Class Book. -/i -4- I Copyright^?-—— COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. \ American Bugineggf &etie& ROSWELL C. McCREA GENERAL EDITOR co R O tj £ 3 < s 3 0) o -G (J * J o H ^ >> M OJ PL, > O 3 h 2 U* .5 THE SHOE INDUSTRY BY FREDERICK J. ALLEN, A.M. RESEARCH ASSOCIATE, BUREAU OF VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION HARVARD UNIVERSITY LECTURER ON VOCATIONAL G DDANCE IN BOSTON UNIVERSITY PRESIDENT, NEW ENGLAND VOCATIONAL GUHJANCE ASSOCIATION NEW YORK HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY 1922 Copyright, 1922, BY FREDERICK J. ALLEN i & PRINTED IN U.S.A. NOV 29 '22 ©C!.A6ii2i28 -Wo I PREFACE This book is the story of a great and highly organized industry. It is the result of careful investigation and extensive supplementary study extending over a period of six years. Representative factories, manufacturing all varieties of boots and shoes, have been studied in every department and operation, with an adequate length of time given to each. Information has been secured from manufacturers, officials, department heads, and opera- tives in every grade of service and from the foremost authorities in the shoe and leather world. The organi- zation of the industry and the processes of shoemaking are herein described as actually observed by the author who began this work as investigator of occupations for the Vocation Bureau of Boston, which has now become the Bureau of Vocational Guidance of Harvard Uni- versity. Thus the book has been built up out of the industry itself. All available published material, both domestic and foreign, has been examined, but this volume is unique as an original study. Moreover, the manuscript has been read critically and approved by many authorities in the. industry, both by those who have given information and by others, and by economists and labor union officials. The conditions and methods presented are those that are general and prevailing in this country. The great natural divisions of the industry are treated in their logical order, from its historical setting and the development of shoe machinery to the distribution of the finished product of the factory. Employment conditions iv PREFACE and training in the industry are treated at length and valuable supplementary material is added. Chapters upon shoe repairing and shoe findings are included as these have become divisions of consequence in the great field of shoe manufacture. Important statistical material is given throughout the chapters. An explanation of the terms used in shoemaking is made the final chapter, for consultation by the reader as may be found necessary. Numerous charts and diagrams, and the latest illustra- tions of buildings, equipment, departments, machinery, methods, social service, and business enterprise are in- cluded. The book graphically presents extensive inside infor- mation gathered for permanent use. It is the purpose of this study to give the nature, history, magnitude, operations and processes, employment opportunities and demands, earnings, and the probable future of the industry, for those already in it, for other persons, and their advisers and teachers, who may be considering employment in this field of manufacture, and for all students of industry. Thanks are due and heartily accorded to the hundreds of persons in the industry who have freely given infor- mation and suggestion in the course of this study. Grate- ful acknowledgment is made for special help to the following companies: The United Shoe Machinery Corporation. William H. McElwain Company. Thomas G. Plant Company. George E. Keith Company. Endicott Johnson Company. United Shoe Repairing Machine Company. PREFACE v Special acknowledgment is here given also to: Mr. Thomas F. Anderson, Secretary of the New England Shoe and Leather Association, whose generous coopera- tion and wise counsel have been of great assistance from the beginning. Mr. Charles T. Cahill and Mr. John B. Hadaway, of the United Shoe Machinery Corporation, who have contrib- uted invaluable information upon shoe machinery. . Mr. Arthur L. Evans, Editor-in-Chief of the Retail Shoe Salesman's Institute, who has furnished valuable material on the development of shoe machinery. Mr. W. S. Dennison, Publicity Manager of Rice and Hutchins, Inc., who has contributed a statement upon shoe advertising. Mr. A. H. Lockwood, Editor of the Shoe and Leather Reporter, who has provided photographs for the illustrations of shoe and leather fair exhibits. Frederick J. Allen Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts January, 1922 CONTENTS PAGE Preface iii A Modern Shoe Factory: Introductory xxix Chart of Organization in the Shoe Industry xxxvii CHAPTER I Historical Sketch Ancient and Mediaeval Shoes 3 A Recent Discovery of Ancient Shoes 4 The London Cordwainers' Company 4 The Moccasin of the American Indian 5 The First American Shoemakers 5 An Indenture Paper 6 The Value of Shoes in Colonial Times 9 Ancient Shoe Laws io The Itinerant Shoemaker 12 The First Shoe Shops 12 A Shop of a Century Ago 14 Ebenezer Breed and the Shoe Tariff 16 The First Shoe Factories 17 A Division of Labor in the Factory: "Teams" and "Gangs" 17 A Quotation on the " Contract System" 19 The Attitude of Early Shoemakers toward the Shoe Factory 2 1 Organization in the Factory System 21 Specialists 22 The Magnitude of the Industry Today 23 Shoe and Leather Fairs 27 The Development of Advertising in the Shoe Industry 28 Shoe and Leather and Allied Associations 32 National Shoe and Leather Associations 32 Boots and Shoes — Value of Products for Leading States: 1914 and 1909 33 Table I. — Summary for Leading Cities: 1914, 1909, and 1904 34 Scope of the Shoe Industry 34 Table II. — General Statistics. Boots and Shoes: 1879 to 1914 35 vii viii CONTENTS PAGE Historical Sketch — Continued Scope of the Boot and Shoe Cut Stock Industry 36 Table III. — General Statistics — Boot and Shoe Cut Stock: 1879-1914 37 Table IV. — Exports of Boots and Shoes from the United States During the Fiscal Years June 30, 1912, 1913, and 1 9 14, as Reported by the Bureau of Foreign and Do- mestic Commerce, Department of Commerce 38 Table V. — Total Exports of Shoes from the United States for the Month of May, 1920 and 1919, and for Eleven-Month Periods Ending with May, 1920, 1919, and 1918 40 CHAPTER II Shoe Machinery The Invention of Shoe Machinery 41 Three Stages of Development 42 The Wooden Peg: 1815 43 The Rolling Machine: 1845 44 The Howe Sewing Machine: 1852 45 The McKay Sewing Machine: 1858 45 The Goodyear Welt Machine: 1862-1875 47 Edge-Trimming and Heel-Trimming Machines: 1877 48 The Lasting Machine: 1883 48 The Pulling-Over Machine 52 Joseph L. Joyce 52 Power in Shoe Manufacture S3 Operating a Complicated Machine 53 The Leasing System 53 The Care of Machinery 55 The Standardization of Machinery ', 56 The Development of Shoe Machinery 58 CHAPTER III Last-Making The Shaping of the Last 66 Last Material 67 Hand Last-Making 68 Modern Last-Making 68 CONTENTS ix PAGE Last-Making — Continued The Model Last 70 The Use of the Last-Lathe 70 Devices for Reducing Last in Use 71 The Storage of Lasts 72 CHAPTER IV Pattern-Making The Pattern Designer 74 The Pattern Model 76 The Trial Shoe 77 The Number of Patterns to a Shoe 77 Pattern Material 77 Making Patterns 78 The Standardization of Lasts and Patterns 78 The Storage of Patterns 79 Positions in the Pattern-Making Department 79 The Pattern Maker 79 The Price of Patterns 80 CHAPTER V Leather Its Nature 82 Tanning 82 American Leather Manufacturing 84 The Increasing Shortage of Leather 85 Leather Substitutes 85 The Tannery Divisions of Hides and Skins 87 A Side of Leather 88 Divisions of Leather in Shoe Manufacture 88 The Varieties of Upper Leather 90 Kid 90 Calfskin. 92 Side Leather 94 Sheepskin 94 Coltskin 94 Sole Leather 94 The Cut-Sole Industry 98 x CONTENTS PAGE Leather — Continued Table VI. — General Statistics. Leather and its Finished Products: 1904 to 1914 100 Leather, Tanned, Curried, and Finished — Value of Prod- ucts for Leading States: 1914 and 1909 101 Table VII. — Imports of Hides and Skins (Except Fur Skins) into the United States During the Fiscal Years Ending June 30, 1913 and 1914, by Principal Countries, as Re- ported by the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce 102 CHAPTER VI The Departments oe Shoe Manfacture The Business Departments 104 The Factory Offices 105 The Executive Officers 106 The General Offices 106 Chart of the Business Departments of Shoe Manufacture. . . 106 Chart of Factory Management 107 Factory Service and Office Service ; 108 The Factory Departments 108 Chart of the Factory Departments 109 The Modern Shoe Factory no The Typical Factory 112 CHAPTER VII Methods in Shoe Manueacture The Chief Methods 117 Illustrations of Methods Now in Use 118 The Turned Shoe 118 Cross Section of a Goodyear Welt Shoe 119 Cross Section of a McKay Sewed Shoe 120 Cross Section of a Standard Screwed Shoe 121 Cross Section of a Pegged Shoe 122 The Lace Shoe 123 The Different Stages in Goodyear Welt Manufacture 123 Production by Methods of Manufacture 124 Table VIII. — Boots, Shoes, and Slippers Produced in the United States by Methods of Manufacture: 1914 and 1909 127 CONTENTS xi PAGE Methods in Shoe Manufacture — Continued Table IX. — Boots, Shoes, and Slippers Produced by Methods of Manufacture in the Leading States: 1914 and 1909 128 CHAPTER VIII The Upper Leather Department The Importance of Detail in Shoe Manufacture 129 Chart of the Upper Leather Department 131 Action Upon Receipt of an Order 132 The Day Sheet 134 A Typical Shoe Tag 134 A Typical Shoe Factory Day Sheet 135 The Upper Leather Room 136 Measuring Upper Leather 136 The Leather Sorter 136 The Lining Sorter 138 The Positions in a Sorting Department 138 The Lining and Cloth-Cutting Section 139 Positions in the Lining and Cloth-Cutting Section 140 The Cutting Room 140 The Hand Cutter 141 The Clicking Machine 144 The Counting, Marking, and Skiving Department 146 Skiving 147 Nicking 148 Dieing Out Straps 148 Positions in the Skiving Department 148 Assembling Department 148 Positions in the Assembling Department 149 Time and Pay Statistics in the Cutting Department 149 Table X. — Average and Classified Full-Time Hours per Week and Rates of Wages per Hour, and Average Full- Time Weekly Earnings, in the United States, by Years, 1907 to 1918. — Cutting Department 151 Table XI. — Average and Classified Full-Time Hours per Week and Rates of Wages per Hour, and Average Full- Time Weekly Earnings, by States, 1918. — Cutting Department 153 xii CONTENTS CHAPTER IX PAGE The Stitching Department Variations in Stitching Room Processes 155 The Number and Divisions of the Parts to be Stitched 156 The Divisions of This Department 157 The Lining Department 157 Chart of the Stitching Department 158 Positions in the Lining Department 159 The Tip Department 159 Perforating 161 Positions in the Tip Department 161 The Closing and Staying Department 162 Positions in the Closing and Staying Department 164 The Foxing Department 164 Positions in the Foxing Department 165 The Top Stitching Department 166 Positions in the Top Stitching Department 167 The Button Hole Department 167 Positions in the Button Hole Department 168 The Vamping Department 169 Positions in the Vamping Department 170 The Toe Closing Department 170 Positions in the Toe Closing Department 171 Operating Stitching Machines 171 Table XII. — Average and Classified Full-Time Hours per Week and Rates of Wages per Hour, and Average Full- Time Weekly Earnings, in the United States, by Years, 1907 to 1918. — Fitting or Stitching Department 173 Table XIII. — Average and Classified Full-Time Hours per Week and Rates of Wages per Hour, and Average Full- Time Weekly Earnings, by Years, 1907 to 1908. — Fitting or Stitching Department 176 Table XIV. — Average and Classified Full-Time Hours per Week and Rates of Wages per Hour, and Average Full- Time Weekly Earnings, by States, 1918 179 CONTENTS xiii CHAPTER X PAGE The Sole Leather Department Its Nature 182 The Preparation of Sole Leather Parts 182 The Division of Bottom Stock Fitting 183 The McKay Insole Department 183 Positions in the McKay Insole Department 184 The Welt Insole Department 184 Channeling 185 Slashing 185 Wetting 185 Randing 185 Reinforced Insoles 185 The Canvas Reinforcement 186 Positions in the Welt Insole Department 186 The Outer Sole Department 187 Positions in the Outer Sole Department 188 The Counter Department 188 The Toe Box Department 189 The Heel Department 189 The Processes of Making Heels 190 Positions in Heel Making 191 Employees in the Sole Leather Department 191 Table XV. — Average and Classified Full-Time Hours per Week and Rates of Wages per Hour, and Average Full- Time Weekly Earnings, in the United States, by Years, 1907 to 1918. — Sole Leather Department 193 Table XVI. — Average and Classified Full-Time Hours per Week and Rates of Wages per Hour, and Average Full- Time Weekly Earnings, by States, 1918. — Sole Leather Department 195 CHAPTER XI The Making Department Its Nature 196 The Lasting Department 197 The Pulling Over Machine 198 xiv CONTENTS PAGE The Making Department — Continued Toe and Heel Wiping 198 The Upper Trimming Machine 199 Positions in the Lasting Department 200 The Welt Bottoming Department 201 Welting 201 Welt Beating 201 Sole Laying 202 Rough Rounding 203 Heel Seat Nailing 204 Sole Sewing 206 Channel Laying 206 Leveling 206 Welt Finishing 206 Other Finishing Processes 207 Positions in the Welt Bottoming Department 210 The McKay Bottoming Department 210 Processes Connected with the McKay Method 211 Positions in the McKay Bottoming Department 216 The Heeling Department 216 Blind Nailing 218 Slugging 218 Heel Trimming 219 Positions in the Heeling Department 221 The Turned Shoe Department 221 Lasting the Turned Shoe 221 Positions in the Turned Shoe Department 224 The Standard Screw, Pegged, and Nailed Departments 225 Work in the Making Department 226 Table XVII. — Average and Classified Full-Time Hours per Week and Rates of Wages per Hour, and Average Full- Time Weekly Earnings, in the United States, by Years, 1907 to 1918. — Lasting Department 228 Table XVIII. — Average and Classified Full-Time Hours per Week and Rates of Wages per Hour, and Average Full- Time Weekly Earnings, by States, 1918. — Lasting Department 232 Table XIX. — Average and Classified Full-Time Hours per Week and Rates of Wages per Hour, and Average Full- CONTENTS xv PAGE The Making Department — Continued Time Weekly Earnings, in the United States, by Years, 1907 to 1918. — Bottoming Department 235 Table XX. — Average and Classified Full-Time Hours per Week and Rates of Wages per Hour, and Average Full- Time Weekly Earnings, by States, 1918. — Bottoming Department 241 CHAPTER XII Finishing, Treeing, Packing, and Shipping Additional Departments 245 Finishing 246 The Tip Repairing Department 248 The Treeing Department 250 Ironing 252 Inspecting 252 Embossing 252 Positions in the Treeing Department 252 The Packing Department 253 Positions in the Packing Room 254 The Shipping Department 254 Positions in the Shipping Department 256 Table XXI. — Average and Classified Full-Time Hours per Week and Rates of Wages per Hour, and Average Full- Time Weekly Earnings, in the United States, by Years, 1907 to 1918. — Finishing Department 257 Table XXII. — Average and Classified Full-Time Hours per Week and Rates of Wages per Hour, and Average Full- Time Weekly Earnings, by States, 1918. — Finishing Department 259 Tables XXIII. — Average and Classified Full-Time Hours per Week and Rates of Wages per Hour, and Average Full- Time Weekly Earnings, in the United States, by Years, 1907 to 1918. — Other Employees (All Departments.). . . . 260 Table XXIV. — Average and Classified Full-Time Hours per Week and Rates of Wages per Hour, and Average Full- Time Weekly Earnings, by States, 1918. — Other Em- ployees (All Departments.) 261 xvi CONTENTS CHAPTER XIII PAGE Employment Conditons, Wages and Hours op Labor. The Sex Division of Employees 262 The Division of Employees Among Departments 264 Shoe Manufacture Highly Specialized 264 Seasons 265 Shoemaking a Trade 266 Entering Upon Work in a Shoe Factory 267- Promotion 267 Securing Skilled Labor " 268 The Shoe Superintendent 269 The Shoe Foreman 269 The Quality Man and the Quantity Man 271 The Efficiency Engineer 271 The Shoe Factory Chemist 272 Piece and Time Payment 273 The Best Paying Processes 273 Wages and Hours of Labor in the Shoe Industry 273 Table XXV. — Relative Full-Time Hours per Week, Hourly Earnings, and Full-Time Weekly Earnings, from 1910 to 1918, in the Principal Occupations 276 Table XXVI. — Average Full-Time Hours, Hours Actually Worked, Full-Time Weekly Earnings, and Amounts Actually Earned During One Week, 1918 280 Variation in Number of Employees, Total Pay Rolls, and Bi-Weekly Earnings per Employee 282 Sex and Age Distribution of Wage Earners in the United States by Leading Industries: 1909 282 Table XXVII. — Sex and Age Distribution by Leading Indus- tries: 1909 284 The Monotony of Shoemaking 286 Quotation upon Efforts in Some Factories to Lessen Monotony 289 Social Service in the Shoe Factory 290 Quotation from a Government Study of Social Service 291 General Sanitary Conditions Observed in Boot and Shoe Factories 294 The Employment of Handicapped Men in the Shoe Industry 299 CONTENTS xvii CHAPTER XIV PAGE Training in the Shoe Industry Schools and Courses in Shoemaking 306 Quotation from a Report upon Industrial Education in Shoe Manufacture 307 The Shoe and Leather Course of the Boston Continuation School 311 The Lynn Independent Industrial Shoemaking School 314 Course of Study — Boys 316 Upper Leather Cutting Department 316 Upper Leather Fitting Department 318 Sole Leather Department 319 Lasting Department 320 Making and Finishing Department 322 Packing and Shipping Department 323 Course of Study — Girls 324 Upper Leather Fitting Department 324 Fitting, Packing, and Office Departments 325 The Plan of the United States Training Service 327 Purpose of Training Program 327 Conditions in Shoe Industry 327 Testing New Applicants 328 Training New Help 328 Upgrading Employees 328 Types of Training Suitable 329 Training According to Factory Requirements 329 Related Instruction 330 Departmental Relations 331 Cooperation of Employees 331 The Instruction Staff 332 Requirements High for Director 332 Qualifications 332 Trade Knowledge Essential for Instructors 333 How to Proceed with Instruction 333 Instructor's Guide 333 Four Steps in Procedure 334 Preparation 334 xviii CONTENTS PAGE Training in the Shoe Industry — Continued Value of Illustrations 335 Presentation 335 Repeating the Demonstration 336 Application 337 Helpful Suggestions 338 Supervision 338 What Record Shows 339 Follow Up After Instruction 339 Sole Leather Department 340 How to Proceed 340 Elementary Branches — Channeling 341 Demonstration 342 Outline for Instructor's Use 344 The Retail Shoe Salesman's Institute, Boston 347 The Training of Disabled Soldiers in the Shoe Industry in Foreign Countries 348 CHAPTER XV The Shoe Repairing Industry Shoe Repairing now a Shop Industry 360 Shoe Repairing Advanced by the War 363 Learning Machine Shoe Repairing 365 Earnings in the Industry 366 Opportunities for Handicapped Men in Shoe Repairing 366 Action by the Trade Promotion Bureau 367 CHAPTER XVI The Shoe Findings Industry Shoe Findings Manufacture in the United States 370 The Chief Articles Included in Shoe Findings 372 Four Classes of Shoe Findings 373 Each Shoe Finding a Separate Industry 374 Women in the Industry 374 Division of Employees in the Typical Findings Factory. . . . 375 The Making of the Shoe Shank 376 Diagram Showing Manufacture of Reinforced Shank 378 Table XXVII . — General Statistics. Boot and Shoe Find- ings. 1879 to 1914 379 CONTENTS xix CHAPTER XVII An Explanation of the Terms Used in ShoemakIng The Need of Knowing These Terms 380 Acid-tanned 381 Adjustment . 381 Aloft 381 Anatomic 381 Arch 381 Assembling 381 Backstay 381 Back Strap 381 Bal 381 Ball 382 Beading 382 Beating Out 382 Bellows Tongue 382 Belting 382 Bench-Made 382 Bend 382 Blackball 382 Blacking the Edge 382 Blind Eyelet 382 Blocking 382 Blucher 383 Boot 383 Bottom Filling 383 Bottom Finishing 383 Bottom Scouring 383 Box 383 Brogan 383 Broken Arch 383 Brushing 383 Buckram 383 Buffing 383 Button 384 Button Fly 384 Cabaretta 384 xx CONTENTS PAGE An Explanation op the Tepms Used in Shoemaking — Continued Calfskin 384 Calking Machine 384 Carton 384 Case 384 Channel 385 Channel Screwed 385 Channel Stitched 385 Channel Turning 385 Chrome-tanned 385 Clicking . 385 Closing On 385 Collar 385 Colonial 385 Combination Last 385 Congress Gaiter 385 Copper Toe 385 Counter 385 Cravenette : 386 Creasing Vamp 886 Crimping 386 Crop 386 Cushion Sole 386 Cushion-Made 386 Cut-off Vamp 386 Dieing or Dinking 386 Dom Pedro 386 Edge Setting 386 Dressing 386 Edge Trimming 386 Embossing 386 Eyelet '. 386 Fabric 386 Facing 387 Fair Stitch 387 Filler 387 Finding : 387 Finish 387 CONTENTS xxi PAGE An Explanation of the Terms Used in Shoemaking — Continued Fitting 387 Fitting Room 387 Form 387 Foxing 387 French Size Marking 388 Gaiter 388 Gem Insoles 388 Golf Shoe 388 Goodyear Welt 388 Gore 388 Grading 388 Half-Sole 388 Heel 388 Heel Scouring 389 Heel Seat 389 Heel Shaving 389 Hemlock tanned 389 Inseam Trimming 389 Insole 389 Inspecting 389 Ironing Uppers 389 Lace 389 Lace Stay 389 Lap Stone 389 Last 390 Lasting 390 Leveling 390 Lift 390 Lining 390 Low-cut 390 McKay Sewed 390 Measurement 390 Moulding 390 Naumkeaging 390 Oak-tanned 390 Oxford 391 Pasted Counter 391 xxii CONTENTS PAGE An Explanation of the Terms Used in Shoemaking — Continued Pattern 391 Pegging 391 Perforating 391 Polish 391 Pressing 391 Pulling Lasts 391 Pulling Over 391 Pump 391 Quarter 391 Rand 391 Relasting 391 Repairing 391 Rolling 391 Rough Rounding 392 Royalties 392 Rubber Cement 392 Rubber Shoes 392 Sample 392 Sandal 392 Screw Fastened 392 Shank 392 Shank Burnishing 392 Shanking Out 392 Size 393 Skiving 393 Slipper 393 Slugging • 393 Sneaker 393 Sock Lining 393 Soft Tips 393 Soles and Sole Leather 393 Sole Laying 393 Sorting 393 Spat 393 Split 393 Spring 393 Stamping 393 CONTENTS xxiii PAGE An Explanation of the Terms Used in Shoemaking — Continued ' Stay 394 Stitch Separating 394 Stitched Aloft 394 Stock Keeping 394 Stripping 394 Style 394 Tan 394 Tanning 394 Tap 394 Tempering . 394 Tip 394 Tongue 395 Top 395 Top Facing 395 Top Lift 395 Top Stitching 395 Treeing 395 Trimming Cutting 395 Turned Shoe 395 Turnover 395 Upper 395 Vamp 395 Vamping 395 Viscolizing 395 Welt 395 Welt Beating 396 Welting 396 Wheeling 396 Width 396 Shoe and Leather Bibliography 397 Shoe and Leather Journals 401 Alphabetical Index 403 ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE Factory of the Thomas G. Plant Company, Boston Frontispiece Central Plant of the W. H. McElwain Company, Manchester, N. H xiii Plant of the Geo. E. Keith Company, Brockton, Mass xvii An Old Time Shoemaker 7 The Hand Worker in the Modern Factory, Re- pairing Shoes Injured in Passage Through Factory Processes n An Old Time Shoe Shop Placed Beside a Modern Factory 15 Interior of a Shop in the Civil War Period 18 A Modern Interior 18 Shipping Room of Endicott Johnson & Company, Endicott, N. Y 22 Operating the Rex Pulling-Over Machine 42 The McKay Sewing Machine Today 46 Operating the Goodyear Welt and Turn Shoe Machine 47 Operating the Edge Trimming Machine 49 Operating the Welt Lasting Machine 51 Plant of the United Shoe Machinery Corporation, Beverly, Mass 54 Facsimiles of Early Royalty Stamps 56 The Last Lathe 69 XXV xxvi ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE The Last Storage Room of the Shoe Factory 72 Pattern Standard Showing Heel Pitch, and Separate Patterns of Upper Parts 75 Operators at Shaving Machines, Upper Leather Tannery, W. H. McElwain Company 83 A Side of Leather Divided as to Quality 89 Embossing Upper Leather, Upper Leather Tannery, W. H. McElwain Company, Manchester, N. H. 91 Beam House, Where Hides are Prepared for Tanning 95 Tan Yard, Where They are Tanned in Vats of Liquor 95 The Cut-Sole Room in the Shoe Factory, 98 Preparing Cartons in the Box Factory, W. H. McElwain Company, Manchester, N. H in A Modern Interior Showing a Row of Machines Placed by the Windows 113 A Modern Interior Showing Overhead Light 114 A Typical Modern Shoe Factory 115 Interior of a Modern Shoe Factory, Showing Light Provision, with Steel Sash, Heating System, and Concrete Floor 116 Cross Section of a Goodyear Welt Shoe 119 Cross Section of a McKay Sewed Shoe 120 Cross Section of a Standard Screwed Shoe 121 Cross Section of a Pegged Shoe 122 A Goodyear Welt Shoe in the Different Stages of Manufacture 125 Hand Cutters at Work, Thomas G. Plant Company, Boston, Mass - 129 Upper Leather Stock-Sorting Department, W. H. McElwain Company, Manchester, N. H 137 Cutting Shoe Trimming Parts, Upper Leather Supply Factory, No. 1 Building, Central Plant, Manchester, N. H 141 ILLUSTRATIONS xxvii PAGE A Skin Showing How Patterns are Placed in Cutting 143 Upper Leather Cutting Room, Showing Clicking Machine, W. H. McElwain Company, Man- chester, N. H 145 Operating the Skiving Machine 147 A Division of the Stitching Room 156 Operating the Tip Punching Machine 160 Lacing Uppers on the Ensign Lacing Machine .... 170 Bed Lasting Machine No. 5 197 Rex Pulling-Over Machine 199 Operating the Goodyear Universal Inseam Trim- ming Machine 200 Operating the Goodyear Improved Twin Sole Lay- ing Machine 202 Goodyear Welt and Turn Shoe Machine Model K 203 Goodyear Universal Rounding and Channeling Machine. Model E 204 Operating the Goodyear Heel Seat Rounding Machine 205 Goodyear Outsole Rapid Lockstitch Machine .... 207 Goodyear Automatic Sole Leveling Machine 208 Operating the Hadaway Stitch Separating Machine 209 Operating the Twin Edge Setting Machine 211 Operating the Top Piece Sanding Machine 212 Operating the Naumkeag Buffing Machine 213 Operating the Goodyear Stitching Machine 214 Nailing Heel Seat 215 Operating the Channel Cementing Machine .... 217 The Heeling Room of the Making Department . . 218 McKay Automatic Heel Loading and Attaching Machine 219 Operating the Universal Slugging Machine 220 Operating the Ultima Heel Trimming Machine . . 222 Operating the Imperial Heel Breasting Machine 223 xxviii ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE Operating the Expedite Heel Finishing Machine . . 225 Buffing Machines Placed Longitudinally with Building 245 Operating the Buffing Machine 247 Climax Finishing Shaft 249 Stitch and Upper Cleaning Machine 251 Operating the Stamping Machine 253 Shipping Floor, Central Plant, W. H. McElwain Company, Manchester, N. H 255 Shoe Workers of the Thomas G. Plant Company, Boston, Mass 263 The First Factory of Thomas G. Plant 265 Employees' Club House, George E. Keith Com- pany, Brockton, Mass 287 "Ideal Home," Library and Clubrooms, Endicott, Johnson and Company, Endicott, N. Y 289 Men's Recreation Room, Thomas G. Plant Com- pany, Boston, Mass 291 Dancing Hall, Thomas G. Plant Company, Boston, Mass 293 Factory Hospital, United Shoe Machinery Corpora- tion, Beverly, Mass 295 Wash Room, United Shoe Machinery Corporation, Beverly, Mass 296 Spirit and Loyalty 298 The Class of New Americans, All Endicott John- son Workers, Studying that They may Become Citizens 318 Shop of the Philadelphia Shoe Repairing Company, Philadelphia, Pa 361 Men Working at a Motor-Drive Set of Shoe Re- pairing Machinery 362 New Auto Shoe Repair Trucks of the U. S. Army 364 Interior of the Shoe Repair Truck, U. S. Army . . . 367 A MODERN SHOE FACTORY INTRODUCTORY It is a far step from the ten-by-twelve, one-story shoemaker's shop of the middle of the last century to the great concrete structure which houses the modern shoe factory. True, there are many wooden factories in our older shoe centers, but they were built twenty, or thirty, or forty years ago — before the age of steel and concrete. American shoe manu- facturers are now erecting the finest and largest shoe factories in the world, profiting by the develop- ments in building construction in the Old- World and in the New. The shoe manufacturer seeks a locality that is accessible by railway, on or near some main line of traffic, that he may bring in his raw materials and distribute the manufactured product with as little cost and delay as possible. It is an advertisement to him to be located in a well-known industrial center. Frequently he is granted exemption from local taxation as an inducement to enter a town. The securing of workers constitutes the greatest problem of the manufacturer. He seeks a com- munity out of which he may secure factory em- xxx INTRODUCTORY ployees, without competing with other industries to his disadvantage in the scale of wages. The older and leading shoe towns, therefore, like Lynn and Brockton, Mass., are essentially one-industry towns. The shoe factory in the large city obtains employees from the great number of industrial workers to be found there, and suffers from the mobility of labor. The factory in the small town or country commu- nity draws its workers from the rural districts and profits by the inertia of labor. And the large shoe factory continually attracts operatives who have learned their trade in the smaller factory. Let us, then, view a typical modern shoe factory in an industrial community. We find it upon a main or spur railway line, and upon one or more public thoroughfares, convenient to traffic and accessible to employees. At the rear of the building is a sizable park, with shade trees, flowers, shrubbery, and settees for employees during rest hours. A club house and athletic field for male employees are among the features which make industrial employ- ment attractive to workmen. All these advantages, with others maintained in the factory itself, con- tribute to the home feeling and factory pride and spirit of the employees. They create solidarity in factory life. They signify the mutual getting to- gether of employer and worker. They make out of industry a means of social and personal growth. INTRODUCTORY H sfi o -a U £ <~ W H -tf pq m -C 2 O E o H £ a u Sd jr c ft >> o Q (J cd rrt T) a; C O a J3 u ^ iuS U MS .5 3 xxxii INTRODUCTORY Turning to the factory itself, we observe its mas- sive, yet window-covered structure. It consists of a steel frame covered with concrete, the gray garb of modern industry. This building has the typical, standardized form that has been developed in the shoe industry. Light is the most important con- sideration. The width of the building is limited to about fifty feet, so that there may be plenty of light along the middle of each room. This plan allows ample space for the economic placing of machinery. In this factory no space is lost. Some shoe factories in European countries have but one story with glass roof, so that the light falls clearly upon all parts of the floor, thus necessitating exten- sive ground space. Our American building, econo- mizing ground space, gets light from the sides, but usually has a special system of windows in the roof for the benefit of the upper floor. This typical shoe factory is a single building about three hundred feet long and four stories in height. Sometimes there are wings at the ends of the main building of the same height and width as the main structure. The length varies from two hundred feet up to several hundred and some factory systems are as much as a quarter or half-mile long. Such large plants employ four or five thousand people, and turn out fifteen to twenty thousand pairs of shoes a day. Some large factories have seven or eight floors, but INTRODUCTORY xxxiii usually because of lack of ground space or because of having been built before the standard plan was fixed. The power plant is installed in a one-story building on one side of the factory. Steam is gener- ally used to generate power and furnish heat, and electricity for lighting purposes. In some factories electricity furnishes the motive power also. This building is equipped with an automatic alarm, freight and passenger elevators, stairways, and fire escapes. It has an extensive locker system, and the latest sanitary equipment throughout. An exhaust fan system is used to draw the dust and dirt from the abrasive and trimming machines used in the differ- ent departments. This dust material is conveyed to a receptacle near the power house, where it is burned in the furnace. The four-floor system of the factory is found to be the most convenient for the sequence of processes in manufacture. The four floors provide space for six major departments of manufacture and for the busi- ness offices. The sole leather department, which prepares the bottom parts of the shoe, occupies the first or basement floor. The upper leather and stitching departments occupy the fourth or upper floor, where it is always possible to obtain plenty of light. In these departments the leather upper parts and linings of the shoe are cut and sewed together xxxiv INTRODUCTORY and made ready for attaching the bottom. The making or bottoming department uses most of the third floor. Here the sole leather parts and leather tops and linings are brought together and the shoe is made ready for finishing. The finishing, packing, and shipping departments are upon the second floor. All of these divisions of the factory are described at length in the chapters which follow. The business offices are usually divided between the second and third floors, while the factory offices are associated with factory rooms when possible. A very large shoe manufacturing company may have a system of buildings grouped about a common center, which may be a separate administration building or the oldest or main factory building. In such a system the sole leather department usually occupies an entire building, preparing sole leather parts for the other manufacturing departments. Another building is usually given up entirely to making men's shoes, another to women's shoes, and so on, according to the special lines followed by the concern. There may also be a box factory, saw mill, printing plant, or other subsidiary department attached to the group of buildings. In some cases a large concern has central offices, or a central factory, in one locality, and the separate factories in other localities. It remains to speak of the neighborhood of the INTRODUCTORY XXXV xxxvi INTRODUCTORY shoe manufacturing plant. This neighborhood tends to become a factory community, as time passes. Shoe operatives with families wish to live near their work, and frequently several members of a family work in the same factory. Car fares then become an item of importance. The family accordingly lives near enough to the factory to walk back and forth and to come home for lunch at noon time. On the other hand the manufacturer prefers to hire those who live near by ; as they can the better be depended upon to remain steadily and permanently in his employ. A chart of organization in the shoe industry is here added, to give a glimpse of the activities carried on within the factory. INTRODUCTORY XXXVll ^ •- § F , s ■n t 1 s j a y K i ? 8 it * u 3 R £ | s | s u lis! m H sill i Si 5 - S E ;<3S E* 4^1 "I" "JI3 Q - £ - J | £ I — I ?■; t: | o3q §1 rlj THE SHOE INDUSTRY CHAPTER I HISTORICAL SKETCH Ancient and Mediaeval Shoes. The sandal was the first known form of footwear. It was the uni- versal type among all early peoples, as it is now in all warm countries. Pictures of ancient Egyptian sandal makers of 1495 B - c - have been found in Thebes, showing methods something like those of the modern hand shoemaker who sat upon a low bench or form and held his work upon his knees. The earliest known form of footwear varied from a strip of leather fastened underneath as a protection from the ground to coverings ornamented with gems and gold. Sandals of papyrus and of leather were in quite general use in ancient times. The Teutonic tribes of the north of Europe wore a leather protec- tion upon the leg below the knee. The Romans adapted this custom by attaching the leg covering to the sandal, at first leaving the toe open and later closing it, thus making a complete boot. Such a boot or shoe was worn throughout the Middle Ages. In this period the shoe became one of the most im- portant and conspicuous articles of dress, and its length varied with the social or political standing of the wearer. Thus a prince wore a shoe thirty 3 4 THE SHOE INDUSTRY inches long; a baron, one of twenty-four inches; a knight, one of eighteen, and so on. A Recent Discovery of Ancient Shoes. "The two-thousand-year-old footwear exhibit in the museum of the United Shoe Machinery Corporation, which was recently taken from excavations made on the site of the ancient city of Antinoe, established a.d. 130, impresses the observer with the fact that ancient shoemakers were by no means lacking in skill. In looking at the exhibit, one is amazed to see the modern effects of many of the samples. The shoes are splendidly preserved, and some of the knitted sandals have the appearance of having been given only a few weeks' hard wear. Attempts at ornamentation show rosettes made of leather, and made up in a variety of designs." x The London Cordwainers' Company. In the year 1272 King Henry III granted an ordinance which established the Cordwainers' and Cobelers' Company of London, as it was first known, and gave it power to supervise the trade generally "for the relief and advancement of the whole business, and to the end that all frauds and deceits maye here- after be avoided." While "cordewaner," a word originating from the use of leather coming from Cordova in Spain, was the name used generally for the shoemaker of the time, the term included also 1 From American Shoemaking, for November 7, 1914. HISTORICAL SKETCH 5 workers in the associated trades, such as leather curriers, tanners, purse and pouch makers, and girdlers. The "cobeler" became later the worker in old leather, or merely the shoe repairer. The Cordwainers' Company has become simply a guild, but one of the oldest and most honored in the city of London. Marry, because you have drank with the King, And the King hath so graciously pledged you, You shall no more be called shoemakers; But you and yours, to the world's end, Shall be called the trade of the gentle craft. — George-a-Greene, Old Play, 1500. The Moccasin of the American Indian. The American Indian made rawhide leather by simple processes, and sewed pieces of it into a foot covering called a " moccasin." The white men who first came brought shoes from the mother countries and for many years continued to import them; but the pioneers also wore the moccasins of the native, sometimes making them, as well as hunting shirts and leggings, from leather tanned by the Indians. The First American Shoemakers. The first shoe- makers in this country settled in Massachusetts, Thomas Beard and Isaac Rickerman coming to Salem in 1691, and Philip Kertland to Lynn in 1635. 6 THE SHOE INDUSTRY The advent of each of these men was heralded as an important event and special favors were granted to them. They brought the methods of a trade still primitive though ancient in Europe. They used the leather apron, lap stone, hammer, wooden pegs, hand-made thread, boot-tree last, such as thousands of cobblers use even in this day of machinery. John Adam Dagyr, a Welshman, came to Lynn in 1750. He was a master-craftsman, and Lynn, which had already become the leading shoe town in the Colonies, advanced still more rapidly in the industry. Dagyr was the first organizer of the industry in this country. The more ingenious colonists learned to make shoes by hand, often serving an apprentice- ship of seven years, and the trade gradually passed far beyond its European stages. From these simple beginnings sprang the great industry of American shoemaking. An Indenture Paper. Following is a copy of the original agreement by which boys were apprenticed to the shoemaking trade in the early part of the last century. The original is now in the possession of Mr. Charles Wellesley Allen, Brooklyn, N. Y. "This Indenture, Witnesseth, "That John Goedersoon, now aged fourteen years,, eight months and twenty-seven days, by and with the consent of his step-father, John Wright, and his mother, 8 THE SHOE INDUSTRY Mary Wright, hath put himself and, by these presents, doth voluntarily and of his own free will and accord, put himself Apprentice to Frederick Seely of the City of New York, Cordwainer, and after the manner of an Apprentice to serve from the day of the date hereof for and during, and until the full end of six years, three months and three days next ensuing during all which time the said Apprentice shall his master faithfully serve, his secrets keep, his commands everywhere readily obey. " He shall do no damage to his said Master nor see it done by others, without letting or giving notice thereof to his said Master. He shall not waste his said Master's goods nor lend unlawfully to any. He shall not contract matrimony within the said term; at Cards, Dice, or any unlawful game he shall not play, whereby his Master may have damages. With his own goods nor the goods of others, without license from his Master. . . . He shall neither buy nor sell. He shall not absent him- self, day or night, from his said Master's service without leave, nor haunt ale-houses, taverns or play-houses; but in all things behave as a faithful Apprentice ought to do, during the said term. " And the said Master shall use the utmost of his en- deavors to teach, or cause to be taught or instructed, the said Apprentice in the trade, or mystery, of a Cord- wainer, and procure and provide for him sufficient meat, washing, lodging and clothing fit for an Apprentice, during the said term of service and four quarters of night schooling, during the said term. " And for the true performance of all and singular the Covenants and Agreements aforesaid, the said parties bind themselves each unto the other firmly by these HISTORICAL SKETCH 9 presents. In Witness Whereof the said parties have interchangeably set their hands and seals hereunto. Dated the sixth day of August, in the thirty-fifth year of the Independence of the United States of America, and in the year of our Lord eighteen hundred and eleven. " Sealed and delivered in the presence of L. Cowdrey. " Frederick Seely, " John Goedersoon, " Maria Wright, " Jahan Wright." The Value of Shoes in Colonial Times. In spite of the abundance of wild and domestic animals whose skins might serve as leather in Colonial times, the prices of leather and of rough hand-made foot- wear were comparatively high. Leather of the finer sort was still imported from England. Shoes were the product of quite laborious processes and of con- siderable skill and ingenuity. They might be pur- chased by labor on the land or in the forest, by the barter of other goods or by hard English shillings. In the law of 1720-21 Pennsylvania fixed the maxi- mum price at which shoes should be sold at retail in the colony, as " six shillings and six pence for a pair of good, well-made men's shoes," five shillings for women's shoes, and proportionately less for children's shoes. This law fixed the price of leather also. io THE SHOE INDUSTRY With many persons, especially children and youth, shoes were little or seldom worn, appearing only on special occasions. Often the Colonial family walked bare-foot to church on Sunday morning, each member carrying his shoes in his hand until near the church door when they were put on the feet. Ancient Shoe Laws. The law makers of the Colonies from the beginning set regulations over the activities and employments of the people. The Province of Pennsylvania in 1720-21 made it a crime for a tanner of leather to become a currier or a shoemaker. Section 7 of the law reads as follows: " And be it further enacted by the authority aforesaid that no person occupying or using the mystery of the shoemaker, shall make or cause to be made any boots, shoes, or slippers for sale but of leather well and suf- ficiently sewed with good thread well twisted and made and well waxed. Nor shall mingle the over-leather, that is to say part of the overleather being of neats leather and part of calves leather. Nor shall put into any boots, shoes, or slippers for sale, any leather made of sheepskin, . bulls hide, or horses hide ; or into the upper leather of any shoes or slippers, or into the inner part of any boots (inner part of the shoe excepted) any part of any hide from which the sole leather is cut, called the neck, shank, flange, powle, or cheek, upon paying a forfeiture of all such shoes, boots, and slippers, to be divided and applied in the manner directed by this act." HISTORICAL SKETCH ii The Hand Worker in the Modern Factory, Repairing Shoes Injured in Passage Through Factory Processes 12 THE SHOE INDUSTRY The same Act provided that shoes sold above the prices fixed by Provincial law or above the rates set from time to time by the mayor, alderman, and justices of the courts, should be subject to forfeiture. The Itinerant Shoemaker. The Colonial shoe- maker often traveled from house to house or village to village, as a journeyman, doing repair work and making new shoes for all the members of a family. The market for home-made shoes was limited in those days, and many of the shoemakers practiced other arts, such as sharpening knives, saws, and axes, mending furniture, repairing clocks, cutting hair, and pulling teeth. The traveling cobbler, with his kit of simple tools and with the rough and heavy leather of the period, was a welcome dis- penser of service and of news and gossip among the colonists. The First Shoe Shops. No change of importance from either home work or itinerant employment occurred in shoemaking in the colonies until about the middle of the eighteenth century, when the more enterprising cobblers began to employ others and work became more and more confined to local shops. Hand processes continued, with some sub-division of labor, one man cutting, another sewing, another fastening on the bottom of the boot with pegs, and so on. Often in the home or little shop the hand HISTORICAL SKETCH 13 sewing was done by girls and women whose hands were more deft for such a process. Poor lone Hannah, Sitting at the window, binding shoes! Faded, wrinkled, Sitting, stitching, in a mournful muse! Bright-eyed beauty once was she, When the bloom was on the tree. Spring and winter Hannah's at the window, binding shoes. — " Hannah Binding Shoes," Lucy Larcom. The New England shoemakers led in the industry. There were a few Dutch shoemakers in New York, but scarcely any in the agricultural communities of the South. The market of the New England maker, therefore, included all the colonies scattered along the Atlantic coast. In many cases the proprietor of the shop made weekly or monthly trips on foot or with an ox-cart to a village or larger community to dispose of his shop-made goods, and shoe traffic gradually arose. Often the shop was closed altogether in the sum- mer, when work upon the land was necessary or fishing for those situated along the sea coast. Frequently the home served as a shop ; the family receiving shoe materials from the manufacturer or from the village storekeeper who acted for the manu- facturer or tanner. 14 THE SHOE INDUSTRY A Shop of a Century Ago. " Probably the oldest shoe factory now standing in this country is the Putnam shop, near the Newburyport turnpike, in the town of Danvers, Mass. It was built before the Revolution. It was one of the buildings on the old Putnam farm, the birthplace of General Putnam (" Old Put ") of Revolutionary fame. It was men- tioned in the first United States census of manu- facturing, taken in 1786, and it was then evidently a factory of importance. It is still in excellent state of preservation. Some of the tools that were used by its occupants are still preserved. " The early tools are of wrought iron. The pat- terns are of board. Cutters who are used to hand- ling thin patterns of today would think these board patterns very coarse. Lasts saved in the old shop are clumsy. The books show that they cost from twenty-five cents to one dollar a pair, the price being determined by the style. Apparently, the lastmakers of old well knew how to capitalize style. " All the shoes made in this old shop were made by hand. The shoemakers were paid from fifteen to twenty-five cents a pair for their labor, and they earned from five dollars to ten dollars a week, the rise and fall of their wages being determined chiefly by the way the orders came in. At first shoes made in this shop were sent in ox-wagons to Boston. a 1 6 THE SHOE INDUSTRY Later they were sent in horse wagons. They were packed in barrels." x Ebenezer Breed and the Shoe Tariff. Following the Revolution the break between the Colonies and the Mother Country encouraged American indus- tries in many lines. American shoemaking, how- ever, still suffered from the competition of imported shoes. The habit of wearing English-made shoes was hard to break and many of the well-to-do people continued to demand them. At this crisis, in which an industry of great possi- bilities seemed likely to be restricted and confined mainly to the cheaper lines of product, appeared the first great leader of American shoe manufacture, Ebenezer Breed. Breed was born in Lynn, of Quaker parentage, and here learned the shoe trade. While still a young man he removed to Philadelphia, then the Nation's capital. Here he gained the friendship of prominent people, including members of the National Congress. He proposed a protective tariff on boots and shoes, and on this suggestion Congress passed a shoe tariff act in 1789. Breed was a wholesale boot and shoe merchant, and prospered greatly after the passage of the act. He was recognized as a leading American and was feted at home and abroad, visiting France and England. 1 From Boot and Shoe Recorder, Boston. HISTORICAL SKETCH 17 Through misfortune in personal affairs, Ebenezer Breed lost his business and property and his eyesight. He died in the almshouse of his native town of Lynn. The following has been said of him: " The man who was so powerful as to build up a great wall of protection about the entire American shoe trade spent his declining days quietly and peace- fully in an almshouse, forgotten by nearly everyone but the Quakers." The First Shoe Factories. Soon after the Revo- lution shoemakers who wished to increase their out- put or had ambition to become manufacturers or employers, engaged other shoemakers to work for them on a larger scale than formerly, thus establish- ing the factory system and introducing a distinction between capital and labor in the industry. The early manufacturers devoted themselves more and more to buying materials in quantities and to selling the products of their factories. Larger and larger factories were erected. In many cases shoemakers took materials from the factory and made shoes at home, each in his little shop. A Division of Labor in the Factory: " Teams" and " Gangs." It was known that workmen were usually expert in particular operations, for instance, in cutting and fitting uppers, or in preparing soles, or in sewing the sole to the upper. This fact pro- Interior of a Shop in the Civil War Period A Modern Interior HISTORICAL SKETCH 19 duced a division of labor. Shoemaking in factories during this period, until the introduction of machin- ery, was marked, also, by the custom of having what were called " teams " of workers. A team consisted of a number of. workers, each performing a particular process, the whole team producing an entire shoe. On the other hand, a team might con- sist of a group of men all experts upon a single process. Such a team was known usually as a " gang." A gang of bottomers, for instance, often went from factory to factory, or from employer to employer, having a contract with each to bottom all the shoes in process of making. The team or gang system gradually passed largely out of use after the introduction of shoe machinery. The term is still used in some factories, especially in the making or bottoming room. In one factory only, however, among the many investigated in obtaining material for this book, was there found a gang working as in earlier times. This was a team of six men making an entire shoe of high quality for a fine class of trade. A Quotation on the " Contract System." The following quotation gives an interesting picture of the contract system and team work: 1 " With the advent of the McKay machine came new methods, new systems, and new styles. 1 G. P. Lawrence, in American Shoemaking, Boston, January 16, 1915. 2 THE SHOE INDUSTRY " The contract system was the popular way of making shoes. The manufacturer had a room in the shoe dis- trict, where he cut the uppers and kept his stock; he would then enter into a contract with some man to fit them. When uppers were fitted he would again make another contract with some other firm to bottom them. Thus it will be seen that little equipment was needed to manufacture shoes. All the room required was for cutting and packing. Our large and modern factories of today, with their splendid equipment of almost hu- manly intelligent machinery and skilled operators, giving employment to thousands of men and women, and turn- ing out annually 3,000,000 pairs of shoes, was never the dream of the old-time shoemaker. " Many evils grew from the contract system. It was a common thing for those men who had charge of the contract fitting and bottoming rooms to underbid each other, and he whose bid was lowest got the work. He saw to it, however, that his margin of profit remained the same, for he would cut the piece price of his em- ployees enough to make up the difference, and thus his margin of profits remained the same. " Labor organizations did much to correct this evil. " Prices for bottoming ranged from twenty-seven and one-half to forty-five cents a pair. Contractors wanted the lion's share for their profit, and got it. " The MacKay sewing machine and a few stock fif- ing machines were all the machines used at the time of the five-handed team, and they were operated by foot power. " Stock fitting was a simple operation, consisting of rounding and channeling and counter skiving (no mould- HISTORICAL SKETCH 21 ing). Five men were required to build a shoe. A bench six feet long and four feet wide, with two shelves in the center, two men on each side and one at the end, a laster, beater-out, trimmer, edge setter and bottom finisher, constituted the team, and twelve pairs of lasts were given to each team." The Attitude of Early Shoemakers towards the Shoe Factory. The typical shoemaker had long been his own master. He worked in his little shop at home as he pleased, doing perhaps farm work or engaging in some other occupation a part of the year. He objected to serving any other master than him- self, and believed that obedience to a foreman was a surrender of his personal rights and liberties. He was reluctant to submit to factory hours, from seven o'clock in the morning until six at night, and to exacting factory regulations. He opposed in like manner the introduction of labor-saving machinery. The general industrial growth of communities was, however, an irresistible though a slowly coming tide. Progressive methods of employment and the introduction of machinery gradually broke down all opposition. The individual shoemaker or cobbler has survived to the present day, but will probably disappear with this generation. Organization in the Factory System. Factories were divided into the natural divisions or depart- ments of shoemaking. Men were set apart to 22 THE SHOE INDUSTRY organize and train employees. Superintendents and foremen or overseers of departments appeared. Systems were worked out for the procuring and care of raw materials, for making shoes in quantity, for moving them in the processes of making from one Shipping Room of Endicott, Johnson and Company, Endi- cott, N. Y., from which go out daily twelve carloads, or 113,000 pairs of shoes, the largest output of any factory in the world. factory room to another, for having each lot handled and finished as a unit, and for disposing of factory product through agencies established in market cen- ters, and through traveling salesmen. Thus factory organization produced also business organization. Specialists. Modern factory and business organi- zation calls for specialists in each department. HISTORICAL SKETCH 23 The large shoe manufacturing firm of today has a specialist in leather buying, another in procuring lasts and patterns, another in charge of miscel- laneous supplies, another as manager of sales, another as factory manager or in charge of a factory department, another as financier, another for ad- vertising, and so on through all the great divisions of the firm's activities. The Magnitude of the Industry Today. The growth of the shoe industry in this country has been marvelous. The greatest gain has taken place within the last twenty-five years, since the invention and wide-spread use of the more important shoe- machines. New and larger factories than were formerly known have been built in the East, and shoe manufacture has been carried into virgin territory in the West. There was great expansion in the leather industries in the western states in the years from 1904 to 1909. This was a " boom " period, with consequent overproduction, retrenchment, and re- adjustment following up to 1 9 14. While in some cases men with ample capital have established large factories, in many other cases shoe workers have opened up small factories of their own. Although full statistical information is given in the census tables included in this volume, a few illustrative figures and facts may be presented here. According to the Census of Manufactures, 1914, 24 THE SHOE INDUSTRY there were in thirty-one states of the Union 1,964 factories making shoes and allied products. The capital invested in the industry was $297,648,941, 1/ and the number of employees was 227,605. Eight hundred and eighty-four of the factories were in Massachusetts. There has been a constant increase in the industry since that time, especially in invested capital and employees. The persons connected with shoe manufacture probably now number more than 250,000. The leading states in their order are, Massachusetts, New York, Missouri, New Hamp- shire, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Maine. Boston is the leading center of the world in the shoe and leather trade; Chicago, in trade in un- tanned hides. Brockton, Mass., now ranks first in the industry, with eighty-six per cent of its manufactures in shoes. It has seventy-five factories, which are mainly large modern structures, and produces shoes worth $40,000,000 annually. Lynn, the first home of the industry in this country, was long the leading city in the manufacture of shoes and shoe material. Sixty-five per cent of the manufactures of the city are in these lines. It has over two hundred shoe factories, some of which are the smaller, wooden buildings of an earlier period and others entirely modern, and produces goods to the value of $30,000,000 or more annually. HISTORICAL SKETCH 25 Lynn still leads in the production of women's shoes, in normal times. Other important shoe cities in the order of magni- tude of manufacture are Haverhill, Mass., New York, St. Louis, Mo., Cincinnati, Rochester, N. Y., Boston, Manchester, N. H., Milwaukee, Wis., Chicago, 111., and Auburn, Me. The exportation of shoes has come mostly within the last fifteen years, and has grown very rapidly within this time. The Massachusetts North Shore district, for example, was sending abroad more than ten million dollars' worth of shoes annually at the opening of the World War. The United States is not only leading the world in making shoes, but is finding markets increasingly in all countries. The New England Shoe and Leather Association has recently issued a circular from which the following statements are drawn : New England produces fifty-seven per cent of the boots, shoes, slippers and cut stock and findings, and a large percentage of all the leather made in this country. It has 1,000 shoe factories and cut stock and findings establishments, principally in Massa- chusetts, New Hampshire, and Maine. In these industries $111,000,000 capital is in- vested, 100,000 wage-earners are employed, and 26 THE SHOE INDUSTRY the annual value of product is approximately $300,000,000. It has about 175 establishments for the pro- duction of leather, representing $45,000,000 of in- vested capital and $45,000,000 annual value of product. It also leads in the manufacture of rubber goods, Massachusetts alone annually producing $50,000,000 worth of rubber boots and shoes and miscellaneous articles. Massachusetts is virtually the birthplace of the tanning and boot and shoe industries of the United States, and has possessed these allied industries for nearly three hundred years. In the boot and shoe and cut stock and findings in- dustries, it has about 875 establishments, with more than $90,000,000 invested capital, 83,000 wage- earners and annual value of product of $236,000,000. It has sixty-three cities and towns in which the shoe manufacturing industry is carried on. It has one county, Essex, which produces one- seventh of the combined boot and shoe and leather product of the United States. Brockton, the leading city in which men's shoes are manufactured; Haverhill, the foremost slipper- manufacturing city, and Lynn, the world's greatest women's footwear center, are notable examples of Massachusetts' shoemaking activity. HISTORICAL SKETCH 27 More than 3,000,000,000 pairs of shoes have been shipped from Boston in the past forty-five years. Shoe and Leather Fairs. In recent years many shoe and leather fairs, or expositions, and style shows have been held in the cities which are the centers of the shoe and leather industries. These fairs were at first managed in some instances by individuals and firms; but are now being conducted generally by the great local shoe and leather associa- tions of the country. The following paragraphs, taken from the Shoe and Leather Reporter, Boston, tell of the success of the first nation-wide fair yet held in the United States, conducted under the auspices of the New England Shoe and Leather Association : The first National Shoe and Leather Exposition, held under the co-operative system, is admitted by everyone to be an unqualified success. The spaces offered for sale were all taken and many firms were unable to par- ticipate but will not be excluded a year hence. From the inception of the idea of a permanent annual exhi- bition it was fairly well understood that a successful fair could be held every year. The vision of the pro- jectors of this enterprise has come true and they have cause to feel proud and satisfied. Our industry is rich in patriotic, public-spirited men who are willing to work early and late to promote move- ments for the benefit of all departments of the trade. It is no easy task to organize a big fair and carry out the details to the liking of all of the participants. 28 THE SHOE INDUSTRY There does not seem to be any opinion other than that the exposition of 1920 has established the precedent for an annual fair to be held in Boston. As year fol- lows year this annual event will increase in interest, im- portance, and benefit, and will become a still more vital factor in the merchandising of shoes and leather. The experiences of our trade during the war have taught us the impressive lesson that as an industry we must stand together. No firm or corporation is strong enough to ignore its competitors. The obvious moral of the times is that we must meet and confer and co- operate more frequently in the future than we have in the past. The concluding paragraph is from an article in the same issue by Mr. Frank R. Briggs, President of the National Shoe and Leather Exposition: Perhaps the dominating function of this exposition is the opportunity for competitive comparisons of leathers and shoes, prices, quality, and materials, with the re- sultant knowledge all in favor of the ultimate consumer. Certainly the showing of three hundred lines of mer- chandise all in intensive competition bespeaks a real ad- vantage to the public. The following material upon shoe advertising was prepared expressly for this volume by Mr. W. G. Dennison, Publicity Manager for Rice and Hutchins, Inc., Boston. The Development of Advertising in the Shoe Industry. In 1866, John H. Hanan, then a youth HISTORICAL SKETCH 29 of seventeen, was taken into partnership with James Hanan, his father, an expert on leather and in shoe- making. Young Hanan entered enthusiastically into the selling of the output of their small factory and it was due to his initiative that the first shoe advertis- ing of a national character was done. Meeting with dismal failure in an attempt to sell his shoes in the Middle West, he realized that the one thing lacking was a reputation for his merchandise. In spite of strong opposition from his father, he decided that every Hanan shoe should be stamped Hanan and thus paved the way for named or trade- marked shoes the advertising of which in publica- tions with national circulation quickly followed. James Means, Wm. L. Douglas, and J. B. Lewis were among the pioneer advertisers with men's shoes selling at $3.00 and $3.50. Shoemaking in those days was crude compared with the precise methods brought about by the intro- duction in later years of shoemaking machines that seem to do everything but talk. Quality for quality the shoes of those days com- pare splendidly with today's productions and it was not long before the adventurous advertisers were doing a volume business. With the perfection of shoemaking machinery and the introduction of more and more labor-saving de- 3 o THE SHOE INDUSTRY vices, the capacity of factories was greatly increased and incentive furnished to more manufacturers to advertise. Shoe advertising, as done in the late sixties, bears little if any resemblance to modern achievements, the art of illustration being limited to rather crude wood cuts while the typographical effects were about as interesting as a legal notice. Keen competition brought about a higher stand- ard of illustration, the introduction of the use of figures and more thought in the selection and use of types. Meanwhile, experiments conducted by photographers, engravers, and printers resulted in the invention later known as the half-tone, the perfection of which has made possible the realistic representa- tion of shoes with which the pages of all classes of publications are enlivened. No figures are available to show the extent or cost of advertising done by Hanan or those manu- facturers who immediately followed his lead and while the amounts must have seemed large in those days, an appropriation for a year's advertising then would scarcely pay for one page in some of our modern magazines. The earliest figures carry back but a few years and show that in 1914 there was spent in national publications $307,417. One national publication in 1 9 14 had six shoe advertisers; in 1920 it had sixteen HISTORICAL SKETCH 31 such accounts. In 19 14 this same publication billed $85,176; in 1920 one advertiser spent more than the total of the 1914 advertisers while the total of shoe advertisements in this publication amounted to $671,500. Figures to show the cost of shoe advertising in 1920 are not compiled and for 1919 there are only exact statistics covering certain phases of shoe ad- vertising but a fairly accurate approximation may be arrived at on the basis of certain known percent- ages; $1,768,495 was spent for shoe advertising in 1919 in seventy-two national publications and since this bears a given ratio to the total spent in these magazines for advertising of all kinds, it may be safely assumed that the same ratio applies to the total expenditures for all kinds of advertising in newspapers, direct, trade papers, novelties, electric and painted signs, farm papers without national circulation, demonstrating, window display, bill post- ing, street cars, programs, and motion pictures. The ratio established in magazine advertising gives a total of $20,525,400 for all the forms listed in the preceding paragraph .and this brings the whole amount up to $22,293,895, a very respectable amount. The foregoing figures show the part in the annual expenditures for advertising taken by the shoe in- dustry to be of such magnitude as to readily indicate 32 THE SHOE INDUSTRY its important position with regard to the country's industries. Shoe and Leather and Allied Associations. The shoe industry and its associated lines of activity have organized notable associations for trade and busi- ness promotion, both nationally and locally. The following list includes the country-wide organiza- tions. In most cases the officers of these bodies are widely scattered, and the address of the secretary is given as the headquarters of the organization. National Shoe and Leather Associations : National Boot and Shoe Manufacturers' Association of the United States, Boston. National Leather and Shoe Finders' Association, 878 Arcade Building, St. Louis. National Association of Importers of Hides and Skins, 41 Park Row, New York. National Hide Dealers' Association, Chicago. National Shoe Wholesalers' Association of the United States, 127 Duane St., New York. National Shoe Retailers' Association of the United States of America, Philadelphia. National Shoe Travelers' Association, 207 Essex St. Boston. National Association of Superintendents and Foremen, 207 Essex St., Boston. There are local associations, similar in nature to those in the list, in all the great shoe and leather centers of the United States, as, for example: HISTORICAL SKETCH 33 The New England Shoe and Leather Association, 1 66 Essex St., Boston. The New England Leather and Shoe Finders' Association, 14 Albany St., Boston. Boston Boot and Shoe Club, 166 Essex St., Boston. The following diagram, taken from the United States Census of Manufacturers for 1914, shows graphically the value of products reported for the most important states in the industry in 191 4 and 1909. Boots and Shoes — Value of Products for Leading States: 1914 and 1909 MILLIONS OF DOL LARS » ao eo 120 ito so MASSACHUSETTS w///y//My//////////s'////^^^^ NEW YORK '////////// ^^^7 ff^^ MISSOURI ^^^ wm^m a NEW HAMPSHIRE ^^^ 2^^r ' OHIO PENNSYLVANIA m 1 MAINE ^^P WISCONSIN ^^T^ ■■M 1014 ILLINOIS Warn VMW///A 1800 NEW JERSEY w MINNESOTA _3 • MICHIGAN 1 Table 1 shows the value of products for 1914, 1909, and 1904 for the 12 leading cities, each report- ing products in 19 14 valued at over $10,000,000, ranked according to value of products in 1914. 34 THE SHOE INDUSTRY Table I. * Summary for Leading Cities: 1914, 1909, and 1904 1914 1909 1904 •a p4 Value of products a Value of products •a 1 2 4 5 3 6 1? 9 21 10 14 Value of products Brockton, Mass I 2 3 4 S 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 $33,032,665 30,066,815 25,310953 23,859,062 14,525,078 13,519,755 13,253,410 (') 11,665,824 10,247,250 10,236,020 2 I 4 5 3 6 8 10 7 12 11 13 $32,464,288 34,620,870 20,977,540 16,695,108 C 1 ) 14,080,755 11,990,187 8,819,284 f 1 ) 7,431,884 8,212,087 6,282,520 $30,073,014 25,952,571 15,257,899 11,905,374 19,101,166 10,596,928 8,620,011 5,575,927 6,567,903 2,929,405 5,592,684 4,263,162 New York, N. Y Rochester, N. Y Manchester, N. H 1 Figures can not be shown without disclosing individual operations. * U. S. Census of Manufactures, 1914: The Leather Industry, Table 29. Scope of the Shoe Industry. The boot and shoe industry includes factories manufacturing boots, shoes, and slippers, moccasins, leggings, overgaiters, etc., and also establishments performing only special operations on materials largely furnished, such as stitching, crimping, making buttonholes, and other processes constituting the work done. There were 1,355 establishments in the industry in 19 14, and 1,248 of these were reported as making complete boots and shoes; 53 made, primarily, overgaiters, moccasins and leggings, and 54 performed some proc- ess on contract, largely on materials furnished. The amount paid for this work is a part of the $501,760,458 reported as the value of the products of the boot and shoe industry. HISTORICAL SKETCH 35 O C*. "? ' M>( > Tf q o> w q t*Ooo vd ; : iT iA m tj- >o « d 00 -*-• 00 : ^vo « io M CO VO t on o> ". • MOO "* O f CO "? 0) oo o o« 00 *JO0 co '. '■ zr " ■* o • ^^ 1 ■* " £ N CD U M n T ; 1 ON "*■ Ov O t^.vO r^ r>. r~.vO ion O c i vq q\ H a ro IflfON s rood O' r^. co OO -M ON CO o M M 1 1 f o> o c o mtt inN tooo O O to r-» m NO co -o r~ N tO 4 ^"" fON O H00 (^ cO dod 4 t^ o~ o> M M \0 0) lfl« ^ O CO « ■^- co CO | P-, o o « Or-- to O ^N« rOO Tt w * O^t a t^ O^" O m f^vO & n n "t r-» *o h «) O-u o> MM MMMCOW M tM M 1 1 (jv M -TOJ 0Q N t u") to r- M ro rHo O MioOt ^ <0 Pj Ov H H H «t H « 0* 00* c srsr m m o> o srsr ^r sr ■* ^ o O0 SL SLZL, m q o^-S^ S-* SL. ■<+ 0_ >o ■* n to mvo *t «* oo >o jj €#*»% M M «© t&t& M O m o m 00 CO 00 OX H N f^ io 00 q o o co o_ oo_ co o- N CO M in to o dv 00 C" CC ^ c^co t^cc* C 1 coo 'i" « o 00 -tL- SL-SL- m n r *2*-'*~-' 5L- SL* t>.o 00 ■* too* oo" o" d> OO M M 4^6% M m (»»<£ «© O O O •+ -O M O cO CO lO^fO VO o O !>• CO ^f CO CO tJ-OO "3" M lOCO to r*. W •-*■ ^Ctt O00 O O O to O} ■* c o> m r- m o O O h O m o >o" 3 Oi ^ ^ *t ^t m m O -* ""> °° COO co VO O 00 — - ^_- m o0 m\o "t r— i*;0 O CO ON E O^" nco m moo* CO d < O O €# to 4# «^o io o> €^^ «©> „. m ef 3 pi & M r—oo O m m r— m r-&=>o €© 6© O m m€** €© ' M ^O 5; t ^ «^4^ «* f) cn COco OO I'^fJN O *0 cOO co -f -t k.m M o ^"O <-< ud -^t n- M 00 OO coco Mto moOcoihOm r^ M NN Oi o k-O M^f >^u-)0Or-0 m Or^-0 o O »h cc oo o -too io m -OO co VO Oi M M 0_O_ M_ CO CO_ Tt ^o^ o_ OOmO ^ ^r--^ vO 00 M H©^€^ M Tf *&<& <&t& «© tOOO Oco l^MMlOMrt M (OO 00 00 to •*■ O>0 io poconnO 00 r-00 io VO ^"2 Q. 1 ^ "JNCO i-O 't co r^torf 00_ ■* >* m 0" Mr- m" o" O co 00* >o o" m"\o" O" co vo" m m O>0O>mmc> O r— >oO o VO o> M mm too OO to to co t— t VO Tt-00* M* to M~ co O* H IOMMO t& ©^MO Ov Oi M M€# M ro IO *% S3 .■ . S . ?} > . 1 o C ra a> : 3 -. "o M E 9 £ ■ d • T3 0) C 2 S "■Ss §&E 0h >> S o O tnjS a "«> ■- c oo > >- « ■d c cS m 013 O ^ 'C "C - c o u g Ph 5 c en ° s.s Ed -0 Mi C C 2 -M 3 > Pi •*- O (U C 3 ° f) 3 d"3 w 3 ~ B > o ca d cd E a o 'r. ~r_ '3 O E O -c t: - _ a = bo'-J E^ 36 THE SHOE INDUSTRY Comparison with Earlier Censuses. Table II sum- marizes the statistics of establishments engaged in the manufacture of boots and shoes for each census from 1879 to 1 914, inclusive, and gives the percent- ages of increase from census to census. Scope of the Boot and Shoe Cut Stock Industry. Establishments under this classification are engaged primarily in the manufacture of soles, top lifts, heels, tips, inner soles, and similar articles used in making shoes. At the census of 1909 statistics for this in- dustry were combined with those for the manu- facture of boots and shoes and boot and shoe find- ings. Comparison with Earlier Censuses. Table III summarizes the statistics of the establishments en- gaged in the manufacture of boot and shoe cut stock for each census from 1879 to 1914 and gives per- centage of increase. The condition of this industry depends largely upon the extent to which the articles are manu- factured in the boot and shoe factories. The value of the products, however, has increased steadily dur- ing the period covered by Table III. There has also been an increase in the cost of materials, the num- ber of wage earners employed, and the wages paid during each period since 1879, except between 1899 and 1904, when there was a slight decrease in the number of wage earners. HISTORICAL SKETCH 37 o • • <*i o> H o : o . :«• ? o • 00« M o : 1 : :«- Tt C Oi 00 I ' I cO O "=f -tOi^t" tO N <0 vOco* O>00 fO t-« VOOO jp Tj" CM m fOJp 1 ^^ JP rf ro > w O O O m o> ) O 00 CO CO O*co f^-O O* t^\0 t- 0**0 m co m o oco O cO CO co IO00 0*0 ^ o> * vO 0> m Oi Oi O^ ' co O co V) m r — 0> a ^ S > 5 =? u c.2 „ a "^ b£ cj p. £2 S * So „, -§ 5 i2 8 13 -2 E a^-d^rSc £ ■& .3 — > g a C13£.5 o-JHd Z o 2 to o o jig's a . 3 <= ■SO) 38 THE SHOE INDUSTRY w a 55 n p£ O PS ° ? « W *P4 *O00 ONM 00 m t^OO t^-O0 0*vO VO OI ^WOOM roiONOOCO « NN O^vO voco«0"tf vo 'too oq \o t^oq^o *o d^ood't ©fcd^'tHHOfOfON 'tso coo tJ* "t ■'too oo m o o» t~*- r-- coco O *ovo i^Ooo moo WOO W O 'tO^HVO C> . co **- covo co i^l O ^fvO CO CO iO T|- Ot M M H ^ 0» ir>^0 H t^. H O^r^NWCOOOH 0* *>■ O vO OcoOcoO oi o* 0\w i"J> "0 vjO^O rh 1^ cOO t^- lO O. CO O O H OOOMIOOCOCN CO CO H CO M lOOO N OiH CO O O VO VO Ti-vO W o -*t W H H H PO H Tf CO coco O VO v>00 "O \0 Oi l>NCOO cO CO O O vo OWO NO OOO vo vo ^J- io co c^oq "t ooo_ vo" d d CO "^ O doo N t-» V}00 tJ- c r-oo ■*■ < vO vo Tt co O HO NNTf O>00 OO VO_ N t^. M Tt-O0_ q oi" M X^-VO N 4d tj- Tfo -^f r- coco M Tj-VO Tf IH > m CO vo oi O^OCO 0» CO 0>vO vo CO vo O vO iovO ^too ^ r- tJ- -,00 cooO vo -3- m i-acca c c a. a c c c Ch o. a bO ft " ,. -S 2 ■ b a ^5 mi . <-> > >- H ^ * SHOE MACHINERY 55 soles together. Such machines were costly and the capital of most shoe manufacturers was small at that time. The leasing system, on a royalty basis, enabled the manufacturers to have the advantage both of the machine and of unreduced capital for manufacture. The Care of Machinery. Owing to the unusual conditions just described in the shoe industry and through the leasing of machinery, there was early developed by the machine manufacturing company a force of men who were trained in the care of ma- chinery, and located at convenient centers, so as to go wherever machinery trouble existed. With the evolution of the shoe machinery business, and the various machines used in the bottoming of shoes under centralized control, relatively few factories maintain a force of special mechanics, and these are generally for the purpose of millwrighting and con- struction. At the present time a large force of ex- pert " roadmen," as they are called, is located in all the large shoe manufacturing centers, and in these agencies or branch offices from which they travel there is constantly maintained an immediately available supply of the many machine parts which are liable to wear or breakage. These parts are all numbered and catalogued, so that as soon as a part breaks or a machine goes out of adjustment, a tele- phone message brings to the factory the required 56 THE SHOE INDUSTRY machine part. This service has been expanded to cover the instruction of operators upon the machines when set up in the factory. Facsimiles of Early Royalty Stamps The Standardization of Machinery. Because of standardization of machinery and processes and through co-operation between the manufacturer of SHOE MACHINERY 57 shoe machinery and the shoe manufacturer the growth of the industry during the last twenty years has surpassed all former periods. Today, manufac- turers, large and small, can secure machinery by leasing it, and nearly all factories are conducted entirely on this basis. This fact will make our study of the industry easier. We shall be studying operations on standard machines, used quite generally in this country and in many factories in other countries. We must remember, however, that improvements are con- stantly being made, that a process may be entirely changed on any day, and that the most skillful operatives of machines are in constant demand throughout the country. The following account of the development of shoe machinery and the leasing system has been prepared expressly for this chapter by Mr. Arthur L. Evans, an authority of national reputation. The material presented in this account supplements the informa- tion already given in this chapter and sets forth most interestingly the leasing method which marks the shoe industry among world industries today. 58 THE SHOE INDUSTRY The Development of Shoe Machinery By Arthur L. Evans Editor-in-Chief of the Retail Shoe Salesman's Institute, Boston, Mass. The development of machinery and its successful application to the making of shoes excels in importance and romantic interest every other phase in the progress of the boot and shoe industry. Until almost the middle of the last century the making of boots and shoes had remained in the most essential way a pure hand craft. The workman, seated at the low bench or " form," typical of the industry, used with few additions the same tools with which his prototype was familiar back in the days of the pyramids. He either made the complete shoe or performed such a part of the work as might be required of him, for in some instances the organization of the work had progressed to the point where teams or gangs worked together, each member performing a particular part of the work, as described in the previous pages. This era of specialization seems to have been an almost providential paving of the way for the introduc- tion of machinery and the higher specialization which its acceptance entailed. The transition from a pure hand craft to the highly organized industry of the present time was closely associated with the lives of four men. They were in order Elias Howe, Gordon McKay, Charles Goodyear, Sidney W. Winslow, all of whom are now deceased. Of the four, but one was a great inventor; while of the remaining three it can be safely said that SHOE MACHINERY 59 no industry has produced men greater as organizers or of more conspicuous business genius. While there had been an effort to produce machinery as an aid in the production of footwear, more particularly at the time of Napoleon, who was interested purely in finding some means that would increase the produc- tion of footwear suitable for his soldiers, despite the re- wards offered by him, all his efforts were unavailing. A most important machine was the great invention of Elias Howe in 1848 — the sewing machine. The pri- vations and efforts of Howe in his home in Cambridge, Massachusetts, in working out this great invention which was afterwards to revolutionize the sewing together of fabrics is one of surpassing romantic interest. Assailed by other inventors, Howe after a long litigation estab- lished his right to the invention and placed himself among the foremost inventors of all time. The invention of his machine, while it had no immediate effect upon the shoe industry, was of importance as it set up a possible means of sewing parts which formed the shoe upper to- gether and a new trend of thought in the minds of in- ventors. It was but a few years later that John Brooks Nichols, a shoemaker of Lynn, Massachusetts, adapted the machine for sewing leather, and the arduous duties of many New England housewives in binding the shoe uppers, as it was then called, ceased. In the year 1858 there was patented by Lyman R. Blake, a shoemaker of South Abington, Massachusetts, a machine for sewing the soles of shoes to the upper. Prior to this time all sewed soles were made by hand, and were the most expensive and considered the most desirable type of footwear. This machine attracted the attention of Gordon McKay, who was a wealthy man, 60 THE SHOE INDUSTRY as wealth went at that period, and he purchased the patent rights from Blake and began the development of the rather crude machine which he had purchased. Not only did he develop the machine of Blake's invention, but he foresaw the necessity of having the different parts of the shoe which were to be sewed by the McKay ma- chine, as it afterwards became known, prepared with the greatest degree of uniformity, and to that end he began the development of a system of machines for that pur- pose. Strange as it may seem, the centuries in which the making of shoes had remained so essentially a hand process had produced a very definite idea that it could never yield to the use of machinery, and McKay at the time that his machines were doing successful work found it impossible to sell them to the manufacturers, who re- peatedly expressed their belief that the making of shoes by machinery was an impossibility. In the year 1861 McKay had practically expended his entire fortune — about $250,000 — in an enterprise which then seemed doomed to failure. The Civil War, however, changed the situation so radically that manufacturers were in- clined to investigate any means which would increase their production, for at that time shoemakers were leav- ing in great numbers for the front and the possibility of a great scarcity of footwear was plainly visible. Even this, however, did not convince shoe manufacturers that McKay's machine could be successfully employed, or at least to the point where they were willing to make an investment in such a doubtful enterprise. It was at this time that McKay's tenacity of purpose and genius won the day, for he got out a series of small stamps representing different amounts ranging from one-quarter SHOE MACHINERY 61 of a cent to six cents, and went to the shoe manufacturers with this proposition, that, if they would take his ma- chines and use them, he would put them in their factory without charge and would accept the small amount specified by the stamps as his part of what he claimed they would save; the manufacturer could have the rest. These little stamps which afterwards occupied so con- spicuous a place in the introduction of machinery were arranged so that they could be applied, one on the heel of each so made, to different sized shoes, the greatest amount being for the large-sized men's shoes and ranging down to the smallest children's. This was the beginning of what has since been known as the royalty system in the shoe industry, a condition which was forced by the shoe manufacturers, and it has since remained an inherent and conspicuous feature in the industry. Mr. McKay early discovered that it was necessary, if he was to get a return for his machines, that they should be constantly in operation and to that end he began the organization of an expert service in which men who were both shoemakers and machinists were employed, and it was their duty immediately a machine went out of adjustment or a part broke to hasten to this machine and get it back into operation as quickly as possible, for when it ceased to earn any money for the manufacturer, it also ceased to pay any income to Mr. McKay. McKay, after his first success, by the employment of inventors and the purchase of inventions, added very rapidly to the system of machines which he was supply- ing to shoe manufacturers. The heeling machine in- vented by Charles Glidden in 1867 was first successfully operated in Stoneham, Massachusetts, afterwards at- 62 THE SHOE INDUSTRY tracted the attention of Mr. McKay in Lynn, and Mr. Glidden joined forces with him. A loose nailing machine, which drove nails which had prior to that time been driven singly by hand, soon made its appearance in common with other machines for preparing different parts of the work. Through his genius for organization and persistency, Charles Goodyear finally produced a machine for sewing the welts to shoes, and other machines to form a system for not only preparing the work prior to the welting process but for the several processes which came after- wards, more notably those of stitching the outsole to the welt. Goodyear was many years in accomplishing his entire purpose, for the machines were of an unusually complicated nature, and one of less conspicuous ability and persistency would have despaired of ever reaching the success which came to the machines before Good- year's death in 1896. The same method of placing the machines inaugurated by McKay was followed by Goodyear. Mr. Goodyear began an organization of service in connection with the machines which was even more widespread and more successful than that which McKay had started. Offices located in different shoe manufacturing centers dispensed a service which was undoubtedly of great stimulating influence in the growth of the shoe industry. The success of McKay and Goodyear stimulated the inventions of machines for almost every process in shoe- making and also induced many to invest in enterprises of a similar character. Until the latter part of the century there were many companies making machines for similar purposes and competing most bitterly with each other. One of the favorite methods of fining was SHOE MACHINERY 63 by injunctions claiming infringements of patents, and as factories had not advanced to the stage where many machines were employed it often occurred that one ma- chine took care of the entire product for the particular process in which it was used. Thus the stopping of the machine by an injunction caused all factory production to cease. It was due undoubtedly to these conditions that there came into being a corporation which since that time has been most conspicuously associated with the advance of the industry. It brought under one management the most successful machines employed at that time in shoe production and was the conception of the late Sidney W. Winslow. It seems that at different times there arose the possibility of one company's controlling the outfit of machinery necessary for shoe production. Mr. McKay had attempted such a consolidation; Townsend, at one time a prominent figure in shoe machinery production in Boston, had entertained such an idea ; and Charles Good- year had thought at times such a thing might be possible. This consolidation undoubtedly was the product of the times and the great organizing genius of Mr. Winslow. The company which was formed by him was known as the United Shoe Machinery Company, afterwards changed to the United Shoe Machinery Corporation. Under Mr. Winslow's guidance the great number of successful machines which were made by it were stand- ardized. The production of parts was reduced to a practice in which every part was made with such nicety that it was possible to replace a broken part immediately for change or adjustment. The service inaugurated by Mr. McKay and improved by Mr. Goodyear was still further improved in a most conspicuous manner by Mr. 64 THE SHOE INDUSTRY Winslow. It is said that no other industry enjoys the benefit of so efficient a service and that the great success of the corporation controlling this great number of ma- chines has been almost entirely based upon it. Mr. Winslow did not cease his activities with the ma- chines which his corporation acquired, but began the improvement of machines then in use and the invention of machines to take care of processes which had success- fully resisted all efforts of the inventor. In comparatively recent times there have come into use two machines which were the product of the United Shoe Machinery Corporation; one the pulling-over machine, which was invented after many years of effort and an expenditure, it is said, of over a million dollars. This machine takes care of one of the early processes in the bottoming of shoes, and, while the expense of producing it was very large, it has been stated that the saving to the shoe manu- facturers of the country incident to its use is over four times that amount annually. Another machine, known as the clicking machine, for cutting out the different parts which form the shoe uppers, has been widely adopted, and with its introduc- tion the last process in shoemaking which had not been successfully accomplished by machinery yielded. This machine accomplishes its work by the use of dies made from ribboned steel, so light that they do not mar the surface of the upper leather, and in some instances the mere act of cutting out the pieces has accomplished the same result as would be obtained in four different operations, and with great economy in the saving of material. The expert operator is further enabled to extend his knowledge of leather and the requirements of shoe uppers over a much larger amount of expensive SHOE MACHINERY 65 material. At present it is perfectly possible that there should be employed in the making of a pair of high- grade women's shoes 174 machine operations, 154 of which may be performed on different machines. Because of the standardization of machinery and the high type of service which is supplied in connection with the machines in every shoe center, the growth of the shoe industry in the last twenty years has surpassed all former periods. It is possible for shoe manufacturers, both large and small, to secure machinery by leasing it, and nearly all in the industry have followed this method of securing their machine equipment, knowing that whether large or small they are on exactly the same basis in this essential part of shoe manufacture. CHAPTER III LAST-MAKING The last is the wooden form which determines the size and shape of the shoe. Last-making is not a part of shoemaking, but is a necessary preliminary process or set of processes, as is also pattern-making. The last-maker is a wood worker. In early times the hand shoemaker fashioned his own last, a single form for both right and left feet, with rough propor- tions. Only within about thirty years have separate forms been used for right and left lasts. With ad- vance in methods of shoemaking last-making has be- come a definite separate industry, and last factories have been established in most of the great shoe centers of the country. The last item in the cost of shoe manufacture varies greatly, according to changes in the style of footwear. The Shaping of the Last. The last is modeled from the human foot. The shape of the last is de- termined by careful measurements of the foot modified by the use or kind of wear expected, by the prevailing demands of style, the peculiar processes of manufacture, and the special materials used. The last must have a " mean " form, adaptable to 66 LAST-MAKING 67 the varying shapes of the foot upon which the shoe is to be worn. In the case of shoes meant for special purposes, such as walking or dancing, special forms are used. There are, also, sectional and national differences of form; for instance, the prevailing English styles are somewhat broader and flatter than the American; while in American lasts the waist line, or measure over the instep, is less than in English styles, giving a closer fit in that part of the shoe and preventing the foot from sliding forward in it. Last Material. Lasts are made of wood or iron. Iron, however, is used less and less in this country except in repair shops. It is still used extensively in England. The wooden last has a plate of iron upon the heel, as a base for nailing on the heel of the shoe, and lasts used in making the McKay shoe, whose entire sole is nailed on, have a plate of iron over the bottom of the last. In England the wood used for lasts is mostly beech, whose close and strong fibre allows a smooth, firm surface, however the grain may be cut. In this country the wood gen- erally used is maple, which cuts easily and presents a smooth, hard surface when kiln-dried, as all woods must be for last-making. The hollow forms used by traveling salesmen, in the store window for dis- play, and in the home for keeping shoes in shape when not being worn, are made of light bass wood. 68 THE SHOE INDUSTRY Hand Last-Making. It is interesting to review the processes used in earlier hand last-making, as they show not only the older features of a skilled trade but also the work that is still necessary in a modern industry. The tree trunks brought from the forests were sawed into suitable lengths for lasts. The lengths were " blocked " or split into triangular pieces large enough to afford each a last when cut down. The pieces were then cut down with the bench knife into shapes approaching that of the finished last, and were cut to the desired length. The roughly formed last was then rasped and scraped until all surplus wood was removed. Holes were drilled or bored for the insertion of hooks to draw the last from the completed shoe. The last was finished by sandpapering and rubbing down. Modern Last-Making. Because of the increase in the numbers of shoes manufactured and the multi- plication of styles, it long ago became necessary to produce lasts faster than could be done by hand. Early in the last century, about the year 1820, we find the last-making machine, or last-lathe, long antedating the use of shoe machinery. The last- lathe is a modification of the wood-turning lathe, first adapted to turning out axe handles and gun stocks. Instead of producing symmetrical forms the lathe is made to yield forms of irregular shape, like that of the human foot. The lathe has been but little LAST-MAKING ■ 69 changed in later years. Its chief features are what are known as the model end and the cutter end. The Last Lathe The blocks from which the lasts are to be turned are brought from the forests in the rough, sometimes cut by hand and sometimes by a lathe into shape 70 THE SHOE INDUSTRY approaching that necessary for the last. Before being utilized they are kiln-dried for six or seven weeks, so as to prevent the finished last from shrinking. The Model Last. The making of the model from which other lasts are to be made is the most difficult process connected with the industry. An old last is sometimes built over by adding thicknesses of leather in places, or a paste of glue and sawdust, and by cutting down the wood in other places to produce the measurements necessary for a desired style. Sometimes the model is entirely new, made by hand to meet the required measurements. A standard size is used, a number seven or eight in men's shoes and a four in women's shoes. From these, by adjustments of the lathe, sizes and widths are graded up and down, usually five sizes each way. Three models are generally made use of for children's lasts. The Use of the Last-Lathe. The standard model last is clamped in the model end of the lathe, and the rough block of kiln-dried wood from which the last is to be turned is set in the cutter end of the machine. When the machine is put in motion the model swings against a model wheel, at the same time that the last block is forced solidly against the cutter wheel. As both the model and the block revolve, the model wheel guides and regulates the LAST-MAKING 71 knife which cuts the block, from toe to heel, into an exact duplicate of the model, except for projections at either end which are cut down on the heeler or shaving machine. The last is then placed upon a polishing wheel for the processes of finishing. The bottoms are tested by a sole pattern of the desired size, and the size and width are stamped on them. Metal heels or entire metal soles are also attached. The lathe machine works so accurately that the slightest imperfection or variation in the model is reproduced in the finished last. A jnachine turns out about fifteen pairs of lasts an hour. Devices for Reducing Last in Use. There are various methods of making a part of the last remov- able or reducing its length, so that it may be more easily drawn from the finished shoe or inserted in a shoe. The earlier and a still common method is to saw out a portion of the instep of the last, leaving what is called the block last. Formerly by having variously shaped substitutes for the part sawed out modifications of styles were effected. Another form is the Arnold hinged last, the last being cut entirely in two, a V-shaped portion cut out of the instep, and the two parts joined by a hinge, so that the heel swings up freely. Some firms make a business of remodeling or building over lasts for shoe manufac- turers to meet changes in style. And old lasts are sometimes steamed to restore their shape and fulness. 72 THE SHOE INDUSTRY The Storage of Lasts. The lasts when made, or when returned from factory use, are usually stored in bins, by styles and sizes, in a room convenient to the lasting or making room. They are also some- times stained different colors to indicate different ' /'•* *■* ' "*' ■fc- N' — SI' :J ilwllilll * ? - §*Sj^^r* t ^^^' .\> nut w. mm - IHI HI' m Ml 3- -M fel»| II Ml * The Last Storage Room of the Shoe Factory styles or different widths of the same style. When required for use they are taken from the bins, in sets according to lots of shoes to be made, placed upon the shoe racks, and started on their way through the factory. One person, very frequently a boy, usually has charge of the storage room. He must be thoroughly LAST-MAKING , 73 familiar with the lasts in his care, and able to select quickly such as may be called for each day. To become a last maker one must have mechanical ability to learn any or all of the few processes in- volved. The work is interesting but requires the constant attention of the operator, as the slightest error or inaccuracy would result in an imperfect last. The operator has a fairly constant occupation, as the last factory runs more steadily through the year than does the shoe factory, and experience and skill are an asset to the last worker. His earnings run higher than those of the average shoe worker. CHAPTER IV PATTERN-MAKING Patterns are the forms or shapes used in cutting the various parts of the upper portion of the shoe. While a sole pattern is sometimes used, the sole is generally blocked or died out in the rough, being trimmed to shape in a later process. Pattern-making had advanced from a very rude beginning to proc- esses requiring the highest skill and adaptation to modern styles. In early days patterns were made of paper. Sometimes tissue paper was wet and placed upon the last, marked in lines where the joints of the upper should be made, and cut in these lines when dried and removed from the last. There was no allowance for grading fn sizes, and separate lasts were used for the various sizes. The Pattern Designer. In a modern shoe factory there is a person called the designer, who makes a constant study of styles. He receives the sugges- tions of the traveling salesmen, who are always on the watch for novelties in style and fashion. He seeks information from every source as to the perma- nency of old styles, the popularity of the new, and of changes in dress and custom that are likely to 74 PATTERN-MAKING 75 Pattern Standard Showing Heel Pitch, and Separate Patterns of Upper Parts. Courtesy of the Retail Shoe Salesmen's Institute, Boston 76 THE SHOE INDUSTRY demand still other styles in footwear. The designer is in close touch with salesmen, manufacturers and department heads in his own factory. He some- times acts as superintendent of the pattern-making department. Upon his skill and judgment depend in large measure the volume and permanency of trade secured by his company. He should have high artistic skill and knowledge of shoemaking. The ordinary designer must be familiar with about 25,000 different designs. Frequently after a study of styles, the designer, the sales manager, and the factory manager confer on the most economical styles to be made. There have already been established a few facto- ries for the designing and making of shoe patterns, to sell to the manufacturer. The Pattern Model. In making a model for patterns the last is taken as a basis. With due con- sideration of the shape and style of the shoe, the material to be used, and the use to which the shoe is to be put, the pattern is made to conform to the proportions of the last. The last-maker and the pattern-maker work together to a definite end of utility and style. Sample patterns are submitted to the manufac- turer for approval, after which the pattern-maker draws plans for his model. The sets of model patterns are cut in sheet iron by hand. Patterns are PATTERN-MAKING 77 reproduced from them in sheet iron or in cardboard by the pattern machine. The standard size of the model is seven in men's shoes, and four in women's, and by gradations above and below these numbers, as in last-making, other sizes are obtained. From the model the pattern-maker produces such quantities in each size as may be desired in a factory. The Trial Shoe. Sometimes a shoe is made as a trial or sample of a new style. This is taken out by the salesman and shown to the trade. If sufficient orders are placed on this particular shoe, patterns are made and the shoe is manufactured in quantities. The Number of Patterns to a Shoe. The number of patterns necessary for the ordinary shoe varies according to the kind or style of shoe. The button boot, for example, has the following parts, each re- quiring a separate pattern: Two quarters, two linings, button-piece, button-piece lining, top stay, vamp, foxing, tip, back-stay, vamp-lining, button- stay, backer for buttonholes, and marker for button- holes. Other kinds of shoes have a larger or smaller number of parts. Pattern Material. Sheet iron has long been used for patterns, and is still largely used for those of lin- ings and the cloth parts of shoes. " Junk-board," or heavy cardboard, made by grinding up old news- papers, is gradually taking the place of sheet iron, some factories using it altogether. Zinc, also, is 78 THE SHOE INDUSTRY used. Wooden patterns are sometimes used for the soles of shoes, by which the soles are shaped upon a sole-rounding machine. Making Patterns. The iron model is clamped to the bed of the grading or pattern-making machine. This machine operates by a system of levers, so that the model is reproduced in junk-board or iron, just as in last-making the last is determined by the model. By lengthening or shortening the levers sizes above and below the model are produced. Junk-board patterns are then bound with strips of metal which are smoothed at the corners and soldered at the joints. The patterns are then stamped with size numbers, widths, and styles. Sometimes various colors of the junk-board are used to indicate different widths. The Standardization of Lasts and Patterns. There has been considerable effort in recent years to stand- ardize patterns for those parts of the shoe which change least in shape from season to season. This is accomplished largely, of course, through perma- nent forms in corresponding parts of the last, espe- cially the parts back of the ball of the foot. A reduction in the number of patterns used by the cutter or of the dies required for a full run of sizes, when dies are used, is a great gain in shoe manu- facture. The constant increase in the cost of shoe material PATTERN-MAKING 79 makes it all the more necessary to reduce cost in some other line. This reduction can be accom- plished in part by reducing varieties in form, or by a standardization of patterns. The Storage of Patterns. The patterns when made in quantities are stored in racks or pigeon holes, according to sizes and kinds, in a pattern room which is convenient to the cutting room of the shoe factory. Positions in the Pattern-Making Department. The positions in this department are: the Designer, or superintendent of pattern-making; an assistant designer, in very large establishments; the model grader, who does hand work; the power grader, who runs the pattern-making machine; the truer- up, who levels the metal pattern; the binder, who puts the steel border on the cardboard pattern; the finisher, who solders and smooths the binding; and the stamper, who places the necessary numbers upon the pattern. The pattern boys have charge of the patterns in storage, taking them to the cutting room and bring- ing them back and placing them in their proper spaces after use. The Pattern Maker. The pattern maker may be a person skilled in some of the operations of shoe- making. He should at least be familiar with its general processes, and should have good mechanical 80 THE SHOE INDUSTRY ability. The occupation, like that of the last-maker, is less crowded than most of the divisions of the work in the shoe factory. The Price of Patterns. " It is figured in a general way that a manufacturer of women's shoes should spend at least one-half of one per cent, of the gross volume of his business for patterns. That is, if he is doing a business of $1,000,000 annually, he should spend at least $5,000 for new patterns. It is quite likely that some manufacturers are spending a larger percentage than this. In the last few seasons, a number of manufacturers have had to increase their expenditures for patterns, because patterns have be- come much more important in the making of shoe styles than they ever were before. While complaints are common that too much money is spent for patterns, yet the pattern bills are among the smallest that a manufacturer has to pay. They are nowhere nearly as expensive as lasts, nor as costly as the trimmings that are used to put style into shoes. " Sometimes it pays a manufacturer to buy a new set of patterns, just for the purpose of getting out a new style in footwear. For instance, supposing a manufacturer buys a new set of patterns, at twenty dollars, and livens up his line during the dull spell of between seasons, and gets orders for one hundred cases of shoes made according to the new patterns. His profit is five cents a pair, and his total profit is PATTERN-MAKING 81 $180. Surely it is worth while to spend $20 to make $180. Of course, the real cost of the patterns depends upon the number of times they are used. They may be thrown aside at the end of the month to make way for new patterns. In that case their cost will figure high. But if they are used through a season, and are carried over to the next season, then their real cost figures down pretty low. But the main point, in dealing with the pattern department, is not to consider chiefly what patterns cost, but chiefly what they bring in the way of new and additional orders." 1 1 American Shoemaking. Boston, March 6, 1015. CHAPTER V LEATHER Its Nature. Leather is , the skin of an animal, tanned or otherwise preserved, shrunk, and tough- ened. The skins of beast, bird, fish, or reptile may- be made into leather. Leather in some form has been used from time immemorial for clothing, foot- wear, harness material, and other articles for human use. Tanning. Tanning consists in converting animal skins or hides into leather by the use of astringent acids. In earlier times these acids were derived from vegetable products, such as the bark of the hemlock tree, oak tree, willow, and chestnut. The bark was finely ground and steeped in water, form- ing a strong solution or liquor in which the skins were placed in vats, after the removal of hair and surplus flesh. The action of the acid toughens the skin, condenses it and hardens the albuminous matter in it, thus preserving it from decay. The most common kinds of bark used have been the hemlock and the oak. Some months are required in the process, and the longer the time taken usually the better is the quality of the leather produced. In 82 LEATHER 83 later years mineral substances, of which chrome alum is a characteristic example, have come into quite general use for tanning. This mode is called chrome tanning. The acid processes require a short time for tanning in comparison with the bark proc- Operators at Shaving Machines, Upper Leather Tannery, W. H. McElwain Company, Manchester, N. H. esses, but demand careful attention to prevent in- jury to the leather. They afford various effects in the coloring of leather. Such leathers are usually finished dry or with only a light application of oil. The bark-tanned leathers go through various lengthy oiling processes, according to thickness and the pur- poses for which the leathers are designed. 84 THE SHOE INDUSTRY Chrome tanning has transformed the shoe and leather industries. American Leather Manufacturing. The American leather industry has grown from small beginnings along with shoe manufacturing. The first leather used was imported from England. The colonists also used Indian tanned deer skins. The first tanner to settle in this country was Francis Ingalls of Lincolnshire, England, who came to Lynn in 1629. Philemon Dickerson, an English tanner, came to Salem in 1637. The tanning of leather was carried on at the same time probably in New York, Pennsylvania, and the Southern Colonies. In 1800 William Rose, another English tanner, was induced to come to Lynn by Ebenezer Breed, who had done so much to promote American shoe manufacture by means of the protective tariff on shoes. Rose became " the father of the American morocco manufacturing industry." Shortly before the War of the Rebellion, ma- chinery was introduced into the tanning industry, and today machinery is used in the place of hand labor in all its branches.. Machinery and the chrome process have given American tanners leadership in the leather producing industry. American tanneries treat annually about 20,000,- 000 hides, or heavy varieties of leather, and about 100,000,000 skins, or lighter varieties. They import LEATHER 85 annually more than $50,000,000 worth of untanned skins from Europe, Africa, India, China, Siberia, Australia, and South American countries. American tanners produce each year about $300,000,000 worth of leather. Of this the greater part is used in the manufacture of boots and shoes. A much smaller part is used for upholstering, automobile^ and furni- ture, harnesses, bookbinding, machinery belting, trunks and bags, card cases, pocketbooks, gloves, and novelties. The Increasing Shortage of Leather. In recent years the leather-producing animals the world over have been either actually decreasing in numbers, as in the great West of this country, or have not in- creased as rapidly as has the demand for leather. The population of the various countries of the world increases steadily and the wearing of shoes becomes more widely a custom in the less civilized countries, as in the case of the countries concerned in the Spanish War, and new uses are steadily found for leather. Such a generally increasing demand tends to raise the price of leather and of leather products. Any lessening of freedom in the com- merce of the world, as in the case of the European war, tends also to bring about higher prices in leather products as in other imported articles. Leather Substitutes. As a result of the growing shortage of leather, the use of leather substitutes 86 THE SHOE INDUSTRY is becoming more and more common in the shoe industry. First and chief among substitutes for upper leather are the fabrics, white canvas being most used. The fabric top does not stretch, affords a good-looking shoe, and would find an increased demand even if there were no shortage of leather. It has becomd a fashion in some localities to have the top of the woman's shoe match the dress. This can be done easily by the use of fabrics, as well as by fancy leathers. Among substitutes for sole leather, leatherboard has been widely used. This consists of fibers of hard leather, waste paper, rags, and wood pulp, rolled into hard sheets by machinery. It is cut and handled in the same way as sole leather, and is used in particular in making the bottoms of the cheaper grades of shoes. Wooden heels cut in block are widely used in the making of slippers and the lighter kinds of shoes. Waterproof felt is also coming into use more and more for the sole of the shoe. Celluloid and even oilcloth products are some- times used for the toe boxes. It has long been the custom in shoe manufacture to make heels of pieced leather. One of the latest substitutes is " hideite leather." This is a leather fiber product consisting of soft leather skivings or remnants pressed into sheets. Fish skins have recently been converted into leather. Rubber is used more and more ex- tensively for the bottoms of shoes, and is in increas- ing demand on the part of the public. LEATHER 87 The Tannery Divisions of Hides and Skins. According to the size, the general divisions made in the tanneries are three, as follows: First, " hides." This is the term used for skins of full-grown or large animals, such as cows, oxen, horses, the buffalo, and the walrus. These animals yield thick, heavy leather for shoe soles, machinery belting, or other uses demanding strength and dur- ability. An untanned upper leather hide usually weighs from twenty-five to sixty pounds; a sole leather hide, from forty to seventy pounds; hides weighing from seventy or seventy-five pounds up are used for the heavier kinds of belting. Second, " kips," skins of the smaller beeves, weighing from fifteen to twenty-five pounds. Third, " skins " of such animals as calves, sheep, goats, and dogs. The skins of other animals are used for leather. The kangaroo, for instance, provides one of the best leathers used in shoemaking. Upper leather is made mainly from cow hides, kips, and large calf- skins. Because of the greater demand for thin leathers, thick hides are often split into thin layers by ma- chinery. This is done by passing the hide through a set of rollers between which is a keen knife, which divides the parts into any desired thickness. The outer parts of the leather, on the hair side, are the 88 THE SHOE INDUSTRY most valued, and are called " grain " leather. The inner parts are made into a variety of different kinds of leather by special treatment. Various kinds of finishes are given, such as seal grain, glove grain, oil grain, buff, satin, russet, or plain. A Side of Leather. The larger skins are generally cut along the back into two halves or sides. The usual names for, the parts of each side are, belly, crop, head, back, shoulder, and bend. The belly contains approximately 24 per cent of the side. After the belly is " cropped," the balance, or 76 per cent of the side, is known as the crop. Taking the head off, or 6 per cent leaves what is known as the back, or 70 per cent of the original side. A shoul- der, representing about 15 per cent of the back, is cropped, leaving the bend, representing about 55 per cent of the side. These are the different divi- sions known to the leather trade. The " bend " is the best portion of the back, behind the shoulders, the firmest leather of the entire skin. This part is devoted to the best uses and the higher grades of shoes, other parts to lower grades. Divisions of Leather in Shoe Manufacture. In shoe manufacture leather is divided into two general classes, upper leather and sole leather. The upper leather includes the outer parts of the shoe above the sole and leather when used for linings. Sole leather includes that used for the outer and inner LEATHER B & >> *j cj 3 a *-i M £ 3 ffi T3 CD p "2 o 1 0} \ -o « y? o 9 o THE SHOE INDUSTRY soles, heels, counters, and rands. Upper leather is usually measured by the square foot; sole leather, by the pound. The Varieties of Upper Leather. There are five chief kinds of upper leather, as follows: Kid or goat, calfskin, side leather, sheepskin, and coltskin or horsehide. There are also other kinds, such as kangaroo, chamois, buckskin, pigskin, and a few special and fancy leathers. Kid. Kid is the name for leather made from the skins of full-grown goats, coming mainly from the mountains of India, Europe, and South America. There are over sixty recognized varieties of goat- skins. According to its tanning and finishing, kid is classed as glazed, mat, royal, cadet, patent, suede, bronze, pebbled or morocco, and so on. " Glazed kid," from the French " glace kid," is polished after tanning, and its glossy surface is ob- tained by burnishing on the grain side. It is pro- duced in various colors. Glazed kid is used for the uppers of shoes. " Mat kid " has a dull, soft, black finish, from treatment with beeswax or olive oil. " Patent " leather is produced by applying a coat of varnish to the finished surface of the skin. " Enamel " leather has a hard, glossy finish on the grain side, being boarded and varnished. " Suede " leather, a French term, means LEATHER 91 " Swedish " finished. It is finished on the flesh side with a dry, napped surface. It is produced in a Emoossing Upper Leacner, Upper Leather Tannery, W. H. McElwain Company, Manchester, N. H. great variety of colors and used extensively in mak- ing slippers, and to some extent in light shoes. 7 92 THE SHOE INDUSTRY " Bronze kid," or calfskin, is leather finished with a form of cochineal dye. This is a method long known and used especially for women's fancy shoes. " Vici kid " is a name first used by Robert Foederer of Philadelphia, about 1885, and in com- mon use now for chrome tanned kid dressed with a mixture of soap and oil. This term became a trade- mark, and refers generally to the better grades of kid leather. Other kinds of kid are in less general use. They are finished in particular ways, according to effects desired. " Kangaroo kid," for instance, is kid fin- ished in imitation of the genuine kangaroo. " Chamois " is oil-tanned leather made from the skin of chamois and other small animals. It is a very pliable and washable leather when genuine. Calfskin. Calfskin is the leather used most ex- tensively in shoemaking. It is the lightest, most pliable, serviceable, and satisfactory of all the skins of the neat animals. Its main sources are the farms of the United States, Canada, South America, and European countries. It is finished in many forms, of which it is necessary to mention only a few, as box, gun metal, patent, wax, willow, boarded, velvet, ooze, and Russia. Kips, the middle weight skins already spoken of, and calfskins overlap in qualities and uses. The calfskin is never split, but is gener- ally shaved to uniform thickness. The different LEATHER 93 names applied to calfskin, as in the case of kid, refer to particular kinds of treatment in tanning and finishing the leather, and the terms correspond in the main with those already given for kid. A few special terms for calfskin are the following: " Box calf" is a proprietary name. It is a chrome- tanned calfskin " boarded," that is, treated by rub- bing with a board to raise the grain, giving a peculiar rough surface. Box calf is a waterproof leather of black or tan color, and is regarded as the best material for rough out-of-door wear. " Buckskin " is primarily deer skin tanned in oil. In recent usage it means any soft leather, especially cowhide, finished in a white, grayish, or yellowish color. " Gun metal " is chrome-tanned leather, either calf, veal, or side, with gun metal black finish, or with a bright finish. Gun metal leather is used very extensively in shoe manufacture. " Wax calf " is finished on the flesh side with a waxlike surface. French calf, also, is finished on the flesh side. " Willow calf " is a fine, soft, colored, chrome tanned skin. " Ooze " is a proprietary term applied to the velvet or soft finish skin. " Russia " is a colored calfskin finished and per- fumed with birch oil, which gives it a characteristic appearance and odor. 94 THE SHOE INDUSTRY Side Leather. Side leather is a cow hide, either bark or chrome-tanned, with the skin cut down the back with two halves. The sides are split to reduce to thickness appropriate for shoe tops and finished in various forms with dry, oiled, smooth, or boarded surfaces, in imitation of the various finishes of calf- skin. It is used largely in the cheaper grades of men's and boys' shoes. Sheepskin. Sheepskin is used chiefly for shoe linings and outer parts where the wear is light. Coltskin. Coltskin and the better part of the horsehide have firmness of texture and suscepti- bility to high polish. They are used in the form of patent leather and in dull finish, mainly for men's high-grade shoes. Sole Leather. Sole leather includes the heavier and thicker kinds of leather from the skins of mature neat animals, such as are suitable for use in the bottoms and heels of shoes. It is tanned and finished so as to produce a firm, solid texture rather than great pliability. Sole leather is tanned from: Green hides generally ranging between forty and seventy pounds, with an average of about fifty-five pounds, and Dry hides generally ranging between sixteen and thirty pounds, with an average of about twenty to twenty-two pounds. LEATHER 95 Beam House, where hides are prepared for tanning Tan Yard, where hides are tanned in vats of liquor 96 THE SHOE INDUSTRY Previous to ten years ago sole leather hides were tanned in liquors extracted from hemlock bark or oak bark, or a combination of the two, and the tanned leather received its name according to the tanning material used; namely, oak leather was tanned in oak bark liquors; hemlock in hemlock bark, and leather tanned in the combination of the two was called union. As the supply of bark diminished in the various sections where tanneries were located tanners were obliged to substitute other tanning materials, such as barks, nuts, and extract made from various foreign and domestic woods, so today leather is tanned in the combination of several materials and the finished product is designated according to the color of the leather which it re- sembles. Leather having a light color, resembling the color of old oak is called oak. That which has a more reddish shade is called union, and that which has a very dark red shade is called hemlock. Oak leather is used largely in high-grade men's and women's shoes and for the finding trade. A large percentage of the union leather is bought by con- cerns which make a business of cutting soles, and these are sold to be used in the manufacture of women's shoes. Hemlock is used in the manufac- ture of medium and lower priced men's shoes. There is also a very large export business in this class of leather. LEATHER 97 A very small percentage of sole leather hides is now being tanned by a chrome process, the basis of this tannage being bichromate of soda. It is practi- cally the same process as that used in tanning chrome upper leather. Very heavy hides are generally used for leather tanned in this process because of the fact that the tannage does not swell the hides as does the vegetable process and it is necessary to get a hide averaging from eighty to ninety pounds in order to obtain the required thickness. This pro- cess produces a piece of leather which has a pearl gray color in its natural state and when water- proofed is of a dark greenish shade. The leather is used in the natural state for soles on cheap outing shoes and waterproofed for heavy storm shoes. Oak tanned leather is the best kind of sole leather, as is indicated always by its market price. It has a light, creamy tan color, and is both firm and flexible. Hemlock tanned is of a lower grade than oak or union tanned leather. Chrome tanned sole leather is dense, hard, and durable, but has hardly passed beyond its experimental stage. Hides, from which sole leather is made, vary according to climatic conditions in various quarters of the world. Animals living in warm climates have a thick and tough skin with thin hair; those living in cold climates have a thick coat of hair with light weight skin. 9 8 THE SHOE INDUSTRY The cost of sole leather makes a large item in the general costs of shoe manufacture, and leather sub- stitutes are used chiefly for sole leather. Some other leather terms and varieties of leather not necessarily included in this chapter will be found in Chapter XVII, on shoemaking terms. The Cut-Sole Room in the Shoe Factory The Cut-Sole Industry. The great development of the shoe industry in recent years has produced not only dealers of all kinds of leather and shoe supplies, but special manufacturers of the various materials required by a shoe factory. As in the case of the automobile, shoe manufacture may be made almost a matter of assembling prepared parts. LEATHER 99 The industry connected with the preparing of shoe-leather parts is especially extensive, including cut soles, insoles, counters, heels, top lifts, taps, box toes, and rands. All these parts are now pro- duced in highly specialized factories, and furnished to the shoe manufacturer at the lowest cost, in great numbers in uniform size and quality. Some of the largest manufacturing companies, however, have subsidiary factories in their plants for the produc- tion of such parts, but the smaller factories are com- pelled to buy them from the independent manu- facturer. Most of the lines of industry connected with the cutting of sole leather center in the United States, and there are no factories at all outside this country for cut-soles, heels, top pieces, and rands. There are forty cut-sole factories in this country, which do an annual volume of business of $40,000,000, supplying the home and foreign markets. The establishments included in the following table manufacture leather from hides and skins of all kinds, domestic and imported, by various methods of tanning, such as the oak, the hemlock, and the chrome or other chemical processes. The classifi- cation also includes the currying and finishing of leather to be used for various purposes, as in the manufacture of shoes, belting, gloves and mittens, bags, harness, and trunks; in the automobile, car- IOO THE SHOE INDUSTRY riage, and furniture industries; and in the binding of books. Many establishments tan or curry and finish leather under contract for concerns other than those engaged in the leather industry. Table VI.* General Statistics, Leather and its Finished Products: 1904 to 1 914. Industry Total . Leather, tanned curried, and fin- ished Boots and shoes . Boot and shoe cut stock Saddlery and har- ness Boot and shoe findings Trunks and va Uses Belting, leather. . Gloves and mit tens, leather . . . Leather goods, not elsewhere speci fied Pocketbooks . Cen- sus year 1914 1909 1904 1914 1909 1904 1914 1909 1904 1914 1909 1904 1914 1909 1904 1914 1909 1904 1914 1909 1904 1914 1909 1904 1914 1909 1904 1914 1909 1904 1914 1909 1904 Num- ber of estab- lish- ments 6,758 5,728 5,3i8 74i 919 1,049 i,35S 1,343 1,316 236 232 290 2,551 1,347 1,076 369 343 289 56l 524 373 151 139 117 352 377 339 378 425 423 64 79 46 Wage earners Average num- ber 307,060 309,766 264,459 $169,357,560 155,110,878 120,833,174 55,936 62,202 57,239 191,555 185,116 149,924 7,819 6,693 5,936 12,969 14,632 15,032 6,714 6,488 4,434 9,911 11,122 9,091 2,951 3,006 2,092 10/ " n,354 10,645 7,071 7, 7,785 1,466 1,472 2,281 Wages $753,135,354 669,874,518 480,220,706 3i,9i4,497 32,102,845 27,049,152 105,695,404 92,359,15 69,059,680 4,052,123 3,156,460 2,364,209 7,995,6i2 8,071,484 7,634,311 3,225,683 2,947,083 1,647,877 5,540,157 5,537,329 4,139,034 2,069,545 1,860,880 1,164,548 4,558,36o 4,763,830 3,840,253 3,603,865 3,623,200 3,137,125 702,314 688,615 796,985 Cost of materials 284,245,420 248,278,933 191,179,073 310,356,586 277,467,743 197,363,495 51,450,498 36,919,919 21,586,872 33,086,442 33,177,937 23,774,239 20,304,183 18,350,551 6,337,8io 13,625,457 14,629,065 9,107,785 15,480,110 15,622,603 9,317,206 12,170,694 13,208,001 10,000,. 10,632,124 10,290,439 9,626,614 1,783,840 1,929,327 1,926,723 Value of products $1,104,594,557 992,713.322 724,391,050 367,201,705 327.874, [87 252,620,986 501,760,458 442,630,726 320,107,458 59,964,523 44,661,497 27,675,815 53,558,612 54,224,602 42,054,842 28,303,186 25,505,419 9,904,887 26,471,527 28,027,964 18,643,580 23,035,951 23,691,887 14,220,306 21,614,109 23,630,598 17,740,385 19,333,934 18,838,281 17,655,345 3,35o,552 3,628,161 3,767,446 * U. S. Census of Manufactures, 1914: The Leather Industry: Table I. LEATHER 101 Leather, Tanned, Curried, and Finished — Value of Products for Leading States: 1914 and 1909.* PENNSYLVANIA MASSACHUSETTS WISCONSIN •NBW YORK NEW JERSEY MICHIGAN ILLINOIS OHIO WtST VIRGINIA CALIFORNIA VIRGINIA DELAWARE NORTH CAROLINA KENTUCKY MARYLAND •NOIANA NEW HAMPSHIRE MISSOURI MAINE MILLIONS OF OOLUAR8 y/////////.y///jy////oy/////M^^^^ yW/M>A77////////Y///ss s//. Y/////?/7, Y////////A '/////////, 7////////, Y/////////. '///, - u^ J W~j^^^^ •' ^^? ^^2 ^^? Sf ^^ f I I ■MB 1014 *From U. S. Census of Manufacturers, 1914: The Leather Industry. 102 THE SHOE INDUSTRY Table VII. Imports of Hides and Skins (except Fur Skins) into the United States during the Fiscal Years Ending June 30, 1913 and 1914, by Prin- cipal Countries, as Reported by the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce 1913 1914 Quantity Value Quantity Value Calfskins Belgium lbs. France lbs. Germany lbs. Netherlands lbs. Russia in Europe . . .lbs. Other Europe lbs. Canada lbs. South America lbs. Other countries . . . .lbs. 4,724,643 4,991,299 16,916,203 8,142,510 30,247,647 13,180,207 5,930,010 2,841,373 7,585,243 $1,271,762 1,255,031 5,251,602 1,833,87s 9,726,608 3,247,620 1,166,070 656,178 1,886,227 5,157,640 5,800,673 16,560,316 12,006,926 19,747,462 12,078,561 5,734,207 2,036,364 3,281,441 $1,373,096 1,434,335 5,392,463 2,643,576 7,282,870 2,806,602 1,066,387 554,313 828,311 Total lbs. 94,559.135 $26,294,973 82,403,590 $23,381,953 Cattle Hides Belgium lbs. Germany lbs. Italy lbs. Netherlands lbs. Russia in Europe . . . lbs. United Kingdom . . . lbs. Other Europe lbs. Canada lbs. Mexico lbs. Argentina lbs. Brazil lbs. Colombia lbs. Uruguay lbs. Venezuela lbs. East Indies lbs. Other Countries. . . . lbs. 7,106,337 20,102,370 9,787,312 2,411,973 7,270,864 22,906,231 8,58S,6oo 3,578,370 41,608,176 29,500,427 2,840,141 67,041,938 1,743,956 5,461,505 7,244,806 4,470,501 6,929,176 19,449,707 $1,401,788 3,309,014 1,646,502 418,849 1,172,630 4,262,798 1,523,740 590,519 5,979,593 4,220,572 392,667 12,517,587 421,122 966,759 1,404,595 1,038,754 1,376,307 3,655,168 7,313,906 19,036,552 4,989,795 1,967,552 4,099,899 9,043,103 11,204,957 4,272,591 46,588,543 33,194,289 5,528,502 79,787,332 3,259,873 5,098,244 13,403,443 5,149,398 4,474,768 21,550,741 $1,602,241 3,319,136 848,989 338,907 680,939 1,713,179 2,070,836 795,933 7,132,744 5,478,901 889,636 16,165,676 880,780 1,042,174 2,627,553 1,358,778 899,045 4,336,495 Total lbs. 268,042,390 $46,298,964 279,963,488 $52,181,942 Goatskins France. . lbs. Russia in Europe. . .lbs. United Kingdom . . . lbs. Other Europe lbs. Mexico lbs. Brazil lbs. Aden lbs. China lbs. East Indies lbs. Other Countries. . . . lbs. 2,406,371 7,183,542 5,436,922 6,306,071 4,815,304 4,276,365 3,357,78i 3,129,594 9,827,646 41,594,938 2,625,746 5,290,025 $800,951 1,509,091 1,342,029 1,861,458 1,731,234 1,457,242 1,688,945 975,894 2,815,844 8,429,484 670,314 1,507,931 2,171,224 5,131,075 5,281,468 5,068,968 4,010,150 3,470,013 4,191,124 3,595,909 7,304,761 35,831,857 2,817,948 5,884,931 $728,762 1,133,242 1,261,925 1,383,929 1,298,039 1,190,166 2,177,849 1,120,170 2,126,706 7,550,777 678,252 1,541,446 Total lbs. 96,250,305 $24,790,417 84,759,428 $22,191,263 LEATHER Table VII. — Continued 103 1913 1914 Quantity Value Quantity Value Sheepskins . France lbs. Russia in Europe. . .lbs. United Kingdom . . . lbs. Other Europe lbs. Canada lbs. Argentina lbs. Brazil lbs. Asia lbs. British Oceania ... lbs. Other countries. . . .lbs. 2,999,829 8,484,377 28,885,579 3,5io,i73 1,860,948 6,848,065 993.321 6.536,764 8,179,576 3,486,087 $666,97S 1,572,075 5,206,068 634,818 190,367 776,969 309,265 i,298,S8o 1,058,438 681,089 2.221,769 9,158,287 26,384,892 3,872,164 3,678,117 3,874,944 1,582,333 6,028,206 9,848,498 3,427,615 $560,152 ] 1,782,569 4,783,845 683,449 ! 403,038 522,626 459,772 1,262,050 i,499,76i 635,955 Total lbs. 71,784,719 $12,394,944 70,076,825 $12,593,217 CHAPTER VI THE DEPARTMENTS OF SHOE MANUFACTURE The Business Departments. The business side of modern shoemaking has definite and numerous divisions. There are the usual officers: President, vice-president, treasurer, superintendent or general manager, employment manager, welfare manager, office manager, and other heads of departments and divisions, with their many assistants. The functions and the duties connected with all these divisions are such as are found in the general busi- ness world, and are described in the volume upon Business Employments, which was prepared by the author along with this study of the shoe industry. From nine to ten per cent, or nearly one-tenth of the persons connected with the shoe industry, are em ployed upon its business side. The exact figures for 1 9 14 were 90.5 per cent wage earners, or factory operatives, and 9.5 per cent salaried persons, pro- prietors and others. The accompanying chart, on page 105, gives a list of the usual business departments and shows their three-fold nature, — of executive control, maintenance of business, and maintenance of manufacture. The 104 DEPARTMENTS OF SHOE MANUFACTURE 105 CHART OF THE BUSINESS DEPARTMENTS OF SHOE MANUFACTURE STOCKHOLDERS Employment Department EXECUTIVE OFFICERS DIRECTORS PRESIDENT VICE-PRESIDENT TREASURER SUPERINTENDENT Office Manager Social Service Department GENERAL OFFICES Order Department Correspondence Department Bookkeeping Department Credit and Collection Dep't Sales Department Purchasing Department Receiving Department Publicity Department Mailing Department k FACTORY OFFICES Advance Information Dep't Tag Department Dispatch Department Supply Department Upper Leather Office Schedule Department Pay Roll Department Cost Department Messenger Service — 106 THE SHOE INDUSTRY two divisions of employment and social service are in a sense independent of the three major divisions, or supplementary to them. The employment depart- ment deals with all questions of the hiring, training, and discharge of employees; the social service department, with all questions of their general wel- fare. The Executive Officers. The executive officers are those who work out and control the general plans and policies of the company. They may or may not be stockholders. They are responsible to the stockholders for the success of the company. The General Offices. The general offices are con- cerned in building up the business side of manufac- ture and reach out into the field of trade. These offices take charge of the orders received from shoe dealers, of correspondence, bookkeeping, and the credits and collections of the company. They have charge of purchasing and caring for materials used in manufacture, and of the large and important functions of advertising and of selling manufactured goods. The Factory Offices. The factory offices are those concerned closely with manufacture, touching the factory at every department. These offices are often separate from the others and placed as near the factory departments as possible. They take charge of tags made from the orders received by the order DEPARTMENTS OF SHOE MANUFACTURE 107 CHART OF FACTORY MANAGEMENT FACTORY MANAGER Superintendents Foremen and Forewomen Assistants Floorpeople Operatives throughout Departments Messengers 108 THE SHOE INDUSTRY department and follow them through the factory. They provide a schedule of the time in which shoes shall be made or passed from room to room. They maintain supplies for all factory purposes, pay em- ployees, and Supervise the costs of manufacture. Factory Service and Office Service. Factory service does not necessarily lead to office service. In general the two fields of employment are quite separate. Boys and young men, however, are some- times taken into the business offices of a company, usually as messengers, and given at the same time factory training, such as observation of processes and routine of manufacture. Less frequently the plan is followed of giving six months' training in an office and then the same period in the factory. The purpose in such double training is usually to prepare young men to act as assistants to superintendents or heads of departments. Sometimes, on the other hand, employees in factory departments who show clerical ability also are taken into the factory offices, where there is always need of practical knowledge of the work of the factory. The Factory Departments. In the following chap- ters the present volume treats of actual shoemaking, or of factory departments and processes. There are six general divisions in the modern shoe factory. These are shown by the following chart upon factory departments. They are: the Upper Leather depart- DEPARTMENTS OF SHOE MANUFACTURE 109 CHART OF THE FACTORY DEPARTMENTS FACTORY DEPARTMENTS Upper Leather Department Stitching Department Sole Leather Department Making Department Finishing Department Treeing Department * Packing Department Shipping Department ADDITIONAL DEPARTMENTS IN LARGE FACTORIES Heel Department Box Toe Department Box Factory Printing * Treeing, Packing, and Shipping may be treated separately or as one department. no THE SHOE INDUSTRY ment, the stitching department, the sole leather department, the making department, the finishing department, and the treeing, packing, and shipping department. These are each minutely subdivided into factory rooms, sections, or departments, as will appear in the following pages. The last division, treeing, packing, and shipping, in a large factory, has three separate departments, making eight in the major divisions rather than six. In large factories we find numerous additional departments of which the chief ones are shown in the second division of the diagram, or heel department, box toe depart- ment, box factory, and printing department. There may be sub-divisions, also, in this second group, ac- cording to the magnitude of manufacture. A large company, indeed, may produce all its materials in the endeavor to lower the cost of every item that enters into shoemaking. Other names are used for some of these divisions, usually according to locality; for instance, the stitch- ing department is sometimes called the fitting depart- ment; the making department, the bottoming depart- ment; and the sole leather division is called the stock-fitting division. The word " room " is very generally used for " department " for the sake of brevity in speaking. The Modern Shoe Factory. For a fuller statement of the nature and setting of the typical modern shoe DEPARTMENTS OF SHOE MANUFACTURE in factory the reader is here referred to the introduction of this book. The modern shoe factory, in which are found the many offices and the factory depart- ments just enumerated, has become quite typical in general form. The width of the factory is a very Preparing Cartons in the Box Factory, W. H. McElwain Com- pany, Manchester, N. H. important consideration. Buildings are constructed with a width of about fifty feet, as single long build- ings, or having wings of the same width, and less often in hollow squares, maintaining the same width throughout. This construction allows plenty of day- light along the middle of each room from the two ii2 THE SHOE INDUSTRY sides. As good light is necessary to accurate work, it is essential that rooms be constructed in this way. In length, factories vary from about two hundred feet up to several hundred feet. The most common form is the long, single building, with capacity for a few hundred or perhaps a thousand employees. Some factories have small wings or adjacent struc- tures. The plan followed by some very large manu- facturing companies of extensive wings or units affords great length of rooms with floor space all well lighted from two sides, sometimes up to a quarter of a mile in length. Such plants employ four or five or more thousands of people, and turn out from ten to twenty thousand pairs of shoes daily. The Typical Factory. The typical factory has four floors for its six major departments. The sole leather department occupies the first or basement floor. The upper leather and stitching departments occupy the fourth or upper floor. The making department occupies the third floor. The finishing, packing, and shipping departments are upon the second floor. The business offices are usually divided between the second and third floors. The factory offices are usually placed as near their factory departments as possible. In the very large factories, or in the case of a plant consisting of several factories, there are usu- DEPARTMENTS OF SHOE MANUFACTURE 113 ally central administrative offices, while the factory offices are in the various buildings of the plant. Some large factories now have as many as seven or eight floors. In such buildings the general plan A Modern Interior Showing a Row of Machines Placed by the Windows already given is followed. The sole leather depart- ments are on the basement floor; the upper leather departments occupy the top floor. Shoes in process H4 THE SHOE INDUSTRY of making pass downward continually to the packing and shipping rooms on the first floor. Height is sought only when the length of the building is limited for providing needed floor space. Indeed, the long, low building or plan of separate buildings A Modern Interior Showing Overhead Light is preferable in many respects, giving less move- ment of manufacture up and down, less crowding of employees, better light and ventilation, and less intense jar and rumble of machinery, all tending to improve the conditions of employment. On the other hand, from the standpoint of the manufacturer, the closest working arrangement of rooms consistent with free movement and safety, DEPARTMENTS OF SHOE MANUFACTURE 115 a H n6 THE SHOE INDUSTRY is the better, since it brings smaller overhead charges, less expensive administration and oversight, and a quicker passage of the shoe from its beginning to its completion. Location and available building space, Interior of a Modern Shoe Factory, showing light provision, with steel sash, heating system, and concrete floor however, are the usual factors that determine the departure of a factory plan from the general and natural four-floor division. The most modern shoe factories are built of steel and concrete, with the outer walls largely given up to window space, as may be seen in the accom- panying illustration. CHAPTER VII METHODS IN SHOE MANUFACTURE The Chief Methods. The chief methods in manu- facturing shoes, developed mostly with the intro- duction of machinery, are as follows: The Goodyear Welt, The Standard Screw, The McKay, The Pegged, The Turned, The Nailed. The distinctions indicated in these terms arise from the methods of attaching the sole of the shoe to the upper, which has always been the most important problem of the shoemaker. Prior to the introduction of shoe machinery, all sewing upon shoes, the attaching of the bottom to the upper as well as sewing together the parts of the upper, was done by hand. In the beginning of the factory industry people often took parts from the factory to their homes for hand stitching. The first improvements consisted of the use of wooden pegs and nails, leading to the use of the " standard screw." In the chapter upon the history of shoemaking we have noted inventions which have dealt with the attaching of the sole to the upper — 117 n8 THE SHOE INDUSTRY that of August Destouy in 1862, a machine with a curved needle for sewing turned shoes; that of Lyman R. Blake, adapted by Gordon McKay, intro- duced in 1862 for the same purpose, and since known as the McKay sewing machine; and that of Charles Goodyear, who adapted the Destouy ma- chine for turned shoes to the sewing of welts in 1871, known as the Goodyear Welt machine. Illustrations of Methods Now in Use. Upon the following pages are presented diagrams and descrip- tions of the methods now in use in shoe manufac- ture. Most factories confine themselves to one or two of these methods, one manufacturer being known as a maker of Goodyear Welt shoes, another of McKay shoes, and so on. The lighter grades of shoes and those worn by women and children are Goodyear Welt, McKay, and Turned. Many of the heavier grades, and especially shoes for outdoor wear, such as are worn by farmers, fishermen, and soldiers in some countries, are of the pegged and standard screw. The McKay method has been very extensively used in medium weight and cheaper shoes for many kinds of wear. The Goodyear Welt, however, has been used more and more extensively in the medium and better grades and is the leading process in importance at the present time. The Turned Shoe. The " turned " or " turn " method is used in making fine shoes and slippers for METHODS IN SHOE MANUFACTURE 119 women and children. The shoe is made wrong side out and then turned right side out. The sole is fas- UPPEI} LINING-, v n —=» ■ -WELT.) ^-CORK FILLING."'-— STITCH UNITING ', •''0UT50LE INSOLE. UP PER ; CHANNEL AND WELT LIP OF INSOLF.--" Cross Section of a Goodyear Welt Shoe This diagram shows the ingenious method employed in con^ structing this now widely worn type of shoe, which is perfectly smooth inside. The tacks used in lasting are all withdrawn and a machine with a curved needle sews the welt and shoe upper to the insole without going inside the shoe. The heavy outsole is then stitched to the welt. The thread used is of the strong- est linen and thoroughly waxed. It makes the most durable and comfortable type of shoe, and one on which the outsole can readily be renewed. The excellent qualities and popularity of the welt shoe have led to many imitations of it in the McKay method. i2o THE SHOE INDUSTRY tened to the last and the upper is drawn over it, wrong side out, and sewed to it through a channel cut in the edge of the sole. The seam does not show CHANNEL. \^-~LA5TING TACK. '^-CLINCHING POINT ^STITCH \it\ 3 jllj t |ii 5 |(l| t |«| I |ll| » |io]u|sol»|jo|ss| io|«s sa I es j so | ee 1 70 1 7sj ao 1 1 1 1 1 1 II 1 1 1 II II CUTTING AND FITTING BOTTOMING IM tulan Lut l»l lift. Oafitlt Imbj TIP TICKET. Pra. I Wl*h| 1 1 It I 1 1 11 1 3 1 3) I t J 11 I 6 I 61 I 6 I H | 7 1 71 1 1 1 10 1 IS I 20 1 15 1 30 I 35 1 40 I IS | 60 | 65 1 60 1 66 1 70 1 To| 10 TRIMMING TICKET. Pra. Width 1 It 1 31 3 31 4 41 6 5| 6 6) 7 j 71 |lo|is|lo|is|3o|35l«|4s|so[s5[6o|e5|7o|7s|s0 J_L LINING TICKET. Pra. |WUih| 1 |lt|,l I It I 3|3l|4 |4l[ 6 | 61 1 *| 10 j lfi J 20 [ 3S I 30 [ 35 J I0|is|5o|ss| Ml |75ll0 I II I I I I I f I 1 I I I 1 I SOLE LEATHER TICKET. -«!•— fn. Wlith 1 U 1 H 1|31 I 111 5 I 61 J 6 61 7 FOXING TICKET Caaa No Elnd Pat 17 3 Stitch Vo Back St*y Pra.|wuth| l|lt|l|li[ 9|3||t |lt| B | Btj l|et| 7 \n\ S | 10 J IS | 30 [ 33 j 30 J 35 J «[ 43 | 6o| 65 | 60 j 65 | 70 1 7sJ SO 1 M 1 1 1 1 1 1 II II II 1 CimDi. TIP PatSa. Pra. |wiith| l|l||l|lt| l|lt|l J4|] 6 |st| e|ct| 7 1 7* j 6 | |io|it|io|is|»|j6| toj is| so) e£[ eo| se| to) tg| ao ■1 1 II 1 1 1 M M 1 II II 1 10 j 15 1 20 1 26 j 30 [ 36 j 10 ] -46 1 &0 I 55 ] SO I 65 I 70 Itil 7s|l0 INSOLE TICKET. Pra. |WUth| 1 I It I 3 1 11 I 3 | 3> | 4 j It | 6 , 6( j 6 | 6| j 7 j7t| 8 7s|«0 10 I IS 30 1 2S I 30 I 3S I 40 1 -46 ] 50 [ 55 ] GO | OS [ 70 1 STRAP TICKET. - Prt j Width I 1 |lt| 3 [ll[ 3 |3l| 1 [lt| S |st[ » |6l| 7 [7)| I [ 10 I IS {. S30 1 at> j 30 I SS I 40 (« j 50 1 56 I 00 1 68 1 TO I TE| 80 J! A Typical Shoe Tag the style of last, bottom finishing, treeing, and pack- ing. Above is presented a typical tag used in the shoe factory. i 3 4 THE SHOE INDUSTRY The Day Sheet. The despatch department has charge of the passing of work into the factory and of following it up through the factory. From the tags received by the order department the despatch offices prepares schedules or bulletins called day sheets. These sheets show accurately the details of each and every lot of shoes passing into the factory on a given day and also the scheduled time when the last lot of each day's work should pass a given point in the factory. The day sheet contains also supple- mentary information showing the exact quantity of each of the various special items of product com- posing a particular day's work. The sheets are made in duplicate. One set is kept in the office and upon it are checked off records of the work as it proceeds through the factory. This sheet also con- tains the name of the customer for whom the shoes are being made, their price, and the name and com- mission of the salesman. Other sets go to the various factory rooms as guides and records of the day's work. The sheet used in the cutting room contains the specifications which constitute the cut- ting instructions, such as the kind of the upper stock and linings to be used, the price, and the number of square feet. On this sheet are recorded, also, all the details of the work of cutting as the cutting is done. The use of the day sheet is quite universal in shoe manufacture and it has done much to pro- UPPER LEATHER DEPARTMENT 135 taooa uiooa 30 ?"0 uioojj JoitiQ uiooji a •c a uioojj Jo»iO uiooa Su m D »!»s 30 }no uioojj TO!Ai JSB'J S «-• 53 H Dm s at w •OH 3S1B0 'ON Sjjsraojsno SJIUJ jo-ofl 136 THE SHOE INDUSTRY more efficient methods. On page 135 is presented a typical shoe factory day sheet. The Upper Leather Room. The upper leather room is that division of the upper leather department in which leather stock is measured and sorted for the cutting room. The department includes the care, sorting, and cutting of the leather and other materials that enter into the upper of the finished shoe, and has three divisions, leather, linings, and trimmings, each being usually called a department or room. Measuring Upper Leather. About two hundred different kinds of upper leather are now in use. They usually come from the wholesale houses or store rooms of the factory in boxes to the upper leather room. There they are taken from the boxes, counted, measured upon a machine, and stamped with the number of square feet in each piece. The machine used in measuring the upper leather is very sensitive to heat and cold, and must be adjusted every morning for the day's use. It records the exact number of square inches in the skin. The operator of it must be very careful and trustworthy. Upper leather constitutes a large part of the cost of shoe manufacture, and its economic use is abso- lutely essential in a factory. The Leather Sorter. Leather sorting follows measuring and is equally important. The cutting UPPER LEATHER DEPARTMENT *37 room tags calling for particular kinds of leather for particular lots of shoes are given to the leather sorter. He must be able to judge by experience exactly the amount and quality of leather required to cut each order, though the quantity may be Upper Leather Stock-Sorting Department, W. H. McElwain Company, Manchester, X. H. figured in the office. He tests the quality by doub- ling a skin along the back and passing his fingers over the folded edge. He rolls the skins selected or sorted for each lot of shoes into a bundle, attaches the ticket which he has used, and sends the bundle to the cutter. The leather sorter must himself have 138 THE SHOE INDUSTRY served several years' apprenticeship as a cutter, so as to become used to the kinds, feel, and cutting value of leather. After sorting, the upper leather is sometimes weighed out by thickness into lots of definite weight, and placed on shelves in the room until needed for orders from the cutting room. The Lining Sorter. There is usually, also, a sorter of the various kinds of cloth, such as twills and drills, used for the linings of shoes. These are in- spected for their weave, strength, and chemical qualities. They are inspected both for acceptance by the factory and for grades for particular kinds of shoes. They are marked and labeled and put away in grades corresponding to intended uses. The lining sorter must usually have had training in a textile school. The Positions in a Sorting Department. In the small factory one or two persons only may be em- ployed in the work of measuring and sorting leather. Very many shoe factories, however, in which large and valuable quantities of stock are used daily, have •a fully organized sorting department. The positions in a modern sorting department are as follows: i. The Inspector, who examines the material selected by the sorters for particular uses, to see that it is rightly chosen. 2. The head sorter, who has charge of sorting. UPPER LEATHER DEPARTMENT 139 3. Several or more leather and lining sorters. 4. One or two weighers of the sorted lots of leather. 5. Men who put up the work called for by the cutter's tags, selecting the leather according to the price given upon the tag, and placing the bundles in their proper places for passage into the cutting room. 6. Girls who figure the allowances of leather called for by the tags and keep the cutters' accounts. This work must be accurately done and demands considerable ability. The Lining and Cloth-Cutting Section. The cut- ting of cloth tops and linings was formerly done largely by hand. The hand worker places a pattern upon the cloth and cuts quickly around the edge of the pattern with a knife. He may cut the cloth in the single piece or in layers up to eight thick- nesses. Such cutting is never accurate, and with the increased use of textiles in shoemaking it proves too slow a method. The dieing or dinking machine is being used more and more for the cutting of cloth parts. The die made in the shape of the usual pat- tern is accurate, and from twenty-four to forty thicknesses of cloth may be cut by it at one time, increasing the work of the section many fold. The cost in cases of die cutting is reckoned at about 1 4 o THE SHOE INDUSTRY one-tenth of that by hand cutting. Hand dieing or dinking is in practice to some extent. As has been pointed out, the dieing or dinking section works entirely according to the specification of tags for each lot of shoes. Lots go through the room in pairs varying from one hundred and eight to one hundred and fifty in number for hand cutting, and about four hundred for machine dieing. The usual lining parts to be cut or died out are, quarter lining, top band, inside stay, fly lining, back stay, and tip. Patterns and dies are selected not only for each of these parts but for the particular style of shoe called for. The Positions in the Lining and Cloth-Cutting Section. The usual positions connected with the cutting of cloth tops and linings are, the Foreman, the hand cutters, the machine dinkers, the hand dinkers, the pattern boy, the cloth and lining folders, the piece sorters, the inspectors, the cripple cutter, and the stDck man. There may also be an instruc- tor, to aid the foreman in teaching new employees. After about one year's service on cloth and linings cutters may go to the outside or leather cutting room. The Cutting Room. The cutting room is that division of the upper leather department in which the leather is cut, by hand or with a die, for the UPPER LEATHER DEPARTMENT 141 upper parts of the shoe. It is the most important section of the large department. The cut parts finally go to the assembling room along with the linings from the lining room, and are there put to- gether ready for the stitching room. Cutting Shoe Trimming Parts, Upper Leather Supply Factory, No. 1 Building, Central Plant, Manchester, N. H. The Hand Cutter. Cutting the upper parts of the shoe by hand was the method preceding the introduction of machinery, and is still in use, espe- cially in the smaller and older factories, or in facto- ries that handle small skins. It is an expert process demanding years of practice for the finest work, 142 THE SHOE INDUSTRY and has been so satisfactory that it gives way but slowly to the use of machinery. The particular advantage of hand cutting, in addition to the more economical use of leather, is that the hand cutter is more likely to place his patterns so that the different parts of the skin may be cut according to the quali- ties needed for the different parts of the shoe. With the improvements in the tanning of leather so that more uniform qualities are obtained, and with the increased demand for speed in cutting, large establishments are tending gradually to the use of machine dieing. Hand cutting is done upon hard wood blocks made especially for the purpose, or thick " cutting boards " arranged at a convenient height for the workman to stand before them. He uses a short- bladed, keen-edged knife. It is a part of his training to know how to keep his board smooth and oiled regularly and his knife sharp. The leather cutter is sometimes called " outside cutter," to distinguish him from the cutter of linings and trimmings. The cutter receives a bundle or lot of leather with its tag from the sorting room, and the patterns called for by the tag from the pattern room. He lays out his patterns conveniently at hand in the order of large, medium, and small. He places one skin at a time upon the block. Placing a particular UPPER LEATHER DEPARTMENT 143 pattern upon it, so that the part selected is best suited to the corresponding part of the completed shoe, he draws his knife skillfully around the metal edge of the pattern. This involves several or more motions with the dangers of cutting away from the A Skin Showing How Patterns are Placed in Cutting pattern and of cutting the fingers. The cutter uses his patterns alternately, or with variation of sizes and positions, so as to cut the skin most economi- cally. Usually the waste parts are very small and unsuited to other purposes in the factory, except for i 4 4 THE SHOE INDUSTRY such trimmings as back straps and vamp stays. They are generally sold to be consumed in making leather substitutes, or for the oil they contain. The cutter lays out all his cut parts in lots and marks the upper piece by pattern, size, width and style. He ties up these lots with the tag and a sticker attached showing the case number, the number of pairs, and the size. The work of the cutter is checked up in the sorting room, making an exact efficiency record for each workman, and the totals of cutting are placed upon the cutting room day sheet. The outside cutter learns his trade by work upon cloth and linings or by service in leather cutting in a small factory. The Clicking Machine. As has already been indicated, large shoe factories are coming to use machines for cutting leather, in some factories both the hand method and the machine method being found side by side. The machine, which performs a process formerly thought impossible except by hand, has a cutting board or block like that of the hand worker. A strong arm or beam swings from side to side over this block. A skin is placed upon the block and the operator of the machine sets a die upon the leather, just as the hand worker would place a pattern upon it. He then swings the arm of the machine over the die, which is pressed through UPPER LEATHER DEPARTMENT 145 the leather by the automatic action of the machine. The arm then returns automatically to its full height. Dies may be used alternately as in hand work, so as to cut the skin economically. They are made in Upper Leather Cutting Room, Showing Clicking Machine, W. H. McElwain Company, Manchester, N. H. various designs and sizes with one die for each design and size. Thus it will be seen that machine cutting calls for a large number of dies. Each is about three-quarters of an inch in height, so that the oper- 1 46 THE SHOE INDUSTRY ator can see clearly where he is placing it upon the leather, and of such light weight as not to injure the leather. Cutting is done upon one thickness only. One movement of the arm of the machine, guided by the operator, accomplishes what it would take the hand cutter considerable time to do in passing his knife entirely around the edge of the. pattern. All pieces cut by a die must be identically the same, while in hand cutting there would necessarily be some variation in size. The dies used for the vamps mark the location of the toe cap and Blucher foxings that may be added later. The cut parts are treated as in hand work, and sent on to the next operations. The die-cutting machine is called the " clicking machine," and is one of the most important recent innovations in the making of shoes. An illustra- tion of this machine is on page 145. The Counting, Marking, and Skiving Department. In a small factory many of the minor operations of shoemaking are done in some part of the rooms in which the related major processes are performed. Such minor operations may employ but few people. In the larger factories, however, they become very important because of the large number of shoes made daily. They then employ many persons and are carried on in separate rooms and departments. Such is the department in which the counting, marking, and skiving of the pieces coming from the UPPER LEATHER DEPARTMENT 147 cutting room are done. The cutter, or some other employee in the cutting room, has marked only the top piece of each lot. In this department girls untie the lots, count them to see that the number called for by the tag is present, and mark the size Operating the Skiving Machine upon each part. The employees of this department, except for a machinist who has charge of the ma- chines, are regularly girls and women. The entire department is sometimes called the skiving depart- ment, from the chief process in it. Skiving. The edges of the upper leather which i 4 8 THE SHOE INDUSTRY are to show in the finished shoe are " skived," or beveled to a thin edge which can be folded in so as to give a more finished appearance to the completed shoe. This work is done by girls upon skiving ma- chines. Such edges on thick leather are sometimes stained the color of the leather itself instead of being skived. The skived edges are covered with a coating of cement, and placed in a machine which folds and presses them at the same time. Nicking. All curved edges of upper leather parts are nicked or cut with little notches by girls upon nicking machines. This is done so that such parts may be folded in evenly and smoothly in stitching the shoe. Sometimes edges which will show in the completed shoe are scalloped. Dieing Out Straps. Straps for Oxford shoes and button flies are usually died out by hand, by the use of a mallet, in this department, rather than by the cutter in the cutting room, where, being the smallest parts, they cause some delay in cutting. Positions in the Skiving Department. The posi- tions in the skiving department are, the Forewoman ; floor girls, who give out work, gather it up, and check it off as it leaves the room; counters and markers; skivers; nickers and scallopers; edge stainers, and the machinist. Assembling Department. The upper parts of the shoe come on trucks from the skiving room to UPPER LEATHER DEPARTMENT 149 the assembling department. Here are many boxes in which the lots are placed according to numbers, with four tags for each order, the tag for the outer, upper part of the shoe, for linings, for trimmings, and for tip. In each box are placed the parts necessary for the complete upper, by adding to each lot what its tag calls for. Linings are marked upon a stamping machine with size, width, and case num- ber. When all parts have been assembled they are divided for the various sections of the stitching room. For instance, quarter linings, top bands, button flies or side stays go to the tip-stitching sec- tion; tips go to the tip-stitching section; and the outside parts, vamps, vamp linings, and tongues, go to the vamping section. Positions in the Assembling Department. The positions in the assembling department are, the Foreman, floor girls, girls for casing up, for stamping linings, and for arranging tags in order of precedence, and a stock boy. Time and Pay Statistics in the Cutting Depart- ment. At the end of this and other chapters on factory departments are presented statistics se- lected from Bulletin Number two hundred sixty of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, show- ing average and classified full-time hours per week, and rates of wages per hour, and average full-time weekly earnings in boot and shoe manufacture 150 THE SHOE INDUSTRY throughout the country from 1907 to 1918, and by states for 191 8. The figures here given are for a selected number of establishments, but may be regarded as repre- sentative of the entire industry, as according to the census of 19 10 more than ninety-seven per cent of the total number of employees in the industry were found in the states from which the information was secured. Among other things, it will be observed by Table X, on pages 151 and 152, that hand cutters, whose work is more exacting than that of machine cutters, received in 191 8 forty-eight and four-tenths cents per hour, or $25.06 a week; while machine cutters received forty-four and four-tenths cents per hour, or $23.04 per week. It will be seen, also, that male skivers in 191 8 received forty- two and three-tenths cents an hour or $21.55 a week; while female skivers received twenty-six and seven-tenths cents an hour, or $14.73 a week. In Table XI on page 153, may be seen the variations of earnings in these opera- tions in the great shoe manufacturing centers of the country. UPPER LEATHER DEPARTMENT 151 Table X* Average and Classified Full-Time Hours per Week and Rates of Wages per Hour, and Average Full-Time Weekly Earnings, in the United States, by Years, 1907 to 1918. [The figures set opposite each group of years are for identical establishments. When a second line is shown for 1918 it contains all data secured for 1918 whether or not comparable data were available for 1017.] n 3 u Employees whose full-time hours a? per week were — O Q. g g-g O 3 ■V'S Occupation, sex. and number of a V — s £ ,2 ~B v T3 TT establishments r» 3 u rt E, 5 £ s "u & ^3 CO k, 3 t S4 ■* 1- 3 n 60 .0 g bo a i-. m S si (3 S"§ T3 O C a > < > < < > 3 O Cutting Department Cutters, vamp and whole shoe, hand, male: 20 establishments. . 1907 1908 1909 1910 919 907 907 852 54-9 54-8 54-7 54-7 $0,325 •332 •340 •345 $17.84 18.19 18.60 18.87 II 6 14 13 157 175 159 176 343 331 346 278 252 283 286 291 156 112 102 94 48 establishments. . 1910 1911 1,650 1,602 560 56.2 •319 •317 17.86 17-75 13 14 176 158 405 425 395 398 319 311 342 296 64 establishments. . 1911 1912 2,066 1,906 56.2 55-o •313 ■322 I7-50 17.63 217 158 162 589 720 587 272 384 323 348 212 71 establishments.. 1912 1913 1,995 1,987 55-0 54-5 ■322 •351 17.58 1905 242 231 162 224 738 803 297 364 336 313 220 52 68 establishments. . 1913 1914 i>923 i,757 54-5 S3-8 •352 .368 19.10 19.70 211 354 224 308 803 4°5 350 476 283 183 52 31 69 establishments. . 1914 1916 1,667 1,790 54-1 54-i .366 •379 19.70 20.42 271 255 318 335 393 481 435 468 195 193 55 58 106 establishments 1916 1918 2,257 2,192 53-9 52.0 ■375 .483 20.12 25.00 434 1,158 380 375 547 227 593 301 240 131 63 114 establishments 1918 2.319 52.0 .484 25.06 1,263 375 245 3°3 133 Cutters, vamp and whole shoe, machine, male: 1910 235 57.8 .301 .300 ■313 •319 13 70 98 54 34 55 49 57 57 55 09 69 54 1911 1912 270 300 5 17 17 59 113 69 87 85 29 24 33 establishments. . 1912 1913 490 549 55 55 8 3 •313 •323 17 17 36 77 29 32 24 27 186 213 41 117 124 121 86 39 35 establishments.. 1913 1914 528 568 55 55 5 I •322 .328 17 17 70 96 29 58 27 20 178 133 129 228 126 124 39 5 36 establishments. . 1914 1916 600 728 55 55 5 4 .323 •325 17 17 s 4 SO 37 37 20 24 131 172 253 336 154 152 5 7 * From Table A — Wages and Hours of Labor in the Boot ond Shoe Industry, iqoj to 1918. United States Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. 152 THE SHOE INDUSTRY Table X — Continued Occupation, sex, and number of establishments 4> 3 < 3 h <- u x> o P. B c$ u V £ < < 1916 974 54-9 $0,327 1918 1.130 52.1 •444 1918 1,202 52-2 •444 1910 74 54-7 .288 1911 79 54-7 ■314 1911 136 54-8 .292 1912 146 54-6 .289 1912 IS6 S4-7 .282 1913 134 54-5 •299 1913 123 54-3 .300 1914 107 54-2 •304 1914 93 54-1 .318 1916 92 54- 1 •33i 1916 91 S3- 6 ■329 1918 85 51.0 •437 1918 96 S°-9 •423 1907 74 56.1 .188 1908 70 56.5 .192 1009 79 S6-3 .191 igio 85 56.0 •195 1910 338 57-° • 175 1911 314 57-3 .176 1911 374 57-o .176 1912 345 SS-i .191 1912 371 SS-o •193 1913 439 54-0 .209 1913 439 54-6 .207 1914 402 54-o .211 1914 418 54-i .207 1916 466 54-2 .205 1916 571 S4-° .208 1918 623 Si-7 .266 1918 697 51.7 .267 $* Employees whose full-time hours per week were — 60 56 establishments. . 66 establishments. . Skivers, upper, machine, male: 12 establishments.. 28 establishments. . 32 establishments.. 22 establishments. . 19 establishments. . 18 establishments. . 23 establishments. . Skivers, upper, machine, female: 13 establishments.. 49 establishments. . 60 establishments. . 67 establishments. . 65 establishments.. 72 establishments.. 104 establishments 121 establishments $17.86 23.88 15-80 17-15 15.98 15-73 15-41 16.23 16.26 16.47 17.21 17.87 17.81 22.31 10.75 10.92 9.94 9-97 9-97 10.54 10.58 11.38 11.29 11-35 n. 16 11.09 11.23 13-71 in 2 618 ; 6 4 7 26 X 3I7 ^es s 4 5S 100 84 UPPER LEATHER DEPARTMENT 153 Table XI* Average and Classified Full-Time Hours per Week and Rates or Wages per Hour and Average Full-Tlme Weekly Earnings, by States, 1918. Occupation, sex, and State £.2 16 .a v > a < & is Cutting Department Cutters, vamp and whole shoe, hand, male: Illinois Maine Massachusetts Minnesota Missouri New Hampshire New Jersey New York Ohio Pennsylvania Wisconsin Other States Total Cutters, vamp and whole shoe, machine, male: Massachusetts Missouri New Hampshire New York Ohio Pennsylvania Other States Total Skivers, upper, machine, male: Massachusetts New York Other States Total 66 161 43 914 65 320 61 46 285 153 194 32 539 142 170 140 64 96 50.9 54-1 5I-I 54-7 5°-4 50.6 S5-o 51.6 54-6 55-4 54-5 54-4 52.0 S0.3 S2-8 52. 2 $0,552 •493 503 394 499 391 347 525 496 383 385 358 So. 484 •47° •347 .460 •449 •392 .308 .466 $0,444 .421 .641 •311 $0,423 $28.02 26.67 25.60 21-54 25.10 19.78 19.06 27.09 27.11 21.28 21.00 19-45 $25.06 2403 19.78 2317 21.94 21.58 16.86 25.26 $23-04 21.15 33-88 16.22 $21.55 *From Table C — Wages and Hours of Labor in the Bool and Shoe Industry: igo7 to iqiq. U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. i54 THE SHOE INDUSTRY Table XL* — Continued. Average and Classified Full-Time Hours per Week and Rates of Wages per Hour and Average Full-Time Weekly Earnings, by States 1918. Occupation, sex, and State "■5 a Cutting Department Skivers, upper, machine, female: Illinois Maine Massachusetts Minnesota Missouri New Hampshire New Jersey New York Ohio Pennsylvania Virginia Wisconsin Other States Total 8 55 52.0 S 17 54-o 43 208 51.8 3 24 53-3 12 80 52-4 9 76 50.2 3 11 54-5 - 13 79 5°-2 7 59 50.0 9 42 S2-S 3 IS 54-o 4 22 54-1 2 121 9 54-° 697 51-7 $0,240 .310 .286 .210 •249 .306 ■215 .296 •23s •234 .231 .221 .162 $0,267 $12.71 16.74 14.74 II. 18 13-02 15-36 11.67 14.81 n-73 12.39 12.48 "•95 8.72 $14-73 * From Table C. — Wages and Hours of Labor in the Boot and Shoe Industry: igoy to 1 gig. U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. CHAPTER IX THE STITCHING DEPARTMENT The stitching department is that division of the factory in which the outer parts of the upper of the shoe, the linings, and the trimmings are sewed to- gether upon machines, ready for putting upon the last. In some factories this division is called the " fitting room." Female employees generally work in this department, but at present men are being employed more and more on the vamping machines and other heavy parts of stitching. In a factory having 5,000 employees about 1,400 are found in the stitching department. The machines used in the stitching room are similar to the ordinary sewing machine used in the home. Variations in Stitching Room Processes. Methods and details in the stitching departments differ more than in the cutting and other departments of the shoe factory, because of the many parts composing the upper of the shoe. There are more processes involved in the making of women's shoes, with the constant striving after style and effect, than in men's shoes, in which plainness and serviceable qualities are desired. Processes may be modified, also, in 15s 156 THE SHOE INDUSTRY making children's and infants' footwear. Different kinds of shoes, as high, low, and pumps, require variations in the methods of sewing the various parts of the upper. Altogether the stitching department involves a large number of processes of minute detail A Division of the Stitching Room and possibility of variation. The generally pre- vailing methods are here presented. The Number and Divisions of the Parts to be Stitched. For the uppers of an ordinary pair of button boots, as an example, there are forty-four different pieces of material. The stitching is done upon many of these parts simultaneously before the THE STITCHING DEPARTMENT 157 upper is ready for lasting. The size is marked upon every part. The linings and the trimmings are given to one division of operators, the outsides to another, and the vamps and tips to still another division. All these parts meet again when each has been sewed, and are inspected and sent on to the lasting room. The Divisions of This Department. The natural divisions of this department are shown in the chart on page 158. They are, the Lining department, the tip department, closing and staying, foxing, top stitching, or closing on and top stitching, and the button hole, vamping, and toe closing department. The Lining Department. In the lining depart- ment various parts of the lining are pasted and sewed together in preparation for the tcp stitching depart- ment, where the lining as a whole will be sewed to the upper of the shoe. Each operation here spoken of may be a single process or may represent several minor processes. First the lining is closed or sewed in a seam, and taped, or stayed up and down the heel. The top band is sewed on. The button fly, which has a reinforcement in the man's shoe, is also stitched on. A lining is stitched upon the tongue for some shoes. The vamp lining is ce- mented merely to hold it in place for later sewing. Labels are stitched on the lining of the inside of the heel for Oxford shoes, and on the inside of the top 158 THE SHOE INDUSTRY CHART OF THE STITCHING DEPARTMENT STITCHING DEPARTMENT Lining Department Tip Department Closing and Staying Department Foxing Department Top Stitching Department Button Hole Department Vamping Department Toe Closing Department THE STITCHING DEPARTMENT 159 of the lining for boots. The more common kinds of boots, for instance, are, the button, the Polish, the Blucher; of low shoes, the Oxford and the pump. Positions in the Lining Department. The usual positions in the lining department of the stitching room are, the Superintendent, the forewoman, the inspector, operators on the closing of linings, on the staying of linings, on sewing of top bands, and on attaching labels, the floor girls, and a cripple girl who attends to all imperfect work. The Tip Department. The tip department is that section of the stitching room in which the tip receives special preparation for its place in the com- plete upper, and in which it is sewed to the vamp. Tips come from the cutting room tied in bunches separate from the other parts of the shoe. In the tip department they are skived, perforated, and fitted with linings according to use on particular vamps, or, in other words, on shoes of particular styles. Usually a box to give reinforcement and style to the tips is cemented inside of it before the lining is inserted, and before the tip is stitched to the vamp. The tip may be skived and folded in, perforated, nicked, scalloped, or plain, each process involved belonging to this department. The lining is cemented in, taped over seams, and pressed firmly in place upon a machine, and the whole is top- i6o THE SHOE INDUSTRY stitched on a machine, through leather and lining, just below the line of perforation. Then the tip ■■'■■' I m ^^HHH § Mil £-'-'} r; ! 1 "-•:;''] ^ " 1. 1 ' Operating the Tip Punching Machine is stitched above the perforation to the vamp of the upper; and this part of the upper is ready for the vamping department. THE STITCHING DEPARTMENT 161 Perforating. Perforating deserves special men- tion since it gives style to the tip, and is of itself an interesting process and a good example of intricacy in shoemaking processes. A series of ornamental perforations is stamped by a combination of small dies upon the " power tip press " or upon the " per- forating machine." The holes thus stamped take particular styles which are known in the shoe facto- ries by numbers. For instance, perforation " num- ber 69 " consists of a large hole and a small one alternating in a line near the edge of the tip, over the top, thus: O0O0O0, and " number 70 " consists of a large hole alternating with two small ones, thus: O00O00O. The size of the holes may vary. If you will look at the tip of your shoes you will probably find one of these styles or a variation of them. The machine feeds itself automatically, dieing the full perforation accurately at one stroke for each tip, as the tips pass through in line upon a moving band of paper, which prevents dulling the die. This machine is used also for perforating larger parts of shoes, such as vamps, foxings, and ornamental " winged tips." Positions in the Tip Department. The positions in the tip department are numerous and may be shown more clearly, as will other departments having many positions in the following pages, by a numbered 1 62 THE SHOE INDUSTRY list as follows, using the terms which are common in the factory: i. The Superintendent, in a large factory. 2. Forewoman. 3. Quality Inspector. 4. Lining Closers. 5. Stayers. 6. Toe Piece Ironers. 7. Tapers. 8. Reinforcers. 9. Tip Markers. 10. Toe Lining Reinforcers. n. Tip Pressers. 12. Vamp Pressers. 13. Vamp Perforators. 14. Box Cementers. 15. Stitchers of tongue to vamp. 16. Tip Perforators. 17. Tip Blackers. 18. Stitchers of tip and vamp. 19. Floor Girls. 20. Cripple Girls. 21. " Hustle Girls," who look up the dates upon the tags and keep orders moving in their proper sequence. The Closing and Staying Department. The clos- ing and staying department deals with cementing, THE STITCHING DEPARTMENT 163 sewing and securing the seams of the top of the upper, the part above the foxing and toe of all kinds of shoes, following the work done upon the linings and tips. First, the button fly is pressed, then closed or sewed to one quarter and the two quarters of the top are sewed together. The top piece is cemented on the inside of the large quarter, which bears the button fly, and the quarter is stayed. The top of the button Oxford is ironed out at the heel seam, and a reinforcement ironed upon the button fly. The Blucher Oxford is nicked and pressed. A paper reinforcement is ironed upon the inside of the top of the circular pump. Bows of various kinds and colors are made by the machines for Oxfords, and fastened upon them by a machine which drives a metal reinforcement into the bow. Canvas stays are put in the top of Oxfords. A long vamp is reinforced for eyelets, and a stay is cemented in when blind eyelets are to be inserted. Perforations are sometimes covered with imitation reinforcements on the inside, or stitched around the outside. Per- foration upon the top has tape placed on the inside and stitched underneath. Buckle straps and instep straps are attached to some styles of shoes. There are many such operations in this division of the stitching department, according to the par- ticular kinds of shoes made in a factory. Each style is kept separate in going through the depart- 1 64 THE SHOE INDUSTRY merit. Stitching machines are now made for use upon certain styles and parts of shoes only, special- ization in machinery extending to the most minute parts of processes throughout the factory. Positions in the Closing and Staying Department. The usual positions in this department are as follows: i. Forewoman, or assistants to foreman. 2. Inspectors. 3. Instructor. 4. Closers. 5. Label Girls and Cementers. 6. Button Fly Pressers. 7. Button Fly Reinforcers. 8. Stayers. 9. Toe Piece Reinforcers. 10. Cementers and Pressers. n. Floor Girl. 12. Checker Girl, who checks off all numbers of lots so that it may be known when the parts are all done and have gone to the next department. The Foxing Department. The foxing department is one of the smallest divisions of the stitching room. The foxing is a little piece of upper leather below the quarters on each side of the heel, put on all kinds of boots and Oxfords. Foxing is used on both the high and the low styles of footwear. It is both plain and ornamented, according to the style and quality THE STITCHING DEPARTMENT 165 of the shoe. Back straps and fly stays are stitched upon the quarters to which the foxing is attached, and then the foxing, ornamented with perforations in this department, if need be, is stitched upon the quarters, sometimes with one row of stitching and sometimes with two rows. The operations are the same with canvas as with leather uppers. The work when done and checked off on the day sheet goes to the top stitching department. The ordinary Polish shoe, not the Blucher, and the Oxford shoe, both Blucher and common, have a long vamp and no foxing. Several related or similar operations, also, are performed in the foxing department, such as sewing loops at the top of the back of the shoe, on men's shoes, and sewing on buckle straps. Positions in the Foxing Department. The usual positions here are these: 1 . Forewoman, or assistants to foreman. 2. Teacher. 3. Inspector. 4. Perforators. 10. Floor Girls. 5. Back Strap Stitchers. 11. Cripple Girls. 6. Side Stay Stitchers. 12. Checker Girls. 7. Binders. 8. Button Fly Face Stitchers. 9. Foxing Stitchers. 1 66 THE SHOE INDUSTRY The Top Stitching Department. The top stitching department is the division of the stitching room in which the tops, the leather upper part, coming from the foxing department, and the linings, from the lining department, are sewed together. Quarters and linings are first matched upon tables and tied together in bundles, according to tag numbers. This work is done by floor girls, who give the bundles thus matched to the machine operators. In some factories vamps are sewed on at the same time as the tops and linings are sewed together. The methods of the department vary, as in other sections of the factory, according to the style of shoes being made. Generally the quarters and lining are put together back to back, or wrong side out, and stitched along the edge of the top. Then the top is turned and the seam is pounded out so that the edge of the leather on the right side comes out true and flat. Then this part goes to the top stitcher, who sews it all around except at the bottom where the vamp is still to be attached. The side of the quarter on which the buttons are to be sewed on the button shoe is pinked or notched upon the edge in case of a raw edge of the lining and the leather sewed together. Usually in the case of canvas shoes vamp- ing is done in this department before top stitching. More men are found in this department than in the other divisions of the stitching room because the THE STITCHING DEPARTMENT 167 work is sometimes heavier and more exacting, calling for considerable strength when followed from day to day, as well as for skill. The parts must be sewed, carefully turned and thoroughly beaten, and sewed again in finished form, making altogether, perhaps, the most difficult work of the stitching room, and the department is the largest division of the stitching room. Positions in the Top Stitching Department. The positions in this section are the following: 1. Forewoman. 2. Teacher. 3. Inspector. 4. Operators of closing on machines. 5. Operators for turning and pounding top. 6. Top Stitchers. 7. Vampers. 8. Floor Girls. 9. Cripple Girls. The Button Hole Department. The button hole department includes the making of button holes and the inserting of eyelets. The tops of button and of lace shoes come from the top stitching department to this department. The small quarter under the button fly is pinked, and the fly is marked for button holes by means of a perforated pattern through which the places for buttons are marked by hand 1 68 THE SHOE INDUSTRY with a pencil or yellow crayon. Then the button holes are inserted by a power machine which cuts the hole and works it around at the same time. In eyeleting the upper is marked by hand for the eyelet. Then the eyelet is inserted on a machine. A machine has recently come into use which inserts eyelets in both sides of the top at the same time. In the case of " blind eyelets " a hole is stamped through the leather, lining, and reinforcement. The leather is then held back by the operator and the eyelets are stamped through the lining and the reinforce- ment, the leather only showing on the outside of the hole. In some factories blind eyelets are in- serted as a single process on an automatic machine. In men's high lace shoes hooks are inserted by a machine above the rows of eyelets. Raw edges are blacked or colored so as to make the edge of the lining resemble the leather. Pairs of tops are now examined for matching and are tagged by sizes ready for vamping. Positions in the Button Hole Department. The usual positions in the button hole section are as follows : i. Forewoman. 2. Teacher. 3. Inspector. 4. Quarter Pinkers. 5. Button Hole Markers. THE STITCHING DEPARTMENT 169 6. Button Hole Workers. 7. Machine Eyeleters. 8. Button Hole Finishers. 9. Button Hole Trimmers. 10. Operators for Cording the cloth button shoe. 11. Edge Blackers. 12. Girls for Matching and Tagging pairs. 13. Floor Girls. 14. Cripple Girls. The Vamping Department. The vamp is the lower, front part of the shoe upper. It is the most important part of the upper and should be cut from the best of leather. The " cut off vamp " extends only to the shoe tip. The whole vamp extends from toe to heel with a seam at the heel only. Vamping consists in stitching the vamp to the quarters of the top. While some vamping may be done in the top stitching department, the process itself is an important one, and is a separate section in a factory. Vamps are first centered by being folded and marked in the center of the throat. Then the vamp is stitched to the quarters, each style of shoe calling for its special process. Usually leather parts only are sewed, the lining being held back. Vamping is the most painstaking work of the stitching room and the best paying. Judgment and carefulness are absolutely essential to the operator. Three-fourths of the vampers are men. Hand 170 THE SHOE INDUSTRY strength is necessary in the heavier kinds of vamp- ing, to pull and hold parts in place while they are being stitched, and to guide the work through the machine. Positions in the Vamping Department. The few positions of the vamping department are, the Super- intendent, foreman, man instructor, inspector, vampers, floor girls, cripple girls, and checker. Lacing Uppers on the Ensign Lacing Machine The Toe Closing Department. The toe closing department is the final division of stitching. The toes of all linings are made in two pieces. When the toe closing department is reached tops and linings have been stitched together and vamps have been THE STITCHING DEPARTMENT 171 sewed to the tops. In the toe closing department the leather vamp is held back and the two parts of the toe lining, one being laid flat upon the other so as to avoid a thick seam, are doubled stitched. This is a quick and easy operation. Several other processes best done at this stage of shoemaking are performed in this department. In button shoes the side of the top which is to bear the buttons is marked for the buttons through the holes of the other side, by hand. Then the buttons are sewed on by a machine operator. Then comes the process of barring, or inserting a few stitches on a machine just below the buttons and above the vamp. Button Oxfords are fully buttoned, high button shoes only part way, in preparation for last- ing. Laced shoes are laced by hand or on a machine. Lots are made ready by tags and numbers for the lasters. Positions in the Toe Closing Department. The positions in this division are, the Superintendent, forewoman, inspector, toe closers, markers for but- tons, button sewers, operators of barring machines, girls for buttoning and lacing shoes, floor girls, cripple girls, and packers who sort cases of lots of shoes for lasting. Operating Stitching Machines. The stitching de- partment deserves special mention on account of its magnitude, intricate processes, and peculiar machines. 172 THE SHOE INDUSTRY Machine operators in the stitching room generally learn on inside work ; as linings, or by work upon cheaper leather parts, or by low grade work. In certain seasons of the year there is a transfer of operators from department to department, according to need. Some operators know how to run a number of machines, frequently being taught to run a second one as if just entering the factory. The difficulty of handling a power sewing machine, as of a power machine in general, is to know when to start and when to stop the machine. On all machines the start is made by pressing the toe, and the stop by pressing the heel. Sometimes a factory has a special room where not only the processes of stitching take place but all other processes as well, for the making of special " hurry orders " of shoes. Some automatic machines produce in operators, especially in the case of girls, the particular move- ment of the machine so that the operator responds to the motion, swinging" or jumping the entire body or exhibiting a nervous, spasmodic action. This is especially noticeable in running the barring ma- chine in which the part bearing the needle rises and springs towards the operator at each operation, and upon machines having an eccentric movement. In such cases operators are usually transferred in time to different or less injurious machines or processes. THE STITCHING DEPARTMENT 173 Table XII. * Average and Classified Full-Time Hours per Week and Rates of Wages per Hour, and Average Full-Time Weekly Earnings, in the United States, by Years, 1907 to 1918. Employees whose full-time ail "o 3 a aO hours per week were — u v. & 3 h Si 3='S 3 rt Occupation, sex, and -a T3 number of establish- V ■0°, a c- 3 a "" 0. M 0- t) U cS ir-. •0 J, a) {^ ments r* 6fi in i S w. ^f •+1- § M O fc" bt 3 > 5 -a S c \n C b"S SR"S -O < < 1* ^* > - O 3 £ 3 3 Fitting or Stitching Department Tip stitchers, fe- male: 36 establishments. . . . 1911 1912 134 137 55 55 8 2 $0,205 .216 $11.38 11.87 10 12 33 68 32 17 49 40 5 79 establishments.. . . 1912 1913 335 337 54 54 9 7 .208 .219 11.36 11.94 10 10 17 27 186 175 48 78 68 47 6 75 establishments... . 1913 1914 329 323 54 54 (> 1 .218 .218 11. 91 11.82 10 10 27 47 171 182 79 75 42 14 75 establishments. . . . 1914 1916 326 326 54 54 2 2 .218 .226 11. 81 12.24 10 11 47 47 170 180 82 7i 17 17 114 establishments.. . 1916 191S 1918 416 407 437 54 8 .230 12.64 14-95 14.86 23 195 213 56 74 74 241 Tl8 76 20 1 25 establishments. . . 51-8 .288 127 20 3 Backstay stitchers, female: 1907 igo8 1909 1910 81 78 91 95 56.6 56.5 56.3 56.2 .171 .186 .177 .179 9.6S 10.51 9-97 10.06 15 13 21 16 18 23 25 25 48 42 45 54 49 establishments. . . . 1910 1911 3°7 299 56.6 56.6 .177 .1S0 9-95 10.16 1 1 32 28 35 36 88 79 84 99 67 56 67 establishments.. . . 1911 1912 392 378 56.5 55-2 .185 .189 10.42 10.42 11 28 8 69 203 no 41 121 97 64 18 78 establishments 1912 1913 426 389 55- 1 54-7 .187 • 195 10.31 10.62 12 11 8 12 231 208 48 114 109 44 18 73 establishments... . 1913 1914 379 399 54-6 54-2 .192 .196 10.49 io.59 II 13 12 39 206 227 112 104 38 16 72 establishments.. . . 1914 1916 3Si 405 54-3 54.2 .198 .207 10.72 11.23 13 11 39 43 190 235 119 93 20 23 * From Table A. Wages and Bouts of Labor in the Boot and Shoe Industry: iqo? to iqi8. U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. 174 THE SHOE INDUSTRY TABLE XII — Continued Employees whose full-time s-* ° 3 S M hours per week were — M 51 *i Is « 8 •2 S Occupation, sex, and -a ■s» ■"d \o number of establish- V .no ~ft. at. in -a "■> p3 i^ ments '^ 1-. 3 00 u 1H in a) ^ ^ 3 o ^ Fitting DR STITCHINC Department Backstay stitchers, female: in establishments... 1916 1918 1918 536 S°o S60 S4-o 51.8 Si-9 .211 .264 .261 11. 41 13-62 13-49 35 251 276 61 6t 308 164 192 108 24 24 24 124 establishments.. . 61 7 Lining makers, fe- male: 1907 1908 1909 1910 124 112 122 1 54 56.2 56.1 56-0 55-9 ■175 .165 • 173 .163 9.84 9.26 9.69 9.11 24 24 28 33 44 42 46 55 56 46 48 66 S3 establishments. . . . 1910 1911 585 576 56.5 56.5 .164 .162 9.19 9.08 2 3 88 81 76 75 "145 162 141 154 133 101 72 establishments.. . . 1911 1912 721 706 56.5 55-o .166 .171 9.28 9-36 21 81 39 136 373 igo 85 189 161 125 27 80 establishments 1912 1913 764 854 S5-o 54-6 .170 .190 9-3i 10.38 21 29 39 47 391 469 98 199 188 no 27 76 establishments.. . . 1913 1914 833 804 54-5 53-9 .190 .188 10.31 10.15 29 52 47 134 457 409 199 177 101 32 76 establishments.. . . 1914 1916 796 769 54-1 54-1 .190 .200 10.24 ict.78 52 51 134 97 366 409 197 *S5 47 57 120 establishments.. . 1916 1918 1918 961 53-9 5i-5 5i-5 .198 .242 .241 10.68 12.42 12.35 91 615 669 118 53i 297 320 164 57 132 establishments.. . 1,138 no 33 6 Closers-on. female: 18 establishments.. . . 1907 1908 1909 1910 104 100 101 95 55-3 S5-i SS-i S5-o .200 .190 .207 .198 11.06 10.47 1 1. 41 10.89 17 20 19 23 25 21 19 19 34 41 45 34 28 18 18 19 49 establishments. . . . 1910 1911 262 277 57- 1 57-i .178 .178 10.13 10.09 I I 23 5 34 36 57 89 60 72 87 74 65 establishments... . ign 1912 35o 33i S6.9 54-9 .180 .187 10.18 10.21 15 5 16 62 178 108 36 88 7i 87 IS 74 establishments. . . . 1912 1913 344 349 55-o 54-4 .186 .194 10.17 10.53 15 18 16 17 182 206 40 73 76 35 IS THE STITCHING DEPARTMENT 175 TABLE XII. — Concluded V Employees whose full-time S-* "8g ■5 c hours per week were — Occupation, sex, and H s & 3 u -A 3 3 c3 -0 is T3 number of establish- ments !* 6 0. , 5 F && g 2 £l£> 00 t. ■* ■* Jj 'A « P3 > a <3 u S 3 to C ^"O fcfl <"= < % <* > 3 O 3 > 3 O 3 Fitting or Stitching Department 69 establishments. . . . IQI.S 337 54-4 .191 io-39 14 17 203 73 3° — 1914 325 53-8 • 193 10.36 28 54 170 63 10. . . . 51 establishments.. . . 1914 259 53-8 • 195 10.51 28 36 124 60 11... . 1916 249 53-8 .199 10.69 18 38 153 30 10. . . . 68 establishments.. . . igi6 3°5 53-4 .201 10.77 38 54 180 26 7 — 1918 287 52.1 • 235 12.24 4 113 45 i°3 20 90 establishments. . . . 1918 3Si 52.0 • 237 12.28 5 155 47 "S 29 5.... 176 THE SHOE INDUSTRY Table XIII. * Average and Classified Full-Time Hours per Week and Rates of Wages per Hour, and Average Full-Time Weekly Earnings, in the United States, by Years, 1907 to 1918. Employees whose full-time > =3 £ 3 h =11 T3 (3 M c3 10 £3 t^ c« in number of establish- V ,2 E u O. OJ 0, ^ a) T30 ments bOjn 2 <5 S < * CO n B fr! *fr •*>- g g -S £* 3 Fitting or Stitching Department Top stitchers or un- der-trimmers, female: 17 establishments.. S3 establishments. . . . 73 establishments.. . . 82 establishments. . . . 77 establishments.. . . 77 establishments.. . . 1 23 establishments. . . 135 establishments... Button fasteners, female: 26 establishments. . . . 72 establishments.. . . 66 establishments. . . . 60 establishments. . . . 51 establishments.. . . 64 establishments.. . . 1907 1908 1909 1910 1910 1911 1911 1912 1912 1913 1913 1914 1914 1916 1916 1918 1918 1911 1912 1912 1913 1913 1914 1914 1916 1916 1918 1918 144 156 164 721 742 911 95° 1,033 1,070 1,033 1,005 1,004 1,101 1.392 1,262 1,364 205 232 136 85 S6.3 S6.3 S6.3 56.0 S6.9 56.8 S6.7 54-9 54-9 54-6 54-5 54-1 54-1 54-1 54-o 5i-5 51.6 5°-4 55-9 55-3 54-8 54-7 53-7 53-7 53-9 53-7 32-7 $0,185 .190 .196 .200 .198 .210 .211 .211 .212 .214 .220 .287 .285 $10.42 10.70 11.03 11.20 10.69 10.83 IO-95 10.82 10.81 11.47 11.46 H-39 11.46 n-55 11.84 14.61 9.78 IO-9S 10.70 10.57 10.32 11.28 11.30 n-95 12.06 30 31 31 32 in 109 183 521 572 573 558 524 5°9 61 2 811 358 169 26 203 165 185 27 * From Table A. Wages and Hours of Labor in the Bool and Shoe Industry IQ07 to iqi8. U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. THE STITCHING DEPARTMENT TABLE XIII. — Continued 177 Employees whose full-time £•? 3 5 to hours per week were — "S 8 'J 0) - & i> O •-.a Occupation, sex, and number of establish- ments js - E 3 >-. so v. bo" 2 8 t> 60 ,3 S «3 T3 e » 00 1- *-8 * a) 53 mT3 ■* 3 t^ cs J; <"* < * < * > 3 3 > 3 3 Fitting or Stitching Department Buttonhole makers, female: 33 establishments. . . . 1911 1912 108 168 56.3 55-4 .176 .180 9-83 9.96 2 17 29 79 23 8 48 64 6 74 establishments. . . . 1912 1013 468 51/ 55- 1 54-7 .180 ■ 194 9.87 10.60 12 6 27 41 257 306 41 70 in 94 20 71 establishments.. . . 1913 1914 489 477 54-6 53-8 .192 .200 10.50 10.76 6 46 41 99 302 231 69 70 71 31 73 establishments. . . . 1914 1916 484 369 53-9 54-o .196 ■ 213 10.55 11.50 46 26 99 79 223 193 78 45 38 26 76 establishments.. . . 1916 1918 362 133 53-7 52-2 .214 .261 11.49 1361 39 56 79 13 175 56 57 S 12 82 establishments.. . . 1918 140 52.2 .262 1362 59 13 5S 8 2 Eyeleters, female: 92 establishments. . . . 1918 223 51-7 .268 13.64 115 38 57 13 Vampers, male: 13 establishments.. . . 1907 1908 1909 1910 167 99 15° 134 54-9 55-2 54-6 54-5 .318 .287 .287 .294 17.46 1584 1567 16.02 7 18 58 48 119 41 5i 46 9 15 21 18 32 25 20 22 33 establishments.. . . 1910 1911 263 249 55-5 55-7 • 293 •303 16.24 16.88 48 21 67 69 63 81 57 S3 28 25 Si establishments.. . . 1911 1912 343 435 55-5 54-9 ■315 310 17.42 16.97 15 21 56 138 199 94 57 61 93 29 15 66 establishments. . . . 1912 1913 483 554 55o 54-8 .306 .320 16.76 17-47 15 12 56 74 215 227 67 164 112 72 18 S 57 establishments.. . . 1913 1914 53i 5i5 54-7 54-5 •320 •315 17.44 17-13 12 6 74 89 225 195 1 S3 187 62 36 5 2 S3 establishments. . . . 1914 1916 479 496 54-5 54-7 •3" •332 16.95 18.12 6 7 91 73 188 205 149 146 39 56 6 9 69 establishments. . . . 1916 1918 586 S07 54-7 51.6 •334 •447 18.20 23-OS 13 307 58 89 241 64 210 21 55 23 9 3 83 establishments.. . . 1918 573 51-5 .442 22.73 366 90 69 22 23 3 178 THE SHOE INDUSTRY Table XIII. — Concluded 8 .13 SO tn S3 |i so" 2 a, £ B so ■J3 S j/3 "3 8 fap>> II Employees whose full-time hours per week were — Occupation, sex, and number of establish- ments 13 a H 00 u > 3 O 10 a 3 ■* -a §£ * u > 3 O _. B u 3 Fitting or Stitching Department] Vampers, female: 22 establishments.. . . 1907 1908 igog 1910 3SI 321 391 366 55-7 55-9 55-5 55-5 .246 .242 •253 •257 13-70 13-53 14.04 14.26 4 3 5 6 54 18 77 39 56 60 66 67 105 ng 123 129 132 121 120 125 S3 establishments. . . . 1910 1911 863 909 56.9 56.7 .238 .238 13.46 13-43 20 26 39 45 125 138 206 229 241 268 232 203 71 establishments.. . . ign 1912 1,124 1,019 S6.5 5S-i .238 •233 13.46 12.84 21 15 45 66 191 546 291 107 315 237 26l 48 79 establishments.. . . igi2 1913 1,088 1,072 5S.-I 54-7 .231 .246 12.68 13-45 15 14 66 72 575 620 121 216 263 150 48 77 establishments.. . . 1913 1914 1,052 1,037 54-6 53-9 .246 .244 13.40 13-13 14 80 72 181 620 513 216 209 130 54 75 establishments.. . . 1914 1916 1,027 1,065 S4-o 54-i .242 ■252 i3-°6 13-61 80 44 181 185 468 580 245 182 S3 74 114 establishments.. . 1916 1918 1,351 i,3S3 53-9 51.6 ■ 253 •313 l3-6o 16.15 108 ' 716 245 166 73° 409 191 62 77 132 establishments.. . 1918 1,477 51.7 .312 16. 11 777 166 447 62 25 THE STITCHING DEPARTMENT 179 Table XIV. * Average and Classified Full-Time Hours per Week and Rates of Wages per Hour, and Average Full-Time Weekly Earnings, by States, 1018. Occupation, sex, and State Number of estab- lishments Number of employ- ees Average full-time hours per week Average rate of wages per hour Average full-time weekly earnings Fitting or Stitching Department Tip stitchers, female: Maine Massachusetts. . . . Missouri New Hampshire. . . New Jersey New York Ohio Pennsylvania Wisconsin Other States 9 5 45 12 7 4 13 9 9 4 8 31 24 178 36 25 9 38 32 30 14 20 51.8 54-o 51-6 52.9 50.8 53-7 50.1 50.0 53-o 54-3 53-6 $0,283 •339 .312 .214 •321 .228 ■341 •259 .228 .229 • 223 $14.47 18.28 15.98 11. 21 16.32 12.21 17.10 12.96 12.12 12.38 U-95 Total 125 437 51.8 So. 288 $14.86 Backstay stitchers, female: 9 4 49 3 12 7 10 9 9 4 8 46 15 213 7 60 48 48 31 51 19 22 52.6 54-0 51.6 52.8 53-1 50.3 49.9 50.0 52-7 54-5 54-0 294 286 247 211 294 291 239 207 231 244 15.85 14.74 I3-C5 Massachusetts. . . . Minnesota New Hampshire.. . New York Ohio 14.76 14-39 Pennsylvania .... Wisconsin Other States 10.96 12.56 13-15 Total 124 560 51 Q $0,261 $13-40 Lining makers: 9 4 51 3 II 9 4 14 9 9 3 6 77 37 4°3 25 11S 96 14 129 108 88 18 25 51-4 54-0 511 53-6 52.2 50.6 54-1 50.4 50.0 53-3 54-o 54-4 • 236 .278 .263 •215 .189 .249 .200 .277 .219 .201 .185 .184 15-03 13-44 11.49 9-83 12.56 10.80 13-94 10.94 io.73 Massachusetts. . . . Minnesota New Hampshire. . . New York Ohio Pennsylvania Other States 10.02 Total 132 1,138 Si-5 $0,241 $12.35 * From Table C. — Wages and Hours of Labor in the Boot and Shoe Industry: igo7 to iqi8. U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. i8o THE SHOE INDUSTRY Fitting or Stitching Department — Continued Occupation, sex, and State Number of estab- lishments Number of employ- ees Average full-time hours per week Average rate of wages per hour Average full-time weekly earnings Closers-on, female: 9 3° 13 10 8 4 16 27 81 59 63 52 19 50 52.9 51-7 52.4 . 5°-2 52.8 53-9 52.4 .249 .264 .206 •259 •199 .222 .238 13-07 1367 10.75 12.94 10.57 1193 12.49 Massachusetts .... New York Pennsylvania Total 90 35i 52.0 ■237 12.28 Top stitchers or un- der-trimmers, fe- male: 8 S 52 3 13 9 4 14 9 9 3 4 2 65 70 487 23 175 151 15 164 94 60 20 3° 10 53-2 54-0 51-4 53-1 52.6 S°-4 54-2 49-7 5°o 53 -o 54-o 54-5 54-o ■ 279 .317 •305 .260 .222 •314 .230 .322 .263 .224 .273 .217 .190 Massachusetts .... 15-66 13.83 10.78 New Hampshire. . . New York Ohio 15-79 12.49 15-97 13.14 H-93 14.74 11.85 10.26 Other States Total 135 1,364 516 $0,285 $14.57 Button fasteners, fe- male: Massachusetts.. . Missouri Ohio 18 9 6 6 8 17 26 13 8 6 21 28 52.1 53-1 49.8 50.0 53-8 53-7 .237 .209 .280 .262 .203 .231 12.37 11.04 13-79 Pennsylvania Other States 10.95 12.36 Total 64 102 52.7 $0,230 $12.06 Buttonhole makers, female: 8 27 8 7 3 10 5 7 3 4 9 42 17 8 5 18 6 22 4 9 53-1 5i-7 53-3 5 to 55-0 5°o 5°.o 53-6 53.8 53-3 .220 .279 •234 •325 .202 .261 .230 •254 .228 •303 11.65 Massachusetts.. . . . Missouri New Hampshire. . . Ohio 14-43 12.39 16.45 11. 11 13-01 11.48 Other States I3-67 12.27 16.19 Total 82 140 52.2 $0,262 $13-62 THE STITCHING DEPARTMENT 181 Fitting or Stitching Department — Continued Occupation, sex, and State Number of estab- lishments Number of employ- ees Average full-time hours per week Average rate of wages per hour Average full-time weekly earnings Eyeleters, female: Massachusetts.. . . Missouri New Hampshire. . . Ohio Pennsylvania Other States..... . 37 3 13 S IO 7 S 4 8 83 7 34 12 31 16 20 10 10 51-9 53-6 52-3 50.3 50.2 50.0 5°-7 540 54-2 .283 .285 .232 .291 •317 .272 .198 .223 .266 14.68 I5-3I 12.06 14.67 14.42 13.58 10.13 12.02 14.42 Total 92 223 51-7 $0,268 $13.64 Vampers, male: S 3 39 7 7 3 9 4 6 37 14 380 20 53 7 36 13 13 S0.3 55-3 512 54-1 50.1 53-3 50.9 57-3 540 Maine Massachusetts. . . . Missouri New Hampshire.. . New York Pennsylvania Other States 482 449 38l 415 331 530 394 323 26.73 22.95 20.23 20.84 17.62 27.04 22.65 17.46 Total 83 573 51-5 $0,442 $22.73 Vampers, female: Illinois Maine Massachusetts. . . . Minnesota Missouri New Hampshire. . . New Jersey New York Ohio Pennsylvania Virginia Wisconsin Other States 9 S Si 3 12 9 3 13 9 9 3 4 2 93 87 4°9 41 187 140 IS 171 137 106 28 45 18 53-5 54-0 Si-5 53-4 52.4 50.3 55° 50.0 500 52.6 54-0 53-7 54-0 .284 .381 •339 .258 .298 .362 .240 ■344 •253 •243 .220 .302 .174 15-14 20.57 17-43 13-77 15-55 18.18 1318 17.12 12.64 12.83 11.88 16 15 9-38 Total 132 1-477 51-7 $0,312 $16.11 CHAPTER X THE SOLE LEATHER DEPARTMENT Its Nature. As the upper leather department is sometimes called upper stock fitting, so the sole leather department is often called bottom stock fitting. It deals with the preparation of the bottom parts of the shoe. These are: i. Soles. 2. Insoles. 3. Counters. 4. Toe Boxes. 5. Heels. The Preparation of Sole Leather Parts. These parts may all be prepared in # specialized factories and sold to shoe factories, or large shoe concerns may themselves have special departments for the preparation of these parts from the sides of sole leather. Briefly, in either case the sole leather is dampened by dipping it in water to make it cut more easily, and the desired parts are cut out in the rough by means of dies in "dieing-out machines." The shoe factory, when buying such parts, usually buys them in this condition. The cut parts are then THE SOLE LEATHER DEPARTMENT 183 made to conform nearly to the desired shape for shoemaking by rounding them in the " rounding machine." This machine uses a pattern of the required shape and by means of a knife cuts around the sole in conformity with the pattern. The out- sole is passed through a heavy rolling machine to press the fibers very closely together, so as to in- crease the wear of the shoe as did the hammering of the old time shoemaker. The sole is then passed through a splitting machine which reduces it to an even thickness. The insole, or inner sole, is made in the same way as the outer sole but of lighter leather. These and other parts of the shoe bottom will be spoken of again in the following pages. The Division of Bottom Stock Fitting. There are three important divisions in the bottom stock fitting or sole leather department. That dealing with the divisions of the insole depends upon two special methods of shoemaking as described in Chapter VIII. The three divisions are the following: 1. McKay Insole Division. 2. Welt Insole Division. 3. Outer Sole Division. The McKay Insole Department. In the making of McKay insoles material is usually bought in roughly blocked form. Since light leather is used regularly for the inner sole in this method of shoe- 1 84 THE SHOE INDUSTRY making the blocks are first dipped in a solution of glue, so that when dried they will become somewhat hardened and strengthened. They are then died out or dinked upon a machine in sizes and widths, with a full set for each style of shoe to be made. They are cased up by girls, according to the accompanying tags. Positions in the McKay Insole Department. The few positions here are, the Foreman, girls for dipping the insoles in glue, dinkers or operators of dieing out machines, girls for casing up soles, and a checker girl. There may be other operations in this division, such as " stitch slashing " and reinforcing the heels of insoles. The Welt Insole Department. Inner soles made by the welt method are of two kinds, leather and reinforced. The all-leajher sole must be of good quality, and at least of a standard thickness. The reinforced sole may be of poorer quality and thinner, yet of a fixed standard. In such soles the leather is reinforced or strengthened by a covering of canvas cemented firmly upon it. For welt insoles the leather is bought in full side stock, that is, uncut, and in the rough block form. The soles are first dinked out as in the McKay division, and sizes are stamped upon the heels by hand. Then the heel seat is cut across in a machine to indicate the posi- tion of the front of the heel. Girls usually perform this operation because of their quickness of hand. THE SOLE LEATHER DEPARTMENT 185 One person may cut the heels of 10,000 insoles in a day. This is a good illustration of a process in which scarcely more than one simple motion is involved. Channeling. The purpose of the welt method is to give a smooth, even inner sole in the finished shoe. To effect this the sole must be either pasted in or attached on its under surface. The latter is ac- complished by passing the insole through the Good- year channeling machine which makes incisions, or a double " lip," with two knives acting at the same time. A slit about one-half inch deep is cut from within along the edge of the insole. Then the channel thus made is opened up on a lip-turning machine, forming a ridge around the outer edge. The welt is later sewed to this lip or shoulder. Slashing. The welt inner sole is sometimes slashed or cut across the ball of the foot on the under side, to make it flexible. Wetting. Leather inner soles are passed through heavy rollers, in which they are wet and compressed at the same time. They are now sorted and packed to go to the lasting room. Randing. The rand is a strip of leather made thin at one edge. It is attached to the heel part of the sole, or later to the heel itself, so as to fill what would otherwise be an open space between the sole and the heel. Reinforced Insoles. The reinforced insole is 1 86 THE SHOE INDUSTRY characterized by lightness and strength. Soles which are to be thus treated are first died or stamped out as in other cases. They are channeled with a single lip which is turned up to indicate the place of the canvas reinforcement. They may be slashed and dampened as in the case of the leather sole. They are then dried under a large fan or in a blower, having been cemented by a brush on the surface inside the lip. The Canvas Reinforcement. A large roll of canvas of suitable width is run through a cement box and over a great reel, one side of the canvas only being wet with cement. The canvas dries upon the reel, is taken off in a roll, and cut in the proper reinforce- ment lengths, which are later fitted by hand upon the leather insole of the lip and " formed " or rubbed thoroughly into the space by a machine. The sur- plus canvas is then trimmed off at the edge of the lip. The soles are then cleaned, inspected, sorted, and packed up for the lasting room. Positions in the Welt Insole Department. The positions in this department, including those already indicated and several others which may be found in most factories, are as follows: i. The Superintendent. 2. Foremen. z. Assistant Foremen. THE SOLE LEATHER DEPARTMENT 187 4. Quantity Man, who makes a study of the volume of work done in the department. 5. Quality Man ; who inspects work for quality. 6. Dinkers and Stampers. 7. Heel Markers and Cutters. 8. Channelers. 9. Slashers. 10. Lip Cutters. 11. Lip Turners. 12. Toe Cutters. 13. Wetters and Cementers. 14. Heel Counters. 15. Randers. 16. Canvas Cutters. 17. Canvas Attachers. 18. Canvas Formers. 19. Canvas Trimmers. 20. Sorters and Packers. 21. Floor Boy. The Outer Sole Department. The treatment of outer soles is largely like that given to inner soles. The main processes are much the same with a few additional processes and features. Outer soles are first cut into the rough block form and are then dinked out, or " rounded " by being cut by pattern upon a machine. Sizes are stamped upon the heel. They are shanked out and the heel seat is smoothed 1 88 THE SHOE INDUSTRY by a machine. They are then wet and moulded upon a high pressure machine to the shape of the shoe bottom, being at the same time hardened by the pressure. A feather edge is given to the fore' part and heel seat of the soles which are to be treated by the McKay process. Channels are cut and turned in those to be treated by the welt process. Positions in the Outer Sole Department. The posi- tions, in this department, from the superintendent down, are practically the same as those of the insole department, on page 186, with the exception of cementers and canvas workers. The Counter Department. As has been said already, small parts of the shoe, such as the counter, toe box, and heel, presented briefly at this place, are largely manufactured in special factories and pur- chased in quantity by the shoe companies. Large factories, however, or shoe manufacturing companies operating a number of factories, usually have de- partments for making their own counters, toe boxes, heels, and other minor parts. Opportunities for employment in the specialized factories depend mainly upon the magnitude of manufacture, the large number of parts turned out daily requiring little skill but many hands in the making. The counter is a stiffening in the back part of the shoe between the leather and the lining, and lasted with the rest of the top to the bottom of the shoe. THE SOLE LEATHER DEPARTMENT 189 Its purpose is to prevent running over at the heel. It is made of sole leather, leatherboard, leather fiber, or similar substance that may be easily worked and yet left firm after treatment, and sometimes of metal in the case of heavy shoes. The counter is died out and its edges skived thin. It is treated with shellac or glue and molded into shape. The Toe Box Department. The toe box is a re- inforcement placed in the toe of the shoe to give permanency of shape or a distinctive style. It is usually made of sole leather, but it may be made of leatherboard, pasteboard, canvas, linoleum, celluloid, or of other materials which can be easily worked and made to retain their shape. The box is died out, skived upon the part above the toe, soaked in shellac or gum so as to be stiff when dry, and usually molded to the desired form, ready for use in the lasting room. The Heel Department. In Chapter XIV, upon the terms used in shoemaking, an explanation is given of the heel and its varieties. So it is necessary here to speak only of the materials and processes of its manufacture. Heels are usually made of the poorer parts of sole leather, including the remnants from counters and toe boxes, leatherboard, " hydite," or other leather substitutes, and of wood. i go THE SHOE INDUSTRY The Processes of Making Heels. The leather is first " fitted/' which consists of skiving and rolling. It is skived by being run through a machine to give it an even thickness, and rolled to make it hard and firm. It is then weighed and given to the cutter. Each operator on the cutting or dinking machine has five or six dies and cuts the leather as economically as possible into various sizes for heel lifts. These are then sorted by hand into four grades, and put into bins according to sizes, ready for " heel building." The heel builder receives a tag calling for so many heels of a certain size and and gets from the bins the lifts required by the size. The lifts are placed one upon another, by a gradation of sizes, up to the height necessary for the heel. The pile is pasted or glued and a nail is driven through by a machine to hold it firmly together. Many of these piles, or heels in the rough form, are put upon boards and placed in the fiat press where they remain for twenty-four hours under high pressure. They are then put into a compressing machine which molds them into any desired shape. After this rands are tacked upon them, when not first attached to the heel seat, so that they will fit closely upon the heel seat of the sole of the shoe. Then the front part or breast of the heel is cut off smoothly, as this can be done better before the heel is attached. Heels are then sorted, gauged for height, trimmed THE SOLE LEATHER DEPARTMENT 191 upon their edges, put into bags, and stored away until called for by the making department. A top piece, or lift of superior leather is put upon the heel later in the making department. Positions in Heel Making. The usual positions in a heel factory or in the heel department of a modern shoe factory are as follows: 1. The Superintendent. 2. Assistant Superintendent. 3. Foreman. 4. Assistant Foreman. 5. Skivers. 6. Rollers. 7. Cutters. 8. Weighers. 9. Heel Lift Sorters. 10. Heel Lift Gaugers 11. Heel Builders. 12. Flat Press Men. 13. Rand Makers. 14. Rand Tackers. 15. Compressors. 16. Heel Sorters. 17. Heel Repairers. 18. Lumpers. Employees in the Sole Leather Department. The heavier processes in this department and the larger 192 THE SHOE INDUSTRY machines require men as operators, but the many lighter processes and the handling of small parts make possible the employment of large numbers of boys and girls and women. In the average factory this department usually has about an even division of male and female employees, standing next to the stitching room in its proportion of the latter. THE SOLE LEATHER DEPARTMENT 193 Table XV. * Average and Classified Full-Time Hours per Week and Rates of Wages per Hour, and Average Full-Time Weekly Earnings, in the United States, by Years, 1907 to 1918. Occupation, sex, and number of establish- ments x> o So. 3 S ~ & ■H v D O. v ho S to Jj'g Employees whose full-time hours per week were — CO ,. Sole Leather Department Cutters, outsole, male: 1907 1908 1909 1910 5o 47 49 54 54-8 54-5 54-5 54-4 $0,314 .308 •307 •309 $17.21 16.79 16.81 38 35 37 42 5 10 10 10 7 2 2 2 31 establishments. . . . 1910 143 S6.6 5* 1 • 274 15-44 15-62 I5.70 16.09 48 29 46 39 39 48 20 t6 1911 1912 146 161 56.6 56.4 .278 .286 43 56 43 34 2 21 42 establishments. . . . 1912 1913 177 196 562 55-4 .281 .303 15-75 16.69 2 16 66 83 39 46 49 51 21 38 establishments. . . . 1913 1914 186 175- 5S-2 54-8 •304 .313 16.75 17.12 2 16 9 83 88 42 ss 45 10 "8 38 establishments. . . . 1914 1916 205 219 55-o 5S-0 •304 .310 16.71 17.02 2 2 3 4 87 9S 89 89 13 18 11 11 63 establishments. . . . 1916 1918 324 374 54-5 52.3 .30J •4°5 16.57 21.07 35 148 9 41 97 107 158 67 18 11 7 76 establishments. . . . 1918 416 52. 1 •405 21.02 181 42 no 72 II Channelers, insole and outsole, male: 10 establishments. . . . 1907 1908 1909 1910 23 23 23 23 55-1 55-i 54-7 54-7 .283 .296 ■306 .300 15.50 16.31 16.74 16.41 4 4 4 4 8 8 10 10 2 2 2 2 9 9 7 7 44 establishments. . . . 1910 1911 138 140 56.3 56.2 .296 .306 16.61 17.12 4 4 7 7 39 37 22 31 48 48 18 13 57 establishments. . . . 1911 1912 157 149 56.3 55-5 .289 .296 l6. 21 l6.35 7 12 46 61 38 30 45 39 21 7 7S establishments. . . . 1912 1913 200 196 55-9 55-4 .298 ■3S3 16.62 18.42 12 17 63 71 52 59 57 44 16 5 * From Table A. — Wages and Hours of Labor in the Bool and Shoe Industry: IQ07 to 1 918. U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. 194 THE SHOE INDUSTRY TABLE XV - -Concluded *o 8 £> O § E X % 3 u ft M .r. a a '■2 S Jj'8 .2 s g.3 Employees whose full-time hours per week were — Occupation, sex, and number of establish- ments T3 d h CS vo oo u u d > 3 O d t, 1/5 C 3 -3" T3 d r~ f £} ■* n oj d > 3 O o d ►, 3 Sole Leather Department 69 establishments 1913 1914 190 194 55-4 SS-o •335 •337 18.48 18.51 3 17 26 70 48 56 84 40 29 7 4 70 establishments. . . . 1914 1916 202 197 55-1 55-2 .328 ■336 18.02 18.51 6 6 26 23 49 48 79 76 34 35 8 9 99 establishments. . . . 1916 1918 23S 225 54-6 52.6 •332 •431 18.24 22.54 13 95 24 30 55 37 108 47 25 15 10 1 r22 establishments. . . 1918 268 52.5 •43o 22.42 122 32 42 52 19 1 THE SOLE LEATHER DEPARTMENT 195 Table XVI.* Average and Classified Full-Time Hours per Week and Rates of Wages per Hour, and Average Full-Time Weekly Earnings, by States 1918. Occupation, sex, and State Number of establish- ments Number of employees Average full-time hours per week Average * rate of wages'per hour Average full-time weekly earnings Sole Leather Department Cutters, outsole, male: Massachusetts. . . . Missouri New York Ohio Pennsylvania Other States 31 3 10 S 7 17 149 7i 67 24 16 89 51 53 48 55 55 52 8 5 8 5 1 8 $0 405 420 426 394 344 39° $20.90 22.48 20.71 21.91 18.91 20.43 Total 76 416 52.1 $0,405 $21.02 Channelers, insole and outsole, male: Illinois Maine Massachusetts. . . . Missouri New Hampshire. . . New York Ohio 9 4 44 II 9 12 8 9 16 16 12 113 23 22 27 16 17 22 5i 54 51 54 51 51 55 55 54 9 6 4 2 5 1 3 3 7 376 453 479 371 462 419 344 348 371 19.38 24.71 24-52 19.92 23-53 21-35 19.00 19.26 20.32 Pennsylvania Other States Total 122 268 $22.42 * From Table C. — Wages and Hours of Labor in the Bool and Shoe Industry: IQ07 to iqi8. U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. CHAPTER XI THE MAKING DEPARTMENT Its Nature. This department is called also the bottoming department and the " gang " room, the last name arising from the earlier custom of work in this department under the gang system. Here the uppers of shoes, prepared in the cutting room and stitching room, and the soles, fitted in the sole leather room, are brought together, lasted and made into shoes ready for finishing. This department falls into natural divisions as follows: i. The Lasting Department. 2. The Welt Bottoming Department. 3. The McKay Bottoming Department. 4. The Heeling Department. 5. The Turn Shoe Department. 6. The Standard Screw, Nailed, or Pegged De- partment. These divisions are not clearly drawn and through them all runs the large general method of bottoming, modified only by the variations necessary for attach- ing uppers to the bottoms of certain styles and kinds of shoes, as has been already explained at length in Chapter VIII upon " Methods in Shoe Manu- 196 THE MAKING DEPARTMENT 197 facture." There are many processes in the making room, about fifty, for instance, following through any one method, and many more made necessary by the multiplication of methods. This chapter is illustrated much more fully than others in this volume because of the many important and heavy processes found in the bottoming room, Si mm* nir JBv.; 1 V JK l i^iflb«3£lMf IIS 3^^ - "^■^ BED LASTING ^•St 5 " <^8S MACHINE NS 5 Bed Lasting Machine No. 5 and because of the wonderful machines invented for their performance. Here the inventor of shoe ma- chinery is at his best. The Lasting Department. There are two methods of lasting, by hand and by machinery. The first, like most other processes in shoemaking, is giving way rapidly to the machine method. 1 98 THE SHOE INDUSTRY Adjusting the upper of the shoe to the last is the beginning of the work done in the bottoming depart- ment. The toe box is put in its proper place between the lining and the upper ; and the counter in its place at the heel, between the lining and the upper. Then the upper is drawn over the last upon which has already been tacked the insole, which conforms exactly to the shape of the last, and is tacked to hold it in place. The Pulling Over Machine. As the parts of the shoe have been cut to conform to the shape of the last they must be accurately attached upon it. The pulling over machine has pincers which act exactly like the human fingers. These pincers grasp the leather at various points around the toe and draw it closely against the wood of the last upon the inner sole. By an adjustment of levers all parts of the upper are drawn in evenly and tacked securely in place. Toe and Heel Wiping. The toe and heel are the most difficult parts to last properly. These are drawn in by a series of wipers upon the lasting machine, so evenly that no wrinkles are left, and held in place by a strip of tape, fine wire, or by tacks. Tacks except at the heel, where they are clinched on the inside, are driven only part way in so that they may later be withdrawn to leave the inside of the shoe perfectly smooth, the distinctive feature of the welt method. THE MAKING DEPARTMENT 199 The Upper Trimming Machine. The surplus upper leather drawn over the bottom at the toe and heel and sometimes at the sides of the shoe ; is removed upon the upper trimming machine in which a knife cuts the extra parts away very smoothly and evenly, REX PULLING OVER MACHINE Rex Pulling Over Machine while at the same time a small hammer pounds the leather smooth along the sides and toe of the shoe. The shoe then passes to another machine by which the leather and counter around the heel are beaten into conformity with the last, making the entire bottom ready for the welt bottoming processes. 2 00 THE SHOE INDUSTRY Positions in the Lasting Department. The chief positions in this department are, the Superintendent, Operating the Goodyear Universal Inseam Trimming Machine foreman, operators of the pulling over machine, the lasting machine, and the trimming and pounding machines. THE MAKING DEPARTMENT 201 The Welt Bottoming Department. The welt method of bottoming is coming increasingly into use because of producing a smooth inside bottom of the shoe, and because of the ease with which a welt shoe can be repaired after being worn. After the lasting operations the shoe is ready to receive the outsole. Welting. First the welt which is distinctive of this method of shoemaking is attached. The welt is a narrow strip of leather so prepared that it may be sewed first to the lip of the inner sole and to the upper leather and later to the outer sole, no stitching passing entirely through the bottom of the shoe as in the McKay method. The welt extends in front of the heel entirely around the shoe. This process was a very difficult one in the days of hand shoe- making, but as performed upon a machine it becomes simple and rapid. It is claimed, indeed, that this particular machine process has been the leading factor in the great development of shoe manufactur- ing in recent times. After this process the surplus parts of the lip, upper, and welt are trimmed off by the inseam trimming machine. Welt Beating. The next process is welt beating upon a machine in which a small hammer with rapid strokes beats the welt down evenly at the side of the shoe. The insole and the welt are now coated over with rubber cement. At the same time the outsole receives a coating of cement. 202 THE SHOE INDUSTRY Sole Laying. When this has dried slightly the process of sole laying takes place. The sole is put Operating the Goodyear Improved Twin Sole Laying Machine in place and pressed firmly upon the shoe and welt in the sole laying machine, remaining in the machine THE MAKING DEPARTMENT 203 a sufficient length of time for the cement to set firmly. Rough Rounding. Next comes the trimming of the sole and welt so that they will extend a uniform distance from the upper leather. This process is called rough rounding and is one of the most im- rait GOODYEAR WELT AND TURN SHOE MACHINE, MODEL K Goodyear Welt and Turn Shoe Machine, Model K portant, exacting, and arduous processes found in the entire factory. A machine gauges the distance at which the cutting shall be done from the last, cutting usually wider on the outside of the shoe than on the inside and reducing the width of the shank. In any lot of shoes, large or small, passing 204 THE SHOE INDUSTRY through the hands of the rough rounder there must be the same variation of margin according to size and design. The rough rounding machine cuts also a little slit or channel along the edge in the bottom of the sole. This channel was formerly cut by hand. Its GOODYEAR UNIVERSAL ROUNDING & CHANNEL- ING MACHINE, MODEL E Goodyear Universal Rounding and Channeling Machine, Model E purpose is to allow a covering for the stitching that follows. Heel Seat Nailing. The process of rough rounding deals simply with that part of the shoe in front of the heel to which the welt has been sewed. The heel portion of the outsole is next fastened by nailing THE MAKING DEPARTMENT 205 securely through to the inner sole. The surplus leather around the heel is now trimmed off on the H -IfT t If ■ n "1 < 1 -• « ■•«-- Operating the Goodyear Heel Seat Rounding Machine heel seat rounding machine, which cuts a channel also. This channel is opened evenly to provide for stitching. 206 THE SHOE INDUSTRY Sole Sewing. The outsole is now stitched to the welt entirely around the shoe upon the outsole lock- stitch machine, a process very similar to welt sewing. This stitching, however, is finer and very durable. It shows on the upper side of the welt around the finished shoe. Channel Laying. The lip of the channel is now cemented upon a machine, partly dried, and is rolled smoothly and evenly back into place upon the channel laying machine, completely covering the stitches which would otherwise show on the bottom of the shoe. Leveling. The shoe is passed beneath a vibrating roller under heavy pressure in the automatic sole leveling machine. The roller passes completely up and down each side of the shoe, canting first to the right and then to the left and removing every un- evenness on the bottom. Welt Finishing. The edge of the fore part of the shoe was left in a slightly rough condition after the process of rough rounding. This roughness is now smoothed away upon the trimming machine, which has a set of rapidly revolving cutters. The edge and welt of the shoe receive a coat of blacking, and the stitches showing on the upper side of the welt are separated on a machine so as to present an even appearance. The indentations thus made are burnished upon a machine. The edge of the shoe THE MAKING DEPARTMENT 207 is burnished upon the edge setting machine by means of two rapidly vibrating hot irons. The surface of the top lift of the heel is leveled upon the top lift sanding machine, and the breast is scoured on a rapidly revolving disk. - - - I *9& - E*T JS%^< Jo GOODYEAR OUTSOLE RAPID LOCKSTITCH MACHINE Goodyear Outsole Rapid Lockstitch Machine Other Finishing Processes. From this point on there are various processes of finishing the heel and the bottom of the shoe, which may be performed in the bottoming department or in a separate finishing department. Some of these, such as tip repairing, are quite separate from the work of the bottoming department. The more important of the finishing processes may be presented here. 208 THE SHOE INDUSTRY The heel and the edges of the shoe are blacked or covered with the dressing suitable to the leather used on shoes other than black, and finished on burnishing machines. The bottom of the shoe is buffed upon revolving rollers covered with sand- 6O00YEAR AUTOMATIC SOLE LEVEUNS MACHINE Goodyear Automatic Sole. Leveling Machine paper, to remove the marks of handling in various processes. It is then buffed to a finer degree on the Naumkeag buffing machine upon a pad of rubber covered with fine emery paper, revolving still more rapidly than the first buffing machine. The bottom of the shoe is now " hard finished " by receiving coats of stain or other material, and by polishing. In some cases the bottoms are blacked in whole or in THE MAKING DEPARTMENT 209 part, and some receive a dull finish on the forepart, while the whole is thoroughly polished upon re- volving brushes. Operating the Hadaway Stitch Separating Machine 210 THE SHOE INDUSTRY Positions in the Welt Bottoming Department. The more usual positions in the welt bottoming depart- ment are as follows: I. The Superintendent. 19. Channel Layers 2. Foreman. 20. Wheelers. 3- Assistant Foreman. 21. Randers. 4- Tack Pullers. 22. Levelers. 5- Welters. 23- Heelers. 6. Inseam Trimmers. 24. Sluggers. 7- Welt Scarfers. 25- Heel Shavers. 8. Welt Beaters. 26. Heel Breasters. 9- Shank Nailers. 27. Edge Trimmers. 10. Bottom Fillers. 28. Heel Scourers. ii. Welt Cementers. 29. Heel Jointers. 12. Sole Cementers. 30. Edge Setters. 13- Sole Layers. 3i. Burnishers. 14. Heel Seat Nailers. 32. Blackers. i5- Rough Rounders. 33- Buffers. 16. Channel Openers. 34- Hard Finishers. 17. Goodyear Stitchers. 35- Polishers. 18. Channel Cementers. 36. Floor Persons. The McKay Bottoming Department. The McKay bottoming department is that division in which the upper is attached to the sole by a machine which sews directly through the outsole, upper leather, and insole. The upper parts come to the McKay room from the lasting room; the outer soles come from the sole leather department, having been kept in humidi- fiers so as to be moist and ready for use. THE MAKING DEPARTMENT 211 Processes Connected with the McKay Method. First the toes of the uppers, already upon the lasts, Operating the Twin Edge Setting Machine are buffed upon an emery wheel which grinds off the surplus leather and nails, so that the outer sole will 212 THE SHOE INDUSTRY lie even upon the shoe. The outer sole is then " layed " in place and nailed or tacked in the toe, Operating the Top Piece Sanding Machine shank, and heel upon a machine. The lasts are now pulled or withdrawn from the shoe by hand, and THE MAKING DEPARTMENT 213 the McKay stitching process is performed upon the McKay machine. This is a very particular and Operating the Naumkeag Buffing Machine exacting process and is found in most shoe factories at the present time. For comparison between this 214 THE SHOE INDUSTRY and other methods the reader is referred again to Chapter VII. The usual processes following the McKay stitch- ing are, heel seat nailing on a machine, channel Operating the Goodyear Stitching Machine lifting or opening and cementing, wetting the bot- tom of the shoe upon a brush revolving in water, channel laying upon a steel roller which by a cor- rugated lip draws the channel in smooth, beating out the bottom in a machine and by hand to make THE MAKING DEPARTMENT 215 it smooth and give it proper lines, drying, and heel attaching. Before relasting McKays and sending them on Nailing Heel Seat 216 THE SHOE INDUSTRY to finishing, the bottom lining must be inserted, a work generally done by girls. Linings of thin leather or leather substitute, which were dinked out in the upper cutting department, are selected by sizes. The inside of the bottom of the shoe is cemented by a brush, and the linings are inserted by hand and smoothed down by means of a stick. Wooden lasts or " followers " are now inserted upon a machine. Positions in the McKay Bottoming Department. The positions in this department are generally as follows: i. The Superintendent. 9. Cementers. 2. b oreman. 10. Bottom Wetters. 3- Buffers. 11. Channel Layers. 4- Sole Layers. 12. Inside Bottom 5- Last Pullers. Cementers. 6. McKay Stitchers. 13- Lining Inserters 7- Heel Seat Nailers. 14. Lasters. 8. Channel Lifters. 15. Floor People. The Heeling Department. The heel is now at- tached to the shoe upon the heeling machine. The shoe is placed upon a jack in the machine and an arm bearing the nails is swung automatically over the heel, driving the nails through the heel, outsole, upper leather, and insole, where they are clinched upon the inside. THE MAKING DEPARTMENT 217 . Operating the Channel Cementing Machine 2i8 THE SHOE INDUSTRY Blind Nailing. The heads are left extending far enough outside the heel to receive the top lift. This is made from the best of leather, and is sub- jected to great pressure to harden it. Previously prepared, and with a coating of glue, it is now placed Wjjjjfa ,; ' /: /j£/*je&L - - - ' ; ; Ssi 1 '- ■ Kj^JL • , <-,_. _^M9M y*&vmmk • .^rn^-X §Bo!3 . :. " IjIIBjl p %• ' *- * -ifr" ' Mg^ s3lii$ f „ :^ «f/j| *.Iv j|C BUI if BSi-r.^^t ;*»! IsBSS* SBt ^ .a fe 1 Eds i Hi ■i M : :,.-• 2p^^ The Heeling Room of the Making Department in position, with the shoe still in the machine, and driven down over the protruding nails. This is the process of " blind nailing." Slugging. Short nails, or " slugs," of brass or other metal are now driven into the top lift by the slugging machine, to increase the wearing qualities of the heel. THE MAKING DEPARTMENT 219 Heel Trimming. The top lift is made in the exact size of the finished heel, and is a guide for the operator of the trimming machine, which by means of a rapidly revolving knife cuts away all the sur- plus leather on the outside. The breast or front McKAY AUTOMATIC HEEL LOADING AND ATTACHING MACHINE McKay Automatic Heel Loading and Attaching Machine is trimmed evenly across on the " heel-breasting " machine. The outside of the heel is scoured or smoothed by rolls covered with sandpaper, on the heel scouring machine. Heel trimming, like the rough rounding of the sole, is an exacting process, calling for strength and 220 THE SHOE INDUSTRY Operating the Universal Slugging Machine THE MAKING DEPARTMENT 221 skill. It sometimes produces in the operator what is called " broken wrist/' or a weak wrist, as the shoe, held firmly in both hands against the knife of the machine, must be turned nearly through an entire circle, both turning and twisting the wrist joints. When the effect upon the operator becomes marked he usually changes to some other process. Positions in the Heeling Department. The chief positions in this small department are, the super- intendent, the foreman, and the operators of the nailing, slugging, and trimming machines. The Turned Shoe Department. The turned shoe or slipper is made with an ordinary upper, usually of light weight, and with a single sole of flexible quality. Soles are prepared or fitted in this depart- ment one day in advance of their use. The main processes in the preparation of the soles are the following: The soles are channeled and placed in humidi- fiers over night. In the morning the shank is trimmed out, the heel scarfed or trimmed off, and the sole is molded into shape. Lasting the Turned Shoe. In lasting the sole is placed upon the last upside down, and the upper is drawn over the last, inside out. The counter is put in wrongside out. All parts are tacked care- fully in place. The sewing of the upper to the sole now takes 222 THE SHOE INDUSTRY place upon a special turn shoe machine. Tacks are withdrawn and the selvage trimmed off, and a small steel shank is sewed in the space between the heel Operating the Ultima Heel Trimming Machine THE MAKING DEPARTMENT 223 Operating the Imperial Heel Breasting Machine 224 THE SHOE INDUSTRY and the ball of the front. The last is then with- drawn and the shoe is turned by hand over the toe upon an iron support. The last is then put back in the shoe and the lining smoothed out around the heel part, which is then leveled and prepared for the heel which is to be added, either of leather, leather sub- stitute, or of wood. This is glued, clamped on firmly and left to dry, and finished later. Usually three nails are inserted to hold it permanently. A lining or heel piece is inserted for smoothness. Positions in the Turned Shoe Department. The usual positions in this department are as follows: I. The Superintendent. 8. Trimmer. 2. Foreman. 9. Shank Soler. 3- Inspector. 10. Second Laster 4- Stock Fitter. 11. Heel Laster. 5- Laster. 12. Leveler. 6. Stitcher. 13. Finisher. 7- Tack Puller. 14. Heeler. iS- Cover Sewer, who sews a cover over whit shoes to keep them clean while passing through the various processes of the de- partment. 16. Floor Boys. THE MAKING DEPARTMENT 225 The Standard Screw, Pegged, and Nailed Depart- ments. Various kinds of heavy working shoes are manufactured by the standard screw method, by Operating the Expedite Heel Finishing Machine 226 THE SHOE INDUSTRY pegging, or by nailing the outsole and insole to- gether, thus fastening the bottom of the shoe to the upper. By the first method a wire with screw thread upon it is driven through the bottom and automatically cut off by the machine, piece after piece, rapidly around the bottom. This is practi- cally a wire sewing in place of McKay stitching. The pegged shoe is made in about the same manner, a machine inserting wooden pegs instead of the sections of wire. The use of pegs was once very general, but is now gradually giving way to other methods. Nails when used are generally clinched on the inside. These three methods give strong and firm but inflexible and heavy bottoms to the footwear. The other processes connected with these special kinds of footwear are similar to the general processes of welt and McKay manufacture. Finishing does not, however, call for so high a degree of perfection. Aside from the operators of the special machines used for inserting the wire screws, pegs, and nails, the positions in general are the same as in the welt and McKay departments. Work in the Making Department. In the early days of American shoe factories the bottoming of shoes was quite generally let out to men on contract, as has been indicated earlier in this volume. Such contract work was performed by gangs of men who THE MAKING DEPARTMENT 227 went from factory to factory. And we find the gang system in use to a degree in factories at the present time. It is easier, for instance, for several men to work together upon a process or group of processes involving operations that must be done together in a very brief space of time, working at one bench or upon a complicated machine. This department involves the heaviest and most exacting processes of shoe manufacture, and the major processes are regularly performed by men, who in the main must be strong and active. Boys, girls, and women assist in the minor processes and in the handling of materials. In the bottoming or making room the machines are always ranged along the sides of the room, next to the windows, so that there may be good light for the many intricate operations necessary. Shoes in process of making are arranged upon racks along the inner spaces of the room. 228 THE SHOE INDUSTRY Table XVII* Average and Classified Full-Time Hours per Week and Rates of Wages per Hour, and Average Full-Time Weekly Earnings, in the United States, by Years, 1907 to 1918. Employees whose full-time J. EM .3 > G H d C t- fl establishments & 6 "5 3 s 4) O. 60 tn h 3 a 60 - S 60 00 1- T3 *" is Si rt -S ■*■ Sj 3 3 O ^ . 3 u ^T3 < <£ ^* R > 3 O 10 Lasting Department Assemblers, for pulling-over machine, male: 1911 1912 218 228 55 54 4 S $0,274 .265 SiS-i4 14-45 93 102 69 37 49 47 7 31 11 50 establishments. . . . 1912 1913 542 532 55 55 8 5 .238 .261 13-21 14.46 31 14 26 31 174 201 96 134 131 121 84 31 54 establishments. . . . 1913 1914 597 646 55 55 4 2 .272 .281 1501 15-45 14 44 31 50 245 188 160 204 116 146 31 14 56 establishments.. . . 1914 1916 659 586 55 55 5 1 .276 ■3°o 15-24 16.50 25 22 50 67 186 20I- 211 160 163 103 24 33 8g establishments. . . . 1916 1918 768 653 55 52 1 7 .288 ■396 15-85 20.75 32 270 66 66 250 171 267 88 118 56 35 2 102 establishments.. . 1918 726 52.6 ■398 20.85 310 87 174 90 63 2 Pullers-over, hand, male: 1907 1 90S 1909 1910 1910 1911 345 330 366 3S4 784 784 56.6 56.6 56.2 55-9 S6.4 56.2 ■ 256 .249 .287 .276 .291 •309 14.49 14.09 16.13 15-43 16.38 17.28 77 74 in 105 207 204 73 63 82 99 178 206 195 193 173 180 35 establishments.. . . 5 7 19 27 228 234 147 106 45 establishments. . . . ign 1912 897 899 56-3 55-4 .312 •319 17-50 17.62 24 27 in 263 297 234 188 219 212 154 67 52 establishments.. . . 1912 1913 1,036 937 55-3 55-3 .316 ■333 17.41 18.37 24 in 65 343 342 287 332 195 190 76 8 47 establishments 1913 1914 907 729 55-i 54-9 ■334 ■350 18.42 19.24 2 65 60 354 212 323 368 157 82 8 5 30 establishments. . . . 1914 1916 537 429 54-8 54-8 ■357 ■353 19-52 19-33 2 1 52 60 173 148 258 161 52 59 * From Table A. ■ — Wages and Hours of Labor in the Bool and Shoe Industry: iqo? lo iqi8. U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. THE MAKING DEPARTMENT TABLE XVII — Continued 22Q Employees whose full-time F="f "8«1 E §> hours per week were S^ Occupation, sex, rt % >, 2 M •d 1 T3 1 and number of V ■n £ V Cu cS 10 § t ~ ^0 establishments is s 2 jS M 00 v* MS •a *" fi is ■* n"0 •^ < s 5 * > 3 > 3 < < O O Lasting Department 31 establishments.. . . 1916 1918 461 326 54-8 51.6 ■354 ■485 19.18 24.91 220 52 41 149 13 220 26 40 26 35 establishments.. . . 1918 344 51-7 .478 24.62 221 41 15 39 28 Pullers-over, ma- chine, male: 31 establishments... . 1910 1911 1911 1912 251 266 .320 .319 ■325 .312 18.37 17-95 18.18 I7-3I 50 77 no 113 36 91 120 43 85 47 52 47 80 56 56 55 51 46 53 43 establishments. . . . 328 305 1 6 15 34 60 establishments.. . . 1912 1913 402 421 55 55 8 4 .312 •351 17-39 19.42 7 5 34 19 148 183 64 107 82 82 67 25 59 establishments. . . . 1913 1914 421 396 55 55 4 3 •352 .360 19-45 19.87 5 16 19 26 183 108 112 155 77 81 25 10 63 establishments.. . . 1914 1916 410 421 55 55 6 3 •353 .382 19.56 21.08 8 n 30 40 108 119 I5i 148 95 80 18 23 109 establishments. . . 1916 1918 591 566 55 52 1 6 ■375 ■511 20.60 26.76 29 244 47 60 161 130 241 83 89 46 24 3 124 establishments.. . 1918 612 52.6 ■512 26.77 273 60 134 86 56 3 Side lasters, hand, male: 20 establishments. . . . 1913 1914 224 237 54-2 54-o ■303 .308 16.40 16.59 96 119 60 44 54 63 14 10 1 16 establishments.. . . 1914 1916 217 179 53-6 54-2 .304 .315 16.20 17.02 31 10 102 88 7 7 61 54 14 15 2 5 28 establishments 1916 1918 282 316 54-i 52.0 .312 •434 16.87 22.52 149 116 105 7i 23 81 30 10 9 4 43 establishments xgiS 394 51-9 .440 22.74 202 114 26 41 II Side lasters, ma- chine, male: 1913 1914 155 167 56.1 54-3 $0,323 •343 $18.23 18.54 63 58 34 53 52 18 7 6 31 17 establishments... . 1914 1916 IS3 158 55-0 54-8 •341 .338 18.69 18.48 8 9 80 82 44 50 14 12 7 5 230 THE SHOE INDUSTRY TABLE XVII — Continued Employees whose full-time fl-s ■Rfc) C w hours per week were — Occupation, sex, h 0) •£ Si! S3 '8 •a -a . and number of establishments .2 (0 P. M in S3 3 V ft M „ ^ cS S3 M S3 0) o 03 Z 00 |_ h T3 3 ■* §3 54 3 O 6o <^ 3 o io > 3 O Lasting Department 37 establishments.. . . 57 establishments.. . . Bed-machine oper- ators, male: IS establishments.. . . 35 establishments. . . . 54 establishments. . . . 65 establishments. . . . 60 establishments 64 establishments. . . . 89 establishments. . . . 104 establishments . . Hand-method last- ing-machine opera- tors, male: 6 establishments. . . . 33 establishments. . . . 39 establishments. . . . 1916 1918 1918 rgog 1910 1910 1911 1911 1912 1912 1913 1913 1914 1914 1916 1916 1918 1918 1907 1909 1910 1910 1911 1911 1912 230 234 246 3°o 307 300 5X3 568 793 1,004 1,127 1,220 i,H3 1,092 1,294 1,179 325 352 477 478 55-o 52.0 54-7 54-8 54-8 55-o 56-4 56.1 56.1 55-5 55-6 55-2 55-i 54-9 5S-o 55-1 5S-o 52. 1 •332 .462 .468 •35° •334 •342 .321 •311 .323 .321 •304 .300 ■330 •331 .322 .319 •351 •347 •501 -311 •307 •309 .322 .306 .309 .316 ■324 18.22 23-95 19-15 18.30 18.74 17.66 I7-50 18.09 17.96 16.88 16.67 18.21 18.21 17.68 17-52 19-31 19.04 26.06 25.98 17.76 17-38 17-52 18.06 17.49 17-65 17.96 18.03 606 34 36 77 159 201 151 216 354 343 432 401 39° 120 41 106 101 134 85 THE MAKING DEPARTMENT TABLE XVII — Concluded 231 Employees whose full-time fi-* og S IS, hours per week were — •j d Occupation, sex, and number of S a ►5 E 3 M T3 d M ■oS T3 d _ •a ,8 establishments m 01 bo>, "*« 54 « !n 6n ^ OJ II > 3 in d 3 mT3 u d > 3 O 3 Lasting Department 41 establishments. . . . 35 establishments.. . . 32 establishments. . . . 40 establishments. . . . 5g establishments. . . . Turn lasters, hand, male: 28 establishments.. 26 establishments.. 29 establishments. . 35 establishments.. Turn sewers, ma- chine, male: 17 establishments.. . . 23 establishments 25 establishments. . . 1912 1913 456 449 55-7 55-3 •325 •357 18.05 19.72 26 13 167 200 102 144 83 66 1913 1914 402 418 55-2 55-2 •355 •349 19.58 19.20 13 43 177 66 135 214 51 84 1014 1016 372 372 55-9 55-4 •342 •354 19.04 19-55 25 23 45 101 173 151 117 87 1916 1918 466 362 55-3 52-7 ■ 356 .485 19.68 25-43 20 166 11 10 108 90 231 55 90 40 1918 411 52.9 •479 25.22 179 10 98 66 57 1912 1913 45 2 524 55-o 55-0 • 275 •3IO 15-25 17.00 106 140 56 122 74 89 127 149 1913 1914 499 630 55-o 54-4 .307 .322 16.81 17-45 "86 140 95 122 69 64 297 149 53 1914 1916 681 733 54-4 54-9 .325 •354 17.60 19.46 86 66 no 102 69 91 329 327 56 137 1916 1918 939 752 54-9 53-8 .365 •453 20.06 24-34 66 132 140 165 125 73 428 313 168 69 1914 1916 48 52 53-9 53-9 .401 .408 21-54 21-93 9 10 5 6 4 3 27 30 3 3 1916 1918 76 61 54-4 54-o •437 .503 23-78 27.01 10 11 10 9 11 8 35 27 10 6 1918 67 53-7 .500 26.75 16 9 9 27 6 24 30 232 THE SHOE INDUSTRY Table XVIII.* Average and Classified Full-Time Hours per Week and Rates of Wages per Hour, and Average Full-Time Weekly Earnings, by States, 1918. Occupation, sex, and State Number of estab- lishments Number of employ- ees Average full-time hours per week Average rate of wages per hour Average full-time weekly earnings Lasting Department Assemblers, for pull- ing -over ma- chine, male: Illinois Maine Massachusetts. . . . 7 S 29 3 12 9 3 11 9 6 3 3 2 27 42 247 12 112 45 16 86 57 38 IS 22 7 52.2 54-3 51-4 54-8 53-4 5°-o 53-5 50.1 57-2 54-1 54-o 54-5 SS-o $0 360 448 463 38S ?*8 $18.62 24-35 23.67 21.07 17-85 New Hampshire. . . New Jersey New York Ohio Pennsylvania Other States .380 .366 •373 •429 .292 •329 • 294 •257 19.36 19.50 18-73 24,57 15-78 17.77 16.07 14-15 Total 102 726 S2.6 $0,398 $20.85 Pullers-over, hand, male: Massachusetts .... Missouri Ohio Pennsylvania Other States 2 16 2 4 4 7 79 169 10 20 41 25 50.0 50.6 52.0 55-4 56.7 53-8 .480 • 531 .422 .462 •364 .361 23.98 26.72 21.79 25.68 20.61 19.30 Total 35 344 5i-7 $0,478 $24.62 Pullers-over, ma- chine, male: Illinois Maine Massachusetts .... Missouri New Hampshire. . . New York Ohio Pennsylvania Wisconsin Other States 9 5 44 3 12 9 14 9 6 4 9 32 53 216 IS 67 62 64 39 22 19 23 53-4 54-4 51-4 54-7 54-5 SO.S 50-3 56.6 54-3 54-2 54-4 407 525 S69 477 430 5i8 527 533 380 402 468 21.48 28.58 29.12 26.11 23-15 26.07 26.56 30.23 20.66 21.71 25-43 Total 124 612 52.6 $0 512 $26.77 * From Table C. — Wages and Hours of Labor in the Boot and Shoe Industry: iqoi to iqi8. U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. THE MAKING DEPARTMENT TABLE XVIII. — Continued 233 Occupation, sex, and State Number of estab- lishments Number of employ- ees Average full-time hours per week Average rate of wages per hour Average full-time weekly earnings Lasting Department Side lasters, hand, male: Illinois Massachusetts. . . . New York Pennsylvania Other States 3 15 7 S 13 31 240 40 24 59 5JM 511 53-2 55-6 53-2 378 465 4/o .320 397 19-34 23.68 25-04 17.82 21.17 Total 43 394 51.9 $0,440 $22.74 Side lasters, ma- chine, male: Massachusetts. . . . Missouri New Hampshire.. . New York Ohio Other States IS 8 5 8 S 16 74 34 44 61 21 58 50 55 5o 49 56 54 9 5 3 8 7 560 395 419 469 471 429 28.52 21.65 21.03 23-39 26.75 23-47 Total 57 292 52.2 $0,468 $24-35 Bed-machine opera- tors, male: Illinois Maine Massachusetts. . . . Minnesota Missouri New Hampshire. . . New Jersey New York Ohio Pennsylvania Virginia Wisconsin Other States 10 5 34 3 8 6 3 12 6 8 3 4 2 106 62 504 28 94 136 12 126 67 48 15 32 13 SI 54 51 54 55 50 53 5o 56 54 54 54 55 4 1 8 7 2 8 8 3 8 455 558 539 459 411 492 472 482 534 377 5ii 415 433 23.18 30.40 27-45 25.10 22.67 24.65 25-34 24.56 30.13 20.68 27-59 22.37 23.82 Total IO4 I.303 52.1 $0,500 $25.98 Hand-method lasting- machine opera- tors, male: 3 26 7 7 16 37 163 76 43 92 54-2 52.0 52.9 56.9 52.2 27-33 26.79 23-H 25-75 23-43 Massachusetts. . . . 514 440 451 455 Ohio Other States Total 59 411 52 " $25.22 234 THE SHOE INDUSTRY TABLE XVIII. — Concluded Occupation, sex, and State Number of establish- ments Number of employees Average full-time hours per week Average rate of wages per hour Average full-time weekly earnings Lasting Department Turn lasters, hand, male: Massachusetts Missouri Ohio Pennsylvania Other States 8 3 2 10 3 5 4 239 65 29 187 60 143 29 53-2 52.3 55-o 52.2 56-9 55-7 54-9 .492 .460 .402 •465 •485 •389 •351 26.11 24.09 22.13 24.27 27.47 21.72 19.27 Total 35 752 53-8 $0,453 $24.34 Turn sewers, male: Massachusetts.. . . New York Pennsylvania Other States 8 6 4 7 22 12 23 10 52.9 51-3 55-3 54-5 • 559 .560 .412 •503 29-45 28.81 22.85 27.28 Total 25 67 53-7 $0,500 $26.75 THE MAKING DEPARTMENT 235 Table XIX. * Average and Classified Full-Time Hours per Week and Rates of Wages per Hour, and Average Full-Time Weekly Earnings, in the United States, by Years, 19P7 to 1918. at E-*< •SS •l| Employees whose full-time hours per week were — & .O O ET3. =3 * 4> O, 2£ 60 „, .i'E 0} >, Occupation, sex, and number of establish- g M ^3 C j^ ments 4 ts 2 5 §•8 « c cS 3 3 S c > 3 O 3 0. 53 S "o 3 j) 0, be £ 0) 53 mi S bo ** s =='S bo >> g? Employees whose full-time hours per week were — Occupation, sex, and number of establish- ments Over 48 and under 51 51 and under 54 54 -d d t^ ■4-u 53 i > 3 _ S n 3 Bottoming Department 67 establishments. . . . 1914 1916 243 24s 55-i 55-i .500 •503 27.52 27.64 34 .... 38 73 71 95 93 32 32 9 • II 84 establishments. . . . 1916 1918 281 254 54-9 S2.5 •494 •597 27.06 32.39 6 40 116 36 86 42 103 39 34 20 12 I 97 establishments.. . . 1918 285 S2.4 •593 31-99 138 36 45 41 24 I Goodyear stitchers, male: 21 establishments.. . . 1907 1908 1909 1910 215 214 221 224 55-3 55-1 55-3 55-2 •403 •376 '394 .388 22.29 20.72 21.79 21.42 23 .... 21 26 .... 21 93 92 76 77 45 59 66 70 54 42 53 56 45 establishments. . . . 1910 1911 366 393 56.3 56.0 •374 .388 20.97 21.65 3 21 3 28 88 106 96 118 89 81 69 62 61 establishments.. . . 1911 1912 S29 562 55-9 55-9 .387 .385 21.56 21.40 .... 28 .... 38 184 221 133 103 no i°S 74 95 70 establishments. . . . 191 2 1913 627 642 55-9 SS-2 .376 •399 20.96 21.96 .... 38 .... 60 232 267 125 184 128 119 10 1 67 establishments. . . . 1913 1914 633 509 55-i 54-9 .398 .413 21.87 22.65 .... 60 .... 73 267 190 185 231 109 68 12 7 65 establishments. . . . 1914 1916 559 557 55-o S5-o ■4r2 •433 22.62 23-76 .... 73 .... 83 190 188 208 198 75 68 13 20 90 establishments. . . . 1916 1918 630 600 54-9 52.5 •434 • 524 23-74 27-39 15 9o 279 93 210 92 217 82 77 52 21 2 ios establishments... 1918 680 52-4 ■527 27.47 333 95 103 89 58 2 McKay sewers, male: 5 establishments. . . . 1907 1908 1909 1910 34 25 28 26 55-2 55-3 55-7 55-2 .288 •3ii • 274 • 279 15.90 17.20 15-26 15-40 14 9 9 .... 10 11 9 8 7 9 7 11 9 28 establishments. . . . rgio 1911 95 107 57-1 56.7 .290 .290 T6.46 i6.35 ] 10 1 13 5 7 24 29 30 43 25 14 30 establishments. . . . 1911 1912 129 128 56.5 S6.3 .296 .285 16.63 16.10 13 3 9 24 49 40 43 5o 15 n THE MAKING DEPARTMENT TABLE XIX. — Continued 237 Employees whose full-time Eli ■S!i g BO hours per week were — "o V — & SJ Occupation, sex, and ri V >, ** V 3 rf •0 C H ■* T3 O number of establish- ments >H 'go. M in Si 3 S ^ QJ Ul > g b0.>> OO >- C hi ed u i/-> C ■* CTJ so •a* ^0 < A < £ 3 3 Bottomin g Department 32 establishments.. . . 1912 1013 131 136 56 55 1 6 .286 •319 16.00 17.70 3 5 26 35 42 62 52 30 8 4 32 establishments... . 1013 1914 128 130 55 55 5 5 •319 •343 17.68 19.00 '"8 5 7 35 6 63 74 21 31 4 4 30 establishments.. . . 1014 1916 123 136 55 55 7 7 •327 ■341 18.17 18.91 8 8 7 9 7 23 79 51 17 33 5 12 53 establishments. . . . 1016 1918 i95 186 55 52 2 8 •359 •448 19-75 23.48 15 73 14 15 37 60 83 24 34 14 12 62 establishments.. . . 1918 203 52 9 •449 23-56 r, 16 62 30 18 Heelers, male: 31 establishments.. . . ion 1912 115 124 55 55 8 7 •403 •391 22.52 21.71 10 8 33 46 26 25 44 39 2 6 67 establishments.. . . 1912 1913 254 269 56 55 2 4 .378 .424 21.17 23-41 9 12 87 114 49 83 69 52 40 8 72 establishments.. . . 1913 1914 291 293 55 55 3 1 •424 .400 23-32 21.98 7 21 38 121 70 87 120 54 48 8 10 76 establishments. . . . 1914 1916 3°5 323 55 55 3 3 •403 .429 22.22 23.66 7 6 38 4- 1 73 81 116 116 57 59 14 19 1 24 establishments. . . 1916 1918 425 39i 55 52 8 •431 .507 23.60 26.62 20 153 56 55 106 76 161 74 61 32 21 1 137 establishments... 1918 419 52.8 .502 26.37 166 55 80 80 37 1 Heelers, wood, male: 18 establishments.. . . 1918 248 54-i •477 25-61 48 68 31 38 63 Heel trimmers or shavers, male: 23 establishments. . . . 1907 1908 1909 1910 99 84 82 91 55-i 55-2 55-3 55-2 .438 •439 ■ 447 •443 24-13 24-23 24.72 24-45 25 15 12 17 24 22 22 21 29 29 28 31 21 18 20 22 55 establishments. . . . 1910 1911 189 193 56.6 56.5 .410 .415 23.03 23-34 1 1 17 16 27 29 54 59 5o 52 40 36 71 establishments.. . . 1911 1912 246 239 56.5 56.0 • 415 • 415 23-32 23.10 .... 16 18 47 70 80 56 60 63 43 32 238 THE SHOE INDUSTRY TABLE XIX. — Continued S3 >. B g. a B B-* =3 * ■S u ra O. 60 m ■S3 gig < * V B 60 •a a 11 *•• 4) " ?>. MJ gj*l < * Employees whose full-time hours per week were — Occupation, sex, and number of establish- ments -0 « H rt in 00 |_ > 3 O ^2 9 * 3 Ti- to i *• » in 0) 6 3 t3o si 3 Bottoming Department 8 i establishments.. . . 1912 IOI3 252 277 56.0 55-4 .420 •448 23-39 24.74 18 30 75 90 61 91 66 59 32 7 77 establishments.. . . 1913 IOI4 271 262 55-3 55-1 ■443 •439 24.46 24.14 "6 30 37 90 5i 89 123 55 40 7 5 75 establishments.. . . IOI4 1916 258 284 55-2 55-0 .428 •454 23.54 24.92 6 6 37 49 5i 64 in 112 44 40 9 13 US establishments.. . 1916 IOl8 3SS 323 54-9 52.6 •449 • 542 24-55 28.33 16 134 54 50 82 59 145 60 43 19 IS 1 128 establishments.. . IOl8 35o 52.6 •535 27.99 149 50 61 64 25 1 Heel breasters, male: 35 establishments. . . . IOII IOI2 76 77 56.1 55-7 .291 .302 16.23 16.74 2 8 20 23 20 19 31 23 3 4 7 s establishments. . . . IOI2 1913 163 171 S5-9 55-4 • 295 ■313 16.36 17.27 16 17 48 57 38 56 40 34 21 7 73 establishments. . . . IOI3 IOI4 167 161 55-4 SS-2 .310 .306 17.10 16.81 3 17 20 57 35 54 73 32 27 7 3 70 establishments.. . . I914 1916 157 176 55-3 54-9 .300 •314 16.51 17.30 2 3 20 27 35 43 65 74 31 19 4 10 go establishments. . . . I916 1918 218 196 55-1 S3-o •321 •413 17.64 21.79 5 69 32 35 53 33 84 39 34 18 10 2 113 establishments... I9l8 218 52.9 .412 21.70 85 36 33 43 19 2 Edge trimmers, male: 23 establishments 1907 I908 I909 I9IO 283 302 287 3°S 55-3 55-i 55-2 55.o .404 .386 •397 .401 22.34 21.27 21.91 22.06 46 48 46 58 93 113 93 97 79 83 83 77 62 65 67 55 establishments.. . . I9IO I9II 573 615 56.4 56.2 .382 •390 21.44 21.80 3 4 58 55 117 139 137 175 137 140 121 102 71 establishments... . I9II 1912 765 751 56.1 55-9 •389 .386 21-73 21.48 55 5i 220 264 200 146 174 192 116 98 81 establishments.. . . 1912 1913 827 838 55-9 55-4 .380 .410 21.15 22.66 5i 49 285 314 176 285 214 160 101 30 THE MAKING DEPARTMENT TABLE XIX. — Continued 239 Employees whose full-time 6-* ~% S S hours per week were — Sg '2 v trt"^ Occupation, sex, and V >> a >- 3 S _ number of establish- ments !* £0. « a. M en 4> k. 4> ^ 00 1* S IK ^f 'A*> V > s 10 C lij 5 c ^ O < < s <* > 3 O 9 > 3 O 3 Bottoming Department 77 establishments.. . . 1013 1914 8lS 839 55-3 55-o .411 .404 22.66 22.18 19 49 100 314 220 282 363 140 122 30 IS 77 establishments.. . . 1014 1916 827 835 55-i 55-i •398 .426 21.90 23.38 19 16 100 109 220 234 337 325 130 123 21 28 125 establishments.. . 1916 1918 l,o53 940 54-6 52.5 .421 •546 23.06 28.51 49 420 118 130 301 177 422 144 132 65 31 4 138 establishments.. . 1918 1,015 52.5 • 545 28.44 464 130 188 152 77 4 Edge setters, male: 1907 1908 1909 1910 1910 run 134 142 ISO 163 560 573 56.0 56.2 56.1 55-9 s6-3 56.3 .400 •351 .381 ■385 •373 .380 22.40 19/3 2i,37 21.52 20.94 21.31 3i 29 35 34 97 113 50 48 53 58 142 148 5.? 65 62 71 146 147 54 establishments.. . . 3 4 72 60 100 101 68 establishments. . . . 1911 1912 722 698 56.3 55-8 .380 ■389 21.29 21.63 60 52 191 257 170 149 177 142 124 98 78 establishments.. . . 1912 1913 789 815 55-8 55-3 ■379 •413 21.05 22.78 52 64 273 300 190 276 171 148 103 27 77 establishments.. . . 1913 1914 826 827 55-3 SS-i .411 .410 22.70 22.54 20 64 109 300 187 276 366 IS9 127 27 18 78 establishments 1914 1916 819 77o SS-i 55-i •405 .413 22.27 22.65 28 24 109 104 187 I9S 331 302 133 116 31 29 127 establishments... 1916 1918 941 869 54-9 52.7 .412 •524 22.52 27.55 So 348 116 140 246 148 371 163 142 67 16 3 138 establishments. . . 1918 924 52-7 •525 27-57 38s 140 153 166 77 3 Heel scourers, male: 35 establishments. . . . 1911 1912 125 154 54-8 55-5 .291 .294 16.12 16.25 7 15 44 59 30 24 42 52 2 4 78 establishments.. . . 1912 1913 342 364 56-0 55-4 .289 ■314 16.09 17-35 20 36 116 123 67 122 89 66 SO 17 76 establishments. . . . 1913 1914 360 345 55-4 55-2 •313 .312 17.29 17.18 7 36 44 123 78 121 151 63 57 17 8 240 THE SHOE INDUSTRY TABLE XIX- — Concluded m Employees whose full-time S-^ o 3 S M hours per week were — "o g — & ■J3,ci Occupation, sex, and d a> >> .2 fc 2 g "3 S T3 number of establish- 01 3. S V 81 01 Q, "oj w aj in -d m •&\o ments |X t£ m aj 3 O 3 > 3 O 3 Bottoming Department 76 establishments.. . . 1914 igi6 3Si 384 SS-o 55-2 ■305 •342 16.84 18.84 7 4 44 62 78 96 144 142 64 60 14 20 117 establishments... 1916 1918 484 439 55-o 52.; •343 ■430 18.81 22.86 18 181 68 58 121 88 189 73 66 37 22 2 129 establishments.. . 1918 470 52.7 .438 22.92 198 58 92 77 43 2 Heel burnishers, male: 33 establishments. . . . 1911 1912 106 108 55 55 6 4 ■306 •313 16.97 17-31 2 5 42 45 27 25 34 3c 1 3 74 establishments.. . . 1912 1913 254 268 56 SS 1 4 .292 •313 16.31 17.29 13 15 84 108 57 83 63 5) 37 11 75 establishments.. . . 1913 1914 280 261 55 55 5 3 •317 •323 17-54 17.85 4 IS 26 108 59 90 118 56 46 11 8 75 establishments. . . . 1914 1916 262 261 55 55 5 5 ■315 •331 17.47 18.32 4 5 26 26 59 69 121 92 40 52 12 17 117 establishments. . . 1916 1918 349 301 55 52 3 8 •323 ■431 17.83 22.62 14 125 31 34 92 55 1-34 57 59 29 19 1 128 establishments.. . 1918 325 52 8 •433 22.66 141 34 57 59 33 1 Buffers, male: 36 establishments.. . . 1911 1912 174 170 55 55 8 8 • 294 ■307 16.37 17.06 5 5 51 52 49 48 67 58 2 7 72 establishments. . . . I912 1913 338 354 56 55 .289 ■319 16.09 17-57 21 23 107 123 67 134 105 57 38 17 72 establishments.. . . 1913 1914 358 370 55 55 3 2 .318 .310 17-52 17.06 14 23 33 126 75 132 181 60 59 17 8 72 establishments ... . 1914 I916 364 359 55 55 3 2 .306 ■ 324 16.89 17.88 14 13 33 30 74 83 165 164 66 56 12 13 119 establishments.. . I916 1918 509 442 55 52 7 •324 .422 17.78 22.10 24 182 43 59 133 78 235 87 60 35 14 1 129 establishments. . . I9l8 476 52.7 ■424 22.20 205 59 79 90 42 1 THE MAKING DEPARTMENT .241 Table XX.* Average and Classified Full-Time Hours per Week and Rates of Wages per Hour, and Average Full-Time Weekly Earnings, by States, igi8. Occupation, sex, and State Number of estab- lishments Number of employees Average full-time hours per week Avera ge rate of wages per hour Average full-time weekly earnings Bottoming Department Goodyear welters, male: Illinois 7 5 29 3 7 6 10 6 8 12 31 20 222 9 26 47 30 26 24 34 50-9 $0 645 598 661 574 517 56S 691 565 594 SOS $32.62 32.73 33-77 31-41 28.45 28.32 36.18 3I-70 32.81 27-34 Massachusetts. . . . Minnesota Missouri New Hampshire.. . New York Ohio Pennsylvania Other States 51-2 54-7 55-8 50. 2 52.2 56.2 55-1 54-4 Total 93 469 S2.3 $0,620 $32.29 Rough rounders, male: 7 31 10 6 10 6 8 19 22 108 25 33 21 18 20 38 35-64 34-23 26.27 27-45 32.13 29.09 40.70 27.92 Massachusetts. . . . Missouri New Hampshire.. . New York Ohio • Pennsylvania Other States SO 55 50 52 56 54 54 9 1 3 4 3 9 3 673 483 546 610 519 449 514 Total 97 285 52.4 $0,593 $31-99 Goodyear stitchers, male: Illinois Maine Massachusetts. . . . Minnesota Missouri New Hampshire.. . New York Ohio Pennsylva nia Wisconsin • Other States 8 5 34 3 11 6 10 7 9 4 8 49 26 286 II 60 79 50 37 41 17 24 51-6 54-5 5i-i 54-7 55-7 50.3 52.0 56.1 55-1 54-o 54-2 • 530 •511 •592 .483 .410 •474 •551 .460 ■458 •429 •492 27.06 27-94 30.24 26.46 22.49 23-79 28.76 25-85 25-25 23.11 26.63 Total i°S 680 52.4 $0,527 $27.47 * From Table C. — Wages and Hours of Labor in the Bool and Shoe Industry: IQ07 to igiS.. U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. 242 THE SHOE INDUSTRY TABLE XX. — Continued Occupation, sex, and State Number of estab- lishments Number of employees Average full-time hours per week Average rate of wages per hour Average full-time weekly earnings Bottoming Department McKay sewers, male: Maine Massachusetts. . . . Missouri New Hampshire. . . Ohio 3 26 5 4 S 7 12 35 77 25 14 19 15 18 54-1 52.0 52.7 52.7 49.4 56.6 55-8 450 470 420 450 524 24-31 24.26 21.85 23-49 25.84 Other States .378 21.08 Total 62 203 52.9 $0,449 Heelers, male: 10 5 52 13 9 14 9 9 4 12 28 29 153 42 33 47 29 23 14 21 52.4 54-2 51.8 54-2 5l-o S0.8 56.0 55-5 54-6 54-6 •545 •513 •527 •458 .476 ■551 .441 .426 .419 •493 28.14 27.85 Massachusetts. . . . Missouri New Hampshire. . . New York Ohio 27.19 24-51 24.19 28.09 Pennsylva nia Wisconsin 23-78 22.80 26.87 Total 137 419 52.8 $0,502 $26.37 Heelers, wood, male: Massachusetts 6 4 2 3 3 77 47 36 81 7 54-2 49.9 52.4 57-1 54-4 • SOO • 552 •514 •38S .578 27.11 New York Other States 26.95 21.97 31-45 Total 18 248 54-1 $0,477 $25.61 Heel trimmers or shavers, male: 9 5 48 12 9 13 9 9 14 28 22 132 32 25 38 21 27 25 52.3 54-3 51.6 53-3 51.2 50.9 56.0 S5-o 54-4 .5*8 27.58 527 586 440 500 680 482 325 483 28.62 Massachusetts .... 30.19 New Hampshire. . . New York Ohio 25-47 34-77 26.98 17.90 26.23 Pennsylvania Other States Total 128 35° 52.6 THE MAKING DEPARTMENT TABLE XX. — Continued 243 Occupation, sex, and State Number of estab- lishments Number of employees Average full-time hours per week Average rate of wages per hour Average full-time weekly earnings Bottoming Department Heel breasters, male: Massachusetts. . . . 45 9 9 11 7 9 23 84 20 15 23 IS 19 42 Si-9 54-2 Sl-3 5io 56.1 55-i 53-6 472 321 353 475 377 3ii 383 24-39 New Hampshire. . . New York Ohio 18.01 24.36 Pennsylvania Other States 17.18 20.59 Total 113 218 52.9 $0,412 Edge trimmers, male: IO S 54 13 9 4 13 9 9 3 4 5 60 54 451 91 88 7 95 68 44 15 20 22 52.4 S4-5 51.6 54-2 50.7 54-6 50.7 56.0 55-o 54-° 54-4 54-8 2715 28.62 526 584 478 539 577 606 465 416 454 5io 486 Massachusetts. . . . Missouri New Hampshire. . . Ohio Pennsylvania 3°oi 25.60 27.21 31-34 3o.77 26.08 22.98 Wisconsin Other States 27-73 26.64 Total 138 i>oiS 52. 5 $0,545 Edge setters, male: Illinois 10 5 54 3 13 9 4 14 8 9 3 4 2 60 34 368 15 86 65 15 107 72 64 13 16 9 52-0 54-6 51-7 54-7 53-8 50.5 54-4 Si-3 56.1 55-4 54-o 54-6 5S-o 5ii 507 572 435 458 485 .385 577 480 474 453 419 444 26.36 Massachusetts. . . . 29.41 23-79 24-52 24-45 24-55 29.68 26.97 26.35 24.47 22.89 24.42 New Hampshire. . . New Jersey New York Ohio Wisconsin Other States Total 138 924 52.7 $27.57 244 THE SHOE INDUSTRY TABLE XX. — Concluded Occupation, sex and State Number of estab- lishments Number of employees Average full-time hours per week Average rate of wages per hour Average full-time weekly earnings Bottoming Department Heel scourers, male: IO 5 47 3 13 8 13 9 9 4 8 29 27 163 9 61 39 55 35 25 13 14 52 54 5i 54 54 5o 50 55 55 54 54 22.05 25.70 25.68 25-53 18.19 19.27 25-56 20.91 19-53 17.64 21.99 5 7 8 1 4 5 9 3 2 4 472 498 466 340 383 507 373 351 327 392 Massachusetts .... Missouri New Hampshire.. . New York Ohio Pennsylvania Wisconsin Other States Total I2g 470 52.7 $0,438 $22.92 Heel burnishers, male: Illinois Maine Massachusetts. . . . Missouri New Hampshire.. . New York Ohio Pennsylvania Wisconsin Other States 9 4 5° 12 9 14 8 8 4 IO 19 11 134 35 25 29 28 15 10 19 52.4 54-5 51.6 54-o 51. 2 51.0 56.4 55-2 54-4 54-3 456 461 487 349 389 472 348 372 326 391 23.48 25.07 25.01 18.68 19.86 24.11 19.70 20.71 17.68 21.23 Total 128 325 52.8 $0,433 $22.66 Buffers, male: Maine Massachusetts .... Missouri New Hampshire.. . New York .... Ohio Pennsylvania Other States IO 4 Si 13 9 13 7 8 14 34 26 183 42 49 48 19 40 35 52 54 5i 54 50 50 55 55 54 6 3 8 5 7 5 8 9 414 517 464 342 395 - 486 425 288 367 21.56 28.08 23-94 18.54 20.04 24-45 23-69 15-92 20.12 Total 129 476 CHAPTER XII FINISHING, TREEING, PACKING AND SHIPPING Additional Departments. In a large shoe factory the magnitude of manufacture calls for separate de- partments of considerable size for the finishing and treeing of the shoe, and for the packing and shipping Buffing Machines Placed Longitudinally with Building of the completed product. There will be found in especially large establishments, also, various other departments, or even small factories, manufacturing 245 246 THE SHOE INDUSTRY particular supplies or doing particular work. Such are departments or factories for the manufacture of leather parts of shoes, for the preparation of accessory materials, and for the provision for work that would otherwise have to be given to outside companies or individuals. We have already spoken of the heel, toe box, and counter departments and factories. The second division is seen in cases where the great shoe manufacturing corporation conducts its own sawmill and factories for the making of wood shipping cases and paper cartons in which shoes are sent out to the trade. An example of the third division is the printing department or shop now being added to many factories because of the great cost of printing the many business forms necessary for office and factory use, and because of the continual increase in the output of advertising material. All such factories, departments, and shops provide numerous opportunities for employment according to the trades involved, but with little interchange of labor between them and the shoe factories except where the manufacture of shoe parts is involved. Then, of course, it is a matter of employment in a subdivision of the shoe industry. Finishing. It has already been said that in a large shoe manufacturing establishment the finishing processes detailed in the preceding chapter would FINISHING, TREEING, AND SHIPPING 247 constitute a separate department. In a small factory, however, the only part of the finishing that Operating the Buffing Machine would be distinctly separate from other operations is tip repairing. 248 THE SHOE INDUSTRY The Tip Repairing Department. In the passage of the shoe through the factory we have seen the vamp, the linings, the toe box, and the tip brought together in the completed toe of the shoe. Some- times, also, oiled paper is added as a protection against injury in the handling of the shoe. All of these parts give a thickness of about one-half inch to the toe of the ordinary shoe. In lasting so many thicknesses it is especially hard to draw the tip evenly over the last without injuring the leather of the tip. This danger is considerably increased by the use of patent leather, which is easily broken or scarred, for tips. The use of patent leather is so general that tip repairing is a problem of consider- able magnitude in all factories. In the general handling to which a shoe is subjected in passing through the various departments of the factory, tips are likely to be scratched and broken. In the case of ordinary leather scratches, scars, or other marks can be quite easily disposed of by rubbing down, by hand or upon machine brushes But patent leather, having a varnished surface, is re- paired with greater difficulty. If the injury is con- siderable the old enamel or varnished surface is sandpapered entirely off, and a new coat of varnish is applied by hand. This is allowed to dry and is polished, giving usually an entirely fresh and perfect surface. This work is mainly a hand process, FINISHING, TREEING, AND SHIPPING 249 usually done by women, though recently a tip re- pairing machine has been introduced in some factories. Climax Finishing Shaft Tip repairing calls for careful observation, pains- taking application to a process often requiring con- 250 THE SHOE INDUSTRY siderable time upon a single shoe, deftness of touch, and good judgment. The Treeing Department. Treeing is the method of making the shoe conform perfectly to the shape of the last, and of restoring the finish belonging to the leather, after its passing through many hands. The last is removed in this department, or before reach- ing this department, to allow for the processes of treeing. The shoe is first examined for tacks or other imperfections inside. Bottom linings or heel pads are put in by girls, when this has not been done in the making room. The shoe is then placed upon the tree arm, there being several arms revolving upon a machine, so that one shoe may be worked upon while others are drying. The department is sometimes called the treeing and dressing room. Nearly every kind of leather or shoe material re- quires a distinct method of handling and of dressing or finishing. Dirt or other materials that have adhered to the surface of the shoe in making are removed by a brush which is adapted to the surface of the leather, or by washing with different cleaners. Then an oil lubricant or dressing is applied to fill the pores of the leather. The covers of fabric shoes and of shoes made of delicate shades of leather are removed by hand, cutting with a knife closely around the sole so that no trace of the cover remains and no injury results to the shoe. The operator FINISHING, TREEING, AND SHIPPING 251 may have to restain some leathers as well as to fill the pores with oil, so as to bring out the richest Stitch and Upper Cleaning Machine effects of the surface. There are many special processes in various factories, according to particular styles of shoe and kinds of finish used. 252 THE SHOE INDUSTRY Ironing. When the surface of the upper has been fully restored the shoe is ironed upon the tree to give it perfection and permanent form. Rubbing over with the warm or hot iron is a very important and careful process, and is done regularly by men. Inspecting. Slight repairs not made before the processes of treeing are made after it ; and the shoe is inspected before passing out of the department. Shoes intended for samples or display in store windows have a wooden form placed in them ; rather than a last, to keep them in shape. The " treeing man " should be familiar with the nature and tanning of leather, and with the processes of shoe making, so that he may correct defects in leather or poor workmanship in the earlier processes of the factory. Embossing. Then on the bottom of the shoe or upon the lining at the top a trade-mark or the name of the maker of the shoe is embossed or stamped. Positions in the~ Treeing Department. The posi- tions uusually found in treeing and dressing are the following : I. The Superintendent. 7- Lacers. 2. Foreman. 8. Repairers. 3- Instructor. 9- Treeing Man 4- Inspectors. 10. Floor Boy. 5- Embossers. ii. Cripple Boy. 6. Toe Crease Stampers. FINISHING, TREEING, AND SHIPPING 253 The Packing Department. The great advance in shoe manufacture during the last half century is Operating the Stamping Machine seen not only by studying machinery and processes, but by observing the excellent condition in which 2 54 THE SHOE INDUSTRY boots and shoes are sent out to the trade. Before the use of special cartons, which is distinctive of the present day, shoes were tied in bundles or packed loose in barrels and boxes, often reaching the customers in wrinkled and battered condition. Now a single pair, except in the case of heavy and cheap grades, is packed in a pasteboard box or carton. For packing, shoes are first brushed upon the heels and bottoms, inspected, and placed out on tables in pairs by sizes. The labels on the ends of the cartons are stamped in a machine with style, stock number, size, width, kind of leather, or other dis- tinguishing term. Then the shoes are wrapped in tissue paper and placed carefully in cartons, which are packed securely in wooden or fibre-board cases, usually with thirty-six pairs to a case, ready for shipment. Positions in the Packing Room. The work of this room is done mainly by girls and women, and the few positions are, the Superintendent, foreman, brushers, inspectors, carton stampers, packers, and floor girl. The Shipping Department. From the packing room the shoes are sent to the shipping department where they are placed in " assembling aisles " in alphabetical arrangement, according to the names of customers, orders and styles. Copies of original orders as received by salesmen are kept in the ship- FINISHING, TREEING, AND SHIPPING 255 ping department, and shoes are checked off upon one set as they come from the packing room, another set of orders being used for shipping. The cases of shoes are sent out to the freight offices accompanied ~nn * ^^ — --^ 1 ^-3— — -___ {■... ■-*#?*'; .L. )#r? m rtSs»"> **j»jgHw»Bl Ell ill T7 MBWl iJ^x ' ! * NtitttfPlMMt-*. #ull^^ IL^SlHP'^^ja| -s.* \ _, ,.^*^l Shipping Floor, Central Plant, W. H. McElwain Company, Manchester, N. H. by bills of lading as the time for filling each order approaches, and shipment is made so that the goods will reach each customer on a specified day. Foreign shipments require a great amount of de- tail, since they must have a different form for bills of lading and different weights and measures. Large shipments go out by freight, small ones by express, and by parcel post. 256 THE SHOE INDUSTRY After the bills of lading which are to go with ship- ments are made out, special tags bearing full partic- ulars about each shipment are sent to the book- keeping department so that the proper charges may be entered in that department. Positions in the Shipping Department. The posi- tions of the shipping department are as follows. i. The Superintendent. 2. Foreman. 3. Checkers. 4. Assemblers. 5. Men for casing up, sealing, nailing, and stack- ing goods. 6. Truck Boys. 7. Shippers. 8. Clerks and Assistants. FINISHING, TREEING, AND SHIPPING 257 Table XXI. * Average and Classified Full-Time Hours per Week and Rate of Wages per Hour, and Average Full-Time Weekly Earnings, in the United States, by Years, 1907 to 1918. 03 Employees whose full-time %M "S 3 b?n hours per week were — •g'e Occupation, sex. -a -d and number of -O O V ft ■n ° establishments > £ 0. y >> C u ►3 s v 3 > O < & fe3 > V Tt a; a > 3 O 10 3 54 > 3 O r^T3 3 OO Finishing Department Treers or ironers, hand, male: 17 establishments.. 44 establishments. 63 establishments. 73 establishments. 70 establishments. 67 establishments. 97 establishments. US establishments. Treers or ironers, hand, female: 8 establishments. . 11 establishments.. 13 establishments.. 12 establishments.. 11 establishments.. 1909 1910 1910 1911 1911 1912 1912 1913 1913 1914 1914 1916 1916 1918 1918 1910 1911 1911 1912 1912 1913 1913 1914 1914 1916 381 364 377 444 832 786 1,006 1,076 1,143 1,110 1,100 1,109 1,095 1,038 1,220 1,044 no 112 107 II I 54-7 54-5 S4-6 54-5 55-9 56.1 56.0 55-9 55-8 55-3 55-3 55-1 55-3 55- 1 SS-o 52-4 57.8 57-7 58.1 54-3 54-4 54-6 54-6 52.2 52.1 52.9 $16.68 16.02 16.00 i5-7o 14.42 14.50 14.84 14-57 14.76 15-54 15-54 15-45 15-39 16.24 16.25 21.31 8.19 8.21 8.32 8.35 8.32 8. 5 6 8.56 9.06 9.06 9.66 144 139 149 149 160 39 * From Table A. — Wages and Hours of Labor in the Boot and Shoe Industry, tgoy to iqiS. U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. 258 THE SHOE INDUSTRY TABLE XXI. — Concluded Employees whose full-time l« ug "5 d hours per week were — Occupation, sex, o g Ji. is "3 J; 2^ =3 '3 3 j- ■d -d and number of establishment J2 O Ed. as. o> ^ a m -d io _^ o -do |z; u 2 5 * o 54 10 .s > 3 o ^"2 3 6o Finishing Department — Concluded 13 establishments. 31 establishments... Treers or ironers, machine, male: 14 establishments. . . 23 establishments. . . 1916 1918 1918 1916 1918 1918 139 123 236 140 S3-i S2.3 55-3 52.8 • 234 .232 .360 •373 9-93 12.17 14-77 18.71 19.36 46 16,5 FINISHING, TREEING, AND SHIPPING 259 Table XXII. * Average and Classified Full-Time Hours per Week and Rate of Wages per Hour, and Average Full-Time Weekly Earnings, by States, 1918. Occupation, sex, and State Number of estab- lishments Number of employ- Average full-time hours per week Average rate of wages per hour Average full-time weekly earnings Finishing Department Treers or ironers, hand, male: Illinois Maine Massachusetts. . . . Missouri New Hampshire.. . New York Ohio Pennsylvania Virginia Wisconsin Other States 7 4 49 3 II 7 10 7 6 3 4 4 94 60 602 21 103 67 57 66 32 17 23 30 50.8 54-4 51-5 54-8 53-1 51-2 51-3 56.6 55-3 54-° 54-8 54-6 $0 414 400 442 37i 321 423 399 327 317 465 345 373 $20.92 21.83 22.67 20.31 16.87 21.56 20.43 18.46 17.54 25.12 18.90 20.28 Total US 1,172 52-3 $0,409 $21.28 Treers or ironers, hand, female: New York Ohio Other States 4 4 23 31 20 41 141 50.8 51-2 5^-4 .267 .219 .228 13-52 11.23 12.29 Total 211 53-3 $0,232 $12.25 Treers or ironers, machine, male: Massachusetts. . . . Missouri New Hampshire. . . Other States 9 4 4 6 91 34 40 5° 51-7 58.I 50.0 S2.4 .383 .284 •376 .412 I9.69 16.45 18.79 21.19 Total 23 2IS 52.5 $o.373 $1936 * From Table C. — Wages and Hours of Labor in the Boot and Shoe Industry: IQ07 to iqi8. U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. 260 THE SHOE INDUSTRY Table XXIII. * Average and Classified Full-Time Hours per Week and Rates of Wages per Hour, and Average Full-Time Weekly Earnings, in the United States, by Years, 1907 to 1918. d Employ ;es whose full-time hours per fa'.* .3 4) g fi M week were — Occupation, ° s ~s is ^M -i. d XI sex, and num- cU I'd, ^ OJ C H s- — 1 ° ber of estab- lishments >< 4) D, Si 3 2 ft bjO 00 I- H ^ Tf O 5- ° "3 £ '«^ 10 C 3 > 3 O « 3 3 Other Employees f (all Departments) Male: 81 establish- ments. .. 130 establish- ments 143 establish ments Female: 80 establish- ments 129 establish- ments 142 establish- ments 1914 1916 19,667 19,001 55-i 55-i $0,223 .242 $12.28 13-32 858 543 2,204 2,555 4,792 5,440 7,774 6,672 3,291 2,988 1916 1918 23,142 21,967 55-o 52-7 .242 .328 13.29 17.20 1,103 9,505 2,778 3,191 6,625 4,031 8,481 3,263 3,213 1,613 1918 23,324 52.7 .327 17.17 10,153 3,191 4,393 3,33o 1,859 1914 1916 11,502 11,556 54-° 54-° .167 .176 9.00 9.48 .811 691 1,883 1,935 6,083 6,161 2,010 2,017 708 752 1916 1918 14,466 15,007 53-9 Si-7 .179 .227 9.62 11.72 1,237 7,553 2,248 2,327 7,988 4,595 2,190 532 803 1918 16,007 51-8 .226 11.67 8,136 2,327 4.771 773 748 803 942 373 398 * From Table C. — Wages and Hours of Labor in the Bool and Shoe Industry; IQ07 to iqi8. U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. t In miscellaneous minor or unskilled operations not included in the tables al- ready given in this and other chapters. FINISHING, TREEING, AND SHIPPING 261 Table XXIV. * Average and Classified Full-Time Hours per Week and Rates of Wages per Hour, and Average Full-Time Weekly Earnings, by States, 1918 Occupation, sex, and State Number of estab- lishments Number of employees Average full-time hours per week Average rate of wages per hour Average full-time weekly earnings Other Employees t (All Departments) Male: 10 55 2 3 15 10 4 14 9 9 3 4 1. 179 1,198 8,671 165 336 2,5IO 2,347 2 53 2,773 1,837 1,241 390 424 8 $0 $15 54-5 51-7 56.3 55-o 54-o 50.6 55-o 51.2 56.7 55-2 54-4 54-i 345 348 284 322 293 338 284 354 297 266 2gi 282 18 17 15 17 15 17 15 18 16 14 15 15 82 Massachusetts.. . New Hampshire . New Jersey New York Ohio 93 99 75 70 08 15 12 86 Pennsylvania. . . . Wisconsin 74 84 21 Total 143 23,324 52-7 $0,327 $17.17 Female: 10 5 55 3 14 10 4 14 9 9 3 4 895 823 6,150 125 224 1,957 1,171 199 1,515 1,348 962 307 331 • 193 .274 • 245 • 157 .198 .187 .266 .184 • 251 .203 .180 .176 .184 54 51 54 53 52 50 54 50 50 53 54 54 5 4 2 3 5 5 3 5 14.81 12.55 8.47 • IO-59 9.72 13-37 10.02 12.58 10.14 963 9-50 10.04 Massachusetts. . . Missouri New Hampshire . New Jersey Ohio Pennsylvania. . . . Total 142 16,007 51.8 $0,226 $11.67 * From Table C. — Wages and Hours of Labor in the Boot and Shoe Industry: 1907 to iqi8. U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. t In miscellaneous minor or unskilled operations not included in the tables al- ready given in this and other chapters. CHAPTER XIII EMPLOYMENT CONDITIONS, WAGES, AND HOURS OF LABOR The Sex Division of Employees. Under normal conditions, in a shoe factory making both men's and women's shoes of the ordinary kinds, substantially the following percentages of labor are found: Male employees, sixty-nine per cent. Female employees, thirty-one per cent. Boys under eighteen years, one-seventh or fourteen per cent of male employees. Girls under eighteen years, one twenty-fifth or four per cent of female employees. These percentages may be given as fairly exact for the average shoe factory and for the boot and shoe industry as a whole. In factories making mostly heavy shoes or men's wear, however, the proportion of male employees runs somewhat higher than the sixty-nine per cent, and that of female employees lower than the thirty-one per cent. On the other hand, in factories making women's, children's, and infants' footwear, there will be found some increase in the percentage of female employ- ment with a corresponding decrease in the male. 262 EMPLOYMENT CONDITIONS 263 In studying the departments of shoe manufacture we have seen that the more difficult processes and the operation of heavy machines are given regularly to male employees. This is especially true in the Shoe Workers of the Thomas G. Plant Company, Boston, Mass. Copyright, Photo News Co. cutting department, in some divisions of the stitch- ing department, in the sole leather department, in the gang room, and in treeing. On the other hand, the lighter processes and the simpler machines are regularly given to girls and women, especially in stitching, finishing, dressing, and packing. During the recent war, however, women were employed upon some of the machines usually run by men. 264 THE SHOE INDUSTRY Further statistical information upon employment in the shoe industry, in comparison with other lead- ing industries, is given in Table XXVII on page 284. The Divisions of Employees Among Departments. To enable a factory to work as a whole with all operatives in all manufacturing departments equally busy each day, the division of employees among departments must have about the percentages following : In the cutting room, twelve per cent of all operatives. In the stitching room, twenty-seven per cent. In the sole leather room, twelve per cent. In the gang room, twenty-three per cent. In finishing, eight per cent. In treeing and dressing, ten per cent. Small numbers of employees, making perhaps seven or eight per cent, are found in minor depart- ments of the factory. At the same time the business offices employ from nine to ten per cent of the total number of people connected with the industry. Shoe Manufacture Highly Specialized. Shoe manufacture has become more and more highly specialized in recent years. Each factory can pro- duce a larger output with smaller costs when making EMPLOYMENT CONDITIONS 265 only a single or a few kinds of footwear. The large American market has greatly aided in this special- ization; an increased trade abroad, in about ninety different countries at the present time, makes it still more profitable for the American shoemaker to devote his plant to a single line of product in the The First Factory of Thomas G. Plant assurance that he will find a steady market. We find, then, factories, for example, making men's heavy work shoes, leg boots, walking shoes, or shoes for dress wear; and other factories making foot- wear for women, children, and infants, exclusively. At the same time we find the long list of -factories manufacturing special parts and findings. Seasons. One of the chief objections to entering 266 THE SHOE INDUSTRY into shoe manufacture is the fact that it is a seasonal employment. The busiest seasons are the fall and winter; the least busy season is the summer, with an average idle period of from three to eight weeks, coming usually in or around the month of July. As has been said earlier, the progressive shoe manu- facturers are making great efforts to obtain orders far enough in advance, and to study trade conditions, so that a year's steady employment may be pro- vided for the factory. Large concerns capable of handling extensive contracts may do this more easily; the small concern with a limited trade must adjust its output to its volume of trade and suffer usually from an idle season. In a few rare cases factories having large contracts or accumulations of orders make a twenty-four hour day, with three full shifts of employees working in eight-hour periods. Shoemaking a Trade. Shoemaking is a trade, with many specialized divisions. Some of these divisions, such as the simpler operations in the various rooms, are distinctly unskilled trades; others, like cutting, welting, and trimming edges are highly skilled trades. The first kind calls for a very brief period of learn- ing, sometimes a few days only; the other division includes processes requiring in many cases several months or even years for learning. The operator may learn several related processes, EMPLOYMENT CONDITIONS 267 but in the large factory he remains essentially a worker or an expert in one. Entering Upon Work in a Shoe Factory. In a small shoe establishment, and quite regularly in a country town, inexperienced persons may be taken in to learn most processes. Persons thus learning branches of shoe manufacture quite often enter the large factories as experienced operators. In the large factories, especially in the great shoe centers, inexperienced persons are taken in only for the minor processes, and more often in the stitching than in other departments. There is quite a steady move- ment of the more highly skilled shoe operatives from factory to factory, and from one shoe center to another. Promotion. The operator who can perform several processes in shoemaking is usually kept upon the process in which his work is most needed at any time. Frequently a worker showing a special apti- tude for an advance process is put forward to learn it, and given permanent promotion if he becomes expert in it. There is not, however, such a grada- tion of operations in the departments of the shoe factory as to offer promotion regularly or to the many. The most conspicuous promotion is that of a workman who comes to understand the work of a room fully, with ability to direct others, to the position of assistant foreman or foreman. 268 THE SHOE INDUSTRY Securing Skilled Labor. The desirabilty of securing employees that are skilled in their respec- tive branches of work is appreciated in every in- dustry, and in none more so perhaps than in the shoe industry. The truth of this assertion is evidenced by the methods of securing employees in different shoe manufacturing centers. " In some of these centers shoe manufacturers cooperate through their local association in keeping records as to the workmanship and character of their employees which have some bearing upon future employment. In other places each factory may have a bulletin board on which it makes known the classes of employees that are desired, but in both cases the kind of an operator that is wanted is specified, and this in itself is an indication of the desire of the concern to engage a skilled employee for that particular operation. " We are sometimes told by thoughtless persons that the amazing improvement in shoe machinery that has been witnessed in the last fifty years has practically eliminated the skill of the shoe operative. It would perhaps be more proper to say that the larger use of vastly improved machinery, subdivid- ing the labor of shoemaking as it has, has simplified shoemaking to the extent that it is much easier to manufacture skilled employees in the shoe factory of today than it was in the shoe factory of fifty years EMPLOYMENT CONDITIONS 269 ago, when it was necessary to teach the shoe opera- tive much more of the shoemaking art than he needs to know at the present time." x The Shoe Superintendent. The superintendent of a shoe factory or of a department or room must be first of all a manager. He need not necessarily have exact knowledge of processes, but he must know much of resources, materials, equipment, employees, and of methods of efficiency and improvement in employment conditions. He must be able to work through subordinates and yet keep a firm and help- ful hand on the activities of manufacture. The superintendent usually comes to his position from the business side of the industry. Young men are trained for this work in some factories by a period in office service, of from six months to several years, followed by service in the factory long enough to make them familiar with the general features of manufacture. The superintendent may be a member of the firm or corporation, a stockholder, or simply an employed officer. His salary, as in other great lines of manu- facture in present times, may vary from some hun- dreds of dollars in a small factory or department to many thousands of dollars in the great corporation. The Shoe Foreman. The shoe foreman, on the other hand, rises from the bench or is promoted from 1 Superintendent and Foreman, Boston, August 26, 1014. 270 THE SHOE INDUSTRY the machine. He must have intimate knowledge of processes and be able to train employees in them; he must be able to select operators for his depart- ment and to make their work efficient; he must be a master of method, of handling men at work, and of maintaining discipline in his room, tactful, firm, friendly with all, yet not forfeiting their obedience and respect. The position of the foreman is exacting. He stands between the superintendent and the operator and is responsible for the work in his department. He must keep every employee occupied and the work passing through on schedule time. His pay is usually about the same as that of the most expert operators in his room, varying from $15.00 upwards a week, reaching $50.00 or $60.00 in some cases. Forewomen are employed in divisions of the stitch- ing room or in small departments in which the employees are mostly girls or women. The superintendents and foremen of a factory usually hold weekly meetings for the discussion of topics of mutual interest and helpfulness. Assistant superintendents and foremen receive salaries graded below the amounts given, according to the responsibility and service demanded. There is considerable change of foremen among shoe factories, more, probably, than of other officers or employees. In every shoe journal advertise- ments like the following are constantly appearing: EMPLOYMENT CONDITIONS 271 " POSITION WANTED as foreman of sole leather room. Experience on welts, turns, and McKays, and can operate all machines. Also, expert on new economy- insole. Best of references. Address, , care of American Shoemaking." The Quality Man and the Quantity Man. Some factories have, in addition to superintendents and foremen, a person whose special duty is to examine all work being done in a department for its quality of workmanship and another person who observes all work for its quantity, so that each room is held up to the standard set by the factory both in grade and volume of product. These persons are practi- cally assistants to the foremen, yet responsible to the factory management only. With them, the fore- man can give his time more fully to training and supervising employees. On the other hand such a multiplication of supervisors, — superintendent, fore- man, and inspectors, — is likely to bring uncertainty as to authority and confusion of oversight. The quality and quantity men have about the same rank and pay as foremen. The Efficiency Engineer. Some large concerns employ a person skilled in efficiency methods. His work in the factory consists in studying methods and processes so that the best results may be ob- tained with the least expenditure of time, with the least wear of machinery, and with the most eco- nomical use of materials possible. When his duties 272 THE SHOE INDUSTRY deal with the operations of manufacture he is usually called an efficiency engineer. He is a specialist in work belonging more naturally to the' foreman, and attended to by the foreman or his assistant in the smaller establishments. The efficiency engineer must have a very accurate knowledge of the nature of machine operations, of the qualities of materials, of the factory schedule, of the mental and physical qualities of the operative, of the effect of monotony and routine, and of the value of encouragement and incentive for the worker. The Shoe Factory Chemist. There are numerous chemical companies which produce the materials used in tanning leathers and in finishing shoes. In recent years, however, some large shoe factories have drawn chemists from such establishments or from other sources to work steadily in the factory. The duties of such chemists are twofold : To examine all leathers purchased to see that they have been properly tanned and cared for, and to examine all finished materials, to see that they are of the right quality. A few factories have laboratories in which the chemist makes finishing materials from formulas which can be purchased or from his own or the factory formula. The salary of the shoe factory chemist, whose service is of high value in shoe manufacture, ranges from $20 or $25 a week upwards. EMPLOYMENT CONDITIONS 273 Piece and Time Payment. Two-thirds, or about sixty-six per cent of the processes of boot and shoe manufacture, are paid for on a piece basis, usually at a fixed rate per dozen pairs. Such processes are those in which good work can be done at high rate of speed, and in which the possibility of increased earnings produces a larger volume of work from the shoe operator. On the other hand, where accuracy and care are required, as in the cutting room, and where work is of a routine nature, as in shipping, pay rests upon a time basis. The Best Paying Processes. Some of the best paying processes in the factory are, cutting, stitching, lasting, wiping in, welting, rounding, trimming and edge setting. The pay in these processes ranges from $20.00 to $40.00 or more per week. Wages and Hours of Labor in the Shoe Industry. Wages have been given in statistics at the ends of the chapters on factory departments, in each for the occupations in a given department. From the table which follows, on page 276, show- ing relative full-time hours per week, hourly earnings, and full-time weekly earnings, in the principal occu- pations from 1910 to 1 91 8, we may note the in- creases of 191 8 over the index numbers of 1913, or 100 per cent, and compute average per cents of increase. It will be observed that the smaller in- creases for this five year war period were for heelers 274 THE SHOE INDUSTRY and heel trimmers among male employees, and for hand treers among female employees. These in- creases were only 13 per cent. At the same time Goodyear welters and rough rounders, both among the most important operators, were advanced only 17 per cent. On the other hand, bed machine operators and turn lasters received an advance of 43 per cent. The average per cent of increase in the forty occupations between 19 13 and 1918 was 27^ per cent. This average increase of earnings in the industry may be looked upon as permanent. The higher wages paid, no doubt, in some shoe factories since 19 1 8, in keeping with the general raising of wages in industry, are likely to be reduced somewhat, approaching the rates found in 191 8. To aid in making comparisons from year to year, relative or index numbers have been computed for the years 1910 to 1918 inclusive. These numbers are based on the averages showing in the general tables appearing at the ends of the chapters of this volume which treat of the departments of shoe manufacture. • It will be observed that in the period taken there was a universal relative decrease of 6f per cent in full-time working hours per week, while relative earnings increased as shown above. Following is the index number table. In connec- tion with it is presented a table showing for each EMPLOYMENT CONDITIONS 275 occupation the actual hours and earnings of em- ployees in comparison with full-time hours and earn- ings in a given week in 191 8. There appears to be a general falling off in actual figures, running as high as eight or ten per cent. This would not ; of course, be true of factories operating on full-time in busy seasons, and best represents the industry, perhaps, in an average time when production is easily keeping up with distribution. 276 THE SHOE INDUSTRY Table XXV. * Relative Full-Time Hours per Week, Hourly Earnings, and Full-Time Weekly Earnings, 1910 to 1918, in the Principal Occu- pations. (1913 = 100) Department, occupation, sex, and year 3 o Pi +3 c =3 C Department, occupation sex, and year B-^ ?2? CUTTING DEPARTMENT Cutters, vamp and whole shoe, hand, male: igio 1911 1912 iQi3 1914 1916 1918 Cutters, vamp and whole shoe, machine, male: 1910 1911 1912 1013 1914 1916 1918 Skivers, upper, machine male: 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 1916 1918 Skivers, upper, machine female: 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 1916 1918 SOLE-LEATHER DEPARTMENT Cutters, outsole, male: 1910 1911 103 91 94 103 89 92 IOI 92 92 IOO IOO IOO 99 104 103 09 107 106 95 138 132 104 93 97 103 97 IOO IOI 97 98 IOO IOO IOO IOO IOO IOI 99 102 IOI 94 138 135 IOO 96 97 IOI 98 98 IOO 94 95 IOO IOO IOO 99 102 IOI 99 in 1 10 93 141 133 104 84 87 104 84 88 IOI 92 93 IOO IOO IOO 09 99 98 99 IOO 99 95 128 129 102 90 93 102 92 94 SOLE -LEATHER department — Concluded 1912 1913 1914 1916 1918 Channelers, insole, and outsole, male: 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 1916 1918 fitting or stitching department Tip stitchers, female: 1911 1912 1913 19*4 1916 1918 Backstay, stitchers, fe male: 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 1916 1918 Lining makers, female: 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 1916 1918 93 100 IOO IOO 134 94 IOO IOO 99 126 90 IOO 99 122 95 95 100 99 106 94 98 97 100 IOO 107 127 90 IOO 99 103 H9 * Table 2. — Wages and Hours of Labor in the Boot and Shoe Industry: 1007 to iqi8. U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. EMPLOYMENT CONDITIONS TABLE XXV. — Continued 277 Department, occupation, sex, and year ^, 0> >, £ 00 '-".5 J. fi 3 t, il =2 S > E 4) O. > en >■£■ 5 3 rt v .2 « «* Department, occupation, sex, and year FITTING OR STITCHING department — Concluded Closers-on, female: 1010 igu 1912 1013 1914 1916 igiS Topstitchers or under- trimmers, female: 1910 ion 1912 1913 iQU 1916 1918 Button fasteners, female: ign 1912 1913 I9U igi6 1918 Buttonhole makers, fe- male: ign 1912 1913 1914 1916 1918 Vampers male: igio 1911 1912 1913 1914 1916 1918 Vampers, female: 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 1916 1918 105 92 105 93 101 gb 1 00 100 00 90 08 104 96 122 104 90 101 92 IOI 94 1 00 100 99 IOI 00 105 95 136 103 79 IOI 89 100 100 g8 99 OS l°5 96 116 103 91 IOI 93 100 100 99 IOI 9« 110 95 135 IOI 92 IOI 08 100 96 ICO 100 99 98 100 104 94 138 10 1 97 103 97 IOI 94 100 100 99 99 99 103 95 127 LASTING DEPARTMENT Assemblers, for pulling- over machine, male: 1911 1912 1913 1914 1916 1918 Pullers-over, hand, male: 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 1916 1918 Pullers-over, machine male: 1910 1911 191 2 1913 • 1914 1916 1918 Side lasters, hand, male: 1913 1914 1916 1918 Sidelasters.machine.male 1913 1914 1916 1918 Bed-machine operators male: 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 1916 1918 Hand-method lasting-ma chine operators, male 1910 1911 1912 IOO IOI IOI 88 IOO IOO IOO IOI 99 106 95 146 102 87 102 94 IOO 95 IOO IOO 99 105 99 106 93 141 104 91 IOI 93 IOI 89 IOO IOO IOO IOI 09 107 95 146 IOO IOO IOO 102 IOO 103 90 145 IOO IOO 98 106 98 103 93 145 102 94 102 97 IOI 91 IOO IOO IOO 97 IOO i°5 94 152 iot 86 103 89 IOI 91 IOO 102 106 139 95 95 100 105 104 134 95 .94 90 IOO IOI 106 IOO IOI 103 139 IOO 103 IOO 134 96 99 92 IOO 96 105 143 278 THE SHOE INDUSTRY TABLE XXV — Continued Department, occupation, sex, and year G^ 6 w S c .J. "3 3 53 2^4 Department, occupation, sex, and year S-m ^j =1 is 3 n -=1 C ^ 0) J) D. %¥, "a5 O & ■a j>( LASTING DEPARTMENT — Concluded Hand-method lasting-ma- chine operators, male: 1913 1914 igi6 1918 Turn lasters, hand, male: 1912 1913 1914 igi6 1918 BOTTOMING DEPARTMENT Goodyear welters, male: 1910 ign 1912 1913 1914 1916 1918 Rough rounders, male: 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 1916 1918 Goodyear stitchers, male: 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 1916 1918 McKay sewers, male: 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 1916 1918 Heelers, male: 1911 102 101 101 100 100 99 95 103 102 101 100 100 99 95 102 101 101 100 99 99 95 103 102 101 100 100 99 95 100 101 99 119 94 97 94 100 104 109 132 9i 93 90 100 108 113 141 95 100 103 108 125 93 94 90 100 107 112 133 BOTTOMING DEPARTMENT — Concluded Heelers, male : 1912 1913 1914 1916 1918. Heel trimmers or shavers male: 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914- • 1916 1918 Heel breasters, male: 1911 1912 1913 1914 1916 1918 Edge trimmers, male: 1910 ign 1912 1913 1914 1916 1918 Edge setters, male: 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 1916 1918 Heel scourers, male: 1911 1912 1913 1914 1916 1918 Heel burnishers, male: 1911 1912 102 80 IOO IOO IOO 95 99 102 95 118 102 02 102 93 IOI 94 IOO IOO 99 98 99 IOO 95 119 IOI 93 IOI 94 IOO IOO IOO 98 99 103 95 132 102 93 IOI 95 IOI 93 IOO IOO 99 97 99 103 95 133 102 90 102 92 IOI 92 IOO IOO IOO 98 99 IOO 95 127 99 93 IOI 92 IOO IOO 99 97 99 109 95 139 IOO 97 IOI 92 91 IOO 95 101 "3 93 99 54 100 98 99 "3 94 95 100 97 102 126 95 96 93 100 97 102 126 92 93 92 100 98 99 121 93 93 100 97 108 132 97 93 EMPLOYMENT CONDITIONS TABLE XXV — Concluded 279 Department, occupation, sex, and year Mo = 6 — z "■0 S Department, occupation sex, and year R-* j>. 3 ■- Ji M OJ O. > H x; ca *5 "u « j= « K ^ c +33 3 & BOTTOMING DEPARTMENT — Concluded Heel burnishers, male: 1013 1014 igi6 1918 Buffers, male: 1911 1912 1913 1914 1916 1918 FINISHING DEPARTMENT Treers or ironers, hand, male: 1910 100 100 100 95 101 101 100 100 99 95 FINISHING DEPARTMENT — Concluded Treers or ironers, hand male: 1911 1912 1913 1914 1916 rgi8 Treers or ironers, hand female: 1910 1911 igi2 1913 1914 1916 1918 IOI 95 101 94 100 100 100 100 99 l°5 95 145 10(1 91 IOfi 92 100 97 100 100 96 no Q7 119 98 147 95 95 100 99 105 137 96 97 97 100 106 116 "3 280 THE SHOE INDUSTRY Table XXVI. * Average Full-Time Hours, Hours Actually Worked, Full- time Weekly Earnings, and Amounts Actually Earned During One Week, igi8. [This table does not include data from 7 establishments having biweekly pay rolls.] Occupation and sex "I S°3 bfl 0.0 ct) m - 5 Sis 2»S <* »5 cutting department Cutters, vamp and whole shoe, hand, male: Cutters, vamp and whole shoe, ma- chine, male Skivers, upper, machine, male Skivers, upper, machine, female. . . . sole -leather department Cutters, outsole, male Channelers, insole and outsole, male FITTING OR STITCHING DEPARTMENT Tip stitchers, female Backstay stitchers, female Lining makers, female Closers-on, female Top stitchers or undertrimmers, fe- male Button fasteners, female Buttonhole makers, female Eyeleters, female Vampers, male Vampers, female LASTING DEPARTMENT Assemblers, for pulling-over ma- chine, male Pullers-over, hand, male Pullers-over, machine, male Side lasters, hand, male Side lasters, machine, male Bed-machine operators, male Hand-method lasting-machine oper- ators, male Turn lasters, hand, male Turn sewers, male BOTTOMING DEPARTMENT Goodyear welters, male Rough rounders, male Goodyear stitchers, male McKay sewers, male 63 23 116 73 116 119 118 126 129 61 87 81 126 95 35 117 41 54 2,263 1,169 96 668 410 259 419 535 1,097 344 i,3I5 99 137 216 565 1,406 697 344 386 284 1,265 39° 729 455 275 658 196 52. 1 50.9 5i-7 52.1 52.5 Si.S 5i-8 5i-4 52.0 51.6 52.7 52.2 51-7 51.4 5i-7 52.5 Si- 7 52.6 5i-8 52.2 52.1 52.8 53-8 53-6 52.2 52.4 52.3 S2.8 46.6 46.4 46.8 49.8 49.6 46.7 47.0 46 47-3 48.4 48.5 47-7 50.6 51.2 47.1 48.4 48.7 $25.16 23.S6 21.55 13.82 14.98 13.58 12.44 12.30 14-55 12.05 13-67 13-58 22.81 16.24 20.92 24.62 26.75 22.63 24-39 25-97 25.38 24.37 26.82 32.35 32.06 27.56 23.58 $22.46 21.12 19.50 12.51 20.30 21.10 13-51 12.31 11. 17 11.02 13.42 11.00 12.26 12.68 21-45 14.38 18.81 22.85 24-57 21.15 22.99 24.37 23.09 22.90 25.63 28.84 28.39 25.69 21.32 * Table 4. — Wages and Hours of Labor in the Boot and Shoe Industry: IQ07 to iqi8. U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. EMPLOYMENT CONDITIONS Table XXVI — Concluded 28l Occupation and sex £3 1 1 J* DM- E ° "2 m a> m 3 1 E 2 o.§ O £ C — °E 3, =3 e -a 2 2 d III >z 5 2 ^ 404 52.7 49.1 26.36 24S 54-1 52 2 25.61 342 52.6 48 8 28.07 210 52.8 48 7 21.81 981 52.4 48 3 28.51 8ga 52.6 48 27.68 453 52.6 48 4 22.98 3U 52.7 48 S 22.72 463 52.6 48 5 22.28 i,i43 52.3 49.1 21.20 205 53-3 48.7 12.21 21S 52. 5 49-5 19-36 22,394 52.7 48.9 17.23 iS,i87 51.S 47-3 11.79 3 Ji « 1> 2 £ >.* Heelers, male Heelers, wood, male Heel trimmers, or shavers, male. Heel breasters, male Edge trimmers, male Edge setters, male Heel scourers, male Heel burnishers, male Buffers, male FINISHING DEPARTMENT Treers or ironers, hand, male. . . Treers or ironers, hand, female.. Treers or ironers, machine, male ALL DEPARTMENTS Other employees, male Other employees, female 130 18 122 107 131 132 122 123 124 in 29 23 136 135 24.65 24.56 26.25 20.19 26.32 25-75 21.23 21.00 20.64 20.07 n.33 18.20 16.24 10.81 The accompanying graphic chart * is based upon the percentages of figures gathered from eighty- three representative establishments throughout the country. In some establishments the regular pay-roll period covers two weeks. Of this twelve-day working period the factories whose number of employees and pay roll were the basis of the preceding chart, were in operation 11.4 days. This was in the proportion of ninety-five per cent of the working days of the year ending in February, 1914, or 48.4 weeks, leaving the equivalent of an average idle period of 3.6 weeks. 1 Wages and. Hours of Labor, 1007 to 1914 — Boots and Shoes. U. S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. 282 THE SHOE INDUSTRY It will be observed by the chart that the number of employees does not vary greatly throughout the year from the normal of one hundred per cent, but that the pay roll and earnings do vary considerably, APR. MAY JUNE JUIY SEPT OCT CENT 1 1 1 1 I I 1 1 i i 1 1 ^.- •Oij, _A */ '"!3s^ ^y ^A f ,-'-«-—. f % i Xf ^£~?.y~^ \-^ •'' N " :\, fc EMPLOYEES' 3TAL RAY ROLL BIWEEKLY EARNIN6S PER EMPLOYEE 1 , , l , , , 1 , — j — , 1 ' CENT 140 APR MAY JUNE JULY SEPT OCT NO" DEC Variation in Number of Employees, Total Pay Rolls, and Biweekly Earnings per Employee according to seasons, being highest in March, August, December, the latter part of January, and February, and lowest in April, July, September, October, and the early part of January. In the busy season individual earnings are at a maximum; in the dull season, with fewer hours, they are at a minimum. Sex and Age Distribution of Wage Earners in the United States by Leading Industries: 1909. Table XXV, the latest of its kind now. available, shows, for the forty-three leading industries, the number and EMPLOYMENT CONDITIONS 283 per cent of distribution, by age and sex, of wage earners as reported for December 15, or the nearest representative day. It does not include salaried persons. As a means of judging the true importance of the several industries as employers of labor, the average number employed for the entire year is also given in each case, this number, in the case of seasonal industries, being much smaller than the number on the representative day. The per cent of distribution for all industries combined, based on the average number employed, is also presented. In all the industries combined in this table, seventy-eight per cent of the average number of wage earners were males sixteen years of age or over, 19.5 per cent females sixteen years of age or over, and 2.5 per cent children under the age of sixteen. In all industries combined 78.5 per cent of the average number of wage earners in 1914 were males sixteen years of age or over, 19.7 per cent females sixteen years of age or over, and 1.7 per cent children under sixteen years of age. 284 THE SHOE INDUSTRY l vooo in w cv SN lO CO H CO rt s Ol H H COO SO t^ o m o o Tl" lO CO00 W o iH CO H ^h lOSO lO H O > £ Ah tn O crJXl 1) CI a O *t00 VOOO c CO H r*. 00 M3 M rt-00 OssO 1 00 00 OO N , SO ccj o so oo o>oo o c oo" Pi H lO H CO « cS fc3 >> P 1 a! W Xl CI Clj CD ^ N i^ -^- t^ 00 cosO In H H co COSO *c3 1 OO" tO O* OCOMDIOH O so o\ *t *>; *£ *t ^ '"!. ^ H o.^o.t"; 2 Q O N N H f^ H H « CO O" t> <0 bo m bo fS r~ w ^ •^ co < crj 0) Ri "S > J ifl o (x Ci O O M OO O co OS ^t- H O CI OssO SO r- R W-O M O U" ^t-MO co 'cJ- OcOMCOO* iz; „ >> "c3 ioq **■ q* o> r ^ c l h l "t ° " H „ ^^ ^ § ■^- OsOO CO sO o in Os co *tcO m o r- "" N O lO MSO H P s 5 CJ p 0) S Os O r^ O c ) cor^co *+ MM Oh O cn in O co *fr 0) ^foo oo r^ *+ cs> in tq>q m^ c r^o r~-so so X < a IT o" in oo" o" C 00 OS Ol M C ) CO Os CO ^f co H ion a^c h »osO oo ^ oi co to 'ct r^ * H h- ■ 73 • • •X) ■ J, : a W C!i > "§.*! gu X Co XI In ^ .S " E a s "> Exj'x P„_ OJ Ri cti S £ m J3± X! a; £ V tn C 60-" Am- cd m c o o cq < 3 XI c C CL 1 3 Cf 2 ° '■3 Sf o.S -^ -3 b oJ2 ■a.S _s 'S~i„ 3 X O J-- a c o C c" c < Si o <*V 5 S a E mt g 1x 'E -t-> o cd a ^ d rn X) -Cl 03 .- . - q) bo rt Q«T/5 c S « t; S3 >2 T5 bo bo*« .. .o c a tj "- J3^^ O O MSO £ C 3 ri cd nj r3 o N „ OiO CO M ^- CO 10 10 CO 00 co § M w w H CO CO M O t*. (N £ M s &> O " >* •cr 0. >+ tO«)N 00 •*00 M 00 O, M r~ ^ C "1 H H o> e> o> O t> Ov Oi O, Ox N O* OnoO wo O>00 r^oo 0> 0> m r- VO00 t*- c*; CO 01 o\ 00 o> CO 1 00 ^ o 00 1 ^ H PI O COO \0 fON^O > fO oco O "* O "3" •>*■ m H CO ^00 OO O t-» t^-00 H M co CO toco o 00 H lO CO M Of 000 10 vO 10 iO t--0 O 00 Ov'tHOO O00 f^N OmcOO'O sO <* -O O M co COO " -efo o'co" *fco~ Oi o ^j-o CO cO ^J-CO co "O CO co 00 r^ VO00 r^ o\ -3- c* t^\0 "O M CO00 O O O H O R ■* •* CS N TJ-iO CO 10 H 10 DO no 00 VO co H N « ■* * N OlHCO h r- (n I- N CS ^J- O, <- O>00 <* O CO C- H M 000 t^ rf W r- -tf u-i 10 C* CN 00 OV CM CO Ti- r--00 00 co co CN N "* r^>0 00 O O to ■a- •O O 1000 covO 00" VO W OO =s a E - ""3 & •SE OJ c-a g cicS 3 5 **& 3 o 5 o ■^ — •E'E . co« u o •= C tn to O E =«__ oe 3= £ cfl cfljg cci O p O g S3 {2 2 u flj nC O OX13 ■K 3 3 E^ J J JJ --a a - o-5*SS- M E 5 o •S to ■o « a - 3 0. o ^■3 " u • S c ca tj " «T E- s S"g ' a& C — __-.£ aii OP s toii ►j c^ 3 OJ « 'C^=i3 E Ph P-c C/) t/3 C/2 3 c3 2 o E «^ u E & : E3 5 M E 3 5 >- u 286 THE SHOE INDUSTRY The industries for which the largest proportions of males sixteen years of age or over are shown are those in which the work is of a nature requiring considerable physical strength or a high degree of skill. The proportion of women and children, naturally, is larger in those industries in which the processes require dexterity rather than strength. The importance of the shoe industry as a field of employment, in comparison with the other staple industries, may be seen by this table. The average number of wage earners employed in the industry during the year is 93.7 per cent of the total number employed on the day taken by the Census Department as properly representative. Of those sixteen years of age or over, 62.6 per cent are males, and 33.3 per cent are females. The percentage under sixteen is 4.1 of the whole number. The Monotony of Shoemaking. Like those of many other kinds of manufacture the machine processes of shoemaking are monotonous. The hand processes are in general of a lighter and less wearing nature, and are not so distinctly characterized by monotony. Operating an automatic machine, how- ever, upon which materials or parts of shoes must be placed and controlled in an unvarying time period, is depressing and wearing for the operator. In a EMPLOYMENT CONDITIONS 287 Employees' Club House, George E. Keith Company, Brockton, Mass. 288 THE SHOE INDUSTRY sense he becomes a part of the machine until he may almost seem to have little mental or physical activity aside from it. There are several possible offsets to monotony in shoe manufacture. One is an incentive to speed, which, while in itself a wearing element for the workman, has a speeding up effect upon him in the case of payment by piece. He works faster, and in many cases accomplishes a full day's work in less than a full day's time, thus gaining for himself some hours of the working day to spend outdoors or at home. It is a common thing to enter the gang room of a shoe factory, for instance, towards night and find some machines idle because the operators upon them have performed their work on the lots of shoes passing through the room on that day. A second offset is found in the advantage to the operator of learning to run more than one machine, so that at times he may be transferred from one to another. It is a relief and often a pleasure to the mind of the worker to have to handle leathers and other shoe materials of high grade and finish. Another means of lessening monotony lies in the operator's being able to care for his own machine, to understand its parts, or to suggest improvement upon it. This kind of ability, which is much sought EMPLOYMENT CONDITIONS 289 after in the shoe factory, often leads to promotion and to work upon more important machines. Quotation upon Efforts in Some Factories to Lessen Monotony. The following quotation indi- " Ideal Home," Library and Clubrooms, Endicott, Johnson and Company, Endicott, N. Y. cates the tendency of the present time to ameliorate the effects of monotony: " In some German factories the routine of the day is broken by a recess in the morning and in the afternoon. In a western factory, which makes supplies for the shoe trade, there is a morning and afternoon recess for em- ployees. Lunch is served during the recess. Some of the 2Q0 THE SHOE INDUSTRY employees work as waitresses. In a number of shoe fac- tories there are now rest rooms for women. " In some high-class American manufacturing estab- lishments, the grounds about the factories are made attractive. When an employee looks out of the window, he sees a cheerful prospect. This breaks the monotony of his task. It is possible that the American shoe factory system requires too steadfast an application of the worker to his machine. The enthusiasm with which shoemakers demand factory legislation, particularly short working hours, is a sign that this is so. Perhaps shoemakers would be more steady and more efficient if they had ten or fifteen minutes of recess in the morning and in the afternoon. The idea may seem radical, perhaps pre- posterous; but it's pretty certain that something will be done the next few years to break up the monotony of the task of shoemaking." x Social Service in the Shoe Factory. Some large factories conducted under modern conditions take measures for the occupational and social welfare of their employees. They provide classes for training, in some features, at least, of the work of the factory; separate rooms for rest and recreation, dancing, and social clubs for male and female employees ; libraries equipped with books and magazines relating to shoe manufacture, and with general literature; restau- rants conducted on a co-operative basis, or at low rates, so that employees may afford to patronize them; medical attendance and equipment; and some- times elaborate parks and playgrounds. 1 American Shoemaking, Boston, October 18, 1913. EMPLOYMENT CONDITIONS 291 Quotation from a Government Study of Social Service. The best summary of social service, or welfare work ; as it has long been called, in the shoe industry, is to be found in the report upon Em- Men's Recreation Room, Thomas G. Plant Company, Boston, Mass. ployers' Welfare Work, published by the Bureau of Labor Statistics at Washington, 1913, as follows: " The Shoe Co., has done much to improve working conditions for its 5,000 employees. The huge factory is built in the form of a hollow square, so that all the workrooms are well lighted. On the top floor, where the shoe leather is cut, the roof has saw-tooth skylights to increase the light. 2Q2 THE SHOE INDUSTRY The ventilation throughout the building is admirable, and every effort is made to keep down dust. The lava- tories are very sanitary and clean. Individual lockers of perforated iron are placed about in the workrooms near the machines, and are turned over to employees on their making a small deposit — enough to cover the cost of the key. There is a check-room for umbrellas and wet garments. Separate elevators are installed to transport the women employees to the upper floors. The company has a lunch counter for the employees, where food is sold at cost. Employees who bring their lunches eat them in the workrooms. " Apart from good workroom conditions the company conducts recreation work — the name it gives the usual welfare work. The ground around the building has been converted into a noonday-rest park for the employees, with a beautiful, trim, green lawn and flowers. There is besides a roof garden covering over half of the roof space. Part of this is reserved for women and part for men, with separate stairways leading to each section. A dance hall for women open at noon and on special occasions in the evening, a pool room and bowling alleys for men, open every evening after working hours until ten o'clock give the much-needed amusement. The men pay a small fee for the use of the tables and the alleys. A handsomely furnished reading room, with attractive ferns and flowers from the company's greenhouse, has been opened to the employees. There is a branch station of the City Public Library here, besides books owned by the company and numerous weekly and monthly periodicals. " A woman physician, constantly in attendance, has the medical care of the employees under her supervision. EMPLOYMENT CONDITIONS 293 There are rest rooms and an emergency hospital, with a nurse regularly employed in the building. Twice a week an oculist spends the forenoon at the factory and may be consulted free by the employees. He fits them with glasses at very reduced prices. Dancing Hall, Thomas G. Plant Company, Boston, Mass. " The company, with the aid of employees' dues, maintains the Relief Fund Department. Out of this fund, sick, accident, and death benefits are paid. There is at present over $5,000 in the treasury. The dues are ten cents each week for adults and five cents for em- ployees under twenty years of age, and they are de- ducted from wages by the paymaster's department. In case of sickness or accident the members receive $7 and 2Q4 THE SHOE INDUSTRY $3.50 a week. No member can draw benefits longer than seven weeks in one year. Benefits do not become due until the member has been incapacitated one week, except in case of severe injury. At death $100 or $50 is paid the beneficiaries of the deceased, according to the amount of the weekly dues. A medical examiner is em- ployed to report upon the condition of disabled members and to decide upon the members' claims for benefits. The administration of the relief fund is entirely in the hands of the company, and all the receipts of the fund are held by the company in trust for the relief department." General Sanitary Conditions Observed in Boot and Shoe Factories. 1 The general sanitary conditions, dangers, and injurious processes in shoe factories have been clearly presented in the report of the Massachusetts State Board of Health for 1912, upon the Hygiene of the Boot and Shoe Industry in Massachusetts. As this State has always been the center of the industry in this country, and as its factories, some six hundred in number, are typical of the American shoe factories, the facts presented in this report may be considered fairly typical of the industry at the present time. The following is taken from the report: " The construction, location and interior conditions of the shoe factories of Massachusetts vary so widely, even in the same community, that it is difficult to formulate 1 Hygiene of the Boot and Shoe Industry in Massachusetts, State Board of Health, 1912. EMPLOYMENT CONDITIONS 295 general statements which would be applicable to all of them. Not a few of these factories are located in small country towns and are operated by employees descended from generations of shoemakers. These factories are generally isolated and, because of the absence of neighbor- ing structures, quite well lighted. On the other hand, in Factory Hospital, United Shoe Machinery Corporation, Beverly, Mass. the cities, where all available space is utilized, the build- ings are at times crowded together, impairing the lighting conditions of the workrooms. It should be remembered, however, that, unlike the textile industry, the operatives in shoe factories work at machines or at benches placed along the sides of the rooms near the windows. The only exception to this may be found in the stitching 296 THE SHOE INDUSTRY rooms, where the operatives work in all parts of the room. This room, however, was as a rule found well lighted in all establishments visited. " It is to be noted that the modern buildings con- structed for the shoe industry have been so placed that neighboring structures cannot shut out natural illumina- Wash Room, United Shoe Machinery Corporation, Beverly, Mass. tion. This feature of construction has proved a valuable asset to those who have constructed these buildings. Note has already been made of the use of electricity as an artificial illuminant. " The laws of Massachusetts require that all factories be kept clean and well ventilated, and these laws are well observed. " The odor of leather is inseparable from the art of EMPLOYMENT CONDITIONS 297 making shoes, as is the odor of wool and of cotton in the textile industry. " One of the most vexing problems that has arisen in the inspection of shoe factories has been the maintenance of proper toilet facilities. This question, by no means common to the shoe industry, can only be met through repeated inspections and the education of the manu- facturer. It is not that the manufacturer is not willing or does not desire to maintain proper toilet facilities, but he is oftentimes careless and leaves this part of the work to others who fail in their duty. A decided im- provement in these conditions has, however, been noted." Conditions in 483 Factories, as to Light, Ventilation, and Water-closets: Light: Excellent 30 Good 441 Moderately bad 2 Distinctly bad 10 483 Ventilation : Excellent 7 Good ........ 468 Moderately bad 3 Distinctly bad 5 483 Water-closets: Excellent 6 Good . . 415 Moderately bad 7 Distinctly bad 55 483 For further information on health conditions in shoe manufacture the reader is referred to the re- 298 THE SHOE INDUSTRY port from which the preceding quotation has been made. In that report he will find an exhaustive discussion, with numerous diagrams, of the injurious features of the occupation. There is danger in operating most machines, which can, however, be -■■■■, ■■ IXZa Spirit and Loyalty. On Labor Day, in a pouring rain, 15,000 Endicott Johnson workers dedicate the " Square Deal Arches." These arches are of granite, erected at Johnson City and Endi- cott, costing $32,000 and financed entirely by the workers avoided with due care on the part of the operator; there is danger, also, from the fumes of naphtha, from cement used in the stitching room and making room; and while dust removers are in general use, under the compulsion of state legislation, there is EMPLOYMENT CONDITIONS 299 considerable menace to the health from dust which is produced by nearly all processes of work upon the bottoms of shoes, such as edge trimming, bottom scouring, buffing, and bottom finishing. The Employment of Handicapped Men in the Shoe Industry. Many of the minor processes of shoe manufacture and a considerable number of the major processes can be performed by handicapped men. The industry offers numerous opportunities for such workers to earn a fair living or even high wages and salaries. Its 1400 factories are established in all sections of the country, and each factory employs hundreds or thousands of operatives. The place, moreover, of the industry is among the great staples whose products are in ever increasing demand. Such industries must have workers, and must, if necessary, modify their processes to the abilities and condition of the workers available from time to time. Shoe manufacturers are ready to employ men who have disabilities. If such men have formerly been employed in the industry they can enter it again the more easily ; if they have not done .shoe work, they can learn some part of it in a comparatively brief time. The employer in the great shoe centers especially welcomed the returned soldier, who has on the whole good mental ability. It has been necessary in these places to hire considerable alien help, which has only an economic interest in the 3 oo THE SHOE INDUSTRY service it performs. Furthermore, the employment of handicapped men in the shoe factory will lessen the increasing danger of an over-employment of women in the harder and more wearing divisions of the occupation. The view of the manufacturer is well expressed in the following statement by the superintendent of one of the great factories in the vicinity of Boston, when a recent investigation of opportunities for the handicapped was being made by the author in this factory: Work here depends on the man more than on freedom from handicap. A person willing to take hold and learn may do something with almost any handicap. An opera- tive here who loses several fingers or a thumb may keep his place on almost any job. So one blind in one eye may still work; those deaf and dumb may work here successfully. We have this morning hired four inex- perienced men who are both deaf and dumb. They will be put upon machines and trained as shoe workers. Of specific disabilities it is necessary here to speak but briefly. Loss of legs will not incapacitate a man in the industry. He may work at many opera- tions sitting. Plans are now being considered to construct seats and benches for some of the heavy shoe machines at which the operator now stands. The great problem will be to enable the man who has lost one or both hands or arms to operate shoe EMPLOYMENT CONDITIONS 301 machines or do hand processes in the factory. A man of general strength and health who has almost any injury except in hands and arms may become a shoe operator. Manufacturers and inventors of shoe machinery are now considering methods of adapting shoe machines to handicapped operators by means of mechanical devices, air pressure, and elec- trical devices. Where now a foot pressure of eighty or one hundred pounds is used on the treadle of a heavy machine, by possible and contemplated im- provements this pressure may be reduced ninety per cent, or the machine may even be operated by touching an electric button. Mr. J. B. Hadaway, consulting engineer for the United Shoe Machinery Corporation, made to the writer the following wisely conservative statement: I think it possible in time to so arrange the machines that the difficulties which would be experienced by operators with crippled limbs will be partially overcome. This is the statement of a leading authority in a great corporation which manufactures and leases shoe machinery for the bulk of the industry in this country today. The conservative point of view upon the employ- ment of handicapped men in the shoe industry may properly be presented here, that we may the better understand the industry and more intelligently esti- 302 THE SHOE INDUSTRY mate its opportunities for workers who have dis- abilities of any kind. Shoe manufacture is highly specialized and its operations are mainly performed on standard machines. The best paying operations are upon machines that call for the full strength of a person standing while at work, and require two good hands and two legs, healthy lungs, and strong chest muscles. There is also a great deal of moving about at most jobs, to do one's own work and pass it to the next operator, and quickness of movement and speed of machine are necessary for profitable earnings for the individual worker and for a satis- factory output in a factory department. It is just as necessary for a piece worker to work fast as for a day worker, since he must keep up to the rate of speed required by workers associated with him. All shoe parts being worked upon pass through one room after another on scheduled time, and no opera- tive can be allowed to fall behind others. The shoe factory as a whole is no more efficient than the weakest link in the chain of workers. As most operations are paid by the piece, the handicapped worker might receive lower wages, since no factory would increase its rate. It might become necessary, then, in part, to employ handi- capped persons upon the less skilled operations now performed by women and girls, or boys, at the wages paid to these workers. This would displace such EMPLOYMENT CONDITIONS 303 workers in a degree, even if shoe manufacturers were willing to make the change; but manufacturers prefer women, girls, and boys for most of the work which they now do on account of their skill of hand, quickness, or steady application to their work. Women, in particular, during the recent war, were employed in increasing numbers in the shoe factory upon the processes previously performed by men. In general, the output of these women proved greater than that of men formerly in the same processes, and a return to the earlier relative numbers of the sexes in the industry was not to be expected. Mr. Sidney W. Winslow, Vice-president of the United Shoe Machinery Corporation, made the following statement: Ninety per cent of our machinery calls for the use of both hands in holding the shoe up to the machinery in such a position that the machinery may operate upon the shoe step by step along the contour of the shoe, which means that the operator has to turn the shoe by hand and needs both hands to do so. This would, of course, pre- vent most of the hand cripples from being able to use 90 per cent of our machinery. At most of our machines the operators stand while running them. Our Experimental Department has been going through our machines thoroughly with the idea of arranging that the operator may sit and operate these machines, having in mind the possibility of woman labor. This, of course, would make it possible for the leg cripples to run these machines. 304 THE SHOE INDUSTRY These machines represent investments of millions of dollars and priceless patents. In some cases there are thirty or forty patents on a single machine. Changes in the machines, therefore, will come very slowly, and generally only in the line of the per- fection of a process. Certain conclusions in regard to the problem of the employment of handicapped workers in the shoe industry are here presented: i. Opportunities exist to a considerable degree in the major and to a large degree in the minor factory processes and in shoe repairing. 2 . In the present scarcity of intelligent labor, employers will welcome the handicapped worker who desires to enter the shoe factory. 3. Leg handicap will not incapacitate a person for shoe work. The man with one artificial leg may stand at a machine; one with both legs gone or artificial may work sitting, especially after projected changes in machinery. 4. The main problem is one of hands and arms. Most of the processes in shoe manufacture require two good hands. Passing from early hand shoemaking to present machine shoemaking only adds intricacy to processes. 5. Defective sight and serious bodily injury constitute decided handicaps. 6. Minor injuries and the loss of several fingers are practically negligible handicaps. 7. Shoe machinery is standardized. The main proc- esses are fixed and demand workers who are vigorous, active, and capable of endurance. EMPLOYMENT CONDITIONS 305 8. Shoe machinery is based upon thousands of costly patents and represents millions of dollars in investments. Changes for any one particular class of workers are likely to come slowly. 9. Handicapped men should be well trained and placed on shoe processes where they will be 100 per cent efficient as compared to other operators. They can expect to remain in the shoe factory permanently only on this basis. CHAPTER XIV TRAINING IN THE SHOE INDUSTRY Schools and Courses for Shoemaking. In several large shoe centers private schools for shoe workers have .been established. The work upon which operators learn usually consists of low grade shoes made by the school for factories, on a contract basis, or upon shoes manufactured from materials of second quality, bought at a low price from supply factories or from shoe factories. Persons wishing to learn a process of shoemaking are taken on rather as helpers at first in that process, giving their time and paying a fixed tuition, such as thirty or sixty or eighty dollars, without special regard to the time required for learning. The time spent in learning, however, may run from one to seven or eight months. Operators run the same machines, though sometimes second hand, as are used in the shoe factory, and generally become capable of enter- ing factories as fairly efficient workers. A few towns and cities, in co-operation with shoe and leather manufacturers, have established courses in shoe and leather subjects in the public school system. These courses, however, are mainly at- 3°6 TRAINING IN THE SHOE INDUSTRY 307 tended by persons already working in factories and leather houses and seeking additional training to increase their efficiency and earning capacity. The instructors are superintendents and experts in the trade who have been given special training for teaching. The establishment of such courses marks a great advance in the shoe and leather industries. Superintendents and foremen sometimes conduct classes at the factory for employees under them. Quotation from a Report upon Industrial Education in Shoe Manufacture. The report of the Committee on Industrial Education of the National Boot and Shoe Manufacturers' Association, at the annual con- vention of the association in New York on January 13, 1915, contains the following: " The subject of industrial education in the shoe manu- facturing industry, which was referred to the under- signed Committee, is in our opinion a matter of great importance to our trade — ■ so important indeed that, disturbed by the prevailing business conditions, in common with the other manufacturers in our country, we have been unable to give to it the careful investigation that it deserves. This report, therefore, may be con- sidered as merely one of progress, designed to lead to a broader investigation of the subject later. " That there is need of higher efficiency, based on a broader knowledge of, and a greater enthusiasm for, the work in which they are engaged on the part of the em- 3 o8 THE SHOE INDUSTRY ployees in our American shoe factories, and especially the young beginners in the industry, is sufficiently ob- vious to require no argument. " This same need has been recognized in many other manufacturing industries, not only in this country, but in many foreign countries, and in the case of several of the latter notable progress has been made during the last ten or fifteen years. " We therefore find that not only is industrial educa- tion of various grades being generally carried out in the older countries, like England, France, Germany, Belgium, Holland, Switzerland, and Denmark, but that even the great Orient countries, just now awakening from their centuries of conservatism, and incidentally opening up encouraging vistas of future trade opportunities for our United States manufacturers — China, Japan, and India- — are also seriously taking up this question of higher efficiency in industry. Canada, one of the most progressive of the world's countries, has established a National Commission for the investigation of this ques- tion, and its report will be awaited with much interest by the friends of modern education. " The more active campaign along this line in the United States has extended over the last ten years, and already has brought forth some valuable results. At the present time the National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education is making an exhaustive national survey of the field, somewhat similar to that undertaken by Canada; and naturally the conclusions that may be reached by this organization will have a far-reaching influence on the future of industrial education. " In so far as our American shoe industry is concerned we find that some excellent preliminary work already has TRAINING IN THE SHOE INDUSTRY 309 been accomplished by one of our leading organizations, the New England Shoe and Leather Association. " This Association had the merits of the German and English system of continuation, or part-time, industrial instruction brought to its attention by representatives of the Boston School Committee, and arranged to co-operate with that Committee in the establishment in 19 10 of what we understand was the first shoe and leather con- tinuation school in the United States. " The first class brought together numbered thirty-nine pupils, representing twenty-nine different concerns in various branches of the allied shoe and leather trade, mainly boys and young men between the ages of fifteen and twenty, employed in offices, warehouses, and manu- facturing departments, etc., of the shoe factories, tanneries, and other establishments. Since that time, there have been graduated from this school more than two hundred pupils, each of whom has received an official certificate of his technical ability, and in this way there has been laid a splendid foundation for the larger scheme of industrial education that is now being con- sidered by the Association. " The working method of this Boston Shoe and Leather Continuation School Class, briefly, is the holding of a series of two-hour sessions on two afternoons a week, covering a period of twelve weeks. " The School Committee provides the classroom and the instructor, who, of course, has specialized in this particular branch of industry; and the Association and the trade it represents co-operates by furnishing com- petent lecturers, and other experts, who from time to time give the pupils formal or informal talks on the subjects in which they are experts. 3 io THE SHOE INDUSTRY " Incidentally various trips of inspection are made to nearby shoe factories, tanneries, and other plants, the result being that the boys not only acquire a broad idea of the fundamentals of tanning and shoemaking, to- gether with its ramifications of foreign-trade extension, advertising and general efficiency, but, what perhaps is as important as anything, they graduate with an interest and enthusiasm for their chosen vocation that will mean more than half the battle for them in their future life. " This lack of real interest on the part of so many young beginners in our industry, which springs largely from the existing narrow vision of their work that lies before them, in any one department of it, is one of the greatest handicaps to both the youths and to the manu- facturer who employs them; and if the continuation school did nothing more than inspire them with a real interest in what they are doing day by day for a liveli- hood, it would well repay all that it costs. " There is no charge for tuition in the Boston Shoe and Leather Continuation School, except that non-resi- dent pupils are charged a nominal fee, so that the only expense entailed is the four hours or so per week of the pupils' time that the employer donates to the good cause. " In conclusion your committee would strongly recommend: " First. — The establishment of shoe and leather continuation schools, similar to the Boston School, in every shoe manufacturing city and town in the United States that is in a position to support one, in this way possibly laying a foundation for a broader scheme of industrial education in the trade. " Second. — That the National Boot and Shoe Manu- TRAINING IN THE SHOE INDUSTRY 311 facturers' Association establish a Standing Committee on Industrial Education to make a careful survey of the question and report to each annual meeting; and " Third. — That the Association co-operate in every feasible way with the National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education." The existence of war conditions has prevented a country-wide adoption of the recommendations of this report, but herewith are presented accounts of the most notable developments in training for the shoe industry. The Shoe and Leather Course of the Boston Con- tinuation School. Following is a statement of the Shoe and Leather Course of the Boston Continuation School, recently prepared for the author by Mr. Owen D. Evans, formerly Principal of the school: In 1910 with the co-operation of the New England Shoe and Leather Association the Boston Continuation School started a voluntary short unit course on the shoe and leather industry. Since that time the course has been given once or twice each winter. To date a total of over 300 men in the shoe and leather industry have successfully completed the work. The men who take the course range from eighteen to twenty-five years of age; most of them are high school or college graduates. Their work lies on the distributing side of the industry rather than in production. The sessions are two hours each, twice a week during working hours for twelve weeks. A small tuition fee is charged for persons not residents of Boston. Usually the employer pays the 3i2 THE SHOE INDUSTRY tuition fee. The work consists of lectures, demonstra- tions, class discussions, varied by frequent trips of investi- gation and inspection to tanneries, stock rooms and factories. The detail of the typical twelve weeks' course is in- dicated by the following schedule for 19 18, in which lectures are given by the instructor unless otherwise specified: 1. Brief historical account of leather making. Trade centers in the United States. Sources of hides and skins. Methods of curing. 2. Classification of hides and skins according to age, sources, injuries, and " take-off." 3. Discussion of hide reports in trade papers to bring out above points. Merchandising of hides and skins. Chemical and anatomical structure of skin as applied to unhairing, fleshing, and liming. 4. Trip to New England Dressed Meat and Wool Co., Somerville. Killing of cattle and sheep. Care of hides in hide basement. Scouring and painting of sheepskins. Wool pulling and making of pickled sheepskins. 5. General outline of tanning operations from start to finish. Layout of tannery. 6. Chemical demonstration of action of tanning ma- terials on hide-substance. Details of vegetable tanning and study of vegetable tanning materials. 7. Mineral tannages, chrome, alum, and combina- tions. Oil tannage. Details and processes. 8. Trip to the Beggs and Cobb plant at Winchester. An afternoon spent in seeing what has been taught. Principally chrome work. 9. Finishing operations. Patent leather. Prepara- tion of varnishes. TRAINING IN THE SHOE INDUSTRY 313 10. Trip to American Hide and Leather Co., Woburn Highlands, including a brief visit to the Beggs and Cobb patent leather shop. n. Lecture, Tannage of goatskins, also manufacture of sole leather. 12. Trip to Benz Kid Co., Lynn. 13. Talk on South America by Mr. H. G. Brock, Special Agent of the United States Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. 14. Tannage of Sheepskins and Calfskins, also a half- hour talk on the Far East by Mr. Clarence E. Bosworth, Special Agent of the United States Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. 15. Talk on Sheepskins and exhibition of stock by Mr. L. Y. Stiles at the Sheepskin Department of the A. C. Lawrence Co. 16. Brief outline of history of shoemaking in the United States. Development of machinery and the modern factory. Steps in manufacture up to stitching room. 17. Leather remnants, examination of stock at the C. G. Flynn Co., and talk by Mr. Battey on uses of various kinds of remnants. 18. Illustrated lecture on history of shoes by Mr. Wm. F. Hall of the Publicity Department of the United Shoe Machinery Corporation. 19. Talk and exhibition of calfskins at Calfskin De- partment of the A. C. Lawrence Co. Talks on "Tanning," by Mr. L. F. Peabody; " Selling the Product," by Mr. G. N. Bankhardt. 20. Trip to Stetson Shoe Factory, South Weymouth. High grade men's welts. 21. Talk on Shoe Selling and the Manufacture of 3 i4 THE SHOE INDUSTRY Rubber Heels by Mr. William Noll of the Foster Rubber Co. 22. Shoe Findings, Talk and Exhibit by Mr. S. R. Nichols of the Frank W. Whitcher Co. 23. Trip to the Thomas G. Plant Co., Jamaica Plain. Women's welts, McKay's, and turns. 24. Brief summary of shoe manufacture by the in- structor. Remarks by Secretary Anderson of the N. E. Shoe and Leather Association. Presentation of certifi- cates by Principal Owen D. Evans of the Boston Con- tinuation School. The Boston Continuation School conducts classes in several local shoe factories, which are of the nature of part time education. In these courses boys and girls from fourteen to sixteen years of age are taught subjects related to shoe manufacture, and American- ization, citizenship, and hygiene. The teaching of factory processes is at present left to the factory itself. The Lynn Independent Industrial Shoemaking School. The circular of this new school gives the following information: This is a school conducted jointly by the Common- wealth of Massachusetts and the City of Lynn, under the provisions of Chapter 174, of the Special Acts of 1 91 6, and aims: First — To prepare the pupils for the shoe industry by methods impossible to use in other than a properly equipped vocational school. TRAINING IN THE SHOE INDUSTRY 315 Second — To so instruct the boys and girls of Lynn as to enable them to acquire a skill in and technical knowl- edge of the shoe industry which will enable them to enter that industry advantageously and rise to the highest posi- tions of responsibility. Third — While receiving instruction in the technical knowledge and necessary manipulative skill, the pupils are also to be taught the duties of citizenship; their obliga- tions to the City, State and Nation. Fourth — To meet the pressing needs of the shoe in- dustry both from a standpoint of the shoe workers and manufacturer. Subject to the statutory requirements the school will be open to residents of Lynn over 14 years of age, with a Grammar School education who are able to satisfy those in charge of the school of their ability to under- take a four-year course. Membership will be limited to those who are willing to bind themselves so far as they are allowed by the laws of the Commonwealth to take the entire course if they are admitted. Pupils may enter the school at any time during the school year and will be retained if, within a reasonable time, they show ability to profit by the training. Promotion from one phase of the work to another will depend wholly upon the individual ability of the pupil. There will be no promotion by classes and probably no fixed time for promotion, but the general schedule of studies found herein will be adhered to as closely as possible. Interested candidates should address themselves to Michael J. Tracey, Director, 235 Euclid Avenue, Lynn, Telephone 5562. This school offers a four years' course for boys and a 316 THE SHOE INDUSTRY two years' course for girls. Each school year is one of forty-eight weeks, five days a week, seven hours a day. At least 50% of the time will be spent by the pupils in actual work in the school shops. The school will be divided into the following depart- ments: Cutting Making and Finishing Fitting Lasting Sole Leather Packing and Office The course of instruction is intended to give the students a thorough knowledge of the shoe industry and so far as possible to fit them for positions as shoe factory executives. It is not thought that it can replace practical ex- perience in the shoe trade. This will probably always be necessary for one desiring to become an expert work- man on any particular part. The school does not intend to engage in the work of turning out merely expert cutters, lasters, edgemakers, etc., but does hope to give its graduates a broad training upon the fundamental prin- ciples of shoemaking which, coupled with a manipula- tive training and supplemented by experience, will enable them to understand and direct the technique of the making of shoes in all departments. COURSE OF STUDY — BOYS 4 years — 48 weeks each year 5 days a week — 7 hours a day Upper Leather Cutting Department Twenty-jour Weeks Fifty per cent of the time to be spent in the school shop in actual work: TRAINING IN THE SHOE INDUSTRY 317 Trimming cutting, including lace stays, top facing, back stays, tongues and tips, knife and block cuttings .... 2 weeks Linings 2 weeks Outsides, hand and machine 8 weeks Stock sorting 4 weeks Pattern drafting, pattern making, and last measure- ments 6 weeks Skiving 2 weeks Twenty per cent of the time to be spent in the school room on directly related technical work arising during the course as applied to the cutting of shoes; such as the inspection and choice of skins and their use in different types of shoes, developing the ability to measure skins by the eye, the relation of the cutting department to the other departments and the necessity of having the shoes exactly cut. The possibility of economizing in the making of shoes by "a properly conducted cutting department, the im- portance of reading the tags carefully and what mistakes may lead to ; the importance of keeping a smooth surface on the cutting boards and how to obtain the same, the care of the cutting knife and the right kind of a " grind," the selection of the right parts to be used for trimmings, the selection of fabrics for linings and the importance of the lining to the making of a shoe, the selection of fabrics to be used in the outsides, instructions in the " feel " of leather, tanning and currying of hides. Fifteen per cent of the time to be spent in the school room on- — -General Vocational Subjects: Designing shoes. Applied Science, as chemistry of tan- ning, etc. Applied Arithmetic. Industrial and Com- mercial Geography. Industrial History. Fifteen per cent of the time to be spent in the school room on — General Non-Vocational Subjects: English, Mathematics, Citizenship, Hygiene, Recreation. 3i8 THE SHOE INDUSTRY The Class of New Americans, all Endicott Johnson workers, studying that they may become citizens Upper Leather Fitting Department Forty-eight Weeks Fifty per cent of the time to be spent in the school shop in actual work. Lining making and stamping 4 weeks Closing and staying 2 weeks Perforating, cementing and pressing 4 weeks Back stays, tip stitching, fancy stitching and binding, single needle work 6 weeks Foxings 4 weeks Top stitching, closing on, turning and blacking 6 weeks Button hole operating, finishing, button sewing, eyeleting 8 weeks Vamping 8 weeks Barring and toe closing 2 weeks Table Work ■ — including lining in, marking buttons and button holes, lacing and buttoning, blacking edges, inspecting, tying up and packing, and simple machine repairs 4 weeks TRAINING IN THE SHOE INDUSTRY 319 Twenty per cent of the time to be spent in the school room on directly related technical work arising during this course ; such as, instructions as to the importance of good fitting in the production of shoes, of using the correct needles and threads on different parts of shoes and grades of work, instruction as to the proper allowances for seams on the different operations, the relation of pattern draft- ing and making to the fitting department, the possibility of designing new shoes by simply changing some of the parts in the fitting room, the different machines to be used on the different parts and how to secure the best results from them, also care for the same, the relation of the fitting of the shoe to the lasting department, cutting department. Fifteen per cent of the time to be spent in the school room on — General Vocational Subjects: Applied English. Applied Mathematics. Applied Me- chanics. Applied Science. Drawings and Design. In- dustrial and Commercial Geography. Industrial History. Fifteen per cent of the time to be spent in the school room on — General Non-Vocational Subjects: English, Mathematics, Citizenship, Hygiene, Recreation. Sole Leather Department Twenty-jour Weeks Fifty per cent of the time to be spent in the school shop in actual Work. Rounding and cutting soles 2 weeks Cutting inner soles 2 weeks Channeling 4 weeks Rolling and splitting 1 week Pasting and trimming taps and spring heels 1 week 320 THE SHOE INDUSTRY Turning channels i week Molding soles i week Making inner soles 6 weeks Bench work 2 weeks Sorting soles for size, weight and quality 4 weeks Twenty per cent of the time to be spent in the school room on directly related technical work arising during the course; kinds of hides which may be made into sole leather, the parts of hides which may be used as soles, inner soles, counters, top lifts, taps, etc. Effect of water and heat upon leather, the different tannages of sole leather with especial reference to the oak, hemlock, union and chrome tannages. Which shoes should carry a heavy sole, light sole. The process of tempering leather. Where branded leather may be used. How to practice economy in the cutting of leather and how to best utilize the different parts. The importance of careful sorting as to sizes and grades. Stains and how to remove them. Fifteen per cent of the time to be spent in the school room on — General Vocational Subjects: Applied English. Applied Mathematics. Applied Me- chanics. Applied Science. Industrial and Commercial Geography. Industrial History. Fifteen per cent of the time to be spent in the school room on — General Non-Vocational Subjects: English, Mathematics, Citizenship, Hygiene, Recreation. Lasting Department Twenty-four Weeks Fifty per cent of the time to be spent in the school shop in actual work. TRAINING IN THE SHOE INDUSTRY 321 Welts and McKays. Welts ; Assembling, hand pulling and hand lasting .... 8 weeks Pulling over machine 4 weeks C. H. M. machine 4 weeks Bed machine 2 weeks McKays ; Pulling over machine 2 weeks C. H. M. machine 4 weeks Twenty per cent of the time to be spent in the school room on directly related technical work; such as the relation of lasting to the wearing of the shoe, with the especial reference to the possibility of the shoe losing its shape by wear. The importance of distinguishing be- tween " yanking " and " pulling " when lasting leather shoes. The importance of reading tags carefully. Why lasters should know the difference between the different kinds of upper leathers. The necessity of careful work in guarding the " lines " when lasting shoes. Lasting and its relation to the other departments. Fifteen per cent of the time to be spent in the school room on — General Vocational Subjects: Specialized work on topics from Industrial Economics. Industrial History. Industrial and Commercial Geog- raphy. Industrial English. Industrial Design. Rela- tion of shop, office and customers. Relations of em- ployers and employees. Shoe literature. Factory Organ- ization. Department arrangements and management. Placing machinery. Accounting in shoe manufacturing. Salesmanship. Fifteen per cent of the time to be spent in the school room on — General Non-Vocational Subjects: English, Mathematics, Citizenship, Hygiene, Recreation, Business Methods and Forms. 322 THE SHOE INDUSTRY Making and Finishing Departments Forty-eight Weeks Fifty per cent of the time to be spent in the school shop in actual work. Welting 6 weeks Rounding 4 weeks Goodyear stitching 6 weeks Bottom filling, welt beating, inseam trimming, tack pulling, and setting, leveling heel seat, nailing and fudge wheeling 6 weeks McKay sewing and leveling 4 weeks Nailing 3 weeks Shaving 4 weeks Scouring, breasting and slugging 2 weeks Edge trimming and jointing 5 weeks Edge blacking and setting 4 weeks Buffing and Naumkeaging 2 weeks Rolling and finishing bottoms and heels 2 weeks Twenty per cent of the time to be spent in the school room on directly related technical work; such as the difference between the welt and McKay process and the especial value of each. The importance of welting in reference to the fit and wear of the shoe. The importance of Goodyear and McKay stitching. The importance of a well finished heel and bottom. The importance of the heel and its application. Some of the results of badly fitted heels. What edge trimming does to the appearance of the shoe. The importance of having edges properly " set." Fifteen per cent of the time to be spent in the school room on — General Vocational Subjects : — Specialized work on topics from Industrial Eco- nomics — Industrial History. Industrial and Com- mercial Geography. Industrial English. Industrial TRAINING IN THE SHOE INDUSTRY 323 Design. Relation of shop, office and customers. Rela- tions of employers and employees. Shoe literature. Factory, organization. Departmental arrangements and management. Placing machinery. Accounting in shoe manufacturing. Salesmanship. Fifteen per cent of the time to be spent in the school room on — General Non-Vocational Subjects: English, Mathematics, Citizenship, Hygiene, Recreation, Business Methods and Forms. Packing and Shipping Department Tiventy-four Weeks Fifty per cent of the time to be spent in the school shop in actual work. Cleaning and ironing 2 weeks Tip fixing 2 weeks Lacing, buttoning, stamping, lining 2 weeks Inspecting, shipping and routing 2 weeks General Review 16 weeks Twenty per cent of the time to be spent in the school room on directly related technical work; such as the cost of careless work in the packing room as compared with other departments. The artistic side of tip fixing and other repair work. Instructions as to the large shoe centers of this and other countries. The names of the large shoe manufacturers of the nation and their location. The large leather centers and names of the manufacturers. What labor costs include. Office work including a thorough course in the day sheet system. Fifteen per cent of the time to be spent in the school room on — General Vocational Subjects: 324 THE SHOE INDUSTRY — Specialized work on topics from Industrial Eco- nomics — Industrial History. Industrial and Com- mercial Geography. Industrial English. Industrial Design. Relation of shop, office and customers. Rela- tions of employers and employees. Shoe literature. Factory organization. Departmental arrangements and management. Placing machinery. Accounting in shoe manufacturing. Salesmanship. Law of Sales. Super- vision and Management. Fifteen per cent of the time to be spent in the school room on — General Non-Vocational Subjects: English, Mathematics, Citizenship, Hygiene, Recreation, Business Methods and Forms. COURSE OF STUDY — GIRLS 2 years — 48 weeks each year 5 days a week — 7 hours a day Upper Leather Fitting Department Forty-eight Weeks Fifty per cent of the time to be spent in the school shop in actual work. Lining making and stamping 4 weeks Closing and staying 2 weeks Perforating, cementing and pressing 4 weeks Back stays, tip stitching, fancy stitching and binding, single needle work 6 weeks Foxings 4 weeks Top stitching, closing on, turning and blacking 6 weeks Button hole operating, finishing, button sewing, eyeleting : . . . 8 weeks Vamping 8 weeks Barring and toe closing 2 weeks Table work, including lining in, marking buttons and button holes, lacing and buttoning, blacking edges, inspecting, tying up and packing, and simple machine repairs 4 weeks TRAINING IN THE SHOE INDUSTRY 325 Twenty per cent of the time to be spent in the school room on directly related technical work arising during this course; such as instruction as to the importance of good fitting in the production of shoes, of using correct needles and threads on different parts of shoes and grades of work; instructions as to the proper allowances for seams on the different operations; the relation of pattern drafting and making to the fitting department, the possi- bility of designing new shoes by simply changing some of the parts in the fitting room, the different machines to be used on the different parts and how to secure the best results from them, also care for the same, the rela- tion of the fitting of the shoe to the lasting department, cutting department. Fifteen per cent of the time to be spent in the school room on — General Vocational Subjects: Applied English. Applied Mathematics. Applied Me- chanics. Applied Science. Drawing and Design. In- dustrial and Commercial Geography, Industrial History. Fifteen per cent of the time to be spent in the school room on — General Non-Vocational Subjects: English, Mathematics, Citzenship, Hygiene, Recreation. Fitting, Packing, and Office Departments Forty-eight Weeks Fifty per cent of the time to be spent in the school shop in actual work. Drafting and making patterns 4 weeks Skiving 4 weeks Cleaning and ironing 2 weeks Tip fixing 2 weeks Lacing, buttoning, stamping, lining in 2 weeks 326 THE SHOE INDUSTRY Inspecting, shipping and routing 2 weeks General Review 8 weeks Office Work — including the actual work of conducting the work of the office, keeping of the books, and a full course of instruction in the sheet system 24 weeks Twenty per cent of the time to be spent in the school room on directly related technical work arising during the course; such as the importance of correct measurements when measuring for patterns, the allowances to be made on the different patterns, the relation of the pattern de- partments to the other departments. The cost of careless work in the packing room as compared with the other departments. The artistic side of tip fixing and other repair work. Instructions as to the large shoe manu- facturers of the nation and their location. The large leather centers and names of the manufacturers. How to determine costs. What overhead expense is. What labor costs include. Fifteen per cent of the time to be spent in the school room on — General Vocational Subjects: — Specialized work on topics from Industrial Eco- nomics — Industrial History. Industrial and Com- mercial Geography. Industrial English. Industrial Design. Relation of shop, office and customers. Rela- tions of employers and employees. Shoe literature. Factory organization. Departmental arrangements and management. Placing machinery. Accounting in shoe manufacturing. Salesmanship. Law of Sales. Super- vision and Management. Fifteen per cent of the time to be spent in the school room on — General Non-Vocational Subjects: English, Mathematics, Citizenship, Hygiene, Recreation, Business Methods and Forms. TRAINING IN THE SHOE INDUSTRY 327 The Plan of the United States Training Service. 1 The Training Service of the United States Depart- ment of Labor, after a study of several months in shoe manufacturing establishments, has recently pre- sented an elaborate program for the training of em- ployees in the factory itself. This program out- lines alternative methods for setting up instruction in the industry, adaptable to the different needs and facilities of shoe factories. The following excerpts are made from this bulletin: Purpose of Training Program Conditions in Shoe Industry. According to present conditions, factory training should deal with improving the ability of workmen already employed, the training of new help to meet the needs of factory changes and openings brought about through labor turnover. Conditions in the shoe industry warrant training in all these directions. The shoe trade con- sists of a number of highly specialized branches of such a type that the workmen, besides being machine operators, are called upon to do considerable hand work of a kind that tends to characterize the various branches of the industry as separate trades in them- selves. Such a variety of machines is used and so many operations are carried on that the training itself can be conducted quite inexpensively. 1 Training in the Shoe Industry. Training Bulletin No. 21. United States Department of Labor, Washington, D. C, iqiq. 328 THE SHOE INDUSTRY The success of a teaching plan in shoemaking necessitates that it be outlined with the same care and good judgment that is so evident in the various manufacturing processes of this industry. Training factory help by " any old plan " in " any old way " has been a failure principally because it had neither aim nor method. Testing New Applicants. All new applicants for factory positions, whether they claim previous ex- perience or not, should be thoroughly tested and tried out before assigning them to the different branches of work in the factory. This testing can best be handled in the training room where the appli- cants can be tried according to the standards and requirements of the department in which they are to work. Training New Help. New employees needing training should also be sent to the training room for instruction in the branch of work for which they have been employed. The training should be given upon production work up to the factory standards and requirements using regular factory equipment and materials. As soon as the learner has acquired the desired degree of efficiency he should be trans- ferred to the proper department. Upgrading Employees. The shoe trades are es- pecially suited for upgrading. This may take the form of improving the ability of workers who are TRAINING IN THE SHOE INDUSTRY 329 below standard, or it may have to do with training for promotion. The opportunities offered in this particular field make this an important feature in any training program. Types of Training Suitable. In making any plans for training in a shoe factory, the instructor in charge should first make a careful and complete survey of his factory seeking out such information as will be of most aid to him in organizing and developing a plan. The types of operations per- formed in the shoe factory make it practical to train employees both in the separate training department and upon the factory floor. The greater part of the instruction, however, should be given in the separate training department. Modern equipment for this purpose should be installed. This can usually be transferred to the training room from the production floor or additional equipment purchased. When this equipment has served its purpose, it can be ab- sorbed in the regular production work without inter- fering with any factory schedule. Training According to Factory Requirements. The field to be covered by the training department will, of course, be determined by the needs of the factory. This should be carefully worked out by the instructor in charge, whether his plan has to do with the test- ing of the new applicants, the training of the un- skilled, or the improving of those below standard. 330 THE SHOE INDUSTRY The method of training should be entirely in accord with factory requirements and conducted according to shop standards. This necessitates that the train- ing be upon production. There may, however, be some cases where scrap material or a suitable sub- stitute can be used to advantage in breaking in new operators. If it is found advisable to do this, in order to accomplish the purpose of training, the in- structor should give it his personal supervision in order that it be not carried to extreme. Best re- sults, however, are obtained where those being trained are immediately assigned to production work. Related Instruction. Connected with the process of making shoes, additional instruction in related technical matter is needed to give the workman a more complete knowledge of what he is doing. What and how much related instruction may be given should be determined by the director of in- struction, depending on the needs of the factory. Some of this technical instruction can very well be given while the workman is being trained on the operations to which he is assigned. Other cases may necessitate this instruction being given individually or possibly to a group and conducted apart from the operation itself. Among those points on which such instruction can be given are: Matters relating to the understanding of the company's policies; safety and sanitary regulations; shop routine; knowledge TRAINING IN THE SHOE INDUSTRY 331 of time tickets and other records which the work- man uses on his job. It may be necessary also to carry on instruction in matters relating to leather or the details connected with the construction and operation of machines. This, however, should be determined by each instructor, according to the needs in his particular factory. Departmental Relations. In arranging his program for training the instructor in charge should make sure at the outset that the plan has the proper sup- port of the management and that its purpose is well understood by all executives, particularly the factor}' foremen, superintendents, or other officials who must necessarily come in contact with its operation. The relations of the training department to the factory proper, also to the employment department and the welfare departments, should be clearly defined from the beginning. Cooperation of Employees. Organized methods of training in the factories may sometimes excite un- favorable comment on the part of various employees. Where such occurs the director of training should use tact and judgment in dealing with the matter, endeavoring to forestall difficulty. It has always been found that when the real purpose of training has been made clear to all concerned opposition entirely disappears. To assist in establishing real harmony, it may be 332 THE SHOE INDUSTRY advisable that there be incorporated in the program a working committee to co-operate with the instruc- tor in charge when needed, in properly arranging details or systematizing matters to carry out more effectively the purpose of the instruction plan in general. The Instruction Staff Requirements High for Director. The success of the training will depend very largely upon the in- structor who has charge of it. This necessitates that considerable care be taken by the management in selecting a man to handle the job; and in turn that this man exercise every effort properly to qualify himself and measure up to the requirements, in order that best results may be obtained. Qualifications. Experience has proved that system- atic training in a shoe factory requires several in- structors besides the director, depending upon the size of the factory and the number of people to be instructed. As a rule, no one instructor is able to perform all operations equally well and therefore is not qualified to give instruction in all branches. The training staff, however, should be headed by a man capable of bearing the responsibility of prop- erly selecting the instructors best suited for the various branches. Knowledge of the job is quite essential in this form of training. The instructor TRAINING IN THE SHOE INDUSTRY 333 in charge should likewise be able to impart this knowledge to others. He must necessarily have a strong and agreeable personality, an understanding of human nature, and be able to lead and handle men. Equally important is his ability to analyze a job and determine what elements require teaching and how this teaching can best be performed. He must also be able to lay out in teachable form a plan of procedure to be followed while training workmen. Trade Knowledge Essential for Instructors. Ex- perience has proved that best results are obtained where the instructors are thorough mechanics. Ability to teach can very often be developed through special instruction either in evening schools or in special classes conducted by the director. Where this plan is not followed, and instruction is attempted by one possessing teaching ability but lacking in trade knowledge, unsatisfactory results will follow and the success of the training be handicapped. The instructor should be able to furnish the learner the best information. This can come only from one who is entirely familiar with its processes. How to Proceed with Instruction Instructor's Guide. Unless the instruction be given in some organized teaching order it will be difficult for the learner to grasp and apply it effec- 334 THE SHOE INDUSTRY tively. This order of procedure is the instructor's guide; it should direct him how to proceed both when training new help and improving those already on the job. It should be arranged in such form as to accomplish the aim desired with the least effort on the part of the learner, and be interspersed with explanations and demonstrations. How this fits shoe manufacturing requirements can best be illus- trated by referring to edge trimming, a typical operation. Four Steps in Procedure. As in all other cases, the procedure to follow in giving this instruction should be divided into four steps: preparation, pre- sentation, application, and supervision. This form, can also be the guide for the instructor to follow in laying out his plan for teaching other operations. Preparation. The preparation in this particuar operation should have to do with adjusting the machine and the tools for the work to be done to make sure that they are in perfect running condition and to produce the correct shape of edge. In this it is quite essential that the instructor makes sure that the cutter is properly ground to produce a clean-cut edge. This is very necessary, as there is nothing more discouraging to a learner than to have to " hang around " while his instructor is making adjustments and fumbling with the machine, losing both time TRAINING IN THE SHOE INDUSTRY 335 and patience. He should see that the sole to be trimmed is properly " mellowed," as good instruction can not be given upon a shoe which is not in proper condition. The rack of shoes should be placed in a convenient position so as not to interfere with the progress of the instruction. When this preparation step is not carefully planned the effect on the learner is quite serious, as it often leads him to misjudge the instructor and the impression sometimes sticks with him a long time. Value of Illustrations. The instructor should have at hand a shoe with an edge correctly trimmed, and another shoe showing the condition of the sole before the operation is performed. By referring to these a brief explanation can be given, acquainting the learner with what is to be done. During this prep- aration the instructor might deem it advisable very briefly to question the learner regarding his previous experience in machine operating and so obtain in- formation which may assist him in steps that follow. Presentation. In the presentation, the instruction proper is taken up and the learner is taught how to perform the machine operation. During this the in- structor should proceed in logical order from the first detail of the operation to the finish, explaining and illustrating each point that needs instruction, in order that the learner may thoroughly understand what is being done as well as how it is being done. The 336 THE SHOE INDUSTRY instructor should recognize the value of questions and illustrations in this work. He should likewise be on his guard lest he do too much talking. It is the tendency of some instructors to tell about the operation or the machine on which it is done rather than to instruct. The instructor should show the operator how he should stand at his machine and how to hold the shoe. As the machine runs at high speed he must caution the learner as he explains and demonstrates where to begin the operation, and how he places the edge of the sole against the cutter, drawing the shoe toward him with an even and steady movement, while at the same time observing care- fully that the trimmed outline conforms neatly to the shape of the last. In trimming the toe additional explanation will be needed in demonstrating how to hold the shoe as it is guided around the cutter. While giving this instruction the instructor should see that the learner is following him, pausing here and there to find out if the learner understands. In manipulating the shoe during this trimming operation the instructor should proceed slowly, so that the learner may be able closely to follow the demon- stration. Repeating the Demonstration. By questions the instructor should determine whether or not the learner is able to perform the operation as instructed. It will be necessary to repeat the operation on a TRAINING IN THE SHOE INDUSTRY 337 second pair, making more clear those special points which, through questions, are found not to be clearly in the mind of the learner, again calling attention to the care that must be exercised in giving an even and continuous drawing motion to the shoe as it is passed under the cutting tool. The care to be exer- cised in obtaining a true edge must be made clear to the learner. The number of times this operation should be performed before the learner is able to apply the instruction will be determined by whether or not the learner has acquired the desired informa- tion. Carefully planned questions should be worked out by the instructor to test his understanding of the operation. This operation may seem very simple to the instructor, but he must use judgment and patience in presenting it to one unfamiliar with it. Application. When the instructor is satisfied that the learner has grasped the various points the learner should be assigned to the machine to perform the operation himself. In this step it will be neces- sary that the instructor assist the learner as he first applies the instruction. Doubt or fear on the learner's part may cause him to hesitate in his first attempt, but this can be readily overcome by en- couragement from the instructor. The instructor will find an excellent opportunity to use his best teaching efforts, as it will be necessary for him to assist the learner from time to time and even correct him during this procedure. 338 THE SHOE INDUSTRY Helpful Suggestions. By examining each edge as completed he will be able to give the operator the benefit of constructive criticism and offer suggestions for improvement on the next shoe. In this step much judgment will be required on the part of the instructor and he must exercise self-control, as quite often there may be a considerable tax on his patience. The operator should not be hurried while applying the instruction, as that only tends to confuse him, and the value of the instruction is weakened. It is also well at this point to caution the instructor not to do too much " butting in," as interruptions of this sort distract the learner and indicate lack of teaching ability. These matters, however, the instructor should have in mind from the beginning and he should be prepared for emergencies. The instructor should anticipate the difficulties which a learner usually encounters. Supervision. Supervision of the learner on edge trimming is absolutely necessary, for without it the instruction will soon lose its effect, and both spoiled work and poor working habits will result. The supervision should consist in carefully guiding the learner, correcting him from time to time as he continues to apply the instruction, in order to bring his work up to the highest standard. This necessi- tates that the instructor always be on the job and aid the learner when needed. Careful observation of TRAINING IN THE SHOE INDUSTRY 339 the operator as he works and an examination of the shoes as trimmed will show the progress of the learner while in training. The best type of record for this purpose has been found to be of the chart form which follows : 2. 3 4-. & Production Curve in Learning What Record Shows. As shown, this records the progress of the learner during the time of his train- ing. It shows how many pairs of shoes have been trimmed each hour and indicates when he has reached that stage of perfection which warrants his transfer to the factory proper. On this same chart is listed such spoilage as may be caused by the learner. This can be filed with the learner's appli- cation card after his transfer, as it furnishes evi- dence as to his employment and training. Follow Up after Instruction. It is quite essential 340 THE SHOE INDUSTRY after transfer to the factory that the learner be followed up for a short period to find out how he is progressing under production conditions. A graphic record will be of much value, as it shows the learner's progress compared with that of the training period. It should be followed up long enough to make sure that the operator is progressing as desired. Should there be an indication that he is not making good, he should be returned to the factory for further training. In obtaining correct information for this record, the co-operation of the foreman will be needed. Sole Leather Department How to Proceed. In planning instruction covering the operations in the sole-leather department the in- structor should proceed as previously outlined, listing the various steps in the operations in the proper order, noting those upon which special training is needed. In laying out these plans he should con- sider the best methods of handling the materials being worked upon, as well as the precautions to be observed by the learner in performing the operations. The machines to be used for instruction purposes should be in good running order and the tools so sharpened and adjusted as to give the best results. Before beginning the instruction the instructor should test out the machine, making several pieces TRAINING IN THE SHOE INDUSTRY 341 to be sure that everything is in proper order. These pieces can be used as samples of work, in illustrating the different points in the demonstrations that follow. Elementary Branches — Channeling. Many of the operations in this department do not require a great deal of instruction planning and can be readily taught by a brief explanation or demonstration upon the job itself. The cutting of channels, however, may present a few difficult features from the training standpoint, as considerable instruction on these machines will be required, as well as close super- vision of the learner after he has been assigned to apply the instruction. To illustrate how these machines should be studied in working out a plan for instruction there are herewith outlined procedures covering instruction on the Universal channeler welt machine and the Goodyear lip-turning machine. In preparing the Universal channeler welt machine for instruction the instructor should first make such adjustments as are necessary properly to perform the operation. He should see that the machine cutting tool is in good condition and should try out the machine to make sure that it will turn out work up to the standards of the department. He should have on hand, arranged in best working order, the proper materials on which the instruction is to be given. By referring to the parts made as above mentioned, a brief explanation can be given as to 342 THE SHOE INDUSTRY the purpose of this operation. Before beginning this instruction the instructor should see that the learner is in a position where he can both see the operation being performed and hear the explanation given. Demonstration. The instructor should then pro- ceed with the operation, explaining clearly as he demonstrates how the work should be fed into the machine with the right hand, and then grasped with the left hand, allowing the right to be free to operate the handle which changes the margin. In order that the learner may understand why it is necessary to make such a change the instructor should explain each step clearly as he performs the operation, show- ing the learner how and when to operate the handle as the work is fed into the machine. The reason for varying the margin to allow for the differences in thickness of the upper leather should be made clear. When working upon extremely pointed toes the instructor should explain that special precautions should be observed advising that two operators are here necessary to get best results. It should be clearly explained that in making the first operation, treadle No. 3 should be used in going around the toe, and that this causes the outside knife to be raised while the toe is being turned. The release of the treadle brings the knife again in operation, finishing the sole. The same procedure of instruction should TRAINING IN THE SHOE INDUSTRY 343 be followed in explaining how the toe is finished by performing the second operation on the Goodyear channeler fitted with knife No. 6. Preparatory to instruction on the Goodyear lip- turning machine the instructor should make sure that the machine is properly adjusted for the work and that the inner soles to be worked upon are tempered before the operation. In demonstrating how to operate the machine the instructor should see to it that the learner is in such a position that he can both hear the instruction and clearly see the demonstration. The parts to be worked upon should be properly arranged on the right side of the machine so that they can be conveniently fed into the machine. The left side should be clear to receive the work after the operation is finished. No explanation should be given as to the oiling or cleaning of the machine or the making of adjustments until demonstration of the operation is complete. During this demonstration the instructor should illustrate how judgment of the operator is required in assisting the machine when working upon soft inner soles. There may be a tendency toward grinding which might interfere with or widen the margin. As the operator is applying the instruction the instructor should be close at hand to assist him in difficulties that may arise where the grain of the inner sole changes from hard to soft, or vice versa, or where 344 THE SHOE INDUSTRY it becomes necessary to adjust the table for the thickness of the inner sole in order that they may be properly fed. The operator should be cautioned that whenever adjustments are made the belt should run on the loose pulley. Outline for Instructor's Use. The following processes in the sole-leather department are listed to assist the instructor in charge in arranging a suitable plan for training for this particular department. Sole Leather Department An analysis of operations in manufacturing order. Fitting sole stock, i. Tempering leather. (a) Preparation of liquid. (b) Distribution of liquid. (c) Covering up. (d) Proper length of time. Note. — The tempering of leather demands special attention not because of its difficulty, but because of the important bearing it has upon future operations. 2. Rolling. (a) Nature of the sole. (b) Condition as to temper. (c) Regulation of pressure. 3. Splitting. (a) Condition as to temper. (b) Weight of the sole. (c) Weight of edge desired. TRAINING IN THE SHOE INDUSTRY 345 4. Sole extending (if used). (a) Beveling sole and reinforcement. (b) Attaching reinforcement. 5. Rounding. (a) Quality of sole. (b) Sizes to be cut. (c) Adjustment of knife. (d) Location of patterns. 6. Channeling. (McKay outer soles). (a) Condition as to temper. (b) Difference between single and tap sole. (c) Adjustment of groove knife. (d) Adjustment of channel knife. Note. — This is by far the most important operation connected with the fitting of McKay outer soles. By the adjustment of the channel knife the operator determines whether or not the shoe to which the sole is attached will be capable of withstanding the amount of wear which the quality of leather warrants. The adjustment of the groove knife determines just where the McKay stitcher is supposed to lay his row of stitching. No attempt should be made to teach channeling until the operator has been grounded in other parts of sole leather work. 7. Feather edging and shank reducing. 8. Skiving taps and spring heels. 9. Cementing and trimming taps and spring heels„ 10. Turning channels. (a) Condition of leather as to temper. (b) Laying back the channel. 11. Stamping. 12. Molding. (a) Condition of leather as to temper. (b) Proper size of molds. (c) Break at the shank. 13. Shank piece sticking (if any). 14. Sizing, assembling, and tying up. 346 THE SHOE INDUSTRY Inner Soles, Welts i. Rounding. 2. Channeling. (a) Condition as to temper. (b) Depth of channel cut. (c) Width of shoulder, (i) In shank. (2) On ball. (3) On toe. (d) Sharpening of knife. (e) Adjustment of knife. (/) Weight of between substance. 3. Making of Gem inner soles. (a) Tempering. (b) Weight of materials. (c) Cutting and turning lip. (d) Cementing cloth. (e) Getting cloth into base of the rib. (/) Width of shoulder. (1) In shank. (2) At ball. (3) Around toe. 4. Making Economy inner soles. (a) Channeling. (b) Shipping. (c) Width of shoulder. (1) In shank. (2) On ball. (3) Around toe. (d) Turning lip. (e) Sewing lip. (/) Tempering. TRAINING IN THE SHOE INDUSTRY 347 Note. — The making of a welt inner sole affects the very foundations of a shoe, for if the work is not properly done in the first instance, it can never be remedied, thereby vitally affecting the wearing quality as well as the appearance of the finished shoe. No attempt should be made to teach inner-sole channeling until the operator has been thoroughly grounded on other parts of the sole leather department. The Retail Shoe Salesmen's Institute, Boston. This institute, the only one of its kind in the world, was organized in 191 7, but began operations in 1920. Its founders comprise the leading dealers of the shoe trade throughout the country. While its purpose is to train retail shoe salesmen, the material and instruction provided by it deal with shoe manufacture in part, and would be helpful to all students of the industry. The school conducts local classes and gives extensive instruction by mail. Following are presented statements upon the course and service of the school: The Retail Shoe Salesmen's Institute is a co-operative organization having for its purpose the systematic, scien- tific, careful, accurate and comprehensive education and training of retail shoe salesmen. It is founded and main- tained to co-operate exclusively with retail shoe dealers and department buyers in training their salespeople; to place in the hands of retail shoe dealers and managers an instrument of betterment in their selling department; to enable dealers and managers to secure a profit on the in- telligence of their salespeople as well as on their physical effort. Each subject is covered in a volume of about 200 pages 348 THE SHOE INDUSTRY and 50,000 words, illustrated wherever illustrations will further enlighten, amplify and explain the text. Each volume treats its particular subject thoroughly, accurately, practically in plain everyday, non-technical language always from the standpoint of the retail shoe salesman and his job. Each volume is printed on good book paper and cloth- bound into a handsome book, about 5x8 inches — can be carried in coat pocket. Considered as a whole the eight volumes cover the whole range of the retail salesman's duties providing a wealth of accurate information plus a good deal of in- spirational material, certain to. fire the ambition and enthusiasm of any salesman and to bring out the best that is latent in his nature as a man and as a co-operating employee. The Training of Disabled Soldiers In the Shoe In- dustry in Foreign Countries. Shoemaking is one of the most popular trades that have been taught dis- abled soldiers and sailors, in the course of and after the war, in Canada and across the sea. It has, how- ever, taken the form of shoe repairing and hand shoemaking in the main, with some little training in shoe factory processes. The reasons for the popu- larity of the trade are that the work is done seated and does not require very hard physical efforts, and that the trade can be carried on either in a work- shop or at home, in the country as well as in the city. It does not require much initial expense to TRAINING IN THE SHOE INDUSTRY 349 start a small cobbler's shop, and the cobbler, even in the smallest village, is assured of a fair revenue in addition to his pension. The trade therefore strongly appeals to men affected with injuries of the lower limbs, particularly those of country origin who wish to return to their villages. The French Na- tional School of Agriculture, at Grignon, has, among its reeducation classes, one of shoemaking, as this is considered one of the possible " subsidiary " occu- pations for a small farmer. In some instances, train- ing in shoemaking is combined with that in harness- making. Training in shoemaking or shoe repairing has been carried on in Canada, in the military hospitals of Montreal, Halifax, Toronto, Saskatoon, and other places ; in a number of technical schools, such as the Montreal College of Pharmacy, the Nova Scotia Technical School at Halifax, and Queen's University at Kingston, Ontario; and in numerous factory work- shops, such as those of the Union Shoe Repair Com- pany, Toronto, the Wood Shoe Company, the Williams Shoe Company, and the Askew Shoe Com- pany of Hamilton, Ontario. Training in the industry has been given in England in the military and orthopedic hospitals, such as the Royal Pavilion Hospital, Brighton, the Convalescent Hospital, Roehampton, and many others ; at technical colleges and institutes, such as the Brixton Poly- 350 THE SHOE INDUSTRY technic Institute and the historic Cordwainers Tech- nical College of London, and in shoe shops and fac- tories throughout the country. In France similar training has been provided in the re-education schools of Paris and other towns and cities and in technical schools and workshops. The industry has been taught to disabled men in several Belgian schools and in a considerable number of Italian schools, as at Turin, Spezia, Pisa, and Milan. Germany has taught shoe-making to many of her returned soldiers in the workshops of the Army Clothing Department and in the hospitals and schools of many communi- ties. Austria-Hungary, also, has given special at- tention to teaching the making and repairing of footwear in her re-education and trade schools. The work done in all of these countries in various lines of re-education is of very great interest to America in her problems of reconstruction. We shall here, however, give space only to a short pre- sentation of methods and accomplishments in France and Great Britain. A French official census, covering fifty-six re- education schools, has shown that on June 30, 191 6, of 2,846 disabled soldiers undergoing training there were 466 shoemakers, this being the largest single trade group. In the National School at St. Maurice, Paris, 152 men attended the shoemaking section during the first two years when the total TRAINING IN THE SHOE INDUSTRY 351 attendance of the school was 803; of the 152, there were 143 men with leg or foot injuries; 55 men were former peasants. In the school of the Rue du Epinettes, 60 men, out of a total of 150, were attend- ing the shoemaking shop; 143 shoemakers had been placed by the school, up to June 1, 191 7, out of a total of 340 graduates in all trades. Of these shoe- makers almost all were suffering from leg injuries. Former peasants numbering 27, formed the largest preoccupational group. In the Lyons school, the first re-education school created in France, shoe- making at once proved the most popular trade. There were in this school, in the first year, 50 men in the shoemaking shop, of whom 29 were former peasants. At the Tourvielle branch of the Lyons schools on May 31, 191 7, 60 shoemakers were gradu- ated, out of a total of 129 men for all trades, of whom 34 were former peasants. Almost all of these were cases of lower limb injuries, 35 were cases of leg amputation, one man had both feet amputated, and two were legless. Dr. Borne, the noted French authority, in his general re-education scheme, gives the duration of apprenticeship in shoemaking as from one year to one year and a half. In actual practice, however, both the duration and the methods of training vary from one school to another. The apprenticeship is generally intensive; after a short time, the student, 352 THE SHOE INDUSTRY while at school, is able to do useful work; many of the schools are, therefore, in a position to fill out- side orders and to be to a larger or less extent self- supporting. Thus, while in Nancy the apprentice- ship is of six months, it lasts from twelve to fifteen months at the Montpellier School. At Bourges the apprenticeship is from four to six months for repair work, and from ten to twelve months for the making of new shoes. At the Saint-Maurice School the length of apprenticeship is, on the average, five months for repair work, and eight months for the making of new shoes. The course is divided into three sections of practical instruction. A month's training is allowed for plain machine stitching, seam- ing, welting and soleing. At the end of five months apprentices should be able to re-sole shoes, both pegged and hand-sewn. Complete shoes are made by men of average ability by the end of eight months. The men receive, in addition, theoretical instruction in branches essential to carrying on the trade, such as study of foot-forms, a knowledge of leathers, and the taking of measurements. At Port-Villez the shoemaking shop is divided into two sections: repair work and the making of new shoes. During the first two or three months, all students work at repairs ; by the end of one week the apprentice is sometimes able to perform useful work. The majority, however, pass into the shoe- TRAINING IN THE SHOE INDUSTRY 353 making section. After five and one-half months, men who came from other trades are able to make perfectly good military boots. All the orthopedic boots for the Institute are made by the apprentices of the shoemaking shop. At the Tourvielle School the apprenticeship is from ten to fifteen months. The apprentices are first taught to make their own shoemaker's stirrup and glove. In doing that they learn how to make a waxed thread and to use the awl. Next they are directed to assemble and sew by hand the parts of a pair of slippers, which they are allowed to keep for their own. Coarse brogans are their next problem and then fine boots. After a month's training, the student can feel that he is a shoemaker — he has made a pair of shoes for sale, with the help of the teacher of the course. After ten months or a year, he needs only some final lessons on cut and style, on the selection of material, on the way to obtain cus- tomers and on price fixing, to be able to get along by himself. If his physical condition permits, he can also have some practice with shoe machinery, which has been supplied to this school by the United Shoe Machinery Company of France. In Great Britain both the making of hand-sewn shoes and the factory shoemaking trade have been included in the so-called " special trades," in which the training and employment of disabled men are of 354 THE SHOE INDUSTRY considerable importance and require special regula- tions. These regulations have been worked out for each trade by a Trade Advisory Committee formed of representatives of employers' organizations and labor unions. The report of the Trade Advisory Committee on the Hand-Sewn Boot and Shoemaking and Boot and Shoe Repairing distinguishes between two classes of disabled men: (i) Those unable to stand continu- ously at their work, and (2) those able to stand con- tinuously. For the former, the report recommends training in all branches of hand boot and shoe re- pairing, and in riveting and finishing; for the latter, training in hand work is recommended as the best introduction to machine boot and shoe repairing, and also training in the use of machines used in the repairing trade, in view of the fact that a large amount of repairing is already done by machinery and that this method may possibly grow in the future. The several processes suitable for the different types of disability are as follows: (1) Hand-Sewn Boot and Shoemaking and (2) Hand Repairing. This work can be done sitting and would be quite suitable for a one-legged man. Full use of both hands and arms is needed, but the loss of one or two fingers would not disqualify. Good eye-sight is required. Men suffering from shell-shock may in some cases be TRAINING IN THE SHOE INDUSTRY 355 likely to find this a suitable occupation. It is not recom- mended for men with a tendency to consumption. (3) Machine Repairing which includes three processes: (a) Bench Work. This is done either standing or sitting, but in other respects the requirements are the same as for hand work, (b) Machine Stitching. It is standing work, and often a treadle has to be compressed by the right foot to start the machine and hold down during the operation. Both hands are required. The work is light and there would be only slight vibration, (c) Finishing by Machine. It is principally done standing, but the machine can be adjusted so as to be worked while sitting. Use of both arms and hands is required, but little or no movement of the leg or body. The work is not heavy, but it is not recommended for a man with a weak heart or a tendency to consumption. The training is provided in technical schools or other training institutions, or in some cases in work- shops. The duration of the training in a school is not to exceed twelve months, but in exceptional cases it may be completed by an additional six months' training under an approved instructor in a workshop. The period of training in a workshop is eighteen months for shoemaking combined with shoe repairing, and twelve months for shoe repairing only. The first month of training is, in all cases, a trial period. If at the end of this period the man proves unsuitable for the trade, his training ceases. The 356 THE SHOE INDUSTRY employer is required to pay the apprentice a mini- mum wage, which, in the eighteen months' course, is fixed at 105. per week during the first six months, 155. during the next six months' and 20s. during the last six months.' In the twelve months' course, the employer shall pay no wages during the first six months, and shall pay 155. per week during the second six months. One of the first technical schools to institute special classes for disabled soldiers in the making of hand-sewn shoes was the Cordwainers Technical College. The following classes are open: 1. High Grade Boot and Shoe Making. This course extends to at least twelve months and covers the following syllabus : The making of men's and women's hand-sewn boots. The making of sew-rounds. How to take a measure of a customer's foot, and fit up lasts for the same. How to send a measure to the upper maker or manufacturer. The selection and purchase of bottom stock. How to cost the finished work. The anatomy of the foot. 2. High Grade Boot and Shoe Repairing. This course extends to at least six months and covers the following syllabus : The methods of repairing men's and women's hand- sewn boots. The repairing of machine-welted boots. The repairing of sew-rounds, etc. Patches, blind stabbing, and other stitching. Grafting, costing materials and work. TRAINING IN THE SHOE INDUSTRY 357 In factory boot and shoe manufacture, according to the Trade Advisory Committee, " as a result of the development and use of specialized machinery and tools, many of the processes are of a compara- tively simple character, not calling for great physi- cal exertion and suitable for the employment of disabled men of a fair degree of intelligence. The work is not heavy, but requires concentration and adaptability. The operations generally require the full use of hands and arms, but many operations would be suitable for a man with an artificial leg, provided he is able to stand at his work." The report of the Committee indicates the follow- ing processes suitable for different types of disability: 1. Clicking Department. For pattern grading, hand clicking and power eyeleting, both hands and arms must be uninjured, but the operations would be possible for a man with an artificial leg. For the clicking press young men are required whose hands, arms and legs are sound. 2. Rough Stuff Department. For the cutting press and roller, young men are required whose hands, arms and legs are sound; for grading machines and splitting machines the loss of a leg would not necessarily disqualify. 3. Preparation Department. For sole molders, out- sole, and in-sole channeling machines and power skiving the full use of hands, arms, and legs is required; work especially suitable for young men; a man with an artificial leg would not be debarred. 4. Making Department. For pulling-over machine, control tacking, pounding machine, Blake lining, standard 358 THE SHOE INDUSTRY screwing, loose nailer, stitching machine, leveler, heel attaching machine, loose billing, universal slugger, welt sewer, sole layer and rough rounder, young men are re- quired who are sound in both hands, arms, and legs. Hand tacking is also suitable for older men. Work at the rough rounder and welt sewer should be confined to men who have had some experience in the trade. 5. Finishing Department. Heel trimming, edge trim- ming, edge setting, and bottom scouring are suitable for men with an artificial leg, but both hands and arms must be uninjured. Heel scouring and heel burnishing require young and active men whose hands and arms are sound; an artificial leg would not necessarily disqualify. The course of training in any process shall be divided into a probationary period and an improver's period. The probationary period must as a general rule, be spent in a technical school, though in ex- ceptional cases the Local War Pension Committee may permit the man to spend it in a factory. The improver's period shall in all cases be spent in a factory. The length of training varies for the different processes. It ranges from twelve weeks for power eyeleting to fifty-two weeks for hand cutting. During the training in a factory the employer shall pay the man a minimum wage, according to a graded scale prepared by the Trade Advisory Com- mittee, and ranging from 10s. to 25s. a week. While undergoing training in any trade, the dis- TRAINING IN THE SHOE INDUSTRY 359 abled soldier receives from the Ministry of Pensions the difference between his wages and the pension paid for total disability (275. 6d. per week for a private). His wife receives a separation allowance and a main- tenance allowance for each child. The Ministry of Pensions assumes the payment of all tuition fees and other expenses entailed by the training. For every trade there have been created local Technical Advisory Committees, formed of repre- sentatives of employers' associations and labor unions, which select candidates for training, examine the suitability of the training offered in the technical schools or similar institutes or in the factories, and receive applications from employers for the supply of men after training. The question of wages to be paid disabled men after training is to be settled entirely by the Local Technical Advisory Committee, or by Special Ad- visory Wage Boards which are being created by the Secretary of Labor in the principal towns. CHAPTER XV THE SHOE REPAIRING INDUSTRY Shoe Repairing Now a Shop Industry. The indi- vidual shoe cobbler is still found in almost every community, but in recent years repairing has be- come a special branch of the great shoe industry. It is now a shop industry in itself. There are ap- proximately 50,000 shoe repair shops in this coun- try, with an annual business of more than $300,000,000. These range from the shop in which one man does handwork to the shops conducted by retail stores and the large independent shops which have machinery and employ a considerable number of workers. Probably nearly 20,000 of these larger shops are fitted out with modern shoe machinery. Such machinery is manufactured especially for repair work and is simplified since it must sometimes be operated by unskilled workers or by workers who have not had experience in the shoe factory. Usually the machines are all set on one motor-drive shaft along one side of the shop, and comprise the lockstitch sole sewing machine, the leveler, trimmer, edge setter, and burnishing and polishing brushes. A shop may have several sets of machines on which 360 THE SHOE REPAIRING INDUSTRY 361 a team of men usually works. Such a shop may employ from twenty-five to thirty-five men and may repair from 60,000 to 70,000 pairs of shoes a year. A few shops employ as many as sixty or seventy men. A tag system is used resembling that of a Shop of the Philadelphia Shoe Repairing Company, Philadelphia, Pa. regular factory. In a small shop each worker may be capable of doing all the repair processes. In the large shop the work is subdivided. As many as seven , men, each doing a particular process, may work at the same time on the machines of the shaft. Some such concerns call for shoes at the homes of 362 THE SHOE INDUSTRY customers and return them after making the neces- sary repairs. In many of the shops a shoe shining department is maintained, and nearly all of them sell shoe supplies. 1 1^^** Jlf ^'~: &>.,■ \;*-, WSKi Men Working at a Motor-Drive Set of Shoe Repairing Machinery A brief and comprehensive statement of this de- velopment is the following, from American Shoe- making for June 12, 191 5: " The industry of repairing shoes has grown swiftly in the last few years, and now is of such size that it may be recognized as a special branch of the great shoe industry." " The main thing in the modern shoe repairing busi- THE SHOE REPAIRING INDUSTRY 363 ness is to build up patronage. Salesmanship is as neces- sary to success in it as is good workmanship. Somebody must go out and convince customers that they should have their shoes re-soled, or otherwise repaired. This selling work may be carried on in big cities, small cities, in towns, or out in the country. " In the business district of one large city some boot- blacks put some repair machines in their back shop. One of them went among the offices of the neighborhood asking for shoes to be repaired. He offered to give tickets good for six free shines with every pair of shoes that he re-soled. By this means a repair business was built up among occupants of the offices sufficient to keep four men employed. Besides, the shoe shining business flourished. " In the small cities and towns, the repair men send agents in autos, or on motorcycles, along the highways, to call at door after door and collect shoes to be repaired and returned. In some western communities the steam laundries have started shoe departments, and their wagons collect shoes to be shined or repaired, and to be returned with the regular basket of laundry. " The rapid increase in the repair business has probably cut into the sale of new shoes. But it has opened a new field for enterprising men in the starting of repair shops, and in selling goods to repair shops." Shoe Repairing Advanced by the War. There are now over eighty local organizations of shoe repairers in the United States, and the increasing cost of leather and footwear during the war and after has given a great impetus to the industry. An investi- gation into machine shoe repairing throughout the 364 THE SHOE INDUSTRY country has recently been made by Mr. Frank W. Whitcher of Boston, some of the results of which may be summarized as follows: 1 1. Machine shoe repairing has supplanted hand repair- ing to the extent of eighty per cent in the Middle States Photo by Central News Photo Service, New York. New Auto Shoe Repair Trucks of the U. S. Army. Designed and equipped by the United Shoe Machinery Corporation of Beverly, Mass. One truck carries a full outfit of machinery, the other of supplies. By this system 800 pairs of shoes can be repaired daily. and Northwest, fifty per cent in the Far West, seventy- five per cent in the South, and ninety per cent in the East. 2 . The number of men employed varies from the boss and one to three or four men in shops having a single machine repair outfit to the city shop having several out- fits and using from thirty-five to forty men. 3. The average shop repairs from twenty-five to forty pairs of shoes per day, or ten to twelve pairs for each man working. 1 See article on " $300,000,000 Spent for Shoe Repairs " in The Shoe Repairer and Dealer for August, 191 7. THE SHOE REPAIRING INDUSTRY 365 4. The business of the average shop amounts to $1 on each pair of shoes repaired, being from $25 to $40 a day or from $6,000 to $12,000 a year. 5. The yearly percentage of increase in repairing since the outbreak of the war has been from fifteen to forty per cent in the Middle States and Northwest, fifty per cent in the West and South, and from twenty-five to forty per cent in the East. Learning Machine Shoe Repairing. The hand shoe repairer may easily learn machine shoe repairing. He may secure an equipment of machinery, hire helpers if necessary, and open a repair shop. Men of mechanical ability may be taken into the repair shop to learn both hand processes and machine operations. From these machine operations they may pass directly into corresponding work in the shoe factory. Less frequently, workers in the factory leave and open shops of their own. Steps were taken during the war in several places to provide special training in shoe repairing, for returned soldiers and others, because of the scarcity of men for the repair shops. Plans were not fully formulated and the early closing of the war delayed them, but it may be stated that a well-known shoe machinery repairing company contemplated turning one of its local shops into a repairing school to be conducted under Government or other auspices for the benefit of the entire industry. 366 THE SHOE INDUSTRY Earnings in the Industry. In the small shop, em- ploying few workers, and doing mostly hand repair- ing, the earnings may vary from two to five dollars or more a day. In the large shop, in which repair work is done mainly by machinery, the operator earns about the same as he would in the same proc- esses in the shoe factory. Employment in repairing is fairly steady through the year in most communi- ties, but it is somewhat reduced in the large town or city during the summer season. Opportunities for Handicapped Men in Shoe Re- pairing. Disabled men may become individual shoe repairers even if having only one good hand and an efficient appliance for the other. Hand repairing is regularly done seated. At present machine repairing in done standing, but seats might easily be arranged at the machines as may be done in the shoe factory for women and disabled men. The handicapped man will not meet the difficulty of factory speed in the shoe repair shop, except at times in team work, so that he may enter it even if he is not capable of making a large daily output. One or more men who have physical handicaps and who are familiar with shoe work, or who may learn it in their industrial re-education, might successfully open a machine shoe repair shop in any community. Repairing ma- chinery may be leased or purchased outright at comparatively low cost. THE SHOE REPAIRING INDUSTRY 367 Action by the Trade Promotion Bureau. The Trade Promotion Bureau of the National Leather and Shoe Finders' Association, at St. Louis, has recently taken up the matter of the advancement of the shoe repairing industry. A letter from Mr. <«S5J^b '^X H^Ji $ff ^JHraJk^! y ~*9m-3k ft ' ' M HjMi e L/dfl Interior of the Shoe Repair Truck, U. S. Army George A. Knapp, Secretary-Director of the Bureau, to the writer, is herewith reproduced: I have your esteemed favor of November 8, and I want to thank yourself and Mr. Whitcher for giving me this opportunity of briefly laying before you the work which the Trade Promotion Bureau, of which I am Director, has undertaken. This Trade Promotion Bureau is supported by the members of the National Leather & Shoe Finders' Assn., which is comprised of manufactures, tanners and jobbers, who supply the materials used by the shoe re- pairers throughout the United States. We have felt for 368 THE SHOE INDUSTRY a long time that the shoe repairing service which the pub- lic has been receiving is not of the proper caliber. We are convinced that shoe repairing is just as important to the public as other repair service, because when it is prop- erly done it doubles the life of a shoe; and is, from this standpoint, of great economy to the public. Therefore, our Trade Promotion Bureau has, for the past nine months, been carrying on a propaganda that has for its ultimate object the advancement of the shoe repairing industry. We have been striving during this time to im- press upon the shoe repairers that good workmanship and good materials constitute a quality job of shoe, repairing and we have been trying to convince them that if they will give this kind of shoe repairing service to the public they will advance their interests and make shoe repairing a more popular service than it is today. We have also tried to get the shoe repairer to improve his business policies by introducing salesmanship, by making his shoe repair shop a supply depot, by keeping an account of his business and by advertising the service that he can render, in his neighborhood. In order to bring these suggestions to the shoe repairer in concrete form we have gotten up some advertising suggestions and we have sold over 200,000 of these to the shoe repairers at cost. We have also prepared an account book which we sell to the shoe repairer at 50 cents. This book is large enough to take care of two years' business, and hence costs the shoe re- pairer but two cents a month. We have issued several pamphlets and written a number of letters to the shoe repairer, urging these improvements in his business. At the present time I am preparing a pamphlet that will show the interested shoe repairer just how important his service THE SHOE REPAIRING INDUSTRY 369 is to the public and that it should take its place in line with other neighborhood service. I also wish to state that at the present time we are try- ing to interest the Trade and Manual Schools throughout the United States in adding shoe repairing courses so that the pupils in these schools may be taught the art of shoe repairing. We have done little along this line as yet, as I have been unable to obtain a list of these Trade Schools, but I now have assurance from the Government that they will furnish me a. list of these schools and as soon as I get this list I will take this matter up with each of these schools direct. We know for a fad that shoe repairing is an honorable occupation and that it may be made a very remunerative one, and we believe that the time has come when shoe repairing will soon take its stand alongside of such service as the laundries, the clothes pressers, and other services which cater to the general public. Crippled men can do this work just as well as men who have all their limbs. I believe that a man with one hand can do just as good shoe repairing as a man with two, and the loss of his lower limbs would not affect his efficiency at all. Of course, one would have to have good eyesight, as we are now using power machinery in shoe repairing and it would be dangerous to permit blind people to enter the industry. CHAPTER XVI THE SHOE FINDINGS INDUSTRY Shoe findings comprise all the parts used as acces- sories to boot and shoe manufacture, retail trade, and repair. Findings accompany the shoe from its beginning until it is worn out by the consumer. Their importance increases with the growing magni tude of the shoe industry. They can be produced so much more cheaply, and in such quantities, in special, separate factories, that they now constitute individual small industries which supply the manu- facturer, dealer, and repairer throughout the world. They represent the extreme of specialization in manufacture and trade. Some large shoe factories make a few of their findings, such as counters, toe boxes, and shanks, but the great bulk of such things come from special manufacturers. Shoe Findings Manufacture in the United States. There were no findings manufactured in this country, on any scale of importance, until about ioo years ago, although shoe manufacture became a distinct American industry immediately after the Revolution. For forty or fifty years after the Revolution, as before, shoe manufacturers and dealers imported 370 THE SHOE FINDINGS INDUSTRY 371 their findings from European countries. The earliest date known for findings manufacture and business in the United States was 1826. A firm was established in Boston in that year by John Tillson. That firm still exists as the Frank W. Whitcher Company, whose head is regarded as the leading authority upon the findings industry in this country today. Few other firms, so far as is known, were established before the Civil War period, when many appeared in the decade of the sixties through the impetus given to shoe manufacture by the war. Since that period findings factories have increased with great rapidity and frequent consolidations until there are now over 350 in the country, employing about 8,000 persons. There is also a National Leather and Shoe Finders Association, comprising 316 firms in 1918. To show that the shoe findings industry is at present centered largely in Massachusetts, the following statement made expressly for this chapter by Mr. Frank W. Whitcher is added : " While manufacturers in other sections of the country are increasing their production, Boston and its surround- ing cities and towns supply at the present time 65 per cent of all of the boot and shoe findings manufactured in the country, furnish employment to 65 per cent of those engaged in the business, have 70 59/100 per cent of the capita] employed, and the value of their product is 67 1/5 per cent of the total output of Shoe Findings in the United States." 372 THE SHOE INDUSTRY The European War has reduced findings manu- facture, through a reduction in the number of styles, colors, and kinds of footwear and the elimination of buttons, bows, and ornaments. The Chief Articles Included in Shoe Findings. The shoe findings now manufactured as separate indus- tries include the following articles: Linings Webbings Trimmings Pipings Cotton and paper specialties Fillers Blacking Dressings Polishes French chalk Wax Burnishing ink Shoe brushes Bindings Steel and wooden shanks Counters Fibreboard Toe boxes Wooden, cork, and rubber heels Shoe forms Arch supporters Metal protectors Vamp stays Rands Straps Beading Leather and cloth bows and ornaments Fancy buckles Eyelets Lacing hooks Lacings Buttons Button hooks Shoe horns Backstays Iron lasts Nails Tacks Pegs Sole leather parts for repairs, such as soles, taps and heel lifts Shoe thread Repairing tools, such as knives, lap stone, shoe hammers, awls, and needles THE SHOE FINDINGS INDUSTRY 373 Four Classes of Shoe Findings. Shoe findings may be divided into four general classes, as follows: 1. Shoe Manufacturer's Goods, 2. Shoe Store Supplies, 3. Leather and Findings for Shoe Repair, 4. Shoe Dressings and Polishes. Shoe manufacturer's goods include all the findings, parts used in the shoe factory, from cut stock and linings to dressings and polishes. These goods em- brace most of the articles contained in the long list which precedes. Shoe store supplies include the small articles usually sold by the shoe retailer, such as shoe forms, arch supports, lacings, dressings, and polishes. Dealers usually give away, for advertising purposes, such things as button hooks and shoe horns. The articles used by the shoe repairer are in part the same as those used by the manufacturer, such as leather parts for bottoming, nails, pegs, threads, dressings, and polishes. They include also the tools of the repairing trade, as shown in the list. The hand repairer generally deals also in the supplies which are regularly carried by the retailer. Dressings and polishes are not always classed separately, as they enter into the three other divi- sions so generally. Yet their manufacture is entirely separate, and they are of great importance both industrially and commercially. 374 THE SHOE INDUSTRY Each Shoe Finding a Separate Industry. The manufacture of each kind of shoe findings, which altogether are approximately 50 in number, is in itself a small industry. The 350 factories of the country employ about 7,000 people at the present time, an average of 20 persons to a factory. Some factories, of course, employ more, as in the case of the manufacture of dressings and polishes in which there are several establishments whose employees number from 100 to 200. Many factories, on the other hand, are little more than small shops, and give employment to but 5 or 8 or 10 persons. Women in the Industry. Girls and women are largely employed in some branches of the findings industry, which consists of the manufacture of small, light articles that women can handle especially well. Many of the machines used are well suited to opera- tion by women, or have been built especially for that purpose. The proportion of the sexes in the occu- pation varies from the making of iron lasts, for the shoe repairer, in the foundry employing men almost exclusively down to the making of shoe lacings which is as distinctly a woman's occupation. Altogether, however, women constitute only about one third of the wage earners of the industry. The employees of the typical findings factory are divided about as shown in the following diagram: THE SHOE FINDINGS INDUSTRY 375 The Division of Employees in the Typical Findings Factory One Foreman Two or 3 Men expert in im- portant proc- esses or oper- ators of heavy machines One Man or Boy for heavy unskilled work or for ship- ping From 6 to 10 Girls and Women for light ma- chine or hand processes and for the handling and packing of manu- factured goods It is not necessary to present at length here the manufacture of many or all kinds of findings. Some of them, especially toe boxes, heels, counters, and sole leather parts, have been fully treated in this volume, in earlier chapters. Most of the findings are closely related to other industries, and some are scarcely more than by-products of other kinds of manufacture. The making and preparation of fabric parts and lacings, for example, are associated with the textile industry, and the manufacture of repair tools belongs to the machine tool industry. Shoe brushes come from the brush factory, and fibreboard from the paper mill. Rubber heels are made in the rubber factory, and shoe thread in the thread mill. Wooden foot forms are supplied by the last maker. Shoe buttons are manufactured in the button factory. The United Shoe Machinery Cor- poration, which supplies machinery and repair parts to approximately 95 per cent of the shoe factories of the country, manufactures wire nails, tacks, and pegs in special small factories and supplies a large part of the trade in these articles. 376 THE SHOE INDUSTRY The Making of the Shoe Shank. As an example of the development and manufacture of one of the most important kinds of shoe findings the shoe shank is here treated at length. Primarily the shank of the shoe in the part of the sole between the heel and the ball of the shoe. In shoemaking the shank is a reinforcement placed between the outer and inner soles in that part. Its purpose is to give shape or style and elasticity to the shoe. Fifty years ago the shoemaker used hard scraps of leather for shoe shanks, trimmed by hand to the desired shape. Thin pieces of wood, molded to shape on primitive machines, soon came into use, and later strips of hand pressed leatherboard. From 1877 to 1885 a single firm in this country had a monopoly of the manufacture and sale of molded shanks. About the year 1885 numerous patents were granted on shanks and on machinery for pro- ducing them. One form was a strip of flexible steel with leatherboard cover or casing. All these and other kinds of shanks are now in use according to the kind of shoe to be manufactured. There is, however, a constant tendency to use the kinds of better quality, as shoes sell and wear better with the more durable shank reinforcement. The use of prepared shanks is universal and the world's supply is produced mainly in this country. The making of a kind of shank now in very general use may be fully described here. It is the THE SHOE FINDINGS INDUSTRY 377 wood or fibreboard shank, which itself has a steel reinforcement to maintain its shape permanently. Its manufacture falls into the three lines of wood, fibreboard, and steel work, each of which is usually done in a separate factory. The wood part or base is manufactured by the following processes: First, the wood is stripped from logs, upon a great lathe, in rolls about an eight of an inch thick and as wide as the shank is to be long. This work re- quires the full strength of an able-bodied man. Second, the rolls are fed endwise into a cutting machine, which cuts off strips of the width required for shanks. This work may be done by girls or women seated. The wooden pieces are then sorted and made ready to receive the steel reinforcement. The fibreboard base is treated as follows: First, the fibreboard sheet is cut into strips, correspond- ing to the wooden rolls, as wide as the shank is to be long. This is done on a machine, the operator standing, and requires ability to move about freely. Second, these strips are fed into a cutting machine, and made into individual shank pieces, ready tor reinforcement. This work is done by girls and women seated. The work on the steel reinforcement, which is the most difficult and important of all, is as follows: First, the strips, or " ribbons," of steel plate, which comes from the fabricating steel mill, are fed into a heavy machine which cuts off pieces for the rein- forcement, punches holes in the ends for attaching 378 THE SHOE INDUSTRY to the wood or fibreboard shank, and bends or molds them into shape. Second, the reinforcing pieces are placed in a temper- ing furnace, where they are tempered to the right degree of flexibility. The operators in these two processes are es- sentially steel workers, and must have good training and ability. Finally the parts are brought together in the shank factory and the steel reinforcement is attached to the wood or fibreboard shank by tacks or nails through each end. This work is done by girls or women. The processes may be shown by diagram in the following manner: DIAGRAM SHOWING MANUFACTURE OF REINFORCED SHANK THE WOODEN SHANK BASE THE FIBREBOARD SHANK BASE Prepared by Prepared by 1. Stripping off rolls of 1. Cutting Sheefs of wood on a lathe, fibreboard into strips, 3. Cutting the rolls into 2. Cutting the strips into shank pieces on a machine, shank pieces, Assembling:. Assembling. 1 ' ' f THE REINFORCED SHANK Completed by attaching the tempered steer rein- forcement to the wood or fibre wood base. t < THE TEMPERED STEEL SHANK-REINFORCEMENT Prepared by 1. Cutting reinforcement pieces from ribbons of steel plate, 2. Tempering these pieces to the right elasticity in a furnace, Assembling. THE SHOE FINDINGS INDUSTRY 379 1 vo • t^ tooo M 01 o> t-oo O £T~ • 1^00 >0 M VO eaoo £- ■ ovo to to w w lH tH M • « M MM M «± m n o> 00 m to < ^ to r^ to 0. \n ■4- w 3 | to 1 1 | "* oc O O O if.CO ntf | w »2 n vo to »n tovo h VO VO VO r fOM W CO ^t" cO "" r^ Oi N r< rO>OOM W00>O N >0^ O 00 00 >0 N VO ^1" t* 0>v0 00 O N ON O mtJ- ro ^NHCOIONN O 00 ^ O M "- l ' rt vo ■* t 10 m rooO r-~ looO O "O O CO l^w: Tt t (Ct MiO NOi« l/> O M M co w *t o CO ~t •^■■^■COMOO OM W O a * ino O n sr- sr I^N OCOlON^ ^N ^ f)« O h ^r*«i o m oo n N <3 «)( ) ^«o i : oqoqoo ^l 00 . 00 . 9. 1 ^tcoiodcirCi-r odr^-^t rC «N «N t- rj-oo M CO O ^O Z Tj-QjOlvO Mr ^ C ? 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