HANDBOOKS 1 
 
How to Run 
 Engines and Boilers 
 
 WITH A NEW SECTION ON 
 
 Water-Tube Boilers 
 
 PRACTICAL INSTRUCTION 
 FOR YOUNG ENGINEERS 
 AND STEAM USERS :: :: :: :: 
 
 BY 
 
 EGBERT POMEROY WATSON 
 
 Author of: Modern Practice of 
 American Machinists and Engineers- 
 Manual OF THE Hand Lathe— The Pro- 
 
 FOURTH EDITION 
 
 NEW YORK : LONDON : 
 
 Spon & Chamberlain, E. &. F. N. Spon, ltd, 
 
 12 cortlandt street 125 strand 
 
 1899 
 
TWO COPIES RECEIVED, 
 
 L (bra ry of Congre«3| 
 Office f the 
 
 R«gUt*r of CopyrlghtSi 
 
 I 7^^-i' 
 
 48665 
 
 ENTERED ACCORDING TO ACT 
 
 OF CONGRESS IN THE YEAR l8o2, V.V 
 
 E. P. WATSON & SON « 1899 ^^' SPON & CHAMBERLAIN 
 
 IN THE OFFICE OF THE LIBRARIAN OF 
 
 CONGRESS, WASHINGTON, D.C 
 
 b- ) ^ 
 
 SECOND COPY, 
 
 THE BURR PRINTING HOUSE, NEW YORK. 
 
 
PREFACE TO FOURTH EDITION. 
 
 The author has carefully gone through this 
 little work, and at the suggestion of the pub- 
 lishers has added twenty-eight pages of new 
 matter treating upon the subject of Water- 
 Tube Boilers, their management, maintenance, 
 and efficiency for marine and land service. 
 Eight cuts, illustrating the principal types of 
 Water-Tube Boilers, have also been included. 
 While the space given to the treatment of this 
 subject is necessarily limited, still the pub- 
 lishers believe it will add additional value to 
 the work and prove of considerable interest 
 and use to the engineer. 
 
 The Publishers. 
 
 New York, October 8, 1899. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. PAGE 
 
 The First Thing to be Done i 
 
 Cleaning the Boiler 3 
 
 Removing Scale 5 
 
 Caution in Handling Caustic Potash 6 
 
 CHAPTER n. 
 
 Using Scale Preventers 7 
 
 Oil in Boilers 9 
 
 Braces and Stays 9 
 
 CHAPTER HI. 
 
 Mud Drums and Feed Pipe 11 
 
 Boiler Fittings 12 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Grate Bars and Tubes 15 
 
 Bridge Walls 17 
 
 The Slide Valve Throttling Engine 18 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 The Piston 22 
 
 The Slide Valve 24 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 Testing the Valve with Relation to the Ports . . 2^ 
 
 Defects of the Slide Valve 30 
 
Vlll CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. PAGE 
 
 Lap and Lead ^3 
 
 The Pressure on a Slide Valve 34 
 
 Stem Connections to the Valve 36 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 Valves off their Seats 40 
 
 Valve Stem Guides 41 
 
 Governors 42 
 
 Running with the Sun 44 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 Eccentrics and Connections 46 
 
 The Crank Pin 48 
 
 Brass Boxes 51 
 
 Bearing on Pins 53 
 
 Fitting Brasses to Bearings 55 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 Adjustment of Bearings 57 
 
 The Valve and Gearing 58 
 
 CHAPTER XL 
 
 Setting Eccentrics 65 
 
 The Actual Operation 67 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 Return Crank Motion 74 
 
 Pounding 75 
 
 The Connections 77 
 
 Lining Up Engines 82 
 
CONTENTS. ix 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. PAGE 
 Making Joints 88 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 Condensing Engines 93 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 Torricelli's Vacuum 100 
 
 Proof of Atmospheric Pressure loi 
 
 No Power in a Vacuum loi 
 
 Pumps 105 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 Supporting a Water Column by the Atmosphere 107 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 Starting a New Plant 114 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 Water-tube Boilers . 122 
 
 Boiler Explosions 122 
 
 Economy of Maintenance 123 
 
 Evaporative Efficiency 124 
 
 Why Water-tube Boilers Steam Rapidly .... 140 
 
 Torpedo-boat Boilers 141 
 
 Management of Water-tube Boilers 146 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 The Highest Qualities Demanded 150 
 
 The Man Himself the Factor 151 
 
 Lastly 152 
 
 Index 155 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Prefaces have gone out of fashion. They 
 are usually excuses, or explanations, or apolo- 
 gies, or something akin, for having written 
 what follows them. This little book needs no 
 preface, but here is one and a dedication as 
 well, for in this work I have endeavored to 
 serve young American Engineers who have 
 taken to the business seriously by mentioning 
 a few troubles they are likely to encounter ; but 
 it is only mention, for the one thing which can 
 not be imparted is experience. Time, study, 
 and practice alone can give it. No man was 
 ever made an engineer by a book or by rules, 
 but every engineer must know the first prin- 
 
IV INTRODUCTION. 
 
 ciples and traditions of his business. The in- 
 experienced will find a few of them herein. 
 This little book is dedicated to American 
 
 Engineers, the men who have always helped 
 me on my way and who have always kept faith 
 with me; who have always held out the right 
 hand of fellowship to me as man and boy, by 
 their sincere friend and well wisher. 
 
 Egbert Pomeroy Watson. 
 
HOW TO RM EEIMS AND BOILERS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 The first thing to be done upon taking 
 charge of an engine and boiler, new or old, 
 is to examine the boiler thoroughly. No 
 matter whether it has just come from the 
 shop, or has been run for years, take off the 
 man-hole plate and go inside yourself with 
 a hand-lamp ; after you are in look at all the 
 water spaces, and see if they are clean, that 
 is, without rubbish or dirt of any kind. Even 
 new boilers are not free from this. There 
 are various irresponsible persons about 
 boiler shops who are not as careful as they 
 should be, and it will be the exception rather 
 than otherwise if you do not find a lot of 
 things which are better out of the boiler than 
 in it. In large boilers rivet kegs are often 
 taken in to sit upon, and are not always taken 
 out again ; the staves are thrown down in the 
 water space, from whence they will float out 
 and get in the steam pipes by some mysterious 
 happening. The water line is not so high as 
 the steam pipe, by any means, but the staves 
 get there somehow ; so do bunches of waste, 
 etc. Everything of any kind should be 
 cleaned out of the boiler before w^ater is run 
 
into it. To do this it will be necessary to take 
 off the lower hand-hole plates, and with a 
 small hooked rod dislodge everything that is 
 loose in the boiler. 
 
 Spare no pains in this work, for it will be 
 labor and money saved in future. When 
 the boiler is thoroughly clean you can put the 
 plates in again, but before doing this rub the 
 gaskets thoroughly with plumbago, and they 
 will not adhere to the plate where exposed to 
 heat. This is a saving of time and gaskets in 
 breaking joints in future. The old way of 
 making joints upon hand-hole plates, with 
 hemp gaskets slushed with white lead, has 
 gone out of use, having been superseded by 
 rubber gaskets made for the purpose. If you 
 are remote from a city, however, and cannot 
 get a rubber gasket, you can make a hemp 
 gasket which will answer all purposes. Jute 
 IS the best material for this job if it can be had, 
 but you are quite as likely to be out of jute as 
 out of rubber gaskets, and if you have neither 
 you can get a clothesline most anywhere. 
 Unlay this and take the twist out of it; beat it 
 with a fiat stick so as to reduce it to its original 
 fiber ; then braid it up again of the proper size 
 for the job in hand. Find the right length for 
 the gasket, and join the ends so as to form a 
 ring of the proper size that will fit the plate ac- 
 
3 
 
 curately : it should go on so tight that you 
 have to force it over the flange of the plate. 
 Cover this gasket thoroughly with white lead, 
 and then put it in its place. It will be abso- 
 lutely tight if the v/orkhas been properly done. 
 Cleaning the Boiler. 
 We have been assuming that the boiler you 
 have taken charge of is a new one, without 
 scale, but it it is an old one there is likely to be 
 a quantity of scale and dirt, which must be 
 taken out at once. The way to do this is to 
 us the best tools you can get hold of, or con- 
 trive for the purpose. The place to look for 
 dirt and deposits from the feed water is in the 
 bottom of the boiler furthest from the entrance 
 of the feed water, and in the parts that are the 
 coolest, if there are any, when the steam is on. 
 In a return tubular boiler this is generally in 
 the smoke-box end, which is not so hot as the 
 fire-box end; the quantity of rubbish which ac- 
 cumulates in a neglected boiler is astonishing, 
 and you must not be surprised if you have to 
 remove wheelbarrow loads. This dirt comes 
 from the solid matter in the water, both that 
 which is carried in mechanically from turbid 
 supplies, and that which is held in suspension 
 until set free by heat. Every gallon has a cer- 
 tain amount, and as many gallons are evapor- 
 ated daily, unless removed weekly it soon 
 
makes a wheelbarrow load. This dirt, by 
 backing up against the flue sheet, deprives the 
 ends of the tubes of water, which not only 
 steals part of the heating surface, but destroys 
 the ends of the tubes and flue-sheet by corro- 
 sion and over heating, so that it is only a ques- 
 tion of time when the boiler will be practically 
 useless. If the lower course of the tube-ends 
 in the smokebox leak, be sure that they have 
 been abused in the manner stated. You will 
 probably find that they will leak after dirt has 
 been cleaned out. In that case the tubes must 
 be re-expanded, and to do this a boiler maker 
 must be called in. Do not, upon any con- 
 sideration, try to tinker them up with a ham- 
 mer yourself. You will only make a bad mat- 
 ter worse, and set other tubes to leaking which 
 were tight. Having taken out what may be 
 called the "loose dirt," though some of it is 
 very far from being loose, you will find 
 another job in front of you, and that is to get 
 out the dirt which is fast. In other words, the 
 scale. This is actual stone, artificially formed 
 within the boiler from the working of it. It 
 differs in character with the kind of water 
 used. If it is hard water, so-called, it will be 
 limestone scale ; if soft water, it will be sul- 
 phate of magnesia and soda scale ; either one 
 of them is bad enough, so far as the boiler is 
 
5 
 concerned, and must be removed absolutely if 
 there is to be any economy. 
 
 Removing Scale. 
 There is a way to do this which we have 
 practiced with success, and that is to run the 
 boiler full of water up to the third gauge and 
 then put in a quantity of a scale preventive. 
 Of these there are numbers in market, but we 
 do not name any one as the best. Doubtless 
 none of them are wholly useless, though some 
 of them are inert or do not act. You will have 
 to find out by experience which one serves 
 your purpose. Sometimes caustic potash 
 answers a very good purpose. This when the 
 scale is chiefly mud with sulphate of soda and 
 magnesia combined. Caustic potash is the 
 concentrated lye sold in grocery stores, but if 
 wanted in large quantities should be purchased 
 of wholesale druggists. To use it, dissolve it 
 in a barrel of water, say 40 pounds to the bar- 
 rel, and pour it into the boiler. This is about 
 one-sixth of a pound of potash to the pound of 
 water, and is strong enough for the purpose. 
 After the purger is in the boiler build a light 
 fire and heat the water to boiling point, and 
 then haul the fire and let the contents stand. 
 It is better to do this on Saturday night, if pos- 
 sible, leaving the water in the boiler until Mon- 
 day morning ; you should then get up steam 
 
to, say, five or ten pounds pressure on the 
 same water, haul the fire all out, and blow the 
 boiler down. You will, in the majority of 
 cases, find the boiler thoroughly clean, except 
 for chunks of scale which cannot go through 
 the blow-cock, and which must be taken out 
 through the hand-holes. 
 
 Cautiojst. 
 In handling caustic potash the utmost care 
 must be used. It is truly caustic, or burning, 
 and if a portion gets in the eyes it will cause 
 serious trouble. The same is true of sores on 
 the hands. Handle it with gloves; treat it 
 very respectfully. 
 
 
 %' 
 
 t 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 Using Scale Preventers. 
 
 If caustic potash cannot be had, a substitute 
 may be found, in rural districts, in slippery- 
 elm bark. This is not at all caustic, but quite 
 the reverse, being demulcent in character. 
 How it acts we do not know ; but that it has a 
 certain efficiency we do know, because we 
 have cleaned boilers thoroughly with it. It 
 makes little difference how much is used, put 
 it in the boiler and let it stay there for a week, 
 and there will be a benefit from its use. 
 
 These purgers just named are only of service 
 where the scale is soft ; for hard scale a differ- 
 ent one must be used, and to attack lime scale 
 it should be of an acid character, for lime is 
 alkaline, and its antidote is an acid. But just 
 here trouble is likely to ensue in the hands of 
 an inexperienced person. A good many will 
 exclaim loudly against using an acid purger in 
 a boiler, arguing that it will destroy the boiler 
 as well, and that very soon. Some have shown 
 us pieces of iron, that they immersed in certain 
 boiler purgers, that were badly corroded. This 
 is very likely, but it so happens that no boiler 
 purger is used in that way. The purger is 
 largely diluted wuth water, and acts very slowly 
 upon the iron. It attacks the scale first, be- 
 
8 
 
 cause it has the greatest affinity, or liking, for 
 it; after that it goes for the boiler plates; but 
 there are no after effects ot this character from 
 a boiler purger, because it is no longer in the 
 boiler when the scale is removed, and if a 
 boiler is thoroughly washed out there is no 
 danger to it from the use of a strong purge. 
 There is very great danger from the presence 
 of heavy lime stone scale, and since nothing 
 but a purger with an acid reaction will remove 
 it, w^e do not fear to use it ourselves. Some 
 engineers have shown us boilers from which 
 the scale was removed w^hich had the plates 
 badly corroded. This action was attributed to 
 the use of the purge, when it was, in fact, 
 caused by the scale itself. The corrosion was 
 going on all the time underneath the scale, and 
 when it was removed the injury it caused was 
 manifest. Ot two evils we are taught to choose 
 the least, and in this case the use of a strong 
 boiler purger is less than the injury and loss of 
 fuel caused by scale. Get that out first, 
 thoroughly clean the boiler after of all traces 
 of the purge, and there will be no trouble aris- 
 ing from its use. It is understood, of course, 
 that after the use of any boiler purge that the 
 hand-hole plates must be taken off and the 
 boiler cleaned out by hand, washed with a 
 hose, and then filled up and blown out again 
 
9 
 
 before steam is raised. There is no middle 
 g-round or half-way measures possible in deal- 
 ing with a dirty steam boiler. Get down to 
 the naked iron and keep it so, inside and out, 
 and the boiler twenty years old will steam as 
 freely as one just out of the shop. 
 Oil in Boilers. 
 
 Do not upon any account put crude oil or 
 any other kind of grease in a steam boiler. It 
 g-enerally gets in fast enough through the 
 feed water where open heaters are used, 
 without putting it in. The effect of putting 
 oil in is, in a great many cases, to cause the 
 crown sheet to come down, or the lower 
 sheets to bag. When first put in the oil floats, 
 but it gradually picks up scum from the sur- 
 face, in which scum there is always more or 
 less actual mud thrown up from the bottom by 
 the boiling water; the oil then becomes like tar, 
 and being heavy settles on the plates and 
 sticks fast. Since the water cannot get under- 
 neath it the plates are overheated and come 
 down, notwithstanding the fact that there is 
 plenty of water in the boiler. Keep every kind 
 of grease out of a steam boiler, if you have 
 to filter the feed water to do it. 
 Braces and Stays. 
 
 We have now a clean boiler to deal with ; 
 let us see in what condition it is as regards 
 
lO 
 
 strength. The braces are the first to be con- 
 sidered. Perhaps some of them are carried 
 away entirely; such a state of things is by no 
 means unknown. They must be replaced at 
 once by boiler makers, who should also go 
 over every other part of the boiler and test it 
 for condition; but if there are no boiler makers 
 handy the engineer must do it himself. The 
 boiler most generally used is the return 
 tubular, which is a plain cylinder with an ex- 
 ternal fire-box, from which the heat traverses 
 the bottom and enters the tubes at the back, 
 passing through them to the breeching and 
 smoke-stack in front. The weak point in the 
 return tubular boiler is directly over the bridge- 
 wall, where the heat deflected from the wall 
 strikes upon the shell. This spot needs to be 
 carefully examined, for unless the boiler has 
 been well taken care of it wll be found weak 
 and unsafe. If any doubt exists, a half inch 
 hole should be drilled in the bottom to ascer- 
 tain the exact thickness of the plate, when, if 
 thinner than the shell elsewhere, it should be 
 removesd, and a new plate put in. The sides 
 of the boiler should also be examined near the 
 wall, or where the boiler meets the brick^work, 
 for here there is often trouble from corrosion ; 
 also at the junction of the blow-pipe in the 
 bottom or at the end of the boiler. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 Mud Drums and Feed-Pipe. 
 
 If there is a mud-drum attached to the boil- 
 er examine it very thoroughly, for explosions 
 of mud-drums are very common. If the mud- 
 drum is buried, as it often is, it is probably 
 corroded greatly. The proper place for a 
 mud-drum is outside of the boiler, in plain 
 sight, where it can be got at and cleaned out 
 weekly. The object of it is to catch all the free 
 mud, so to call it, which is thrown down at 
 night when the boiler is not running. With 
 some water used for steam making, as on 
 Western rivers, the quantity of mud so de- 
 posited is very large, and if not removed it 
 will be driven back into the boiler. This is 
 particularly true where the feed pipe enters 
 through one end of the mud-drum. It does 
 not require much thought to see that this 
 wholly defeats the object of the mud-drum, for 
 the sediment which collects over night is 
 forced through the boiler again at the first 
 stroke of the pump in the morning. 
 
 As to the best place for the feed pipe to enter 
 the boiler there is a difference of opinion 
 among engineers, but there is no doubt but that 
 the worst place is through the mud-drum, for the 
 reason given. Some think that the feed should 
 
12 
 
 enter the coolest part; some put it in the steam 
 space, and some enter it at the front end 
 alongside the fire. An objection to this is the 
 bad effect of water cooler than the water in 
 the boiler upon hot plates; an advantage is 
 the propulsion of any sediment that may lie 
 upon the bottom of the boiler to the back end 
 of it, where there is no trouble in removing it; 
 another benefit is that the mechanical action 
 of the entering jet assists the circulation by 
 forcibly driving the heated water from the 
 front to the back, and replacing it with cooler 
 water, but to effect these objects the feed pipe 
 must project within the boiler for a few inches 
 so as to give what we shall call a straight 
 shot from it. 
 
 Boiler Fittings. 
 In these are included every sort of attach- 
 ment to a boiler, the water gauge, gauge cocks, 
 safety valve, checks of all kinds, and the blow- 
 off valve or cock for blowing the water out of 
 the boiler. This last is a much more important 
 detail than it is generally supposed to be, and 
 many accidents nave happened from careless- 
 ness with it. These accidents occurred from 
 ** sticking" any sort of a bent pipe (we have 
 actually seen an old leader pipe from a house 
 used) over the end of the nipple or elbow on 
 the blow-pipe. The blow-pipe connection 
 
13 
 
 should be made as firmly and as securely as 
 any other attachment to a boiler. If one re- 
 flects for a moment, it is easy to see that there 
 is a tremendous strain on a pipe which is dis- 
 charging a two inch stream of water under 60 
 or 70 pounds pressure. A boiler never should 
 be blown off at this pressure, but it sometimes 
 has to be, and preparation should be made for 
 it. No elbows should be used where it is pos- 
 sible to avoid them ; the pipe should run as 
 straight as it can from the boiler to the outer 
 air, and if a cock is used care should be taken 
 that it is always in perfect order. It should not 
 leak a drop ; the bolt at bottom which keeps 
 the plug in the cock should be accurately fitted, 
 of full length, entering the plug not less than 
 i^ inches, and have a good head on it. It 
 must never be meddled with or touched, except 
 to open or close it, when under pressure. 
 Don't hit it with a hammer, either on the under 
 side to start the plug up if it sticks, or on the 
 top for any purpose. Remember that it is 
 under pressure, and if it gives way it is almost 
 certain death to any one near it. Defer all tin- 
 kering and investigation until the boiler is cold; 
 or, in other words, make everything secure be- 
 fore steam is on; then there will be no trouble. 
 Forethought, care, and caution, are absolutely 
 indispensable qualifications in an engineer, and 
 
14 
 
 it is useless to expect success or ordinary 
 economy without them. No man can be an 
 engineer worthy of the name who is careless 
 or has not his wits about him at all times. 
 Mr. I-Didn't-Think has no business with a 
 steam boiler. 
 
 What has been said of the blow-cock is true 
 of all the other fittings. Every one of them 
 must be in perfect order to be safe and efficient; 
 an engineer must bear in mind that he is deal- 
 ing with a tremendous agent, which is safe 
 only when in its place and under control, and 
 every gauge or fitting of every kind must be 
 securely in place and tight of itself, that is, 
 tight without makeshifts of any kind. 
 
 The safety valve in particular must be tight, 
 for a great deal of coal can be lost by a leaky 
 valve. It should be free and clear in the hoist, 
 or where the lever is to be raised — if it is of the 
 lever type — and entirely free from rust in all 
 parts. A safety valve is for use, not for emer- 
 gency, and if it is not in order it will not act 
 when the emergency comes, if it ever does. 
 
 It is not every engineer that can do the work 
 which we have mentioned with his own hands, 
 for not all persons in charge of engines are 
 machinists; these instructions convey a knowl- 
 edge of what is needed, and the work can be 
 supplied by those competent to perform it. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 Grate Bars and Tubes. 
 
 One of the most important parts of a boiler 
 is the ^rate. Curiously enough but few give 
 this matter sufficient thought, but it is plain 
 upon reflection that the air which is needed to 
 support combustion must be supplied through 
 it. If the bars are warped and broken, too 
 much air goes through them, with the effect of 
 wasting fuel or checking the free steaming of 
 the boiler. Moreover, a broken grate bar pre- 
 vents proper firing, or attention to the fire ; all 
 the bars should be, in good order, with no open 
 spaces at the ends (front or back) or sides. As 
 this bears directly upon the subject of combus- 
 tion, it will be more explicitly alluded to fur- 
 ther along in this work. 
 
 The tubes or flues particularly demand at- 
 tention, and must be absolutely clean inside 
 and out. In a former article we have given 
 directions how to clean them outside — that is, 
 on the water side, but they must be clean on 
 the fire side too. With anthracite coal this is 
 not a matter of difficulty, but with soft coal it 
 is ; not so much through the soot which accu- 
 mulates in them as with the ** gurry,'' for want 
 of a better name, which is burned on. This 
 last IS the tarry distillates of the coal, or heavier 
 
i6 
 
 products of combustion, which are condensed 
 on the inside of the tubes when the boiler is 
 comparatively cold, or in getting up steam 
 every morning, and is by no means easy to 
 remove. It not only checks steam making by 
 obstructing the heat from passing through the 
 tubes, but it hinders the draught by the ad- 
 herence of soot and roughening the surface of 
 the tubes. It would seem that the fire should 
 burn this deposit off, but it requires a much 
 higher temperature to do this than that in the 
 tubes, and the only way to remove it when it 
 has accumulated in quantity is to thoroughly 
 slush the tubes with crude petroleum oil, ap- 
 plied with a swab and allowed to remain for a 
 day or so, when it should be sw^abbed out 
 again. This is a job which but few persons 
 care to undertake, particularly if the boiler is 
 large, but in some cases it becomes neccessary. 
 Crude petroleum is a solvent for tar, and will 
 clean the tubes thoroughly. 
 
 Of course it has to be undertaken in holiday 
 time, when the boiler is idle for a day or two, 
 for to be of any service the oil must remain in 
 the tubes at least 24 hours. It is of no use to 
 try to rasp this *' gurry" out with steel brushes 
 or scrapers. It is as tough as India-rubber and 
 a scraper slides over it. 
 
17 
 
 Bridge Walls. 
 
 The bridge wall in a boiler is intended to 
 delay the products of combustion in the fire- 
 box as long as possible, and to confine the 
 heat from the fire within the area of the grate. 
 To do this it is manifest that the throat, or 
 opening over the bridge wall, between the top 
 of it and the boiler, should be as small as it 
 can be, and leave room enough for a good 
 *' draught," so-called. There is, however, a 
 danger in this, and this danger is that if the 
 throat is too narrow, the heat, and sometimes 
 the flame, is sharply deflected and concentrated 
 directly upon one spot over the v/all. The 
 result of this is that the sheet for a foot or so is 
 fire-eaten, or thinned and weakened ; it is 
 burned, as boiler makers would say, notwith- 
 standing there may have been plenty of water 
 in the boiler. The opening over the bridge 
 wall should never exceed ten inches, nor be 
 less than eight inches, and it should follow 
 the curve of the boiler. There are a great 
 many patents on bridge walls which are in- 
 tended to improve the combustion by admit- 
 ting air over them, or through them, but never 
 having had any experience with them we can- 
 not say anything about them. 
 
 Assuming that the boiler has been put in 
 good condition, we will look at the engine. 
 
i8 
 
 The hints given in the previous chapters 
 should enable any intelligent man who is fit 
 to be about a steam plant, to have a boiler 
 v^hich will steam freely and as economically 
 as its construction will allow. A treatise 
 could be written upon boilers alone, and many 
 such works are in existence. The contents, 
 however, relate more particularly to the con* 
 struction, a matter which does not enter into 
 an engineers duties. 
 
 The Sode- Valve Throttling Engine. 
 The commonest form of steam engine in use 
 to-day is the slide-valve throttling engine, 
 which is regulated by governors of various 
 kinds. It is the simplest of machines, easily 
 managed by any one after a little instruction, 
 and frequently is found in charge of men and 
 boys who have had no experience whatever, 
 they merely knowing that a certain valve has 
 to be opened, and that the engine must be at 
 half-stroke to start. Such persons are not en- 
 gineers in any sense of the word, for they do 
 not intend to follow the business any longer 
 than they can help. Our instructions are not 
 directed to them, but to intelligent young men 
 who have started with the intention of learning 
 all that they can. The first thing to do then in 
 taking charge of an engine is to see in what 
 condition it has been handed over, in order that 
 
19 
 
 you may not be blamed for the sins of those 
 who preceded you. The cylinder is the seat of 
 power, and we want to examine it as soon as 
 we can get a chance. If we have been under 
 steam the day before, we leave the eng^ine on 
 the back center at night (Saturday night foi 
 instance), and take off the cylinder head. The 
 piston is then at the end of its stroke, and we 
 have an opportunity to see what the clearance 
 is between the piston and the cylinder head. 
 The latter detail will leave its mark on the 
 cylinder after it is taken out, so it will be easy 
 to measure directly from the piston to the said 
 mark. Some clearance is necssary for safe 
 working, but it should be just as little as pos- 
 sible ; clearance is waste room that has to be 
 filled with live steam at every stroke before 
 any work is done on the piston. 
 
 As a rule excessive clearance is given in 
 small engines, for no reason whatever, except 
 that some builders appear to think that there is 
 less danger of breaking down. Suppose that 
 the cylinder is 12 inches diameter: then the 
 piston should run within one-quarter of an 
 inch of the head. If the piston is of that class 
 where the follower bolts stick out the depths of 
 their heads, it canuot run so close as this, and 
 probably there is an inch or more clearance 
 in such a cylinder, but it is easy to reduce the 
 
20 
 
 clearance in such cases to the lowest point, 
 pnd this is easily done by taking* the follower 
 to a machine shop and having the bolt holes 
 counterbored, so as to let the heads in as far as 
 possible; having done this, fill up on the head 
 itself by bolting on a cast-iron plate of the re- 
 quired thickness, cutting out where it covers 
 the steam port. The reduction of clearance 
 often makes a boiler much larger; or, in plainer 
 terms, since less waste occurs it is easier to 
 keep steam on a boiler than when the clear- 
 ance is excessive. Having found what the 
 clearance is on the back end then, we discon- 
 nect the piston from the cross-head, and (run- 
 'ning the crank on the forward center), we 
 find what it is on the front end. This we do 
 by shoving the piston clear up against the for- 
 ward head. Having done this w^e measure 
 from the follower back to the end of the stroke, 
 as shown by the wear on the guides, and the 
 wear on the cylinder itself. If this measure- 
 ment is half an inch longer than the working 
 stroke of the piston, there is half an inch 
 clearance on the front end, and as there are no 
 follower bolts on that end it is all waste, ex- 
 cept so much as is actually needed for the safe 
 wording of the engine. We should, if the en- 
 gine was ours, reduce this clearance also, to 
 the same degree that we did the back end, but 
 
21 
 
 as it entails more or less work for the shop, it 
 will be as well to leave the clearance half an 
 inch on the front end; if the clearance is one 
 inch, however, no consideration of trouble or 
 expense should be spared to reduce it in the 
 same way that we fixed the back head, by- 
 adding to the head itself. The clearance in 
 any engine must be reduced to its lowest 
 terms, for by doing this, if the engine is yours, 
 you put money in your pocket; if it b elongs to 
 some one else and you are in charge of it, you 
 get the credit of making a saving, and this will 
 be a feather in your cap worth working for. 
 
 ^fe 
 
 -m^ 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 The Piston. 
 Now that we have the clearance matter at- 
 tended to, let us see what kind of a looking- 
 thing we have for a piston. This detail of a 
 steam engine is of all conceivable forms— and 
 some inconceivable forms, to any one who 
 thinks what a piston has to do. They are 
 made as heavy as hydraulic plungers, and with 
 as many attachments as possible, in the shape 
 of rings, with springs to keep the rings out to 
 the cylinder, and screws in the springs to keep 
 the springs out to the rings. The reason that 
 some firms make them in this way is because 
 their grandfathers made them so, and that is 
 reason enough in their eyes. If the piston 
 you have taken out is of this class it is your 
 and the owner's misfortune, but as we are not 
 giving instructions upon how to build engines, 
 we will merely state how this old-fashioned 
 piston is to be put in as good condition as pos- 
 sible. Pistons are liable to become leaky in 
 the following places : between their flanges 
 where the rings bear; between the rings and 
 the cylinder itself; through the follower into 
 the body of the piston. Wherever there is a 
 joint look for a leak, for joints become imper- 
 fect through use and time. If the rings move 
 
23 
 
 back and forth between the flang^es of the 
 piston they leak, and must be made tight by 
 skinning off the follower. This is of course a 
 shop job, wath which the engineer has nothing 
 to do, but before the piston is sent to the shop 
 for repairs the engineer should be sure that the 
 piston needs it. Very often it will be found 
 by examination that dirt or '^ burrs " have got 
 in betw^een the follower and the spider, or else 
 the thread on the bolt-holes in the spider has 
 been raised around the edges, so that the fol- 
 low^er will not go dowm, iron and iron. An 
 experienced engineer will soon find out 
 whether these things have happened by taking 
 a smooth file and going carefully over the fol- 
 low^er-seat on the spider, or main casting of 
 the piston. In this way he will find all the 
 burrs or bruises that have raised the surface, 
 and dress them off level ; then w^hen he puts 
 the follower on again and screws it up solid 
 without the rmgs in, he should take a hammer 
 and strike on the outside of the follower 
 opposite solid iron. If the follower is tight on 
 its seat it will sound like striking on an anvil ; 
 if it is leaky the sound given out will be like 
 striking a piece of iron lying on an anvil. 
 Leaks can also be told by the appearance of 
 the parts, but as this is not easily conveyed in 
 print we shall not attempt it. The best way 
 
24 
 
 in all cases is to send the piston to a ^ood 
 machine shop and have it put in perfect order, 
 and this is why it was taken out the first thin^, 
 so that it mig;ht be going forward while we are 
 dismantling other parts of the engine. 
 The Slide Valve. 
 The next thing we do to ascertain the condi- 
 tion of our engine is to take the bonnet off the 
 steam chest and see in what shape the valve 
 and its seat are. An inexperienced man is very 
 likely to get into trouble here, and do damage 
 to the engine. Bolts and nuts which have been 
 long undisturbed are very hard to start, and in 
 very many cases they either break short off in 
 the casting, or else, in the case of stud bolts, 
 come away at the bottom, and unscrew from 
 the casting. Either of these misfortunes is 
 bad, because it is not an easy task to get out a 
 broken stud bolt, or to make one tight in its 
 seat after it has been forcibly removed ; there- 
 fore, if the nuts do not yield to moderate force 
 exerted on a wrench, pour a little kerosene on 
 them and let them stand half an hour. Kero- 
 sene is the most pervasive fluid known to the 
 trade, and it will seep into the most minute 
 crevices; if after its application the nuts will 
 not then start, get an iron ring, or a big nut 
 with some body of metal in it and heat it red 
 hot. Put this over the stubborn nut until it has 
 
25 
 
 become very warm and it will come away 
 without any trouble. 
 
 If we digress here for a moment it is because 
 the occasion seems to demand it. This digres- 
 sion is to again insist upon the necessity of 
 care and caution in dealing with a steam en- 
 gine. It is no evidence of skill for a man to 
 go at a steam engine with a hammer and 
 wrench and slaughter right and left, for by pur- 
 suing this course he can do more damage in a 
 moment than he can repair in a day, and he 
 can save both time and money by going at 
 every job in a workmanlike manner. 
 
 The slide valve is really the heart of the 
 steam engine, for upon its perfect condition 
 and perfect action everything depends ; if it is 
 off its seat or badly set there can be no econ- 
 omy. When we take up a slide valve in an 
 old engine we shall, in nine cases out of ten, 
 find it in very bad condition. This is owing, 
 in a great measure, to the way in which it is 
 connected to the mechanism that operates it, 
 and to the way in which it is constructed. 
 Most slide valves are extremely faulty in this 
 respect. In order to keep the steam chest as 
 short as possible, the valve seat is made short, 
 and very often the valve overruns the seat, so 
 as not to wear a shoulder on it. The valve 
 stem, acting on the stuffing-box as a fulcrum, 
 
26 
 
 tends to pry the valve off its seat, notwith- 
 standing the pressure upon it, with the result 
 that the face of the valve is worn rounding in 
 the direction of its stroke. Where this is the 
 case it must necessarily leak, for a slide valve 
 seat is like the slide valve itself — if one is 
 rounding the other must be hollow, in some de- 
 gree, unless it is very much harder than the 
 valve itself. The time to test a valve for leaks 
 is when the engine is running, and it can be 
 told very quickly by watching the exhaust 
 where it can be seen. If this is sharp and 
 clear at every stroke the valve is tight, but if it 
 is followed by a secondary jet that scarcely 
 clears the exhaust pipe, the valve or the pis- 
 ton leaks, and quite likely both ; any leak 
 through the piston would also show on the ex- 
 haust, but in this case, unless the piston leaks 
 very badly indeed, it is likely to be a leak of 
 the valve which shows on the exhaust. To 
 test it for condition, obtain a straight edge and 
 laj'" it across. Hold the straight edge absolute- 
 ly vertical, not tipped to one side, and it will 
 soon show in what condition the valve and the 
 seat are. The remedy for a leaky slide valve 
 is in the machine shop. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 Testing the Valve with Relation to the Ports. 
 
 To find out whether the valve is properly 
 made in the first instance, or whether it has 
 been tampered with by some engineer in 
 charge before you, proceed as follows : — Take 
 a sheet of paper large enough to entirely cover 
 the valve seat and lay it on it. Rub all over 
 the edges of the ports so as to obtain a fac 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 simile of them. Then get a piece of pine half 
 an inch thick and three inches wide, and put 
 the edge of it on the diagram, transferring the 
 ports to the stick, thus: — Do the same to the 
 valve, and you will have a fac simile of the 
 valve and its ports, which can be more readily 
 handled than by taking the valve itself, which 
 is heavy and hard to see distinctly when in 
 the chest. Now these directions sound very 
 simple, and are very easy to understand by 
 
28 
 
 one who knows all about the matter before- 
 hand, and who knows what he expects to see, 
 but they are not so simple to a young man 
 who reads them for the first time, or who is 
 unacquainted with the action of a slide valve, 
 and it is mainly to readers of this class that 
 this work is addressed. But we will try to 
 make it as simple as possible, and so that any- 
 one without previous knowledge of a slide 
 valve can see at a glance whether it is properly 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 made or not. Actual comparison of the valve 
 and valve seat templets will appear further on. 
 Let us say, however, that there are slide 
 valves of many kinds, flat faced, round faced 
 (as in the case of a piston slide-valve), V faced, 
 etc.: but in this article, when we say slide 
 valve we refer especially to the common cast- 
 iron box without a bottom, which is generally 
 used in engines, as shown in the engraving, 
 fig. 2. This covers both ports and extends 
 some distance over them on each side. That 
 
29 
 
 IS to say, the end of the valve laps over the 
 ports, and the part projecting* is 'jailed the lap 
 of the valve. The cavity inside the valve is 
 the exhaust port of the valve, and this also laps 
 over the exhaust edge of the steam port some- 
 times; the outside lap is called steam lap, or 
 lap on the steam side, and the inside lap is 
 called exhaust lap — when there is any. Usually 
 the exhaust port in the valve coincides with 
 the inside edges of the steam ports as shown in 
 
 steam lap 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 fig. 3, and when in this condition it is said to 
 have line and line exhaust. Sometimes the 
 exhaust is given clearance ; that is to say, the 
 steam port on the exhaust side is open slightly, 
 and when in this condition it is said to have 
 exhaust lead, or lead on the exhaust side. A 
 slide valve then, works normally, that is to 
 say naturally, under these conditions : It is a 
 cast-iron box covering both ports all round, so 
 that no steam can get into the cylinder unless 
 
30 
 
 the valve is moved so as to expose one of the 
 
 ports. To recapitulate : the part which projects 
 
 over the ports is called steam lap; the inside 
 
 cavity of the valve is the exhaust port ; the 
 
 inside edge of the steam port is the exhaust 
 
 side ; the outside end of the valve is the steam 
 
 side; and the same on both sides of course. 
 
 These details are, naturally, familiar enough to 
 
 experienced engineers, but we must not forget 
 
 that there are young men coming into the trade 
 
 continually w^ho have all their trade before 
 
 them, and who have it to learn as we had to, 
 
 and it is for them that these explanations are 
 
 given. Let us now look at the action of the 
 
 valve. 
 
 Defects of the Slide Valve. 
 
 Were it not for one inherent, and we may say, 
 hereditary defec^, the slide valve would be the 
 ideal one for its purpose, for all the functions 
 are performed by one valve. This defect is 
 that it is limited in its application to working 
 steam expansively. As will be readily seen 
 by anyone who uses the templet, fig. i, where 
 the valve face is shown in section, when it is 
 applied to the valve and moved to the various 
 positions of opening and closing the valve, the 
 exhaust is more or less throttled or choked ; its 
 area is greatly reduced, so that escape of the 
 exhaust is delayed. The resnl.t of this is that 
 
31 
 
 the exhaust steam presses back on the piston 
 (back pressure so-called), and takes away just 
 so much from the power of the live steam on 
 the other side which is driving the piston for- 
 ward. This back pressure varies in amount 
 with the position of the valve and the point of 
 the piston stroke at which the valve closes. 
 For instance, in plain words, when a slide 
 valve cuts off at three-quarters of the piston 
 stroke there should be little or no back pressure 
 in a properly constructed valve, for the exhaust 
 is open long enough to allow all the dead steam 
 to escape, but at points of the piston stroke 
 under three-quarters the exhaust is not free, 
 and a cut-off obtained with a common slide 
 valve under five-eighths of the piston stroke has 
 to be paid for by loss of live steam pressure. 
 Notwithstanding this fact there are many slide 
 valves cutting off to-day at one-half of the 
 stroke, and under that at times, and the de- 
 signers of them are satisfied — that is to say, 
 they have to be satisfied — for the common slide 
 valve will always create undue back pressure 
 at points under'^Ieven- sixteenths of the piston 
 stroke. This is shown very plainly by indi- 
 cator cards, where the last part of the exhaust 
 is caught in the cylinder by the piston and 
 pushed uphill, if we may so express it, until 
 (when nearly on the center) there is a pressure 
 
32 
 
 opposed to the piston closely approximating 
 boiler pressure. Whether this is economy or 
 not every one must judge for themselves. To 
 expend live steam pressure and power stored 
 in the flywheel in trying to make dead steam 
 alive, by squeezing it between the piston and 
 cylinder head, always seemed to us unwise, 
 for the reason that we do not get back as much 
 work from the imprisoned steam as we spent 
 to catch it, but as it is no part of our intention 
 to discuss moot points or theories in this series, 
 we go no further in this direction. 
 
 •\<C5^ rx®T^_^ ''<^J>' 
 
 :^^t3 
 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 Lap and Lead. 
 
 The object of putting- lap on a slide valve is to 
 cut off the steam early in the stroke of the 
 piston. Suppose the steam end of the valve 
 had no lap at all, but barely covered the steam 
 port: then so soon as the piston moved the 
 valve would open and continue opening-, clos- 
 ing barely in time to open again for the return 
 stroke of the piston. Now suppose we add 
 one-quarter of an inch lap to the valve ; then 
 the valve would open just as soon as it did be- 
 fore, because we have advanced the eccentric 
 to permit it to open, but it would close sooner 
 by the amount of the lap, because we have 
 stolen, so to speak, a quarter of an inch from 
 the travel of the valve by advancing the eccen- 
 tric ; therefore, if it closes sooner it cuts off the 
 live steam earlier in the stroke; but, as ex- 
 plained previously, it cuts off the exhaust also. 
 We introduce this as an illustration of the 
 uses of lap. Laps on slide valves vary all the 
 way from half an inch upon a twenty-five 
 horse-power engine to one inch and upward 
 on high power engines ; on very large marine 
 engines the lap amounts to 3" sometimes ; on 
 locomotives it is usually one inch. If you 
 have an engine which *^ takes steam all the 
 
34 
 
 way," that is, works full stroke, you can 
 materially increase its economy, and to some 
 extent its power, by adding* lap to the valve 
 upon the steam side ; the amount of it cannot 
 be stated definitely, but must be governed by 
 the size of the engine. Lead on a slide valve 
 is the amount that the port is open to admit 
 steam when the engine is on the dead center. 
 The object of lead is two-fold: to have the 
 ports and cylinder full of live steam the instant 
 that the return stroke begins, and to check the 
 momentum of the parts as they turn the center, 
 or change the direction of motion. Now both 
 the lap and the lead of a valve have an intimate 
 relation to setting the valve for the distribution 
 of steam, and as this will be alluded to further on 
 in this series, we will say no more under these 
 heads, because we shall be obliged to traverse 
 the same ground, and this involves tiresome 
 repetitions. 
 
 The Pressure on a Slide Valve. 
 Another defect or objection to a slide valve is 
 the pressure upon it and the power required to 
 drive it. This is great, though it. is not so 
 large as it is generally supposed to be. Spe- 
 cifically, in the case of small steam engines, 
 Mr. C. Giddings, of Massillon, Ohio, made a 
 dynamometer for the purpose of ascertaining 
 the power required to move the valve on a 
 
35 
 
 6')4" X lo" horizontal engine. The surfaces 
 were not given nor the pressures, but when 
 exerting 13.5 horse-power at 200 revs, per 
 minute, the power expended in working the 
 valve was one-fifth of one horse-power. In an 
 engine of 9" cyl. X 12" stroke, with a three- 
 ported flat slide valve, at 100 revs, of engine 
 per minute, the power required to drive the 
 valve was 7.3 per cent, of the power developed 
 by the engine, which last was 11. i h. p. With 
 a balanced slide valve on the same engine, at 
 100 revs., developing 15.6 h. p., the percentage 
 of load on the valve stem was only i per cent, 
 {Mechanical Engineer, page 62, voL 12, 1886). 
 This adduces an argument in favor of balanced 
 valves vs. plain vah es ; that is to say, the one 
 is 6. 1 per cent, lighter than the other to drive, 
 but the fact remains that without any balanc- 
 ing but 7 per cent, of the power of the engine 
 was required to drive it in a small engine. We 
 do not say that this is not serious, nor do we 
 think it unworthy of notice, but the fact re- 
 mains that some valves require less pressure 
 to work than others, owing to the manner m 
 which they are lubricated and the condition of 
 the seats. This last is the point we wish to 
 make, for if the seat is cut the power required 
 will be much greater than if it was in good 
 order. Moreover, if the metal of the valve and 
 
36 
 
 seat are of the same degree of hardness, the 
 valve will not work so well as when one is 
 harder than the other. Of course the valve 
 should be the softest, for it is easy to replace 
 or re-face, while the seat is difficult to get at. 
 The pressure on top of a shde valve is the steam 
 in the chest bearing it down. When the en- 
 gine is at wx)rk there is a pressure beneath the 
 valve, reacting on the under side of its face, 
 for the area of the port and through it. There 
 is also a back pressure from the exhaust steam 
 passing through the exhaust port of the valve ; 
 both of these pressures tend to reduce the 
 direct pressure on the back of the valve, but to 
 what extent can only be told by recording the 
 facts in some particular case. The mean effec- 
 tive pressure shown by cards, as existing in 
 the cylinder, is the pressure acting on the port- 
 area face of the slide valve. 
 
 Stem Connections to the Valve. 
 We have said previously that one defect of 
 the slide valve was its liability to wear untrue. 
 One great cause of this is the manner in which 
 the stem is connected to the valve itself. In 
 locomotives the yoke is used exclusively. We 
 believe there is not a single modern locomo- 
 tive built without it, the reason being that there 
 are no nuts or other details to work loose in- 
 side the chest. 
 
37 
 
 This is of the greatest importance in an en- 
 gine which is worked hard under high pressure 
 constantly, but the yoke has its defects as well 
 as all other mechanical devices. It frequently 
 breaks, and at times cramps the valve so that 
 it does n:)t seat squarely ; it cannot be got out 
 
 Fig. 4. 
 without lifting the steam chest, and it is also 
 very heavy, and unless supported by the valve 
 itself, wears away the gland very rapidly. 
 Other common connections to valves are the 
 nut in a pocket on the back, four nuts on a 
 straight stem, the latter being run through a 
 hole in the back of the valve, as shown in fig. 
 5 ; T heads on the stem are also common, the 
 T fitting in a cross in the back of the valve. 
 The nut in a pocket connection is one which is 
 very liable to give trouble to engineers, for it 
 is easy to see, unless the nut is exactly at right 
 
38 
 
 angles to the travel of the valve, that it is apt 
 to cramp the valve and keep it off its seat As 
 the stem is constantly wearing down the 
 trouble is of frequent occurrence, and it is diffi- 
 cult to detect when the engine is cold, for the 
 reason that ttie valve appears to be solid on its 
 
 
 I^ 
 
 
 Nut 
 
 
 
 
 ».»i\_\ J.' A*_^ 
 
 
 Figs . 5 and 6. 
 seat. We have seen engines which refused 
 work simply from this connection to the valve. 
 Upon opening the throttle the engine would get 
 steam under the valve and through both ports, 
 and nothing but easing the nut in the pocket 
 would let the valve down solid. Fig. 5 is the 
 
39 
 nut and pocket connection, an.d the nut should 
 in all cases be faced rounding on the working 
 faces. A far better and simpler modification 
 of this plan, and one we have used with suc- 
 cess, is shown in fig. 6; it never fouls, and the 
 nut allows the valve system to be lengthened 
 or shortened without the use of jam nuts. It is 
 easily put in or taken out, and fills all the re- 
 quirements. 
 
 The solid nut arrangement shown is, to our 
 way of thinking, the best. Ii holds firmly if 
 properly fitted up, and it is also cheap to make, 
 being all lathe work. It never cocks the valve 
 or binds it any way ; take it all in all, it is hard 
 to find one better. These connections are the 
 ones that are most commonly met with, and it 
 is well to know what to expect of them. 
 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 Valves Off Their Seats. 
 
 Now suppose we start or try to start our en- 
 gine for the first time, and on opening the 
 throttle find that the engine will not mov^e, or 
 will move as well one way as the other and 
 without power in any direction. We know that 
 steam is in the chest by the heat of it, and if 
 everything was all right the engine should do 
 its work; since it does not, there is plainly 
 something wrong with the slide valve, and in 
 nine cases out of ten it is off its seat. If it was 
 simply wrongly set, the piston would go one 
 way but not the other ; it would make a great 
 plunge forward or backward and stop there, 
 but it would not drive the crank over the cen- 
 ter. A slide valve does not require much to lift 
 ^i from its seat, and it may occur at any time ; 
 a scale blown in from the steam pipe may ^ei 
 under one end and lift it enough to float the 
 valve, then the steam will blow through the 
 exhaust. When this is observed — blowing 
 through — the remedy to be adopted is, in the 
 small engines, to r^p the valve stem smartly 
 with a billet of wood, when, if the connection 
 is in fault, it will frequently release the valve 
 and allow it to seat itself. If something has 
 
41 
 got under the edge of the valve, move the stem 
 as rapidly as possible back and forth, and it 
 will work the obstruction off. If all these fail 
 the only remedy is to open the chest and get 
 at the valve itself. If water gets into the cylin- 
 der in any quantity it is very apt to jam the 
 valve stem connection by bearing up on the 
 under side of the valve through the steam port; 
 it may even bend the stem in small engines. 
 If this happens do not undertake any hammer 
 and tongs remedies, but disconnect the stem, 
 heat it black hot and straighten it with a mallet 
 on a block of wood. Cold iron or steel breaks 
 
 easily. 
 
 Valve Stem Guides. 
 
 In most modern slide valve engines the 
 steam chest is on the side— right or left as oc- 
 casion demands (usually the right), and the 
 stem is directly connected to the eccentric rod 
 without the intervention of a rock-shaft. The 
 end of the stem is flattened, or squared, and is 
 carried in a guide which may or may not be of 
 service; if it is in line with the direct travel of 
 the valve it is, but experience teaches that 
 these apparently harmless guides can make a 
 great deal of trouble for inexperienced persons, 
 who fancy that the stem must move tightly in 
 them. This is not so; the outer end of the 
 valve stem must not be tied up in any way, 
 
42 
 
 but must be at perfect liberty, in order to allow 
 the valve to lie flat on its seat. * The only use 
 of a guide on a valve stem is to prevent the 
 weight ot the eccentric rod from springing it 
 downward, and to carry the weight of the 
 valve stem itself; beyond this the v^lve re- 
 quires no guiding, for the stem will attend to 
 that. Do not, then, screw up the guide on the 
 valve stem so tightly as to bind it in any way; it 
 should work freely with a slight play in all 
 
 directions. 
 
 Governors. 
 
 Let us leave the valve and all its connec- 
 tions, including the eccentric, until we get 
 further in our investigations, and look at the 
 governor or throttle valve. In early days en- 
 gine builders made their own governors; these 
 were always the common two-ball governors 
 which regulated the engine (or pretended to) by 
 means of a butterfly valve, so-called, in the 
 steam pipe. This valve was merely a flat piece 
 of brass with a shaft through it, hung in the 
 steam pipe just as a damper is hung in a stove 
 pipe, and usually one of these devices fitted 
 about as well as the other. That is to say, the 
 throttle was so badly fitted that it did not 
 answer its purpose at all, and, added to this, 
 its position in the steam pipe was such that it 
 defeated its own object. The valve was so far 
 
43 
 
 from the steam chest that there was always a 
 supply of steam between it and the main slide 
 valve sufficient to run the engine at full power; 
 consequently, when the load on the engine 
 was reduced and the engine ran faster, the 
 speed was not checked until the supply ran 
 out, even though the governor had partly 
 closed the throttle; then when the supply was 
 worked off the engine slowed down, only to 
 repeat the irregular motion at every change of 
 load. Moreover, the old-fashioned two-ball 
 governor was sluggish in its motions. The 
 balls had to move through considerable arcs 
 before the throttle acted at all; it had too many 
 joints, which bound themselves tight by their 
 motion, and it was so defective that it was 
 cast aside for better devices. There are a 
 good many descendants of the same family, 
 however, still in the market, and they have the 
 same inherent defects. The butterfly valve has 
 wholly disappeared; at the present time no one 
 makes them. Neither do engine builders 
 make their own governors. Many patented 
 governors for steam engines are manufactured 
 by parties who make a specialty of them, and 
 these makers use a simple cylindrical shell 
 moving in a cylinder as a throttle valve. This 
 works easily and tightly, and is a vast im- 
 provement on the old gear. Its faults are 
 
44 
 
 chiefly those of adjustment, and arise from 
 neglect or carelessness on the part of those 
 who run the engine. The parts are apt to 
 wear, or else the stem gets lengthened by un- 
 screwing, so that the valve drops from its 
 natural position and blinds the ports. In 
 caring for and repairing a governor all that is 
 necessary is to see that the joints, when there 
 are any (in some there are none, as in the 
 Pickering), are free, the pins perfectly round 
 and true, and free from burnt oil or gum; that 
 the stem is straight, works freely and has no 
 shoulders on it from working in one place 
 constantly, and that the valve is in its proper 
 place when the governor is geared up. 
 Running with the Sun. 
 There are a great many persons in existence 
 yet who put faith in traditions, and who will 
 gravely assure one that such or such a ma- 
 chine does not work properly because it does 
 not **run with the sun." This is a notion 
 that is firmly beHeved in by many who have 
 (aith, but no reasoning power. The sun has 
 no influence upon, or any connection with 
 machines made by man, with the sole excep- 
 tion of sun dials, and any machine which is in 
 order will just run as well ** against the sun" 
 as ** with the sun." Therefore, let no person 
 impose upon you by telling you that the rea^ 
 
45 
 
 son a bewitched o^overnor does not work is be- 
 cause it runs against the sun. Suppose the 
 engine stands east and west, how can it run 
 against or with the sun ? We used the ex- 
 pression ''bewitched governor" in a figura- 
 tive sense only, but let no engineer ever give up 
 the search for a cause of bad working in a de 
 fail. It may be hidden, but it can be found 
 by searching. There is always a cause for ir- 
 regular action in all machines. 
 
CHAPTER IX. 
 
 Eccentrics and Connections, 
 
 The office performed by an eccentric is to 
 move the valve to admit steam at alternate 
 ends of the cylinder. The eccentric is simply 
 a wheel hun^ out of its own center. Its own 
 center is a point equi-distant from the circum- 
 ference. If hung on a shaft in this way it 
 would have no other motion than a true rotary 
 or concentric motion around the shaft, the 
 same as a flywheel has on its shaft. Being 
 hung out of its center, it has an untrue motion 
 — an eccentric one — from which it takes its 
 name. This explanation may sound somewhat 
 puerile to experts, but there is an idea in the 
 minds of many that an eccentric has some 
 mysterious action which makes it especially 
 fit for driving steam valves. We have been 
 told by some that the eccentric ran fast and 
 slow without reference to the speed of rotation 
 of the engine, and it h^d, for that reason, a 
 ''dwell," so to call it, at each end of the stroke, 
 that permitted the steam to enter quickly and 
 to escape freely. The "dwell'' exists, but it 
 is is not by reason of any peculiarity of the 
 eccentric itself, but on account of changing the 
 motion of the valve frt>m forward to back. At 
 
47 
 
 this period in the stroke the eccentric and all 
 its connections are in line, see fig. 7, and for a 
 portion of the stroke, from a to b, the eccentric 
 exerts little or no effect upon its rod and the 
 connections to it; in itself, however, it is mov- 
 ing at the same speed it always moves at, 
 
 Fig. 7. 
 
 which speed is that of the engine. The idea 
 that an eccentric has a variable speed doubt- 
 less arose from some one looking at the long 
 side of it passing over the shaft rapidly, and 
 comparing it with the short side, which does 
 move slower than the long side, because it is 
 nearer the center of the shaft. Now, an ec- 
 centric is hung out of its own center just half 
 the stroke of the valve, because in a complete 
 revolution it will double this throw, as it is 
 called. The throw of an eccentric, then, is the 
 amount it is out of truth (fig. 7), or the distance 
 
48 
 
 from the center of the shaft to the center of the 
 eccentric. Suppose this to be ij^ inches, 
 then the eccentric is said to have i% inches 
 throw, and the travel of the valve is three 
 inches. 
 
 Connections from the valve stem to the ec- 
 centric are of various kinds. Where the steam 
 chest is on the side the eccentric rod is con- 
 nected directly to the valve stem by a pin on 
 the side of the stem, or by a spade handle, as 
 it is called, worked on the stem itself, Some- 
 times, however, as when the steam chest is 
 not on the side, there is a rock shaft between 
 the eccentric and valve stem. This makes no 
 difference in the action of the eccentric, but 
 makes some difference in the position of it on 
 the shaft, as will appear later on in this series. 
 Sometimes there is an idler shaft, which also 
 rocks, but makes no difference in the position 
 of the eccentric on the shaft from that which it 
 occupies when directly connected. The con- 
 nections are in all cases merely carriers or dis- 
 tributers of motion between the eccentric and 
 the valve itself, and need not be considered as 
 affecting- the motion, except as hereafter ap- 
 pears. 
 
 The Crank Pin. 
 
 There is no more important adjunct of an 
 engine than the crank pin, for through it all the 
 
49 
 power of the steam is transmitted. This state- 
 ment does not refer to its office wholly, but to 
 ils condition and its construction. In most 
 cases engineers are powerless to alter this with- 
 out going to a great deal of expense, but they 
 can at all times keep it in good order, and in 
 such condition that the friction of it is reduced 
 as much as possible. Engineers worthy of the 
 name take the greatest pride in having this de- 
 tail free from every scratch or flaw on its 
 w^orking face, and, above all, never allow it to 
 get more than hand-warm ; that is, about the 
 heat of the human hand. It should not heat at 
 all if properly attended to and when properly 
 proportioned in the first instance, but there are 
 many proprietors who run engines much be- 
 yond the power they were intended for, and 
 when this is the case the crank pin is liable to 
 suffer first. Crank pins heat from several 
 causes. When they have always run cool 
 with the normal load on the engine, and de- 
 velop a tendency to heat when the load is in- 
 creased, the cause is too much pressure per 
 square inch of surface ; this forces out the oil 
 and brings the boxes into forcible contact with 
 the pin, so that heat is engendered. A remedy 
 in cases like this is to use a heavy oil, or a 
 grease composed of equal parts of plumbago 
 and tallow or lard. This finds its way into 
 
so 
 
 the most minute ridges or imperfections in the 
 bearing:, and keeps the surfaces apart ; it is a 
 very excellent lubricant to use upon an over- 
 loaded engine. More generally, however, 
 crank pins heat from constant tinkering with 
 .the connecting rod end. An engineer hears a 
 pound, and arguing at once that the crank pin 
 brass must he slack, drives the key down, with 
 the result of heating the pin. Now this matter 
 of adjusting brasses on crank pins and on other 
 bearings is an important one, not so well un- 
 derstood as it should be. In a great many 
 cases the brasses are not properly fitted when 
 they leave the shop, and are liable to cause 
 trouble from that fact. High speed engines of 
 the best class are properly made, for the build- 
 ers of them are men of experience, but there 
 are some persons who, as soon as they get 
 charge of such engines, proceed to '* relieve'' 
 the brasses in the wrong place, so that they can 
 key them up. Now what is good for a high 
 speed engine is good for a slow speed engine, 
 and every bearing, no matter what its office, 
 should bear *' brass and brass," as the term is, 
 and shown in the diagram at a — not as shown 
 at d. The brasses should butt solidly and fairly 
 together, and the pin should work easily inside 
 of them. Then it will have merely the friction 
 of work, and not the friction due to the work, 
 
51 
 
 with that due to the pressure of the key added. 
 Many persons hold that no more pressure can 
 be put upon a crank pin than that due to the 
 work, and unless the pressure of the key or 
 bolts exceeds that of the work, it adds nothing 
 to the labor of the bearing-. Those who hold 
 this view are requested to try the experiment 
 of driving in the key a little on a bearing which 
 shows signs of heating. They will speedily 
 
 -A 
 
 Fig. 8. 
 relinquish their theory. Another cause of heat- 
 ing of crank pins and other bearings is faulty 
 workmanship. The brasses do not bear fairly or 
 seat squarely and while they appear all right to 
 the eye they are not all right to the bearing, 
 which speedily gets warm over the matter. A 
 crank pin brass must seat squarely on the end 
 of the connecting rod, and the rod end itself 
 must be square. If the key, when driven, 
 
52 
 
 forces thfe brass to one side or the other, and 
 twists the strap on the rod so that its sharp 
 edges can be felt on the side, it will draw Itie 
 brass a-cock-bill on the pin, and make it bear 
 the hardest on one side of it, reducing the area 
 for working by the amount it is out of truth. 
 The same condition of things is true of the 
 main bearing. If the brasses do not bed fairly 
 on the bottom of the pillow block casting, and 
 do not go down evenly, without springing in 
 any way, they will not run as they should. It 
 matters not whether an engineer is a workman 
 or not, in regard to his seeing these things. 
 When they are pointed out to him, he can, and 
 that is our reason for directing attention to 
 them. If he knows where the fault is he can 
 find men to remedy it. 
 
 Another cause of heating in bearings is too 
 much surface in contact that is merely friction- 
 al. This is best explained by fig. 9, where all 
 the work of transferring the power of the steam 
 is done upon the surface of the pin, which is 
 shown in section. All the bearing beyond 
 this is of no service, but is a positive injury if 
 if touches the pin, for it merely rubs and wears, 
 without doing any good. Engineers then 
 ** clear'' the brass on its sides as shown in fig. 
 9, for all bearings, whether those of the main 
 shaft or elsewhere. We say " clear" the brass 
 
53 
 which means that it is to be just free, or so that 
 it does not touch; not as shown in the diagram, 
 where it has to be exaggerated to be seen at 
 all. This clearance has another value, that of 
 permitting the oil to stay on the pin, and to 
 cover it at all times. This end is also furthered 
 by cutting X grooves in the brasses, but this 
 practice we have never been greatly in favor 
 of, except in solid brasses which oscillate, or 
 
 Fior. 9. 
 do not completely traverse the pin. For these 
 last oil grooves are essential, inasmuch as 
 when they are hard worked the oil is not dis- 
 tributed as it is in a complete revolution, and 
 they are very liable to cut from want of access 
 of the oil to all parts. Oil grooves, however, 
 have the disadvantage of retaining dirt which 
 may find its way in, they invite fracture, and 
 they reduce the bearing surface. They are not 
 to be used indiscriminately. 
 No greater annoyance can happen to an en- 
 
54 
 
 gineerthan to have bearings heat beyond a cer- 
 tain degree. When shafts run hand warm it is 
 no great matter, but it is better to have them 
 quite cold, for then they do not give any anxi- 
 ety lest they should become hot. Heat of any 
 degree about a bearing is certain evidence of 
 friction; what causes it is for an engineer to find 
 out. If all bearings about an engine were ab- 
 solutely parallel to each other, perfectly round, 
 smooth, and true, of ample area and properly 
 lubricated, they certainly w^ould not give any 
 trouble, but it is because some of the qualities 
 above mentioned are lacking that they do give 
 trouble. Want of proper materials in contact 
 is also a cause of heating; dirty lubricating oil, 
 or that which is too light in body for the work 
 to be done, will also work badly for an en- 
 gineer. Badly designed engine frames cause 
 heating of main bearings by springing; settling 
 of foundations, and badly fitted bearings do the 
 same. For example, if on taking up a bearing 
 that heats, the brass is found to bear as shown 
 by the shaded lines in figure lo, the remedy 
 is to scrape away the shaded portions so as to 
 have a fair bearing, but before doing this an 
 engineer should be sure that the fault is in the 
 brass and not in some part of the pillow block, 
 or other detail that holds the brass in its place. 
 Brasses are usually made as light as possible to 
 
55 
 
 save material, and it is a very easy matter to 
 spring them in fitting up. If they are so sprung 
 it is of no use to refit the bearing itself, because 
 that does not cure the trouble. It will continue 
 to bear badly until worn out if the cause which 
 springs it is in existence. Get the spring out 
 first, and then refit the bearing, and there will 
 be no trouble. Chronic heating in brasses is 
 almost always caused by this defect — badly 
 
 71 
 
 fitting brasses. Another cause is, as stated, 
 dirt, pure and simple. This need not be like 
 sand or gravel to give trouble. Sometimes 
 dirt gets in with the oil. All oil should be 
 strained through a cloth, no matter how clear 
 it looks. There is a great deal of dirt in lubri- 
 cating oil of the average quality, as engineers 
 find who strain it. Dirt also gets in through 
 
56 
 
 carelessness. Any work done on a floor over an 
 engine shakes dirt down upon it at some time 
 or other, and all floors over engines should be 
 ceiled absolutely dust proof by laying paper 
 between the planks. Imperfect lubrication is 
 also a source of difficulty with bearings, 
 though, as a rule, there is oftener too much oil 
 used than too little. 
 
 
CHAPTER X. 
 
 Adjustment of Bearings. 
 
 Another, and perhaps a by far too common 
 cause of trouble with bearings, is improper ad- 
 justment of them; that is to say, to the friction 
 of the load proper is added the friction caused 
 by excessive tightening- of the bolts and nuts, 
 or gibs and keys. It is easy to see, we think, 
 that the office of a bearing is simply to hold the 
 detail in its place while it is at work. A gib 
 and key will not only do this, but it will also 
 permit an engineer to take up a bearing as it 
 wears, in other words, make it larger or smaller. 
 Now, this is not a virtue, by any means, but a 
 defect, for it gives an opportunity for careless 
 men to do mischief through want of judgment. 
 Men who do not think, so soon as they hear a 
 pound or a noise about an engine, immediately 
 accuse some bearing and go at it with a ham- 
 mer or a wrench, and tighten it up. Bearings 
 on an engine which is in line and in good or- 
 der seldom require any attention of this kind. 
 It is really surprising how long they will run 
 without being touched in any way. We know 
 of stationary engines doing heavy duty which 
 have not had the crank-pin bearing touched in 
 three years, and from which not a sound 
 
58 
 
 comes. It IS the same with the main bearings; 
 where everything is in good order they do not 
 want any tinkering, and the best evidence an 
 engine can give that it is not in order is noisy 
 action. We know of some stationary engines 
 that run at high speeds (240 revs, per minute 
 constantly), yet no one would know they were 
 running if they turned their back upon them. 
 They are actually and absolutely noiseless. 
 Not one penny has been spent upon them for 
 repairs in over two years, and no tinkering of 
 any kind has been done upon them. Facts 
 like these prove our assertion that perfectly ad- 
 justed bearings and good workmanship com- 
 bined will run satisfactorily for long periods. 
 Unfortunately, not every engine is the best of 
 its kind, and engineers can not always control 
 the conditions. In other words they can not 
 rebuild the engines, and we are willing to ad- 
 mit that there are some engines which it is 
 very hard to *^get the pound out of.'' Let it be 
 borne in mind just what the office of a bearing 
 is, however, and much can be done to lessen 
 the annoyance of pounding. Reference will be 
 made to this further on in this work, as some 
 of it is due to faulty valve setting. 
 The Valve and Gearing. 
 Having now gone from the cylinder head 
 to the main shaft of our engine, and briefly re- 
 
59 
 viewed the principal details, let us go back to 
 the steam chest again and look at the slide 
 valve and the valve seat, as shown in fig i. 
 Let us compare them and see what relation 
 they bear to one another. The office of the 
 valve is to open and close the ports alternately, 
 as we all know, and if it is rightly made, it will 
 do this unfailingly, but it too often happens 
 that it is not rightly made, but is simply a cast- 
 iron box stuck in the steam chest anyhow, as 
 we may say. Sometimes, in small shops (and 
 in large ones for that matter), foremen get 
 notions in their heads that a slide valve was 
 never made until they got one up, and the man 
 who is afflicted with an engine of this kind has 
 a big bill for fuel. At other times engineers 
 them*selves get notions as to exhaust lap and 
 exhaust lead, and cut away or add to slide 
 valves that were in perfect order before they 
 meddled with them. We have no theories of 
 any kind to propound, and no hobbies to ride, 
 and shall illustrate, therefore, only the usual 
 defects and the methods of curing them, leav- 
 ing every one to adopt or reject them as they 
 see fit. 
 
 Figs. II, 12, 13, show the slide valve in 
 various positions: the first one at mid-stroke, 
 where it covers both ports; the second with 
 lead, or just opening the port; and the third 
 
6o 
 
 with the port full open. This valve is shown 
 as having" line and line exhaust, that is to say, 
 without lap on the exhaust side. The result is 
 shown by looking at a, fig. 12, where the steam 
 is passing out, as shown by the arrow; it has a 
 free exit, to the extent of half the steam port 
 
 nearly, when the crank is nearly on the center, 
 but the exhaust began to open before the piston 
 arrived at the end of its stroke. This is just 
 the point where, it is claimed by those who are 
 
I 
 
 I 
 
62 
 
 in favor of inside lap on a slide valve, that an 
 error is made, because it lets the steam escape 
 before it has done all the work that it can. In 
 some measure this is true, because every inch 
 that a piston travels under pressure gives 
 power, but the diagram, fig. 14, shows, to our 
 mind, that the steam, on the last quarter of the 
 piston stroke does very little work indeed. It 
 is at a comparatively low pressure, having 
 been expanded through the cylinder, and the 
 force exerted by it is spent upon a crank whose 
 radius is shown at a, fig. 14, and not in a direct 
 line, or at right angles with the line of motion, 
 but at a very obtuse angle, as shown by the 
 dotted lines, so that the effort to turn the crank 
 is absorbed to a great extent before it reaches 
 the shaft itself. Suppose we do add inside lap, 
 as shown by the dotted lines at 3, figs. 12, 13, 
 to the extent of half the steam lap, then we re- 
 tain the steam in the cylinder until the piston 
 has completed its stroke; we follow it up 
 with spent steam until it begins the re- 
 turn stroke; we get a full exhaust of 
 the spent steam through the steam port, but 
 we lose nearly half the area of the exhaust port 
 in the valve seat, so that, as shown at^, fig. 13, 
 which ever plan we adopt, whether line and 
 line exhaust, or lap on the exhaust side of the 
 valve, we have to sacrifice something, and the 
 
63 
 
 general sentiment of experienced engineers is 
 in favor of a line and line exhaust. The first 
 thing an old engineer does who finds a valve 
 with inside lap on it, is to chip the lap off, and 
 swear some at the man who put it on. 
 
 In saying this, however, we must qualify it 
 to this extent: that there may be cases where 
 line and line exhaust is inadmissible or unde- 
 sirable by reason of the proportions of valve 
 face and steam ports. Our diagram shows the 
 usual proportion of good practice. This is, 
 that the bridge or metal between the two ports 
 (steam and exhaust) is equal to the width of 
 the steam port, and the exhaust is twice the 
 WMdth of the steam port. Not all valve faces 
 and steam ports are so made, and the change 
 involves some changes in valve construction 
 and operation of the engine; but it is manifest 
 that we can not treat upon this exhaustively in 
 this work. The best arrangement for the ex- 
 haust must be determined for each engine by 
 an indicator, which is the only friend an en- 
 gineer has to tell him w^hat is going on where 
 he can not see directly. 
 
 These examples, it is understood, all exhibit 
 the action of a slide valve when working at full 
 stroke, or without cut-off, and from them it is 
 easy to see that the evils of choking the ex- 
 haust and wiredrawing the live steam (that is, 
 
64 
 
 admitting it through a very narrow opening in 
 the valve face), are increased when steam is 
 used expansively, hence the unfitness of a slide 
 valve for an automatic cut-off is readily under- 
 stood. It is especially seen in locomotives, 
 
 where, with a short cut-off, used at high speeds, 
 the exhaust is actually punched out by the pis- 
 ton, for it begins to be compressed at half 
 stroke, as shown by this card, fig. 15, which 
 was taken from a locomotive on a fast run. 
 
 7^' 
 
 %W 
 
CHAPTER XI. 
 
 Setting Eccentrics. 
 
 This detail is one of the simplest duties an 
 engineer has to perform, but it is sometimes 
 made a very mysterious matter. Elaborate 
 preparations are made ; much peering into the 
 steam chest takes place, and the chief perform- 
 er looks very wise. There is no occasion for 
 performances of this character, for the whole 
 operation from first to last should not consume 
 ten minutes, and a man of experience can set 
 an eccentric at the first turn over, generally, 
 after the valve is squared. This last means 
 that the valve shall open both ports alike. 
 Squaring the valve also makes the eccentric rod 
 of the proper length, and until the valve is 
 squared no setting of the eccentric can be done. 
 Take notice that it is the eccentric which is to 
 be set, not the valve. The valve occupies 
 various positions on the valve seat, but the ec- 
 centric has a fixed position on the shaft for 
 each particular valve. In one work on the 
 slide valve the operation of setting an eccen- 
 tric occupies two pages of directions, and end- 
 less a b'Sy c d's, xys, and other letters of refer- 
 ence which are wholly useless. We never 
 found any italics on valve stems, or on eccen- 
 trics ourselves. Moreover, much time is spent 
 
66 
 
 with trams, etc., in getting the exact mathe- 
 matical center, or putting the crank pin exact- 
 ly midway in its orbit, all of which is useless 
 work. An eccentric can be set without any 
 heavy flywheel to turn, or connections to drag 
 hither and yon. Every part of the working 
 gear not actually connected with the eccentric 
 and valve should be taken off, for it only cre- 
 ates friction for nothing. 
 
 The Actual Operation. 
 
 Take out the crank pin (unless it is riveted 
 in) and run a line through the cylinder. 
 
 Put on the eccentric strap and connect it to 
 the valve stem, just as if it was under steam. 
 
 Now turn the crank shaft the way the engine 
 is to run by any means that will turn it. If 
 the flywheel is on use that for a lever. 
 
 Look in the steam chest and see if the valve 
 opens both ports equally. 
 
 If it does not, shorten or lengthen the stem 
 half the difference, until the eccentric moves 
 the valve properly. 
 
 Now put the crank on its center by the line, 
 and move the eccentric around on the shaft 
 until it opens the port slightly, and stands as 
 shown in the diagram, figure i6, at i. 
 
 Turn crank i on the other center, and the 
 valve will show more or less off of the position 
 it had when on the other center. Divide the 
 
67 
 
 difference by leng-thening or shortening the 
 valve stem half the amount of error (for what 
 
 ii 
 
 is taken off one end is put on the other in one 
 revolution), and the work is done. 
 
6S 
 
 There is no occasion to have the connectnigf 
 rod or the piston in ; they have nothing what- 
 ever to do with setting the eccentric. This 
 should be done the first thing after the shaft is 
 in place, not when the details are all in. Once 
 set, the eccentric is always set, unless it is 
 shifted by chance. When it is once in place, 
 it should be marked with a chisel, so that it can 
 be put back if accidentally slipped 
 
 There are a good many who will object to 
 this method of setting an eccentric, because it 
 is out of the usual way; but it is as exact in re- 
 sult as any other way. There is no use in 
 fussing w^ith trams ^o ^et the exact mathemati- 
 cal center of the flywheel, because (unless the 
 valve has no lap) no engine takes steam on the 
 exact center. It always has more or less lead, 
 the amount of which must be finally adjusted 
 by an indicator for the work to be perfect. It 
 will be seen by figure i6 that the eccentric is 
 slightly in advance of the crank; that is to say, 
 that its center line is not the crank's center 
 line. The angle so formed is called the angle 
 of advance, and the advance is m^ade to take 
 up the lap and to give lead, as shown in fig. i6. 
 We must here say that in all cases the valve 
 will be ^'late,'' as it is called, on the back end 
 steam port, and this port will not open so fully 
 as the front end port. As the explanation of 
 
69 
 
 this involves a diagram, which, owing to the 
 limits of the page in the work, would be very in- 
 tricate, and not at all clear to inexperienced 
 persons, we shall not attempt one, but say that 
 the error is due to the fact that a fixed point on 
 - the eccentric rod in one revolution, and a fixed 
 point on the connecting rod in one revolution, 
 forms cycloids of diverse areas and outlines, 
 and a fixed point in one is not and never will 
 be coincident with a fixed point in the other ; 
 the eccentric rod is always behind, varying in 
 degree with the length of the connecting rod. 
 If the latter was of infinite length, there would 
 be no difference in the action of a slide valve 
 on both ends of the cylinder, but the shorter 
 the connecting rod is the greater its angle of 
 divergence with the path of the eccentric rod, 
 and the greater the error in the valve motion. 
 
 Suppose we could drive a nail through the 
 side of a connecting rod, and could hold a 
 board up to it while the engine was running: 
 then the figure described would be a cycloid, or 
 egg-shaped. Now drive a nail through the ec- 
 centric rod, and the figure described by it 
 would be a cycloid also, but different in out- 
 line and area, and the shorter the connecting 
 rod the greater would be the discrepancies. 
 This is, in brief, the cause of the difference in 
 port opening for both ends of the cylinder, but 
 
70 
 
 it affects the action not at all. There are many 
 valve motions which seek to overcome this so- 
 called evil, and such motions are called radial 
 valve gears, for they operate the valve by levers 
 instead of eccentrics ; some of them have ec- 
 centrics also ; one only for both motions, for- 
 ward and back. These are used chiefly on lo- 
 comotives and screw propellers, and the cy- 
 cloid described by the valve stem connection 
 is a very close approximation to that of the 
 connecting rod, so that the port openings are 
 practically equal, and the cut-off is equal for 
 all points of the stroke. This makes a better 
 distribution of steam, and raises the efficiency 
 of the whole machine to some extent ; but the 
 actual values of these gears is very slight when 
 compared to the cost of keeping them up, and 
 their inaccessibility when in motion. The ob- 
 ject of putting lead on a valve is to fill the 
 ports with live steam, for one thing, and to 
 check the motion of the piston gradually so 
 that it will cushion on live steam. The amount 
 of lead varies with the character of the work. 
 Engines which run slow, say 50 to 60 revs, per 
 minute, require very little, but high speed en- 
 gines should have more. Say that our piston 
 5s 12" diameter and the engine makes 60 revs. 
 per minute; then i-32d of an inch is ample lead 
 for the valve. A great deal of steam can get 
 
 /T 
 
 / 
 
71 
 
 through an opening of this dimension, but if 
 the same engine makes 400 revs, per minute, 
 then the valve should have 3-3 2ds lead, and may 
 even require more. Now, the link motion, as 
 most persons know, increases the lead on the 
 valve as the steam is cut off. It is useful to 
 bear this in mind, but we shall not attempt an 
 explanation of the cause. 
 
 This work, as its title indicates, gives ele- 
 mentary instruction upon the operation of en- 
 gines and boilers, and we do not mean to go 
 outside of that and make it a medley of several 
 different branches of an engineer's profession. 
 Moreover, if we attempted this line of instruc- 
 tion, we should only repeat the researches of 
 others. Those who want a treatise upon the 
 link motion and its operation should purchase 
 ^^ Link and Valve Motions,'' by Auchincloss, which 
 is a standard work, explained in the clearest 
 manner, and fully illustrated. 
 
 Setting the eccentrics of a link motion is 
 precisely the same operation as that of any 
 other, with this difference only : that both 
 rods, back and go-ahead, must be adjusted for 
 length before the eccentrics are set, for a 
 change in one affects the action of the other. 
 Suppose, for example, that we undertake to set 
 the go-ahead side before the backing side is 
 corrected for length. We get the go-ahead 
 
73 
 
 wheel on all right, but when we throw the 
 backittig side in gear and set it, then we find, 
 on trying the go-ahead side, that it is out. 
 This is caused by the backing eccentric rod 
 being of the wrong length. Now, if we have 
 squared the valve for both motions, we set the 
 eccentrics as shown in this diagram, fig. 17. 
 This position answers only where the link is 
 directly attached to the valve stem. Where a 
 rock shaft is used the dotted lines show the po- 
 sition of the eccentrics. 
 
 Setting the cut-off valves of an engine is a 
 very short job. Usually these valves are so 
 fitted that they operate from no admission at 
 all — zero, so called — to full stroke. Sometimes, 
 however, they are not connected to the 
 governor, but are set to cut off at some fixed 
 point, say one-half of the stroke. To do this, 
 or to cut off at any point of the stroke, it is 
 only necessary to square the valves in their 
 travel over the main valve, run the crosshead 
 to the point at which it is desired to cut off the 
 steam, set the valves so that they just close the 
 main steam valve port, and then turn the eccen- 
 tric around on the shaft until it will connect 
 with the cut-off valve gear. Or, connect the 
 cut-off valve gear with the eccentric and then 
 turn the same on the shaft until it just closes 
 the ports at the desired point. 
 
CHAPTER XII. 
 Return Crank Motion. 
 
 The return crank motion is the same as an 
 eccentric, and is set in the same way. It has, 
 however, the disadvantage that the lead can 
 not be changed unless there is a slot for the pin 
 a to move in, for, as will be seen in fig. i8, 
 moving the return crank in or out from the 
 center of the main shaft merely increases the 
 travel of the valve, the lead being very slightly 
 affected. 
 
 It must be borne in mind that setting the ec- 
 centrics of an engine is at best a haphazard 
 operation when it is done while the engine is 
 cold. Many changes lake place in the valves 
 and valve motion when the engine has been 
 run a while and after it has been heated 
 up. Cast-iron expands materially by heat, and 
 the valve gearing itself stretches, if we may so 
 term it. That is to say, the strain imposed 
 upon the several joints and connections make 
 the actual relation of the valve and eccentric 
 different from what it appeared to the naked 
 eye when the steam chest was open and the 
 engine was cold. 
 
 This is one reason why it is unnecessary to 
 waste time in finding ''absolute centers'' of en- 
 
75 
 
 gines with a tram. All have to be corrected 
 by the indicator at last, for that is the only in- 
 strument we have for detecting the actual se- 
 quences of the valve and valve gearing gener- 
 ally. We venture to say that a good steam 
 distribution, as shown by the evidence of a 
 card, will bear very little relation to the ab- 
 solute centers, or point of no motion of the 
 crank and piston. 
 
 Fig. 18, 
 
 So far as setting eccentrics is concerned, 
 many of them, in radial valve gears particu- 
 larly, are forged solid on the shaft. They are set 
 in the drawing room, and the relative lengths 
 of the several rods are plotted out on the draw- 
 ing board. It must be borne in mind also that 
 this method of setting an eccentric, as to its 
 relative position with the crank pin, refers only 
 to the valves which slide on their seats, piston 
 valves included; not to puppet valves, or to all 
 forms of radial gears. The great majority, 
 however, stand as shown in the preceding dia- 
 
76 
 
 grams. The influence the valve has on the 
 action of an engine is very great. As we have 
 said in previous lines, the principal object of it 
 is to distribute the steam properly in the cyl- 
 inder at each stroke, and incidentally, to cor- 
 rect or check the motion of the several parts 
 at the end of the stroke. This is done by cush- 
 ioning the piston on a bed of live or dead 
 steam, as the fancy, or the teaching, or the ex- 
 perience, of the engineer directs. If all steam 
 engines were perfectly built this would not be 
 necessary, but there are many defects of con- 
 struction and erection which have to be com- 
 pensated for, and this is generally done by 
 compressing the dead steam, or admitting live 
 steam in the form of lead. The crank itself is 
 one of the most perfect details ever devised by 
 man for gradually absorbing or taking up the 
 momentum of the parts, and many first-class 
 engines are at work turning their centers with 
 neither lead nor compression, and are also 
 noiseless in action, but this can not be done 
 with the average engine, or with very high 
 speed engines, so lead and cushioning, or com- 
 pression, is resorted to. 
 
 Pounding. 
 One of the commonest defects of steam en- 
 gines, and one that is the most annoying to 
 hear, is pounding, so called. That is to say 
 
77 
 ihni in passing the centers a noise is heard, 
 which may proceed from several causes, and 
 is distinctive in character for each one. These 
 can not be described so that an inexperienced 
 person can tell the cause of it from the noise. 
 Detecting or locating natural noises, so to call 
 them, or the sound caused by the natural work- 
 ing of an engine, and separating them from 
 noise caused by defective action, is a part of 
 an engineer's duties which can only be gained 
 by experience; so w^e shall not attempt it, but 
 proceed to point out some which are common. 
 The first we shall mention is when an engine 
 is out of line. 
 
 Take a chalk line and stretch it taut, so that 
 it is absolutely straight, without sag. This rep- 
 resents the center line of an engine. Now, if 
 every detail is exactly in harmony with this, 
 there can not be any sound from an engine. If 
 the main shaft is exactly (mind what exactly 
 means!) at right angles with the center line, 
 and the path of the crank is exactly true also, 
 if the crank pin is absolutely square with the 
 center line of the shaft and revolves mathemat- 
 ically exact with it, then the engine is in line, 
 and the fault is not there. 
 
 The Connections. 
 
 Now^ look at the connections. Suppose the 
 connecting rod is not properly fitted up or 
 
79 
 keyed up, and stands off from the crank pin 
 when cast loose from it, as shown in the dia- 
 gram, then a noise will be heard which is 
 caused by the ^'chugging" of the crosshead 
 against the inside of the guides at each stroke; 
 the crank pin springing the crosshead from side 
 to side at each revolution. This noise is hard 
 to locate when the engine is at work, particu- 
 larly if the guides stand vertically and are 
 V-shaped, as in Corliss engines. If it is sus- 
 pected as a cause of pounding, disconnect the 
 crank pin end of the connecting rod and key 
 up the crosshead end tightly; then the rod will 
 show for itself whether it hangs square or not. 
 If it does not point fair for the exact center of 
 the crank pin, between the collars, ease off on 
 the back of the crosshead brass slightly, so as to 
 throw the rod in the center of the collars. Try 
 the crank on both centers, and if the rod shows 
 off on each side, right and left alternately, then 
 the main shaft is out of line and must be brought 
 true. Where there is a heavy belt dragging on 
 the outboard end of a main shaft it is very apt 
 to haul it around materially, even canting the 
 whole outboard foundation sometimes, if the 
 latter is high and narrow, as it usually is. 
 
 We have stated before that it is seldom that 
 bearings are so slack as to cause a pound. The 
 noise of a slack bearing is a "chuck,'' so to 
 
8o 
 
 Call it, and not a pound proper, and it is of no 
 use to endeavor to silence a noisy engine by 
 screwing or keying up ; that only makes a bad 
 matter worse. Very often pounding- is caused 
 by improperly set valves, and sometimes a lit- 
 tle more lead or less compression will cause it 
 to work better. 
 
 This, it must be borne in mind, is only a 
 rough and ready method of finding whether 
 the crank shaft is true or not. The proper way 
 to do this is to take the engine apart, run cen- 
 ter lines through the cylinder and the guides, and 
 see whether they are in line with each other. A 
 plumb line should be dropped over the exact 
 center of the crank shaft, in the crank pit, so 
 that the vertical line barely touches the cylin- 
 der line. The crank pin should then be tried by 
 this line, so as to ascertain whether it is equal- 
 ly distant from it on top and bottom centers. 
 
 Sometimes it will be seen, where the engine 
 has run a long time, that the shaft needs to be 
 raised at the crank end in order to bring it 
 square. This is shown by the center in the 
 shaft itself, by putting a square on the end of 
 the shaft and allowing the blade to come gent- 
 ly down to the horizontal center line through 
 the cyhnder. These directions are very easily 
 understood by persons who have had experi- 
 ence, but those who have not, need to exercise 
 
8i 
 
 care in using the square, for if the end of the 
 shaft itself is not true the indications of the 
 square are of no vakie. Do not undertake to 
 true any horizontal shaft by a spirit level. 
 Shafts are not the same size all the way ; that 
 is to say, they are not true themselves, not- 
 withstanding that they may have been turned 
 and are apparently true. 
 
 Another and very common source of pounds 
 ing in an engine is changing the valve motion, 
 or re-setting it, and overhauling the engine for 
 repairs. If the valve time is changed so that 
 it takes steam at a different point from where 
 it formerly did, earlier or later, the pressure 
 comes in a different place on the crank pin and 
 shaft, which are worn to the old valve motion. 
 The engine will not work then smoothly until 
 the brasses are refitted. All bearings upon en- 
 gines that have been overhauled are liable to 
 this trouble, and it is an exceedingly difficult 
 one to detect. The best way to avoid it is tore- 
 bore all brasses and re-turn all bearings that 
 can be so treated. The main shaft can not be, 
 but the crank pin may be *' skinned over,'' as 
 it is called, to its great improvement. These 
 things properly belong to refitting an engine 
 in a machine shop, but as it is part of an en- 
 gineer's duties to know them, we have said a 
 few words in that direction. 
 
82 
 
 A few lines back we made a brief reference 
 to lining up an engine in order to avoid pound- 
 ing, but perhaps a diagram and more explicit 
 directions as to putting all parts in line will be 
 acceptable. An engine out of line never will 
 work as it should, and as it is a very simple 
 matter to have it square we shall give plain 
 directions how to make it so. 
 
 The diagram, fig. 20, shows a side elevation 
 of a Corliss engine. In the crank-pit is a 
 square frame made of boards, stiff enough to 
 hold a line firmly without jar or tremor. This 
 frame is not necessary if there are timbers 
 overhead or at the end of the frame to fasten a 
 line to ; the frame is only put in the diagram 
 to show the process. The piston, crosshead 
 and connecting rod are taken off and out of the 
 engine, and a line, a, is stretched through the 
 cylinder. One end of it is fastened to the cross, 
 b^ shown in diagram C This cross is made 
 of wood firmly fastened together and having a 
 hole in the exact center of it about ^ of an 
 inch in diameter, or larger than the line which 
 goes through it, and the line is held by a piece 
 of wire run through a loop in the end of the 
 line, so that by moving the wire one way or 
 the other, the line can be centered in the cylin- 
 der independent of the cross. This cylinder 
 line must be as fine as possible, hard-twisted 
 
84 
 
 and very strong, so that it can be stretched very 
 tight and have no sag whatever. Run this line 
 through the cylinder, draw it up tightly, and 
 then center it absolutely in the cylinder, by 
 cutting sticks half the diameter of the cylinder, 
 moving the crank end of the line until it is ab- 
 solutely centered in the cylinder at both ends 
 of it. Pay no attention to where the crank end 
 of the line is ; let it go where it will with refer- 
 ence to the shaft itself. Now make a tem- 
 plate, B, which just fits the guides accurately, 
 and draw lines through it, as at c and d. Where 
 these lines cross each other is the exact center 
 of the guides, and we want to know if they are 
 centered with the bore of the cylinder. If the 
 guides are worn much, it will be in the center 
 of them, where the greatest stress comes, and 
 this cannot of course be changed except at 
 great expense ; but it often happens that the 
 cylinder shifts, and this can be remedied by a 
 good machinist. We cannot give directions 
 what should be done in such a case, but must 
 leave the matter to be dealt with by every one 
 to suit emergencies. The guides and cylinders 
 of Corliss engines are supposed to be abso- 
 lutely in line when new, and the method here 
 illustrated is the one used to find out whether 
 they are or not. Now suppose that we have 
 our line centered exactly in the cylinder, the 
 
85 
 
 next thing we want to know is whether the 
 shaft is exactly in the center of it. There are 
 two ways to do this, and one of them is 
 troublesome and expensive — the other is not. 
 We show the easiest way. This is to drop the 
 plumb hne, e, at the exact center of the shaft, 
 so that it just clears the cylinder line, using a 
 try square on the end of the shaft with a blade 
 long enough to reach the intersection of the 
 two lines, so as to verify them ; try the square 
 on both sides of the line, front and back, and 
 the centre of the shaft will be accurately lo- 
 cated. If the front end is low, the remedy is 
 to raise it, of course, but before moving the 
 shaft forward or back by the quarter brasses, 
 the crank must be tried on the four quarters of 
 its circle of rev^olution. This will show at 
 once where the shaft stands with reference to 
 the horizontal line, a, and the vertical line, e. 
 Turn the crank over until it comes up to the 
 cylinder lines, as in figs. 21 and 22, If the 
 crank-pin is exactly midway of the collars with 
 the line, it is right on that center. Now try it 
 on the other center, and it will perhaps stand 
 off; if it does, the remedy is very plain. Now 
 spring the cylinder Hne on one side so that the 
 pin will pass it, and try the crank-pin on the 
 vertical line, e (fig. 22)\ if it stands in toward 
 the cylinder line, the center of the shaft is low 
 
86 
 
 and must be raised. Try it on the bottom half 
 center also, and rectify it according to what the 
 line says. This method of lining up an engine 
 will cause the crank to revolve in a truly verti- 
 cal plane, at exact right angles with the bore 
 of the cylinder. It makes no difference what 
 
 CYLINDER LINE 
 
 I n 
 
 Figr. 21 & 22 
 
 kind of an engine it is, the method is the same 
 for all, and any man of ordinary intelligence 
 can put his engine in exact line if he follows 
 these directions. 
 This is not to say, however, that all pound- 
 
87 
 
 ing will cease so soon as he has done so. We 
 have fully adverted, in former chapters, to the 
 causes of this, and need not repeat it. For the 
 rest, time and experience can alone make an 
 experienced engineer. No man can learn from 
 a book exactly what to do with an engine to 
 make i^ perform to the best advantage. 
 
 We have said nothing in this work as to the 
 lubrication of an engine, but this is an impor- 
 tant mi>tter, and should be performed automat- 
 ically. No one should use a squirt-can about 
 an engine except for temporary use. There 
 are various devices in market for feeding oil or 
 grease to engines, and most of them are good. 
 Sight feed lubricators are essential; no one now 
 uses tallov/ or other animal fats. These last 
 destroy casMron most rapidly. We leave this 
 matter to the discretion of those in charge. 
 
 
CHAPTER Xril. 
 Making Joints. 
 Joints about engines are, in the best prac- 
 tice, scraped or ground iron and iron, but in 
 most machines they are made by interposing 
 s'.ieet-rubber, or patented compositions of it, 
 which answer the purpose fully. There are a 
 number of very good materials for this pur^ 
 pose on the market ; some engineers use one, 
 some another ; while for metallic joints under 
 high pressure the corrugated copper disks 
 used are unsurpassed. These last can be used 
 over and over again, and will not blow out or 
 leak under any pressure. Where it is not pos- 
 sible to obtain these goods, a very good joint 
 can be made with the wire-cloth used for mos- 
 quito-net frames. Cut this to the size required, 
 and make a very thick paint with red lead and 
 boiled oil ; daub this over the surface of the 
 cloth and screw it up tight; it will never leak 
 or blow out, but it will be hard work to break 
 the joint if it is suffered to remain for a length 
 of time. If no cloth is handy, a single copper 
 wire, say a scant eighth of an inch in diameter, 
 will make a tight joint. Cut the wire the right 
 length, stick it in a fire and heat it red-hot and 
 plunge it into cold water. This will make it 
 as soft as lead, so that it will flatten under the 
 
89 
 
 bolt pressure and fill all inequalities of surface. 
 For face joints, like steam chest bonnets, hot 
 or cold water pipes, heavy packing- or drawing- 
 paper makes an excellent joint. Soak it in 
 boiled oil and put it right on ; the heat will 
 harden it into a parchment-like substance which 
 is very serviceable. For permanent joints, like 
 those in water-pipes under ground, or where 
 they never have to be broken, a rust joint, so 
 called, is the best. This can be made only 
 where the castings are fitted for it in the de- 
 sign — that is, with a wide channel all around 
 to receive the joint. A rust joint is made of 
 fresh, clean cast-iron chips or borings which 
 have no grease upon them. They are mixed 
 with sal-ammoniac water and driven tightly 
 into the space between the pipes, where the 
 boring-s soon rust into a solid mass. Putty 
 joints, so called, are used chiefly on cold-water 
 pipes, about the feed pump, and may be used 
 on hot-water pipes as well, if suffered to get 
 hard before being put under heat and pressure. 
 The putty is made of dry red lead and white 
 lead mixed with oil, kneaded together to a 
 stiff dough. It must be beaten with a mallet, 
 and the stiffer it is the quicker it sets. It hard- 
 ens into a mass as solid as a brick in time. 
 
 All these materials are only for exceptional 
 use — that is, where the usual rubber or other 
 
90 
 
 gaskets can not be had, for these last are far 
 more convenient than any just mentioned. In 
 all cases where rubber joints are used they 
 must be chalked or rubbed with a good black 
 lead; this prevents them from sticking to the 
 surfaces in contact. Joints should, in all cases, 
 be made as long before their use as possible, 
 so as to give them a chance to set before 
 pressure is put upon them. 
 
 Packing the rods of steam engines is a sim- 
 ple matter, but simple as it is it requires judg- 
 ment and good sense. Like every other duty 
 about a steam engine, it needs to be properly 
 done In order to work satisfactorily. Very 
 many have an idea that the packing in a stuff- 
 ing box must be jammed in as hard as it will 
 go to prevent steam from leaking out, or what 
 is just as bad, air leaking in when condensmg 
 engines are used. The reverse of this is true. 
 There is no occasion to break studs and strip 
 nuts on stuffing boxes to make a piston rod 
 steam tight, but this very thing has been done 
 by inexperienced persons. When a piston rod 
 of any size can not be kept steam tight by 
 moderate pressure on the packing, there is some- 
 thing wrong with the stuffing box itself, and this 
 trouble in old engines, and in some new ones, 
 too, will generally be found in the bottom of 
 the stuffing box where the rod passes through 
 
91 
 
 the head. Too often this opening is made too 
 large; in the case of old engines the piston rod 
 has worn it oval by bearing on it. The remedy- 
 is to make a brass collar, or even of lead, which 
 fits the piston rod nicely, and is one-eighth of 
 one inch smaller than the stuffing box itself, or 
 so that it is a loose fit. Put this in the bottom 
 of the box, and a few turns of packing on top, 
 moderately compressed, will keep the rods 
 tight. As to the packing itself, use metaUic 
 packing where it is possible. There is no com- 
 parison between it and ordinary hemp pack- 
 ing used before there vras any metallic pack- 
 ing. This last is always tight on good rods 
 and runs with very moderate friction. It never 
 needs screwing up or any other attention than 
 to keep it in good working order. When metal- 
 lic packing can not be had, an excellent sub- 
 stitute for it can be found in hemp gaskets 
 braided firmly into a square, and thoroughly 
 saturated with plumbago; that is blacklead. 
 Do not make the mistake of using stove polish 
 on gaskets because there happens to be plum- 
 bago in it. This quality is full of grit from the 
 clay in it, and will badly score any rod to which 
 it is applied. Some engineers use one thing 
 and some another. There are various kinds of 
 packing in market made from woven material, 
 india-rubber, etc., etc., and engineers in large 
 
92 
 
 towns can have a variety to select from. The 
 principal thing is, as has been said, to havethe 
 stuffing box itself in good order; then very- 
 little compression is needed. It would sur- 
 prise many who have never given the matter a 
 thought to see what resistance to motion a rod 
 two inches in diameter only, can offer when 
 packed tightly. 
 
 ^^^^"(^^;' 
 
 f 
 
CHAPTER XIV. 
 Condensing Engines. 
 Thus far we have given attention wholly to 
 engines which exhaust into the air, high pres- 
 sure engines so called, or those which do not 
 condense the exhaust. Condensing engines are 
 sometimes called *'low pressure" yet, but this 
 is a term which is no longer applicable. It was 
 used in the early days of the steam engine, 
 when pressures were low, five and six pounds 
 above the atmosphere. As a knowledge of 
 boiler making increased, and higher pressures 
 were available, the condensing apparatus was 
 discarded as costly and cumbrous, and engines 
 were made to exhaust into the air at higher 
 pressures. To distinguish them from condens- 
 ing engines^ the terms high pressure and low 
 pressure were used, but there is no longer any 
 fitness in the appellation, for condensing en- 
 gines will work at any pressure. The chief 
 feature, then, of a condensing engine is that it 
 exhausts into a vacuum instead of against the 
 pressure of the atmosphere. Every one knows 
 that this last plugs up the exhaust pipe with a 
 pressure of 14.7 pounds upon every square inch 
 of its area. All that the condensing engine 
 does is to remove the plug and give a free exit 
 to the exhaust. This is done by creating a 
 
94 
 
 vacuum in a closed chamber called a con-^ 
 denser. Every one, even those with h'ltle or 
 no experience, knows this, but not all know 
 what a vacuum really is, or why and how such 
 a state of things is possible. We can not say a 
 vacuum exists, for it is not a thing. It is, in 
 fact, nothing; it has no existence. A vacuum 
 is simply absolute space, devoid of any fluid, 
 solid or gas. It can be obtained in two ways: 
 by mechanically pumping the air out of any 
 tight vessel, or by admitting steam to it and 
 throwing cold water in upon the steam. With 
 steam engines this is the usual way to obtain a 
 vacuum, and the philosophy of it is very easily 
 understood by what follows: Suppose we have 
 a cubic inch of water; that is a block of water 
 one inch square every way. Now, if we change 
 this into boiling water (212°), and let the steam 
 from it into a tight chamber one foot every 
 way, t^e steam will fill the chamber and be at 
 atmospheric pressure in it. Now, if we have a 
 pipe to this chamber, and run cold water in so 
 that it strikes the steam in a spray, the steam 
 will be condensed and fail to the bottom in the 
 form of water again, the air and condensed 
 steam falling together. Above this water 
 there is a vacuum more or less perfect; but to 
 make it an absolute vacuum we must remove 
 the water of condensation and whatever air 
 
95 
 
 there is remaining-. To do this a pump is 
 necessary, and it is always present in con- 
 densing engines. It is called an air pump, and 
 in action it removes the air and water of con- 
 densation from the condenser, leaving a more 
 or less perfect vacuum, into which the engine 
 exhausts. This operation goes on continually; 
 the engine is always exhausting into the con- 
 denser, the cold water is always condensing 
 the steam, and the air pump is constantly re- 
 moving the water and mist held in suspension. 
 To some this operation is a very complicated 
 one, and many engineers say they can readily 
 manage a high pressure engine, but do not 
 know anything about a condensing engine.. 
 There is no reason why they should not un- 
 derstand the one as well as the other, for there 
 is nothing in a condensing engine beyond the 
 capacity of every intelligent man. The two 
 evils to be guarded against in a condensing en- 
 gine are air leaks and heat in the condenser. 
 Look out for these, and there will be no trouble 
 in maintaining a vacuum. 
 
 Since we have seen that a vacuum is abso- 
 lute space, it is plain that if air leaks are pres- 
 ent the vacuum will be impaired to just the 
 amount that the air leaks in beyond the capa- 
 city of the air pump to remove it. If the con- 
 denser is not cold the steam will not be con- 
 
§6 
 
 densed quickly, and if the water of condensa- 
 tion and the vapor are not also removed, there 
 will only be a partial vacuum, for the water of 
 condensation is not absolutely cold, but at 120 
 to 140 degrees, and gives off vapor which also 
 injures the vacuum. This is, in as few words 
 as possible, the detail of a condensing engine, 
 and it does not seem a formidable affair. 
 There are two kinds of condensers in general 
 use — the jet or absolute contact condenser, 
 and the surface or indirect acting condenser. 
 The first is simply a cast-iron vessel, usually 
 round, as best adapted to resist the pressure of 
 the atmosphere, for it must be remembered 
 that the pressure on a condenser outside is 
 many tons in the aggregate. (A condenser 
 only 40" diameter and 72" long, under a perfect 
 vacuum, has over 37^ tons total pressure on 
 the outside, tending to crush it.) Into this 
 vessel cold water is run through a perforated 
 nozzle; when the water strikes the steam the 
 latter is condensed and both the injected water 
 and the condensed steam fall to the bottom of 
 the vessel. The surface condenser is exactly 
 the same as a common tubular boiler. The 
 steam enters outside of the pipes (or flues) and 
 the condensing water goes through them. The 
 exhaust steam, therefore, does not strike the 
 water directly, but is merely received upon a cold 
 
97 
 
 surface, and the water of condensation, only, 
 falls to the bottom of the condenser; the con- 
 densing water passes away constantly through 
 the pipes, or flues, and does not mingle with 
 the condensing steam. This method gives ab- 
 solutely pure water for the boiler feed, except- 
 ing only the foreign matters which may enter 
 with the steam. Surface condensers are used 
 chiefly upon ocean steamers, where they are 
 indispensable, as they furnish fresh water for 
 the boilers. In long voyages they are a neces- 
 sity, and the greatest care is taken to avoid 
 steam leaks, for this means a reduced supply 
 to the boilers, Surface condensers also supply 
 an immediate vacuum at the first exhaust of 
 the engine. A circulating pump keeps cold 
 water going through the tubes constantly, so 
 that as soon as the exhaust steam strikes it it is 
 condensed, and the main engines ''take hold," 
 as it is called. This is not always the cage 
 WMth a jet condenser, in which the vacuum is 
 not very good for two or three revolutions. A 
 vacuum is a vacuum, however obtained, and so 
 long as one is produced that is the main thing. 
 A loss of it is a loss of power, for the resistance 
 of the atmosphere being removed from the ex- 
 haust side, the weight of it is added to the pres- 
 sure on the piston. Thus, if the steam gauge 
 shows seventy-five pounds, the actual or abso- 
 
98 
 
 late pressure is 75x15, or 90 pounds. From 
 this aspect we can readily see why engineers 
 are sensitive about the condition of the vac- 
 uum, w^hether it is full or only partial. 
 
 The first mechanically made vacuum of 
 which we have any authentic record is that of 
 Torricelli, an Italian experimenter, and of Otto 
 Guericke, a German experimenter. Which of 
 these was the pioneer vacuum maker history 
 saith not. Otto Guericke, of Magdeburg 
 Germany, invented the common air pump, used 
 in philosophical experiments, in 1654. He first 
 tried, by filling a barrel full of water and pump- 
 ing out the contents from the bottom, to obtain 
 a vacuum above the water, but the barrel was 
 not air tight and the experiment failed. He 
 then made an ordinary metallic pump and ob- 
 tained a vacuum. To show that air was a fac- 
 tor in the work of the world, and that w^e are 
 surrounded by an atmosphere under pressure, 
 he made a pair of brass hemispheres, which 
 had a ground joint in the center and a cock in 
 the stand at the bottom of them. He connect- 
 ed his air pump to these, and exhausted the 
 air from the globe, and then hitched fifteen 
 horses to an eyebolt in the upper hemisphere, 
 but they were unable to pull the upper half off 
 of the lower. This demonstrated conclusively 
 that the atmosphere had pressure, for upon 
 
99 
 
 openings the cock and letting air into the hem- 
 ispheres again, the balance was restored and 
 the hemispheres fell apart. The first actual 
 measure of the weight of the atmosphere is due 
 to Torricelli, also about the middle of the seven- 
 teenth century. 
 
 
CHAPTER XV. 
 ToRRicELLi's Vacuum. 
 This was by reason of a suggestion from the 
 Duke of Tuscany, who, having dug a very deep 
 v^ell, proceeded to pump it out. He found, 
 however, that he could not raise water over 32 
 feet, and he must have had a pretty good pump 
 to do that. Not succeeding in getting water 
 the Duke consulted Galileo, the famous philos- 
 opher who discovered the motion of the earth. 
 This water problem was too much for him, and 
 he gave it up. Shortly before Galileo died he 
 gave the puzzle to Torricelli, who began to 
 work with mercury as a basis of comparison of 
 the relative weights of the pressure of the at- 
 mosphere. Now mercury is fourteen times 
 the weight of water, and Torricelli argued that 
 if the atmosphere would support a column of 
 water 32 feet high (as it was proven it would 
 in the case of the pump before referred to), it 
 would also support a column of mercury one- 
 fourteenth the height of the water, or 28 inches. 
 To test this he took a glass tube, sealed at one 
 end, and filled it full of mercury, displacing all 
 the air therein. He then closed the open end 
 with his finger and inverted the tube in a basin 
 of mercury, when the mercury in the tube fell 
 and settled, as he supposed it would, at 28 
 
lOI 
 
 inches, leaving a vacuum in the upper part. 
 Torricelli did not live long enough to do much 
 with his discovery, but another philosopher, a 
 Frenchman, Pascal by name, took it up and 
 carried the experiments further. It occurred to 
 him that if at the surface of the earth the at- 
 mosphere supported a column of water 32 
 feet high, at great elevations from the surface 
 it would not support so much, because the at- 
 mosphere is rarer, or less dense ; so he took 
 the mercury column up on a high mountain. 
 
 Proof of Atmospheric Pressure. 
 
 At the top it registered only 25 inches, while 
 at the bottom it was 2S inches. At other levels 
 between the bottom of the mountain and its 
 top he found varying registers on the mercury 
 column, so it is established by inductive rea- 
 soning, supported by experiments, that at the 
 surface of the earth water will rise in a perfect 
 vacuum 32 feet, supported of course by the 
 pressure of the atmosphere, for the vacuum it- 
 self has no powei whatever; it is as stated pre- 
 viously, merely a space which offers no resist- 
 ance, therefore, water or air rushes in to fill it. 
 
 No Power in a Vacuum. 
 
 It is important for engineers to know these 
 facts because there are still a great many who 
 are not aware of them, and suppose that a vac- 
 
102 
 
 uum has some power in itself or that it has an 
 existence as a force because it is measured on 
 a gauge. This last is an error. Vacuum is not 
 measured on a gauge., but atmospheric press- 
 ure is. We can not measure a nonentity and 
 we must insist that engineers bear in mind that 
 a vacuum is just that ; it is nothing but space. 
 Space has neither weight, dimension, nor 
 boundary; it is infinity. 
 
 Suppose the vacuum gauge shows 26 inches, 
 w^hat does that mean ? It does not mean that 
 there is a space of 26 inches in the condenser 
 which has no air in it, or that there are 26 
 inches of space in the cylinder w^hich is a vacu- 
 um; it means that there is nearly an absence of 
 air in the condenser, since the pressure of the 
 atmosphere has forced the gauge index around 
 to the 26 inch mark. Now, 26 inches repre- 
 sent 13 pounds air pressure, so we might just 
 as w^ell (perhaps better) mark vacuum gauges 
 by pounds as by inches. The first vacuum 
 gauges, however, were mercurial tubes on the 
 Torricellian principle, and were marked in in- 
 ches, so this system is still kept up. Suppose the 
 vacuum gauge shows only 20 inches; then 
 there is a partial vacuum only, for 20 inches are 
 equal to 10 pounds only, and with the vacuum 
 gauge at 20 inches there are foar pounds press- 
 ure in the condenser, a dead loss to us, for we 
 
103 
 
 are working against so much back pressure 
 when there should not be any. 
 
 Now, the best vacuum we can get with 
 modern appliances and at the speed we run 
 engines in these days is 26 to 27 inches, rarely 
 the latter. This loss of one pound is due to the 
 want of time to remove the last vestige of air 
 and vapor, to the mechanical imperfections of 
 our appliances, and to the fog or mist of con- 
 densation, which to a greater or less extent 
 pervades all condensers, whether surface or 
 jet. It is creditable that we are able to do so 
 much as this, but the greatest enemy engineers 
 have to contend with in maintaining a vacuum 
 is air leaks, pure and simple. The joints about 
 a condensing engine are almost innumerable, 
 and each pinhole, even, contributes its quota 
 of mischief. Leaks occur through bolt holes, 
 through gaskets, through castings themselves. 
 The chaplets used in foundries to support cores 
 are very liable to be leaky. Look out for them, 
 and daub them over thickly with red lead paint. 
 Paint every part of the injection pipes thickly; 
 keep all stuffing boxes of injection valves well 
 packed and use every means you can think of 
 to guard against loss of atmospheric pressure 
 by leakage of air into the condenser. Go round 
 to every joint you can reach with a lamp and 
 hold the flame against it. If there are air leaks you 
 
104 
 
 can sometimes hear them, but when too small 
 to be heard they can be seen, for the flame 
 will be forced in toward the leak. Keep the 
 foot valves in perfect order, and the air-pump 
 bucket as well, both must be as near air tight 
 as possible. Remember the adage : '^Nature 
 abhors a vacuum' and will fill it in an incredibly- 
 short time if she is not prevented. 
 
 If, when the engine is working well other- 
 wise, the vacuum begins to fall, so to call it, 
 give more injection water. Sometimes steam 
 from the boiler is hotter than at others, the 
 water in the boiler falls and the steam is super- 
 heated ; that calls for more injection. If the 
 vacuum is still poor try the condenser by hand 
 and if it is warm and getting warmer, and no 
 amount of injection water w?U keep cool, see 
 if the foot-valves seat properly. If they are 
 cocked ever so little the water of condensation 
 can not get out, and by lying in the bottom of 
 the condenser kills the vacuum with its vapor. 
 The injection pipes may also be stopped. In 
 fresh water, eels often get drawn into the pipes 
 and stop them, when the water is drawn from 
 ponds ; in rivers and streams, weeds, and also 
 fish, get drawn across the strainer and prevent 
 the water from entering. Every injection pipe, 
 whether on sea or on shore, should have a 
 steam pipe let into it for use in emergencies, 
 
I05 
 with a nozzle pointing toward the source of 
 supply. It may save a long stop for cleaning 
 the water pipe. 
 
 A good vacuum is worth 13 pounds of steam 
 in the boiler, and the feed water is heated to 
 ] 20 degrees without charge for the same. All 
 it costs is the extra machinery needed to obtain 
 it, an air pump, injection valve, and pipes and 
 details. This once paid for is a small expense 
 to maintain, so that for a term of years the 
 outlay for a condensing engine is soon made 
 up in the decreased cost per horse power per 
 hour. That condensing engines are not more 
 frequently employed is due to the belief on the 
 part of the steam users that they are complicat- 
 ed, costly to maintain and hard to manage. 
 The exact reverse of this statement is the cor- 
 rect onCn 
 
 Pumps. 
 
 The popular idea is that a pump has some- 
 thing to do with raising water or oil, or mo- 
 lasses, or any other fluid it may happen to De 
 at work upon, but this is a gross error, first 
 pointed out in the pages of The Engineer. 
 By reason of this view, persons who run pumps 
 are very often troubled about the water which 
 comes to the pump, and, in case of failure of 
 the pump to act, they examine into the con- 
 dition or connections to the water, as if these 
 
io6 
 
 had something to do with the difficulty. The 
 only thing which can prevent a pump from 
 working is air, and air leaks on the suction 
 side and force side, so-called. Actually there 
 is no suction side, neither is there any sucji 
 force exerted as suction. It is a term invented 
 and applied long before we knew what atmos- 
 pheric pressure was, or recognized its great in- 
 fluence in the work of a steam engine. The 
 sole office and function of a lifting pump — so- 
 called — IS to remove the air from the pipe 
 which conveys the water to the pump. When 
 this is done water flows to the pump by the 
 pressure of the atmosphere outside upon it, 
 forcing it up to the pump chambers. If the air 
 is completely exhausted the water enters freely 
 and the pump is said to work well. If it is 
 only partly exhausted the water flows slug- 
 gishly, and the pump works badly. If we need 
 proof that a pump has no direct effect on the 
 water itself, we can attach one to a pipe 36 feet 
 long. The water will then rise in the pipe for 
 32 feet, but after this occurs we may work the 
 pump for all time and not get a particle of water 
 through it. The reason of this is that the at- 
 mosphere will not support a column of water 
 over 32 feet in height, and therefore the pump 
 has no effect upon it. 
 
CHAPTER XVI. 
 Supporting a Water Column by the Atmosphere. 
 Now there are many who do not understand 
 clearly what is meant by the atmosphere sup- 
 porting a column of water. They see a pipe 
 
 Fig. 23 
 full of water — a stand-pipe, for instance — which 
 is merely a long tank upon end; or they see a 
 tank at a railway station, and understand that 
 these are not supported by the atmosphere, but 
 ^re merely reservoirs which have been filled 
 
io8 
 
 up. Where, then, is the difference? The dia- 
 gram appended will make this plain. This is 
 aU pipe, 34 feet long from its base at^ to its 
 top B. Now, suppose we fill this pipe up to 
 the mark C, or any other mark eqaal to half 
 the capacity of the pipe, and attach a pump at 
 B, keeping it air-tight. When we exhaust the 
 air from the arm D the pressure of the atmos- 
 phere in the arm jFwill drive the water up in 
 D say 33 feet, if there is a perfect vacuum, and 
 the water will stand there just so long as the 
 vacuum is maintained, no longer, unless there 
 is a valve at the bottom to prevent its return. 
 
 If the pump is stopped the water will fall 
 to its level again, because air gets in through 
 the pump and restores the balance. If there 
 was no vacuum the water would stand at the 
 same height in both arms, because there is 
 just as much atmospheric pressure on one 
 side of it as on the other side, and water be- 
 ing heavier than air, finds its level. This is 
 all the mystery there is in the operation of 
 a pump of any kind whatever, and aside 
 from the mechanism which drives it if a well 
 pump will not perform as it should, the reason 
 can be generally found on the suction side so- 
 called ; the plunger or bucket does not remove 
 the air so that the water can get in. It is easy 
 to see, then, that a pump demands the very 
 
109 
 
 best workmanship in all its interior working 
 parts. The barrel should be smooth and true 
 if i, bucket works in it, and the packing of the 
 same should be tight. If it is a plunger-pump, 
 where the plunger is clear of the barrel, the 
 stuffing box should be long, well packed, and 
 the plunger itself should be true and work true 
 in its path. Suspect every joint on the suction 
 side of leaking, and if there are screw bolts 
 which go through castings on the suction side 
 suspect them also ; a good deal of air can get 
 in through a very small opening. If there are 
 many of these the net result detracts from the 
 work of the pump. Friction of water is an- 
 other element against a pump. This in the ag- 
 gregate is very great in long pipes and in tor- 
 tuous passages. Elbows and rough castings 
 can take off much from the efficiency of a pump 
 where the water has to be forced to it for long 
 distances by the atmosphere, and this must be 
 considered in the erection of any plant. There 
 are only 14.7 pounds pressure on ihe water 
 outside to get it where we want it, and this 
 only when we have a perfect vacuum in the 
 pipes ; with an imperfect one we have much 
 less pressure. All this relates to what is known 
 as the suction side of a pump, but, on the forc- 
 ing side it is just as bad if the pipes run in- 
 directly. All feed pipes should go as straight 
 
no 
 
 as they can be run to the boiler, but sometimes 
 it is not possible to do this, and loops and ver- 
 tical bends are made in them. Air collects in 
 the tops of these bends and stops the water 
 quite as effectually as a block of wood could. 
 It lies on top of the water as wood floats on it, 
 because it is very much lighter, and is com- 
 pressed so much by the action of the plunger 
 that it resists the main flow of the current, and 
 the water surges back and forth in the cham- 
 bers. This is fully shown in an air chamber, 
 which is a well known adjunct to pumps, both 
 single and double-acting. If metal valves are 
 used for the lift or force sides, they should be 
 carefully examined, from time to time, to see 
 that they are tight on their seats, and lift 
 squarely, and seat fairly. An unsuspected 
 source of trouble is often found in the seats of 
 valves. These last are brass bushes driven into 
 cast-iron chambers. Sometimes these cham- 
 bers are bored out for the valve seats, and very 
 often they are not, but taken as they come from 
 the foundry. In work of this character it is not 
 uncommon to find leaks. The seats also work 
 loose in the castings, and leak from that cause. 
 Another difficulty with pumps is found in the 
 lift or rise given the valves. Quick working 
 pumps require very little lift to the valves on 
 either side, but the most should be given on 
 
Ill 
 
 the force side. Divide the diameter of the 
 valve by four; this will give a lift equal to the 
 area of the opening in the valve seat, which is 
 all that can be delivered to the pump barrel. 
 A two inch valve, then, should lift only half 
 an inch, and even this will be found too much 
 in some cases. Plunger pumps that run at high 
 speed, or over lOO feet per minute, are very apt 
 to pound violently and make a great deal of 
 noise. This can be overcome wholly by sim- 
 ply coning the end of the plunger to an angle 
 of 30 or 40 degrees. Pat the plunger in a lathe 
 and bevel the end off, and there will be no more 
 pounding. The reason for this is not easy to 
 find. Pumps are still used in many places for 
 feeding boilers, but in a majority of cases in- 
 jectors are used. These last are simply man- 
 aged, and the fullest directions are sent with 
 them by the manufacturer. If they are follow- 
 ed implicitly there will be no trouble, but if 
 persons undertake experiments on their own 
 account ihey must not blame the apparatus. 
 
 These are succinctly the principles govern- 
 ing the action of condensing engines and the 
 pumps by which they are worked. All pumps 
 act upon the same principles as those previ- 
 ously alluded to. Whether the detail which ex- 
 hausts the air from the water supply pipes is a 
 scroll, a screw, or a fan attached to a shaft and 
 
112 
 
 rotated by it, as in a centrifugal pump, whether 
 it is a simple bucket or a plunger, the fact is the 
 same: the air must first be removed before any 
 water can get to the pump, and the special de- 
 tail, the fan aforesaid, or the bucket or plunger 
 which forces the water out of the pump cham- 
 ber has no direct influence upon drawing the 
 water itself. Jt may be that we have reiterated 
 this too often, but we think not, in view of the 
 fact that we were told quite recently by a per- 
 son in charge of a pump that the suction 
 valves were so heavy that the plunger could not 
 Hft them. It is very hard to get rid of notions 
 and ideas; the more erroneous they are the 
 more difficult it is to abandon them. This is 
 our apology, if any is needed, for insisting 
 upon the facts laid down as regards the 
 action of pumps. Also, let us say here, that in 
 previous chapters we have stated that water 
 v/ould rise only 32 feet in a pipe in a perfect 
 vacuum. We should have said in a working 
 vacuum, which is far from being a perfect one. 
 The mean pressure of the atmosphere within 
 its known limits is 14. 7 pounds per square inch, 
 which corresponds to a column of mercury 
 (supports it) 29.9 inches high, or will support a 
 water column 33.9 feet high at the sea level. 
 These are the exact figures, but we have all 
 along in this work preferred to deal with every 
 
113 
 
 day results and figures, rather than submit mere 
 cut and dried recitals of tabulated details. 
 
 Dismissing the steam engine and its belong- 
 ings, with the bare review of its functions and 
 management which has been possible in the 
 assigned limits of this work, and assuming that 
 we have a new plant to start for the first time, 
 let us mention some details that are of great im- 
 portance. 
 
CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 Starting a New Plant. 
 
 New engines and boilers should be started 
 with great care; this statement applies particu- 
 larly to the boiler. If the latter is large, the 
 fire under it should be started at least three 
 days before the boiler is actually needed for 
 work, and the fire should be very small indeed 
 at first. For the first day no attempt should be 
 made to raise steam, and the fire should not be 
 urged in the least. The water should be al- 
 lowed to get ''hand- warm'* only, and be kept 
 at this temperature for twenty-four hours. The 
 reasons for this must be apparent with very 
 little thought. Everything is cold on the start, 
 and all the dimensions will be greatly changed 
 by heat, and unless great care is taken at the 
 outset much injury can be done to the brick 
 work setting and the boiler itself. 
 
 For the second day the temperature may be 
 increased to nearly the boiling point, but the 
 fire should not be driven. The furnace doors 
 must be kept shut all the time, and the ash-pit 
 doors also, the amount of draught and of fuel 
 being governed so as to keep the boiler from 
 making steam. On the third day the boiler 
 may be allowed to make steam, but the pres- 
 sure must be brought up gradually, and the fire 
 
115 
 
 upon no account forced. The furnace doors 
 must be always kept closed as before. As the 
 pressure rises above the atmosphere, open all 
 the steam connections and allow the steam to 
 warm the pipes thoroughly before putting 
 greater pressure upon them. Do not close any 
 valve with a rush when the pressure rises to the 
 working point. 
 
 The boiler should be full of water on the 
 start, three full gauges, so that while the pres- 
 sure is still low the boiler can be blown down 
 — through the blow-cock — to get rid of all the 
 rubbish that has accumulated in inaccessible 
 corners. Open the blow-cock steadily, not 
 w^ith a twitch of the handle, and bl ^\v down to 
 two gauges. This should not be done until a 
 few minutes before starting the engine; the teed 
 will not be needed for a few minutes then, and 
 in that time all the feed-pipe connections wull 
 warm up and expand equally. 
 
 Try all movable joints, handles, cocks, safety 
 valves, everything in short, to see if they work 
 properly, and examine every valve and stuffing 
 box personally to see if they have been packed 
 properly. Look carefully to all the joints un- 
 der pressure, and do all this before a working 
 pressure is raised; keep up this inspection from 
 time to time as the pressure increases. On 
 starting the engine, open all the cylinder cocks 
 
ii6 
 
 to blow out the condensed water which has 
 accumulated in the pipes and cylinder. This 
 is imperative, not only to get rid of the con- 
 densed water, but to blow out the sand, chips 
 and minute filings, that can be removed in no 
 other way. These have accumulated in the 
 engine while it was being built and erected, 
 and in no other way can they be so effectually 
 removed. Move the hve steam valves, so that 
 steam is blown through both ends of the cylin- 
 der for the purpose mentioned. 
 
 Before turning the engine over the center for 
 the first time make absolutely sure that every- 
 thing is clear ; give the engine steam easily, 
 and run the crank over on the three-quarter 
 position; then give steam the other way, if 
 there is hand gear which admits of it, and drive 
 the crank back again. Do this carefully, and 
 before the engine is finally allowed to pass the 
 center shut the throttle entirely, so that if any- 
 thing is wrong or anything carries away, the 
 mischief will be confined to one stroke. The 
 flywheel will carry the engine over the center. 
 
 An engine should be started the first time 
 under very moderate pressure ; five pounds 
 should be enough if the engine is properly 
 made. No power is needed, and the only 
 points to be established are, whether every- 
 thing is in apparent good working order. 
 
117 
 
 If possible, do not lace any main belts 
 until after the engine has been tested. There 
 is no knowing- what may have to be done, 
 for mistakes are possible to all until the en- 
 gine has been tried. If indicator attachments 
 are on, take friction diagrams at this time 
 with the unloaded engine, and see what it 
 requires to move itself. Do the same when 
 the main belts and shafting are on. without 
 the machines, and valuable data will be had 
 for future reference. As to the engine con- 
 nections, the main bearings, crank-pin, and 
 cross-head end, should be left perfectly easy. 
 If they thump slightly, it does not matter when 
 the engine is running slowly. Thumping 
 from loose connections is very different in 
 sound from pounding for want of proper ad- 
 justment, and the careful and experienced 
 engineer will detect the difference at once. 
 
 In all that has been said, we hive endeavor- 
 ed to inculcate the idea that, above all other 
 things, the most watchful care and supervision 
 is needed on first starling a new engine and 
 boiler. On such occasions a tremendous 
 change is introduced. Cold metal is made hot, 
 and, in this transition alone, inconceivable 
 force is generated. It is none the less power- 
 ful because it is invisible, and makes itself 
 known only by rupture. Boilers are made 
 
ii8 
 
 leaky by careless handlin^^ on the start which 
 were perfectly tight and well made, and strains 
 are set up within them by forcing^ them, which 
 materially affects their life. The same is true 
 of the brick-work, if the boiler is so set, and it 
 is for this latter, primarily, that we advised 
 three days moderate heating of the boiler upon 
 starting it. It takes, or should take, a long 
 time to heat a brick wall alike — so that it all 
 goes together, and three days is none too long. 
 If these directions are followed, properly 
 built engines and boilers will perform well 
 from the start. There will be no running back 
 and forth to the shop, or calking leaks, re- 
 making joints, or any sort of fuss. There will 
 be that harmonious straight-away condition of 
 affairs which mark the difference betv/een a 
 man who knows his business and one who does 
 not. 
 
 From what has been said in preceding pages 
 it is apparent that to be a successful engineer 
 requires care and skill of the highest quality. 
 The attention necessary to keep a steam plant 
 up to its best condition all the while must be 
 unremitting, otherwise great loss results. It 
 does not follow from this that an engineer 
 should be hopping around from engine room 
 to fire room, or running here and there with a 
 squirt can, or in a fuss generally ; what we 
 
119 
 
 mean to inculcate is that an engineer should 
 keep the run of his plant in his head at all 
 times, and not suppose things are all right 
 because no accident has happened. Accidents 
 never happen to careful men ; they only happen 
 to persons who suppose instead of knowing, 
 as far as human foresight can go. Mysterious 
 boiler explosions, mysterious flywheel burst- 
 ing, mysterious anythings about steam engines, 
 could, if all the facts were known and the 
 naked truth were told, be traced to a condition 
 of things previously known to some one which 
 was willfully neglected, *'Let well enough 
 alone," is a good maxim in an engine room, 
 but this does not mean that bearings are never 
 to be examined, boilers never cleaned, or never 
 examined for defective braces, and the whole 
 routine of an engineer's duties neglected. For 
 ten hours daily, at the least, an engineer must 
 keep watch of his engine and boiler, for things 
 go wrong when they are least expected to. In 
 a factory where hundreds of people are em- 
 ployed, a very small matter to an engineer may 
 precipitate a panic which will cost many lives, 
 and it is for him to see that it does not occur 
 through his carelessness. We were in an en- 
 gine room — fire room, rather — once when a 
 rivet blew out above the water line, and made 
 a great fuss. A youth who was in the place 
 
I20 
 
 started for the door, shouting that the boiler 
 had burst, but he did not get far enough to 
 frighten others before he was caught by the 
 collar and a little advice given him that was of 
 service. When a rivet blows out it is a simple 
 matter to whittle a pine plug and jam it in the 
 hole, either above or below the water line, and 
 it is not a bad idea to have plugs handy for this 
 purpose. It is not uncommon for rivets to 
 blow out. 
 
 Another point that an engineer should bear 
 in mind is that the engine is upon no account 
 to be stopped in working hours, unless it goes 
 to pieces, direct orders are given, or danger to 
 life and limb is imminent. No engineer should 
 stop a factory engine where goods are turned 
 out by the piece, or by the yard, or any other 
 quantity, for a hot bearing, or because some 
 detail of the engine will be ruined if kept run- 
 ning:. The cost of most details of an engine is 
 slight, but if the detail costs a hundred dollars 
 it is better to lose it than a thousand dollars' 
 worth of work, or two hundred dollars' worth 
 of time. This is particularly the case in places 
 where power is sold to tenants. Every revolution 
 of the engine means some fractional part of a 
 dollar to them, and the stopping of an engine 
 for some trifling, or possibly serious, expense 
 to the landlord, might mean ruin to a tenant, 
 
121 
 
 who would, perhaps, depend upon that very 
 half hour to complete a contract in a given 
 time. Upon trifles, as we call them, very great 
 events depend sometimes. 
 
 We repeat again, never stop an engine in 
 working hours except for the direst necessity. 
 Also, never start an engine after it has been 
 stopped without a direct written message, or 
 direct personal notice, from the man in charge. 
 Suppose nothing. It is a serious business to 
 neglect either of the precautions above men- 
 tioned. 
 
 
CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 Water-Tube Boilers. 
 Now that water-tube boilers are supplanting 
 fire-tube boilers, both for stationary and marine 
 work, it is important that an engineer should 
 know some of their chief features, and the rea- 
 sons why they are driving out fire-tube boilers. 
 These are, broadly, their immunity from dis- 
 astrous explosions (there being no shell and 
 but a limited quantity of water in them), their 
 economy of maintenance, both in running and 
 in upkeep, their accessibility for cleaning and 
 their high efficiency as evaporators. 
 
 Boiler Explosions. 
 
 It is not asserted that no water-tube boiler 
 has ever been ruptured as to its tubes, but it is 
 asserted that no explosions like those of shell 
 boilers — that is, fire-tube boilers — can be 
 traced to w^ater-tube boilers. The reason is, 
 for one thing, that there is no shell of large 
 diameter on water-tube boilers, and, for 
 another, that the rupture of a tube acts like a 
 safety valve — in a certain sense, and releases 
 but a small quantity of water compared to the 
 total water content of the boiler and compared 
 to the water content of fire-tube boilers. 
 
123 
 
 The idea that when a steam boiler is full of 
 water it is in no danger of explosion is an ab- 
 surd one and no longer entertained by intelli- 
 gent engineers. The more water there is in a 
 boiler which is in a condition to explode the 
 greater the danger, for it is the large body of 
 heated w^ater giving up its stored energy of 
 hundreds of tons which causes the terrible de- 
 struction when a fire-tube boiler explodes. 
 The moment of explosion of a boiler's shell is 
 small and its duration short when above the 
 w^ater line, but if the rupture occurs below the 
 water line then the total energy of the heated 
 water is directed to the injured part and de- 
 struction of the whole plant follows. 
 
 It is very similar to the ignition of a given 
 quantity of gunpow^der unconfined and a simi- 
 lar quantity enclosed in a tube. The so-called 
 '* mysterious " boiler explosion, w^hich is often 
 reported in the daily papers, is not mysterious 
 to some one who was about it or in charge of 
 it at the time and who knew of its condition, 
 but refused to repair it. 
 
 Economy of Maintenance. 
 
 The water-tube boiler, as compared with the 
 fire-tube boiler, is far more economical in its 
 
124 
 
 freedom from costly repairs. The chief parts 
 which require renewal in a water-tube boiler 
 are the tubes nearest the fire, but with proper 
 management they will last about ten years. 
 When they do require to be renewed the ex- 
 pense is very small indeed per horse powder of 
 the engine driven, and the time required, w^hich 
 is also part of the cost, is scarcely worth men- 
 tioning. Water-tube boilers are in action to- 
 day which have not cost one cent for repairs of 
 any kind whatsoever after many years' use. 
 The New York Steam Company has 14,000 
 horse power Babcock & Wilcox Company 
 Water-Tube Boilers running night and day for 
 several years, the cost of repairs has been three- 
 quarters of one cent annually per horse power. 
 Other boilers of the same type have been in 
 constant use day and night without costing one 
 cent for repairs, so it is easy to see that, as 
 compared with fire-tube boilers, the water-tube 
 is the cheapest to run. 
 
 Evaporative Efficiency. 
 
 Steam boilers in these days are rated by their 
 ability to turn water into steam, and the term 
 horse power cannot be properly applied to 
 them. 
 
 Regarding the '' power " of steam boilers, 
 
1^5 
 the word is misapplied, but it is still used by 
 reason of custom, and because there is no other 
 popular term to express a boiler of a given size. 
 It is obvious that a steam boiler is merely a 
 magazine of stored force which may be, and is, 
 of varying power in accordance with the way 
 in which it is used. A reservoir of water 
 could not be said to be of 5,000 or any thou- 
 sand horse power if its contents were directed 
 on to a turbine wheel, unless it was also stated 
 how long and with what volume and fall the 
 water was used. Similarly, a steam boiler is 
 of varying power for a given rating in grate 
 and heating surface, according as its stored 
 force is used. The rating of steam boilers 
 is now expressed in terms of their ability to 
 evaporate certain quantities of water into dry 
 steam in a given time, and this is the only fair 
 test that can be given. The purchaser then 
 knows exactly what he is getting, and can use 
 the steam in one hour or in ten hours. No 
 questions enter into argument as to the amount 
 of heating and grate surface ; these things rest 
 with the designer of the boiler, and it stands 
 or falls by its performance. These last values, 
 heating and grate surface, have greater or less 
 significance, according to the disposition of 
 them and their relation to each other. A square 
 
126 
 
 foot of heating surface in a boiler is of nuicli 
 greater efficiency in one place than in another. 
 To merely state, then, that a boiler has ten 
 square feet of heating surface to a horse power 
 means nothing at all as regards its evaporative 
 effect, and its performance cannot be accurately 
 relied upon. 
 
 This will be clearer to non-technical readers 
 when it is stated that a simple engine, having a 
 single cylinder, should produce a horse powder 
 upon 30 pounds of water evaporated into steam 
 at 70 pounds gauge pressure ; a compound en- 
 gine, having two cylinders and working at 
 from 6 to 10 expansions, will produce a horse 
 power for an expenditure of 20 pounds of 
 water ; and a triple cylinder engine, working at 
 16 to 30 expansions, should give one horse 
 power for every 15 pounds of water evaporated 
 into steam per hour, in all of the above cita- 
 tions. Now, the same boiler wall supply all of 
 these engines (in rotation) if the proper pres- 
 sures for the work are carried, but the power 
 developed is vastly greater with the high ex- 
 pansion engines than with the simple engine. 
 Very much higher values could be given for 
 high expansion engines, but the writer has 
 taken the average. It seems plain, therefore, 
 that the power of a boiler begins and ends with 
 
127 
 
 its ability to evaporate certain quantities of 
 water in a given time. 
 
 Furthermore, the evaporative power of boil- 
 ers depends largely upon the amount of coal 
 burned upon the grate in a given time, so the 
 power of a boiler of certain dimensions can be 
 augmented over its normal power by using 
 artificial draught of one kind or another, air 
 driven in directly by a fan, or air drawn in by 
 induction, as with a jet, or with the exhaust 
 turned into the chimney. 
 
 Take the case of a locomotive; under the 
 stimulus of the exhaust, a locomotive of say 
 1,200 square feet of heating surface and 18 
 square feet of grate surface will develop 600 
 horse power, but the normal capacity rating of 
 a locomotive boiler under stationary boiler 
 rules would be only 120 horse powder. Each 
 pound of coal boils ofif so much water into 
 steam; with forced draught rather less per 
 pound of coal than with natural draught, but 
 since 75 pounds of coal are burned in the same 
 time (per square foot of grate) that 15 pounds 
 of coal are burned by natural draught, nearly 
 four times the amount of water is boiled into 
 steam in a given time. 
 
 The fact that high powers can be obtained 
 from boilers of a given heating surface is well 
 
128 
 
 shown by fast yachts and by torpedo boats. A 
 high speed steam yacht built last year has a 
 boiler of only 1,200 square feet of heating sur- 
 face, but this boiler has been worked up to over 
 600 horse power with quadruple engines and 
 forced draught of great intensity. As regards 
 this last, the punishment that a boiler will 
 stand without giving up the ghost incontinently 
 is astonishing, and water-tube boilers seem 
 specially adapted to this method of driving 
 them. Fire-tube boilers, especially those of 
 the vertical type, are the least economical and 
 efficient of their class, particularly when rated 
 by the square feet of heating surface they con- 
 tain. The tubes of plain vertical boilers util- 
 ize but from one-half to two-thirds of their 
 total surface, for this portion is the only part 
 reached by the water, with an exception in the 
 case of submerged tubes. Suppose, for ex- 
 ample, that a tube is four feet long above the 
 fire box, the water would then be carried in it 
 for only thirty inches of its length, the re- 
 mainder being for steam room. A vertical 
 tubular boiler having forty 2-inch tubes four 
 feet long has a nominal heating surface in the 
 tubes of 83 square feet, but owing to the de- 
 fect of its type it has actually but 54 square 
 feet that is of any value as steam generating 
 
129 
 
 surface. This is not the case with water-tube 
 boilers of any other type, for the entire tube 
 surface is directly in the fire, and exposed to 
 an equal temperature all over. The average 
 evaporation and consequently the efficiency 
 per square foot of grate and per pound of coal 
 is much higher in the water-tube boiler than in 
 the fire-tube. Established records of one type 
 of wdiich there are larger batteries installed, 
 greater aggregate horse power and longer in 
 use than any other — the Babcock & Wilcox 
 Company boiler — show that the evaporation 
 runs from 10.94 pounds of water per pound of 
 combustible to 11.84, ^^^^1 i^ o^^ ^^se reached 
 the quantity of 12.42 pounds per pound of 
 combustible. Even under '' actual condi- 
 tions,'' by which is meant every day work, 
 with coal as it came and the boiler as it was, 
 clean or dirty, the evaporation averages t^n 
 pounds. 
 
 Contrast this with the average evaporation 
 of the average fire-tube boiler of all types, and 
 it is easy to see why the water-tube boiler gains 
 in favor. 
 
 In comparing these tw^o classes of boilers — 
 fire-tube and w^ater-tube — general accessibility 
 is a feature of importance, and in this respect 
 the water-tube boiler surpasses the fire-tube. 
 
130 
 
 Horizontal fire-tube boilers are very difficult to 
 keep clean, some parts being impossible to 
 reach, beneath the lower course of tubes, for 
 
 example, but in inclined water-tube boilers the 
 tubes can be opened from end to end. 
 
 Many Kinds of Water-Tube Boilers. 
 Broadly, all boilers which have the fire out- 
 side of the tube and the water inside of it are 
 
131 
 
 water-tube boilers, but there are very many 
 kinds of them; that is, the arrangement and 
 disposition of the heating surfaces varies 
 greatly ; also the proportions of grate to heat- 
 ing surface and heating surface for a given 
 evaporation, but it is proper to say that there 
 are more inclined tube water-tube boilers in 
 use than any other. They are fast supersed- 
 ing fire-tube boilers in electric-lighting sta- 
 tions, electric railways, water works, and sugar 
 houses. The oldest and best known of this 
 type is the Babcock & Wilcox boiler, and it is 
 shown in Fig. 24. 
 
 The horizontal tube water-tube boiler is 
 here represented by the Roberts Safety Water- 
 Tube Boiler, Fig. 25, and it is also the oldest 
 and best known of its type. 
 
 In this type of boiler the water is delivered 
 by the pump into two feed heating coils, one 
 on each side of the drum, which abstract a 
 good deal of heat from the gases that would 
 otherwise pass up the smoke-stack. From these 
 coils the water passes into the drum. This 
 heated water is then taken into the circulation 
 and carried down through the '' downflows '' 
 — the two large pipes on each side shown in 
 the front of the cut — the same number being 
 at the back end. From the '' downflows '' the 
 
132 
 
 water passes into the side pipes, one on each 
 side of the grate bars, and up through the up- 
 flow coils and into the drum. The upflow 
 coils are directly over and form the crown of 
 the furnace. The steam rises to the top of the 
 drum and the water not generated into steam. 
 
 Fig. 25.- -Roberts Safety Water-Tube Boiler. 
 
 but carried up by the steam, is sent down the 
 '' downflows '' again by the circulation. The 
 steam then passes through a spray pipe in the 
 drum and out into two superheating coils — 
 one of which can be seen above the fire-brick 
 on the side of the cut. The superheated steam 
 supply is taken from the terminals of these 
 coils. 
 
^33 
 
 Fig. 86.— Watson Radial Water-Tube Boiler. 
 
134 
 
 The sub-vertical tube type of water-tube 
 boiler is well represented by the Watson Radial 
 Water-Tube Boiler, Figs. 26 and 2J. 
 
 This boiler is constructed wholly of steel 
 plate and steel tubes, and is, therefore, free 
 from strains caused by metals with variable 
 ratios of expansion. In its present form any 
 tube which may wear out by corrosion or use 
 can be withdrawn readily in a short time, there 
 being but one bolted joint, and that a small one, 
 to break. 
 
 Construction: The tube system is in the 
 form of a cone, inclined over a central furnace, 
 the gases and heat from which are diverted 
 between the tubes by a bafifle-plate in the upper 
 part directly under the smoke-tube. The tubes 
 are fastened in the tube-sheets by expanding 
 them in the lower sheet and expanding them 
 in the upper tube-sheet. The tube-sheets are 
 inclined, as wall be seen in the sectional en- 
 graving, so that the tubes are at right angles 
 with them. 
 
 It w^ill be seen by inspecting the sectional en- 
 graving that the tubes are very widely spaced 
 at the bottom, and converge at the top; this 
 greatly facilitates the circulation of the gases 
 and also breaks them up so that combustion of 
 them is assured. The ash-pit doors are close 
 
135 
 
 Fig. 27.-5 H. P. Watson Launch Boiler. 
 
 Height over dome, 3 ft. 8 in.; weight, 400 lbs = 
 With exhaust in Stack will develop 7 II. P. 
 
136 
 
 to the ground and can be opened or closed by 
 the foot; fires are easily cleaned and cinders 
 raked out, as all engineers can see. 
 
 Circulation: A feature of the Watson Radial 
 Water-Tube Boiler is its perfect, natural cir- 
 culation from the moment a fire is started. 
 This is attained by the following means : A 
 solid air-tight sheet-steel diaphragm extends 
 from bottom to top between the outside row 
 of steam tubes and the circulating tubes, broken 
 as to continuity by the fire door only. Outside 
 of this diaphragm are the circulating tubes. 
 The action is as follows : So soon as heat 
 strikes the inner row of tubes the water in 
 them is driven up, and in obedience to a natural 
 law, flows outwardly toward cooler water. A 
 pot on the fire always boils in the centre first, 
 and in like manner the water in this boiler 
 follows the same law. As it rises in the inner 
 row of tubes it falls in the outer (or circulating 
 tubes) and the cold water is constantly dis- 
 placed by heated water. This causes the water 
 to circulate rapidly and the boiler gets hot all 
 over simultaneously. The advantage of this 
 is too obvious to need further comment, and 
 accounts for the rapid steaming of the boiler. 
 
 The bent-tube type of water-tube boiler is 
 shown in the engraving, Fig. 28, which 
 
^Z7 
 
 
 bo 
 
138 
 
 gives two views of the *' Daring " type of 
 the Thornycroft boiler. The Thornycroft 
 " Launch '' boiler, Fig. 29, is good for light 
 
 Fig. 29. —Thornycroft Water-Tube Boiler, *' Launch " Type. 
 
 river work. It is provided with water fire bars, 
 which are kept so much cooler than ordinary 
 bars by the strong current of water rushing 
 through them that clinkers do not adhere, and 
 a great deal of the trouble usual in firing small 
 boilers is eliminated. Their weight is, of 
 course, exceedingly low. 
 
139 
 
 Fig. 30 shows a side view of Babcock & 
 Wilcox wrought steel construction marine 
 boiler for 200 pounds pressure. All the pres- 
 sure parts of the boiler are of wrought steel. 
 
 Fig. 30.— Babcock & Wilcox Marine Boiler. 
 
 Before passing from marine boilers, men- 
 tion must be made of the well-known Bellville 
 type of water-tube boilers. This boiler has 
 
140 
 
 1)een installed on some of the fastest cruisers 
 afloat. See Fig. 31. 
 
 All of these boilers have peculiar features of 
 their own and have different proportions, but 
 it is not possible to give details of their con- 
 struction, neither would it be proper in a work 
 of this kind to express a preference for one 
 type over the other. They are employed both 
 in stationary and marine work, and, as may be 
 seen from their details, are rapid steamers. 
 With some of these boilers for marine work 
 it is possible to generate 150 pounds of steam 
 by natural draught from water at 35 degrees 
 F. in twenty to thirty minutes, and all of them 
 are constructed to stand 250 pounds of steam 
 and upward. In order to pass Government in- 
 spection they must be tested to double that 
 pressure, and it is easily seen from this fact 
 that such boilers have great strength ; all the 
 materials are of steel and all the holes are 
 drilled, and no plate under 60,000 pounds ten- 
 sile strength is allowed to be used in their con- 
 struction. 
 
 Why Water-Tube Boilers Steam Rapidly. 
 
 By looking at the engravings it will be seen 
 that the water in these boilers is contained in 
 tubes of small diameter directlv in the fire, or 
 
HI 
 
 in direct communication with exceedingly 
 high temperatures. 
 
 A tube of I -in. outside diameter and 30 in. 
 long contains half a pint of water ; the super- 
 ficial area exposed to heat of such a tube is 
 94i square inches, or about the area of an 8 in. 
 by 12 in. pane of glass. Now, half a pint of 
 water on this surface is a thin film, and when 
 exposed to the heat of a very hot fire, say 
 2,000 degrees F., is evaporated instantly, as 
 one may say. By the plan of the boiler this 
 w^ater is in continual circulation, sweeping over 
 all the highly heated surfaces, so that, virtually, 
 the water constantly goes in at one side, or one 
 end, as the case may be, continuously issuing 
 at the other end as dry steam. All boilers are 
 not fitted with i-in. tubes ; some types have 
 much larger tubes, but their superficial area is 
 correspondingly greater as well. Compare 
 this action with the fire-tube boiler, where the 
 w^ater is anywhere from 3-in. to 6-in. deep on 
 the tubes, and we have the explanation why the 
 water-tube boilers are the most efficient, by 
 which term is meant that the heat generated 
 by the fuel burned is applied directly to the 
 heating surfaces, which are, again, directly in 
 the zone of the fire and close to it, so that the 
 products of combustion have but short distances 
 
14^ 
 
 rttV OUTLET 
 
 rROM EC0N0MI6ER LJ _ 
 
 STEAM 
 OUTLET 
 
 CEED INtrr TO BOtLER rf^ 
 AFTER LEAVING -^ g 
 ECONOMISER 
 
143 
 to travel to reach their work. This cannot be 
 said of fire-tube boilers set in masonry. 
 
 Torpedo-Boat Boilers. 
 
 From the facts just cited as regards water- 
 tube boilers it is possible to get very high 
 evaporation (boiler power, so called) from a 
 very small and very Hght apparatus, and it is 
 this quality which makes them particularly 
 suited for torpedo boats and vessels akin to 
 them (high speed yachts). As a rule it ruay 
 be said that these boilers are less than half the 
 weight of fire-tube shell boilers and far more 
 compact. They have a very low center of 
 gravity and for very considerable powers can 
 be put under deck in a light draught vessel. 
 The heating and grate surfaces allotted to the 
 water-tube boiler are much less than the fire- 
 tube boiler per horse power evaporation. This 
 last quantity varies from 30 pounds of water 
 for a common slide valve engine to 20 pounds 
 of water for a tw^o-cylinder compound engine, 
 and to 15 pounds for a three-cyHnder or triple 
 expansion engine. It has been found in prac- 
 tice that five square feet of live heating sur- 
 face per one horse power evaporation is ample 
 for boilers of this type, and many of them 
 show a horse power evaporation upon three 
 
144 
 
 square feet of live heating surface ; the grate 
 surface runs from one square foot of grate to 
 twenty-five square feet of heating surface, to 
 thirty-five, forty, and as high as fifty square 
 feet of heating surface to one square foot of 
 grate surface. Compare this with the allot- 
 ment in fire-tube boilers for the same purpose, 
 ten and twelve square feet of heating surface 
 per horse power evaporation, and additional 
 evidence is given of their relative efficiencies. 
 
 Mention has been made in previous lines of 
 the high powers exerted by water-tube boilers 
 of the torpedo boat type, and these are cer- 
 tainly phenomenal. It seems quite impossible 
 to persons familiar with heavy, slow combus- 
 tion, shell boilers that boilers of five and six 
 thousand power can be put into a small vessel 
 of say 130 feet length by ten feet beam, or 
 width ; far less superficial area than is contained 
 in an ordinary city lot, for this last has 2,500 
 square feet area w^hile the torpedo boat has 
 little over half of it. 
 
 It will aid to a full comprehension of the 
 apparent paradox when we consider the type 
 of engine used and the steam pressures carried. 
 The engines are in all cases high expansion 
 engines — triple or quadruple stage — and run at 
 high piston speed, i.ooo and 1,200 feet per 
 
HS 
 minute being not uncommon. Now the boilers of 
 these torpedo boats are only directly concerned 
 with the high pressure or first cylinder of the 
 system, because it exhausts into all the others 
 in turn, and if it can supply the first cylinder, 
 at say 250 pounds gauge pressure, the boiler 
 gets credit, so to speak, for the power exerted 
 by the other three cylinders. If, therefore, the 
 boiler can manage the high pressure cylinder 
 developing one thousand horse power per hour, 
 it is furnishing steam (under the conditions) 
 practically for three thousand horse power. 
 
 Again, take the case of a locomotive engine 
 in common use. An average modern express 
 engine has about 1,800 square feet heating 
 surface ; at the rating usually followed in sta- 
 tionary practice this would only give 180 horse 
 power for the boiler under natural draught, but 
 with the stimulus of the exhaust in the chim- 
 ney a locomotive boiler wnll develop a horse 
 power for less than two square feet of heating . 
 surface and supply two cylinders 20-in. by 24- 
 in. at 300 revolutions per minute, when under 
 natural draught it would not supply one at 150 
 revolutions per minute. Examine the grate 
 surface of the express locomotive boiler and it 
 will be found to have 30 square feet, a ratio of 
 heating surface to grate surface of 60 to i, or 
 
146 
 
 about half of what a stationary boiler would 
 require for the same work. It follows, there- 
 fore, that high powered boilers of small size 
 obtain their efficiency from their ability to gen- 
 erate large quantities of steam rapidly at very 
 high pressures when under forced draught, the 
 conditions being entirely dissimilar from those 
 of stationary boilers. 
 
 Management of Water-Tube Boilers. 
 
 Under ordinary circumstances — that is wath 
 natural draught and slow combustion, the man- 
 agement of water-tube boilers is the same as 
 that of any boiler, but since the tubes are small 
 (and these control the amount of water ex- 
 posed to the fire) it is necessary that they 
 should be kept absolutely clean. This is par- 
 ticularly the case with the lower course of 
 tubes, or those nearest the fire. These take 
 the most intense heat and scale must be care- 
 fully guarded against. If the water is at all 
 bad, or hard"^ it is essential to give strict at- 
 tention to this detail, for unless these tubes are 
 kept free trouble of a serious nature is certain 
 to occur. It is very easy to say that every one 
 knows this, and it is therefore superfluous to 
 mention it, but it does not always follow that 
 what every one knows every one attends to. 
 
 * See Collett on Water Softening. (Spon & Chamberlain.) 
 
147 
 
 The old saying that '' want of care does more 
 harm than want of knowledge '' is particularly 
 applicable to all boilers, and to sum the whole 
 case in a very few words, the careful man 
 about a steam boiler is the one who never has 
 any trouble. Every man in charge of a steam 
 boiler is supposed to have sense enough to see 
 that he always has water at the proper level be- 
 fore putting fire under it, but there is a great 
 deal of laxity in this matter of firing."^ 
 
 Not so much is said in the public prints 
 about the smoke nuisance as there was a few 
 years ago, and there is no question but that the 
 agitation of this matter of smoky chimneys in 
 large cities was a very good thing for steam 
 users, for if it did nothing else, it caused fire- 
 men to attend more carefully to their work. 
 Smoke prevention starts directly from the fur- 
 nace door, that is to say, the fireman practi- 
 cally prevents it by not making it, but he has 
 to do a good deal more work than in the days 
 when he threw in all the furnace would hold 
 and then took a rest for half an hour with a 
 smoke pipe of his own in his mouth. Practice 
 proves that the smokiest coal can be deprived 
 of its terrors by judicious firing, " the little 
 and often " theory ; but it is harder on the man 
 
 * See Dahlstrom ; The Fireman's Guide. (Spon & Cham- 
 •berlain.) 
 
behind the shovel. The writer has fired bi- 
 tuminous coal — a scoopful at a time — without 
 producing smoke of any moment at all, but it 
 is not a pastime to do it, and it must not be 
 wondered at that mere flesh and blood rebels 
 against '' crooking the pregnant hinges of the 
 knee '' hour after hour at such work. It is 
 also the most economical method of firing, and 
 those who have been used to heavy firing are 
 advised to try light as an improvement. 
 
 Firing a steam boiler, however, has to be 
 done differently with every plant, or more 
 properly, all plants cannot be fired in the same 
 way, nor all grates in the same manner, but 
 each one has its peculiarities which those in 
 charge must discover. Cleanliness in boilers — 
 inside and out — is as important as anything 
 else about them ; soot is a non-conductor, and 
 it is not to be expected that a boiler will steam 
 freely if the heating surfaces are covered 
 with it. 
 
 If boilers do not steam freely when they 
 have never given any trouble previously the 
 cause may be found in a combination of several 
 things. Sometimes the atmosphere itself is so 
 '' heavy " as it is called that the fuel will not 
 burn or the gases combine with it, but it is 
 more frequently the fault of dirty fires when 
 
149 
 
 steam is short than a heavy atmosphere. The 
 ash pit, should be always bright, and one can 
 tell at a glance whether the fire is doing its 
 duty or not. 
 
 '' Perfect combustion,'' so often claimed for 
 this or that appliance, or smoke preventer, is 
 impossible under the conditions prevailing in 
 commercial steam making, because different 
 volumes of air are required at every stage of 
 the process. It is important to distinguish be- 
 tween weight and volume in combustion, A 
 given weight may enter through a one-inch 
 hole if it has velocity enough, but volume is re- 
 quired in order that the air and gases may be 
 thoroughly mixed, but while we cannot hope 
 for perfect combustion we can obtain fairly 
 good combustion by careful attention to the 
 fires. 
 
CHAPTER XIX. 
 The Highest Qualities Demanded. 
 
 Finally, let me say, in conclusion of this 
 work, that the duties of an engineer worthy of 
 the name call for the highest qualities, and are 
 not to be lightly undertaken, or held in low es- 
 teem. A man v/ho stops and starts an engine 
 is not an engineer, and has no pride in his 
 business, because he knows nothing of it ; he 
 does not wish to know any more than that 
 opening the throttle lets steam into the chest. 
 
 But we should not be discouraged or care- 
 less ourselves because such men get places, to 
 the exclusion of their betters. There are 
 usurpers everywhere. Quack doctors abound, 
 so do quack ministers and shyster lawyers. It 
 would be quite as logical and sensible for 
 skilled professional men of these classes to give 
 up trying to rise as it would be for an engineer 
 to follow the same course. Knowledge of our 
 business is paid for always, but an. engineer 
 must know where to find the best market for 
 his services, exactly as every other man must 
 who has something to sell. A dentist, let us 
 say, settles in a certain locality and does not 
 thrive. He does not immediately accuse his 
 profession as the cause of his trouble, but he 
 says that there is no business in that place, and 
 
searches until he finds one that is better. 
 "Knowledge is power" is as true to-day as 
 ever, but there are some places that are better 
 than others to sell it in. 
 
 If an engineer spares no effort to improve 
 himself, and studies first principles so as to 
 know where to look for the cause and cure of 
 troubles never encountered before, he is a bet- 
 ter man for a steam user than a mere stopper 
 and starter who does not wish to learn. Some- 
 where there is a steam user looking* for him, 
 and it is the engineer's business to find a place 
 where he is paid for his work. We need only 
 look around us to see engineers who have 
 good homes, are socially esteemed, and are 
 brin^fing up families to be a credit to them- 
 selves and the State. These men started from 
 small beginnings, and were careful, prudent 
 and anxious to learn. They did learn, and 
 that is why they thrived. 
 
 The Man Himself is the Factor. 
 
 It IS not the business which a man follows 
 that keeps him down or lifts him up ; it is the 
 man himself in every case, and it is well to 
 bear in mind that a man can not be an engi- 
 neer, or a lawyer, or a doctor, or anything else, 
 at abound. Long service, patient waiting, dis- 
 appointments, reverses, learning through them 
 and learning by success also — all these have 
 
S'- 
 
 their perfect work. No faithful service is ever lost. 
 If a steam plant is in perfect order and runnings 
 lower than others in the vicinity be assured 
 that if the employer does not see it, others do, 
 and perhaps when we least expect it we may 
 get a call to go elsewhere with manifest benefit. 
 There are many things conducive to success 
 in eng^ineering, as in all other callings which 
 mankind follow, and none of these has more 
 effect ill business intercourse than a pleasant 
 address. Engineers are commonly supposed 
 to be '* rough men/' but after living and asso- 
 ciating with them for forty odd years, all over 
 the United States, and of all classes, locomo- 
 tive, stationary and marine, we have found 
 fewer engineers of violent manners and rude 
 bearing than we have in other professions. 
 Some may feel that civil speech has little to do 
 with success. It has everything to do with it, 
 for as a rule, even if men are skillful in their 
 special line, we will not encounter them if we 
 can avoid it when they greet us roughly and 
 are surly in their dealings with us. 
 
 Lastly. 
 In these United States no man is above his 
 calling or beyond it. If he is a man in all that 
 the word implies, he is independent of circum- 
 stances and of conditions, and is always In 
 demand. The trickster perishes by his own 
 
153 
 
 sword. It does not take long to discover 
 wliethei men are honest or the reverse, and 
 once the verdict is given either way no one 
 can escape the consequences. Not merely 
 honest in the sense that he will not take what 
 does not belong to him, but an honest man in 
 a moral sense. And with this little sermon we 
 say farewell. 
 
 2^ ill ^ 
 
 ^ rD 0^ 
 
 •'^?^2^i^** 
 
INDEX. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Absolute centres 74 
 
 pressure 98 
 
 Atmospheric pressure 98, 108 
 
 Back pressure 31, 103 
 
 Bearings, adjustment of 57 
 
 badly fitted 54 
 
 friction in 54 
 
 heating in 52, 54 
 
 oil grooves in ... - 53 
 
 perfectly adjusted 58 
 
 Blowpipe connection 13 
 
 Boilers, Babcock & Wilcox .... 129, 131, 139 
 
 Belleville 139 
 
 blowing out 6, 8 
 
 braces and stays for 9 
 
 bridge walls 10, 17 
 
 circulation of water in 136 
 
 corrosion in 4, 7, 8, 10 
 
 crown sheet 9 
 
 deposit from feed water 3 
 
 dirty 9 
 
 evaporative efficiency of 124, 127 
 
 examining i 
 
 explosions 11, 122 
 
 fire-tube 122, 128 
 
 firing 148 
 
 fittings for 12 
 
 government inspection 140 
 
 grate bars 15 
 
 grease in 9 
 
156 Index. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Boilers, heating surface for . . 126, 131, 143, 145 
 
 leaky tubes in 2 
 
 limestone scale in 4, 8 
 
 locomotive 127, 145 
 
 maintenance of 146 
 
 oil in 9 
 
 perfect combustion in 149 
 
 petroleum oil for cleaning tubes 16 
 
 plain vertical 128 
 
 Purger 5 
 
 rating of 125 
 
 removing dirt from i, 4 
 
 removing scale from 5 
 
 return tubular 10 
 
 Roberts' water-tube 131 
 
 scale in 3, 7 
 
 space required for v^ater-tube 144 
 
 starting a nev^ 115 
 
 tar in tubes of 9, 16 
 
 testing 10 
 
 Thornycroft v^^ater-tube 138 
 
 torpedo-boat . 143 
 
 tubes in 15, 128, 141, 146 
 
 water-tube 122 
 
 water fire-bars 138 
 
 Watson's water-tube 134 
 
 washing out 8 
 
 yacht 128, 143 
 
 Brasses 50, 54 
 
 heating in .... 55 
 
 oil grooves in 53 
 
 solid 53 
 
 wear in 55 
 
 " Chugging " of the crosshead 79 
 
 Cocks, blow-off 12, 14 
 
 gauge 12 
 
 leaky 13 
 
 Combustion 48 
 
 perfect 149 
 
Index. 157 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Condensers, air leaks in 95 
 
 foot-valves 104 
 
 jet 96 
 
 surface 97 
 
 test for leaky 103 
 
 Connecting rod 'j'j 
 
 to centre 79 
 
 Crank 76 
 
 return, motion 74 
 
 Crank pin 48 
 
 fitting of, brasses 50, 51 
 
 heating of 49, 5 1 
 
 lubricant for 49 
 
 pressure on 49, 51 
 
 Crude petroleum oil, use of 16 
 
 Cut-off valves, setting T^y 
 
 Cylinders, clearance in 19 
 
 reduction of clearance 21 
 
 wear in the 20 
 
 wear on the guides of 20 
 
 Dust-proof ceilings, necessity for 56 
 
 Dynamometer, 34 
 
 Eccentrics 46 
 
 and connections in line 47 
 
 crank centre 68 
 
 of a link motion 71 
 
 rod connections 47 
 
 setting 65, 74 
 
 use for 46 
 
 Exhaust 31 
 
 Feed pipes 11 
 
 Friction diagrams 117 
 
 Gaskets, black lead on 90 
 
 materials for 2 
 
 plumbago on 2 
 
 white lead on 2 
 
 Governors 42 
 
 care of 44 
 
 patented 43 
 
iS8 Indkx. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Governors, Pickering '-44 
 
 Indicator cards 31 
 
 Injectors 11 1 
 
 Joints, drawing-paper for • 89 
 
 making 88 
 
 materials for 88 
 
 plumbago for 2 
 
 rust joints 89 
 
 white lead for 2, 3 
 
 Kerosene, use of 24 
 
 Link motion 71 
 
 Lining up an engine 82 
 
 Lubricating 87 
 
 grease for 49 
 
 oil for 55 
 
 Mud drums 11 
 
 corrosion in 11 
 
 explosions in 11 
 
 Nuts, removing Ftubborn 24 
 
 Packing, materials for 91 
 
 Piston 19, 22 
 
 cushioning the ^(y 
 
 leaky 22 
 
 leaky, rings 23 
 
 rings 22 
 
 springs for, rings 22 
 
 steam-tight 90 
 
 Pounding 76 
 
 causes of 77' 79. 81 
 
 Pumps 105 
 
 air leaks in 106 
 
 air pump 95, 98, 105 
 
 centrifugal 112 
 
 circulating 97 
 
 double-acting no 
 
 lift of valves in no 
 
 metal valves for no 
 
 plunger 109 
 
 single-acting no 
 
Index. 159 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Pump, suction side of a 109 
 
 Radial valve gears 70 
 
 Rivet hole plug 120 
 
 Safety valve 14 
 
 Scale preventers 5, 7 
 
 acid purger 7 
 
 caustic potash 5 
 
 crude petroleum oil 16 
 
 slippery elm bark 7 
 
 Shaft^ main, out of line 79 
 
 Slide valve 24 
 
 action of . . . . .^ 28 
 
 and seat ' 59 
 
 balanced 35 
 
 common connections to 36 
 
 defects in 30, 59 
 
 different kinds 28 
 
 exhaust 6$ 
 
 exhaust lap 59 
 
 exhaust lead 59 
 
 lap 29. 33, 62, 70- 
 
 lead 34, 70 
 
 leaky 26 
 
 metals for, and seat ;^6 
 
 off its scat 25 
 
 plain 35 
 
 ports 27 
 
 pressure on a 34 
 
 stem 25 
 
 stem connections to 36 
 
 stem guides 41 
 
 testing for leaks 26 
 
 use of stem guides 42 
 
 will not work 40 
 
 Smoke preventers 147, 149 
 
 Steam chest 25, 37, 41, 59 
 
 Steam-engine, condensing 93 
 
 Corliss 82 
 
 examination of i 
 
i6o Index. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Steam-engine, horizontal 35 
 
 slide-valve throttling 18 
 
 starting a new 116 
 
 v^ill not move . 40 
 
 Stuffing-box 25, 90 
 
 Vacuum 94, 102 
 
 air pump for 95 
 
 Guerick's . 98 
 
 gauge 102 
 
 partial . 96 
 
 Pascal's loi 
 
 perfect 108 
 
 no power in a . . loi 
 
 Torricelli's 98, loi 
 
 working 112 
 
 Water gauge 12 
 
BOOKS FOR ENGINEERS. 
 
 Steam-Engines and Boilers, An elementary text- 
 book for young students. By Prof. J. H. 
 Kinealy. Illustrated, 8vo, cloth. 
 
 The Working and Management of Steam Boilers 
 AND Engines, Shafting Gear and Machinery. 
 F. V. Colyer. i2mo, cloth. 
 
 The Corliss Engine and Its Management. By 
 Henthorn and Thurber. Illustrated. 
 
 Fireman's Guide on the Care of Boilers. Dahl- 
 strom. i2mo, cloth. 
 
 The Slide- Valve Simply Explained. By Tennant 
 and Kinealy. Illustrated, i2mo, cloth. 
 
 Lubricants, Oils and Greases. By I. I. Redwood. 
 Illustrated, 8vo, cloth. 
 
 Richards' Steam-Engine Indicator. By Porter. 
 Illustrated, 8vo, cloth. 
 
 Theoretical and Practical Ammonia Refrigera- 
 tion. By I. I. Redwood. Illustrated, i2mo, cloth. 
 
 The Repair and Maintenance of Machinery. By 
 T. W. Barber. Illustrated, 8vo, cloth. 
 
 Quick and Easy Methods of Calculating with 
 THE Slide Rule. By R. G. Blaine. Illustrated, 
 i2mo, cloth. 
 
 Algebra Self-Taught for the Use of Young Engi- 
 neers. By W. P. Higgs. 8vo, cloth. 
 
 Direct-Acting Pumping Engines. By P. R. Bjor- 
 ling. Illustrated, i2mo, cloth. 
 
 Sexton's Boiler Maker's Pocketbook. Illustrated, 
 32mo, leather. 
 
 Boiler Maker's and Shipbuilder's Companion. By 
 J. Foden. 
 
 Management and Working of Steam Boilers, Land 
 AND Marine. By J. Peattie. 
 
 Spon's Engineer's Tables. 
 Spon's Mechanic's Own Book. The book for 
 every one. 
 
 Workshop Receipts (in five series). 
 
 Also books on Mechanics, Electricity and General 
 
 Engineering. Catalogues free on application. 
 
=== THE • 
 
 ENGINEERING AND 
 MINING JOURNAL 
 
 =0F NEW YORK= 
 
 The best and most influential mining paper in the world. 
 Indispensable to the Prospector, Miner, Assayer, Chemist, 
 Engineer, Metallurgist, Merchant, Manufacturer, Banker, 
 Investor, Legislator. 
 
 Subscription Price : For the United States, Mexico 
 and Canada, $5.00 per annum ; for all other countries in the 
 Postal Union, $7.00 per annum. 
 
 THE MINERAL INDUSTRY 
 
 Its Statistics, Technology and Trade in the United States 
 
 and Other Countries from the Earliest Times. 
 Uol. I From the Earliest Times to the CiOse of 1 8g2^ $2 ^o 
 Vol. II Supplementing "Vol. I to the close 0/1893, ^S^-oo 
 J 'ol. Ill Supplementing Vols. I and 11 to the Close 0/1894, Ss.oo 
 Vol. IV Supplementing Uols. I-III to the Close of 1 89^^, ^S-oo 
 Vol. V Supplementing Vols. I -IV to the Close of 1896,^^.00 
 Vol. VI Supplementing Vols. I-V to the Close of 189-], $t;.oo 
 Vol. VII Supplementing Vols. I -VI to the Close 0/1898, ^S-oo 
 
 Extremely valuable technical articles, especially prepared 
 for these volumes by eminent authorities, give the most recent 
 progress in each department of mining, metallurgy and chemi- 
 cal industry, including the best methods of production and 
 the uses and properties of nearly all the minerals and metals. 
 
 The Best Books on Mining and Metallurgry. 
 
 The Metallurgy of Steel, Howe, .... $10.00 
 Metallurgy of Lead, (New Edition), Ho/iKan, , . 6.00 
 Modern Copper Smelting, Peters, .... 5.00 
 
 Manufacture and Properties of Structural Steel, Campbell A..^^ 
 Manual of Qualitative Blowpipe Analysis, Endlich, . 4.00 
 Ore Deposits of the United States, Kerv.p, . . . 5.00 
 Lead and Copper Smelting and Converting, Hixon, . 3.00 
 Stamp Milling of Cold Ores, Rickard, . . . 2.50 
 
 Practical Notes on the Cyanide Process, Bosqui . . 2.50 
 Prospecting, Locating and Mine Valuation, Stretch, . 2.50 
 Chemical and Geological Essays, Hunt,^ . . . 2.50 
 Outline of Qualitative Chemical Analysis, Miller^ . L50 
 
 New General Technical Catalogue free. When you want 
 any information, prices or advice in reference to the latest and 
 best books on scientific subjects and miscellaneous literature, 
 write to 
 
 THE SCIENTIFIC PUBLISHING COMPANY 
 253 Broadway, New York City. 
 
Publication s of H. S. R ICH & CO. 
 
 ICE AND REFRIGERATION. 
 
 A Monthly Review of the Ice, Ice Making, Refrigerating, Cold 
 Storage and kindred trades. 
 
 The recognized authority on ail matters connected with ice 
 making and refrigeration. 
 
 SUBSCRIPTION PRICE: 
 
 In United States, Canada and Mexico, . . . $2.00 per year. 
 In all Other Countries, 3.00 per year. 
 
 PAYABLE IN ADVANCE, 
 
 STANDARD BOOKS ON COLD STORAGE, ICE 
 MAKING AND REFRIGERATION. 
 
 COMPEND OF MECHANICAL REFRIGERATION. 
 
 By Prof. J. E. Siebel. 
 
 Price, Prepaid, Cloth, $3.00; Morocco, $3.50. 
 
 The only work treating of all the various branches of theoretical 
 and applied refrigeration, and will'be found to contain a large amount 
 of information which would be looked for in vain elsewhere. 
 
 PRACTICAL ICE MAKING AND REFRIGERATING. 
 
 By Eugene T. Skinkle. 
 
 Price, Prepaid, Cloth, $1.50; Morocco, $2.00. 
 
 Every branch of ice making and refrigerating is handled in this 
 work, with a view to setting out the best and most economical practice 
 in the construction and operation of the plant. 
 
 INDICATING THE REFRIGERATING MACHINE. 
 
 By Gardner T. Voorhees. 
 Price, Prepaid, Cloth, $1.00; Morocco, $1.50. 
 Treats of the application of the indicator to the ammonia com- 
 pressor and steam engine, with practical instructions relating to the 
 construction and use of the indicator and reading and computing 
 indicator cards. 
 
 MACHINERY FOR REFRIGERATION. 
 
 By Norman Sei.fe. 
 
 Price, Prepaid, Cloth, $3.50. 
 
 To the ice or cold storage man who wants to produce the best 
 results with the least primary investment of capital, the smallest cost 
 of maintenance and the lowest working expenses, this work will 
 prove of great value. 
 
 Any of the above works will be sent to any address on receipt of 
 price. 
 
 H. S. RICH & CO., Publishers, 
 
 20G BROADWAY, 177 LA SALLE STREET, 
 
 NEW YORK. CHICAGO. 
 
America'^ Leading Maritime publication 
 
 THE 
 MARINE 
 REVIEW 
 
 (^* t<9* {^* 
 
 PUBLISHED WEEKLY 
 
 $2.00 PER ANNUM. 
 
 {^* 5^* {^* 
 
 Most profusely Illustrated Technical Publication 
 in America* 
 
 ATTRACTIVE SPECIAL ARTICLES. 
 
 PLL THE NEWS 
 
 of the SHP BUILDING 
 and SHIP OWNING 
 WORLD. . . . 
 
 Advertising rates low but not cheap. 
 
 It Reaches the Buyers. 
 
 t^* «^* *^* 
 
 MARINE REVIEW PUB. CO. 
 CLEVELAND, OHIO. 
 
THIRTEENTH EDITION, REVISED 
 AND ENLARGED 
 
 8vo, Cloth, 29 Woodcuts, 20 Lithographic Plates, d*'^ AA 
 together with a Travel Scale , . , . ^'^•vV 
 
 THE PRACTICAL APPLICATION 
 
 OF THE 
 
 SLIDE VALVE 
 
 and 
 
 LINK MOTION 
 
 TO 
 
 Stationary, Portable, Locomotive and 
 Marine Engines, 
 
 WITH NEW AND SIMPLE METHODS FOR PROPOR- 
 TIONING THE PARTS, 
 By WILLIAM S. AUCHINCLOSS, C.E., Mem. A.S.C.E. 
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 Part I — The Slide Valve — Elementary Principles and General Proportions. 
 
 Part II— General Proportions Modified by Crank and Piston Connection. 
 
 Pari III — Adjustable Eccentrics, 
 
 Part IV— Link Motions. 
 
 Part V — Independent Cut-OfF, Clearance, etc. 
 
 Appendix— Formulae Relating to Crank and Piston Motions. 
 
 D. VAN NOSTRAND CO., Publishers 
 
 23 Murray and 2T Warren Sts., New York 
 
 *** Copies sent prepaid on receipt of price. 
 
The Marine Record 
 
 should be first among: the pub- 
 lications you read each week* 
 Its columns are at all times re- 
 plete with up-to-date information 
 regarding* affairs maritime* The 
 technical articles treating on live 
 topics contained in The Record, 
 are of a nature to supply an ex- 
 cellent source of learning* Over 
 21 years in the field and a uni- 
 versally acknowledged authority 
 on marine matters* 
 
 Subscription $2.00 per year. 
 
 Published every Thursday. Illustrated. 
 
 Established isrs. 
 
 Write us for free sample copy. 
 
 THE MARINE RECORD 
 PUBLISHING CO., 
 
 THIRD FLOOR WESTERN RESERVE BUILDING, 
 CLEVELAND, OHIO* 
 
USEFUL BOOKS 
 
 Barometer. — The barometrical determination 
 of heights. A practical method of baro- 
 metrical levelling and hjpsometry, for 
 surveyors and mountain climbers. By Dr. 
 F. J. B. Cordeiro, U. S. N. i2mo, leather, i.oo 
 
 Dynamo. — Notes on the design of small 
 dynamo, with complete set of drawings to 
 scale. By G. Halliday. 79 pages, illus- 
 trated, 8vo, cloth, i.oot 
 
 Electric Bells. — A treatise on the construction 
 of electric bells, indicators and similar ap- 
 paratus. By F. C. Allsop. 131 pages, 177 
 illustrations, i2mo, cloth, . . . .1.25 
 
 Electric Bells. — Practical electric bell fitting. 
 A treatise on the fitting up and maintenance 
 of electric bells and all their necessary ap- 
 paratus. By F. C. Allsop. 170 pages, 
 186 illustrations, i2mo, cloth, . . .1.25 
 
 Electrical Notes. — Practical electrical notes 
 and definitions, for the use of engineering 
 students and practical men. By W. Perren 
 Maycock, E.E. 286 pages, illustrated, 
 32mo, cloth, 75 
 
 Electricity. — Comparisons between the differ- 
 ent systems of distributing electricity. By 
 Prof. Henry Robinson. 8vo, paper, . . .80 
 
 Galvanometer. — A series of lectures on the 
 galvanometer and its uses, delivered by 
 Prof. E. L. Nicols, and used by him in his 
 class at Cornell University. 112 pages, 76 
 illustrations, 8vo, paper, .... i.oo 
 
MODERN MACHINERY 
 
 FURNISHES THE LATEST 
 INFORMATION UPON . . 
 
 Modern Steam Practice 
 
 .. TO KNOW .. 
 
 HOW TO RUN ENGINES AND BOILERS 
 REQUIRES KNOWLEDGE OF 
 
 Improvements and Developments 
 
 IN THIS BRANCH 
 
 These Are Described and Illustrated Every Month 
 
 SEND FOR SAMPLE COPY 
 
 MODERN MACHINERY PUBLISHING COMPANY 
 
 218 La Salle Street, CHICAGO, ILLS. 
 
CORRESPONDENCE 
 INSTRUCTION . . 
 
 IN 
 
 ENGINEERING. 
 
 Steam Engineering, 
 
 Electrical Engineering, 
 
 Civil Engineering, 
 
 Mechanical Engineering, 
 
 MECHANICAL and ARCHITECTURAL 
 DRAWING, 
 
 Plumbing, Heating, Ventilation, 
 
 Chemistry, Metal Work, Mining. 
 
 THE 
 
 International Correspondence Sohools, 
 
 SCRANTON, PA. 
 
THE ENGINEER. 
 
 DEVOTED TO 
 
 Power Plpt EpipERip. 
 
 SEMUMONTHLY. 
 ONE DOLLAR PER YEAR. 
 
 Superintendents, Engineers and 
 Managers 
 
 ARE SOLICITED TO SEND FOR A 
 
 KREE SAMfl^H CORY. 
 
 The Engineer Pub. Co. 
 
 94 TRIBUNE BLDG* BLACKSTONE BLDG, 
 
 New York* Cleveland, O* 
 
RUHMKORFF 
 
 Induction Coils 
 
 Their Construction, Operation and Applications, with 
 Chapters on 
 
 BATTERIES, TESLA COILS AND 
 ROENTGEN RADIOGRAPHY . . . 
 
 By H. S. NORRIE 
 
 * * <i 
 
 Contents of Chapters: 
 
 Chapter I. — Coil Construction, II. — Contact 
 Breakers. Pole Charging Breaker. III. — Insulations 
 and Cements. IV. — Condensers. Paper Condensers. 
 Series Condensers. V. — Experiments. Luminous 
 Designs. VI. — Spectrum Analysis. VII. — Currents 
 in Vacuo. Discharges in Vacuo. VIII. — Rotating 
 Effects. IX. — Gas Lighting and Ozone Production. 
 X. — Primary Batteries and Electric Light Currents. 
 XI. — Storage Batteries or Secondary Cells. Charging 
 Storage Batteries. Charging from Primary Batteries. 
 Setting up the Storage Cell. XII.— Tesla and Hertz 
 Effects. XIII. — Roentgen Rays and Radiography 
 With 57 new illustrations. Index. 
 
 183 pages, l2mo, cloth, 50 cents. 
 
manual of Instruction in 
 
 l)drd Soldering 
 
 WITH AN APPENDIX ON THE 
 
 Repair of Bicycle frames 
 
 notes on Jliloys and a Chapter on Soft Soldering 
 
 BY HARVEY ROWELL 
 
 The flame, lamp, charcoal, mats, bhnv-pipes, 
 wash-bottle, binding wire, chemicals, borax, spelter, 
 silver solder, gold solder, oxidation of metals, fluxes, 
 anti-oxidisers, oxidation of cases, the cone, oxidising 
 flame, reducing flame, heat transmission, conduction, 
 capacity of metals, radiation, application, the work 
 table, the joint, applying solder, applying heat, the 
 use of the blow-pipe, joints, making a ferrule, to re- 
 pair a spoon, to repair a watch case, hard soldering 
 with a forge or hearth, hard soldering with tongs, 
 preserving thin edges, silversmith's pickle, restoring 
 color to gold, chromic acid, to mend steel springs, 
 sweating metals together, retaining work in position, 
 making joints, applying heat, preventing the loss of 
 heat, effect of sulphur lead and zinc, to preserve 
 precious stones, annealing and hardening, burnt iron, 
 to hard solder after soft solder. Tables of — specific 
 gravity, tenacity, fusibility, alloys. 
 
 66 pages, illustrated, cloth, 75 cents. 
 
 For Soldering Receipts, Cements and Lutes, Pastes, Glues 
 and such like, see Workshop Receipts, 
 
SMALL ACCDMDLATORS 
 
 How Made and Used 
 
 A Practical Handbook for Students and Young 
 Electricians 
 
 EDITED BY PERCIVAL MARSHALL, A.LM.E. 
 
 Contents of Chapters 
 
 ]. — The Theory of the Accumulator. 
 II. — How to make a 4-Volt Pocket Accumulator. 
 III. — How to make a 32-Ampere-Hour Accumulator. 
 IV. — Types of Small Accumulators. 
 V. — How to Charge and Use Accumulators. 
 VI. — Applications of Small Accumulators, Electrical Nov- 
 elties, etc. Useful Receipts. Glossary of Technical Terms. 
 
 80 passes, 40 illustrations, 12ino, cloth, 50c. 
 
 THE MAGNETO -TELEPHONE 
 
 ITS CONSTRUCTION, 
 
 Fitting Up and Adaptability to Every = Day Use 
 
 BY NORMAN HUGHES 
 
 CONTENTS OF CHAPTERS 
 
 Some electrical considerations : I. — Introductory. II. — 
 Construction. III. — Lines, Indoor Lines. IV. — Signalling 
 Apparatus. V. — Batteries. Open Circuit Batteries. Closed 
 Circuit Batteries. VI. — Practical Operations. Circuit with 
 Magneto Bells and Lightning Arresters. How to Test the 
 Line. Push-Button Magneto Circuit. Two Stations with 
 Battery Bells. VII. — Battery Telephone. Battery Tele- 
 phone Circuit. Three Instruments on one Line. VIII. — 
 General remarks. Index. 
 80 pages, 23 illustrations, i2ino, cloth, $1.00. In paper, 50c. 
 
We 
 
 want 
 
 10,000 new 
 
 subscribers 
 
 and are therefore 
 
 making a special 
 
 trial rate, for a limited 
 
 time, which you can find 
 
 out about by writing us. If 
 
 interested in electricity send for 
 
 free sample copy of the 
 
 • WESTERN ELECTRICIAN « 
 
 When you see the sample you'll want 
 it every week. We can fill orders 
 for any electrical book pub- 
 lished, on receipt of price. 
 Send for catalog. 
 
 Electrician Pub. Co., 
 
 610 Marquette, 
 Chicago. 
 
THE 
 
 FIREMAN'S GUIDE 
 
 A Handbook on the Care of Boilers 
 
 BV KARL p. DAHLSTROM, M.E. 
 
 CONTENTS OF CHAPTERS 
 
 I. Firing and Economy of Fuel. — Precautions 
 before and after starting the fire, care of the fire, 
 proper firing, draft, smoke, progress of firing, fuel on 
 the grate, cleaning out, cleaning grate bars and ash 
 pan, dampers, firing into two or more furnaces, dr/ 
 fuel, loss of heat. 
 
 II. Feed and Water Line. — Feeding, the water 
 line, false water line, defective feeding apparatus, 
 formation of scale, gauge cocks, glass gauge, the 
 float, safetj plug, alarm whistle. 
 
 III. Low Water and Foaming or Priming. — 
 Precautions when water is low, foaming, priming. 
 
 IV. Steam Pressure.— Steam gauge, safety valves. 
 
 V. Cleaning and Blowing Out.— Cleaning the 
 boiler, to examine the state of the boiler, blowing 
 out, refilling the boiler. 
 
 VI. General Directions. — How to prevent acci- 
 dents, repairs, the care of the boiler when not in use, 
 testing boilers, trimming and cleaning outside. 
 Summary of rules. Index. 
 
 8vo, cloth, 50 cents. 
 
THE CORLISS EIGIHE. 
 
 By John T. IIenthorn. 
 AND — 
 
 MiNiGEMENT OF THE CORLISS ENGINE. 
 
 By Charles D. Thurber. 
 Uniform in One Volume. Chfh Cover; Price ^ ^i.oo. 
 
 Table of Contents. 
 
 Chapter I. — Introductory and Historical; Steam Jack- 
 eting. Chapter II.— Indicator Cards. Chapter HI.— 
 Indicator Cards continued; the Governor. Chapter IV. 
 — Valve Gear and Eccentric ; Valve Setting. Chapter V. 
 ' Valve Setting continued, with diagrams of same; Table 
 for laps of Steam Valve. Chapter VI. — Valve Setting 
 continued. Chapter VII. — Lubrication with diagrams 
 for same. Chapter Vlf I.— Discussion of the Air Pump 
 and its Management. Chapter IX. —Care of Main Driv- 
 ing Gears; best Lubricator for same. Chapter X.— 
 Heating of Mills by Exhaust Steam. Chapter XI. — En- 
 gine Foundations; diagrams and templets for same. Chap- 
 ter XII — Foundations continued ; Materials for samr^!-, etc. 
 
 Third Edition, ^Arith an Appendix. 
 
SAMPLE COPIES MAILED TO ANY ADDRESS 
 ON RECEIPT OF 8 CENTS. 
 
 THE 
 
 IMIflEUR DfCieiCIMl 
 
 A Journal of Mechanics and 
 ' EiKTRiciTir "« Amueurs "" Students ^ 
 
 Edited bv PERCIVAL MARSHALL 
 
 ITS GOOD POINTS. 
 
 Better than any paper of its kind ever published. 
 
 The articles are original and practical. 
 
 The articles are so clearly and simply written and every- 
 thing made so plain that it will be found easy to follow the 
 directions and duplicate the articles described. 
 
 Special articles on Model engines and boilers for yachts, 
 torpedo-boats and war-ships. 
 
 Designing and building of model yachts and boats. 
 
 Making small tools for model work. 
 
 The building of small gas engines. 
 
 Building screvz-cutting and turning lathes. 
 
 Building all kinds of model stationary and locomotive 
 steam engines and boilers. 
 
 Model engineers and their work. 
 
 Building of all kinds of electrical machines, apparatus, 
 coils, batteries, telephones, microphones, phonographs, nov- 
 elties. 
 
 The articles are fully illustrated, principally with detail 
 drawings to scale. 
 
 New Books, Notes and Queries, Workshop Notes and 
 Hints, Tools and Supplies, etc. 
 
 It is published about the 20th of each month. 
 
 ANNUAL SUBSCRIPTION, 75c, POSTPAID. 
 
 Send in your subscription and ^ef your friends to subscribe. 
 Unused postage stamps will be accepted {not revenue.) Ad- 
 dress all communications to 
 
 SPON & CHAMBERLAIN, 
 
 12 Cortlandt Street, - = NEW YORK. 
 
PRACTICAL HANDBOOK ON 
 
 With Instructions for Care and Working ol the Same, 
 
 BYQ. LIECKFELD, C.E, 
 
 Translated with permission of the Author by 
 GEORGE RICHMOND, M.E. 
 
 WITH A CHAPTER ON OIL ENGINES 
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 Choosing and installing a gas engine. The con- 
 struction of good gas engines. Examination as to 
 workmanship, running, economy. Reliability and 
 durability of gas engines. Proper erection of a 
 gas engine. Foundation. Arrangement for gas pipes. 
 Rubber bag. Locking devices. Exhaust pipes. Air 
 pipes. Setting up gr.s engines. Brakes and their 
 use in ascertaining the power of gas engines. Ar- 
 rangement of a brake test. Distribution of heat in a 
 gas engine. Attendance on gas engines. General 
 remarks. Gas engine oil. Cylinder lubricators. 
 Rules as to starting and stopping a gas engine. The 
 cleaning of a gas engine. General observations and 
 specific examination for defects. The engine refuses 
 to work. Non-starting of the engine. Too much 
 pressure on the gas. Water in the exhaust pot. 
 Difficulty in starting the engine. Irregular running. 
 Loss of power. Weak gas mixtures. Late ignition. 
 Cracks in air inlet. Back firing. Knocking and 
 pounding inside of engine. Dangers and precaution- 
 ary measure in handling gas engines. Precautions 
 when opening gas valves, removing piston from 
 cylinder, examining with light openings of gas 
 engines. Dangers in starting, cleaning, putting on 
 belts. Oil Engines. Gas engines with producer gas. 
 Gasoline and oil engines. Concluding remarks. 
 
 120 pages, illustrated, l2nio, cloth, $1.00. 
 
LUBRICANTS, 
 
 OILS ^ AND ^ GREASES 
 
 Treated Theoretically and Giving Practical Informal- 
 tion Regarding Their 
 
 COMPOSITION, USES AND MANUFACTURE 
 BY ILTYD I. REDWOOD 
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 Introduction. — Lubricants. 
 
 Theoretical. — Chapter I. Mineral Oils : American 
 and Russian; Hydrocarbons. Chapter II. Fatty 
 Oils: Glycerides; Vegetable Oils; Fish Oils. 
 Chapter III. Mineral Lubricants: Graphite; 
 Pkimbago. Chapter IV. Greases: Compounded; 
 ** Set '' or Axle ; *' Boiled " or Cup. Chapter V. 
 Tests of Oils: Mineral Oils. Fatty Oils. 
 
 Manufacture. — Chapter VI. Mineral Oil Lubri- 
 cants: Compounded Oils; Debloomed Oils. 
 Chapter VII. Greases: Compounded Greases; 
 *'Set" or Axle Greases; Boiled Greases; En- 
 gine Greases. Appendix. The Action of Oils on 
 Various Metals. Index. 
 
 Tables. — I. Viscosity and Specific Gravity. II. 
 Atomic Weights. III. Origin, Tests, Etc., of 
 Oils. IV. Action of Oils on Metals. 
 
 List of Plates. — I. — I. I. Redwood's Improved 
 Set Measuring Apparatus. II. Section Grease 
 Kettle. III. Diagram of the Action of Oils on 
 Different Kinds of Metals. 
 
 8vo, cloth, $1.50. 
 
THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL 
 
 Ammonia Refrigeration 
 
 A ll^ork of Reference for Engineers and others Employed in the 
 Ma^iageinent of Ice and Refrigeration Machinery. 
 
 By ILTYD I. REDWOOD 
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 B. T. U. Mechanical Equivalent of a Unit of Heat. 
 Specific Heat. Latent Heat. Theory of Refrigeration. 
 Freezing, by Compressed Air. Ammonia. Charac- 
 teristics of Ammonia. The Compressor. Stuffing- 
 Boxes. Lubrication. Suction and Discharge Valves. 
 Separator. Condenser-Worm, Receiver. Refrigera- 
 tor or Brine Tank, Size of Pipe and Area of Cooling 
 Surface. Charging the Plantwith Ammonia. Jacket- 
 Water, for Compressor, for Separator. Quantity of 
 Condensing Water Necessary. Loss due to Heating 
 of Condensed Ammonia. Cause of Variation in Ex- 
 cess Pressure. Use of Condensing Pressure in Deter- 
 mining Loss of Ammonia by Leakage. Cooling Di- 
 rectly by Ammonia. Freezing Point of Brine. Mak- 
 ing Brine. Specific Heat of Brine. Regulation of 
 Brine Temperature. Indirect Effect of Condensing 
 Water on Brine Temperature. Directions for Deter- 
 mining Refrigerating Efficiency. Equivalent of a Ton 
 of Ice. Compressor Measurement of Ammonia Circu- 
 lated. Loss of Well-Jacketed Compressors. Loss in 
 Double-Acting Compressors. Distribution of Mer- 
 cury Wells. Examination of Working Parts. Indica- 
 tor Diagrams. Ammonia Figures — Effectual Displace- 
 ment. Volume of Gas. Ammonia Circulated per 
 Twenty- Four Hours. Refrigerating Efficiency. Brine 
 Figures — Gallons Circulated. Pounds Circulated. De- 
 grees Cooled. Total Degrees Extracted. Loss due to 
 Heating of Ammonia Gas. Loss due to Heating of 
 Liquid Ammonia. Calculation of the Maximum Ca- 
 pacity of a Machine. Preparation of Anhydrous Am- 
 monia. Construction of Apparatus, etc., etc. 
 
 150 pages, 15 illustrations, cloth, $1.00. 
 
THE SLIDE VALVE 
 
 SIMPLY EXPLAINED 
 
 By W. J. TENNANT, Asso. M.I.M.E. 
 
 REVISED AND MUCH ENLARGED 
 
 By J. H. KINEALY, D.E. 
 
 CONTENTS OF CHAPTERS: 
 I. The Simple Slide. 
 II. The Eccentric a Crank. Special Model to 
 Give Quantitative Results. 
 
 III. Advance of the Eccentric. 
 
 IV. Dead Centre. Order of Cranks. Cushion- 
 
 ing and Lead. 
 V. Expansion— Inside and Outside Lap and 
 Lead ; Advance Affected Thereby. 
 Compression. 
 VI. Double-Ported and Piston Valves. 
 VII. The Effect of Alterations to Valve and 
 Eccentric. 
 VIII. Note on Link Motions. 
 IX. Note on Ver^^ Early Cut-Off, and rn Revers- 
 ing Gears in General. 
 
 88 Pages, 4I Illustrations. 12nio, Cloth, $1.00. 
 
 QUICK AND EASY METHODS 
 
 OF 
 
 Calculating 
 With the Slide Rule 
 
 A Simple Explanation of the Theory and 
 Use of THE Slide Rule, Logarithms, Etc. 
 IVith numerous examples worked out. 
 By R. G. BLAINE, M.E. 
 
 A most reliable, practical and valuable work for the engineer. 
 
 144 Pages. Illustrated. 127no, Cloth, §1.00 
 
The Best and Cheapest in the Market 
 
 ALGEBRA SELF-TAEHT 
 
 FOR THE USE OF 
 
 Mechanics, Young Engineers and Home Students 
 
 BY W. PAGET HIQQS, M.A., D.Sc. 
 
 FOURTH EDITION 
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 Symbols and the signs of operation. The equa- 
 tion and the unknown quantity. Positive and nega- 
 tive quantities. Multiplication, involution, exponents, 
 negative exponents, roots, and the use of exponents 
 as logarithms. Logarithms. Tables of logarithms 
 and proportional parts. Transportation of systems 
 of logarithms. Common uses of common logarithms. 
 Compound multiplication and the binomial theorem. 
 Division, fractions and ratio. Rules for division. 
 Rules for fractions. Continued proportion, the series 
 and the summation of the series. Examples. Geo- 
 metrical means. Limit of series. Equations. Appen- 
 dix. Index. 104 pages, i2mo, cloth, 6oc. 
 
 See also Algebraic Signs, Spons' Dictionary of 
 Kiiirineering, No. 2. 40 cts. 
 
 .S"^^ also Calculus, Supplement to Spons' Dic- 
 tionary, Xo. 5. 75 cts. 
 
m 
 
^1>!