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IC ^^^ 
 
 Bureau of Mines Information Circular/1981 
 
 Alumina Availability— Domestic 
 
 A Minerals Availability System Appraisal 
 
 By Gary R. Peterson, Robert L. Davidoff, 
 Donald I, Bleiwas, and Richard J. Fantel 
 
 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 
 
Information Circular 8861 
 
 Alumina Availability— Domestic 
 
 A Minerals Availability System Appraisal 
 
 By Gary R. Peterson, Robert L. Davidoff, 
 Donald I. Bleiwas, and Richard J. Fantel 
 
 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 
 James G. Watt, Secretary 
 
 BUREAU OF MINES 
 
(f 
 
 As the Nation's principal conservation agency, the Department of the Interior 
 has responsibility for most of our nationally owned public lands and natural 
 resources. This includes fostering the wisest use of our land and water re- 
 sources, protecting our fish and wildlife, preserving the environmental and 
 cultural values of our national parks and historical places, and providing for 
 the enjoyment of life through outdoor recreation. The Department assesses 
 our energy and mineral resources and works to assure that their development is 
 in the best interests of all our people. The Department also has a major re- 
 sponsibility for American Indian reservation communities and for people who 
 live in Island Territories under U.S. administration. 
 
 
 This publication has been cataloged as follows: 
 
 Alumina availibility— domestic. 
 
 
 
 
 (Information circular / Bureau of Mines ; 
 Includes bibliographical references. 
 Supt. of Docs, no.: 1 28.27:8861 
 
 8861) 
 
 
 
 1. Aluminum oxide. 2. Aluminum industry and trade. 1. 
 Gary R. , 1948* . II. Title. III. Series: Information circu 
 States. Bureau of Minee) ; 8861. 
 
 Peterson, 
 ar (United 
 
 TN295.U4 [TN490.A5] 553.4'926 
 
 81-607823 
 
 AACR2 
 
 I or sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Ciovernnicnt Printinj; Office 
 Washinston, D.C. 20402 
 
PREFACE 
 
 The Bureau of Mines Minerals Availability Program is assessing the world- 
 wide availability of nonfuel minerals. The program identifies, collects, compiles, 
 and evaluates information on active, developed, and explored mines and deposits 
 and on mineral processing plants worldwide. Objectives are to classify domestic 
 and foreign resources, to identify by cost evaluation resources that are reserves, 
 and to prepare analyses of mineral availabilities. 
 
 This report is part of a continuing series of MAS reports to analyze the avail- 
 ability of minerals from domestic and foreign sources. Analysis of supply from 
 other minerals is currently in progress. Questions about the MAS program should 
 be addressed to Director, Division of Minerals Availability, Bureau of Mines, 2401 
 E Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20241. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 Page Page 
 
 Preface iii Types of deposits — Continued 
 
 Abstract 1 Alunites 12 
 
 Introduction 2 Anortliosites 12 
 
 Acl<nowledgments 3 Dawsonite 12 
 
 Structure of the aluminum industry 5 Refinery technology 13 
 
 Location of domestic refineries Bayer process for bauxites 13 
 
 and smelters 6 HCI leach of clays 13 
 
 Importance of secondary (scrap) recovery Aiunite processing 13 
 
 to the industry 7 Lime sinter of anorthosite 14 
 
 Demand for aluminum 7 Availability of alumina from domestic deposits ... 15 
 
 Estimation of domestic aluminum resources General 15 
 
 and cost data 8 Total recoverable alumina 15 
 
 Types of deposits 12 Potential annual alumina production 15 
 
 General 12 Conclusions 19 
 
 Bauxites 12 References 20 
 
 Clays 12 Appendix 21 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 Page 
 
 1. Location of domestic alumina refineries and aluminum smelters 6 
 
 2. Reserve base and inferred reserve base classification categories 8 
 
 3. Flow chart of evaluation procedure 9 
 
 4. Location of domestic alumina properties 11 
 
 5. Total domestic aluminum resources potentially available at various alumina prices — 
 
 demonstrated resource level 16 
 
 6. Total domestic aluminum resources potentially available at various alumina prices — 
 
 identified resource level 17 
 
 7. Potential domestic annual alumina production in selected years at various alumina prices — 
 
 demonstrated resource level 18 
 
 8. Potential domestic annual alumina production in selected years at various alumina prices — 
 
 identified resource level 18 
 
 TABLES 
 
 Page 
 
 1 . World bauxite production 5 
 
 2. U.S. imports of crude and dried bauxite 5 
 
 3. U.S. imports of alumina 5 
 
 4. Property type, status, and resource data 10 
 
 5. Property type, status, and resource data for anorthosite deposits 11 
 
ALUMINA AVAILABILITY -DOMESTIC 
 A Minerals Availability System Appraisal 
 
 by 
 
 G. R. Peterson,^ R. L. Davidoff,^ D. I. Bleiwas,^ and R. J. Fantel^ 
 
 ABSTRACT 
 
 In order to determine the potential availability of alumina to feed U.S. aluminum 
 smelters, tlie Bureau of Mines evaluated 39 domestic mines and deposits of bauxite, 
 alunite, and high-alumina clays and found that substantial increases in alumina 
 prices would be necessary before nonbauxitic deposits could become competitive 
 with bauxite. As part of the study, a price-tonnage relationship was developed indi- 
 cating the quantity of alumina that could be produced from known deposits at 
 various alumina prices and at a 15-pct discounted cash flow rate of return on the 
 required capital investment. All capital and operating costs were calculated In 
 August 1980 dollars. 
 
 The domestic bauxite reserve base comprises three operating bauxite mines 
 in Arkansas containing some 15.6 million metric tons of recoverable alumina 
 (AI2O3). Ferruginous bauxites, clays, and alunltes fall into the subeconomic cate- 
 gory of identified aluminum resources, which, at the demonstrated level, contain 
 over 4,000 million metric tons of alumina that are estimated to be recoverable. 
 Analyses indicate that, at the demonstrated resource level, a total of some 15.6 
 million metric tons of alumina, all from three active Arkansas bauxite mines, is 
 recoverable at a 1980 price of $0.12 per pound ($264 per metric ton) of alumina. 
 A price of approximately $0.26 per pound ($573 per metric ton) of alumina would 
 be required for production of the total U.S. resource. Thus, unless new technologi- 
 cal breakthroughs occur that could make alternate sources of alumina competitive 
 with bauxite, U.S. dependence upon imported bauxite will continue to increase. 
 
 ' Mineral economist. 
 ' Geologist. 
 
 All authors are with the Minerals Availability Field Office, Bureau of Mines, Denver, Colo. 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
 Aluminum use exceeds that of all other metals ex- 
 cept iron, yet 90 pet of the bauxite ore used in the 
 domestic production of aluminum is supplied from 
 foreign sources. Through the years, many technological 
 improvements have been made in producing aluminum 
 from bauxite, but the basic processes have been un- 
 changed since the metal first became available in com- 
 mercial quantities over 90 years ago. These processes 
 consist essentially of surface mining of bauxite, fol- 
 lowed by hydrometallurgical processing to produce 
 alumina (99.5 pet AI2O3), and then the reduction of the 
 alumina to aluminum metal by fused-salt electrolysis in 
 a molten bath of fluoride salts {20, p. 1).^ For each 
 4.5'* tons of bauxite fed into the alumina refinery, 2 tons 
 of alumina are produced, which in turn produces about 
 1 ton of aluminum. 
 
 The United States had become highly concerned 
 about its growing dependence on imported bauxite and 
 alumina by 1970, when the National Materials Advisory 
 Board was requested to prepare a report on "Processes 
 for Extracting Alumina From Nonbauxite Ores." It was 
 felt that a thorough investigation of the potential of 
 alternative sources of alumina from domestic ores was 
 in the national interest. Processing technologies for 
 clays have .been tested by the Bureau of Mines at the 
 miniplant stage since July 1973, and processing tech- 
 nologies for alunite have been tested in small pilot 
 plants by private companies. The Bureau of Mines also 
 operated a pilot plant in Laramie, Wyo., to produce 
 alumina from anorthosite. Costs developed for this re- 
 port were derived from feasibility studies based on 
 these tests using state-of-the-art technology. None of 
 these processing technologies has yet been developed 
 at a commercial scale. 
 
 U.S. concern over growing dependence on foreign 
 sources of bauxite intensified with the formation of the 
 International Bauxite Association (IBA) in 1974. The 
 IBA is comprised of 11 member nations and accounts 
 for 75 pet of the world production of bauxite and 48 pet 
 of the alumina. The fundamental objective of the IBA 
 has been to raise the revenues that its member nations 
 receive from their bauxite-alumina industries and, for 
 the longer term, to maximize the benefits from their 
 respective industries through national control of the 
 industry, collective purchasing agreements, and the 
 sharing of information and technology {17, p. ill). Amid 
 fears that the IBA would attempt to become a strict 
 cartel in emulation of the Organization of Petroleum 
 Exporting Countries (OPEC), the Bureau of Mines in- 
 tensified its investigation of the domestic potential of 
 nonbauxitic sources of alumina. 
 
 Currently, the only domestic commercial source of 
 alumina is bauxite ore. Although nearly 90 pet of U.S. 
 primary aluminum consumption is produced domes- 
 tically, domestic mine production represents less than 
 10 pet of the bauxite consumed in the United States. 
 Some 70 pet of domestic alumina consumption is pro- 
 duced in this country, which reflects the growing 
 reliance upon both imported bauxite and alumina. 
 
 Dependence upon imported bauxite and alumina for 
 the production of aluminum could be alleviated by 
 developing alternate sources of alumina in the United 
 States. Possible sources include other bauxite (ferrugi- 
 nous), clay, alunite, anorthosite, dawsonite contained in 
 oil shale, and coal ash. 
 
 The purpose of this study is to evaluate the potential 
 availability of cell-grade alumina from domestic re- 
 
 ' Underlined numbers in parentheses refer to items in the list of 
 
 references preceding the appendix. 
 
 * Unless otherwise noted, "tons" in the report refers to metric tons. 
 
 sources. Such an evaluation is an inherent element in 
 the formulation of a national mineral policy. The 
 methodology of this study is as follows: 
 
 1. To estimate capital investments and operating 
 costs for each deposit from the mining through re- 
 fining stages of production. 
 
 2. To evaluate the quantity and quality of potential 
 alumina production from domestic aluminum re- 
 sources in relation to physical, technological, 
 institutional, and other conditions that affect pro- 
 duction from each deposit. 
 
 3. To perform an economic analysis for each deposit. 
 The results of these analyses indicate the associ- 
 ated tonnages of alumina that could potentially 
 be produced at specific prices. 
 
 4. To combine and analyze the price-tonnage rela- 
 tionships for all deposits to illustrate the domestic 
 alumina production potential at various prices and 
 a 15-pct return on investment. 
 
 Results of this study are presented in terms of 
 alumina. One assumption of this study is that alumina 
 containing the same physical characteristics as alumina 
 produced from bauxite can be produced from non- 
 bauxitic sources. Preliminary evaluations indicate that 
 alumina, meeting current specifications, can be pro- 
 duced from alternate sources. In order to increase 
 revenues, many bauxite-exporting countries are inte- 
 grating forward into the production and export of 
 alumina. As this occurs, the United States will be forced 
 to import increasing quantities of alumina, rather than 
 bauxite, to feed domestic aluminum smelters. The 
 higher cost of these imports may make domestic non- 
 bauxitic sources of alumina more attractive if process- 
 ing technologies can be developed on a commercial 
 scale. As a result, the Bureau of Mines is focusing this 
 study on potential domestic nonbauxitic sources of 
 alumina rather than production of aluminum metal. 
 
 The data collected for this report are stored, re- 
 trieved, and analyzed in a computerized component of 
 the Minerals Availability System (MAS) {23). An eco- 
 nomic analysis is performed on each deposit to esti- 
 mate its average total cost of production at a 15-pct 
 discounted cash flow rate of return (DCFROR). This 
 determines a project's "incentive price" for alumina; 
 that is, the price at which a firm would be willing to 
 produce alumina over the long-run, where revenues are 
 sufficient to cover full costs, including a return on in- 
 vestment high enough to attract new capital {1, p. 1-25). 
 
 A total resource availability curve can be constructed 
 to show potential alumina production based upon each 
 deposit's "incentive price" to produce alumina. The 
 total resource availability curve is different from the 
 supply curve of traditional economic theory. It is an 
 aggregate or sum of total production potential from 
 each deposit at a stipulated commodity price that 
 covers the full cost of production for each deposit. 
 Each deposit's incentive price and its level of output 
 (or capacity) are assumed to remain constant over the 
 entire producing life of the mine. The curve provides 
 a concise, easy to read, graphic analysis of the po- 
 tential availability of a commodity at specified long-run 
 prices. Annual curves, as presented in this report, are 
 the total resource availability curve disaggregated on 
 an annual basis. The assumptions inherent in the total 
 resource availability curve also apply for the annual 
 curves. 
 
 The data required for this study were developed at 
 Bureau of Mines Field Operations Centers in Denver, 
 Colo., Pittsburgh, Pa., and Spokane, Wash. Personnel 
 
in these offices obtained tliis information from company 
 data, published data, and trips to the mines and de- 
 
 posits. Where necessary, data were calculated by the 
 evaluator. 
 
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 
 
 The authors wish to express their appreciation to 
 Horace F. Kurtz, Bureau of Mines Aluminum Commodity 
 Specialist, and Luke Baumgardner, Bureau of Mines 
 Bauxite Specialist, for their assistance in determining 
 the properties and associated resource tonnages in- 
 cluded in this report. The authors also wish to express 
 their appreciation to Kenneth Fitzpatrick and Robert C. 
 Steckley for their initial efforts in compiling this report. 
 The following Bureau of Mines personnel provided 
 the majority of data used in this study: 
 
 Eastern Field Operations Center, Pittsburgh, Pa.: 
 
 David G. Hartos 
 
 Joseph A. Hrabik 
 
 C. P. Mishra 
 
 Dale R. Spangenberg 
 
 David R. Wilburn 
 
 Intermountain Field Operations Center, Denver, Colo. 
 R. Craig Smith 
 Richard A. Salisbury 
 
 Western Field Operations Center, Spokane, Wash.: 
 David S. Lindsey 
 Burton B. Gosling 
 David A. Benjamin 
 George B. Gale 
 
 Minerals Availability Field Office, Denver, Colo.: 
 Edward H. Boyle, Jr. 
 Catherine C. Kilgore 
 Jim F. Lemons, Jr. 
 Dean P. Reynolds 
 Paul R. Thomas 
 
STRUCTURE OF THE ALUMINUM INDUSTRY 
 
 Currently, the only domestic commercial source of 
 primary aluminum is bauxite ore. Bauxite is a rock con- 
 taining aluminum hydroxide minerals and impurities. 
 Metallurgical-grade bauxite in Arkansas is mined using 
 open pit methods with pit depths reaching as much as 
 200 feet. In other countries, such as Jamaica and 
 Australia, there is very little overburden, and mining is 
 little more than an earth-moving operation. Operating 
 costs for open pit mining and onsite beneficiation can 
 vary greatly depending on transportation methods, de- 
 posit location, technology used, scale of operation, and 
 the characteristics of the overburden. Mining and bene- 
 ficiation costs for domestic bauxite (not including 
 transportation) range up to $15.00 per ton of bauxite 
 ore (August 1980 dollars). Imported bauxite costs 
 approximately $32 per ton including taxes and trans- 
 portation. Transportation costs can amount to as much 
 as 50 pet of the bauxite price. 
 
 Using the standard Bayer process, bauxite is leached 
 with caustic soda under heat and pressure to convert 
 the aluminum hydroxides to sodium aluminate, which 
 can then be converted to cell-grade alumina (+99.5 pet 
 AI2O3). The IBA has estimated that a new "green fields" 
 alumina refinery in the Caribbean would be able to 
 produce alumina for a total operating cost of approxi- 
 mately $275 per ton {10, p. 31). The most important 
 production elements from a cost point of view are the 
 cost of bauxite (including taxes), return on capital, 
 energy, and depreciation. A representative market price 
 for domestically produced alumina is currently around 
 $255 per ton. 
 
 The alumina, in turn, is reduced to metallic aluminum 
 using the Hall-Heroult process. This process uses large 
 electrolytic cells and is extremely energy intensive, 
 requiring 15,000 to 20,000 kwhr of electricity per ton of 
 primary aluminum. Energy can account for 40 to 50 pet 
 of the total costs of producing aluminum ingot from 
 bauxite (15). Domestic aluminum smelters consumed 
 some 78 billion kwhr of electricity in 1978 to produce 
 10.4 billion pounds of primary ingot, 10 pet of total 
 electricity consumption by U.S. industry in that year 
 (8, p. 24). Technological improvements have enabled 
 energy usage in aluminum smelting to decrease slightly 
 over the past several years. A new process developed 
 by ALCOA, under development at the ALCOA plant in 
 Palestine, Tex., claims up to a 30-pct saving in energy 
 consumption {14, p. 2). 
 
 A representative cost (in August 1980) for smelting 
 aluminum metal from alumina, including the cost of the 
 alumina, was approximately $0.69 per pound of alumi- 
 num ($1,521 per ton) for a typical smelter having a 
 capacity in the range of 100,000 to 150,000 tons per 
 year of output. Information on the smelting of alumina 
 into aluminum is given by Herbert and Castle (5), 
 Hoppe (6), and the IBA (8). 
 
 Approximately 86.8 million tons of bauxite was pro- 
 duced in the world in 1979 (table 1), of which 22 pet 
 was provided by Jamaica, Guyana, and Surinam. 
 Australia and Guinea accounted for an additional 46 
 pet. In all, the 11 IBA countries accounted for approxi- 
 mately 75 pet of the world's bauxite output in 1979. 
 The United States imported 13.8 million tons of bauxite 
 in 1979 (table 2), 69 pet from the Caribbean. The above 
 statistic illustrates the regional character of trade in 
 bauxite because of high shipping costs. Most of 
 Australia's output is exported to Japan, while bauxite 
 produced in West Africa is sold in Europe. 
 
 The United States also imported 3.8 million tons of 
 alumina in 1979 (table 3), of which 76 pet originated in 
 Australia. The trend towards refining alumina in bauxite- 
 
 producing countries is an important structural change 
 in the alumina industry that began about 20 years ago 
 and has continued to evolve. In order to reduce ship- 
 ping costs and to take advantage of lower quality 
 reserves, the aluminum companies began to build 
 alumina plants in the bauxite-producing countries to 
 
 Table 1. — World bauxite production 
 
 (1,000 metric tons) 
 
 1976 
 
 1977 
 
 1978 
 
 1979 
 
 27,583 
 
 570 
 
 300 
 
 12,500 
 
 2,400 
 
 530 
 
 1,000 
 
 11,574 
 
 720 
 
 5,000 
 
 3,012 
 
 65,189 
 
 IBA member countries: 
 
 Australia 24,084 26,086 24,293 
 
 Dominican Republic .... 517 583 568 
 
 Ghana 272 244 328 
 
 Guinea 11,316 11,300 12,000 
 
 Guyana 2,686 2,731 2,400 
 
 Haiti 660 588 580 
 
 Indonesia 940 1,301 1,008 
 
 Jamaica 10,312 11,433 11,736 
 
 Sierra Leone 651 745 716 
 
 Surinam 4,587 4,856 5,025 
 
 Yugoslavia 2,033 2,044 2,566 
 
 TotallBA 58,058 61,911 61,220 
 
 Other countries: 
 
 Brazil 827 1,120 1,160 
 
 France 2,330 2,059 1 ,990 
 
 Greece 2,551 2,984 2,630 
 
 Hungary 2,918 2,949 2,899 
 
 India 1,448 1,511 1,653 
 
 Malaysia 660 616 615 
 
 United States 1,989 2,013 1,669 
 
 U.S.S.R 4,500 4,600 4,600 
 
 Others 2,182 2,611 2,593 
 
 Total other countries. . 19,405 20,463 19,809 
 
 World total 77,463 82,374 81 ,029 
 
 Percent IBA 75 75 76 
 
 2,400 
 2,000 
 2,915 
 3,000 
 1,600 
 700 
 1,821 
 4,600 
 2,589 
 
 21,625 
 
 86,814 
 75 
 
 Table 2. — U.S. imports of crude and dried bauxite 
 
 (1,000 metric tons) 
 
 Country 1977 1978 1979 
 
 IBA member countries: 
 
 Australia 19 
 
 Dominican Republic 583 628 551 
 
 Guinea 3,030 3,363 3,924 
 
 Guyana 380 419 425 
 
 Haiti 587 588 572 
 
 Jamaica 6,354 6,448 6,469 
 
 Sierra Leone 80 107 141 
 
 Surinam 1,918 2,259 1,520 
 
 TotallBA 12,932 13,831 13,602 
 
 Other countries: 
 
 Greece 57 3 10 
 
 Trinidad 13 
 
 Brazil 168 
 
 Grand total 12,989 13,847 13,780 
 
 Percent IBA 99.5 99.9 98.7 
 
 Table 3. — U.S. imports of alumina 
 
 (1,000 metric tons) 
 
 Country 1977 1978 
 
 IBA member countries: 
 
 Australia 2,590 2,879 
 
 Guyana 54 30 
 
 Jamaica 629 628 
 
 Surinam 382 382 
 
 Total IBA 3,655 3,919 
 
 Other countries 105 48 
 
 Total 3.760 3,967 
 
 Percent IBA 97 99 
 
 1979 
 
 2,938 
 
 18 
 
 587 
 
 239 
 
 3,782 
 55 
 
 3.837 
 
 99 
 
6 
 
 convert the bauxite before shipping. Shipping costs 
 can be cut in half by converting bauxite into alumina 
 at the point of bauxite production. The bauxite-produc- 
 ing countries have also pushed for more at-home 
 alumina production because of the economic contri- 
 bution provided by the value added from the further 
 processing of bauxite into alumina. Overall, 1 ton of 
 alumina is worth approximately 7 tons of bauxite ex- 
 ported as raw ore. In 1960, only 10 pet of the total 
 world production of alumina was in the lesser de- 
 veloped country (LDC) bauxite producers. This per- 
 centage has grown steadily, to 34 pet in 1975 {13, p. 14). 
 
 The world aluminum industry is an oligopoly domi- 
 nated by six multinational firms: Alcan Aluminum Ltd., 
 Aluminum Company of America (ALCOA), Reynolds 
 Metals Co., Kaiser Aluminum and Chemical Corp., 
 Pechiney Ugine Kuhlmann (PUK), and Swiss Aluminum 
 Ltd. (Alusuisse). These companies are fully integrated, 
 occupying strategic positions in the industry from raw 
 materials production to marketing both the metal and 
 end-products. Nearly 50 pet of total world capacity of 
 bauxite, alumina, and aluminum is under their control. 
 Moreover, through a variety of consortia arrangements, 
 one or several of these firms is associated with practi- 
 cally all new projects of international significance 
 within the industry. 
 
 In addition to these major international firms, there 
 are some 50 others whose aluminum operations are 
 more restricted in scope but which account for about 
 one-fourth of world production capacity for bauxite, 
 alumina, and metal. Most of these producers are non- 
 Integrated, and some are owned by, or associated with, 
 
 governments or the six large international aluminum 
 companies {20, p. 4). Some 19 percent of world 
 aluminum production capacity is controlled by the com- 
 munist governments, and the balance is accounted for 
 by governments of other countries. 
 
 Of the 12 domestic firms producing primary alumi- 
 num metal in the United States in 1979, seven owned 
 bauxite and/or alumina facilities in the Caribbean area. 
 South America, Guinea, or Australia and imported these 
 raw materials. 
 
 The six large international aluminum companies 
 dominate the market for aluminum metal and metal 
 goods. Producers' prices show a high degree of corre- 
 spondence and stability. A growing free market exists 
 in which metal from nonintegrated producers is offered 
 on the London Metal Exchange (LME) on both a spot 
 and forward basis. The prices on the LME are tied less 
 to the producers' prices and, more commonly, tend to 
 fluctuate in consonance with those of the LME quota- 
 tions for other nonferrous metals {18, p. 115). Aluminum 
 prices stayed remarkably stable, both in current dollar 
 and in real terms, throughout the 1960's. Since 1974, 
 worldwide inflation, costs for bauxite from IBA member 
 countries and the rising costs of energy have been 
 factors in causing the aluminum price to increase 
 approximately threefold as of August 1980. 
 
 LOCATION OF DOMESTIC REFINERIES 
 AND SMELTERS 
 
 Locations of domestic alumina refineries and alumi- 
 num smelters including operating facilities and projects 
 in the planning or building stages are shown in figure 1. 
 
 Figure 1. — Location of domestic alumina refineries and aluminum smelters. 
 
The Arkansas operations utilize both locally mined and 
 imported bauxite and energy from nearby sources. 
 Most domestic alumina refineries are located along the 
 Gulf Coast near deep-water ports to receive bauxite 
 imported from the Caribbean area, and use natural gas 
 or oil from local sources. 
 
 The aluminum smelters are located near large elec- 
 tric energy sources because of the large quantities of 
 electric power necessary to convert alumina to alumi- 
 num. Hydroelectric power is the cheapest form of 
 energy for smelters, and, as a result, most smelters are 
 located near hydroelectric power installations in the 
 Pacific Northwest, the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) 
 area, and Niagara Falls. Some plants in the East re- 
 ceive their energy mainly from coal- or oil-fired thermal 
 powerplants or from nuclear installations. Some of 
 these smelters have a competitive disadvantage in 
 terms of energy cost, but are located close to the 
 markets that they serve. 
 
 Some 35 pet of the total domestic aluminum capacity 
 is in the Pacific Northwest, which receives hydro- 
 electric power from the Bonneville Power Authority 
 (BPA). These power contracts with aluminum com- 
 panies expire in the mid-1980's, after which the BPA 
 is required by law to reassign its hydroelectric power 
 to utility companies before making any direct alloca- 
 tions to smelters (8, p. 24). Any direct allocations will 
 most certainly be at a much higher cost. Moreover, 
 there has been an increase in population and industrial 
 growth in the area, providing further competition to the 
 aluminum industry for energy. Utilities in a position 
 to negotiate regular price reviews, like TVA, are tend- 
 ing to insist on new prices reflecting costs of coal- or 
 oil-fired power stations {13, p. 31). Increased fossil fuel 
 costs, environmental restrictions on smelters, and the 
 current moratorium on nuclear energy construction are 
 problems that affect other domestic regions as well. 
 
 As a result, the industry has been reluctant to expand 
 domestic primary production capacity, and companies 
 have instead focused their attention towards develop- 
 ing "green field" projects offshore in countries such 
 as Australia, Brazil, Cameroon, Ghana, and Indonesia. 
 
 IMPORTANCE OF SECONDARY (SCRAP) 
 RECOVERY TO THE INDUSTRY 
 
 Recovery of purchased scrap contributes some 25 
 pet of the total domestic supply of aluminum. Scrap is 
 divided into two main categories: new scrap and old 
 
 scrap. New scrap is generated in the manufacture of 
 primary aluminum, semifabricated aluminum mill prod- 
 ucts, or finished industrial and consumer products. It 
 is aluminum that is not sold in the form of an end-use 
 product and includes solids, such as new casting scrap; 
 clippings or cuttings of new sheet, rod, wire, and cable; 
 borings and turnings from the machining of aluminum 
 parts; and residues, drosses, skimmings, spillings, 
 sweepings, and foil {20, p. 7). Old scrap comes from 
 discarded, used, and worn-out products. It includes 
 aluminum engine or body parts from junked cars, used 
 aluminum cans and utensils, and old wire and cable. 
 The proportion of total dometic metal consumption met 
 by the recovery of old scrap amounted to about 10 pet 
 in 1979 {11). 
 
 DEMAND FOR ALUMINUM 
 
 Between the years 1975 and 2000, primary aluminum 
 demand is expected to increase threefold with an 
 average annual rate of growth estimated from 4 pet (72) 
 to 5.3 pet {20). This rate of growth is slightly lower than 
 the estimated rate of growth for the world as a whole 
 over the same period. The United States will likely 
 remain the world's largest consumer and one of the 
 world's largest producers of aluminum during this 
 period. 
 
 U.S. dependence on foreign primary aluminum pro- 
 duction is growing. One estimate {28, p. 33) forecasts 
 that domestic bauxite production will satisfy a de- 
 creasing share of demand, that alumina refining will 
 drop from over a 70-pct share in the U.S. market in 
 1977 to under 40 pet by the year 2000, and that do- 
 mestic aluminum smelting will drop from over 90 pet 
 to 80 pet during the same period. At the same time, 
 user segments of the domestic market continue to 
 grow. In 1979, the major domestic markets, in descend- 
 ing order of market share, were building and construc- 
 tion, transportation, electrical, consumer durables, and 
 machinery and equipment. In housing, the demand is 
 growing for roofing, window frames, aluminum siding, 
 and insulation. In durables more aluminum is being 
 used to improve efficiency and to increase service life. 
 In the electrical sector, aluminum is mainly used for 
 overhead power transmission lines. In transportation 
 the weight of vehicles is decreased by substituting 
 aluminum alloys for steel. Finally, in packaging, the 
 use of recyclable beverage cans is increasing. 
 
ESTIMATION OF DOMESTIC ALUMINUM RESOURCES AND COST DATA 
 
 Currently, the only domestic production of alumina 
 is from bauxite. Other potential domestic sources of 
 alumina include ferruginous bauxites, clays, alunites, 
 and anorthosites, none of which are currently being 
 exploited. The extraction of alumina from all these 
 potential sources, except for anorthosites, is presently 
 considered feasible from an engineering view; however, 
 none is currently economic. 
 
 For the deposits analyzed in this report, tonnage 
 estimates were made at the demonstrated and identified 
 resource levels according to the new mineral resource- 
 reserve classification system developed jointly by the 
 U.S. Geological Survey and the Bureau of Mines (27). 
 The demonstrated resource category includes meas- 
 ured plus indicated tonnages, and the identified re- 
 source category includes measured plus indicated plus 
 inferred tonnages. 
 
 Selection of deposits for this study was limited to 
 significant, known deposits that have demonstrated or 
 identified reserves or resources. Reserves are material 
 that can be mined, processed, and marketed at a profit 
 under the economic and technologic conditions pre- 
 vailing at the time of the evaluation. Resources are 
 concentrations of naturally occurring solid, liquid, or 
 gaseous materials in or on the Earth's crust in such 
 form that economic extraction of a commodity is 
 currently or potentially feasible. 
 
 Most reserve and resource tonnage and grade calcu- 
 lations presented in this paper have been computed 
 partly from specific measurements, samples, or pro- 
 duction data and partly from estimations made on 
 geologic evidence. Using these estimates, domestic 
 aluminum resources were classified into two main 
 
 categories: the domestic bauxite reserve base and 
 subeconomic aluminum resources. 
 
 The bauxite reserve base is the in-place portion of 
 demonstrated resources from which reserves are esti- 
 mated. The reserve base includes resources that have 
 the probability of being economically available and is 
 composed of resource categories that are economic 
 (reserves), marginally economic (marginal reserves), 
 and a portion of subeconomic (resources). The position 
 of the bauxite reserve base within the classification of 
 mineral resources is illustrated in figure 2. 
 
 The domestic reserve base for aluminum is com- 
 prised of three bauxite deposits in Arkansas. Bauxite 
 deposits in Alabama and Georgia are not included in 
 this category because they are mined primarily for 
 alumina used in abrasives, chemicals, and refractories. 
 Ferruginous bauxites, clays, and alunites fall into the 
 subeconomic category of identified resources, shown 
 below the reserve base category on figure 2. The sub- 
 economic category of identified resources was not con- 
 sidered in this study as constituting part of the reserve 
 base for aluminum owing to the technological un- 
 certainty inherent in processing nonbauxitic sources 
 of alumina. As the processing technologies for non- 
 bauxitic sources of alumina approach development on 
 a commercial scale, these deposits will likely be 
 reclassified as part of the reserve base for aluminum. 
 The anorthosites fall into the "other occurrences" of 
 identified resources. They are categorized as such 
 owing to the extremely high energy requirements for 
 processing anorthosite using the lime-soda sinter 
 process and the unresolved problem of gelation in 
 liquid-solid separation. However, anorthosites would 
 
 Cumulative 
 Production 
 
 IDENTIFIED RESOURCES 
 
 Demonstrated 
 
 Measured Indicated 
 
 Inferred 
 
 UNDISCOVERED RESOURCES 
 
 Hypothetical 
 
 Probability Range 
 -(or)- 
 
 Speculative 
 
 ECONOMIC 
 
 MARGINALLY 
 ECONOMIC 
 
 SUB- 
 ECONOMIC 
 
 Reserve 
 
 Base 
 
 Inferred 
 
 Reserve 
 
 Base 
 
 + 
 
 -f 
 
 other 
 Occurrences 
 
 Includes nonconventional and low-grade materials 
 
 Figure 2. — Reserve base and inferred reserve base classification categories. 
 
likely be reclassified as part of the reserve base for 
 aluminum as well, pending future technological 
 developments. 
 
 After a deposit had been selected for inclusion in the 
 analysis, an evaluation of the property was begun. The 
 flow of the MAS evaluation process from deposit identi- 
 fication to development of supply information is illus- 
 trated in figure 3. This flowsheet demonstrates the 
 various evaluation stages required to estimate the 
 potential availability of domestic alumina. 
 
 For bauxite mines currently in production, the de- 
 signed mining and processing production rates and 
 capacities and other available production specifics were 
 adapted for use in this study. For deposits not in pro- 
 duction, appropriate mining and concentrating methods, 
 production rates, and other production parameters 
 were assumed using operating open pit mines as 
 models and current engineering principles. 
 
 Where available, actual mining capital and operating 
 costs were used. However, because of a lack of cost 
 data available, in many cases costs were either esti- 
 mated by standardized costing techniques or derived 
 from the Bureau of Mines capital and operating cost 
 manual (22). Estimates based on this manual have 
 historically shown a reliability within 25 pet of actual 
 costs. 
 
 Processing methods and their costs for nonbauxitic 
 sources of alumina were estimated using feasibility 
 studies based on data obtained from pilot plant and 
 miniplant testing. 
 
 Information on the average grades, ore tonnages, 
 and different physical characteristics affecting produc- 
 tion from domestic alumina deposits was obtained from 
 numerous sources, including Bureau of Mines, Geo- 
 logical Survey and State publications, professional 
 journals, industry publications, annual reports, com- 
 pany 10K reports and prospectuses filed with the 
 Securities and Exchange Commission, and data made 
 available to the Bureau of Mines by private companies. 
 The knowledge and expertise of Bureau of Mines per- 
 sonnel were utilized in many cases. 
 
 Capital expenditures were calculated for exploration, 
 acquisition, development, mine plant and equipment, 
 
 and for constructing and equipping the mill plant. The 
 capital expenditures for the different mining and 
 processing facilities include the costs of mobile and 
 stationary equipment, construction, engineering, facili- 
 ties and utilities, and working capital. Facilities and 
 utilities (infrastructure) is a broad category that in- 
 cludes the costs of access and haulage facilities, water 
 facilities, power supply, and personnel accommoda- 
 tions. Working capital is a revolving cash fund required 
 for operating expenses such as labor, supplies, taxes, 
 and insurance. 
 
 The total operating cost of a project is a combina- 
 tion of direct and indirect costs. Direct operating costs 
 include materials, utilities, direct and maintenance 
 labor, and payroll overhead. Indirect operating costs 
 include technical and clerical labor, administrative 
 costs, facilities maintenance and supplies, and re- 
 search. Other costs in the analysis are fixed charges, 
 including local taxes, insurance, depreciation, deferred 
 expenses, interest payments (if any), and return on 
 investment. 
 
 The next step of the evaluation process was to per- 
 form an economic evaluation for each property. Using 
 the data developed by the Bureau's Field Operations 
 Centers, computerized analysis of each property was 
 performed. For properties not now in production, all 
 capital costs were converted to August 1980 dollars. 
 For bauxite mines currently producing, the undepreci- 
 ated capital investment remaining in 1980 was calcu- 
 lated. All reinvestment, operating, and transportation 
 costs were converted to August 1980 dollars. 
 
 The Bureau of Mines has developed the Supply 
 Analysis Model (SAM) to determine the deposit's 
 primary commodity "incentive price" required to stimu- 
 late production and provide a stipulated rate of return 
 on the required investment (3). The rate of return used 
 in this study is the discounted cash flow rate of return 
 (DCFROR), which is most commonly defined as the 
 rate of return that makes the present worth of cash 
 flow from an investment equal to the present worth of 
 all after-tax investments {21, p. 232). For this study, a 
 15-pct DCFROR was considered as a necessary rate of 
 
 
 dentif ication 
 and 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Minera 1 ' 
 
 Industries 1 
 
 Location 1 
 
 ' System 1 
 
 1 (MILS) 1 
 
 1 data J 
 
 MAS 
 
 compufer 
 
 data 
 
 base 
 
 selection 
 of deposits 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Tonnage 
 
 and grade 
 
 determination 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 Engineering 
 
 and cost 
 
 eva 1 u at ion 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 r r 
 
 
 Deposit 
 
 report 
 
 preparation 
 
 MAS 
 
 permanent 
 
 de posit 
 
 files 
 
 
 r 
 
 1 
 
 r 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Economic 
 factors 
 
 Data 
 
 selection and 
 
 validation 
 
 Financial 
 
 analysis 
 
 Availability 
 
 curve 
 generation 
 
 
 Availability 
 curves 
 
 Figure 3. — Flow chart of evaluation procedure. 
 
10 
 
 return in order to cover the opportunity cost of capital 
 plus risk. 
 
 Individual deposit tonnage-price data were then 
 aggregated by the SAM to construct the resource avail- 
 ability curves presented in this study. The study was 
 conducted in constant August 1980 dollars. No escala- 
 tion of either costs or prices was included, since it 
 was assumed that any increase in costs would be offset 
 by an increase in prices. 
 
 Tables 4 and 5 present individual deposit information 
 by type of deposit and state, and figure 4 shows the 
 location of the properties. The numbers on the map 
 (fig. 4) refer to the map index number for the deposit 
 shown in tables 4 and 5. Ownership and control data 
 for each property are presented in the appendix 
 (table A-1). 
 
 Tonnage estimates presented in this study are re- 
 ported in metric tons. For converting from metric tons 
 to short tons, multiply by 1.10231. 
 
 Table 4. — Property type, status, and resource data^ 
 
 Demonstrated, Identified, 
 
 million tons million tons 
 
 Map Grade, 
 
 Property type index Current pet Mineralized Contained Mineralized Contained 
 
 and name State numbers^ status' AI2O3 material AI2O3 material AI2O3 
 
 ALUNITE 
 
 Pat Property Arizona 30 Exp W 91 11 
 
 A-C Property Colorado 29 Exp 12.00 91 11 
 
 Calico Peak Colorado 27 Exp 12.00 W W 
 
 L-C Property Colorado 28 Exp W W W 
 
 N-G Property Utah 23 Exp W W W W W 
 
 P-V Property Utah 24 Exp W W W W W 
 
 S-X Property . . . '. Utah 25 Exp W W W W W 
 
 White Mountain Utah 26 Exp W W W W W 
 
 Total NAp NAp NAp NAp 186 26 764 101 
 
 BAUXITE 
 
 Alcoa bauxite Arkansas 35 Prd W W W W W 
 
 Quapaw bauxite* Arkansas 36 Prd W W W W W 
 
 Reynolds Arkansas 37 Prd W W W W W 
 
 Total NAp NAp NAp NAp 38 18 = 38 18 
 
 FERRUGINOUS BAUXITE 
 
 Kauai (EC) Hawaii 3 Exp 17.60 44 8 93 16 
 
 Kauai (NE) Hawaii 2 Exp 16.70 66 11 98 16 
 
 Kauai (SE) Hawaii 1 Exp 17.40 37 6 54 9 
 
 Maui Hawaii 4 Exp 22.20 43 10 
 
 Columbia County Oregon 8 Exp W W W W W 
 
 Salem Hills bauxite Oregon 9 Exp W W W W W 
 
 Washington-Multnomah Oregon 7 Exp W W W W W 
 
 Cowlitz-Wahiakum Washington 6 Exp W W W W W 
 
 Total NAp NAp NAp NAp 224 47 378 77 
 
 CLAY 
 
 Saline County clay Arkansas 38 Exp 35.00 75 26 100 35 
 
 lone clays California 21 Ppd 26.00 49 13 162 42 
 
 Americus Georgia 42 Dev 26.70 2,400 641 3,600 961 
 
 Sandersville Macon Georgia 43 Dev 26.60 2,400 638 3,600 958 
 
 Wrens kaolin Georgia 44 Dev 29.20 9,600 2,803 12,000 3,504 
 
 Bovill clay Idaho 13 Prd 19.50 21 4 43 8 
 
 Canfield/ Rogers Idaho 14 Ppd 14.50 12 2 204 30 
 
 Olson/Stanford Idaho 12 Exp 17.50 114 20 114 20 
 
 Union County clays Illinois 39 Ppd 28.30 98 28 294 83 
 
 North District fireclay Missouri 34 Exp 33.00 450 149 450 149 
 
 Wilcox kaolin Mississippi 41 Dev 27.50 11 3 50 14 
 
 Belt clay Montana 18 Ppd 26.10 28 7 
 
 Kiowa County clays Oklahoma 32 Exp 23.00 53 12 
 
 Hobart Butte Oregon 11 Ppd 24.40 64 16 94 23 
 
 Molalla clay Oregon 10 Exp 19.10 67 13 94 18 
 
 Ackerman kaolin Tennessee 40 Dev 26.70 11 3 54 14 
 
 Medley kaolin Texas 31 Exp 26.00 6 2 23 6 
 
 Monkton kaolin Vermont 50 Ppd 24.20 17 4 33 8 
 
 North Bennington Vermont 51 Ppd 23.30 9 2 11 3 
 
 Cowlitz clay Washington 5 Exp 19.70 137 27 
 
 Total NAp NAp NAp NAp 15,404 4,367 21,144 5,922 
 
 Grand total NAp NAp NAp NAp 15,852 4,458 22,324 6.118 
 
 W Withheld to avoid disclosing individual company confidential data. NAp Not applicable. 
 
 ' All mines/deposits are mined or proposed to be mined by open pit methods. 
 
 ^ Map index numbers refer to map on figure 4. 
 
 ' Prd— Producer; Dev— Developed deposit; Exp— Explored deposit; Ppd— Past producer. 
 
 * Quapaw currently produces bauxite for chemical uses only. This bauxite is amenable to processing into alumina if needed. 
 
 ' Domestic reserve base. 
 
11 
 
 20 
 
 46* 
 
 
 49 
 
 45*, 
 
 30 
 
 32 
 **33 
 
 34* 
 
 , 35, 36, 37 
 
 ^39 i 
 
 • 40 
 
 4H 
 
 38 
 
 43 
 
 \42 
 
 44 
 
 LEGEND 
 
 /V Active bauxite operations 
 
 * Ferruginous bauxite deposits 
 
 • Clay deposits 
 
 ■ Alunite deposits 
 
 ♦ Anorthosite deposits 
 
 
 
 \ 3, 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 c 
 
 1,2, 
 
 3 <c> 
 
 .\ 
 
 
 
 '<^ 
 
 
 
 Hawaii 
 
 c> 
 
 
 Figure 4. — Location of domestic alumina properties. 
 
 Table 5. — Property type, status, and resource data for anorthosite deposits^ 
 
 Demonstrated, 
 million tons 
 
 Map Grade, 
 
 Index Current percent Mineralized Contained 
 
 Property name State numbers^ status^ AI2O3 material AI2O3 
 
 San Gabriel California 22 Exp 27.00 16,200 30,000 
 
 Boehls Idaho 17 Exp 29.00 1,000 290 
 
 Cedar Creek Idaho 16 Exp 29.00 1,600 464 
 
 Goat Mountain Idaho 15 Exp 29.00 2,000 580 
 
 Stillwater anorthosite Montana 19 Exp 30.00 4,000 1,200 
 
 13th Lake anorthosite New York 49 Dev 25.50 10,200 2,601 
 
 Adirondack Park New York 48 Exp 25.50 350,000 89,250 
 
 Carthage anorthosite New York 46 Exp 25.50 500 128 
 
 Rand Hill anorthosite New York 47 Exp 24.50 2,660 652 
 
 Raggedy Mountain Gabbroic Oklahoma 33 Exp 28.00 1,380 386 
 
 Corry Peat Products Pensylvania 45 Exp 25.50 1,000 255 
 
 Laramie Range Wyoming 20 Exp 27.00 65,000 17,550 
 
 Total NAp N Ap NAp NAp 469,340 121 ,456 
 
 NA Not applicable. 
 
 ' Anorthosites are not included in the reserve base but have potential for future production. 
 
 ^ Map index number refers to map on figure 4. 
 
 ' Exp— Explored prospect; Dev— Developing prospect; all deposits are proposed to be mined by open pit methods. 
 
 Identified, 
 million tons 
 
 Mineralized 
 material 
 
 Contained 
 AhOa 
 
 8,100 
 2,000 
 3,200 
 4,000 
 8,000 
 10,200 
 
 350,000 
 
 500 
 
 2,660 
 
 5,000 
 
 2,000 
 
 130,000 
 
 577,560 
 
 60,000 
 
 580 
 
 928 
 
 1,160 
 
 2,400 
 
 2,601 
 
 89,250 
 
 128 
 
 652 
 
 1,400 
 
 510 
 
 35,100 
 
 150,909 
 
12 
 
 TYPES OF DEPOSITS 
 
 GENERAL 
 
 Aluminum, the third most abundant element in the 
 Earth's crust, occurs in combined form in virtually 
 every geologic setting. In this study, a deposit is con- 
 sidered as a potential source of alumina if it contains 
 aluminum significantly greater than the average crustal 
 abundance, may be amenable to chemical separation 
 on a commercial scale, and has future economic 
 potential. Currently, only bauxite ore is mined and 
 refined to alumina and smelted to metallic aluminum. 
 One of this study's criteria for a potential alumina 
 source is that smelting grade alumina can be produced. 
 
 General types of deposits analyzed in this study are 
 described in the following paragraphs. 
 
 BAUXITES 
 
 Bauxite, the principal ore of aluminum, is composed 
 of aluminum hydroxide minerals w/ith impurities of free 
 silica, clay, silt, and iron hydroxides (24). Bauxite is 
 formed as a residual soil in humid, tropical, or sub- 
 tropical regions where good drainage is present. Under 
 the extreme weathering conditions common to tropical 
 climates, the iron and aluminum silicates are decom- 
 posed and'Silica, with many other elements, is removed 
 by leaching through downward percolation of water. 
 Bauxite deposits typically assay 28 to 55 pet AI2O3. 
 
 Domestic metallurgical-grade bauxite deposits ana- 
 lyzed include the ALCOA, Quapaw, and Reynolds 
 deposits of Arkansas and the ferruginous bauxite de- 
 posits located in Oregon, Washington, and Hawaii. 
 
 CLAYS 
 
 Clays are fine-grained, earthy materials composed 
 mainly of hydrous aluminum silicates (24). They may 
 be predominantly one clay mineral or mixtures of clay 
 minerals and nonclay materials. Clay minerals include 
 kaolin, montmorillonite, illite, and halloysite. Domesti- 
 cally, the best clays are high-alumina kaolinites formed 
 by chemical weathering of crystalline rocks. Kaolin 
 clays are the only clays considered in this study as a 
 potential raw material for aluminum based upon known 
 processing technology. A typical representation of 
 kaolinite deposits in this study are those located in 
 Georgia, which average 28.3 pet AI2O3. 
 
 Twenty clay deposits were analyzed in this study, 
 including those found in Arizona, California, Georgia, 
 Idaho, Illinois, Mississippi, Missouri, Montana, Okla- 
 
 homa, Oregon, Tennessee, Texas, Vermont, and 
 Washington. 
 
 ALUNITES 
 
 The mineral alunite is a sulfate of potassium and 
 aluminum formed by sulfateric action of hot acid waters 
 upon feldspathic rocks. Alunite deposits can occur as 
 fine-grained and massive rock but can also be altered 
 under similar conditions to alunite with clays and, in 
 some cases, to mostly kaolinitic clays. 
 
 Alunite contains an average of 37 pet AI2O3, but the 
 eight deposits analyzed in this study are diluted with 
 country rock to as little as 11 pet AI2O3. These de- 
 posits are located in Arizona, Colorado, and Utah. 
 
 ANORTHOSITES 
 
 Anorthosite is a plutonic igneous rock composed 
 almost entirely of plagioclase feldspar, which is usually 
 labradorite. Labradorite is a lime-soda aluminosilicate, 
 a plagioclase feldspar intermediate between anorthite 
 and albite. Anorthosites are usually large rock bodies 
 exposed in the cores of older mountain ranges. As a 
 group they constitute possibly the largest potential 
 resource of aluminum, with grades averaging about 
 27 pet AI2O3; unfortunately, current state-of-the-art 
 technology does not provide a feasible process for 
 alumina recovery from anorthosites. Therefore, anor- 
 thosite deposits are not included in this study's analysis 
 of availability from domestic resources. A list of anor- 
 thosite deposits is given in table 5. (See figure 4.) 
 
 DAWSONITE 
 
 A potentially economic occurrence of the mineral 
 dawsonite is located in the so-called oil shales of the 
 Piceance Creek Basin in Colorado. Oil shale aver- 
 ages some 12 pet dawsonite, which in its pure form 
 Na3AI(C03)3.2AI(OH)3 contains 35.4 pet AI2O3 and is 
 considered 65 to 75 pet recoverable (7). However, as 
 a percentage of whole rock, recoverable alumina from 
 dawsonite amounts to only 2 to 3 pet. While oil shale 
 resources may amount to billions of tons, demonstrated 
 reserves of dawsonite have not yet been delineated, 
 and any economic recovery of alumina is entirely de- 
 pendent upon the mining of oil shale; therefore, daw- 
 sonite can only be considered as a potential aluminum 
 resource prior to development of an oil shale industry. 
 
13 
 
 REFINERY TECHNOLOGY 
 
 The physical nature and chemical composition of 
 potential ore dictate the type of extraction technology. 
 All the refining techniques considered in this report 
 require chemical leaching of ore followed by the pre- 
 cipitation of an alumina-bearing intermediate product. 
 Usually, the intermediate product, hydroxide or chloride 
 (depending on the extraction process), is then calcined 
 to aluminum oxide (alumina). 
 
 The following processes have been selected for 
 treatment of the various aluminum-bearing resources 
 included in this study. 
 
 BAYER PROCESS FOR BAUXITES 
 
 High-silica bauxites presently mined in Arkansas are 
 amenable to the combination Bayer process, whereas 
 the ferruginous bauxite of Hawaii and the Pacific North- 
 west could possibly use a modified classic Bayer 
 process. Approximately 2 pet of mineralized material at 
 the demonstrated level may be processed using this 
 technology. 
 
 In the classic Bayer process, aluminum and other 
 soluble elements in bauxite are dissolved at elevated 
 temperatures and pressures in a hot, strong alkali 
 solution, generally NaOH, to form sodium aluminate. 
 After separation of the "red mud" tails, the sodium 
 aluminate solution is cooled and seeded, and aluminum 
 trihydrate is precipitated in a controlled form. The 
 trihydrate is dewatered and calcined to the anhydrous 
 crystalline form, alumina. This is the most suitable form 
 for later use in the electrolytic reduction to aluminum 
 metal using the Hall-Heroult process. This form is 
 traded commercially and can be used in feedstock, 
 abrasives, or chemical alums. 
 
 High-silica bauxites such as those from Arkansas 
 require additional processing for optimum separation 
 of alumina. The Combination Process is applied to the 
 red mud residue from the standard Bayer processing 
 to extract additional amounts of alumina and to recover 
 sodium values [26). 
 
 The additional extraction step consists of mixing the 
 red mud with limestone and sodium carbonate, and 
 then sintering the mixture. The silica is converted to 
 calcium silicate and the residual alumina to sodium 
 aluminate. The sintered products are water leached to 
 produce sodium aluminate solution, which is filtered to 
 remove undigested solids and rejoined with the main- 
 stream from Bayer processing for precipitation or 
 separately precipitated. The residual solids (brown 
 mud) are slurried to a waste lake. 
 
 The purification standards required for producing 
 refined alumina from the raw ore are very strict. Under 
 present technology, substitutes for bauxite must yield 
 aluminum at least equal in quality to that obtained from 
 bauxite. Any increase in impurities will decrease the 
 recovery efficiency of the electrolytic cells (used in 
 reducing alumina to aluminum), and impurities may be 
 carried through to the metal. 
 
 HCI LEACH OF CLAYS 
 
 High-alumina kaolinitic clays may be a preferred raw 
 material for alumina production in place of bauxites. 
 They are abundant, have a comparatively high alumina 
 grade, have a high ratio of acid-soluble alumina to 
 impurities, and do not consume large amounts of 
 reagents during processing (2, p. 219). 
 
 Based on Bureau of Mines test-scale processing of 
 clays, optimum results are obtained by hydrochloric 
 acid extraction with HCI gas-induced crystallization 
 
 (16). Approximately 97 pet of the mineralized material 
 studied at the demonstrated resource level may be 
 amenable to such technology. 
 
 In this process, the prepared clay ore is calcined to 
 change the alumina into an acid-soluble form. Calcina- 
 tion also removes free and combined water and 
 destroys any organic matter in the clay as mined. The 
 calcined clay is then digested with hot hydrochloric 
 acid at atmospheric pressure to produce aluminum 
 chloride-rich liquor. The liquor is settled and filtered, 
 and the washed mud residue is sent to waste ponds. 
 Dissolved iron is removed by solvent extraction and 
 thermal conversion and then reacted with calcined clay 
 to form aluminum chloride and iron oxide, which is 
 sent to the waste pond. The iron-free liquor is con- 
 centrated by evaporation and then the alumina crystal- 
 lized as aluminum chloride hexahydrate by HCI gas. 
 The crystals are separated mechanically from the 
 mother liquor and then decomposed thermally to the 
 product alumina. Reagents are recycled and waste heat 
 recovered under the most efficient operating conditions. 
 
 Although the potential recovery of alumina from 
 kaolin c'ays was investigated in this study based on 
 hydrochloric acid extraction using HCI gas induced 
 crystallization technology tested at the "miniplant" 
 level, there are other existing experimental tech- 
 nologies for the extraction of alumina from kaolin clays. 
 A hydrochloric acid process has been studied in detail 
 by Anaconda, which operated a successful pilot plant 
 during the 1960's capable of extracting 6.4 tons per day 
 of alumina from kaolin {13, p. 81). The Bureau of Mines 
 investigated a nitric acid extraction process during 
 miniplant testing in 1975 (2, p. 247); Arthur D. Little, 
 Inc., also investigated a nitric acid process. 
 
 ALUNITE PROCESSING 
 
 Before chemical processing, the raw alunite ore is 
 crushed, ground, and sized, the prepared ore is first 
 fed to a roaster where free and combined water are 
 volatilized. The hot calcine is then fed to a reducing 
 roast where most of the sulfur is removed. The removed 
 sulfur passes to a sulfuric acid plant in the proposed 
 commercial-scale operation. Some of the sulfur re- 
 mains bound with potassium. The reduced calcine is 
 again roasted to oxidize iron and other sulfides so that 
 they do not interfere with the modified Bayer process 
 recovery of alumina. The temperatures and residence 
 time for the different roasts must be carefully con- 
 trolled in order to remove water and most of the sulfur, 
 and to avoid converting alumina to a caustic insoluble 
 form. 
 
 Potassium sulfate is leached from the reoxidized 
 calcine by dissolution in hot, dilute recycled potassium 
 sulfate solution and potassium hydroxide. The potas- 
 sium sulfate product may be processed in a separate 
 circuit to manufacture fertilizer. 
 
 The solids left after leaching sulfate and potassium 
 are about 20 pet AbOi, and the balance is mainly silica 
 with small amounts of iron and titanium oxides. This 
 slurry is washed and then treated in a modified Bayer 
 process to recover alumina. Leaching in lime and 
 soda solution to separate alumina as the trihydrate and 
 then decomposition of the trihydrate to the product 
 alumina follow the conventional Bayer process. Waste 
 heat and reagents are recycled for operating efficiency 
 with the additional recovery of sulfate and potassium 
 in a commercial-scale operation. 
 
 A commercial-scale plant for the extraction of alunite 
 has been operated in the Soviet Union, and small pilot 
 
14 
 
 plants have been operated in Mexico and in Golden, 
 Colo. The Alumet Consortium partnership, comprised 
 of Earth Sciences Inc., National Steel Corp., and South- 
 wire Corp., reported favorable results from tests at 
 their pilot plant in Golden, which was shut down in 
 1978. 
 
 LIME SINTER OF ANORTHOSITE 
 
 The largest domestic potential resources of alumina 
 are contained in anorthosite rock bodies {4, p. 2). 
 Anorthosite is an almost monominerallic igneous rock 
 of plagioclase feldspars. The feldspars are near the 
 calcium-rich end of the soda-lime isomorphous series. 
 These deposits are a potential source of virtually un- 
 limited amounts of alumina, if the alumina can be 
 extracted on a competitive basis. The alumina is in a 
 very strong chemical combination with silica, calcium, 
 sodium, and potassium. Major amounts of limestone 
 and fuel, such as coal, are required for the processing 
 of anorthosite. A large amount of solid material similar 
 to cement clinker is the main byproduct of commercial- 
 scale processing of anorthosite. 
 
 The separation of alumina from anorthosite by sinter- 
 ing with lime and soda was tested by the Bureau of 
 Mines at a pilot-plant scale {19). For the processing 
 considered- here, the mined, crushed, and classified 
 anorthosite ore is mixed with water and lime, then is 
 dried, pelletized, and sintered. The sintering step ties 
 the alumina with the alkalis, combines silica into 
 dicalcium silicate, and produces large amounts of CO2 
 
 flue gas. The sinter product is soaked in a rotary 
 calciner to produce self-disintegrating crystal. Leach- 
 ing is by a concentrated sodium carbonate solution 
 with approximately 75 pet of the contained alumina 
 extracted. Gelation in the leaching step is a technical 
 problem that has delayed development of alumina 
 extraction from anorthosite. Almost two-thirds of the 
 feed weight is removed as solid waste after leaching. 
 The disposal of such large amounts of solid waste may 
 present significant problems. Under proper market con- 
 ditions, however, this solid waste could possibly be 
 processed to portland cement. 
 
 The silica is next removed from the pregnant liquor 
 by seeding. The desilicated solution is seeded and 
 carbonated with washed flue gas to precipitate alumi- 
 num trihydrate. Coarse aluminum trihydrate crystals 
 are separated, washed, and dewatered. Calcining de- 
 composes the crystals to the alumina product. Waste 
 heat and reagents are recovered and washed flue gas 
 used in the process. 
 
 Although the problem of gelation during separation 
 of alumina from anorthosite appears to have been 
 solved on a laboratory scale, larger scale work has not 
 confirmed the laboratory studies, necessitating further 
 Bureau of Mines research in this area. For this reason, 
 plus the extremely high energy requirement of the 
 lime-soda sinter technique, this process is not con- 
 sidered feasible on a commercial scale. Because of 
 their, enormous potential, anorthosite deposits are 
 listed on table 5, but they were not included in this 
 analysis to determine the domestic potential avail- 
 ability of alumina. 
 
15 
 
 AVAILABILITY OF ALUMINA FROM DOMESTIC DEPOSITS 
 
 GENERAL 
 
 Alumina availability in this study was determined at 
 the demonstrated and identified resource levels. Ton- 
 nages potentially available at these levels from each 
 deposit are shown in table 4. 
 
 The bauxite reserve base, established to estimate 
 aluminum reserves and resources, is that portion of 
 demonstrated resources that has a probability of eco- 
 nomic availability (27). The subeconomic resources of 
 aluminum-bearing materials analyzed in this study may 
 have a probability of economic availability in the future 
 depending upon the economics of the industry and 
 technological improvements but, as yet, are not con- 
 sidered part of the reserve base for aluminum. 
 
 For 1980, the domestic bauxite reserve base was 
 estimated to be 38 million tons of ore containing 18 
 million tons of alumina, of which approximately 15.6 
 million tons is estimated to be recoverable. Total 
 resources at the demonstrated resource level (Arkansas 
 bauxite plus subeconomic alternate sources) were esti- 
 mated to be about 4,500 million tons of contained 
 alumina with slightly over 4,000 million tons estimated 
 to be recoverable. Total resources at the identified 
 resource level are approximately 6,000 million tons of 
 contained alumina, with a little more than 5,500 million 
 tons considered to be recoverable. 
 
 Resource availability curves have been developed 
 to illustrate potential total and annual domestic alumina 
 production based upon each deposit's "incentive price" 
 for alumina. The computed incentive price equals an 
 individual mine's average total cost of production over 
 its entire life including a 15-pct rate of return on 
 investment. These curves show the quantity of alumina 
 that is recoverable after all mining and processing 
 losses. Approximately 93 pet of domestic alumina re- 
 sources are estimated to be recoverable using state- 
 of-the-art technology. 
 
 This study is a static analysis based on the current 
 bauxite reserve base and identified resource estimates 
 and on proven and experimental technology. However, 
 as exploration and development yield additional knowl- 
 edge of grades and tonnages, and as experimental 
 processing technologies become feasible on a com- 
 mercial scale, portions of this material may be reclassi- 
 fied. Historically, domestic mineral resources that can 
 be produced economically have increased because of 
 exploration and technologic improvements that enable 
 the mining of lower grade materials or the processing 
 of materials previously considered as waste. Also, as 
 prices for alumina produced from bauxite increase, 
 nonbauxitic sources of alumina will likely become more 
 competitive in the future. The analyses of nonbauxitic 
 sources of alumina in this study are based on nascent 
 technologies, which will likely be proven at a com- 
 mercial scale in the future, thereby improving the 
 competitive position of these sources. 
 
 In order to determine the quantity of alumina that 
 could potentially be produced on an annual and 
 cumulative basis over the life of each deposit and the 
 cost of this production, the following assumptions have 
 been made: 
 
 1. Development of each deposit began in 1980. 
 
 2. Each operation can produce at full operating ca- 
 pacity throughout the life of the mining operation. 
 
 3. Each operation will be able to sell all of its output 
 at the alumina price required to receive at least 
 the desired 15-pct rate of return. 
 
 The assumptions used for this study were based 
 upon the desire to determine potential availability of 
 domestic alumina under an emergency situation. As a 
 result, time lags involved in filing environmental impact 
 statements and receiving necessary permits, financing, 
 etc., are not included in this study. Under existing laws 
 and regulations, production from some deposits in- 
 cluded in this study would likely be limited by environ- 
 mental, political, legal, or other constraints. For ex- 
 ample, it is highly unlikely that the State of Hawaii 
 would allow the mining of bauxite on the picturesque 
 islands of Maui and Kauai, for obvious reasons. 
 
 TOTAL RECOVERABLE ALUMINA 
 
 For this study, the portion of the resource availability 
 curves representing potential alumina production from 
 resources other than Arkansas bauxite mines have 
 been shaded in order to emphasize the technological 
 uncertainties inherent in estimating the cost of pro- 
 ducing alumina from nonbauxitic sources based on 
 miniplant test date. The shaded areas is not intended to 
 represent a confidence interval. The portion of the 
 curves accounted for by the Arkansas bauxite proper- 
 ties is not shaded since the Bayer process technology 
 is well established. Figure 5 shows total recoverable 
 alumina at various alumina prices including at least a 
 15-pct rate of return. Analyses indicate that, at the 
 demonstrated resource level, a total of 15.6 million tons 
 is recoverable from Arkansas bauxite properties that 
 are currently producing, and 4,114 million tons from 
 nonbauxitic and ferruginous bauxite deposits that have 
 been explored. At a 1980 price of $0.12 per pound 
 ($264 per ton), all 15.6 million tons of alumina from 
 Arkansas bauxite deposits are recoverable. At an 
 alumina price of $0.26 per pound ($573 per ton), 4,130 
 million tons of alumina is potentially recoverable. At 
 these prices, all properties could produce alumina and 
 earn at least a 15-pct return on investment. 
 
 Potential total production of alumina at the identified 
 resource level is shown in figure 6. Analyses indicate 
 that a total of 15.6 million tons of alumina is recover- 
 able from Arkansas bauxite properties that are currently 
 producing, and 5,649 million tons is recoverable from 
 explored nonbauxitic and ferruginous bauxite deposits. 
 
 In general, the lower cost deposits on both the curves 
 are bauxitic, followed by a mix of ferruginous bauxite, 
 clays, and alunite deposits. The clay deposits form the 
 majority of the resource tonnage on both curves. (See 
 table 4.) 
 
 POTENTIAL ANNUAL ALUMINA 
 PRODUCTION 
 
 Annual production curves for alumina at various price 
 levels, including at least a 15-pct rate of return, are 
 illustrated in figure 7 at the demonstrated resource 
 level. The curves are based on current and expected 
 production capacities at producing mines and non- 
 producing deposits. The curves were generated in 
 order to reflect the fact that an increase in production 
 cannot be obtained immediately. The time required to 
 initiate production depends on factors such as the 
 relative location of the deposit and the necessity for 
 
16 
 
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 Total alumina recoverable from domestic alumina sources; 
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 1^1^ Shaded areas highlight the technological uncertainties of 
 '■■'■''■'■■■ producing alumina from nonproducing deposits 
 
 I 
 
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 10 20 30 40 50 
 RECOVERABLE ALUMINA, million tons 
 I I I I I I I I 
 
 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 
 
 TOTAL RECOVERABLE ALUMINA, million tons 
 
 Figure 5. — Total domestic aluminum resources potentially available at 
 various alumina prices — demonstrated resource level. 
 
 5,000 
 
 exploration, development, and plant construction. Thus, 
 an examination of the curves indicates that if all non- 
 producers had begun preproduction development in 
 1980, very little increase in production would be noted 
 immediately. Substantial increases could occur by 
 1983, when production could be as much as 8.2 million 
 tons of alumina per year. Full production could be 
 realized by 1986, when 10.5 million tons of alumina 
 could be produced. After 1986, production of alumina 
 from all sources would appear to slowly decline until 
 2005, which is also when the exhaustion of known 
 low-priced bauxite deposits would occur. This is re- 
 
 flected in an upward shift of the curve from the $0.08 
 per pound ($176 per ton) range in 1980 to the $0.15 
 per pound ($331 per ton) range in 2005. 
 
 Alumina production from domestic bauxites could be 
 approximately 1.15 million tons in 1986. Domestic 
 demand for alumina in that year is expected to be 
 almost 20 million tons (20, derived from aluminum de- 
 mand forecast in its table 11). Thus the share of 
 alumina production from domestic bauxite will continue 
 to drop from the current 10 pet to 5.8 pet by 1986. 
 
 Annual production curves at the identified resource 
 level are illustrated in figure 8. 
 
17 
 
 1 — r 
 
 T — I — r 
 
 1 — r 
 
 0.30 
 
 Total alumina recoverable from domestic alumina resources; 
 Identified resource level; 15-percent rate of return 
 
 Shaded areas highlight the technological uncertainties of 
 producing alumina from nonproducing deposits 
 
 0.25 
 
 < o .10 - 
 
 
 10 20 30 40 50 
 
 RECOVERABLE ALUMINA, million tons 
 
 J L 
 
 J I I I L 
 
 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 
 
 TOTAL RECOVERABLE ALUMINA, million tons 
 
 5,000 
 
 6,000 
 
 Figure 6. — Total domestic aluminum resources potentially available at 
 various alumina prices — identified resource level. 
 
18 
 
 30 
 
 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 
 
 
 1980 
 
 
 Costs include 15-percent rate of return on 
 
 20 
 
 - invested capital - 
 
 10 
 
 n 
 
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 30 - 
 
 20 - 
 
 10 
 
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 I I I r 
 
 1983 
 
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 20 
 
 10 
 
 1986 
 
 r". 
 
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 J I I I L 
 
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 2 345 6 7 89 10 II 
 ANNUAL RECOVERABLE ALUMINA, oiillion tons 
 
 Figure 7. — Potential domestic annual alumina produc- 
 tion in selected years at various alumina 
 prices — demonstrated resource level. The 
 shaded areas highlight the technological 
 uncertainties of producing alumina from 
 nonproducing deposits. 
 
 60 
 
 1 1 
 
 — 1 \ — 1 r- 
 
 1980 
 
 — 1 1 — 
 
 -1 1 1 
 
 ' — 1 — 1 — 1 — r 
 
 - 
 
 
 Costs 
 
 include i5-percent 
 
 rate of 
 
 return on 
 
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 40 
 
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 T 1 — r 
 
 — r — r 
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 1 — I — I r 
 
 1 1 — I r 
 
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 J I L 
 
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 60 - 
 
 40 - 
 
 20 I 
 
 T 1 1 1 1 1 \ 1 1 r 
 
 2005 
 
 J I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 
 
 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 14 15 16 
 ANNUAL RECOVERABLE ALUMINA, million tons 
 
 Figure 8. — Potential domestic annual alumina produc- 
 tion in selected years at various alumina 
 prices — identified resource level. The 
 shaded areas highlight the technological 
 uncertainties of producing alumina from 
 nonproducing deposits. 
 
19 
 
 CONCLUSIONS 
 
 The demonstrated and identified resource levels for 
 domestic alumina are comprised of 31 and 39 proper- 
 ties, respectively. These properties are inclusive of 
 three different types of deposits; bauxites (primarily 
 ferruginous bauxites), clays, and alunites. All of these 
 properties were analyzed to determine the quantity of 
 alumina available from each deposit and the alumina 
 price required to provide each operation with a 15-pct 
 rate of return. The 1980 domestic bauxite reserve base 
 (demonstrated resource level) is 18 million tons of 
 alumina, of which approximately 15.6 million tons are 
 recoverable. Subeconomic aluminum resources at the 
 demonstrated level amount to 4,440 million tons of 
 alumina, of which 4,114 million tons of alumina is con- 
 sidered recoverable. Total contained alumina at the 
 identified resource level is 6,117 million tons, with 5,665 
 million tons of alumina considered to be recoverable. 
 
 For those properties classified as subeconomic re- 
 sources, an alumina price of $0.26 per pound ($573 
 per ton) would be required if all properties, producing 
 and nonproducing, were to produce alumina and re- 
 ceive at least a 15-pct rate of return. Including those 
 properties at the identified resource level, the needed 
 alumina price would be $0.50 per pound ($1,102 per 
 ton), which is almost 5 times the current price. 
 
 There are only three Arkansas bauxite deposits 
 currently comprising the U.S. bauxite reserve base, and 
 the amount of alumina contained in these deposits is 
 
 small. In fact, the alumina contained in these three 
 deposits comprises less than 1 pet of total domestic 
 alumina resources. Although the Bureau of Mines, in 
 conjunction with the private sector, is continually re- 
 searching alternative methods of processing alumina 
 from other known aluminum-bearing deposits (that is, 
 alunite, clays, anorthosites), this study indicates that 
 these deposits as yet cannot economically compete 
 with the rest of the world's huge economic bauxite 
 reserves. As a result, the United States will likely con- 
 tinue to import the majority of the bauxite and alumina 
 necessary to meet current and projected aluminum 
 consumption at least through the year 2000. 
 
 Domestic nonbauxitic resources represent a large 
 potential source of alumina. Continuing efforts by the 
 Bureau of Mines and cooperating companies to im- 
 prove technologies for recovering alumina from these 
 sources will be necessary to provide stable supplies 
 of alumina in the next century. Supplies of alumina 
 from nonbauxitic sources would be required much 
 sooner if the Nation were to face an embargo or cutoff 
 of bauxite and alumina supplies from foreign sources. 
 Furthermore, the existence of the ongoing U.S. program 
 to develop new technologies to recover alumina from 
 nonbauxitic sources could restrain foreign bauxite 
 producers from raising prices above the point that 
 would make domestic sources of alumina competitive 
 with them. 
 
20 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 1. Arthur D. Little, Inc. Economic Impact of Environmental 
 Regulations on the United States Copper Industry. Rept. to 
 the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, January 1978, con- 
 tract 68-01-2842; reproduced and distributed by the American 
 Mining Congress, Washington, D.C. 
 
 2. Bengtson, K. B. A Technological Comparison of Six 
 Processes for the Production of Reduction-Grade Alumina 
 From Non-Bauxite Raw Materials. Met. Soc. AIME, Paper 
 LM-79-14, 1979, pp. 217-281. 
 
 3. Davldoff, R. L. Supply Analysis Model (SAM): A Minerals 
 Availability System Methodology. BuMines IC 8820, 1980, 
 45 pp. 
 
 4. Fitzpatrick, K. T. The Economics of Alumina Production 
 From the Laramie Range Anorthoslte, Albany County, Wyo- 
 ming. M.S. Thesis, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, Colo., 
 1979, 95 pp. 
 
 5. Herbert, I. C, and J. F. Castle, Extractive Metallurgy, 
 Mining Annual Revlevi^ 1980, Mining Journal Ltd., London, 
 June 1980, p. 305. 
 
 6. Hoppe, R. Point Comfort, Refining Bauxite to Alumina — 
 the Midpoint Between Mine and Metal. Eng. and Min. J., 
 July 1979, pp. 114-119. 
 
 7. Husted, J. E. Potential Reserves of Domestic Non- 
 Bauxltlc Sources of Aluminum. Met. Soc. AIME, Paper A74- 
 65, 1974, 20 pp. 
 
 8. International Bauxite Association. Quarterly Review. 
 V. 5, Nos. 2 and 3, December 1979-March 1980, 52 pp. 
 
 9. . Quarterly Review. V. 5, No. 4, June 1980, 39 pp. 
 
 10. Kellogg, H, H. Sizing Up the Energy Requirements for 
 Producing Primary Materials. Eng. and Min. J., April 1977, 
 pp. 61-65. 
 
 11. Kurtz, H. F. Aluminum and Bauxite chapters in: Minerals 
 Commodity Summaries 1980. U.S. Bureau of Mines, Washing- 
 ton, D.C, January 1980, 191 pp. 
 
 12. Malenbaum, W. World Demand for Raw Materials in 
 1985 and 2000. McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York, 1978, 
 126 pp. 
 
 13. Metal Bulletin Ltd. World Aluminum Survey 1977. 
 London, 1978, 199 pp. 
 
 14. Metals Week. Aluminum. V. 50, No. 3, Jan. 15, 1979, 
 10 pp. 
 
 15. Mining Journal (London). Aluminum: A Decade of 
 Change. V. 294, No. 7541, Feb. 29, 1980, pp. 153-155. 
 
 16. Nunn, R. R. The Comparative Economics of Producing 
 Alumina From U.S. Non-Bauxltic Ores. Met. Soc. AIME, Paper 
 LM-A-15, 1979, pp. 283-334. 
 
 17. Peterson, G. R. The International Bauxite Association 
 and Its Implications for the Aluminum Industry. M.S. Thesis, 
 Colorado School of Mines, Golden, Colo., 1980, 181 pp. 
 
 18. Radetzki, M. Market Structure and Bargaining Power. 
 Resources Policy, June 1978, pp. 115-125. 
 
 19. St. Clair, H. W. Operation of Experimental Plant for 
 Producing Alumina From Anorthoslte. BuMlnes Bull. 577, 
 1959, 129 pp. 
 
 20. Stamper, J. W., and H. F. Kurtz. Aluminum. BuMlnes 
 Miner. Commodity Profiles, May 1978, 29 pp. 
 
 21. Stermole, F, J. Economic Evaluation and Investment 
 Decision Methods. Golden, Colo., 1974, 443 pp. 
 
 22. STRAAM Engineers Inc. Capital and Operating Cost 
 Estimating System Manual for Mining and Beneficiatlon of 
 Metallic and Nonmetallic Minerals Except Fossil Fuels In the 
 United States and Canada. Submitted to the BuMines under 
 contract J0255026, December 1977, 374 pp. Available from 
 the BuMlnes, Minerals Availability Field Office, Denver, Colo. 
 Also available as: 
 
 Clement, G. K., Jr., R. L. Miller, P. A. Seibert, L. Avery, and 
 H. Bennett. Capital and Operating Cost Estimating System 
 Manual for Mining and Beneficiatlon of Metallic and Non- 
 metallic Minerals Except Fossil Fuels in the United States and 
 Canada. BuMlnes Special Pub., 1980, 149 pp. 
 
 23. U.S. Bureau of Mines. The Bureau of Mines Minerals 
 Availability System and Resource Classification Manual. 
 IC 8654, 1974, 199 pp. 
 
 24. . A Dictionary of Mining, Mineral, and Related 
 
 Terms. Washington, D.C, 1968, 1,269 pp. 
 
 25. . Minerals and Materials/A Monthly Survey. Wash- 
 ington, D.C. 
 
 26. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Development 
 Document for Effluent Limitations Guidelines and New Source 
 Performance Standards for the Bauxite Refining Subcategory 
 of the Aluminum Segment of the Nonferrous Metals Manu- 
 facturing Point Source Category. Washington, D.C, March 
 1974, 98 pp. 
 
 27. U.S. Geological Survey. Principles of a Resource/ 
 Reserve Classification for Minerals. Circ, 831, 1980, 5 pp. 
 
 28. Wilson, L. L. Aluminum — Bright Spot In the Economy. 
 Min. Cong. J., December 1979, pp. 33-36. 
 
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