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 Essay on Religion. 
 
 From a historical and Philosophical Standpoint, 
 
 BY MORRIS M. COHN 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 j „. 
 
 W ,;,? 
 
 BLOCH&CO., M^ 
 
 PUBLISHERS AND PRINTERS. 
 
 1876. 
 
 // 
 
 7 
 
 ^ 
 
 

 Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year Eighteen Hundred 
 and Seventy Five, by 
 
 MORRIS M. COHN, 
 
 In the Office of the Librarian at Washington. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 <3* 
 
 HE writings of all authors are entitled to weight onlv so far as thev are con- 
 
 % 
 
 sistent with reason, experience and observation. The ideas those writings 
 expose, however, dogmatic or doubtfully expressed, should have such force as is 
 consonant with truth. 
 
 With this view. I offer the succeeding essay to the public, deeming my ar- 
 guments not weakened in saying that it expresses only what I think to be true. 
 
 My language may sometimes be considered to implicate a knowledge (per- 
 sonal knowledge) which I do not. and in the nature of things could not, pos- 
 sess: but this is not so much my fault as the fault of prevailing language, ideas 
 and customs. I have only to say that in no place have I desired to convey what 
 I believed to be an untruth, but what I believed to be truth. 
 
 The candid reader will not have his faith in \he conclusions pointed to in 
 the essay weakened by these statements: the faith of the prejudiced and unfair 
 are to me wholly immaterial. 
 
 Little Rock. Ark., July 17. 1S75. 
 
ESSAY ON RELIGION. 
 
 FROM 4 HISTORICAL pD PHILOSOPHICAL STANDPOINT, 
 
 Thoughts Respecting Religion in the Past, Present and Future. 
 
 PART I.— ARTICLE I. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Individuals, communities, States, nations 
 and the human civilized family exist. In- 
 herently exhibiting a persistent force, con- 
 stant changes in their form, their appearance 
 discover themselves. Each change is the 
 sure precursor of innumerable other changes. 
 Modification, with each cycle, becomes vast- 
 ly more multiform. Ceaseless, restless al- 
 teration governs all forms. 
 
 Six centuries ago the institutions of the 
 civilized man of to-day found no representa- 
 tion in North America, nor did the tolera- 
 tion now exercised more than begin to pre- 
 vail in Christian Europe. Twelve centuries 
 back the mind of the European masses was 
 enveloped in the darkness of illiteracy and 
 ignorance. Eighteen centuries in the past 
 the population of the world showed the 
 barest paucity, if any, of spirituality, as 
 herein defined. And so, further retrograd- 
 ing into the dim vistas of time past, along 
 paths for centuries choked with the dust and 
 cobwebs of ages, of which but the faintest 
 notice can be conceived, we may trace, and 
 we find the condition of things presents in- 
 creased variation. 
 
 The age of the earth is not definitely 
 known. The age of the world, however, 
 Scriptural chronology would fix at some- 
 
 what more than fifty-six centuries past. 
 What world ? Not the world of matter, nor 
 the world of force ; for " from nothing, no- 
 thing can come "; not matter nor force came 
 from nothing. It is the same whether mat- 
 ter is a mere manifestation or form of force. 
 And all things resolved into their primordial 
 state, it has been claimed, were matter or 
 force. The solar system ? The entire sys- 
 tem of words? Surely not, the proofs 
 against this are overwhelming. Then what 
 world ? 
 
 On earth little, insignificant man eventu- 
 ally came ; he breathed, saw, heard, smell- 
 ed, felt and tasted ; he desired, ailed and 
 reflected. When the number of human be- 
 ings was more than one, the senses, emo- 
 tions, thoughts and will were greater and 
 different in quantity and quality than if but 
 one person existed. But from the time the 
 first sentient, reflecting being, distinguished 
 as a human being, existed, the world — that 
 is, man's world — was; not before. Thus 
 we say the world began with the first mind. 
 This world is man's ; it does not compre- 
 hend the world beyond man — that is, the 
 world of some superior Power or Being. 
 
 Man recognizes nothing, and doubts the 
 possibility of anything existing, except in 
 the divine shape, superior to himself, any- 
 where. But some thing or being superior 
 does exist, which in man's world is the Di- 
 
— 3- 
 
 vine Being, the Almighty Power, whose 
 world is not man's. 
 
 You will say, then, that the world — man's 
 world — is not uniform in the universe it dis- 
 closes ; that with intellectual development 
 and increase in numbers of the race of man ; 
 the limits of the world are extended onward 
 and enlarged. Tiue, and so man's experi- 
 ence, science and philosophy, history and 
 reason, show the truth to be. 
 
 Perhaps man's reason (which in nearly all 
 things in the cosmos of his world is the cri- 
 terion of the existence and truth of what is 
 claimed) is not in one, solitary instance to 
 construct a hypothesis of his genesis to be 
 entertained, or perhaps a hypothesis so con- 
 structed is not to be depended on, but to be 
 ridiculed, reprobated and condemned, and, 
 on the contrary, a Scriptural account of the 
 genesis, coming in the shape of tradition, is 
 to be accepted as unquestionable and irrefu- 
 table. 
 
 Be this as it may be. Whether, indeed, 
 the human being developed, according to 
 tthe Darwinian theory, through selection 
 adaptation, reproduction and heredity, in 
 the slow progression of ages; wherefrom, as a 
 necessary conclusion, reason deduces, it 
 must be true that man was originally not 
 only a barbarian, but (in a human shape) 
 the most primitive order of barbarian, a be- 
 ing, so to say, little, if any, superior in ap- 
 pearance or intelligence, to the gorilla that 
 infests the countries of the East, from which 
 it is inferable, and, as analysis has shown, 
 is not improbable, but most probable, that 
 with successive production and reproduc- 
 tion there came finally from an order of an- 
 imals (possibly and possibly not the com- 
 mon ancestors of the human being and the 
 chimpanzee), man in the state of the primi- 
 tive barbarian ; or, whether we say the hu- 
 man family began with one man, created 
 miraculously, out of whom miraculously 
 woman came, came contrary to anything the 
 laws of nature — which God so graciously 
 fixed — have shown to man can be ; and from 
 man and woman thus born, the human spe- 
 cies, in consequence of co-habitation, found 
 increase, is not material, neither view con- 
 
 flicting with the facts of history and experi- 
 ence herein relied upon. 
 
 History, alas ! is largely unreliable, and 
 it is only of late that historians have writ- 
 ten accounts, in the main to be relied upon, 
 and this because of the reasons given it by 
 the later historians and logicians. These 
 historians and logicians have laid down 
 certain principles and rules to guide them 
 and others in separating the 1 enable from 
 the unreliable of accounts of things and oc- 
 currences of past time, and very important, 
 and far less fallible than before, has been 
 the result. 
 
 Prof. Bain, quoting Sir G. C. Lewis, sum- 
 marizes : "In the case of contemporary 
 history the writer may be able to rely upon 
 his own observations, or upon original doc- 
 uments obtained from authentic sources. 
 Personal knowledge was the basis of much 
 of Xenophon's Anabasis, Polybin's History, 
 Caesar's Gaelic War, and Lord Clarendon's 
 History of the Eebellion. But the greater 
 part even of contemporary history must 
 repose on the evidence of witnesses. To a 
 historian, not himself cognizant of the 
 events he narrates, the sources of informa- 
 tion fall under one or two of these classes : 
 (1) Monuments, ruins, coins, and generally 
 all ancient remains, and (2) the evidence of 
 witnesses. From the former exclusively is 
 derived whatever we know of the pre-his- 
 toric age ; in the same way as geology is 
 built on inferences drawn from fossils and 
 the nature and positions of rocks. It is only 
 with regard to history resting upon the tes- 
 timony of witnesses that rules of historical 
 evidence apply. Two points demand the 
 notice of one seeking to verify any alleged 
 historical fact. (I) Does the evidence of the 
 witness exist in an authentic shape ? and (2) 
 Is it true ? The first regards the accuracy 
 wherewith the evidence has been transmit- 
 ted to us ; the second, the worth of the ev- 
 idence itself. The means of knowledge of 
 the witnesses, the goodness of their memory, 
 their judgment, their general veracity, 
 their special interests, are all to be consid- 
 
_4— 
 
 ered." — [Bain's Logic, vol. ii., Introduction, 
 p. 425. 
 
 To which I supplement, that the study of 
 languages, as to their origin, progress and 
 affinities ; the study of comparative juris- 
 prudence, and the deductions resulting from 
 the established postulates of science, make> 
 together with the foregoing rules and prin- 
 ciples (in so far as they are not compre- 
 hended within the meaning of those rules 
 etc., and are consonant with the ulti- 
 mate data of experience), the most accurate 
 and reliable method whereby a true his- 
 tory of times past may be given and writ- 
 ten. 
 
 Governed by these rules, principles and 
 considerations, I shall now descant upon oc- 
 currences of times past as far as essential to 
 the present argument. 
 
 It is just as valid, consonantly with the 
 Darwinistic hypothesis, to say that the hu- 
 man species progressed from the individual 
 to the family, in respect of social and polit- 
 ical status, as to predicate the same upon the 
 Scriptural account of the genesis, the only 
 variance between the two being that the 
 one would make reasonable and probable 
 the procreation of individuals and families 
 more in number than one, independent of 
 one another, while the other would base 
 the existence of beings to the same human 
 progenitors. Hence, the individual stated, 
 if I indicate that the development of the 
 human species must have been to the fam- 
 ily, according to the Scriptural version of 
 genesis, I establish the development to have 
 been the same if the version which the re- 
 sults of science point out is the correct one. 
 
 Then the world began with the individu- 
 al, the first individual possessing mind. 
 When to the individual was given a human 
 mate, and co-habitation resulted, the means 
 of increase were found. Man and woman 
 in co-habitation, baron and femme, for all 
 purpose's, constitute a family. Now, I say, 
 the increase has occurred, the human spe- 
 cies evolved from individual to family. 
 
 From simplest beginnings to complex re- 
 sults is the law of development. From the 
 
 from family to tribe, state, nation, aud from 
 nation into society at large the human fam- 
 ily evolved and is evolving. (2) This devel- 
 opment is but the evidence of a law called 
 progress. (3) 
 
 With development, as above indicated, 
 man's requirements augmented, and with 
 augmentation, his interest awakened the 
 sleeping faculties of his mind. Thus man's 
 mind became exercised, produced and en- 
 larged ; enlarged its productions until, as 
 now, those productions are manifold. 
 
 I am only to consider man's mental uni- 
 verse so far as it shows a spirituality. The 
 products of mind discover in that universe 
 the tendency towards a spirituality. Let 
 these productions be studied as far as 
 proper. 
 
 ARTICLE II.— Argument. 
 
 Sociologists and comparative philologists 
 apprise us, and to the thinking person it 
 must be apparent, that to conceive the state 
 of the primitive human being is exceeding- 
 ly difficult. To minds unused to the disci- 
 pline of continued and acute thought it 
 must be impracticable. Indeed, it is ques- 
 tionable whether the thinker, however pro- 
 found his conceptions or trained his mind, 
 can satisfactorily expose that state. There- 
 fore, in so far as my inquiry involves a dis- 
 cussion of that state, it may, or possibly 
 must, inevitably be unsatisfactory in some 
 respects ; though it is hoped that in the par- 
 ticular whereon reliance is placed no reason- 
 ble objection may or can be found. 
 
 Words, expressive as they are of notions 
 and concepts, are exponents and the repre- 
 sentatives of thought. Though true that 
 each word, as used, does not implicate the 
 thought which, possibly, the word philo- 
 sophically connotates, yet, when taken in 
 connection with the words which are in 
 juxtaposition with it and modificatory there- 
 of, as the exposition of an intention, judg- 
 ment, etc., the word may be expressive of 
 thought understood, and with certainty be 
 construed. Again, proper and common 
 nouns, expressive of things in a concrete 
 
— 5 
 
 individual to the family ; pro-creation given 
 form, distinguishable from all other forms, 
 have a definite meaning ; I allude to what 
 logicians call categorimatic words. Thus 
 the words expressive of God, man, the 
 words song, poetry, etc., convey a definite 
 signification. From the mental and moral 
 state we gather the prevailing spirituality — 
 spiritual state — and this, the analysis of 
 words, so far as the same are the exponents 
 of thought, will partly enable us to discover. 
 This is to say, comparative philology may 
 be relied upon in this exposition to the ex- 
 tent it discloses spirit existence. 
 
 We are informed by logicians that knowl- 
 edge results from comparison, which impli- 
 cates agreement and, correlatively, dfffer- 
 ence, that is, both. Remembering that 
 practically, amid the activity and turmoil 
 of a busy world, where each striving presses 
 others on, or where, as in .archaic days, ex- 
 perience and knowledge were, so to say, 
 spontaneous), the niceties of agreement and 
 difference were unnoticed ; we may predi- 
 cate generally that experience, being the 
 sum of that activity, is the result of agree- 
 ment or difference, and both. The thoughts 
 of a person, whether of the present or past, 
 are known only through such person's acts 
 (or words as distinguished from acts) ; and, 
 in the absence of personal acquaintanceship 
 the acts and words must be such as have 
 been been made manifest in extrinsic ways. 
 L <?., ways outside of and beyond the person. 
 As the sum of agreement and difference 
 within the person's vision expands and en- 
 larges, these acts and words will become 
 more numerous and varied. Monuments, 
 coins, ruins, bones, shells, implements, etc., 
 I may say, are indicative of this sum of 
 agreement and difference as made manifest 
 by acts, at least as far as dependence is in 
 this essay required to be placed thereon, 
 namely, so far as they discover spirit exist- 
 ing. So, it may be affirmed, monuments, 
 ruins, coins, bones, shells, implements, etc., 
 as far as they reveal the spirit of the peo- 
 ple creating them, may be depended upon 
 herein. 
 
 Without intelligence, customs and usages, 
 the container and result of intelligence 
 could not exist. These given, customs and 
 usages, the content of which is intelligence, 
 and intelligence must be. This intelligence 
 is a spirit which, comparatively, may be low 
 or high. Again, this spirit, existing in the 
 form of customs or usages, breathes moral- 
 ity, by comparison, possibly of a low or 
 high grade. Law, fictitious law, i. e., the 
 body of jurisprudence which defines and 
 secures the rights of those among whom it 
 exists, presents itself originally, in the ear- 
 ly periods of the human family, in the form 
 of usages, which in time evolved into cus- 
 toms, and eventually into law as recognized 
 to-day. 
 
 Prof. Amos has contributed the following 
 as expository of what is now nnder discus- 
 sion. Thus he says : " The whole commu- 
 nity may be regarded as composed of an ac- 
 tive crowd of multitudinous atoms, inces- 
 santly crossing one another's path and inter- 
 fering with one another's freedom of move- 
 ment. The influence of family life and of 
 the simplest forms of agricultural and in- 
 dustrial co-operation, tend of themselves, at 
 the very birth of the state, to create within 
 the realm of this confused atomic action an 
 increasing number of fixed groups or cen- 
 ters of independent movement. About the 
 same time another series of events is taking- 
 place, giving rise to the phenomena of law. 
 These events are of different description in 
 different communities. Either the groups 
 spontaneously enlarge themselves, and the 
 village absorbs the family, or some one or 
 more of the originally co-equal groups en- 
 large in numbers or increase in importance 
 out of proportion to the rest, or the whole 
 community becomes subjugated to the sway 
 or influence of some already organized 
 state." 
 
 He adds : "Each of these classes of events 
 has been exhibited in the early history of 
 celebrated communities, and the researches 
 on the subject are too well known to need 
 to be more precisely referred to in this place. 
 What is of importance, however, to notice is 
 
that in every ease the final result is the ad- 
 justment of the limits of free movement of 
 the various groups constituting lhe commu- 
 nity, in respect of their capacity for disturb- 
 ng each other." 
 
 (4) It is here, inter alia, disclosed, that in 
 its development the human family presents 
 varying forms, which may properly be de- 
 nominated political forms , and that the 
 forces superinducing this variation simulta- 
 neously evolve law in the consecutive vary- 
 ing forms of usages, customs, enactments, 
 etc. Political forms are, however, not nec- 
 essarily states and nations, reference being 
 had to comparative jurisprudence only, the 
 political forms may be the family, tribe, vil- 
 lage community, municipium, as well as state 
 and nation, for the spirit of politics to-day 
 is not that in archaic, or in early or even 
 past generations. The showing of Prof. 
 Amos furthermore indicates that the result 
 of the development of the human kind " is 
 the adjustment of the limits of free move- 
 ment of the various groups, etc. * * * * 
 in respect of their capacity for disturbing 
 each other." That is to say, it implicates a 
 moral restraint on the part of human be- 
 ings. " The original process by which the 
 spontaneous usages of the people became 
 transmitted into true laws," the same au- 
 thor in another place affirms, "is constantly 
 repeated throughout the whole history of a 
 community, though naturally with greater 
 facility and rapidity during the period in 
 which a large mass of the law continues un- 
 written. The process in the case of each 
 custom transmitted into law commences 
 with a cautious admission, within clearly 
 denned limits, of the custom as a rule bind- 
 ing on the parties who may be supposed to 
 have contemplated its existence in their 
 transactions with each other. 
 
 " When a custom is found to exist, not 
 among a very small group of men, but 
 among all men engaged in certain occupa- 
 tions, and to be constantly observed in their 
 common transactions ; and if, furthermore, 
 the custom be ancient, certain, and not 
 counter to the general political and social 
 
 welfare of the community, the admission of 
 it as qualifying the ordinary legal rule be- 
 comes a fixed practice in courts of law. This 
 admission in time acts back again on the rule 
 and gives it definiteness and solidity. In 
 this way the custom becomes eventually 
 binding on all men, and, in fact, indistin- 
 guishable from law itself. A very large part 
 of the law of all countries is made in this 
 way, and especially in matters relating to 
 commerce. In England the whole law of 
 bills of exchange and promissory notes ex- 
 hibits the completion of the absorbing pro- 
 cess ; and the general admission of the cus- 
 toms prevalent in the stock exchange and 
 in agricultural tenures exhibits the earlier 
 stages of it." (5) 
 
 I may now say, we can consult the con- 
 clusions presented by jurisprudence to as- 
 certain the spiriWintelligence and morality 
 — prevailing ; for, since through that branch 
 of learning, the evolution of law from cus- 
 toms and usages is shown, so, by con- 
 verse process, tracing back from law to 
 customs, and then usages through analytical 
 comparison, we may arrive at the spirit of 
 primitive races. 
 
 Eeason is its own assurance of proper 
 conclusions ; hence, scientific deductions as 
 they imply reason, must be valid in discov- 
 ering truth ; therefore, they must be valua- 
 ble in discovering the spirit of a people. The 
 rules and principles laid down in Bain, ex- 
 cept so far as they are covered in the forego- 
 ing part of this article, are good to the ex- 
 tent they tend to disclose such a spirit. And 
 this is all I seek after. 
 
 ARTICLE III. 
 
 The question has been agitated, and, not 
 to my knowledge satisfactorily answered, 
 whether the labors of the specialist in the 
 philosophical and scientific field, or, the la- 
 bors of the philosopher who discusses and 
 expounds philosophy in general, work the 
 greatest ultimate benefit ? The question ob- 
 viously assumes that in the works of both 
 a general spirit of truth, of intelligence and 
 
__7~ 
 
 morality, is implicated. Conceding to each 
 an influence proportional to the spirit (an 
 extent of its dissemination) evolved, we may- 
 give to each the credit of working a general 
 benefit. And further than this, we are not 
 concerned to answer the question. The un- 
 certainty respecting primitive conditions is 
 such, and for many years will so remain, 
 that no disquisition treating of special char- 
 acteristics or the institutions consequential 
 upon those conditions, can be in all things 
 credited. 
 
 The archaeologist searching among the cat- 
 acombs, or studying the monuments, etc., 
 or exploring the written treasures of papy- 
 rus, of ancient ages, can hardly hope to ar- 
 rive at even a fairly truthful solution of the 
 state of the people of those ages by confining 
 his inquiries to either or even all of these^ 
 He must, combining and harmonizing the 
 conclusions of the comparative philologist, 
 historiographer, theologist, scientist, philos- 
 opher, etc., together with those inquiries 
 which have resulted in the study of monu- 
 ments, etc., carefully pruning, when proper, 
 through the rules expounded by logicians 
 and historians, deduce such conclusions on- 
 ly as are then clearly sustained. This is 
 more than I, and possibly any single per- 
 son, at this day can hope to accomplish ; nor 
 is it for any purpose herein essential. It is 
 only important that the nature of the gen- 
 eral spirit which in the age in question ex- 
 isted should be indicated. Nor is it neces- 
 sary, proper, nor will space allow, that I 
 should here reveal that general spirit by an- 
 alytical and exhaustive reasoning in extenso 
 with a copious reference to institutions and 
 works of learning of all ages. 
 
 All that the work of any person can be 
 expected to accomplish is a limited degree 
 of good. The work of the scientist (special- 
 ist or otherwise), the philanthropist, and so 
 on, is beneficial only to a limited extent ; 
 that is, there is a boundary beyond which 
 the general spirit which such works unfold 
 do not go. This general spirit is beneficial 
 in so far as it introduces among previously 
 existing spirit, general, intellectual and mo- 
 
 ral force, an extrinsic, intellectual and mo- 
 ral spirit. The inquiry respecting the par- 
 ticular characteristics of a work is not as im- 
 portant in a discussion regarding the gener- 
 al, intellectual and moral state of the human 
 kind as. the spirit which the age has gained 
 thereby. 
 
 Thus impressed, I have thought it suffi- 
 cient, as undoubtedly convenient to confine 
 my exposition to general spirit. Therefore, 
 I inquire not what this monument or that 
 coin discloses, but I ask, given all the relics 
 of past ages ; given the discussions upon 
 those subjects (not discussion unreliable and 
 fabulous, but thorough, critical, and, as far 
 as possible now, accurate), the conclusions 
 pointed out by the comparative philologist, 
 the speculator on comparative jurispru- 
 dence, the archaeologist, theologist, so far as 
 depending on monuments, etc., the scientist 
 and philosopher, and combining and har- 
 monizing these conclusions, and given his- 
 tory subjected to a rigorous application of 
 the rules before spoken of ; and what gen- 
 eral spirit is disclosed to have existed in 
 the ages with which I am herein concerned 
 to acquaint myself. 
 
 AKTICLE IV. 
 
 Joseph Ibn Zaddik, a Jewish philosopher, 
 understood man's mind to define man's uni- 
 verse. According to the logician's method, 
 I have treated of the mode of acquiring 
 knowledge, and we have seen that it results 
 through comparison, i. e., agreement and 
 difference. Logic, indeed, is but a science 
 that treats of the laws of thought; (6) from 
 which, as a corollary, we deduce without 
 thought, hence without mind, there would 
 be no logic. Philosophy is the exposition 
 of the laws of being, of existence, which, 
 without mind as far as man's universe 
 goes (which is and need alone be under con- 
 sideration), would not be. Again, in the 
 application of logic and philosophy to the 
 things practically known, the special branch- 
 es of human learning result. And these be- 
 ing the products of the mind, without it they 
 
would not be. And, since the comforts 
 known are because of the conditions culmi- 
 nating in formal branches of human learn- 
 ing, and because of those formal branches 
 without mind these comforts would not be. 
 Let it, however, be remembered that logic 
 and philosophy, above spoken of, are such 
 in the form presented at this day but a men- 
 tal essence, that in time developed into a 
 larger and more comprehensive universe, 
 with characteristics more and more clearly 
 denned in the course of such evolution, un- 
 til they attained that nature in the formali- 
 ty as understood at the present time. Take 
 away mind, and you must place the human 
 being, not with our ancestors of a century 
 or a thousand centuries ago; not among 
 moral beings ; not among creatures who are 
 distinguished from animals by a self-con- 
 sciousness which has stamped man with the 
 attributes of a responsible moral being ; but 
 with a rude animal, nay, with the brute cre- 
 ation, having nothing but his or her own 
 bodily wants to satisfy, without a past or a 
 future, without governments, without a his- 
 tory. 
 
 Whatever condition above such a state (a 
 state incompatible with the human state) the 
 human being then is found in is owing to 
 mind. And this view especially recom- 
 mends itself because it is in perfect accord 
 with the notions of the transcendental phil- 
 osophers and evolutionists, not to say reason. 
 Therefore, in the mind we must rind the 
 universe of the human being's well being, 
 which is his or her progressiveness or un- 
 progressiveness ; and this, as already indica- 
 ted, is through the products of the mind. 
 These products are treated only as they 
 shall disclose spirit. 
 
 Prof. Max Muller, England's great philol- 
 ogist and linguist, affirms the origin of the 
 human family to be in the East, and writers 
 are generally agreed that this is true, but the 
 mind is left uncertain as to the exact place 
 of its origin. If the doctrine of derivation 
 and unconscious, or rather natural, selection 
 has any application, and the laws expound- 
 
 ed in physics and biology, topography and 
 laws of heat upon the chemical elements of 
 the human body, are to be allowed to testify 
 in the case of the human being, as in all 
 other cases of fauna, we should say that the 
 human species originated in Southern climes 
 — or rather in climes where the heat was 
 equal to what are now called Southern 
 climes, but in no special locality. (7) This, 
 however, is objectionable to those who 
 accept the Scriptural account. As this dis- 
 sertation does not require that I should in 
 this particular stand in antagonism to Scrip- 
 ture or to those disciples of the evolution 
 theory who assume the growth of the hu- 
 man family from a single couple, I may ad- 
 mit that possibly the species originated in 
 a special locality. The Scripture, and all 
 writers whose authority is at all recognized 
 substantially agree that the species orig- 
 inated in southern climes ; not only 
 because the elements constituting the hu- 
 man body and the physical influences acting 
 upon and necessary to force into being those 
 elements so as to bring them to assume the 
 bodily shape peculiar to the human being 
 testify thereto, but because this agrees with 
 the conclusions thus far arrived at by the 
 archaeologist, of philosophy, comparative 
 history and philology, not to say jurispru- 
 dence and theology. We have no knowl- 
 edge, at least authentic, of the origin of the 
 human species in northern climes, we have 
 no knowledge of any environments favora- 
 ble to the original generation of the human 
 being in northern climes, and (which is a 
 conclusive argument with some), Scriptures 
 are against it. Let us, however, leave the 
 question undetermined. Beginning with 
 that epoch when the human family existed 
 in Asiatic countries, let us assume the ex- 
 istence of that family there when, as conce- 
 ded, they were there. 
 
 Naturalists now admit that species are 
 variable, nor does their classification of flora 
 and fauna heretofore given satisfactorily re- 
 but this idea. It is admitted that the de- 
 marcation lines defining orders, families, 
 species, etc., are not clearly marked, indeed 
 
_ 9 — 
 
 may be considered impracticable of estab- 
 lishment, leaving the proposition that they 
 evolved from previously existing states, 
 which in their turn evolved from preceding 
 states, and so on. Likewise, whatever the 
 special facts may be in dwelling upon the 
 human races in the East, the most that can 
 satisfactorily be said is that a later resulted 
 from an earlier generation, etc., that hered- 
 itary traits were transmitted, that the psy- 
 chological conditions, through adaptation to 
 changed physical influences from such as 
 operated upon preceding generations or an- 
 cestry, yielded and became differentiated 
 from the state of progenitor to extent of the 
 modification worked thereby, that new ex- 
 periences were constantly received, thereby 
 generating new desires, that opinion became 
 modified to conform to the altered environ- 
 ment, beside which emigration and immi- 
 gration introduced theretofore non existing 
 influences, etc. In addition to the spirit 
 consequential from the impetus — the motive 
 power— resulted upon such environment, 
 there was the influence created by this spir- 
 it acting back upon the affected. 
 
 In order to be as accurate as possible, I 
 shall take the East, briefly as a whole. 
 
 ARTICLE V. 
 
 In the ^Esthetics of Llegel, as condensed 
 by M. Ch. Benard in French, and transla- 
 ted from the French, by J. A. Marthing, 
 certain philosophical observations are ex- 
 pounded in the following words : 
 
 "The destination of man, the law of his 
 nature, is to develop himself incessantly, to 
 stretch unceasingly toward the infinite. 
 He ought, at the same time, to put an end 
 to the opposition which he finds in himself 
 between the elements and pow r ers of his be- 
 ing; to place them in accord by realizing 
 and developing them externally. Physical 
 life is a struggle between opposing forces, 
 and the living being can sustain itself only 
 through the conflict and the triumph of the 
 force which constitutes it. With man, and 
 in the moral sphere, this conflict and pro- 
 gressive enfranchisement are manifested 
 
 under the form of freedom, which is the 
 highest destination of spirit. 
 
 Freedom consists in surmounting the ob- 
 stacles which it encounters within and 
 without, in removing the limits, in effacing 
 all contradictions in vanquishing evil and 
 sorrow, in order to attain to harmony with 
 the world and itself. In actual life, man 
 seeks to destroy that opposition by the sat- 
 isfaction of his physical wants. He calls to 
 his aid, industry and the useful arts ; but 
 he obtains thus only limited, relative, and 
 transient enjoyments. He finds a nobler 
 pleasure in science, which furnishes food 
 for his ardent curiosity, and promises to re- 
 veal to him the laws of nature and to unveil 
 the secrets of the universe. Civil life opens 
 another channel to his activity; he burns to 
 realize his conceptions ; he marches to the 
 conquest of the right, and pursues the ideal 
 of justice which he bears within him. He 
 endeavors to realize in civil society his in- 
 stinct of sociability, which is also the law of 
 his being, and of the fundamental inclina- 
 tions of his moral nature." 
 
 It is continued : "But here, again, he at- 
 tains an imperfect felicity ; he encounters 
 limits and obstacles which he can not sur- 
 mount, and against which, his will is brok- 
 en, tie can not obtain the perfect realiza- 
 tion of his ideas, nor attain the ideal which 
 his spirit conceives and toward which it 
 aspires. He then feels the necessity of ele- 
 vating himself to a higher sphere where all 
 contradictions are cancelled; where the idea 
 of the good and of happiness in their per- 
 fect accord and their enduring harmony is 
 realized. This profound want of the soul is 
 satisfied in three ways: in art, in religion, 
 and philosophy. The function of art is to 
 lead us to the contemplation of the true, 
 the infinite under sensuous forms, for the 
 beautiful is the unity, the realized harmony 
 of two principles of existence, of the idea 
 and the form, of the infinite and the finite. 
 This is the principle and the hidden es- 
 sence of things, becoming through their 
 visible form. Art presents us, in its works, 
 the image of this happy accord where all 
 opposition ceases, and where all contradic- 
 
lO- 
 
 tion is cancelled. Such is the aim of art, to 
 represent the divine, the infinite under 
 sensuous forms. This is its mission ; it has 
 no other and this it alone can fulfill. By this 
 title it takes its place by the side of relig- 
 ion, and preserves its independence. It 
 takes its rank also with philosophy, whose 
 object is the knowledge of the true, of abso- 
 lute truth. * * * * Art is addressed to 
 sensuous perception and to the imagina- 
 tion ; religion is addressed to the soul, to 
 the conscience, and to sentiment, philoso- 
 phy is addressed to pure thought or to the 
 reason, which conceives the truth in an ab- 
 stract manner." (9). 
 
 Our knowledge is essentially a knowledge 
 of forms. The philosophy of the evolution- 
 ist shows the existence of a persistent force, 
 through which the existence of all things is 
 accounted for. All existing things are by 
 his reasoning shown to be mere manifesta- 
 tions of force. The knowledge of things is 
 essentially derived from comparison, as 
 heretofore said, and these manifestations of 
 force, (as distinguished from, that which is 
 
 pregnant with no tangible reality space), 
 
 are the object — the things — so, by compari- 
 son, edifying us with knowledge, otherwise 
 expressed, experience and the increase of 
 experience. But that which has caused 
 this force or the true- nature of this force — 
 in its reality — is a mystery, the former an 
 absolute mystery to him. He concedes the 
 reality behind these forms is inscruta- 
 ble. (10). 
 
 Without mind these experiences would 
 not be. With the mind's development 
 primordial condition of things becomes the 
 formulated and is conceived to result from 
 a power and as the reason approaches the 
 highest human possibility, the nature of 
 that power, in its absoluteness, assumes a 
 god-like essence, of the purest truth and 
 wisdom. The mind has evolved and is 
 evolving into higher and higher states, 
 which is to say, that it tends to a higher 
 spirituality, a spirit impressed with soul, a 
 point where religion and science are in ac- 
 cord. This harmonizes with Hegel and 
 Spencer. It reveals that idealism and ma- 
 
 terialism are neither sufficient in them- 
 selves, that they are together explanatory 
 of phenomena, which are obscure without 
 both. Now the high spiritual state I con- 
 ceive, is an inherent, inextinguishable con- 
 sciousness of some power, mysterious, the 
 nature impossible to conceive, yet because 
 of our very reason felt, as it were, to exist, 
 which with the increase and perfection of 
 our reason, becomes more and more defin- 
 itely fixed, a Being All Powerful, neces- 
 sarily all-wise, omnipresent, and omnicient. 
 This process of reasoning, or rather the 
 mental state which is synonym6us with 
 this high spirituality, may, in some respects 
 be assimilated to the process of thinking, 
 by virtue of which, as the positive becomes 
 clearer and more definite, the negative, cor- 
 rectively, becomes clearer and more defin- 
 ite; yet in attaining the state of spirituality 
 there is not hard, cheerless thought, but a 
 moral spirit implicated. 
 
 I think to the farthermost limit of my 
 thinking self, and I find a boundary ; I look 
 out, objectively, at the existence around 
 me and I find, that without eternal life, 
 there is a boundary, and until the human 
 being acquires eternal life, there must be a 
 boundary; I conceive the process of my 
 thinking and I am conscious it is condi- 
 tioned, it is relative , and so impressed with 
 the notion of my limit, I ask myself, can 
 there be a state of no limit for the human 
 being ? and I must answer, no ! But behind 
 my thinking I am always bound by an in- 
 tuitive notion of absoluteness existent, and 
 this absoluteness, by virtue of the state it 
 must occupy, since there is power (whether 
 under the form of moral or otherwise), 
 must embrace all power — moral power — but 
 the nature, or if you will, the real form of 
 that power I can not conceive. I am satis- 
 fied with the consciousness of that power, 
 the all powerful the all-wise God. Now 
 this being the highest spirituality, when 
 acquired, I inherently, purely worship God. 
 My explanation, I must assume, has re- 
 vealed something with respect to which, 
 Hegel, in the quotation is silent. He is too 
 formal, treating of all save that Being 
 
11 — 
 
 which must exist, which man in his high- 
 est moral state must worship. But the 
 quotation is important, as thereby, in addi- 
 tion to what I have supplemented, a crite- 
 rion is given us by which we shall be en- 
 abled to measure the spirit of ages. 
 
 Some historians, writers upon compara- 
 tive jurisprudence, and comparative philo- 
 logists not to speak of comparative theolog- 
 ists, agree that at a very remote age China 
 and India exhibit conspicuous evidences of 
 no low degree of civilization in their monu- 
 ments, works and language ; but they do 
 not, I think, dispute, that their systems of 
 government, jurisprudence, and religion*)* 
 disclose, upon the w r hole, an almost total 
 lack of moral freedom, a total lack of the 
 spirituality as already denned. The gener- 
 al spirit disclosed to exist after a considera- 
 tion of their entire environment, leaves as 
 decided, and, I submit, irrefutable, remem- 
 bering how the probably superior spirit of 
 the few sage is dissolved in and among the 
 spirit of the immensely larger number of 
 grossly ignorant, that it is of a very gross 
 kind. Their art symbolical and cold, evinc- 
 ing an absence of the pure and spiritual, 
 thus stamping their religious spirit of a low 
 grade. Their philosophy is unsatisfactory, 
 so blended with superstition as to destroy 
 its proportions. There is no ratiocination. 
 Nor let it be supposed that I have forgotten 
 that a Gautama or Sakya Muni lived. 
 
 In addition to the preceding observations 
 the' conclusions of Mr. Buckle, explanatory 
 of the existence of the structures and works 
 of India are proper to be referred to. 
 Thereby we are led to believe, those struc- 
 tures and works were only because of the 
 system of labor (slave, labor, or a system 
 analogous) there prevailing. 
 
 ARTICLE VI. 
 
 I call attention to the fact, that by virtue 
 of the reasoning of Hegel and supplemental 
 remarks, when we ascertain the spirit of 
 people as to art, we do so at the same time, 
 as to religion and philosophy. Religion and 
 philosophy are a part of the spirituality; 
 
 that is, art religion and philosophy are the 
 exponents of an inner self-consciousness — 
 of more, a spirituality. 
 
 "The symbol is an image which repre- 
 sents an idea. It is distinguished from the 
 signs of language in this, that between the 
 image and the idea which it represents 
 there is a natural relation, not an arbitrary 
 or conventional one. It is thus, that the 
 lion is the symbol of courage; the circle, of 
 eternity ; the triangle, of the Trinity ; and 
 the cross was a religious symbol among the 
 Persians. 
 
 " The symbol however, does not repre- 
 sent the idea perfectly, but by a single side. 
 The lion is not merely courageous, the fox 
 cunning. Whence it follows that the sym- 
 bol having many meanings is equivocal. 
 This ambiguity ceases only when the two 
 terms are conceived separately and then 
 brought into relation; the symbol then gives 
 place to comparison. 
 
 "Thus conceived, the symbol, with enig- 
 matic and mysterious character is peculiar- 
 ly adapted to an entire epoch of history to 
 oriental art and its extraordinary creations. 
 It characterizes that order of monuments 
 and emblems by which the people of the 
 East have sought to express their ideas, and 
 have been able to do it only in an equivo- 
 cal and obscure manner. These works of 
 art present to us, instead of beauty and 
 regularity, a strange, imposing, fantastic 
 aspect. 
 
 "In the development of this form of art 
 in the East, many degrees are notice- 
 able." * * * 
 
 " The sentiment of art, like the religious 
 sentiment or scientific curiosity is born of 
 wonder. The man who is astonished at 
 nothing lives in a state of imbecility and 
 stupidity. This state ceases when his spirit 
 freeing itself from matter and from physical 
 wants, is struck by the spectacles of the 
 phenomena of nature, and seeks their 
 meaning, when it has the presentiment of 
 something grand and mysterious in them, of 
 a concealed power which is revealed there. 
 
12 
 
 " Then it experiences also the need of 
 representing that inner sentiment of a gen- 
 eral and universal power. Particular ob- 
 jects — the elements, the sea, rivers, moun- 
 tains — lose their immediate sense and sig- 
 nificance, and become for spirit images of 
 this invisible power. 
 
 "It is then that art appears ; it arises 
 from the necessity of representing this idea 
 by sensuous images, addressed at once to 
 the senses and the spirit." 
 
 "The idea in religions, of an absolute 
 power is manifested at first by the worship 
 of physical objects. The divinity is identi- 
 fied with nature itself. But the rude wor- 
 ship can not endure. Instead of seeing the 
 absolute in real objects, man conceives it 
 as a distinct and universal being ; he seizes, 
 although very imperfectly, the relation 
 which unites this invisible principle to the 
 objects of nature; he fashions an image, a 
 symbol designed to represent it. Art is 
 then the interpreter of religious ideas. 
 
 " Such is art in its origin ; the symbolic 
 form is born with it. Let us now follow it 
 in the successive stages of its development, 
 and indicate its progression in the East be- 
 fore it attained the Greek ideal." (11). 
 
 Before proceeding further let the expla- 
 nation of art, as heretofore given, be re- 
 membered and deeply thought of. Above 
 all let a proper conception of the meaning 
 it implicates be taken. 
 
 "That which characterizes symbolic art is 
 that it strives in vain to discover pure con- 
 ceptions, and a mode of representation 
 which befits them. It is the conflict be- 
 tween the content and the form, both im- 
 perfect and heterogeneous. Hence the in- 
 cessant struggle of these two elements of 
 art, which vainly seek to harmonize. The 
 stages of its development exhibit the suc- 
 cessive phases or modes of this strug- 
 gle." (12). 
 
 A key to the spiritual state of the East, is 
 found in the study of the relation which 
 the general spirit of the people in question 
 bears to that highest human state, before 
 explained. 
 
 In treating philosophically of Persian art, 
 in his peculiar dialectic, Hegel expounds 
 these ideas: (13). 
 
 ' 'Persian art. At the first moment of the 
 history of art, the divine principle, God, 
 appears identified with nature and man. 
 In the worship of the Laura, for example, a 
 real man is adored as God. In other re- 
 ligions, the sun, the mountains, the rivers, 
 the moon, and animals, are also the objects 
 of religious worship. 
 
 "The spectacle of this unity of God and 
 nature is presented to us in the most strik- 
 ing manner in the life religion of the an- 
 cient Persians, in the Zend — A vesta. * * * 
 
 "Hegel seeks to demonstrate this opinion 
 by an analysis of the principal ideas which 
 form the content of the Zend — Avesta. Ac- 
 cording to him, the worship which the 
 Zend — Avesta describes is still less than 
 symbolic. All the ceremonies which it im- 
 poses as a religious duty on the Parsees are 
 those serious occupations that seek to ex- 
 tend to all purity in the physical and moral 
 sense. One does not find here any of those 
 symbolic dances which imitate the course 
 of the stars, or any of those religious acts 
 which have no value except as images and 
 signs of general conceptions. There is, 
 then, in it no art properly so-called. Com- 
 pared with ruder images, or with the insig- 
 nificant idols of other peoples, the worship 
 of light, as pure and universal substance, 
 presents something beautiful, elevated, 
 grand, more conformable to the nature of 
 the supreme good and of truth. But this 
 conception remains vague ; the imagination 
 creates neither a profound idea nor a new 
 form. If we see appearing general types, 
 and the forms which correspond to them, 
 it is the result of an artificial combination, 
 not a work of poetry and art. 
 
 "Thus this unity of the invisible princi- 
 ple and visible objects constitutes only the 
 first form of the symbol in art. To attain 
 to the symbolic form properly so-called, it 
 is necessary that the distinction and the 
 separation of the two terms appear clearly 
 indicated and represented to us. It is this 
 which takes place in the religion, art and 
 
13 — 
 
 poetiy of India, which Hegel calls the 
 symbolic of the imagination." 
 
 Next he treats of Indian art. "The char- 
 acter of the monument which betrays a 
 more advanced form, and a superior degree 
 of art, is then the separation of the two 
 terms. Intelligence forms abstract concep- 
 tions, and seeks forms which express them. 
 Imagination, properly so-called, is born ; 
 art truly begins. It is not, however, yet 
 the true symbol. 
 
 " What we encounter at first are the pro- 
 ductions of an imagination which is in a 
 state of complete ferment and agitation. In 
 the first attempt of the human spirit to sep- 
 arate the elements and to re- unite them, its 
 thought is still confused and vague. The 
 principle of things is not conceived in its 
 spiritual nature ; the ideas concerning God 
 are empty abstractions ; at the same time 
 the forms which represent Him bear a char, 
 acter exclusively sensuous and material- 
 still plunged in the contemplation of the 
 sensuous world, having neither measure or 
 fixed rule to determine reality, man ex- 
 hausts himself in useless efforts to pene- 
 trate the general meaning of the universe, 
 and can employ, to express the profoundest 
 thoughts, only rude images and representa- 
 tion, in which there flashes out opposition 
 between the idea and the form. The imag- 
 ination passes thus from one extreme to 
 the other, lifting itself very high to plunge 
 yet lower, wandering without support, 
 without guide, and without aim, in a world 
 of representations at once imposing, fantas- 
 tic, and grotesque." * * * "He" [Hegel] 
 " makes it apparent that, in spite of the fer- 
 tility, the splendor, and the grandeur of 
 these conceptions, the Indians have never 
 had a clear idea of persons and events — a 
 faculty for history, that in this continual 
 mingling of the finite and the infinite there 
 appears the complete absence of practical 
 intelligence and reason. * * The concep- 
 tion of Brahma is the abstract idea of being 
 with neither life nor reality, deprived of 
 real form and personality. From this ideal- 
 ism pushed to the extreme, the intelligence 
 precipitates itself into the most unbridled 
 
 naturalism. It deifies objects of nature, the 
 animals. * * * The union of man with 
 God is lowered to the level of a simply ma- 
 terial fact. Thence also the vole which the 
 law of the generation of beings plays in this 
 religion, which give rise to the most ob- 
 scure representations." 
 
 Then he philosophically descants upon 
 Egyptian art : 
 
 "Thus the creations of the Indian imag- 
 ination appear to realize only imperfectly 
 the idea of the symbolic form itself. It is 
 in Egypt, among the monuments of Egypt- 
 ian art, that we find the type of the true 
 symbol. * * * * 
 
 " Henceforth, physical form, in art, loses 
 its independent value and its separate ex- 
 istence ; still further, the conflicttof form 
 and idea ought to cease. Form is subordin- 
 ated to idea. That fermentation of the im- 
 agination which produces the fantastic, 
 quits itself and is calm. The previous con- 
 ceptions are re-placed by a mode of repre- 
 sentation, enigmatic it is true, but superior, 
 and which offer to us the true character of 
 the symbol. 
 
 " The idea begins to assert itself. On its 
 side, the symbol takes a form more precise ; 
 the spiritual principle is revealed more 
 clearly, and frees itself from physical na- 
 ture, although it can not yet appear in all 
 its clearness. 
 
 " The following mode of representation 
 corresponds to this idea of symbolic art: 
 in the first place, the forms of nature and 
 human actions express some thing other 
 than themselves; they reveal the divine 
 principle by qualities which are in real 
 analogy with it. The phenomena and the 
 laws of nature which, in the different king- 
 doms, represent life, birth, growth, death 
 and the resurrection of beings, are prefer- 
 red. * * * * There is an imagination 
 which already knows how to regulate itself 
 and to control itself — which shows more of 
 
 calmness and reason." 
 -* * * * -*• * * $ 
 
 "In general, in Egyptian art there is re- 
 vealed a profounder, more spiritual, and 
 more moral character. The human form is 
 
— 14 
 
 no longer a simple, abstract personification. 
 Eeligion and art attempt to spiritualize 
 themselves; they do not attain their object, 
 but they catch sight of it and aspire to it. 
 From this imperfection arises the absence 
 of freedom in the human form. The hu- 
 man figure still remains without expression, 
 colossal, serious, rigid. Thus is explained 
 those attitudes of the Egyptian statues, the 
 arms stiff, pressed against the body, with- 
 out grace, without movement, and without 
 life, but absorbed in profound thought, and 
 full of seriousness. 
 
 " Hence also the complication of the ele- 
 ments and symbols, which are intermingled 
 and reflected the one in the other ; a thing 
 which indicates the freedom of spirit, but 
 also an absence of clearness and definite- 
 ness. Hence the obscure, enigmatic char- 
 acter of those symbols, which always cause 
 scholars to despair — enigmas to the Egypt- 
 ians themselves." 
 
 From this same source I will now, lastly, 
 produce another quotation, all the while 
 conceding my obligations to the author. 
 
 "Hebrew poetry. In this review of the 
 different forms of art and of worship among 
 the different nations of the East, mention 
 should be made of a religion which is char- 
 acterized precisely by the rejection of all 
 symbol, and in this respect is little favor- 
 able to art, but whose poetry bears the im- 
 press of grandeur and sublimity. And thus 
 Hegel designates Hebrew poetry by the 
 title of Art of the Sublime. * * * 
 
 "The sublime, as Kant has well described 
 it, is the attempt to express the infinite in 
 the finite, without finding any sensuous 
 from which is capable of representing it. It 
 is the infinite, manifested under a form 
 which, making clear this opposition, reveals 
 Hie immeasurable grandeur of the infinite 
 as surpassing all representation in finite 
 forms. 
 
 "Now, here, two points of view are to be 
 distinguished. Either the infinite is the 
 Absolute Being conceived by thought as 
 the immanent substance of things, or it is 
 the Infinite Being as distinct from the be- 
 ings of the real world, but elevating itself 
 
 above them by the entire distance which 
 separates it from the finite, so that, com- 
 pared with it, they are only pure nothing. 
 God is thus purified from all contact, from 
 all participation with sensuous existence, 
 which disappears and is annihilated in His 
 presence. 
 
 " To the first point of view corresponds 
 oriental pantheism. God is there conceived 
 the Absolute Being, immanent in objects 
 the most diverse, in the sun, the sea, the 
 rivers, the trees, etc. 
 
 " A conception like this can not be ex- 
 pressed by the figurative arts, but only by 
 p®etry. Where pantheism is pure, it ad- 
 mits no sensuous representation, and pre- 
 scribes images. We find this pantheism in 
 India. All the superior gods of the Indian 
 mythology are absorbed in the Absolute 
 unity, or in Brahm. Oriental pantheism is 
 developed in a more formal and brilliant 
 manner in Mahomedanism, and in particu- 
 lar among the Persian Mahomedans. 
 
 " But the truly sublime is that which is 
 represented by Hebrew history. Here, for 
 the first time God appears truly a spirit, as 
 the invisible Being in opposition to nature. 
 On the other side, the entire universe, in 
 spite of the richness and magnificence of its 
 phenomena, compared with the Being su- 
 premely great is nothing by itself. Simple 
 creation of Gocl, subject to His power, it 
 only exists to manifest and glorify Him. 
 
 "Such is the idea which forms the ground 
 of that poetry, the characteristic of which 
 is sublimity. In the beautiful, the idea 
 pierces through the external reality of 
 which it is the soul, and forms with it a 
 harmonious unity. In the sublime, the 
 visible reality, where the Infinite is mani- 
 fested, is abased in its presence. This su- 
 periority, this exaltation of the Infinite 
 over the finite, the infinite distance which 
 separates them, is what the art of the sub- 
 lime should express. It is the religious art 
 — pre-eminently, sacred art ; its unique de- 
 sign is to celebrate the glory of God. This 
 role, poetry alone can fill. 
 
 "The prevailing idea of Hebrew poetry is 
 God as master of the world, God in his in- 
 
15 
 
 dependent existence and pure essence, in- 
 accessible to sense and to all sensuous rep- 
 resentations which do not correspond to 
 his granduer. God is the Creator of the 
 universe. All gross ideas concerning the 
 generation of beings give place to that of a 
 spiritual creation: "Let there be light; and 
 there was light." That sentence indicates 
 a creation by word — expression of thought 
 and of will." (14). 
 
 Of the Chinese, Hegel affirms : 
 " This race, in general, has a rare talent 
 for imitation, which is exercised not only 
 in the things of daily life, but also in art. 
 It has not yet arrived at the representation 
 of the beautiful as beautiful. In painting, 
 it lacks perspective and shading. Euro- 
 pean images, like every thing else it copies 
 well. A Chinese painter shows exactly 
 how many scales there are on the back of a 
 carp, how many notches a leaf has; he 
 knows perfectly the form of trees and the 
 curvature of their branches ; but the sub- 
 lime, the ideal, and the beautiful, do not 
 belong at all to the domain of his art and 
 his ability." Philosophk >. der Geschichta. (15). 
 
 Many persons, imitatively, can draw the 
 image of a man, a horse, a house, landscape, 
 etc., yet there is something, some expres- 
 sion wanting, which is portrayed in the 
 drawings or paintings of others. When the 
 work of a master is exhibited this distinc- 
 tion becomes clearly manifest , this super- 
 induces a feeling of mingled delight and 
 despair, a noble spirit. Of course, the less 
 trained the mind the less will this distinc- 
 tion be recognized, and the less this feel- 
 ing experienced. Again those who enter- 
 tain the feeling, are not, in the majority of 
 instances, capable of executing a like work. 
 It requires both the capability and the feel- 
 ing. That is, it requires the mechanical 
 skill and the spirituality. Without the 
 spirituality, however great the mechanical 
 skill, the work would be pro tanto lifeless in 
 spirit. Then just in the proportion the 
 works of art, especially religious art, ex- 
 hibit this aspect of want of spirit, to such 
 extent are they devoid of spirituality. It 
 
 will perhaps be said, the imagination of the 
 eastern nations engendered a spirituality, 
 which struggled to express itself in some 
 outward object. This however was not 
 spirituality as we have denned it ; that is, 
 spirituality as spirituality, with which im- 
 agination has no more to do, except as it is 
 consonant with the outcome of reason. 
 Therefore given spirituality as spirituality 
 and mechanical skill and the work will re- 
 veal the same. But the mechanical execu- 
 tion is the result of reason, of experience, 
 or rather, of truth, (manifested in the se- 
 lection of proper modes by which to arrive 
 at wished for ends). 
 
 Measured by such a standard the Chinese 
 spirituality is lowest, then the Persian, In- 
 dian, Egyptian, and, lastly, Hebrew. Speak- 
 ing in respect of religion, my criterion en- 
 ables me to predicate, with greater cogency, 
 the above classification or order in regard 
 to the quality of spirit exhibited. But I 
 am not required to draw the lines between 
 the spirit prevailing among the Eastern na- 
 tions, as implicated by Hegel. I may affirm 
 generally that the spirituality of the He- 
 brews was higher than that of China, Per- 
 sia, India and Egypt. 
 
 Comparative philologists,, with whom are 
 comparitive theologians, agree for the most 
 part, that the oldest stocks of the human 
 race are found in the central portion of Cen- 
 tral Asia, from whence they dissemminated 
 East, West, and North and South. But I 
 shall only hold we may say, that the spirit 
 which prevailed in Central Asia, influenced 
 to a certain extent; through emigration and 
 warfare, the East, West and North, so to 
 the South ; that the mental status which 
 was created by the environment condition- 
 ing the Hindoos became impressed upon 
 the tribes of people which could be affected 
 thereby ; which through emigration and 
 warfare reached the natives of Egypt and 
 Greece mediately if not immediately ; so it 
 reached the natives of Persia and other 
 countries not here considered. According 
 to this it conclusion is immaterial whether 
 the Hebrew nation was an oil-shoot of the 
 Egyptians ; whether the Hyskos were ori<>-~ 
 
— 16 — 
 
 inally Hebrews or not ; or whether that na- 
 tion was a mixture of Persians and Egypt- 
 ians : or of Semitic races from Egypt ; 
 or whether the Egyptians were originally 
 from tribes populating Palestine, Syria 
 or Persia. 
 
 We know thoughts, by their forms. That 
 is anything which has limits is definite, and 
 the clearer and more exact the limits the 
 more definite the object. Space is definite, 
 though not so much so as a rock. Any- 
 thing wholly indefinite is inconceivable. 
 Now thought ts definite as it is conceivable. 
 If you express yourself so obscurely as to 
 make yourself wholly not-understood, your 
 thought is to me indefinite, not defined, it 
 is couched in a form so obscure as to be, 
 not-distinguishable as a form of compre- 
 hensible thought. Suppose a professional 
 physiologist explains to an amateur in 
 physiology, a question, the answer to which 
 is very difficult; now the matter he ex- 
 plains is to him clear and well defined, to 
 me it becomes clear through his explana- 
 tion, and with subsequent observation 
 clearer and clearer. To him the form was 
 definite, to me, at first, not so definite, it be- 
 comes more and more definite with time 
 and observation. Of course it is assumed 
 the explanation was correct, was truly ex- 
 pository of the reality. So also in every 
 branch of human knowledge, we find the 
 same to be true. Sometimes, however the 
 thought of the person explaining is itself 
 indefinite. Now just in the proportion the 
 thought is indefinite, will be the form in 
 which it is manifested. Thus in Indian 
 art, the strong inner feeling prompting to 
 expression made itself obvious in a variety 
 of forms, there was a longing to express, 
 but an inability to express definitely ; cor- 
 responding to a semi-barbarous awe, enthu- 
 siasm and fanaticism. Hence, if a philoso- 
 phy were expounded, it must have been so 
 indefinitely expressed, and when dissemin- 
 ated so modified by environing conditions 
 as to leave some excellent notions and some 
 ridiculous ones, which together disclose a 
 
 vast preponderance of imagination ovef 
 reason. I submit history, philology, juris- 
 prudence, etc., will be found to sustain 
 these conclusions. And in a corresponding 
 degree, as the like influences which environ- 
 ed the inhabitants of India, conditioned the 
 other nations of the East, do we find the 
 same state of things to exist. If the in- 
 fluences were more favorable through com- 
 merce, locomotion, inquiry, etc., expressed 
 generically, experience, the forms of things 
 were more definite, as comforable to the 
 experience and understanding regulating 
 belief to-day. The Indians had no definite 
 conception of law as a system. Their law, 
 originally, in the form of customs, was in- 
 corporated into the code of Manu, but mu- 
 nicipal and ecclesiastical provisions were 
 mingled in one collection. (16). 
 
 They had no form or next to no form of 
 government. The condition of the Egypt- 
 ians and so, especially, the Hebrews, was, it 
 is true, much above that of the Indians in 
 respect of spirituality. Among the Chinese, 
 the laws of Confuciusjmd, upon these, the 
 doctrines of the Buddha, should have, as 
 they largely have, made the nation accomp- 
 lish much, but both have ignored the qual- 
 ity of the spiritual, nor is the spirit they 
 breathe, disseminated among the masses, far 
 in advance of neighboring tribes and na- 
 tions. (17). 
 
 We have now with the aid of a little rea- 
 son on our part, (which the reader will al- 
 ways find beneficial, and herein important, 
 to use), a fair idea of the Eastern nations, in 
 a general view, as regards their spiritual 
 state. While particular sections of country 
 or particular tribes or nations of the East 
 have not been specially treated of, reason 
 will tell, that by comparison their state will 
 be found exposed in this general view ; and 
 the best sources of information will show, I 
 think, that reason in this is not wrong. 
 
 ARTICLE VII. 
 This discussion has left us in a condition 
 to conceive, as near as necessary the origin 
 of the so-called Holy Scriptures. Coinpari- 
 
17 
 
 son reveals a sameness between portions of 
 the Indian theology and that expounded in 
 Scriptures, so between the Zend-Avesta and 
 Scriptures, and the Koran and Scriptures ; 
 we may conclude that many of the religious 
 notions expounded therein, had their origin 
 in different nations, or that the influences 
 environing the people from whom the Scrip- 
 tures emanated, were in some respects sim- 
 ilar to those nations, whose theology exhib- 
 its this sameness. In either view the Holy 
 Scriptures are no more divine than the 
 work resulting from any other people, or 
 number of human beings. (18). 
 
 The Buddhist and Brahmanist believe the 
 doctrines of their religion, the Indian theo- 
 logy and the theology of the Chinese, in 
 their mental universe, to have a divine ori- 
 gin, so did the disciple of Zoroaster, and so 
 does the Mohammedan ; but we will deny 
 this, yet, at the same time affirm the Holy 
 Scriptures to have a divine source, although 
 we are told in some particulars their doc- 
 trines of belief are similar to those of the 
 Scriptures, and are in India, Persia and 
 China of earlier origin than the Scriptures. 
 Much in Scriptures is good ; a great deal 
 immoral ; this has reference to the spirit it 
 breathes. Its composition is defective. 
 Much therein is spurious. Its arrangement 
 is unscholarly and illogical. Its contradic- 
 tions many and irreconcileable. Some of its 
 asseverations are false, even ridiculous. If 
 I were to judge the state of mind from 
 which it emanated, I would say, such state 
 was a mean between the Hebrew and the 
 Indian ; sometimes exposing a high moral- 
 ity, sometimes ideas, the outgrowth of a 
 ery untrained, unreasonable imagination ; 
 sometimes a very low morality. 
 
 Taking leave of the East, let me now pur- 
 sue my inquiry into Europe. 
 
 PART II.— ARTICLE VIII. 
 
 In Europe, reference being had to the 
 manner in which it was peopled, it will be 
 found the influx of population was from the 
 South and East ; from the South through 
 Greece and the nations bordering the Med- 
 
 iterranean ; from the East through Hussia. 
 This population brought along the spirit 
 prevailing among the same. From the 
 South came Semetic and Aryan influences ; 
 from the East, Ayran. 
 
 Accepting the same criteria of times past 
 heretofore mentioned, in discussing the 
 general spirit existent in Europe, we find 
 the above statement to be well established. 
 It will be needless, my purpose herein 
 considered and my manner of treatment re- 
 membered, to do more than expose the gen- 
 eral spirit prevailing in Europe from the 
 commencement of the Christian era. This 
 leads me to remark, that the discussion thus 
 far has been, to reveal the general spirit 
 prevailing in the East, so-called ; because 
 there the spirit of Europe found its origin. 
 Europe, recollecting the sources of her pop- 
 ulation, must have received the general 
 spirit prevailing in the East. This spirit 
 became modified by the new influences en- 
 vironing her people. That the modifica- 
 tion became greater, more complicated, in 
 each successive cycle may be said to be 
 true. 
 
 In her early days, Russia possessed, like 
 North Germany, tribes of barbarians. (19). 
 Scandinavia showed the same. Britain 
 and Caledonia (now Scotland) were peopled 
 with an off-shoot thereof. Gaul exhibited a 
 portion thereof. France and Spain were 
 likewise inhabited. 
 
 Greece and contiguous nations, and 
 Rome, exhibited a different class or order of 
 inhabitants. 
 
 The hordes of the East are those who 
 will be found, from the best sources, to 
 have originally inhabited Russia, Germany, 
 Scandinavia, Britain, Caledonia, Gaul, 
 France and Spain. The inhabitants of 
 Greece and contiguous nations will be found 
 to have originally come from Persia, Syria, 
 Phoenicia and Egypt, those of Rome essen- 
 tially from Greece. 
 
 The spirit, then which, before amalgama- 
 tion, prevailed in the countries inhabited 
 by these hordes, corresponding to the spirit 
 existing in India and Persia, must have been 
 very low, and as the influences causing 
 
— 18 — 
 
 comparatively undisturbed reflection, were 
 re-placed by those incidental to a mode of 
 life at first alone possible in colder coun- 
 tries than India and Persia, that of a no- 
 madic life, must the intelligence incidental 
 to such reflection for a while have been su- 
 perseded by a lower grade of intelligence. 
 The boundaries of nations at the time in 
 question, were not as now understood ; for 
 which, and for the further reason, that it 
 most intelligibly corresponds with the fact, 
 the spirit of those early tribes, modified as 
 above indicated and with the countervail- 
 ing influences hereafter referred to, may be 
 predicated of all of Europe save Greece, 
 and contiguous nations and Rome. 
 
 The spirit of Greece, etc., and Rome, must 
 have been of a higher quality coming ear- 
 ly from Egypt and Phoenicia; not only 
 higher than that of northern Europe, but 
 also higher than either of those Eastern 
 countries, the effect produced by their 
 amalgamation. Be this, however, as it may 
 be, the spirit which came to Greece, etc., 
 with growth, (and the incidents, extension 
 of commerce and rise of greater inquiry, 
 culminating in a higher philosophy), ex- 
 hibited long before the Christian Era, 
 a much superior spiritual state to that of any 
 Eastern country. 
 
 Rome, subject to different environments 
 than Greece, although receiving originally 
 her people and their spirit from Greece, 
 finally at the opening of the Christian Era, 
 disclosed a higher and more perfect spirit 
 than Eastern countries in the form of her 
 morality, made obvious by her system of 
 jurisprudence, though the spirituality was 
 on the whole, very nearly the same as that 
 of Greece. 
 
 ARTICLE IX. 
 
 The mythology of India (including the 
 Hindoos), shows at first fetishism, then 
 polytheism, which latter Persia, Egypt and 
 China likewise reveal, the Hebrews do not. 
 
 Greece and Rome exhibit to the begin- 
 ning of the Christian Era, polytheism as 
 the prevailing form of religion; nor could 
 
 it be otherwise, considering the source of 
 their population, unless the modifying in- 
 fluences there existent, (subsequently crea- 
 ted), in the course of their development 
 and increase, should have been so great up- 
 on this spirit as to have wholly changed it. 
 The fountain head of the inhabitants of 
 Northern and Western Europe, as also Rus- 
 sia, being likewise the Eastern countries, 
 the polytheism of the East, if any hypothe- 
 sis is correct, must have penetrated into and 
 existed among those inhabitants, so long as 
 new influences environing them, were in- 
 sufficient to change their spirit. Preceding 
 the period from whence we examine and 
 inquire respecting the spirit of European 
 people, Greece and countries essentially 
 Grecian, alone, of all European nations, 
 showed the rise and dissemination of an in- 
 digenous philosophy. Through this, which 
 eventually affected Rome, it came that the 
 spirit of these countries became less poly- 
 theistic and a higher spirituality came to 
 evolve. 
 
 Of the inhabitants who peopled the rest 
 of Europe, I may say, it is probable their 
 spirit, which in one way manifested itself 
 in the prevailing polytheism, through con- 
 tact with Roman influences, consequent 
 upon war and limited intercourse, and Gre- 
 cian influences, changed and became less 
 imaginative and superstitious and more rea- 
 sonable and moral. It may be affirmed, 
 and this is sustained by authority, that at 
 the commencement of the Christian Era 
 the people of Europe were ready for Chris- 
 tianity ; the spirit permeating them was so 
 conditioned as to beneficially receive what- 
 ever influences Christianity and its inci- 
 dents, involved. 
 
 ARTICLE X. 
 
 The religious ideas of the Romans, which 
 before the dawn of philosophy in Rome 
 were polytheistic, under the material influ- 
 ence of jurisprudence and the ideal of phil- 
 osophy, became confused, whereby skeptic- 
 ism arose. To this, together with the ef- 
 fect of her policy and the cruelty of her 
 
19 
 
 Emperors is traceable the depraved state of 
 her people prior to and about the time of 
 the beginning of the Christian Era, before 
 Constantine. This skepticism was superse- 
 ded by a faith, destined to sway not merely 
 Greece and Rome, but Europe, Christi- 
 anity. 
 
 Christianity is a religious faith essentially 
 distinguished from preceding religious 
 faiths by the belief m Jesus, as Christ and 
 Son of God, as a divine being. 
 
 • Whether exactly as now is immaterial, it 
 suffices to say, long before Jesus essentially, 
 much of the Old Testament was known and 
 believed in by the inhabitants of Palestine, 
 the Hebrews — the Israelitish nation. How 
 it came into existence has been indicated. 
 Comparative ignorance, imagination, and 
 their products, superstition, conspired to 
 make this belief firm and difficult of modi- 
 fication, they served also to create in the 
 public mind a persistent regard for forms 
 and frivolous observances. Thus it came to 
 pass, the pure principles of their religious 
 faith came to be commingled and to be un- 
 distinguished, in the popular mind from the 
 ceremonial portion. To the same state of 
 mind it is owing (reason to discriminate 
 and clearly define being wanting), that re- 
 ligious or ecclesiastical and municipal or- 
 dinances were heterogeneously mixed as 
 part of the law. Coming as their knowledge 
 ©f times past mostly did by tradition, from 
 generation to generation by word of mouth, 
 many of their impressions of past states 
 and of future events assumed extraordinary 
 shapes. Filled with the imagination of the 
 wonders of the past, they measured their 
 future accordingly ; which, when oppres- 
 sion was upon them, stirred their emotions 
 to a higher and wild enthusiasm. Thus 
 prophecies came to be believed in, and pres- 
 ent and future events were accommodated 
 to the pictures portrayed by such supposed 
 prophecy. I am willing to believe and ad- 
 mit that the learned, the sage of Israel, 
 were free from the enthusiasm to the ex- 
 tent they were free from superstition. 
 
 Perhaps as much as a centum, anyhow 
 sometime, before the birth of Jesus, two 
 schools of doctors existed in Palestine. 
 These, when in consequence of prolonged 
 and disastrous wars, the Jewish people 
 were vanquished by Eoman arms, and Ro- 
 man thraldom oppressed their spirit, in the 
 agony of the period for relief, advocated 
 different modes by which relief should be 
 effectuated. One advocated submission, 
 and amelioration of the existing condition 
 by the dissemination of religious and moral 
 precepts and amalgamation, and with these 
 sided the sage ; the other, with which the 
 masses, naturally sided advocated a phys- 
 ical contest. I saw with which the masses 
 naturally sided. The oppression galled 
 them ; they desired an expeditious way of 
 ending it ; the slow process advanced in the 
 views of the wiser were unattractive to 
 them ; they remembered the feats of their 
 armies and generals, magnified beyond the 
 truth, as ignorant enthusiasm seconded by 
 imagination will inevitably do. Saul and 
 Judas Maccabeus were in their minds. 
 The prophecies of their future sounded in 
 their ears. 
 
 Now say the most that historically is to be 
 said, Jesus was one of the number who ad- 
 vocated the first course. More active than 
 others in his endeavor to promulgate his 
 views, and practically benefit the oppres- 
 sed ; views compared to previously preva- 
 lent notions, expository of pure morality 
 must, comprehending a change in the po- 
 litical condition of his people. 
 
 The first day of Passover came close to 
 hand, upon which day, as was the custom, 
 multitudes came to Jerusalem ; then Jesus 
 was to be there ; the labors of Jesus had 
 wrought an enthusiasm greater if any 
 thing, than of old for the cause of freedom ; 
 conditioned as this enthusiasm was with 
 the views expounded by the latter school 
 of doctors, there were indications pointing 
 to a demonstration in Jerusalem, a demon- 
 stration having for its purpose war, with 
 Jesus as commander, as king, if you like ; 
 a war, to the first school, sure to be disas- 
 trous, sure to be impracticable ; this dem- 
 
20 — 
 
 onstration had to be nipped in the bud ; 
 Roman watchfulness and cruelty, making 
 every demonstration a pretext for slaughter, 
 must not be aroused ; such a demonstration 
 must only have ended in great, dire and al- 
 most unexampled effusion of blood. And 
 these being the views which Jesus and the 
 first school of doctors entertained, were the 
 reasons which led him to deliver himself. 
 He delivered himself to the Roman Gover- 
 nor, Pontius Pilate, to avert a catastrophe 
 to his nation, that is (for Roman inhuman- 
 ity would not spare him), he died to save 
 his people. (20). 
 
 He was crucified; a punishment never 
 existing among the Jewish people of Judea 
 but one which descended to, or was con- 
 ceived by Roman ingenuity. Thus Jesus of 
 Nazareth died. Tkat the masses, the peo- 
 ple of Judea must have loved him under 
 such circumstances, must be inevitably 
 true. 
 
 The virtues of the illustrious dead, the 
 living magnify. The condition of the masses 
 of Judea, in point of spirituality, betrays a 
 state only above that of contiguous nations 
 by a faith, and laws corresponding, nearest 
 approaching a pure spirituality ; or, at least 
 many of their deeds aud notions, make ob- 
 vious a state of mind in some respects on a 
 level with that of other people bordering 
 Palestine ; this leaves the conclusion that in 
 many respects they were ignorant; in 
 which conclusion I judge, it will be found, 
 I am in accord with history, comparative 
 philology and jurisprudence, as also com- 
 parative theology. A state like this entitles 
 us to say, and so I affirm the fact will sub- 
 stantially be found, that the inclination to 
 exaggerate was great among the masses of 
 Judea (21). 
 
 And when there existed a feeling such 
 as they entertained for the illustrious Jesus, 
 it may be possible their love for him as- 
 sumed a reverential shape, their exaltation 
 was possibly almost a respect due only to 
 divinity — that is, they almost worshiped 
 his memory. Had his popularity resulted 
 from physical exploits in war, this feeling 
 
 had assumed a different tone ; the kind 
 of feeling they held for his memory cor- 
 responded somewhat to a religious influ- 
 ence. 
 
 But the demonstration did not take place, 
 and the people were cast down. Then it 
 probably happened that the so-called apos- 
 tles, to keep the people inspirited, and to 
 carry out the only practicable views for the 
 welfare of the people of Palestine, namely, 
 the views of the sage an 1 the first school of 
 doctors, bent their energies to keep alive 
 and farther disseminated the teachings of 
 Jesus, whom they may, or may not, by way 
 of distinction, have called Christ, i. e., the 
 anointed, for it was the custom among them 
 to anoint. There is nothing in this distinc- 
 tive name. "Son of God," he may likewise 
 have been called ; it was an expression 
 which, in the figurative language of the He- 
 brews, was used among the learned, there is 
 no divine characteristic implicated thereby, 
 in their use of it (22). 
 
 The labors of the apostles were promo- 
 ted through the assistance of others, but 
 they did not contemplate a new religious 
 faith. 
 
 Paul, thought and affirmed to be the Tal- 
 mndical Acker, was an Israelite. He con- 
 ceived the great task of ameliorating the 
 spiritual condition of the Gentile nations. 
 He seized upon a theory which assumed 
 the necessity of expounding an abstract 
 idea through a concrete form. Thus Jesus 
 became a divine Son of God, seated on the 
 side of God. Thus the Holy Ghost came to 
 be as preached to-day. The Gentile nations 
 of mostly a like spirituality as Greece and 
 Rome with polytheism for a religious prin- 
 ciple could not seize the abstract idea of 
 God (23). 
 
 Therefore, the wisdom of Paul's course in 
 adopting the theory above mentioned. He 
 carried out his theory in practice ; it is said, 
 however, with a view of ultimately preach- 
 ing and disseminating the doctrines of a 
 purer religion (24). 
 
 Be this latter true or not, his field of labor 
 became eventually extended to Greece and 
 
— 21 
 
 Eome, where, finding root, it from nascency 
 developed — developed to a mighty instru- 
 mentality, and a wonderful form in magni- 
 tude, a form not definite, like that of a 
 tangible object, but still a form. Slowly 
 now an extrinsic force was being introduced 
 into and modifying the spirit of Europe's 
 people. 
 
 The religion, or rather the doctrines, Paul 
 taught and preached, was not Christianity 
 as understood to-day — was not Christianity. 
 When the new faith assumed, through the 
 agency of politico-ecclesiasts, a form, it 
 came through the Bishops of Eome, Con- 
 stantinople, and Alexandria, and subse- 
 quently the Popes. In the meantime it re- 
 ceived converts among the Gentiles, the in- 
 habitants of Greece, and contiguous nations, 
 and Rome and Alexandria. It was not a 
 success among the people of Judea, but con- 
 trariwise was a failure. The people of Ju- 
 dea could not embrace a religious faith mak- 
 ing of Jesus a God ; their spirituality could 
 not be forced in this way. While the feeling 
 they had might have bee n such as hereto- 
 fore related, it could not assume such a step 
 beyond, as this faith required, although this 
 was not as extravagant as earlv Christianitv 
 (25). 
 
 ARTICLE XI. 
 Christianity first made its appearance in Eu- 
 rope, in Greece, from whence it disseminat- 
 ed westward. The doctrines, thereof in its in- 
 fancy, comprehended a compromise between 
 the previously prevailing polytheism, philo- 
 sophical notions consequent upon the pro- 
 pagation of the philosophy of philosophers, 
 and the spirit impregnated with the materi- 
 alism, made obvious in the jurisprudence of 
 Rome, and the immorality of the commu- 
 nity. Thus it was admirably fitted to suc- 
 ceed the state of popular religious belief in 
 Greece and Rome. 
 
 Constantine, called the first Christian 
 Emperor of Rome, who revenged himself 
 upon the "Eternal City" by removing the 
 imperial abode to Constantinople, was a 
 diplomatist. Christianity had shown its 
 adaptability, it was rapidly gaining favor 
 
 among a people whose ignorance made a le- 
 ligious faith when coming in a popular 
 shape, the most mighty of agents. Con- 
 stantine wished to be Rome's emperor ; in 
 the support of the new faith he saw his 
 pow r er, discovered success; accordingly 
 he acted, he embraced Christianity. Thus 
 he became Emperor of Rome, and thus 
 Christianity gained her influential friend, 
 whose support insured its success. I pass 
 over the early phases of Christianity, the 
 decisions of the first, second and third 
 councils of Mcea, and the broils between 
 the contending branches of the Christian 
 clergy. Christianity, between the time of 
 Constantine and the beginning of the 
 eighteenth century, had spread over Europe. 
 Christianity, for all the purposes of this es- 
 say, may be designated, that which had its 
 focus at Rome, though, indeed, it existed in 
 Greece, and in some of the xisiatic and Af- 
 rican countries before the advent in Rome ; 
 and though the doctrines of the early 
 church were subsequently to its rise, taught 
 by two branches, into which the Christian 
 church became divided, viz.: the Greek 
 Church and the Roman Catholic Church ; 
 and though the doctrines of the Greek 
 Church mostly prevail in the eastern portion 
 of Europe, beyond the boundaries of Ger- 
 many and the Baltic ; for the essential doc- 
 trines of both were and are the same, and I 
 have reference only to essential doctrines. 
 
 Whatever may now be said condemnatory 
 of the Catholic Church, it is certain that in 
 the best age of its existence, it, through the 
 exertion of its clergy and other adherents, 
 who, before the close of the 13th century, 
 had become disseminated over Western 
 Europe, was the agent, beside the natural 
 circumstances and surroundings condition- 
 ing the mind of the people, in advancing 
 their intellectual state. Through the learn- 
 ing it afforded'and its seminaries, churches, 
 monastaries, etc., it elevated the tone of so- 
 ciety. 
 
 While it contributed thus to the advance- 
 ment of man, the Catholic Church — Chris- 
 tianity — as a necessary consequence, ex- 
 tended its influence, but when, with an ex- 
 
22 
 
 tension of influence, the Church became 
 despotic and barbarous, and when, (one 
 consequence of the intellectual development 
 resulting from the erudition diffused by the 
 church, the discovery of and instruction in 
 the code, etc., of Justinian, the extension 
 of commerce and international intercourse, 
 and the spread of the doctrines of the old 
 and later philosophers), men began to rea- 
 son and to doubt, Christianity began to 
 wane, and more and more, in the progres- 
 sion of centuries, has Christianity, since it 
 began to feel the feebleness of approaching 
 old age, been losing its influence as a relig- 
 ions system, until doubtless, ultimately, it 
 will be no more. The indications of its de- 
 creasing influence, summarily stated, are, 
 the extinction of casuistical works, writings 
 once popular but now almost forgotten ; the 
 works of the later ethical writers, which, so 
 far as they are solely aimed in support of 
 Christianity, are now on the high road to ex- 
 tinction; the division into sects; the rise 
 and extension of rationalism ; tolerance ; 
 the general ridicule of the doctrine of in- 
 fallibility ; the present state of skepticism ; 
 and, finally, the increasing, even wonderful 
 spread of science and philosophy, which 
 are utterly irreconcilable with Christianity. 
 An extension of knowledge gives rise to 
 skepticism. Christianity, so long as it did 
 not meet with skepticism, of course, held 
 the world wherein it governed, in subjec- 
 tion, but when skepticism did arise in the 
 bosom of the Church, and knowledge en- 
 larged its boundaries, Christianity could 
 not withstand the effect. The learning dif- 
 fused by the Catholic Church took root and 
 germinated ; germinating, doubt — skepti- 
 cism was created ; skepticism produced in- 
 quiry, the effect of which was discovery. 
 Discovery has brought to light philosophy, 
 logic and science. Science and philosophy 
 opened to man's vison the laws of nature, 
 and phenomena were explained. This ex- 
 planation is costing the Church dear, it 
 strikes from under it the frail foundation on 
 which it rests. To-day it has no founda- 
 tion — no fundamental principle that, at the 
 same time, distinguishes and sustains it — it 
 
 is all superstructure, crumbling, like ancient 
 castles, into ruins. Faith, blind faith, is the 
 superstructure, which, before the march 
 of reason, is, ominously vanishing. Chris- 
 tianity (that is, the Christian doctrine), is 
 inconsistent with philosophy, logic and 
 science, hence the truth thereof is doubted. 
 Philosophy, science and logic, according to 
 the fact, extending their force of reason 
 among the human kind, doubt, of conse- 
 quence, becomes more wide-spread, and the 
 world of Christianity is contracting. Thus 
 is demonstrated the wholesome verity of the 
 saying, " Truth will prevail." 
 
 Science and philosophy at first repressed 
 by the Church, thanks to the tendency of 
 things, and, above all, to God, is in our 
 day permitted, as it were, unmolested ex- 
 tension. The spirit made evident in the 
 discussions among the followers of the 
 Church, and the division thereof into sects 
 together with toleration, the consequence of 
 the learning and enlargement of experience, 
 eventually, as at this day, left their influence 
 free to expand. It is not improper to say 
 that they did and do expand, and the expe- 
 rience of to-day teaches, that, with permea- 
 tion, they are revolutionizing the civilized 
 world of ideas and of action, consequential 
 thereupon they acquire, so to say, a greater 
 influence and extend their sphere of utility. 
 
 ARTICLE XII. 
 
 Alexandria, Constantinople and Rome, 
 represent the foci of Christianity after the 
 death of Paul, in its nascency. Nursed by 
 the Bishops of those places, it, through 
 their power, acquired an increase of num- 
 bers and influence. When dissentient, 
 Constantinople and Alexandria severed 
 their allegiance to the Roman See, the 
 Greek Catholic and the Roman Catholic 
 Church became in name what they had in 
 the course of preceding centuries been be- 
 coming internally, distinguished from one 
 another. The essence of the religion was 
 not changed, that is, the belief in Jesus as 
 Christ, and Son of God in the divine sense, 
 viz.: as a divine being distinguished above 
 
-23 — 
 
 all human beings by the possession of su- 
 pernatural and divine quality. The form 
 of church service in small particulars, as 
 the sacrament, the place of the altar, the 
 posture during service, the manner of con- 
 ducting service, etc., may have indeed, 
 doubtless did, vary. But images, sacrament 
 and paraphernalia were alike used in both, 
 and the place given to God was substan- 
 tially alike in both. Therefore, I affirm of 
 one as the other, the religious faith ex- 
 pounded by both, was polytheism per- 
 meated with some of the notions and rea- 
 soning of philosophy — polytheism and Pla- 
 tonism. The creations of imagination and 
 the dawning glory of reason's creations 
 were .commingling; commingling to, in 
 time, bitterly oppose one another; to be- 
 come opposed because of the violent men- 
 tal strife they entailed, the mental agony 
 superinduced. 
 
 In this shape the religious faith of Chris- 
 tianity has become disseminated through- 
 out Europe and America ; it was a form im- 
 plicating the spiritual condition existing 
 among the masses, in the time of its rise, 
 progress and spread ; a form which each 
 decade, is becoming more and more unsat- 
 isfactory, a form, however, malleable, which 
 will continue to be so long as faith shall pre- 
 ponderate as to close out reason. 
 
 That the mind of the human being has 
 not yet arrived at the state required is quite 
 indisputable. The prejudice of creeds, 
 caste, notional bias, the low standard as- 
 signed to the animal creation, the political 
 spirit, intemperance, extravagance, passion, 
 evidence a lack of reason's control. 
 
 If Mr. Spencer's labors have tended to 
 demonstrate one truth more than another it 
 is, that the tendency of the human mind is to- 
 ward reason. In the study of the spirit of 
 humanity from its primeval days, the course 
 of things exhibits a mental evolution from 
 faith without reason to a faith based on 
 reason, and this whatever the operating 
 forces causing superstition, imagination, 
 etc. This the study of Fetishism, Poly- 
 theism and Christianity discovers. The 
 faith with the least reason has evolved 
 
 into a faith having some reasonable traits, 
 but a faith which yet, (and in this respect 
 in perfect consonance to the spiritual state 
 of the civilized kind,) is because, essentially, 
 a faith without reason. 
 
 There is manifested to us now the expla- 
 nation of Christianty's prevalence in the 
 ages of its existence, and, if the remarks of 
 the preceding article will be properly 
 weighed, the wherefore of its existence, 
 and the evidences of its decline, will have 
 been found mentioned. 
 
 The eventual extinction of Christianity 
 entails no decline of morality nor misfor- 
 tune. Let it be remembered, the worship 
 of God according to the dictates of pure 
 reason, is not its principle. The principle 
 distinguishing it, is the belief, as before 
 stated, in Jesus. 
 
 When some thing or being comes into ex- 
 istence which did not exist before, it brings 
 into the previously existing, a change. Be- 
 fore Jesus was born, it is not claimed he ex- 
 isted in a divine sense, nor that he sat be- 
 side God ; so, then, when he died, and thus 
 came to be at the side of God, a change 
 took place in respect of God. If, however, 
 it is meant only that the spirit which ani- 
 mated Jesus is at the side of God, why 
 term it either Christ or Son of God ? Surely 
 these do not represent an abstract reality, 
 but a concrete, mundane form in reality. 
 They came down implicating the polytheis- 
 tic notions of antiquity in which quality 
 they were introduced into and became a 
 part of Christianity, the words expounding 
 its fundamental principle. In this funda- 
 mental principle is rank blasphemy ; beside 
 which the acts and doings of followers of 
 one creed or no creed against another, fade, 
 the scientist, the reasoner will tell you, in- 
 to insignificance. It is unreasonable, and 
 where believed in, is unsustained by reason. 
 Here then, is faith without reason. 
 
 All claim God is absolute, and all, in rea- 
 son, must admit that absolute comprehends 
 all and eternal state, and reason can only 
 concede, above the reasoning human being, 
 the Divine Being to be the Absolute, Eter- 
 
-24- 
 
 nal, Unalterable One; who must be omnipo- 
 tent, hence, since sight is power, Omnis- 
 scient ; since wisdom is power, All- Wise ; 
 since wisdom comprehends goodness, All- 
 Good ; since, also, charity, All-Merciful. 
 If in reason, I worship the Omnipotent, as 
 in reason, I am conscious of Him, and if I 
 worship according to the dictates of my 
 conscience — the conscience of reason's con- 
 sciousness — I am surely no less in morality, 
 than if one article of my faith is to worship 
 beside that Being, a being who I am told 
 was originally a man ; a man who, with 
 reason, I must think possesses only the at- 
 tributes and finitude of the human being ; 
 a man, whom I judge, can not make the 
 absolute, limited, conditioned, subject to 
 change. I can only reason that my belief 
 is a purer monotheism, in fact, is alone 
 monotheism, not pantheism or atheism. 
 Such a worship is attained only with the 
 possession of pure morality — as pure moral- 
 ity as man may be expected ever to acquire. 
 The belief in a divine essence — God, has 
 in all ages of the world prevailed (26). 
 Reason leaves no other conclusion ; science 
 and philosophy show it to be so, both 
 through the evolutionist and idealist. Com- 
 parative philology shows it to be so, as we 
 may readily collect from the words used to 
 denominate God. (27). Jurisprudence, 
 comparative history generally, monuments 
 and theology, show the same. Religious 
 faith has been in all ages of the world. (28), 
 it will always be, but not always felt or en- 
 tertained through the same mental and 
 moral atmosphore; from a belief or faith 
 without reason in a time of low morality, 
 this recognition of a God has remained and 
 strengthened, and, at the same time, as- 
 sumed a more definite and satisfactory 
 form ; it will continue to become more def- 
 inite — to strengthen, to assume a purer and 
 purer form ; a form to be formulated only 
 to be spoken of ; in spirit pure as ever shall 
 be required, the utmost reach within man's 
 I>rovince. 
 
 ARTICLE XIII. 
 
 The Kokan, which is the basis / of and 
 embodies the doctrines and principles of 
 Mohammedanism, has exercised a great 
 control over the destinies of mankind, and 
 still has a wide influence over a very large 
 portion of the human race. In the words 
 of an excellent writer: (29). "Consider- 
 ing the asserted origin of this book — indi- 
 rectly from God Himself— we might justly 
 expect that it would bear to be tried by any 
 standard that man can apply, and vindicate 
 its truth and excellence in the ordeal of 
 human criticism." * * * " We ought 
 therefore, to look for universality, com- 
 pleteness, perfection." * * * " Far in 
 advance of all that has been written by 
 the Sages of India or the philosophers of 
 Greece on points connected with the origin, 
 nature and destiny of the universe, its dig- 
 nity of conception and excellence of ex- 
 pression should be in harmony with the 
 greatness of the subject with which it is 
 concerned." * * * * "Such a work, 
 noble as may be its origin, must not refuse, 
 but court the test of natural philosophy, 
 regarding it not as an antagonist, but as its 
 best support. As years pass on, and hu- 
 man science becomes more exact and com- 
 prehensive, its conclusions must be found 
 in unison therewith." * * * " Tried by 
 such a standard the Koran wholly fails." 
 
 By the same authority are given some of 
 the ideas expounded in the Koran. 
 " Ranged in stories, seven in number, are 
 the heavens, the highest being the habita- 
 tion of God, whose throne — for the Koran 
 does not reject Assyrian ideas — is sustained 
 by winged animal forms. The shooting 
 stars are pieces of red hot stone thrown at 
 angels by impure spirits when they ap- 
 proach too closely. Of God, the Koran is 
 full of praise, setting forth, often in not un- 
 worthy imagery, His Majesty." * * * 
 " Though it inculcates an absolute depend- 
 ence on the mercy of God, and denounces 
 as criminals who make a merchandise of 
 religion, its ideas of the Deity are altogeth- 
 er anthropomorphic. He is only a gigantic 
 man living in a paradise. In this respect, 
 
25 
 
 though exceptional instances might be 
 cited the reader rises from a perusal of the 
 114 chapters of the Koran with a final im- 
 pression that they have given him low and 
 unworthy thoughts." 
 
 " From the crown of the head to the 
 breast God is hollow, and from the breast 
 downward he is solid ; that he has curled 
 black hair, and roars like a lion at every 
 watch of the night. The unity asserted by 
 Mahommed is a unity in special contradis- 
 tinction to the trinity of the Christians, and 
 the doctrine of a divine generation." The 
 so-called savior is never called the son of 
 God, but always the son of Mary. Through- 
 out, tli ere is a perpetual acceptance of the 
 delusion of the human destiny of the uni- 
 verse. As to man, Mahommed is diffuse 
 enough respecting a future state, speaking 
 with clearness of a resurrection, the judg- 
 ment day, paradise, the torment of hell, the 
 worm that never dies, the pains that never 
 end ; but, with all this precise description 
 of the future, there are many errors as to 
 the pi>st." * * * * An impartial read- 
 er of the Koran may doubtless be surprised 
 that so feeble a production should serve its 
 purpose so well. But the theory of religion 
 is one thing, the practice another. The 
 Koran abounds in excellent moral sugges- 
 tions and precepts; its composition is so 
 fragmentary that we can not turn to a 
 single page without finding maxims of 
 which all men must approve. This frag- 
 mentary construction yields texts, and 
 mottoes, and rules complete in themselves, 
 suitable for common men in any of the in- 
 cidents of life. There is a perpetual insis- 
 ting on the necessity of prayer, and incul- 
 cation of mercy, almsgiving, justice, fasting, 
 pilgrimage, and other good works," etc. 
 * "For life as it passes in.Asia, 
 there is hardly a condition in which pass- 
 ages from the Koran can not be re-called 
 suitable for instruction, admonition, conso- 
 lation, encouragement." 
 
 A perusal of the Koran can not, I affirm, 
 fai] to strike the reasoner with several 
 f actsj that, embodying as it does the princi- 
 ples of Mohammedanism, it is inconsistent 
 
 with science ; it is opposed to reason in the 
 fundamental and most of the subordinate 
 principles it teaches; it reveals a low 
 spirituality ; in the language of the author 
 just quoted from, it " betrays a human, and 
 not a very noble intellectual origin." Mo- 
 hammedanism is. not suited to become uni- 
 versal. The sum of its teaching, which the 
 Koran contains is, a moral grossness, greater 
 in many respects than the teachings of the 
 Bible. The redeeming feature it presents, 
 in the insistence of charity, etc., is on the 
 whole possibly a little greater than the 
 New Testament, but far less than the re- 
 deeming features of the Old Testament. 
 
 It may be asked, probably with surprise, 
 why and how early Mohammedanism was 
 superior as a religion to early Christianity? 
 This is not difficult of explanation. It, in 
 practice, showed a purer morality and a more 
 consistent observance of moral principles. 
 It not only preached, but practiced love 
 and charity. 
 
 As Dr. Draper remarks, "the theory of 
 religion is one thing, the practice another." 
 Religion, as I speak of it, is practical, con- 
 sisting of practice. In this sense I treat of 
 early Mohammedanism now, Judaism sub- 
 sequently. Accordingly, speaking of the 
 former, I say it was a superior religion to 
 early Christianity, because it practiced a 
 higher morality. 
 
 I understand of course that the religious 
 belief and practice of the community con- 
 stitute the religion, and that teaching pre- 
 supposes practice and example, indeed is 
 largely synonymous therewith. And when 
 I say Mohammedanism preached love and 
 charity I refer to those elements only to the 
 extent they were practiced. Early Christi- 
 anity, that religious system of the bishops 
 and popes and their coadjutors , the system 
 that sustained a diabolical inquisition, a 
 vile tyrannj r , a despotic curb to human in- 
 tellect and, insofar, human morality, that 
 brought about wars for centuries almost 
 without intermission, was inferior to Mo- 
 hammedanism because it was free of moral 
 principles; moral principles belonged not 
 properly thereto. 
 
26 — 
 
 So far as Mohammedanism, in the above 
 sense, was and is adapted to mental and 
 moral status, progress and happiness it 
 flourished, no farther. It was especially 
 superior to early Christianity in that its 
 fundamental principle was "there is but one 
 God," to which was, more modestly than 
 Christianity respecting Jesus, added, " and 
 Mohammed is his prophet." 
 
 We are to ascertain how and where the 
 religion of Islam spread. It has been said, 
 inter alia, Christianity prevailed in Egypt 
 and Greece. The church, even as it had 
 done at Rome and in the West, instigated 
 great barbarities in the East. Through it 
 institutions of learning, reared and fostered 
 under the auspices of the Ptolymies were 
 destroyed, learning was inhi luted, philoso- 
 phy and the philosophers were crushed ; 
 and for its more secure elevation, to eradi- 
 cate all opposing sentiment, it by oppres- 
 sion and excessive wickedness brought 
 about the commission of the most enor- 
 mous cruelties. Persecution, opposition to 
 free religious convictions, unless they were 
 in harmony with those of the church, 
 otherwise expressed, intolerance, and de- 
 struction of whatever in the remotest man- 
 ner threatened its structure, the promotion 
 of unscrupulous and ignorant men, were a 
 part of the programme as well in the East 
 as the West. Reader read the acts it was 
 privy to, those it induced the commission 
 of, read of the atrocities of the monsters in 
 crime, the early bishops, of a St. Cyril, at 
 whose instance Hypathia was murdered; of 
 a Theophilus, under whose regime the 
 Serapion was destroyed. 
 
 I said it was to Constantino the church 
 owed its early influence, to which is trace- 
 able its future formidable condition. It 
 was the settled policy of Constantino to 
 promote the church, that is " to divert am- 
 bition from the State to the church, and 
 make it not only safer but more profitable 
 to be a great ecclesiastic than a successful 
 soldier/' This resulted, we are told, in a 
 violent competition for chief offices and 
 finally for Episcopal supremacy. If was 
 during his reign that the great dispute, be- 
 
 tween Arius, a presbyter in Alexandria and 
 Alexander for the bishopric of that city 
 arose, which culminated in the defeat of 
 Arius and his followers, who took the name 
 of Arians. The Nicene Council summoned 
 A. J. 325, to settle the dispute between the 
 two, a dispute involving not merely the 
 bishopric but something to them far graver 
 and more important, doctrines for Church 
 Government, decided against Arius, which 
 decision Constantine enforced by banishing 
 Arius, though he afterwards, it is said, with- 
 in ten years restored him. The conse- 
 quence of the action of the council and 
 Constantine was blood-shed and horrible 
 murders in the East, and the creation of 
 two opposing and bitter branches of the 
 church. The second action of Constantine 
 ended in the death of Arius, again involv- 
 ing the Christian countries of the East. 
 Ariauism was defeated, and the Arians 
 were branded as heretics. Dr. Draper has 
 remarked: "No heresy has ever produced 
 such important political results as that of 
 Arius. While it " (Arianism) " was yet a 
 vital doctrine, it led to the infliction of un- 
 speakable calamities on the empire, and 
 though long ago forgotten has blasted per- 
 manently some of the fairest portions of the 
 globe. When Count Boniface, incited by 
 the intrigues of the patrician Aelius, invi- 
 ted Genseric the king of the Vandals into 
 Africa, that barbarian found in the dis- 
 contented sectaries his most effectual aid. 
 In vain would he otherwise have attempted 
 the conquest of the country with the 
 50,000 men he landed from Spain A. D. 
 429." Many bishops, " with that large por- 
 tion of the population who were Arian, 
 (30), were ready to look upon him as a de- 
 liverer, and therefore to afford him support. 
 The result was the loss of Africa to the 
 empire. 
 
 "When Justinian found himself firmly 
 seated on the throne at Constantinople he 
 took measures to retrieve this disaster. The 
 principles which led him to his scheme of 
 legislation; to the promotion of manufac- 
 turing interests by the fabrication of silk ; 
 to the re-opening of the ancient routes to 
 
India, so as to avoid transit through the 
 Persians dominions; to his attempt at se- 
 curing the carrying trade of Europe for the 
 Greeks, also suggested the recovery of 
 Africa." * * * 
 
 "To carry out Justinian's intention of the 
 recovery of Africa, his general Belisarius 
 sailed at mid summer A. D. 533 ; and in 
 November he had completed the reconquest 
 of the country." 
 
 It has been declared "this was speedy 
 work ; a work succeeded by great and re- 
 markable calamities. In consequence 
 thereof, and the Italian wars of this same 
 prince, "the human race visibly diminish- 
 ed." And to these the orthodox Christian 
 clergy were privy. 
 
 "It is affirmed that in the African cam- 
 paign 5,000,000 of the people of that coun- 
 try were consumed ; that during the twen- 
 ty years of the Gothic war Italy lost 15,000, 
 000 ; and that the wars, famines and pesti- 
 lences of the reign of Justinian diminished 
 the human species by the almost incredible 
 number of 100,000,000." 
 
 I follow the writer from whom I have al- 
 ready so liberally quoted, trusting I shall 
 not thereby open myself to the charge of 
 plagiarism, since the use I put his observa- 
 tion and remarks to is essentially variant 
 from his own. In expressing the facts he 
 asserts, I must have largely taken of the 
 facts he treats of, which I could hardly so 
 happily and popularly have done as he. Dr. 
 Draper continues : "It is therefore not at 
 all surprising that in such a deplorable con- 
 dition men longed for a deliverer, in their 
 despair totally regardless who he might be, 
 or from what quarter he might come. Ec- 
 clesiastical partisanship had done its work. 
 When Chosroes II., the Persian monarch 
 A. D. 611, commenced his attack, the perse- 
 cuted sectaries of Asia Minor, Syria, and 
 Egypt followed the example of the African 
 Arians in the Vandal invasion, and betrayed 
 the empire. 
 
 "The revenge of an oppressed heretic is 
 never scrupulous about its [his or her] 
 means of gratification. As might have been 
 
 expected, the cities of Asia fell before the 
 Persians." 
 
 Jerusalem was taken ; the cross was de- 
 stroyed ; the miracles which the sacred 
 wood accomplished were discovered to be 
 an imposture. Confidence in the powers 
 apostolic of African bishops was shattered 
 and destroyed, "not one of them could work 
 a wonder for his own salvation in the dire 
 extremity." The invaders overran Egypt 
 as far as Ethiopia. The Archbishop of Al- 
 exandria fled to Cyprus. "The Meditera- 
 nean shore to Tripoli was subdued." These 
 successes destroyed the charm of the true 
 cross ; notwithstanding its restoration to 
 Jerusalem, the faith therein was broken, 
 
 A. D. 509, at Mecca, in Arabia, was born 
 Mohammed. He preached a mon©- 
 theism. His theology, Tlwre is but one 
 God. A soldier and a preacher, valiant and 
 eloquent, with the sword and his eloquence 
 he procured the new faith to spread. Mo- 
 hammedanism became an established faith. 
 It eventually became the prevailing belief 
 in Alexandria, in Arabia, Syria, Asia Mi- 
 nor, Egypt, and Turkey. Through the Ara- 
 bian or Moorish conquests, it for several 
 centuries prevailed in Spain. The mental 
 status of the masses in Africa, etc., led them 
 to embrace any religion that was invested, 
 necessarily in practice, with superior attri- 
 butes to Christianity. 
 
 Be the repugnant characteristics of early 
 Mohammedanism, what they may, it 
 was for reasons already stated, and others 
 following, far superior to early Christianity, 
 hence the secret of its wide dissemination. 
 The additional reasons are obvious ; it did 
 not straight-jacket the human intellect, but 
 fostered, encouraged and promoted its la- 
 bors and contributions ; it advanced itself 
 of and thrived because of and through 
 thought and inquiry, as is shown in the 
 philosophy and science that became ex- 
 pounded and disseminated through its tol- 
 erance, through its schools, among which I 
 may mention those of Cordova and Bagdad, 
 where the sciences, so far from being pro- 
 hibited, were cultivated, whereby it aided 
 the propagation of learning. It exhibited 
 
— 28- 
 
 a spirit of enlightenment, under which be- 
 ning influence institutions of learning mul- 
 tiplied, inquiry grew greater, treatises of 
 profound learning found the light, the re- 
 sults of reason and experiment (in respect 
 of which the policy of Christianity was de- 
 struction) were promoted, palaces and works 
 of architectural art arose, commerce began, 
 manufactories sprung up, and wiser politi- 
 cal structures came to exist. The influence 
 of Mohammedanism was essentially politi- 
 cal as affected communities as a whole ; a 
 wiser administration of government ensued 
 upon its advent. 
 
 In the course of human events, Moham- 
 medanism spread, as already remarked, to 
 Turkey, threatening, at the same time, to 
 extend its dominion over the whole of Eu- 
 rope. Then the difference of Christian 
 sects in Europe, before the threatened (as 
 they viewed, and awful) evil, for a time be- 
 came superseded by the more monotonous 
 issue of the hour. Mohamme'danism must be 
 stopped ; her hosts must be stayed, Europe 
 must be saved, Catholic and Protestant al- 
 lied, and finally the Christian arms were 
 successful. Europe was saved. Not this 
 alone. The hated Mohammedan in the 
 west of Europe had also been vanquished — 
 ♦Spain was finally re-conquered. The infi- 
 dels were persecuted. The Moors, as they 
 were termed, were forced to leave or share 
 the fate of extermination or of the wretched 
 and uncertain existence of bandits and out- 
 laws. With the Moors went their institu- 
 tions. Spain was saved — saved at the cost of 
 all the springs of human intelligence, that, 
 with their refreshing spirit, had begun to 
 enrich the uncultivated universe, which, 
 everywhere in the mind of Europe, pre- 
 sented a cheerless and forbidding aspect. 
 
 The effect of Mohammedanism upon 
 Christian Europe was not slight. Eminent 
 Christians, long doubting the doctrines of 
 the church, thrown in with Moors, and 
 learning their works, received ideas new 
 and invigorating, quaffed of the refreshing 
 waters. Troubadours, with their songs, and 
 others, brought into European spirit doubt 
 and disgust. The policy of the church, 
 
 through this source, was slowly being un- 
 derstood, the disadvantages of Christianity 
 were becoming realized, the encroach- 
 ments of the Church were gradually becom- 
 ing resisted. 
 
 Let the reader, however, always remem- 
 ber that I speak of Mohammedanism as a 
 practical religion, and only such ; hence, its 
 influence and sphere of action I confine to 
 the sphere wherein it practically benefited, 
 no further. It became the faith in countries 
 oppressed with a worse system, and kept its 
 vantage ground to the extent it was accom- 
 panied with attributes of amelioration ; tol- 
 eration, charity and truth, or the appear- 
 ance of truth. And, toleration and charity 
 given, so long as its doctrine bore the ap- 
 pearance of truth, it prevailed and does still 
 prevail. 
 
 A faith, except so far as the same is based 
 on reason, if the existing circumstances en- 
 able it to acquire paramount influence, be- 
 comes, through its advocates, despotic, 
 which is only to say that those officially ad- 
 vocating a religion when they acquire power, 
 will resist the force which tends to depose 
 or weaken them, and to stay or prevent the 
 existence or growth of such a force will use 
 violent means; in an equal ratio with the 
 desire for office and power and unscrupu- 
 lousness are the resistance and means of re- 
 sistance used. 
 
 Thus Mohammedanism became despotic, 
 and when the same was inconsistent with 
 the views of its expounders and followers, 
 the spirit and enlightenment to that extent 
 was oppressed and opposed. 
 
 In Southern climes, where Mohammedan- 
 ism alone prevails, the people are indolent, 
 ignorant, imaginative and superstitious, the- 
 principle of which I have shown. To this, 
 together with the machinations and repres- 
 sive policy of her leaders, it is owing that 
 Mohammedanism in its early days, a mon- 
 otheism (early Mohammedanism), became 
 a general polytheism, with very few, though 
 some, better features than existed before; 
 Christianity ; in this agreeing with the his- 
 tory of most preceding people. 
 
 At the time early Mohammedanism threat- 
 
— 29 
 
 ened Europe, it may possibly have been ac- 
 quiring some of its subsequent attributes, 
 which mayhap slightly swerved the mind of 
 Europe. Therefore and because, as has 
 ever been the case to a greater or less ex- 
 tent, the disciples were associated with the 
 principles of Mohammedanism, disciples 
 against whom, from the habits of life, Eu- 
 ropean people were impressed with a pro- 
 found repugnance and with respect to whom 
 they felt a superiority above, and for the 
 additional reason that in many instances the 
 public mind was too dark to grasp the ex- 
 cellence of those principles, it did not nom- 
 inally extend. Mohammedanism, as a sys- 
 tem, never prevailed among Christian peo- 
 ple. Through it, in its early days, however, 
 a better spirit came into Europe, 
 permeating her spirit — a spirit which 
 heralded the downfall of the church. 
 This spirit is manifested in the philosophi- 
 cal doctrines that became expounded by 
 Averroes and others, the colleges of France, 
 Frederick of Sicily, etc., the style of archi- 
 tecture, and improved habits of life. Some 
 of these doubtless partly owed their being 
 to other causes, causes of which some are 
 hereafter referred to. 
 
 The influence of a religious faith is prop- 
 erly to be ascertained by finding the effect of 
 the principles inherent in the doctrines it ex- 
 pounds, advocates and teaches, rather than 
 by discovering the extent of territory over 
 which it prevails in name. By this crite- 
 rion Ave measure the influence and spread 
 of Mohammedanism in Europe, as we did 
 also in the discovery of its spread in Asiat- 
 ic, African, and the European nations, Tur- 
 key and Span. We find that the influence 
 of Mohammedanism was from two direc- 
 tions, East and West. From the East in 
 consequence of the invasions of the Turks 
 into the heart of Europe, the result of which 
 was, the discovery to the ignorant masses of 
 Christian Europe of the humanity, intelli- 
 gence and morality of the Saracen. From 
 the West, the influence of her political and 
 educational institutions in Spain. 
 
 AKTICLE XIV. 
 
 In knowing what Mohammedanism is, 
 where and how it spread, we have a suffi- 
 cient acquaintanceship with that faith to re- 
 lieve me from the necessity of any further 
 examinations hereinto for the proper com- 
 prehension of what is herein claimed, viz. : 
 Judaism is a superior faith to Mohammed- 
 anism or Christianity, whether early or 
 late. 
 
 Two centuries and over after Jesus, Jew- 
 ish people inhabited Egypt, Rome and Spain. 
 From which particular locality they came, 
 how long they had been there, and the 
 manner of their coming is not, in this place, 
 material. Wherever the Jewish people 
 were, there, of consequence, was Judaism. 
 With dissemination and propagalion, by 
 emigration and generation, the J ewish com- 
 munity became larger and more influen- 
 tial. 
 
 To explain the spread of Judaism in Eu- 
 rope is not an easy undertaking, however 
 cursory the disquisition may be. It must 
 be sufficient, space and time considered, to 
 give but a brief and general history of its 
 progress. We measure Judaism, as Mo- 
 hammedanism, by its principles ; and this 
 can be done only by considering the history 
 of its expounders. 
 
 From the destruction of Jerusalem, so 
 glowingly described by Flavius Josephus, 
 and the wars that, at successive periods, fol- 
 lowed thereupon, the existence of Jewish 
 people may be traced in Rome ; from the 
 time of the advent in Spain of Mohammed- 
 anism, the existence of Jewish people may 
 be traced in Spain. 
 
 In Spain, while Mohammedanism pre- 
 vailed, Jewish people and Judaism flourish- 
 ed ; but when, with the successes of the 
 Christian hosts, Mohammedanism was ex- 
 pelled, from that time in Spain Judaism was 
 fettered and oppressed, and when the Span- 
 ish Inquisition, in aid of the church, began 
 its remarkable course, Judaism within Span- 
 ish borders ostensibly perished. In Rome, 
 subjected to oppression and persecution, 
 Judaism, confined to Ghettoes, latently 
 
50- 
 
 grew, but, of consequence, it did not notice- 
 ably extend its numbers. 
 
 80 in France and England we find the 
 same policy, oppression and persecution of 
 Jews. So likewise it did not noticeably ex- 
 tend its boundaries here. This is true also 
 of Germany and Russia, etc. Nor was the 
 oppression and persecution of short dura- 
 tion nor limited to a few ; it lasted for cen- 
 turies, and was general, yea, it exists to a 
 degree to-day, and it is only because of the 
 political decline of the Christian Church 
 that Judaism is even tolerated to the extent 
 it now is— £ e., it is only because of the in- 
 telligence consequent upon knowledge that 
 at present prevails and is growing and per- 
 meating the countries of Europe, that Juda- 
 ism occupies its present place in the condi- 
 tion of the civilized globe. 
 
 I am aware that history records that many 
 of the Jewish faith were reduced, through 
 the oppression and barbarity of the Catholic 
 element, aided by the Inquisition and other 
 agencies, to deny their creed. This, how- 
 ever, was, generally, done but nominally, 
 the principles of belief notwithstanding 
 survived and flourished — being a part of 
 their very physiology, must have existed — 
 and for being latent and suppressed, flour- 
 ished the more luxuriantly. 
 
 Now, we ascertain its progress by the 
 principles it teaches, and the practical ben- 
 efits conferred thereby ; in doing which I 
 expect to show that the tendency of hu- 
 man intellect is toward a universal recog- 
 nition and adoption of the principles it 
 teaches. 
 
 Let us remember what Hegel affirms of 
 the art of the Hebrews, the sublimity of 
 which reveals, for the first time, a mono- 
 theistic religion, teaching, in its essential- 
 ness, "There is but one God," w i?xi^ VD& 
 ints * iyr6tf " Hear, Israel, God is our 
 Lord, God is One!" and the principles of 
 morality expounded in the decalogue, and 
 the writings of her great men. 
 
 I have already disclosed the concomitant- 
 influences which ended in Jesus' death and 
 the subsequent rise of Christianity. The 
 
 scheme of Peter and the other apostles in 
 proclaiming Jesus, Messiah of the Jews, sub- 
 sequent to his death, was not successful, be- 
 cause they were opposed by the Pharisees, 
 because the proclamation was made not so 
 much in a political as in a religious sense, 
 because they had not the ability to carry 
 out the same with success, and because 
 they were opposed, to a certain degree, by 
 Paul. That they did this with a view of 
 eventually relieving the people from thral- 
 dom, hoping thereby to gain them over to 
 a more liberal ceremonious worship ; that 
 they succeeded to the extent of only obtain- 
 ing a few followers ; that the essential cause 
 of their non-success was their inability 'and 
 inadequacy of the scheme to satisfy the 
 wishes of the Jewish masses, has, by care- 
 ful and accurate criticism, I think, been tol- 
 erably conclusively shown by learned au- 
 thors. The converts of the doctrines ex- 
 pounded by Peter and the other apostles 
 were Hebrews and Israelites, and are now 
 distinguished by the name of Jew-Chris- 
 tians. Peter and his helpers were Hebrews 
 and Israelites, observing and expounding 
 the Jewish laws and customs, and their sole 
 object, it seems clearly inferrable, was to 
 liberalize the sentiments of the Jewish peo- 
 ple, by this means effectuating the ultimate 
 salvation according to the teachings of Je- 
 sus. It must, in the nature of things, be 
 true, assuming Jesus to be a wise man, that 
 apotheosis was repugnant to his views. If he 
 was, as is generally claimed, and here con- 
 ceded, a sage and good man, as sage as the 
 Pharisean doctors, then it must have been 
 pure blasphemy to him to deify any human 
 being, and must have shocked his moral 
 sense to have, for one moment, the deifica- 
 tion of himself suggested. 
 
 Again, such a tenet was utterly opposed 
 to the religious sense and political govern- 
 ment and laws of his mother country, 
 which, even if he did believe therein, and 
 could, notwithstanding, be considered a 
 sage man, he must have seen the impolicy 
 of advocating, and hence refrained from ad- 
 vancing. But the person who could desire 
 himself, and could think it right to be, dei- 
 
81 
 
 lied, must have been like Alexander, who, 
 it is said, desired to be deified, anything but 
 wise, and, consequently, unworthy of deifi- 
 cation. 
 
 Paul, supposedly the Ta'mudical Acher, 
 was also, a teacher of Christianity. But he 
 taught doctrines of his own, independently 
 of Peter, James, and the other apostles at 
 Jerusalem. He preached to the Gentiles in 
 Syria, Asia Minor, Macedonia, Greece, and 
 Rome. He taught that the Jewish laws and 
 customs were abrogated, preached against 
 circumcision, and in favor of the " Son of 
 God," the end of the earth, a day of resur- 
 rection and final judgment; doctrines in 
 conflict with the principles of Jewish be- 
 lief. If he attempted to do so, he was un- 
 successful in propagating his doctrines 
 among the Jewish masses at Jerusalem, but 
 it does not satisfactorily appear, he so at- 
 tempted. Paul preached 52 to (54 years af- 
 ter Jesus, contemporaneously with some of 
 the apostles. The converts of Paul are des- 
 ignated "Gentile-Christians." He preached 
 his doctrines to heathens to accomplish 
 eventually this moral salvation, with a view, 
 doubtless, of liberalizing his system when 
 the condition of the mental atmosphere 
 was favorable. It is«said he believed in the 
 Unity of God, and the laws and customs of 
 the Jews. 
 
 The teachings of Paul were opposed to 
 the apostles at Jerusalem, and subsequent- 
 ly by Rabbi Akiba and the Jewish doctors of 
 Judea. The doctrines expounded by Akiba 
 and the doctors, in opposition to Paul, were 
 the force and application of the laws and 
 customs of the Jews, circumcision, and, I 
 may add as doubtless true, that Jesus was 
 no "Son of God," as Paul taught it, namely, 
 in a divine sense. Finally, the separate 
 and distinct schemes of salvation were at- 
 tended with a climax. Rabbi Akiba and 
 his followers and co-adjutors, seeking their 
 freedom from the exciting oppression, 
 raised a rebellion and Bar Cochba, (some- 
 times called Cokeba), was their general. 
 But they met with defeat and thus destroyed 
 all hopes of ever accomplishing their 
 schemes. From this time too the labor of 
 
 the apostles in Jerusalem, etc., is no longer 
 found to bear fruit, but to lose influence. 
 
 The Jewish people dispersed, emigrating 
 to Egypt, Europe, and elsewhere. But the 
 doctrines of Paul spread, gentile-christen- 
 dom extended in numbers, congregations 
 came to be, churches were erected, and ere 
 the death of Paul his scheme had developed 
 and promised a happy issue. Thus Gentile- 
 Christian doctrines spread, and the churches 
 expounding them became, with increase, 
 more powerful, culminating into an episco- 
 pacy, and ultimately, through the Bishops, 
 Constantine, the Popes, and their instru- 
 ments and agents, into a vast, almost resist- 
 less political engine, the power of which 
 was reflected, as it were, from Rome as a 
 focus. 
 
 But the doctrines of Judaism were op- 
 posed to these, and while confined to Judea 
 they successfully resisted them. With the 
 death of Akiba and the annihilation of 
 schemes and their dispersion, this opposi- 
 tion became weakened, and in Europe, 
 where Jewish influence was comparatively 
 very small, the doctrines at first found no 
 material resistance therefrom; in time, how- 
 ever, they presented lesistance, and it was 
 then and thereafter, they experienced the 
 reciprocal resistance of the church and 
 Christians. A resistance accompanied with 
 horrible barbarities and excruciating cruel- 
 ty; a resistance impregnated with intoler- 
 ance, hatred, and contempt, with which 
 mercy was a spirit as well as unknown ; a 
 resistance so greatly exceeding anything be- 
 fore experienced, that in dismay, the Jew- 
 ish believers, as already intimated, had to 
 bury their faith beyond the cognizance of 
 the vigilant Gentile-Christian fathers. And 
 where in the centuries posterior to Con- 
 stantine, the church, in its episcopacy, stood 
 strong and irresistible, disseminating Juda- 
 ism could make but slow headway. Yet it 
 maintained itself. 
 
 Now I am to digress, and from the cur- 
 sory and but partial consideration of the 
 state of Judaism in Europe above given, 
 carry myself back to the seat of Judaism. 
 Jerusalem, and from thence to Africa, etc. 
 
-32- 
 
 I refer to the doctors in India, and the 
 many excellent doctrines they expounded 
 to prove that the Jewish nation at this ear- 
 ly day exhibits learned men, of respectable 
 wisdom. Men, as the study of the laws 
 governing their people will easily demon- 
 strate, who were tolerant and equitable, op- 
 posed to capital punishments, and opposed 
 to the persecution of any one for religious 
 convictions. But Jewish learned men were 
 not alone in Judea ; they were to be found 
 in Africa and in the East, elsewhere, and 
 this not merely in Jesus' time, but in suc- 
 ceeding centuries, except so far as repressed 
 by the Church and the Romans. 
 
 The military operations of the Arabians, 
 in Africa, heretofore mentioned, over- 
 threw the Byzantine political system in 
 Egypt and the countries conquered. In a 
 few centuries the fanatics of Mohammed had 
 altogether changed their appearance. Great 
 philosophers, physicians, mathematicians, 
 astronomers, alchemists, and grammarians, 
 had arisen among them. Letters and sci- 
 ences, in all their various departments, 
 were cultivated. 
 
 A nation stirred to the profoundest depths 
 by warlike emigration, and therefore ready 
 to make, as soon as it reaches a period of 
 repose, a rapid, intellectual advance, may 
 owe the path in which it is about to pass, to 
 those who are in the position of pointing it 
 out, or of officiating as teacher. The teach- 
 ers of the Saracens were the Nestorians and 
 the Jew r s. 
 
 It has been remarked that Arabian sci- 
 ence emerged out of medicine, and that in 
 its cultivation physicians took the lead, its 
 beginning being in the pursuit of alchemy." 
 •* * * * * * 
 
 "When the Arabs conquered Egypt, their 
 conduct was that of bigoted fanat ; cs." * * 
 * " But scarcely were they settled in 
 their new dominions when they exhibited 
 an extraordinary change. At once they 
 became lovers and jealous cultivators of 
 learning." 
 
 The Arab power had been submitted to 
 two influences. In Asia to the Nestorians, 
 in Africa to the Jews, " Brought into uni- 
 
 son in Asia with the Nestorians, and in Af- 
 rica with the Alexandrian Jews, the Ara- 
 bians became enthusiastic admirers of learn- 
 ing." 
 
 The Jewish people had produced distin- 
 guished physicians. When the light of 
 knowledge was ready all but to die out, 
 through the influence of the Jews and Nes- 
 torians it was kept alive, and by their active 
 aid it enlarged, presenting a new growth, 
 through the Arabians to our day. After 
 the destruction of Jerusalem, all Syria and 
 Mesopotamia were full of Jewish schools ; 
 but the great philosophers, as. well as the 
 great merchants, of the nations, were resi- 
 dents of Alexandria." 
 
 " At first, after the fall of the Alexandria 
 schools, it was all that the Jewish physi- 
 cians could do to preserve the learning that 
 had descended to them But when the tu- 
 mult of Arabic conquest was over, we find 
 them becoming the advisers of crowned 
 heads, and exerting, by reason of their ad- 
 vantageous position, their liberal education, 
 their enlarged views, a most important in- 
 fluence on the intellectual progress of hu- 
 anity." (31). From the same source I 
 mention the names of some of these distin- 
 guished men (32). Maser D'jaiwah, physi- 
 cian to the Khalif Moajiwah, distinguished 
 as a poet, critic and philosopher; Kalid, 
 who translated many books from the East : 
 Haroun, a physician of Alexandria, who 
 wrote on small-pox, and the method of treat- 
 ing it : Isaac Ben Amram, the writer of an 
 original treatise on poisons; Joshua Ben 
 Min, said to have been the most celebrated 
 professor of the school of Bagdad, itself act- 
 ively promoting the translation of Greek 
 works into Arabic. In this manner the 
 writings of Plato and Aristotle were se- 
 cured. 
 
 The result of this intellectual movement 
 was diffusion of light. "Schools arose in 
 Bassan, Ispahan, Samarcand, Fez, Morocco, 
 Sicily, Cordova, Seville, Grenada." 
 
 Thus, according to Dr. Draper, and as is 
 largely true, through the Jews and Nestori- 
 ans learning became disseminated, and not 
 only the Arabic mind, but the mind of all 
 
— 33 
 
 coming within the intellectual sphere, were 
 enlightened and liberalized. 
 
 From Africa to Spain the Arab spread, 
 and with him the schools, arts and liberal 
 sentiment prevailing in his native land. 
 With him went the Jew. Not that Jewish 
 people had no residence in Spain ere this 
 time, but because the free and intelligent 
 spirit of the Jew was not there, doubtless 
 due to the ignorance of those residents, and 
 possibly partly because whatever free and 
 intelligent spirit there threatened to be was 
 crushed out by Gentile-Christian power. 
 With the Arabian conquest of, and regime 
 in, Spain, the Jewish people there prosper- 
 ed. The resulting evidences of his genius 
 are not few. The vast works revealed to 
 have existed in Spanish history in the reign 
 of Mohammedan rulers, which lasted for 
 centuries ; the schools, the edifices, the fac- 
 tories, the sciences all directly or remotely 
 are due to Jewish influence, attest Jewish 
 spirit. And these, extending to and pene- 
 trating, as already indicated, the mind of 
 Christian Europe, exercised an imporiant 
 influence upon the subsequent intellectual 
 and moral development of Europe, which 
 is synonymous with the slow decline of in- 
 tolerance. 
 
 When the Christian hosts, by open war- 
 fare, and the insidious, bloody workings of 
 the inquisition and other agencies, effec 
 tually suppressed the Mohammedan, the Jew 
 too was suppressed, and the works of their 
 enlightenment, so far as they assumed a tan- 
 gible shape, became, virtually, gradually 
 extinct in Spain. Not, it is true, thereby 
 effectually crushing out all effects resulting 
 from these institutions. The spirit implica- 
 ted thereby, and breathed, so to say, there- 
 from, had penetrated the mind of Europe, 
 and in the edifice and other works, escap- 
 ing destruction, must have continued, in an 
 extent, to subsist, and the throes it produc- 
 ed in the body of intelligence in Christian 
 Europe became manifest; throes existing, 
 indeed, before the advent of these agencies, 
 leading to the vigorous pursuit of the hell- 
 ish and damnable policy carried out, carried 
 out that the spirit of inquiry should be 
 
 stopped, a spirit against which it was impos- 
 sible the political existence of the Church 
 could last. 
 
 From our digression we have returned to 
 Europe, and are entitled to say : Thus, af- 
 ter their dispersion, the spirit of the Israel- 
 ite was benefiting Europe. Penetratiug the 
 mind of Europe, from the Spanish domin. 
 ions it secretly, if not openly, started the 
 springs of intelligent reflection and thought 
 among Europe's hosts. But the conquest 
 of Spain closed this source of enlightenment 
 from shedding further light, and the Jewish 
 inhabitants there, like elsewhere, as said in 
 a preceding part, were obliged to worship in 
 secret. We have come back to the point of 
 digression. 
 
 Montesquieu (Spirit of Laws, Book xxi. 
 chap, xvii.), speaking "Of Commerce after 
 the Destruction of the Western Empire, 
 says: 
 
 " After the invasion of the Roman Em- 
 pire, one effect of the general calamity was 
 the destruction of commerce. ' The barbar- 
 ous nations at first regarded it only as an 
 opportunity for robbery; and when they 
 had subdued the Eomans, they honored it 
 no more than agriculture, and the other 
 professions of a conquered people. Soon 
 was the commerce of Europe entirely lost. 
 The nobility, who had everywhere the di- 
 rection of affairs, were in no pain about it." 
 (p. 39.) 
 
 The Jews were an agricultural and a com- 
 mercial people, but they were suppressed 
 through the acts of monarchs and professors 
 of Christianity generally. Montesquieu 
 says again. "What passed in England may 
 serve to give us an idea of what was done 
 in other countries. King John having im- 
 prisoned the Jews, in order to obtain their 
 wealth, there were few who had not at least 
 one of their eyes plucked out. Thus did 
 that king administer justice. A certain 
 Jew who had a tooth pulled out every day 
 for seven days successively gave ten thou- 
 sand marks of silver for the eighth. Henry 
 III. extorted from Aaron, a Jew, at York, 
 fourteen thousand marks of silver, and ten 
 
— 34 
 
 thousand for the Queen. In those times 
 they did by violence, what is now done in 
 Poland with some semblance of moderation. 
 As princes could not dive into the purses of 
 their subjects, because of their privileges, 
 they put the Jews to the torture, who were 
 not considered as citizens. 
 
 "At last a custom was introduced of con- 
 fiscating the effects of those Jews who em- 
 braced Christianity. This ridiculous cus- 
 tom is known only by the law which sup- 
 pressed it. The most vain and trifling 
 reasons were given in justification of that 
 proceeding, it was alleged that it was proper 
 to try them, in order to be certain that they 
 had entirely shaken off the devil." * * * 
 
 "I cannot help remarking, by the way, 
 how this nation has been sported with from 
 one age to another ; at one time their effects 
 were confiscated when they were willing to 
 become Christians ; and at another, if they 
 refused to turn Christians, they were or- 
 dered to be burnt. 
 
 " In the mean time, commerce was seen 
 to rise from the bosom of vexation and de- 
 spair. The Jews, proscribed by turns from 
 every country, -found out the way of saving 
 their effects. Thus they rendered their re- 
 treat forever fixed ; for though princes 
 might have been willing to get rid of their 
 persons, yet they did not choose to get rid 
 of their money, 
 
 " The Jews invented letters of exchange ; 
 commerce, by this method, became capable 
 of eluding violence, and of maintaining ev- 
 erywhere its ground ; the richest merchant 
 having none but invisible effects, which he 
 could convey imperceptibly wherever he 
 pleased." 
 
 "The theologians were obliged to limit 
 their principles; and commerce, which 
 they had before connected by main force 
 with knavery, re-entered, if I may so ex- 
 press myself, the bosom of probity."— ^p. p. 
 40,41,42. Id. 
 
 " Aristotle's philosophy being carried to 
 the west, pleased the subtle geniuses, who 
 were the virtuosi of those times of igno- 
 rance. The schoolmen were infatuated 
 with it, and borrowed from that philoso- 
 
 pher a great many notions on lending upon 
 interest, whereas its source might have 
 been easily traced to the Gospel ; in short, 
 they condemned it absolutely and in all 
 cases. Hence commerce, which was the 
 profession only of mean persons, became 
 that of knaves ; for whenever a thing is for- 
 bidden which nature permits or necessity 
 requires those who do it are looked upon as 
 dishonest. 
 
 " Commerce was transferred to a nation 
 cursed with infamy, and soon ranked with 
 the most shameful usury, with monopolies, 
 with the buying of subsidies, and with all 
 the dishonest means of acquiring wealth." 
 —Ibid., p. 41. 
 
 "Thus we. owe to the speculations of the 
 schoolmen all the misfortunes which accom- 
 panied the destruction of commerce ; and 
 to the avarice of princes the establishment 
 of a practice which puts it in some measure 
 out of their power." — Ibid., p. 43. 
 
 The same author, in preceding chapters 
 of the same work (as also many others), 
 speaks of the genius of the Eomans with 
 respect to commerce before the destruction 
 of the Eternal city by the Barbarians. 
 
 This quotation from Montesquieu has 
 benefited us, in that it leads us from the 
 point of digression, to which we have re- 
 turned, in our discussion of European spir- 
 ituality. Thereby my previous assevera- 
 tions are confirmed and we are introduced 
 to a realization of the benefits accomplished 
 through Jewish instrumentality in the suc- 
 ceeding centuries of European history. But 
 let it not be believed that I place implicit 
 reliance on Montesquieu. His remarks, I 
 am aware, are not clear and even somewhat 
 contradictory, and in some respects, I think, 
 he is inaccurate. I do not think tire notions 
 of the schoolmen in respect to commerce 
 were so much the outcome of Aristotlian phi- 
 losophy as the erroneous ones received from 
 the religious faith they professed. The re- 
 pugnance of the schoolmen to commerce 
 arose, as Montesquieu seems to think, from 
 their opposition to lending on interest. The 
 Church too was opposed to lending on in- 
 
 • 
 
35- 
 
 terest, and it is doubtless true that the 
 schoolmen received their opposition from 
 the Church, whose teachings they mostly 
 followed. It was the policy of the Church 
 to have all things conform to her policy 
 (and this was opposed to commerce), and 
 the notions of the schoolmen, duly regard- 
 ful of the Church, and possibly sincerely, 
 were so conformable that I am even rather 
 of the opinion that Aristotlian philosophy 
 would have impelled the mind, as that of 
 Averroes, in an opposite direction, namely, 
 to have embraced commerce. (33) 
 
 I do not affirm that Jewish people were 
 never free from molestation ; had such been 
 the case they had become exterminated. 
 What I affirm is, that they were, on the 
 average, oppressed, or not given equal free- 
 dom with Christians, were debased to a low 
 moral standard and treated accordingly by 
 the then Christian mind. And this the 
 quotation from Montesquieu (a Christian 
 writer), which is but a sample, evidences. 
 The policy of monarchs was the policy of 
 the Church. The Jew was selected by vir- 
 tue of the fact of his being a Jew by mon- 
 archs and the nobility in their acts of bar- 
 barity, thus indicating the presence of re- 
 prehensible principles ; principles of Chris- 
 tianity, for Christianity was the criterion in 
 the minds of the monarchs, etc., of propri- 
 ety and excellence, principles of indubita- 
 ble viciousness. 
 
 Again I do not concede so great an effect 
 to letters (bills) of exchange as Montes- 
 quieu. 
 
 From what is above quoted and said, it is 
 to be gathered, and in this the conclusions 
 are essentially correct, that the commerce 
 which prevailed among the Eomans did not 
 extend to the countries inhabited and gov- 
 erned by the barbarians ; that they were 
 averse to it as to agriculture ; that in conse- 
 quence of the destruction of the Eoman 
 Empire commerce was, for a while, crippled 
 and suspended, if not destroyed; that it 
 was through the Church and the schoolmen 
 discountenanced, and even by the latter 
 opposed ; that the large mass of the people, 
 accordant with monarchs and the nobility, 
 
 regarded commercial pursuits as vile and 
 infamous, contemplating war and the 
 Church as proper avocations ; that the Jew- 
 ish people were differently impressed and 
 followed commercial pursuits, but thereby 
 opposing themselves to public sentiment 
 were, beside for religious convictions, per- 
 secuted and oppressed (thus we see com- 
 mercial spirit beside religious belief added 
 to their misery); that the persecution occa- 
 sioned the use of bills (letters) of exchange; 
 that afterwards, in time, through the exten- 
 sion of traffic, the commercial pursuit was 
 no longer deemed a disgraceful or vile occu- 
 pation. 
 
 But the barbarians, so-called, were not 
 always barbarians, but, as heretofore indi- 
 cated, were emerging out of, and progress- 
 ing in the lapse of centuries, further and 
 further from that state. Had it been other- 
 wise, Christianity, even as vicious as it was, 
 could not nave been imposed upon them, 
 nor would the spirit of feudalism have pre- 
 sented the progress it did in lessening the 
 rigor common to the system. A progress in 
 its early stages, fairly indicated by Montes- 
 quieu in his ''Esprit de Lois" (Spirit of 
 Laws). The law of nations (Jus Gentium) 
 was the growth of many centuries, formed 
 into a system by the later publicists, among 
 whom Grotius stands eminent. Among the 
 influences culminating in its establishment 
 is the commercial or maritime system, 
 which antedated the period of these public- 
 ists. This system was found in a compara- 
 tively crude state early in the history of 
 Europe, as early, probably, as the 11th cen- 
 tury after Jesus. AVh ether it came directly 
 or mediately from the Eomans we are 
 not concerned to inquire, it is enough to 
 say that this system existed, to which T sup- 
 plement, and it has ever since existed and 
 grown. Thus at Marseilles in France, in 
 Italy, among the Ffanse towns of Holland 
 and Germany, and in Sweden, this system 
 could be found. 
 
 Hence, I credit to the Jewish people not 
 the sole commercial spirit, but that to 
 them the credit of keeping alive a 
 commercial activity when commerce threat- 
 
— 36 — 
 
 ened, in consequence of the teachings 
 and polic}^ of the Church to expire must, I 
 submit, be conceded. And that, subse- 
 quently, they were largely instrumental in 
 its promotion, that the use of bills of ex- 
 change is principally due to them, and, in- 
 cidentally, the banking system is, it is sug- 
 gested, unquestionable. Here I may appro- 
 priately remark, these the Church opposing, 
 we may conclude that in the rise and estab- 
 lishment of this system early Christianity, 
 i. e., the Church, began to wane. The doc- 
 trines of the Church were of such a nature 
 that commerce and commercial spirit could 
 only injure it. 
 
 To commerce is largely due the enlighten- 
 ment of man ; it promotes locomotion, the 
 reception of new ideas, and stirs the springs 
 of thought, superinducing reflection, reason 
 and doubt ; it must have inspired doubt in 
 the doctrines of the Church, especially such 
 as affected it. It is the life-giving element 
 of commercial customs, otherwise denomi- 
 nated the law merchant, of which the law re- 
 lating to promissory notes, bills of exchange, 
 and maritime law in most of its particulars 
 and international policy are the product and 
 growth. It is, as eminent writers have 
 shown, the liberalizer of sentiment, produc- 
 ing toleration, leading to skepticism, and, 
 next to science and philosophy, the bugbear 
 of the Church. Judaism, however, is not 
 inconsistent with commerce, never obstruct- 
 ing its progression or extension, but thriv- 
 ing in its thrift. The same may be said of 
 this faith in respect of the branches of hu- 
 man learning. 
 
 As has been seen, the oppression the 
 Jewish people of Europe experienced, while 
 it made them outcasts everywhere, did not 
 materially disturb their convictions or 
 change their purpose. They continued, 
 though sometimes secretly, the accumula- 
 tion of wealth, to which is owing, in no 
 small part, domestic, and eventually 
 international, commerce. It was only 
 when the potentates and powerful nobility 
 of the countries inhabited began the prac- 
 tice of horrible tortures for the purpose of 
 securing their wealth and their banishment, 
 
 that this people were constrained to cease 
 almost entirely the open accumulation and 
 exhibition of wealth. It has been told how, 
 to meet the exigency of the times, bills of 
 exchange were invented. These, by their 
 easy and secret transmission of wealth, 
 tended to keep alive commerce. Though 
 being opposed, commerce thus in secret 
 channels of traffic extended, until, as the 
 public mind became more and more proper- 
 ly conditioned, it eventually developed into 
 an irresistible force, a force of which the 
 maritime system in existence among the 
 Hanse towns, etc , was early a form. That 
 this extension has been attended with in- 
 creased and increasing influence to the Jew- 
 ish people, surely can not, in reason, be 
 denied. 
 
 The consequences of the extension of 
 commerce, beside those above enumerated, 
 are an enlargement of knowledge,the opening 
 of the avenues of sense and reason, a disbelief 
 in supernatural things, an inquiry into the 
 causes of things, which latter, in higher 
 branches, may be denominated science and 
 philosophy. 
 
 Tho voice of reason, of necessity, and the 
 sense of the commercial world all declare the 
 importance of commerce, and in that deter- 
 mination the despised Jew finds a reward 
 and no little satisfaction. He does, howev- 
 er, not gloat over the consequence to the 
 Church, his happiness not being in the mis- 
 ery of others. His religion, instilling the 
 warm, beneficent spirit of charity, teaches 
 that he should only feel compassion. But 
 his rew T ard is the proud consciousness that 
 the little instrument he aided to nurse and 
 fostered has not deceived him in the fruit it 
 has borne, but is a healthy, progressive and 
 mighty instrumentality, which the experi- 
 ence of man, in his enlightenment, has ac- 
 corded unqualified recognition and support ; 
 that in its pathology is extensively contained 
 the pathology of human civilized nations; 
 
 The influence of Jews in philosophy. 
 Maimonides, Spinoza and Mendelssohn ! 
 Ask these what aid Philosophy has received 
 from the Jew, and ask the world what she 
 owes to these. The Jew has nothing to be 
 
— 37 
 
 ashamed of. Spinoza still holds the rank he 
 is entitled to. Let us see what a Christian 
 philosopher says of him. 
 
 After stating and explaining how modern 
 science, commencing with the metaphysical 
 epoch, has three stages or phases, and after 
 explaining what the three phases are, with 
 respect to the first of which he says, "The 
 first stage of the devolopment closes with 
 attempts on all hands to put the results in 
 an encyclopedical form," of which tenden- 
 cy, he remarks, Humboldt's Cosmos is a 
 good example ; classes Herbert Spencer's 
 system in the second phase, and accords to 
 Spinoza's philosophy, with Plato, Aristotle, 
 and Hegel, a place in the third and highest 
 phase, and calls him the clearest-minded 
 thinker of modern times (34). That their 
 influence is and has been great is, I think, 
 conceded by all who are competent to judge. 
 These are but a part ; more, among whom is 
 Ibn Zaddik, might be mentioned, but we 
 rest content with these. 
 
 At the close of the eighteenth century we 
 find the Jewish people had partly establish- 
 ed themselves ; the most violent of the op- 
 pression against them had ceased, though 
 much still prevailed, especially in particular 
 countries and localities. And from thence 
 to this day toleration, with the acquisition 
 of learning resulting from commerce, loco- 
 motion, material pursuits, etc., and reason, 
 has obtained a greater and higher place, so 
 that now Jewish persons may be found in 
 high places, in the institutions of learning, 
 in political assemblages, etc., a just tribute 
 to their ability and worth. It is a source of 
 regret that this justice to this people is, in 
 some European countries, and even in 
 some localities in America, still withheld. 
 
 Since the eighteenth century Judaism 
 has sprung up and developed in America. 
 The influence it has brought into the con- 
 dition of her people, the institutions there 
 it has aided in creating, and the position 
 which that faith there holds, unquestion- 
 ably show its dissemination and healthy 
 progress. In the large cities of the Union, 
 and to the extent of my knowledge, all the 
 small, the Jewish community occupy an 
 
 honorable and enviable position. Though 
 it is true that much prejudice still exists in 
 the minds of some ignorant or narrow- 
 minded ones against this people, which fre- 
 quently finds expression in defaming the 
 whole creed for the acts of one (acts not 
 more criminal than the criminal records of 
 the country show the commission of ten 
 times, in proportion, as frequently by 
 Christian men). In my discussion, how- 
 ever, I do not assume that there are no in- 
 dividuals among the Jewish community de- 
 serving contempt, nor that they are perfect. 
 In point of enlightenment they exhibit no 
 greater progress than many whom I am 
 bound, pursuant to custom, to class as 
 Christians, except it is in the fundamental 
 principle of their belief. What I seek to 
 show and claim is, that the average spiritu- 
 ality exhibited by this people has been one 
 of comparatively greater morality and intel- 
 ligence than the masses of humanity among 
 whom their influence became permeated. — 
 (35.) 
 
 To summarize : Judaism in principle — 
 rational Judaism — was a religion in Pales- 
 tine, existing even in the palmy days of 
 polytheistic faith in Egypt and Greece ; and 
 notwithstanding polytheism, before the ten- 
 dency of intellectual development, has been 
 and is giving way and slowly disappearing, 
 this faith has held its own, and so far from 
 losing ground it has enlarged its sphere of 
 influence. Originally a monotheistic faith, 
 comprehending the highest spirituality, it 
 has never become degraded, through the 
 mental action of its followers and believers, 
 to a polytheism, thereby, as far as the envi- 
 ronment was favorable to intellectual pur- 
 suits of all kinds, never obstructing, or in 
 the leastwise hindering, the development of 
 intelligence. Ostracised in consequence of 
 Roman conquest and oppression it made its 
 appearance in Europe, where, so far as we 
 are concerned, it spread. Hardly had it 
 acquired a foothold when Christianity, ex- 
 tending and growing in influence, despotic- 
 ally endeavored to, and did, repress it. Ju- 
 daism was, however, not suppressed. Com- 
 merce and individual necessities made the 
 
— 38 — 
 
 Jewish population a valuable and indispen- 
 sable acquisition, and they were hence not 
 wholly exterminated, besides which, it is 
 doubtless true, the Jewish population 
 gained a secure foothold before Christianity 
 had acquired sufficient influence to repress 
 it, after which it was not possible to extin- 
 guish them. Anyhow Judaism existed and 
 spread. 
 
 Between the eleventh and nineteenth 
 centuries in Spain, Holland, and Germany, 
 the Jewish population presented to the intel- 
 lectual world a number of profound think- 
 ers and commentators — thinkers and phi- 
 losophers whose writings have gained a 
 world-wide reputation and carried a vast 
 influence over the civilized community 
 where known. I have mentioned three 
 among these writers, a portion, but no mean 
 portion of the number. 
 
 Thus we summarize. Now, I say, in con- 
 sequence of these writings, the growing in- 
 telligence of the Christian world, and the 
 abolishment of many obnoxious ceremoni- 
 als, and intelligence among its members, 
 the Jewish faith has become, and is becom- 
 ing, more and more influential. It now 
 presents two branches, Orthodox and Re- 
 form. The former adhere to the old cere- 
 monies, etc.; the latter having more regard 
 for reason, rely upon the principles of the 
 religion, do not place so much stress upon 
 ceremonies, viewing them as mere inciden- 
 tals, at present necessary machinery, with- 
 out which the existence of the faith would 
 be precarious, yet in favor of their abolition 
 as the condition of the mind of the believer 
 makes expedient. With this development 
 goes a better consciousness of the funda- 
 mental principle of that religion — a princi- 
 ple barely understood by any, those so 
 understanding it being very few. In Amer- 
 ica, the land of independent and unre- 
 strained thought, the principle is being 
 grasped. But within the last year there 
 appeared in the columns of the American 
 [sbaelitb, published at Cincinnati, 0., a 
 series of philosophical lectures, entitled 
 '•Soph Dabar," delivered by Dr. Isaac M. 
 Wise, the Mendelssohn of America, at the 
 
 regular service of the synagogue over whose 
 congregation he presides as Minister, upon 
 this principle, in which the conclusions of 
 philosophy are conciliated and shown to be 
 not only consistent with, but to lead to the 
 fundamental principle of Judaism (36) — a 
 principle which, arising in Palestine, has 
 come down through the long course of cen- 
 turies, reflecting the glory of present and 
 future reason. I would wish that more of 
 the Christian community informed them- 
 selves of the present mode of worship 
 among the followers of Judaism (not the 
 orthodox so much as the reform) and the 
 history of that people ; for it is undoubtedly 
 true that much of the prejudice existent 
 arises from an ignorance, which such action 
 will largely dispel. Moreover, the Chris- 
 tian who is unfamiliar therewith will be 
 surprised at the liberal tone of the lectures 
 he will hear expounded from the Jewish 
 Reform pulpit. 
 
 It will be expedient in this connection to 
 indicate why Judaism has not spread more 
 than to its extent. 
 
 This is owing, at first, to the powerful op- 
 position of the Church, and subsequently 
 the continuing opposition of Christian 
 creeds. Besides these the following serves 
 to explain the subject of inquny. The Jew- 
 ish people, because of the calamities befall- 
 ing them attendant upon their war with 
 Rome, their subjugation and its consequen- 
 ces, the backwardness of their knowledge 
 and their spirit of gain, remained in com- 
 parative ignorance even into the present 
 century, notwithstanding, however, remain- 
 ing true to their religion. Because of this 
 ignorance, and probably also the oppression 
 of the dominant faith (which obliged the 
 Jew to worship in secret), they attached 
 and accorded importance to each observ- 
 ance, form, or ceremony constituting a part 
 of their worship, imagining, by reason of 
 incapacity to discover differently, those ob- 
 servances, etc., to be an essential and indis- 
 pensable part of the religion itself, and this 
 being incompatible with reason and sense, 
 and these ideas being mixed up with the 
 
39 — 
 
 recognition of the pure principles which 
 really constitute the doctrines of Judaism, 
 prevented the spread of Judaism, nominal- 
 ly, though, of course, it could not prevent 
 the spread of the pure principles them- 
 selves — principles expounding truth and 
 the highest spirituality. Indeed the prin- 
 ciples are, to an extent, being practiced to- 
 day, though Judaism is not generally cred- 
 ited therewith. 
 
 When I speak of Judaism I do not confine 
 my remarks to a word, but to the pure prin- 
 ciples of the Jewish religion. Those prin- 
 ciples constitute the logical fabric by which 
 its first and fundamental principle is carried 
 out, which is belief in God as Omnipotent, 
 necessarily One, a unity, the All-Creative 
 Power. This belief comprehends the most 
 rational recognition of God, and in a relig- 
 ious point of view, its necessary concomi- 
 tant, a pure worship of God. This is pure, 
 rational Judaism. It is true there are many 
 forms which constitute a part of the Jewish 
 ritual, but the ceremonies, forms, etc., are 
 mere machinery, or rather instrumentalities 
 fitted to practical requirements, created 
 necessarily and existing for practical pur- 
 poses ; but these, as already said, constitute 
 no essential part of its doctrines. Judaism 
 is practical, it teaches and practices charity, 
 love, and truth. Charity toward all, love 
 for all, and truth among all, comprehending 
 a high and pure morality ; such morality as 
 in purity involves self-government in hu- 
 man perfection, that has no occasion for 
 penal statutes or artificial forms of govern- 
 ment, that fixes the individual in the high 
 state where the interests of the community 
 and the individual, if not identical, at least 
 are never in conflict; which places him 
 above the axiom of contemporaneous civil- 
 ized governments, that the individual must 
 suffer for the benefit of the community. — 
 "Le Salut du peuple est la supreme loi" (37). 
 
 ARTICLE XV. 
 The spirit of Christianity, taken as a 
 whole (given Platonic and Aristotlian and 
 later philosophy, and the spirit which be- 
 
 came infused into it through Mohammedan- 
 ism and Judaism), has been toward a higher 
 spirituality. Had it never become a system 
 possibly such barbarisms as were perpetra- 
 ted under its auspices had not been com- 
 mitted, and intelligence would have been 
 allowed a comparatively free growth. But 
 remembering that all spirit is the outcome 
 of environing and limiting conditions, pos- 
 sibly if that policy, the system of Christi- 
 anity exercised, had not existed, the pro- 
 gression of intelligence, on the average, had 
 been slower than it has been. The mind, 
 originally loath to work, had become stag- 
 nant. That opposition excites, and that 
 oppression leads to reflection, and that from 
 these arises thought — mental action — surely 
 will hardly be questioned, and that this 
 was the moving cause of much of the 
 thought and progress, which, through age 
 upon age, was imposed upon Europe, and 
 even the East, we find is largely true. That 
 by the mighty conflicts which in the Chris- 
 tian era have occurred, possibly the family 
 of man has been in all things more greatly 
 benefited than under any other conditions 
 that could reasonably have existed, may be 
 true. Consequently we can say that Chris- 
 tianity in its effects, upon the whole, was a 
 wicked system. 
 
 In drawing the comparison between the 
 religion of Mohammedanism and Christian- 
 ity I confined my remarks to early Christi- 
 anity and early Mohammedanism. Later 
 Mohammedanism I am hardly assured is 
 superior to early Christianity, not suffi- 
 ciently, at least, to make a distinguishable 
 difference as respects the spirituality each 
 expose. Conceding a doubtful margin, as 
 the logicians would say, to the period when 
 the spirit of Christianity was developing to 
 a higher state, I predicate of later Christi- 
 anity generally the spirit which resulted 
 from the writings of the Casuists, later 
 ethical writers, including publicists, and, to 
 a very great extent, from the extension of 
 commerce and the incidents thereof, and 
 schools, colleges, and universities. I, how- 
 ever, do not class the spirit of philosophers 
 with Christianity, for, purely, that is utterly 
 
40 
 
 repugnant to the distinguishing principle of 
 Christianity — a principle without which 
 Christianity is a mere word without mean- 
 ing ; and so also much of the spirit result- 
 ant from the spread of commerce I do not 
 class under Christianity, as it shows a dis- 
 belief not only in the Bible as still preached 
 by all Christian churches, but a disbelief in 
 the Godhead of Jesus Christ, a disbelief of 
 anything save a One and Eternal God, 
 though not even that in a state of proper 
 reason. This spirit is far from being that 
 of previous ages ; it is a spirit, conceding in 
 conscience the fallibility of every person 
 (even the Pope); desirous of justice, though 
 denning that justice by very questionable 
 scales ; advocating and giving a restricted 
 freedom from man, so far as governments 
 in the exercise of their conceded provinces 
 shall restrict the same. In short, it is a 
 spirit evincing a general desire for truth, 
 but possessing, so to say, only some grains 
 thereof. A spirit incapable yet of accepting 
 the abstract notion of one eternal God, yet 
 slowly, through a concrete concept, attain- 
 ing a purer state ; a state when science and 
 philosophy shall be alike acceptable, which 
 in its natural evolution shall end in pure 
 Monotheism, in that " sphere where all 
 contradictions are cancelled ; where the 
 idea of the good and of happiness in their 
 perfect accord and their enduring harmony 
 is realized." Which now is a profound 
 want of the soul, to be satisfied, not in three 
 ways, as Hegel would have us believe, but 
 in one way; not by art, religion, and philos- 
 ophy, but by religion. 
 
 ARTICLE XVI. 
 
 What bearing has the Bible on the fu- 
 ture? 
 
 What influence the Bible may have had 
 upon the masses of humanity in the ages of 
 its existence of course I am unable to say, 
 except from, general observation, nor is it 
 essential to discuss that question. It con- 
 sists of the Old Testament or Scriptures, 
 and the New Testament. 
 
 Originally compiled of fragments of tradi- 
 
 tions and accounts, the productions of dif 
 ferent periods, preserved and handed dow 
 from generation to generation, the Old Tes 
 tament has descended to us, recopied and 
 remodeled, from the original text (probably 
 inscribed, when first written, on skins in 
 the old Hebrew characters, the same, per- 
 haps, as that found on Maccabean coins, — 
 maybe of Phoenician origin*), though all 
 the successive compilations and translations 
 and recompilations, changes and arrange- 
 ments, constituting the Massoretic text, the 
 Alexandrian translations, etc. I am not 
 disposed to deny that, substantially, it has 
 been preserved in a tolerably complete 
 state. According to Josephus it compre- 
 hends twenty-two books : in the English 
 Bible, thirty- nine, according to other ar- 
 rangements, twenty-four and twenty-seven. 
 
 The New Testament is of comparatively 
 recent origin ; it dates existence after Je- 
 sus, is mostly the compilation of writings 
 written to advance the interests of the 
 Church in its nascent stage. It consists of 
 twenty-seven books, inclusive of the Apoca- 
 lypse. Both books contain some excellent 
 observations, and both have had great bear- 
 ing upon the welfare of the human race 
 among whom prevailing. The New Testa- 
 ment has not withstood the criticism of the 
 learned, and is in material respects contra- 
 dictory and unreliable. Its composers have, 
 in some respects, been shown ignorant of 
 the subjects they treated. Matthew, John, 
 Mark, and Luke, in their accounts of the 
 trial of Jesus and his whereabouts before 
 the trial, are contradictory, and the same may 
 be predicated of his genealogy as related by 
 them. It is less reliable than some of our 
 histories, and contains, all in all, fewer 
 moral principles than works on ethics and 
 other writings extant. 
 
 The Old Testament, venerable in its anti- 
 quity, comes to us with more marks of the 
 divine than the New. It presents to us an 
 account of Genesis^which Josephus, in his 
 first book against Apion, considers tradition), 
 which has to within the last generation 
 
 ■ 
 
 * Or perhaps of Assyrian origin. 
 
— 41 — 
 
 been pretty generally accepted as true. It 
 discloses the Decalogue, comprehending in 
 a wonderfully short form the greatest prin- 
 ciples of morality ever expounded by mor- 
 tal man, in which respect it is, as hereafter 
 explained, entitled to the attribution of di- 
 vine origin. It also contains the laws which 
 Moses is said to have given to his people — 
 laws which have been the archtype in some 
 particulars for other systems of law. Be- 
 sides these it contains the books of the 
 Prophets and the so-called sacred writings. 
 
 These books have been claimed to con- 
 tain all the learning of man, to be the crite- 
 rion of the truth of things. Upon this 
 principle the Church proceeded, and shaped 
 its policy to a great extent accordingly. 
 Much, indeed a very great part, of the Old 
 Testament is inconsistent with man's expe- 
 rience, and in some respects is also self- 
 contradictory, and not a little unsatisfactory. 
 The Xew Testament has no great feature. 
 Yet so far as these harmonize with man's 
 progressiveness they may prevail; but 
 when they stand opposed to reason, expe- 
 rience, and observation, defective as they 
 are, altered and modified as they have been, 
 with their contradictions, etc., they must 
 yield. 
 
 Some will cry out in what I must think 
 unholy horror at such a conclusion. Assert- 
 ing the divide origin of the Bible, they will 
 insist upon the writer's infidelity. Yet if 
 they have reason they conscientiously must, 
 it seems to me, believe with him. The as- 
 serted divine origin of the work has already 
 been discussed ; the remarks there submit- 
 ted are here applicable. 
 
 Yet let us concede for all Bibles a divine 
 origin. Let us, however, ever recollect that 
 they come to us through and by the agency 
 of the human being. Xow all truth is God's; 
 the greater the knowledge the nearer the 
 approach to truth; sometimes knowledge, 
 owing to superior mental capacity, is pre- 
 sented in a higher form in some than among 
 others, hence in some the knowledge ac- 
 quired is greater, the truth more apparent, 
 and comprehending a larger sphere; each 
 new operation of mind, mediately or imme- 
 
 diately discovering truth, is a revelation, 
 and as it comes from the same mysterious 
 source as all created things original mustly, 
 be that spirit which, as remarked before, 
 man alone recognizes above himself — God, 
 of nature inscrutable. In so far as, say 
 Moses, possessed the knowledge and genius 
 for discovering truth and expounding the 
 same, as in the instances of the Decalogue, 
 etc., to such extent there was a divine rev- 
 elation, just so far was he inspired. So also, 
 mutatis mutandis, with Jesus. So of many 
 persons, only the inspiration is greater in 
 some than others. That which opposes 
 truth is, necessarily, farthest from the di- 
 vine inspiration. But truth is measured in 
 the balance of man's judgment, and is fre- 
 quently the result of long experience, much 
 observation, continued experiment, and 
 long and laborious thought ; it is shown in 
 the highest form, I submit, in the high spir- 
 ituality I have defined. By this process we 
 understand how the books of the Old and 
 Xew Testament, so far as they expose truth, 
 are a revelation from God, are of a divine 
 origin. 
 
 It will possibly be demurred that this hy- 
 pothesis assumes inspiration and revelation 
 to be variant from what is ordinarily under- 
 stood. But I can not think so. The doc- 
 trine of revelation and inspiration, if ex- 
 pounded on a different principle, has, I 
 conceive, never been understood. It may 
 be different from that imagined; but the 
 imagination of those so impressed is of a 
 quality the opposite of what I desire, an 
 imagination altogether synonymous with a 
 faith without reason. 
 
 This, of course, assumes that a regular or- 
 der, a grandly beautiful, uniform, and per- 
 fect system is that which the Omnipotent 
 has fixed, and not a fragmentary, fitful, ir- 
 regular creation, on the same principle that 
 a regular, systematic work of man is greater 
 and nearer truth than a fickle, unmethodi- 
 cal creation. 
 
 Then in the mental and moral develop- 
 ment of the human race, the Bible if my 
 argument be valid, will yield to the degree 
 it is inconsonant with reason and truth. 
 
— 42 — 
 
 That the tendency is in such a direction 
 there surely can be no reasonable doubt. 
 We have commented on this tendency 
 slightly in the preceding article ; it is mani- 
 fest from the general disbelief of some por- 
 tions of the Bible. And what detriment 
 can possibly result ? Why, argument only 
 proves that the inclination to disbelieve 
 some parts is augmented to disbelieve other 
 unessential parts. Unessential because op- 
 posed to truth and reasom But since rea- 
 son is not possessed to the required extent 
 by the masses, and since the progression of 
 the masses to such a state is tardy, the full 
 and truthful view of the Bible can not yet 
 be taken, and because of that condition my 
 view in this chapter will be considered as 
 invalid, and, perhaps, even vicious. 
 
 ARTICLE XVII. 
 
 Let me quote the words of Herbert Spen- 
 cer, so apt and expressive. (First Principles, 
 Sec. 32.) : 
 
 " An immense majority will refuse, with 
 more or less of indignation, a belief seeming 
 to them so shadowy and indefinite. Hav- 
 ing always embodied the ultimate cause so 
 far as was needful to its mental realization, 
 they must necessarily resent the substitu- 
 tion of an ultimate cause which can not be 
 mentally realized at all. ' You offer us,' 
 they say, ' an unthinkable abstraction in 
 place of a Being toward whom we may en- 
 tertain definite feelings. Though we are 
 told that the absolute is real, yet since we 
 are not allowed to conceive it, it might as 
 well be a pure negation. Instead of a 
 Power which we can regard as having some 
 sympathy with us, you would have us con- 
 template a Power to which no emotion 
 whatever can be ascribed. And so we are 
 to be deprived of the very substance of our 
 faith.' 
 
 " This kind of protest of necessity accom- 
 panies every change from a lower creed to 
 a higher. The belief in a community of 
 nature between himself and the object of 
 his worship, has always been to man a sat- 
 
 isfactory one; and he has always accepted 
 with reluctance those successively less con- 
 crete conceptions which have been forced 
 upon him. Doubtless, in all times and 
 places, it has consoled the barbarian to 
 think of his deities as so exactly like him- 
 self in nature that they could be bribed by 
 offerings of food ; and the assurance that 
 deities could not be so propitiated, must 
 have been repugnant, because it deprived 
 him of an easy method of gaining supernat- 
 ural protection. To the Greeks it was man- 
 ifestly a source of comfort that on occasion 
 of difficulty they could obtain through ora- 
 cles the advice of their gods, — nay, might 
 even get the personal aid of their gods in 
 battle ; and it was, probably, a very genu- 
 ine anger which they visited upon philoso- 
 phers, who called in question these gross 
 ideas of their mythology. A religion which 
 teaches the Hindoo that it is impossible to 
 purchase eternal happiness by placing him- 
 self under the wheel of a Juggernaut, can 
 scarcely fail to seem a cruel one to him, 
 since it deprives him of the pleasurable 
 consciousness that he can at will exchange 
 miseries for joys. Nor is it less clear that 
 to our Catholic ancestors, the beliefs that 
 crimes could be compounded for by the 
 building of churches, that their own pun- 
 ishments and those of their relatives could 
 be abridged by the saying of masses, and 
 that divine aid or forgiveness might be 
 gained through the intercession of saints, 
 were highly solacing ones ; and that Pro- 
 testantism, in substituting the conception of 
 a God so comparatively unlike ourselves as 
 not to be influenced by such methods, must 
 have appeared to them hard and cold. Nat- 
 urally, therefore, we must expect a further 
 step in the same direction to meet with a 
 Bimilar resistance from outraged sentiments. 
 No mental revolution can be accomplished 
 without more or less of laceration. Be it a 
 change of habit or a change of conviction, 
 it imst, if the habit or conviction be strong, 
 uu violence to some of the feelings; and 
 these must, of course, oppose it. For long- 
 experienced, and therefore definite, sources 
 of satisfaction, have to be substituted 
 
43 
 
 sources of satisfaction that have not been 
 experienced, and are, therefore, indefinite. 
 That which is relatively well known and 
 real has to be given up for that which is 
 relatively unknown and ideal. And, of 
 course, such an exchange can not be made 
 without a conflict invoking pain. Espe- 
 cially, then, must there arise a strong an- 
 tagonism to any alteration in so deep and 
 vital a conception as that with which we 
 are here dealing. Underlying, as this con- 
 ception does all others, a modification of it 
 hreatens to reduce the superstructure to 
 ruins. Or to change the metaphor — being 
 the root with which are connected our ideas 
 of goodness, rectitude, or duty, it appears 
 impossible that it should be transformed 
 without causing these to wither away and 
 die. The whole higher part of the nature 
 almost of necessity takes up arms against a 
 change which, by destroying the established 
 associations of thought, seems to eradicate 
 morality. 
 
 "This is by no means all that has to be 
 said for such protests. There ^is a much 
 deeper meaning in them. They do not 
 simply express the natural repugnance to 
 revolution of belief, here made specially in- 
 tense by the vital importance of the be- 
 lief to be revolutionized ; but they also ex- 
 press an instinctive adhesion to a belief 
 that is in one sense the best— the best for 
 those who thus cling to it, though not ab- 
 stractedly the best. For here let me re- 
 mark, that what were above spoken of as 
 the imperfections of religion, at first great 
 but gradually diminishing, have been im- 
 perfections only as measured by an abso- 
 lute, standard, and not as measured by a 
 relative one. Speaking generally, the re- 
 ligion current in each age and among each 
 people, has been as near an approximation 
 to the truth as it was then and there pos- 
 sible for men to receive. The more or less 
 concrete forms in which it has embodied 
 the truth, have simply been the means of 
 making thinkable what would otherwise 
 have been unthinkable; and so have for 
 the time being served to increase its im- 
 pressiyeness. If we consider the conditions 
 
 of the case, we shall find this to be an un- 
 avoidable conclusion. During each stage 
 of evolution, men must think in such terms 
 of thought as they possess. While all the 
 conspicuous changes of which they can ob- 
 serve the origins, have men and animals 
 as antecedents, they are unable to think of 
 antecedents in . general under any other 
 shapes ; and hence creative agencies are 
 of necessity conceived by them in these 
 shapes. If, during this phase, these con- 
 crete conceptions were taken from them, 
 and the attempt made to give them com- 
 paratively abstract conceptions, the result 
 would be to leave their minds with none 
 at all ; since the substituted ones could not 
 be mentally represented. Similarly with 
 every successive stage of religious belief, 
 down to the last. Though, as accumulat- 
 ing experiences slowly modify the earliest 
 ideas of casual personalities, there grow up 
 more general and vague ideas of them ; 
 yet these can not be at once replaced by 
 others still more general and vague. Fur- 
 ther experiences must supply the needful 
 further abstractions, before the mental void 
 left by the destruction of such inferior 
 ideas can be filled by ideas of a superior 
 order. And, at the present time, the re- 
 fusal to abandon a relatively concrete no- 
 tion for a relatively abstract one, implies 
 the inability to frame the relatively ab- 
 stract one ; and so proves that the change 
 would be premature and injurious. Still 
 more clearly shall we see the injuriousness 
 of any such premature change, on observ- 
 ing that the effects of a belief upon con- 
 duct must be diminished in proportion as 
 the vividness with which it is realized be- 
 comes less. 
 
 Evils and benefits akin to those which 
 the savage has personally felt, or learned 
 from those who have felt them, are the 
 only evils and benefits which he can un- 
 derstand ; and these must be looked for as 
 coming in ways like those of which he has 
 had experience. His duties must be im- 
 agined to have like motives and passions 
 and methods with the beings around him ; 
 for motives and passions and methods of a 
 
44 
 
 higher character, being unknown to him, 
 and in a great measure unthinkable by him, 
 can not be so realized in thought as to in- 
 fluence his deeds. During every phase of 
 civilization, the action of the Unseen Real- 
 ity, as well as the resulting rewards and 
 punishments, being conceivable only in 
 such forms as experience furnishes, to sup- 
 plant them by higher ones before wider ex- 
 periences have made higher ones conceiv- 
 able, is to set up vague and uninfluential 
 motives for definite and influential ones. 
 Even now, for the great mass of men, un- 
 able through lack of culture to trace out 
 with due clearness those good and bad 
 consequences which conduct brings around 
 through the established order of the Un- 
 knowable, it is needful that there should 
 be vividly depicted future torments and 
 future joys — pains and pleasures of a defi- 
 nite kind, produced in a manner direct 
 and simple enough to be clearly imagined. 
 Nay, still more, must be conceded. Few, if 
 any, are as yet fitted wholly to dispense 
 with such conceptions as are current. The 
 highest abstractions take so great a mental 
 power to realize with any vividness, and 
 are so inoperative npon conduct where they 
 are vividly realized, that their regulative ef- 
 fects must, for a long period to come, be ap- 
 preciated on but a small minority. To see 
 clearly how a right or wrong act generates 
 consequences, internal and external, that 
 go out branching out more widely .as years 
 progress, require a rare power of analysis. 
 To mentally represent even a single series 
 of these consequences, as it stretches out 
 into the remote future, requires an equally 
 rare power of imagination. And to estimate 
 these consequences in their totality, ever 
 multiplying in number while diminishing 
 in intensity, requires a grasp of thought 
 possessed by none. Yet it is only by such 
 analysis, such imagination, and such grasp, 
 that conduct can be rightly guided in the 
 absence of all other control : only so can ul- 
 timate rewards and penalties be made to 
 outweigh proximate pains and pleasures. 
 Indeed, ^ere it not that throughout the 
 progress ©f tto »ac*, mesa^s ©acperiences of 
 
 the effects of conduct have been slowly 
 generalized into principles— were it not tha' 
 these principles have been from generation 
 to generation insisted on by parents, upheld 
 by public opinion, sanctified by religion, 
 and enforced by threats of eternal damna- 
 tion for disobedience— were it not that un- 
 der these potent influences, habits have 
 been modified, and the feelings proper to 
 them made inate— were it not, in short, 
 that we have been rendered in a considera- 
 ble degree organically moral ; it is certain 
 that disastrous results would ensue from 
 the removal of those strong and distinct 
 motives which the current belief supplies. 
 Even, as it is, those who relinquish the 
 faith in which they have been brought up, 
 for this most abstract faith in which Science 
 and Religion unite, may not uncommonly 
 fail to act up to their convictions. Left to 
 their organic morality, enforced only by 
 general reasonings imperfectly wrought out 
 and difficult to keep before the mind, their 
 defects of nature will often come out more 
 strongly tfran they would have done under 
 their previous creed. The substituted 
 creed can become adequately operative 
 only when it becomes, like the present one, 
 an element in early education, and nas the 
 support of a strong social sanction. Nor 
 will men be qnite ready for it until, through 
 the continuance of a discipline which has 
 already partially moulded them to the con- 
 ditions of social existence, they are com- 
 pletely moulded to those conditions." 
 
 The remarks of Mr. Spencer have brought 
 us to a consideration of man's present state. 
 With reference to religious notions man 
 may be said to be in a state on a par with 
 the general moral spirit of the community. 
 This offers to us the criterion of man's con- 
 dition respecting which future change is 
 to be regulated. Let us bear this in mind. 
 Speaking of the Christian religion we stand 
 confronted with the notion of Jesus Christ. 
 What is that notion ? To one used to con- 
 ceiving an abstract spirit or power this no- 
 tion must connotate a concrete form repre- 
 senting a dead human being, which impli< 
 
— 45 — 
 
 cates the further impression that those who 
 worship him beside and with God are poly- 
 thelsts. To some the meaning of polythe- 
 ism is so inexplicable that they are not of- 
 fended at the term as applied to them or 
 their faith, but some, aware of its meaning, 
 are shocked to be included under the term. 
 Are they polytheists? Ecclesiastics and 
 believers will say no. 
 
 If there are Christian believers who verily 
 conceive Jesus as a divine being, beside 
 God, to be worshiped and to worship, Jesus 
 known as such in life and blood, they, un- 
 questionably, are polytheistic, and there is 
 no Absolute, Eternal God to them. But a 
 large proportion of those believers do not 
 conceive Jesus in this light, believing as 
 they do in an Absolute ; they are told by 
 the minister of their congregation " to re- 
 ceive Christ," " to believe in him [Christ], 
 and they will receive him ;" struggling 
 mentally they endeavor to conceive Christ, 
 and to receive him ; but they do not know 
 how, and, in short, are not positive they re- 
 ceive him, and, indeed, do not receive him. 
 The clergyman most generally does not ex- 
 plain what Christ is, and the mind of the 
 believer is left dark. If you ask such a be- 
 liever for a candid answer, he will, truth- 
 fully, tell you, " he don't understand what 
 Christ is." Notwithstanding the fact, many 
 will assert to .the contrary, " they do know 
 what Christ is," and divers of such sects, 
 believers in the Absolute, will indignantly 
 reply, "we do explain what Christ is." 
 Concede this : Christ then is a spirit, is a 
 moral spirit like, it is sa'J, Jesus possessed. 
 But it is not definitely known what spirit 
 Jesus possessed, and that spirit was not 
 Christ. If it be a spirit leading the human 
 being to the divine, does man's condition 
 require that Christ, as a concrete form, or 
 that the spirit, the moral spirit, the moral 
 spirit like, it is reputed, Jesus was, should 
 be preached ? If the latter, then the sphere 
 of ministers of Christian churches, in civil- 
 ized mmtries, for the discussion of truth, 
 .ueed not, practically, be limited to the Bible, 
 mt may safely extend out through all the 
 -aim of science and philosophy. If, how- 
 
 ever, due regard being had to all persons' 
 welfare, Christ must be preached, then let 
 those who believe themselves - above poly- 
 theism, separate themselves from such poly- 
 theistic dogmas, and establish churches and 
 religion conformable to their faith. 
 
 Ministers of the gospel of enlightened 
 congregations should not oppose such a 
 change. The evil they now complain of — 
 of empty benches on the day of worship — 
 will be more efficaciously cured than by re- 
 vivals (which are mostly a failure), depend- 
 ing for their continuance or change upon the 
 morality, mental grasp and ability of the 
 minister himself. By inaugurating such a 
 change, it will be found congregations will 
 flourish better, and many narrow ideas will 
 be dispelled, and what is of far more im- 
 portance, humanity will be benefited. 
 
 ARTICLE XVIII. 
 
 Referring here again to what Hegel has 
 said respecting man's destiny, quoted in 
 Article V, in which he shows man can not 
 attain the perfect realization of his ideas 
 without " elevating himself to a higher 
 sphere, where all contradictions are can- 
 celled ; where the idea of the good and of 
 happiness in their perfect accord and their 
 enduring harmony is realized," I may, I 
 trust, now conclude. 
 
 The human being's desires affect his ma- 
 terial and spiritual person, and his ultimate 
 object is happiness. His happiness, as re- 
 spects his material person, is effected by the 
 cultivation of knowledge, and is found in 
 the state of knowledge synonomous with 
 perfect truth, as far as lies within the mi- 
 crocosm, that gives unlimited physical free- 
 dom and a pure moral sense, that, too, gives 
 a spirituality, lying behind the region of the 
 material, at the farthermost limits of rea- 
 son, which his being can not comprehend, 
 a notion — a spiritual notion — of God, which 
 can not possibly now be properly conceived, 
 and which shall with higher and developing 
 reason be more and more clearly defined 
 and grasped. So far as his pursuit of ma- 
 terial happiness has tended toward the high 
 
46 
 
 spirituality, I understand as such, so far is 
 the spiritual person affected, and so far 
 spiritual happiness effected. When the 
 highest state shall have been arrived at, his 
 spiritual happiness shall be necessarily com- 
 plete, " the profound want of the soul " will 
 be satisfied. Without this, art is imper- 
 fect, and philosophy is not pure. It is the 
 sum of all reasoning, impossible to be, it 
 seems to me, so long as different systems of 
 philosophy shall be pointing to different 
 conclusions in men's minds. It is the apex 
 of mental evolution. It is not, correctly 
 speaking, the conciliatory point of science, 
 philosophy and religious systems, it is the 
 spirit to which perfect conciliation leads, 
 and mole, it is beyond a pure belief, in con- 
 science, inherently, in God. No fanati- 
 cism, no credulous faith, but a pure faith 
 resulting because of reason and only where 
 reason has arrived at its highest state ; a 
 state arriving at which all tongues shall pro- 
 claim, what all minds shall acknowledge, 
 and all persons shall worship in perfect 
 human accord, in truth, 
 
 THE ONE, ETERNAL GOD. 
 
 (the end.) 
 
 NOTES TO THE ESSAY. 
 
 1. " The distance between the lower and 
 higher apes is far greater than between the 
 latter and man ; and if the consanguinity of 
 the entire apedom is decisive in favor of 
 Darwinist] c views, there can be the less 
 doubt of the kindred connection of the Old 
 World apes to mankind. But the form of 
 the mature skull and of the dentition (to 
 lay a stress upon these organs), preclude 
 the idea that the direct ancestors of man are 
 to be found among the apes now living. 
 The cheap jest, produced with so much glee, 
 of inquiring why we do not behold the in- 
 teresting spectacle of the transformation of 
 a chimpanzee into a man, or conversely, of 
 a man by retrogression into an ourang, 
 merely testifies the crudest ignorance of the 
 doctrine of Descent. Not one of these apes 
 can revert to the state of his primordial an- 
 cestors, because, except by retrogression — 
 by which a primordial condition is by no 
 means attained — he can not divest himself 
 of his acquired characters fixed by heredity; 
 
 nor can he exceed himself and become man; 
 for man does not stand in the direct line of 
 development from the ape." 
 
 " While requiring by logical deduction, a 
 common origin for man and the anthropom- 
 orphous apes, the doctrine of Descent, as it 
 is almost superfluous to say, repudiates the 
 senseless demand for intermediate forms 
 which go back to the common point of de- 
 rivation of the present apes and of man." 
 
 " Descent and Darwinism," by Schmidt, 
 International Series, p. page 4. Prof. 
 Schmidt is a Darwinist, and his view is, I 
 think, the last and as correct as yet assumed 
 for Darwinism. From the quotation we 
 learn, it is error to suppose that Darwinism 
 claims man to have come from the monkey. 
 I have seen nothing in Darwin's works t® 
 controvert this view. 
 
 2. This is equally true, though in a some- 
 what different form if the Darwinian theory 
 is followed. 
 
 3. In some countries, as in India, Russia, 
 parts of Austria, Sweden, and (of which 
 there are however only faint traces), En- 
 gland, growth appears to have been from 
 family to " village community. " (See 
 Maine's" Ancient Law," and " Village Com- 
 munities:" Passim). It is remembered that 
 the history of Italy presents " municipial" 
 as a condition between " tribe " and " na- 
 tion," The terms employed in the text 
 serve to disclose an idea sought to be con- 
 veyed, which is all that is aimed at. 
 
 4. " Science of Law," pages 78 and 79, In- 
 ternational Series. D. Appleton & Co. 
 
 5. Ibid, pages 67 and 68. 
 
 6. Hamilton's Logic. 
 
 7. The following is credited to Prof. Rich- 
 ard Owen (Address before the Oriental So- 
 ciety, of London, September 20, 1874:) 
 
 "The Papuans of New Guinea, with co- 
 quate, dark-skinned, crisp-haired, progu- 
 athic peoples of Australia, New Hebrides, 
 New Caledonia, and neighboring islands, 
 bespeak by affinities of their rude dialects, 
 as well as by physical characters, a low and 
 early race oi mankind, which in some re- 
 spects indicate kinship with the Boschismen 
 of South Africa, but are yet sufficiently dis- 
 tinct to suggest a long term of existence in 
 another and distant continent. Zoological 
 and geological evidences concur, as in a de- 
 gree exemplified in Wallace's 'Malay Archi- 
 pelago,' to point to a pre-historic race of 
 mankind, existing generation after genera- 
 tion on a continent which, in course of 
 
-47- 
 
 gradual non-cataclysmal , geological change, 
 has been broken up into insular patches of 
 land ; there such race is still open to eth- 
 nological study. Wending westward to re- 
 gain the proper field of our congress, we 
 have evidences of as early — if I say ' primi- 
 tive ' it is because we know none earlier — 
 bipeds, in the trans — Gaugatic peninsula 
 and Indonesian Archipelago. Tnese Ni- 
 gritos, in India, have tied before invaders 
 from the sub-Himalayan range, represented 
 by Burnese and Siamese ; before invaders 
 from the South, the Malays, with their 
 maritime advance in civilization ; before 
 later immigrations from the North, with the 
 religion and literature respectively of the 
 Aryan Hindoos and the Arab Mussulmans. 
 Fragments of the dwarf Nigrito stratum may 
 be picked up — a scanty one in Eugomho, 
 the largest island off Sumatra, in the Her- 
 gui Archipelago, in the Nicobar Isles, and 
 in the Audamaus. The Nigritos who have 
 survived such changes, and have been 
 caught, so to speak, upon a new continent, 
 have preserved themselves in mountain 
 fastnesses and forests, have fled before later 
 immL'-ants, have never assimilated there- 
 with nave always been looked upon by 
 them as prior in time-, and now are verging 
 toward extinction. In speculating,' there- 
 fore, on the place of origin of Mincopics 
 and hill-tribes, I would impress upou eth- 
 nologists to set aside ideas of the actual dis- 
 position of land and sea as being necessa- 
 rily related thereto, and to associate with 
 the beginning of such low forms of human- 
 ity a lapse of time in harmony with the 
 latest geological changes of the earth's sur- 
 face. . . . The cardinal defect of specu- 
 lators on the origin of the human species 
 seems to me to be the assumption that the 
 present geographical condition of the earth's 
 surface preceded or co-existed with the 
 origin of such species." 
 
 See " Natural History of Man," by M. De 
 Quatrefages. Published by D. Appleton 
 & Co. K Popular Science Library, page 148. 
 
 The doubt suggested by Prof. Owen im- 
 plies that the human race did not originate 
 in Central Asia, or Asia at all. This view, 
 however, is sustained by M. De Quatrefages, 
 Max Muller, and a number of others. Any- 
 how, outside of all speculation, it is true 
 that the beginnings of civilization may be 
 traced to Central Asia, which is sufficient, 
 whatever the place beyond. 
 
 8. The twelve races cited in the table 
 given, may be characterized by the aid of 
 natural history ; and as within the limits of 
 the best known races languages and families 
 ot languages may be found, which preclude 
 
 any common origin, it follows that the 
 formation of language began only after the 
 still speechless primordial man had diverged 
 into races." " Descent and Darwinism," by 
 Schmidt, page 308 (International Series). 
 
 Prof. Schmidt quotes Fried rich Muller 
 (Allgemeine Etlmographie Wen. 1873). 
 " The lauguages of these four families " 
 (Lasque, Caucasian, Hamito-Scientic and 
 Indo-Germanic), " are, as is generally ac- 
 cepted by the most accomplished linguists, 
 not mutually related. If we, therefore, see 
 that the Mediterranean race includes four 
 families of people in no way related to one 
 another, the inference is obvious, that, as 
 each language must be traceable to a soci- 
 ety, the single race must have gradually 
 fallen into four societies, of which each in- 
 dependently created its own language. A 
 further inference is that the race, as such, 
 does not acquire a language ; for, were this 
 the case, race and language would now be 
 co-extensive, which is not the case." Ibid, 
 page 309. 
 
 Whatever the origin of language, the po- 
 sition assumed in the essay is not impaired. 
 
 9. Journal of Speculative Philosophy. 
 Vol. I., No. 1, pages 41 and 42. 
 
 10. Herbert Spencer's " First Principles " 
 (The Unknowable). Chapters ii., iii., iv., 
 v. " The analysis of every possible hypo- 
 thesis proves, not simply that no hypothesis 
 is sufficient, but that no hypothesis is even 
 thinkable. And thus the mystery which 
 all religions recognize, turns out to be a far 
 more transcendent mystery than any of 
 them suspect — not a relative, but an abso- 
 lute mystery." Sec. 14. Chapter ii. Ibid. 
 
 11. Journal of Speculative Philosophy. 
 Vol. I., No. 2, Second Edition, page 93. 
 
 12. Ibid. 
 
 13. The words are those of Mr. J. A* 
 Martling, translative of Benard's Text :- 
 which|is analytical of Hegels' " ^Esthetics." 
 
 14. Pages 94 and 99. Journal of Specula- 
 tive Philosophy. Vol. L, No. 2. Second 
 Edition. 
 
 15. Ibid. Note, page 100. 
 
 16. Maine ("Ancient Law") is of the 
 opinion that this Code was never fully ac- 
 cepted and in force in India, 
 
 17. We class the Hindoos with the In- 
 dians. 
 
 18. The observations of Prof. Schmidt and 
 Friedrich Mutter, quoted in note 8, ante, 
 give color to the theory that the religious 
 
-48- 
 
 notionsof the different Eastern nations were 
 mot indigenious. If such be true, then 
 the fact of sameness in their content shows 
 the presence, in some particulars, of equal 
 mental and moral status, and leaves the 
 doctrine of divine origin ascribable alone to 
 the Scriptures as untenable. 
 See Article XVI. post. 
 
 19. The term " Carbarians," is that com- 
 monly used by historians. It is, however, 
 rather a generic term than accurately ex- 
 pressive of the state of these tribes. It must 
 be considered as used in a qualified sense 
 in this essay, except where the proper qual- 
 ification, by way of explanation, is given in 
 connection with the use of the term. 
 
 20. "Three Lectures on the Origin of 
 Christianity," and "Origin of Christianity," 
 by Dr. I. M. Wise. " Crucifixion and the 
 Jews," by Dr. Phillipson. 
 
 21. We find the tendency to exaggerate 
 and to deify human beings very great among 
 the ancients, and, for that matter, even 
 among moderns. Where Monotheism was 
 not firmly established, this tendency, as 
 among the Maccedonians, Greeks and Ro- 
 mans, etc., was frequently manifested in the 
 deification of heroes. 
 
 22. The trial of Jesus, as related in the 
 books of the New Testament, has been 
 shown unreliable, and most probably false. 
 See " Martyrdom of Jesus of Nazareth," by 
 Dr. I. M. Wise. 
 
 23. Spencer's " First Principles." Sec. 32. 
 Article XVII. post. With which compare 
 " Origin of Christianity," by Wise. 
 
 24. "Origin of Christianity," by Wise. 
 See further Article XIV. post. 
 
 25. Ibid. 
 
 26. Vide Article I., ante for meaning of 
 " world." 
 
 27. Vide Article II., ante. 
 
 28. "First Principles," chapter I, et seg. 
 
 ■ 29. Dr. Draper, " Intellectual Develop- 
 ment of Europe." 
 
 30. Followers of Arius. 
 
 31. Draper's "Intellectual Development 
 of Europe." 
 
 32. Ibid. 
 
 33. The passage from Aristotle relating 
 to interest is Polit. 1. i. c. 10, and is sus- 
 pected to be, and probably is, spurious. 
 
 34. "That modern science, commencing 
 with the metaphysical epoch, has three 
 stages or phases: 
 
 " (I). The first rests upon mere isolated 
 facts of experience ; accepts the first phase 
 of things, or that which comes directly be- 
 
 fore it, and hence, may be termed the stage 
 of immediateness. 
 
 " (II). The second relates its thoughts to 
 one another and compares them ; it devel- 
 opes in equalities ; tests one through an- 
 other, and discovers dependencies every- 
 where ; since it learns that the first phases 
 in objects is phenomenal, and depends on 
 somewhat lying beyond it ; since it denies 
 truth to the immediate it may be termed 
 the stage of mediation. 
 
 " (III). A final stage which considers 
 phenomenon in its totality, and then seizes 
 it in its noumenon, and is the stage of the 
 
 comprehension. 
 
 "To resume: the first is that of sensuous 
 knowing; the second,that of reflection (the un- 
 derstanding) ; the third, that of the reason (or 
 the speculative age)." — Journal of Specula- 
 tive Philosophy, Vol. I., No. 1., page 8. 
 
 " In fact, if the mind is disciplined to sep- 
 arate pure thinking from pure imagination, 
 the infinite is not difficult to think. Spin- 
 oza saw and expressed this by making a 
 distinction between infinitum actu (or ra- 
 tionis) ; and ' infinitum imaginationis,'' and his 
 first and second actions are the immediate 
 results of thought elevated to this clearness. 
 This distinction and his ' omnis determinatio 
 est negation together with development of 
 the third stage of thinking (according to 
 reason), 'sub quandum specie xternitatis,'' 
 these distinctions are the priceless legacy of 
 the clearest-minded thinker of modern 
 times ; and it behooves the critic of ' human 
 knowing,' to consider well the results that 
 the ' human mind ' has produced through 
 those great masters— Plato and Aristotle, 
 Spinoza and Hegel." — Ibid, page 11. 
 
 35. It may be true that some of the fol- 
 lowers and believers of Judaism would at- 
 tempt to check the growth of ideas, but 
 such action is not generally tolerated. It 
 may also be true that many Jewish persons, 
 at different times, may have exhibited prej- 
 udice and acrimony against believers in 
 other, especially Christian creeds, but this, 
 where general, was the result of the treat- 
 ment they were subjected to and their gen- 
 eral ignorance. 
 
 36. These lectures are to be published in 
 book form by Bloch & Co., Cincinnati, Ohio, 
 under the title of " The Cosmical God." 
 
 37. In the XL, XII., XIII and XIV Arti- 
 cles, and possibly in the others, some errors 
 may be found, but I think so far as they 
 disclose the evolution of and present exist- 
 ing state of religious spirit, and the ten- 
 dency of man toward the higher spirituality 
 they will be found correct. 
 
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