep. Description of.. . 50 
 
 * " " Small Farm 52 
 
 * " a Convenient 57 
 
 * Beacon-Down Sheep, Description 
 
 of the 138 
 
 Bile, Composition and Uses of 183 
 
 ♦Blackfaced Scotch Sheep, De- 
 scription of the 122 
 
 Black-leg, Treatment of 209 
 
 Bleeding, how Performed 190 
 
 * Bone, Structure of 173 
 
 Brain of the Sheep 174 
 
 " Water on the. Treatment of.216 
 
 " Worms in the 81 
 
 Breeds and Breeding Sheep 81 
 
 " Crossing 84 
 
 " Foreign 100 
 
 " Native. . 89 
 
 Breeders, Maxims for 89 
 
 Breeding for Sex 86 
 
 " In-and in 88 
 
 Bronchitis. Treatment of 192 
 
 Cabbage, Culture of 25 
 
 Canker of the Foot, Treatment of .238 
 
 Castration, Performance of 30-243 
 
 Catarrh, Treatment of 191 
 
 ♦Cheviot Sheep, Description of 
 
 the 120 
 
 Choking, Treatment of 194 
 
 * Circulation of the Blood 177 
 
 Clap, Treatment of in Rams 215 
 
 Colic, Spasmodic Treatment of 247 
 
 Corn, Comparative Value of 65 
 
 Costiveness. Treatment of 195-247 
 
 Cotton-Seed-Cake-Meal, Value of.. 65 
 
 * Cotswold, Description of the 107 
 
 *' Improvement of other 
 
 Breeds by the 84 
 
 250 
 
 ♦ Cotswold-Leicester, Description 
 
 of the 137 
 
 Cotswold-Merino, Description of 
 
 the 134 
 
 Cotswold-Soulhdown, Description 
 
 of the 138 
 
 ♦Crook 156 
 
 Cross-bred Sheep 133-142 
 
 Diarrhea, Treatment of 196-246 
 
 Digestion, Process of 179 
 
 Digestive Organs, Diseases of the. 194 
 
 Dip for Lambs and Sheep 47 
 
 Diseases of Lambs 243 
 
 " " the Sheep, Observa- 
 tions on 188 
 
 " Causes and Prevention of.l90 
 
 " of the Blood 201 
 
 " " '• Bowels 199 
 
 " " " Brain 216 
 
 K " " Digestive Organs.. 194 
 
 " Enzootic S06 
 
 " Epizootic... 210 
 
 Of the Feet.... 234 
 
 Parasitic 219 
 
 " of the Reproductive Or- 
 
 fans 214 
 Respiratory Or- 
 gans 190 
 
 " " Skin 229 
 
 Special 242 
 
 " of the Urinary Organs., .243 
 
 Docking Lambs 243 
 
 ♦Dog-guards for Fences 32 
 
 ♦ Dorset Sheep. Description of thellS 
 
 Dropsy, Treatment of 205 
 
 Dimg, Analysis of Ash of 16 
 
 Dysentery. Treatment of 207 
 
 Ear Marks 34 
 
 Enzootic Diseases 206 
 
 Epilepsy, Treatment of 218 
 
 Epizootic Diseases 210 
 
 Ewes, Garget in. Treatment of 42 
 
 " in Lamb, Care of 36 
 
 " Number for One Ram ... 35 
 
 " Period of Gestation of 34 
 
 " Record of Service of 34 
 
 " Selection cf for Breeding... 43 
 " Yeaning, Treatment of. . .36-45 
 " and Lambs, Management 
 
 of-. 33-37 
 
 Eyes, Disease of the 242 
 
 Fattening Sheep for Market 78 
 
 ♦ Feed-Rack 31-59 
 
 Feeding, Experiments in 66-68-70 
 
 " Koots 27 
 
INDEX. 
 
 251 
 
 Fences, Portable 27 
 
 Flax-Seed, Nutritive Value of — 65 
 Flesh and Blood, Analysis of Ash of 15 
 " Quantity Produced by Cer- 
 tain Foods 67 
 
 Flesh-fly, the 234 
 
 * Fluke, the Liver, Description of. 220 
 Fodder Crops 22 
 
 " Analysis of 60 
 
 " Nutritive Value of 61 
 
 Foods for Winter Feeding 59 
 
 " Composition of Various 60 
 
 " Choice of 65 
 
 "^ Proper Allowance of 72 
 
 " Quantity of, Needed 66 
 
 " "" for a Pound of 
 
 Flesh 67 
 
 Foot, Description of the 235 
 
 " Eot, Treatment of 236 
 
 Foot-and-Mouth-Disease 210-238 
 
 Fractures of the Bones 241 
 
 * French Merino, Description of. . .128 
 
 Gad-fly, the 233 
 
 Garget, Treatment of 241 
 
 Giddiness or Turnsick, Treatment 
 
 for 226 
 
 Grains, Nutritive Value of Various 64 
 
 Grasses, Composition of Various.. 17 
 
 " Suitable for Pasture 16 
 
 * Hampshire-Down Sheep, Descrip- 
 tion of 116 
 
 Heart, Structure and Functions of. 177 
 Hoven, Treatment of 196 
 
 * Hurdles, Use of 28 
 
 * " for Refractory Ewe 37 
 
 * Hydatids in the Brain 226 
 
 Inflammation of the Bladder 213 
 
 •• " Bowels 199 
 
 " " Brain 216 
 
 '• " Liver 201 
 
 Influenza, Treatment of 206 
 
 Intestines of the Sheep 182 
 
 Kentucky, Improved, Sheep 91 
 
 * Kidney, Structure of the 186 
 
 Lacteal Vessels 184 
 
 Lambing, Diseases Connected with.239 
 Lambs, Castrating 39-243 
 
 * " Dipping 48 
 
 " Diseases of 45-245 
 
 " Docking 39-243 
 
 " Feeding 40 
 
 " Laxative for 41 
 
 *' Newly-born, Care of 37 
 
 " Raising Early Market 73 
 
 " Twin, Feeding 37 
 
 * " Weaning 38 
 
 Lamb's-Cordial 46 
 
 * Lamb-Creep 41 
 
 * Laurel, Poisoning by 198 
 
 Leicester, Improvement of Other 
 
 Breeds by 84 
 
 * " Description of the 103 
 
 ♦Leicester-Merino, Description of 
 
 the 135 
 
 * Lincoln . Description of the 100 
 
 Linseed-Oil-Cake-Meal, Value of... 64 
 
 " " " " Substitute 
 
 for 65 
 
 Litter for Sheds 58 
 
 Liver, Congestion of the 200 
 
 " Description of the 183 
 
 " Inflammation of the 201 
 
 "■ Rot, the 219 
 
 Lockjaw, Treatment of 218 
 
 * Louse, the Sheep 233 
 
 * Lungs of the Sheep 176 
 
 Lung, Worms in the, Treatment f or.223 
 
 Manure, Value of 79 
 
 Markets 8-73-«l 
 
 Market Lambs, Methods of Raising 74 
 
 * " " Box for Shipping.. 76 
 
 Profit of 78 
 
 Measures, Explanation of 249 
 
 Merino, American 92 
 
 French 128 
 
 Saxon 94-130 
 
 " Silesian 132 
 
 " Spanish 8-127 
 
 " " Importation of... 93 
 "■ " Improvement of . . 95 
 " Maturityof 43 
 
 * " Ram, Portrait of 98 
 
 " Wool, Value of 94 
 
 " " Weights of Fleeces 96 
 
 Mexican Sheep 90 
 
 Mustard, White, for Fodder 22 
 
 Nerves of the Sheep .174 
 
 * Nets for Folding Sheep 29 
 
 Oil-Cake, Feeding Value of 64 
 
 "■ " Manurial Value of 80 
 
 Ophthalmia, Treatment of 242 
 
 * Oxford-Down Sheep, Description 
 of the 110 
 
 Pale Disease of Lambs 248 
 
 Packinjy Fleeces 161 
 
 Palsy, Treatment of . .218 
 
 Paralysis, Treatment of 217-247 
 
 Parasitical Diseases 219 
 
 Parsley, Value of in Pastures 17 
 
 Parturient Apoplexy and Fever.208-240 
 
 Pasture, Dry, Necessary for Health 14 
 
 Change of. Advantageous. 31 
 
 " Extent of, in the U. S 10 
 
 " Exposure of 22 
 
 " Grasses Suitable for 16 
 
 " Management of 20 
 
 " Suitable for Sheep 12 
 
 Pining, Treatment of 203 
 
 Plants, Poisonous 108 
 
 Plethora, Treatment of 203 
 
 Pleurisy, Treatment of 193 
 
 Pneumonia, Treatment of 192 
 
 Poisoning, Treatment of 198 
 
 Pox, Sheep, Treatment of 211 
 
 Prices of Wool in the World 166 
 
 Production of Wool in the World. .165 
 
 Purgatives, Use of 189 
 
 Ram, Selection of the 43 
 
 Rape for Fall and Winter Feeding. 23 
 
 Red-water, Treatment of 207 
 
 Reproductive Organs, the 187 
 
 Respiration, Process of 175 
 
 Respiratory Organs, Diseases of.. .190 
 Retention of Urine, Treatment of ..213 
 
 Rheumatism, Treatment of 202 
 
 *Romney Marsh Sheep, Descrip- 
 
252 
 
 THE shepherd's MANUAL. 
 
 tion of the 104 
 
 *Root-Cutter 26 
 
 * " Pulper 27 
 
 Roots, Culture of 26 
 
 " Cutting 27 
 
 " Feeding 27 
 
 " Nutritive Value of 63 
 
 " Quantity Needed for a Flock 72 
 
 * " Storing in Pits 26 
 
 Rot of the Foot, Treatment of 236 
 
 * " in the Liver, Treatment of 222 
 
 Rumination, Process of 181 
 
 Salt Necessary for Sheep 33 
 
 Saxon Merino, Description of the. . 130 
 
 * Scab, Treatment for 232 
 
 Sea-Weed Eaten by Sheep 19 
 
 Scrofula, Treatment of 204 
 
 Shearing Sheep 158 
 
 * Shed for Pasture 32 
 
 * " Mr. Geo. Grant's 53 
 
 * " Mr. Shaw's 54 
 
 Sheep, Census of, in U.S.'50,'60,'T0.167 
 
 " When a Lamb Becomes a. . . 45 
 Shelter, Effect of, on Consumption 
 of Food 67 
 
 * Shropshire Sheep, Description of .112 
 Silesian Merino, Description of ther32 
 
 * Skeleton of the Sheep 169 
 
 * Skin, Structure of the 143 
 
 Soils Suitable for Pastures 12 
 
 Sorting Wool 165 
 
 * Southdown Sheep, Description of 114 
 
 " -Merino, Description 
 
 of the 135 
 
 Spanish Merino, Description of thel27 
 
 Spleen, Functions of the 185 
 
 Sprains 245 
 
 Stimulants, Use of 190 
 
 * Stomach of the Sheep 180 
 
 " Foreign Bodies in the.. 200 
 
 Stretches, Treatment of 195 
 
 Summer Management of Sheep 11 
 
 * Table for Tying Wool 162 
 
 * Tape-Worms 228 
 
 Tagging and Trimming Sheep 158 
 
 * Teeth, Growth of the 45-171 
 
 * Tick, the Sheep 233 
 
 Ticks, Dip for 47 
 
 * Trochar and Canula 194 
 
 Turnips, Cultivation of 24 
 
 " Folding Sheep Upon 25 
 
 " for Winter Feeding 24 
 
 Urinary Canal, Sediment in the 214 
 
 '• Organs, Functions of the. 185 
 
 Uterus, Inversion of .242 
 
 Urine, Analysis of Ash of 15 
 
 Virginia Sheep 91 
 
 * Washing Sheep 155 
 
 Water, Necessity of 21 
 
 " Quality of 21 
 
 * Welsh Mountain Sheep, Descrip- 
 tion of the 125 
 
 Western Plains, Value of, for Sheep 
 
 Pastures 19 
 
 Winds, Eflects of, on Condition... 22 
 
 Winter Management of Sheep 49 
 
 Womb, Inversion of 242 
 
 Wool, Break in 21 
 
 ' ' Classification of 148 
 
 " Composition of . . . 156 
 
 * " How to Judge of 150-153 
 
 * " Packing 161 
 
 " Prices of 149 
 
 " Quality of, a Test of 
 
 Health 15-150 
 
 " " "■ Merino 99 
 
 ♦' Sorting 165 
 
 " Structureof 142 
 
 " Value of Imports of 10 
 
 * " Washing of 155 
 
 " World's Production of 165 
 
 * Worms, the Bladder 224 
 
 * "■ in the Brain 226 
 
 " in the Bronchial Tubes . . 223 
 
 * " in the Intestines 229 
 
 * " in the Lungs 223 
 
 Wounds 244 
 
 Yarrow, Description of 18 
 
 Yolk in Wool 99 
 
 " Composition of ..147 
 
 The items marked witli a * are illustrated. 
 

 
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