— / ^ ^ 
 
 jhlSTOHY 
 
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 
 
 
 LIMITED 'STATES OF AMERICA. 
 
A 
 
 SYNOPSIS OF HISTORY, 
 
 ANCIENT AND MODERN. 
 
 GIVING A GENERAL VIEW OF THE POLITICAL WORLD, FROM THE RISE OF ANCIENT 
 
 MONARCHIES, DOAVN TO THE PRESENT AGE. 
 
 a BY 
 
 CHARLES MELHORN. 
 
 .ri/f<-' 
 
 ADA, OHIO: 
 Millar & Rutlege, Plblishers. 
 
 1878. 
 
 Or 
 
THE LIBRARY 
 OF CONGRESS 
 
 WASHINGTOKj! 
 
 Entered According to Act of Congress, in the year 1878, by 
 
 CHARLES MELHORN, 
 In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 
 
 Electkotyped, CAMPBELL, <Si CO. Cin. Q. 
 
 nil 
 
 ■^iA.^^ 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 Could we but arrange the events of the great past in such a manner as to 
 note, at a glance, not only the condition of one nation, but of all nations in 
 their dififerent periods, — the whole political world, as it were, we would supply 
 a demand of the present ;;ge. Could we but name and place in their respec- 
 tive nations, Time's great men, and their achievements, and above all, if 
 this knowledge could be imparted in a form that it would serve us instantly, 
 at all times, we would meet the exigency of every intelligent reader or 
 speaker. 
 
 It is in view of these things that the author presents to the public this little 
 volume— Synopsis of History. The book is designed as a reliable historical 
 reference, for the inquirer, whatever his situation; at the fireside, in the school, 
 class, or lecture room, in the literary association;— a key and guide for all 
 lovers of history. There are at present many historical maps, charts, and 
 chronological tables of history before the public; but these are large, incon- 
 venient, and consequently of little immediate practical advantage. Besides, 
 being merely a succession of topics and dates, the reading of course, soon 
 becomes dry and monotonous. 
 
 The Synopsis of History as the name indicates, presents parts so as to give 
 ageneral view of the whole; and, though it is aimed to state these facts in a 
 manner that will interest, yet the narrow columns are an apology for the 
 absence of any attempt at rhetorical display. 
 
 The principal diflSculty that has always attended the study of history is to 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 fix in our minds contemporary characters and events. We read of a nation, 
 of its great men, of their services to society; but whether great names of other 
 nations belong to their period, it is difficult to decide. Search out their 
 records; the dates of their births and deaths; but this multitude of figures only 
 serves to confuse and impair our memories. With biogi aphical names, the 
 aim in this volume is not to give the date, but the age in which these charac- 
 ters lived; and thus the contemporaries of any period can be seen at a glance, 
 each one in his respective nation. 
 
 The dates of great battles and other important events, have been carefully 
 taken from those works acknowledged to be the most authentic. An elaborate 
 alphabetical index of over eight hundred topics will be found at the close of 
 the work, directing the inquirer to the page and column of the name or inci- 
 dent he wishes to find. 
 
 Time and labor have been spent in endeavoring to make this little volume 
 a valuable accession to the method of diffusing knowledge; whether it can be 
 looked upon as such is left for public decision. 
 
 Charles Melhorn. 
 Ada, June, 1878. 
 
ANCIENT MONARCHIES. 
 
 From 2230 B. C to 776 B. C. 
 
 EGYPT, CHALDEA AND ASSYRIA. 
 
 The political history of mankind properly begins with the oriental nations, 
 of which the most prominent are the Egyptians, the Chaldeans, and the 
 Assyrians. Writers of ancient history are very contradictory in their state- 
 ments concerning these peoi)le. The first invasion of Egypt is suppojied to 
 have been made by a band of adventurers, who found the dynasty known as 
 the Shepherd Kings, about 2048 years B.C. This dynasty lasts until about 
 1825 B. C, when the Sheph rd Kings are expelled. Jacob settles in the land 
 of Goshen, 1706 B.'C. , and the Israelites depart from Egypt, 1491 B. C. Upper 
 Egypt for a long time divided into a number of kingdoms, is united into one, 
 about the year 1157 B. C. The country is finally conquered by the Assyrians. 
 
 Of Chaldea, Ximrod is supposed to be the foun er, about 2230 B. C, and his 
 dynasty covers a period of two hundred and fifty years, eleven kings reigning. 
 A second Chaldean kingdom is founded about 1956 B. C. lasting until 1500 
 B. C. In 1250 B. C. Chaldea is absorbed in Assyria, whose people are, at this 
 time, the most powerful of the Asiatics. Their rule extends over all Mesopo- 
 tamia, Media, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, and Phoenicia . The latter is the 
 only country of Asia whose p ople colonize the Mediterranean coasts. The 
 J hoenicians plant a colony at Carthage, 850 B. C; and are the founders of 
 commerce and the most enterprising of the ancient oriental monarchies. 
 Their vessels touch the sho es of England. Spain, and India. 
 
 In these monarchies, mankind makes little or no advancement. The des- 
 potic character of the governments, and the cast of the people, utterly pre- 
 clude the idea of political progress. 776 
 
EGYPT. ROME. 
 
 From 776 B. C. to 509 B. C. 
 
 CONQUEST OF EGYPT. 
 
 Egypt in about the year 660, B. C. 
 is released from the bondage of the 
 Assyrians by Psanimetichus, who 
 after a prosperous reign, is succeeded 
 by his son Pharaoh Necho, 616 B. C. 
 This monarch is conquered by the re- 
 nowned Nebuchadnezzar, king of 
 Babylon, 604 B. C. Egypt remains 
 thus until the capture of Babylon by 
 the Persians, when it is made tribu- 
 tary to Persia by Cambyses, the son of 
 Cyrus, 525 B, C. Several revolts are 
 raised, but the Egyptians are as often 
 subjugated, and they become lost to 
 history for many years. 509 
 
 The ancient Egyptians were a peo- 
 ple remarkable for their early civiliz- 
 ation; for an early acquaintance with 
 the arts and sciences, and for laws, 
 some of which have drawn forth eulo- 
 gies from our greatest modern legisla- 
 tors. 
 
 Among the curious, yet highly ben- 
 ficial laws, that ancient historians 
 mention of the Egyptians, was that 
 which required every individual to 
 appear annually, before a specified 
 magistrate and state his profession or 
 manner of living, and a severe pun- 
 ishment was inflicted on him who 
 failed to give evidence of an honest 
 occupation. The penal laws were at- 
 tended with great severity, a person 
 neglecting to save the life of a citizen, 
 if in his power, was dealt with as his 
 murderer. Ha who disclosed the se- 
 crets of state, suffered the most pain- 
 ful death, and forgers, and dishonest 
 tradesmen were punished with the 
 loss of a limb or limbs. Debtors were 
 compelled to give the embalmed body 
 of a deceased relative, as security un- 
 til the debt was discharged. 
 
 ROME UNDER THE KINGS. 
 
 The history of Rome, the most pow- 
 erful nation of antiquity, begins with 
 its foundation by Romulus, 752 B. C. 
 With Romulus commences what is 
 known as the regal period of the Ro- 
 mans. He is succeeded by Numa, 715 
 B. C, a very wise king, and under 
 whose rule the people make great ad- 
 vancement. The third king is Tullus 
 Hostilius, 672. Not so successful as 
 his predecessor, and is destroyed in 
 the thirty-third year of his reign, 640, 
 and Ancus Martins is chosen king. 
 Under him the Romans become more 
 powerful; but their prosperity is great- 
 ly increased by his successor, Tarquin- 
 ius, surnamcd Prisons, 616. The lat- 
 ter advances the military power of 
 Rome by his victories over the Sabines 
 and Latins, and the conquest of Etru- 
 ria. He also lays the foundations of 
 the capital, supplying the city with 
 fresh water, by aqueducts and sew- 
 ers. Society is refined by separating 
 the people into classes. The career 
 of Tarquinius is ended by his assasin- 
 ation, in the thirty-eighth year of his 
 reign, 577- Sorvius Tullius is sixth 
 king of Rome. He establishes the 
 census, builds a magnificent temple 
 to Diana, (the Roman war God) and 
 is destroyed by Tarquinius, his son- 
 in-law, 534. ThisTarquin, called the 
 Proud, is the seventh and last king o^ 
 Rome. His tyrannies render him so 
 odious to his people, that he is at last 
 banished from Rome forever, 509. 
 Kingly rule is now ended, having ex- 
 isted for two hundred and lorty-three 
 years, and a consular government in- 
 stituted. Brutus and CoUatinus are 
 chosen first consuls. 509 
 
GREECE 
 
 From 776 B. C to 509 B. C. 
 
 PERSIA. 
 
 ATHENS AND SPARTA. 
 
 Authentic Greek history commences 
 with the First Olympiad, 776 B. C, 
 being a four year festival of Olympian 
 Jupiter, known better as the Olympian 
 Games. The Greeks, years before gov- 
 erned by kings, are, at this period, 
 republican in government, and the 
 country divided into states. The two 
 principal and rival states are Athens 
 and Sparta. In the former the chief 
 oflBcers are called archons. The gov- 
 ernment, though republic, is greatly 
 centralized and the people become 
 dissatisfied. Draco, an archon, insti- 
 tutes a new code of laws, about 624 B. 
 C. These laws, blood written, are, 
 from their great severity, entirely in- 
 efficient, and soon fall into disuse. 
 The discontents still continue, and 
 Solon, known as t e wise law giver of 
 Athens, is appointed to revise a code. 
 His laws are a success, and under 
 them the Athenians are very prosper- 
 ous. 
 
 In Sparta the laws are oltained 
 from Lycurgus, living years before 
 this period, their object being to ad- 
 vance the Spartans' condition as a 
 warrior; war being considered as the 
 only honorable occupation. In their 
 conquests the Spartans conquer the 
 Messennians, the Arcadians and Ar- 
 gives, 569, 547. Factions arising in 
 Athens, Pisistratus is made D ctator, 
 560. He still enforces the constitu- 
 tion, but is finally banished as an 
 usurper, 510. A pure democracy is 
 now established, and results in in- 
 creasing prosperity, which is not dis- 
 turbed until the wars with Persia. 509 
 
 PERSIAN EMPIRE. 
 
 The Persians, at the beginning of 
 this period, are in a very rude and 
 barbarous condition. They are first 
 conquered by Phraortes, king of Me- 
 dia, and he in turn is conquered by 
 Nebuchadnezzar, 600 B. C. Persia is 
 next ruled by Cyrus the Great, 558, 
 who is the founder of the great Per- 
 sian Empire. He makes Media sub- 
 ject to Persia by defeating Astyages. 
 Next he marches against Croesus, 
 king of Lydia, whom he defeats, add- 
 ing near all Asia Minor to Persia, 
 556. He conquers the Parthians, Bac- 
 trians, and finishes by the capture of 
 Babylon, 538. Death ends the career 
 of this greatest of Persian monarchs, 
 529, having made his kingdom the 
 grand power of Asia. His son, Cam- 
 byses, ascends the throne, the chief 
 event in his reign being the conquest 
 of Egypt, 525. During his absence a 
 conspiracy is raised in his kingdom, 
 and Cambyses, while on his way thith- 
 er dies, 522. The leader of the con- 
 spiracy is put to death after a fevr 
 months reign, and Darius I., son of 
 Hystaspes, is made king. Being a 
 man of great ability, he soon i)laces 
 the kingdom in a flourishing con- 
 dition . The land he divides into pro- 
 vinces, each being governed by an 
 officer called a satrap. The last years 
 of his life are spent in active opera- 
 tion against the Greeks, wars which 
 eventually prove very disastrous for 
 Persia. 509 
 
EGYPT. 
 
 ROME. 
 
 From 509 B. B. to 390 B. C. 
 
 390 
 
 The civil and religious affairs of tho 
 ancient Egyptians were invested in 
 the same persons; the priests having 
 for their state offices, the care of the 
 public records. It was their duty to 
 levy taxes and regulate weights and 
 measures. 
 
 The highest civil tribunal was 
 composed of thirty members, who 
 on taking their seats, took solemn 
 oath that nothing should sway their 
 administeringjustiee. They were sup- 
 ported by the state. 
 
 Tytler, the English historian, thus 
 sums up the character of the ancient 
 Egyptians: 
 
 "They possessed a contemptible 
 vanity which persuaded them that 
 they had attained the summit of ex- 
 cellence; and thev disdained tabor- 
 row irom, or imitate, the practice.^ of 
 other nations. Tho character of their 
 mind was feeble. They had no ardor 
 of enterprise; no ambition of extend- 
 ing their dominion over nations which 
 they despised, or holding intercourse 
 with them in any way. In fact they 
 bore a strong rericmblance to a nation 
 known in modern times as the Chi- 
 nese." 
 
 When we stvidy the history of these 
 !)eople, we almost involuntarily ex- 
 claim with the poet 
 
 Oh Egypt! Land on whose soil millioDs have trod, 
 Whose ppople, brought the vengeance of a God ; 
 
 Thy »dvance« and reverses, bring, to-day, 
 Modern wonder at thy strange markeo way. 
 
 THE ROMAN REPUBLIC. 
 
 A bitter hatred and jealousy is dis- 
 played between the patricians and 
 plebeians, Caius Marcius, named Cori- 
 olanus, aspiring to the consulate, is 
 exiled by the plebeians. He joins 
 the Volcians, and leads their army 
 against Rome; but retires at the en- 
 treaties of his mother, and is put to 
 death by the Volcians, 488 B. C. 
 
 L. Quintius Cincinnatus is chosen 
 consul: for defeating the ^qui, is 
 honored with a triumph, 460. Dece- 
 mirr are now chosen at Rome, who 
 compile the laws into what is known 
 as the Laws of the Twelve Tables. 
 . Appius Claudius, a wicked dece- 
 mirr, rouses public indignation, by 
 the attempted abduction of Virginia, 
 whose father destroys her to save her 
 from the villainies of Appius. The 
 latter and his companions are put to 
 death, and the decemirral power of 
 Rome abolished, 44G. Another attack 
 is now made by Volcians and iEquians 
 but they are defeated by Horatius and 
 Valerius. Complaints are again 
 raised by the plebeians, and the sen- 
 ate suspending the office of counsul,^ 
 creates instead, six military tribunes; 
 two new magistrates, called Cen- 
 sors are instituted, 444. War next 
 ensues with the G.'^uls commanded by 
 Brennus. The Romans are defeated; 
 and the Gauls enter the city,f" massa- 
 cre the senators, and then Jpre^Rome 
 which is burned to tjie ground. ^90 
 
 *The destraction of Home by the Gaula 
 gave theappelation of another founder 
 to Camillus, and the Romans lookefi, 
 upon tlie event as a grand era in their, 
 history. 
 
GREECE. 
 
 PERSIA. 
 
 From 509 to 390 B. C. 
 
 THE PERSIAN INVASION. 
 
 The Ionian Greeks revolt from the 
 Persians defeating them in the great 
 battle Marathon, 490. Dissension 
 among the Greek leaders, causes the 
 imprisoning of MiUiades, and the ban- 
 ishment of Aristides, surnamed the 
 Just, by his rival Themistocles. The 
 Spartans lead in opposing the invad- 
 ing Persians, and Leonidas with his 
 band of three hundred makes a gal- 
 land defense of the mountain pass at 
 Thermopyljfi, 480. The Greeks obtain 
 the splendid naval victory of Salamis, 
 their first sea engagement, 480, and 
 Pausanias, at the head of the Greek 
 army, next completely defeats the re- 
 maining forces of the Persians under 
 Mai'donius in the battles of Platas and 
 Mycale, 479. After Cimon, the suc- 
 cessor of Pausanias, comes, the "Age 
 of Pericles," the most prosperous 
 period in Athenian history; in -which 
 the highest state of Grecian literatiire 
 and art is reached. Of the drama is 
 ^schylus, Sophocles, and Euripides, 
 460. Herodotus, the "Father of His- 
 tory," Thueydides arid Xenophon,4'20. 
 In this age the' Peloponnesian* war 
 commences, 431; being a fierce conflict 
 between Athcn'g arid hef allies, and 
 Sparta and her allies. Itlksts twenty- 
 seven years, concluded by the peace 
 ofNicias, 421. Soon' after the war is 
 recommenced and conducted very un- 
 successful for Athenians who suff'er 
 defeat a* ^gosPotamos, 405. In 400, 
 'Socrrttfes, file grerftes-t df'Grecian phil- 
 ■o^oph6rs, is condemh(!'il to dejith, on 
 charge bfbei'ng a c*orruptor of youth, 
 Plato is one of his'disciples. C90 
 
 THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 
 
 The further planning of Darius, 
 after the Marathon defeat, is ended by 
 his death, 485, and Xerxes prosecutes 
 his father's designs, raising a large 
 army and fleet. He is joined by Ar- 
 temisia, queen of Halicarnassus. 
 Suffering such an overwhelming de- 
 feat, Xerxes flees from Greece leaving 
 his general, Mardonius, to finish the 
 conquest, who makes an unsuc- 
 cessful attempt to bribe the Athe- 
 nians. The schemes of Xerxes, end 
 with the battle of Plata^. He offends 
 his people, and is murdered in the 
 twenty-first year of his reign, 464. 
 Artaxerxes, a son, now ascends the 
 throne reigning until 421. He is suc- 
 ceededby Xerxes II., who reigns but 
 forty-five days, when he is assassinat- 
 ed by his brother, Sogdianus. The 
 latter is dethroned in a few months 
 by Ochus, named Darius, and being a 
 weak and dissolute prince, his reign 
 is but a series of- rebellions. He dies 
 404j' leaving the throne to Artaxerxes 
 II Cyrus, a brother, determines to 
 -'dethrone Artaxerx'6s, and secures the 
 aid of tlir'e Greeks. The two armies 
 mefet bn th'e plaitis of Cunaxa where 
 tiie Greeks are defeated, and Cyrus 
 ,*kiin. Herd Xenophon conducts the 
 memorable- retreat, for which he gains 
 'much praise, 400. After Artaxexes, 
 A'riaspes, Oehu?, and Arsames, be- 
 come competitors ' for the crown, 
 which 6chus secures by' assassinating 
 Ari.ispes, and Arsames. 390 
 
 .JOS: 
 
EGYPT. ROME. 
 
 From 390 B. C. to 266 B. C. 
 
 THE PTOLEMIES. 
 
 Alexander, the Great, invades 
 Egypt, 332. At Memphis, he makes 
 solemn sacrifice to the Egyptian gods, 
 and in the conquest of that country, 
 treats the inhabitants with the great- 
 est consideration. He founds the 
 city of Alexandria, as a monument of 
 his Egyptian conquests, 332. On the 
 division of Alexander's dominions, 
 Egypt falls to Ptolemy, the natural 
 son of Philip of Macedon, 323. Ptole- 
 my, first of the Ptolemaic dynasty, 
 secures himself on his throne, con- 
 quers Phoenocia and neighboring 
 provinces. He labors very diligently 
 in placing his kingdom in a prosper- 
 ous condition; founding the celebrat- 
 ed Alexandrian library, 284, and a 
 Museum, for the advancement of sci- 
 ence. A war is conducted success- 
 fully against Demetrius and Anti- 
 gonus, who dispute his right to the 
 provinces of Syria. 
 
 He is succeeded, 283, by his son 
 Ptolemy II., called Philadelphus. In 
 the beginning of his reign, a revolt is 
 raised by his brother, Magas, king of 
 Cyrene, but the latter's death re-es- 
 tablishes peace. His whole reign is 
 employed in encouraging industry 
 and the useful arts among his people. 
 Commerce is increased by his keeping 
 ;t powerful fleet on the Red and 
 Mediterranean seas. The famous li- 
 brary is increased to two hundred 
 thousand volumes. The inhabitants 
 aind cities multiply until Ptolemy has 
 dominion over 33,339 cities. In this 
 reign the Old Testament is translated 
 into the Greek. 266. 
 
 CONQUEST OF ITALY. 
 
 Camillus, with a large army suc- 
 ceeded in driving the Gauls from 
 Rome, and the city is rapidly rebuilt. 
 Camillus is chosen dictator, and a 
 new magistrate appointed with the 
 title prtetor. New oppressions from 
 the Patricians, secure for the Plebe- 
 ians the passage of the Licinian Laws, 
 by which they obtain political equali- 
 ty, 367. Quiet restored, now com- 
 mences the Roman conquest of Italy, 
 by war with the Samnites, 343. The 
 Latins revolt, but are defeated and 
 compelled to make peace, by Decius 
 and Torquatus, 338 The Samnite 
 wars continue, the Tarentines also 
 allying themselves against the Ro- 
 mans. The latter, however, are 
 generally victorious, in one campaign 
 capturing and demolishing forty 
 towns. Thus Rome's power increases, 
 and her boundaries extend. The 
 Tarentines at last court the aid of 
 Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, who enters 
 the field with an army of thirty thou- 
 sand men and a large number of ele- 
 phants, the first used in the Roman 
 wars. The Romans, though at first 
 defeated, are in the end, successful, 
 and Pyrrhus is totally defeated in the 
 battle of Beneventum, 275. The Sam- 
 nites, the Tarentines, the Lucanians, 
 and all other states sumit to the arms 
 of the Romans who thus become mas- 
 ters of the whole Italian peninsula, 
 266. This great power is kept central- 
 ized by allowing the states self-gov- 
 ernment; Rome only retaining the 
 power to make peace or war, to coin 
 money or to receive embassies. Thus 
 is presented the first example of a true 
 republic. 266. 
 
GREECE. 
 
 PERSIA. 
 
 From 390 B. C. to 266 B. C. 
 
 ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 
 The Spartans, for aiding Cyrus, are 
 leaged against by the states of Argos, 
 Thebes, Corinth and Athens, and Ly- 
 sander, the Spartan general, is defeat- 
 ed and slain. Peace is concluded with 
 all but the Thebans. The Spartans 
 are again totally defeated by the The- 
 ban generals, Epaminondas and Pel- 
 opidas in the battle of Leuctra, 371. 
 In the battle of Mantinea, Epamin- 
 ondas is killed, 362. These wars so 
 weaken the combating states that 
 Philip, the ambitious king of Mace- 
 don determines their conquest. His 
 plans succeed, notwithstanding that 
 the Athenians are warned by the 
 great orator, Demosthenes Philip is 
 victorious in the battle of Cha^ronea, 
 338, and all the Greeks submit. In the 
 midst of his success and plans for fu- 
 ture conquests, he is assassinated, 336. 
 Among the great names of Greece at 
 this period, are Appelles, Zeuxis, 
 Parhasius, and Timanthes, painters. 
 Philip is succeeded by his son, Alex- 
 ander, tutored by the celebrated phil- 
 osopher, Aristotle. 
 
 Alexander prepares to execute the 
 designs of his farther against Persia, 
 and crosses the Hellespont with a large 
 army into Asia Minor, 334. Victory 
 crowns him in every battle, and all 
 Asia is subdued. He dies in debauch, 
 at the age of thirty-three, 323; his 
 great empire being divided among his 
 generals. During his time the sect 
 known as the Cyvics, a noted one be- 
 ing Diogenes, flourishes. 
 
 Great joy is occasioned in Greece by 
 A.lexander's death, freedom from 
 Macedonia; but the " Lamian war" 
 binds them firmer than ever. Leagues 
 are next formed, the principal ones 
 being the ^tolian and Achasan. 266. 
 
 FALL OF THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 
 
 The cruelties of Ochus, render his 
 whole reign one of dissension, and he 
 is finally poisoned, through the efforts 
 of Bagoas, an Egyptian eunuch. After 
 his death, Bagoas places Arses on the 
 throne, but the latter is destoyed in 
 the second year of his reign; and 
 Darius Codomanus is made king, 336. 
 Bagoas for attempting to dethrone 
 him is put to death. Persia now pre- 
 pares to meet the invading Grecians, 
 under Alexander, the Great. A de- 
 cisive battle is fought on the banks of 
 the Granicus, 334, in which the army 
 of Darius is defeated. Another great 
 battle is fought at Issus, 333, and the 
 Persians, commanded by Darius are 
 routed with great slaughter. 
 
 Darius retreats; crosses the Euphra- 
 tes and makes his final stand at Ar- 
 bela, in Assyria, with an army of 
 seven hundred thousand men. Here 
 the Persians are again defeated, three 
 hundred thousand being put to 
 the sword, 331. Having lost all, the 
 Persi.m monarch fljes from province 
 to province, and is, at last, murdered 
 by Bessus, one of his own satraps. 
 Thus ends the Persian monarchy after 
 an existance of 207 years; it now be- 
 coming tributary to Macedonia, 331. 
 266. 
 
 The ancient Persians were a hardy, 
 and for many years, a temperate peo- 
 ple. But their splendid conquests, 
 achieved in this condition, introduced 
 that corruption and vice, that, at 
 last, made them an easy prey. They 
 possessed a large and glittering army; 
 yet it was defeated by half their num- 
 ber. 
 
 Their government was monarchinl 
 in the truest sense; and the best of all 
 the ancient nations. 
 
8 EGYPT. ROME. 
 
 From 266 B. C. to 146 B. C. 
 
 THE PTOLEMIES. 
 Ptolemy Philadelphus itii succeeded 
 by his son Ptolemy III., surnamed 
 Euergetes, 246. In a war against the 
 Syrian monarch, Ptolemy III. con- 
 quers Cilieia, but further progress is 
 arrested by a revolt in his own king- 
 dom. He dies after a prosperous 
 reign of twenty-seven years; and is 
 succeeded by Ptolemy IV., surnamed 
 Philopater, 221. The latter renews 
 the war against Syria, gaining several 
 important victories over Antiochus. 
 Ptolemy IV., not possessing those no- 
 ble traits of his predecessors, fails in 
 preserving the happiness of his peo- 
 ple. His life is one of continual de- 
 bauch; and ends in the seventeenth 
 year of his reign. 204. Ptolemy V., 
 crowned at the age of fourteen, soon 
 exhibits the vices of his father, and 
 many disturbances are raised. These 
 are quelled by Polycrates, his faithful 
 minister. He is at length removed by 
 poison after a reign of twenty-four 
 years, 180. Ptolemy VI. receives the 
 surname of Philometer. Under him 
 war is again waged with Syria, and 
 in an engagement he is taken prison- 
 er. During his captivity the Egypt- 
 ians raise Ptolemy Physeon to the 
 throne, but the Syrian king re- 
 stores Philometor, and the latter sur- 
 mising his plans, associates Physeon 
 with him in the government. Jeal- 
 ousies, however, soon cause the ban- 
 ishmpnt of Physeon, who, through 
 the influence of the Romans, obtains 
 an independent province. 146. 
 
 THE PUNIC WARS. 
 
 The Romans now complete masters 
 of Italy, become ambitious of foreign 
 conquest. For aiding the Syracusans, 
 they are involved in war with Car- 
 thage. This war, called the First 
 Punic War, is commenced by the Ro- 
 mans capturing Agrigentum, 262. 
 They also gain their first naval vic- 
 tory, obtaining Corsica and Sardinia, 
 250. An expedition invades Africa 
 under Regulus, who after several vic- 
 tories, is defeated and made prisoner. 
 The Carthaginians are, on the whole, 
 unsuccessful and compelled to sue for 
 peace, 241. Another the Second Punic 
 War, commences by the invasion of 
 Hannibal's Army, 218. Publius Scip- 
 io, with the Roman Army, is defeated 
 in several battles. The Syracusans 
 break their alliance with Rome, and 
 Marcellus besieges the city, 212. It is 
 defended by the contrivances of Arch- 
 imedes, the geometrician, who, when 
 it is taken, is put to death. Hasdru- 
 bal, sent to aid Hannibal, is defeated 
 and slain . Scipio now invades Africa, 
 carrying destruction to the gates of 
 Carthage. A brilliant victory is ob- 
 tained by the Romans on the plains of 
 Zama, 202, and the war ends disas- 
 trous for the Carthaginians. Scipio 
 returns to Rome and is honored with 
 grand triumph, and titled Africanus. 
 
 The Third Punic War ends gloriously 
 for Rome, which also becomes pos- 
 sessed of Greece. 146. These foreign 
 conquests bring stores of wealth into 
 Rome, and tho (*rpian law for the sup- 
 pression of luxury is repealed; after a 
 spirited opposition on the part of 
 Cato, the Censor. The Roman name 
 is at this period surrounded with more 
 glory than any other in the history of 
 the republic. 1^6 
 
GREECE. CARTHAGE. 9 
 
 From 246 B. C. to 146 B. C. 
 
 FALL OF MACEDON. 
 
 These leagues or confederations of 
 the Greek states enable them to assert 
 their independen e of the Macedon 
 ians; and under Aratus and Philopoe 
 men, those of the Achaean become 
 very prominent. Spartan jealousie; 
 finally bring about strife, and Mace 
 donia again becomes master, 213 
 Philip II. destroys Aratus and his 
 son. He then turns his attention to- 
 ward the ^tolians, his ambition being 
 to subdue all Greece. 
 
 The J^ltolians solicit the aid of the 
 Romans, and the latter send an army 
 into Greece. Philip is rout d in sev 
 oral engagements, and also his son 
 and successor, Perseus, the latter be- 
 ing defeated and taken captive in the 
 great battle of Pydna, 16i, He is car- 
 ried to Rome to adorn the triumph 
 of the consul iEmilius. The Greek 
 republics remain for a time indepen- 
 dent, but constant seditions oc urring, 
 all are at last conquered by the Ro- 
 man general, Metullus, and Greece 
 becomes a Roman province under the 
 name of Achaia. IIG 
 
 The Greeks in their conquests, Hel- 
 enized Asia, but the vices and excess- 
 es of the Asiatics destroyed that true 
 patriotic spirit of the Greeks They 
 became vain, self-ambitious, and neg- 
 ligent of public interests. The natur- 
 al result was, that Greece, once the 
 glory of the world, once the only prac- 
 tical example of a republic, sank into 
 a nation of adventurers. 
 
 THE FALL OF CARTHAGE. 
 
 '•'Carthage, founded in the 9th cen- 
 tury, B. C. gradually increased in 
 wealth and power, until at this period 
 she stands the most powerful mari- 
 time city on the western Mediterran- 
 ean. At the head of the Phoenician 
 cities, she also has possessions in 
 Spain, Sici y, Sardinia, and Corsica. 
 The rival of Rome, jealousies natural- 
 lly spring up between them; and the 
 result is war. The first war, con- 
 ducted by Asdrubal and Hamilcar 
 Barca, the father of Hannibal, ends 
 with the loss of the Sicilian provinces 
 to Carthage. 241. Ripe for revenue, 
 the Carthaginians enter into the sec- 
 ond Punic war, with the greatest vig- 
 gor, and Hannibal at the age of twen- 
 ty-six, takes command of the army 
 in Spain. He crosses the Alps into 
 the plain of Italy, and defeats the 
 Romans in four successive battles, the 
 greatest being Canna?, 216. Africa is 
 invaded by the Romans, and the Car- 
 thagenians are compelled to recall 
 Hannibal, who being defeated at 
 Zama, 202, is cruelly banished, The 
 Third Punic war commenced without 
 cause on the part of Carthage, the 
 Romans being determined on its de- 
 struction. The siege under the young- 
 er Scipio, lasts four years, when it is 
 taken, and walls and buildings totally 
 demolished, KG. The Carthaginian 
 territory is now made into a Roman 
 province, and governed by a procon- 
 sul. 146 
 
 *Carthage possessed a republican form 
 of government, ruled by an aristocracy- 
 
lo EGYPT. 
 
 From 146 B. C. to 27 B. C. 
 
 THE LAST PTOLEMIES. 
 
 The death of Philometer, 145, restores Physcon to the sole power of Egypt. 
 His cruelties induce the Alexandrians to dese t their city, which Ptolemy VII. 
 vainly en eavors to repeople. He dies at Alexandria, IIG; and is succeeded by 
 Ptolemy VIII., surnamed Lathyrus. This prince is driven from the throne 
 by his mother, Cleopatra, who places the crown on her son, Ptolemy Alexan- 
 der, Lathyrus retires to the Isle of Cyprus, remaining until the death of Alex 
 ander; when he is recalled and rules conjointly Avith his mother until his death; 
 81. The crown is left to her daughter, Berenice, whom Ptolemy X.- marries, 
 and then basely murders. He, himself, is put to death for his crime, afttr a 
 reign of but nineteen days. Ptolemy XL. an illegitimate son of Lathyrus, for 
 yielding Cypress to the Romans is banished from the throne; but through the 
 influence of the Roman senate, is reinstated. The last years of his reign are 
 attended with great cruelty to his people, murdering his own daughter Ber- 
 enice. 
 
 He is succeeded by Ptolemy XII., surnamed Dionysius, 51; who rules con- 
 jointly with his sister, Cleopatra. In the thirteenth year of his age, Pompey. 
 fleeing from Caesar to the shores of Egypt, claims his protection for having be- 
 friended his father, Ptolemy XI. But Dionysius, treacherously has him 
 beheaded, 48. Csesar, indignant, invades Egypt, and lays siege to Alexandria. 
 Ptolemy is defeated, and in attempting to e cape, is drowned in the Nile, 46. 
 In the siege, the great library of Alexandria takes fire, and four hundred 
 thousand volumes are destroyed. Ccesar bestows the sovereignty of Egypt on 
 Cleopatra and her brother. The latter she removes by poison, and hastening 
 to Rome, to answer to the charge of aiding the murderer of Caesar, her I eauty 
 so infatuates Mark Antony that he leaves all his possessions and follows her. 
 In the battle of Actium, 31, she deserts ^''Antony in fright; and, at last to avoid 
 captivity, poisons herself with an asp; ancient Egypt's last, and most beauti- 
 ful queen, 30. The country now becomes a Roman province, having existed 
 in a flourishing state under the Ptolemies for 293 years. 27 
 
 'Antony, bearing of Cleopatra's death, asks his slave Eros to destrc-y him. but 
 the latter, to avoid it, took his own life ; whereupon Antony gave himself a mortal 
 wound. Then hearing that the queen lived he requested to be carried to her; and 
 he died in her presence, 30 B. C. 
 
ROME. II 
 
 From 146 B. C. to 27 B. C. 
 
 ROMAN CIVIL WAES. 
 
 Wealth and wickedness go hand in hand; and the spoils of war soon shake 
 the old Roman virtue. Society is divided into two classes— the rich and poor, 
 between whom an incessant strife is waged. The cause of the latter is taken 
 up by Tiberius Gracchus, who revives the Licinian law; but he is soon after 
 murdered with 300 of his followers, 133. Ten years later Caius Gracchus, at- 
 tempts to carry out the schemes of his brother, and is likewise destroyed by the 
 senators. Marius and Sulla finally become leadeis of the opposite parties, 
 and figure prominently in the wars against Jugurtha, 109, the Cimbri, 108, and 
 the Social war, 85. A war breaks out with Mithridates, king of Pontus, the 
 command being given to Sulla. Marius flees, but returns during Sulla's ab- 
 sence and massacres many of the senators. He dies soon after, 86. Sulla de- 
 feats Mithridates, and returning to Rome, by his dte&dQd proscriptions murders 
 hundreds of the popular party, 83. He then proclaims himself dictator; but 
 in three years resigns, and dies honored with a magnificent funeral, 78. At 
 this time four factions rise up in Rome. At the head of one, is Cneius Pompey, 
 popular for quelling the revolt of the gladiators under Spartacus, 72; another 
 headed by the wealthy Crassus; a third by Julius Caesar, and a fourth by 
 Cataline. The rival of the latter is the eloquent Cicero, who, when elected 
 consul, is conspired against by Cataline. Thj plot is discovered, and Cataline 
 destroyed, 62. A union of the other factions is finally effected, known as the 
 "First Triumvirate." Caesar obtains the government of Gaul, where he 
 makes a series of campaigns, 58-50; and during his absence, Pompey obtains 
 command of Spain. Crassus on his way east is murdered, and then jealousy, 
 and, at last, open enmity, arises between Pompey and Cajsar. The latter de- 
 clares war by loading hs army across the Rubicon, 49. Pompey retreats into 
 Greece, whither Caesar follows him. A battle is fought at Pharsalia, 48, in 
 which Pompey is totally defeated and flees to Egypt. Caesar defeats the re- 
 niainder of the army in t!ie battle of Thapsus, 46; and returns to Rome hailed 
 with the title of /'"/jera/or for life. He is at last conspired against by Marcus 
 Brutus and Caius Cassius, and muriered, 44. Soon after a "Second Trium- 
 virate" is formed by Mark Antony, Octavius, and Lepidus. They defeat the 
 conspirators, Brutus and Cassius in the battle of Phillippi, 42. Quarrels soon 
 destroy the triumvirate, and Mark Antony in the battle of Actium, 31, is 
 routed by Octavius, who thus becomes master of Rome. The republic now 
 ends; Octavius, shortly after, being hailed as emperor, with the title of Augus- 
 tus Caesar, 28. 27. 
 
12 ROME. 
 
 From 27 B. C. to 8i A. D. 
 
 THE ROMAN EMPIRE. 
 
 The brilliant period following the downfall of the Roman republic is known 
 in history, as the "Augustan age." The boundaries possess their greatest 
 extent; Roman territory being in length 2,700 miles, and in breadth 1,000 
 miles. Aug stus, as cnjperor, shows himself in every way worthy of the 
 name. Possessing dominion over millions of people, he labors zealously in 
 safely conducting their government. Legates are appointed, and a large army 
 kept to quell revolts;, and under Marcus Agrippa, a successful war is prose- 
 cuted against the Gerjuans. Augustus being, a patron of learning, his reign is 
 honored with the great Latin writers, Virgil, Horace, Lion, Sallust, Lucretius, 
 and Catullus. It is also memorable as the period af the birth of our Savior, 
 at Bethlehem, in Judea. Augustus dies after ruling forty-four years, 14 A. D.; 
 during which he reared up a splendid capital, "having found Rome in brick 
 and left it in marble." His step-son, Tiberius Claudius Nero, succeeds him, 
 and his reign, though at first moderate, is in th« end oppressive. He is finally 
 assassinated by ope of the praetorian guards, 41. Caligula, and Claudius next 
 reign successively, the latter bein^ succeeded by Nero, one of the most cruel 
 monsters that, ever sat on a throne, 54. By him Rome is fired, the conflagra- 
 tion lasting nine days. Roman knights are compelled to fight in public as 
 gladiators. Nero at last destroys himsel. to escape the execuion of a death 
 sentence passed on him, (58. Galba, Otho, Vitellius and Vespasian, reign suc- 
 cessively. The latter sends his son, Titus, with an arniy against the Jews, in 
 a state of rebellion. Titus besieges Jerusalem whose ruin — doomed by the 
 Almighty, and predicted by the prophets— is accomplished,. 79. The death of 
 Vespasian places Titus on the throne, and during the first year of his reign, 
 that remarkti-ble eruption of Vesuvius occurs, overwhelming the cities of 
 Pompeii and Heroulaneum, and destroying the life of Pliny, the writer of 
 natural historyj 79. Titus by his wisdom and prudence, restores the old time 
 happiness of the Romans, and dies after a short reiga beloved by all his peo- 
 ple, 81. (Tacitus, the great Roman historian flourishes about t is period, also 
 Plutarch.) > 
 
ROME. 
 
 From 8i A. D. to 337 A. D. 
 
 CONSTANTINE, THE GREAT. 
 
 Roman history now presents a series of short, uneventful reigns, under the 
 followins: emperors: 
 
 A,D. 
 
 Domitian 81-96 
 
 Xerva 96-98 
 
 Trajan 98-117 
 
 Hadrian 117-138 
 
 Antonius Fius 138-161 
 
 f M. Aurelius 161-180 
 
 <-L. Verus 161-169 
 
 Commodus 180-192 
 
 Pertinax 193-193 
 
 Julianus 193-193 
 
 Septimius Severus. 193-211 
 
 J Caracalla 211-217 
 
 <- Geta 211-212 
 
 Macrinus 217-218 
 
 Elagabalus 218-222 
 
 Alexander Sever>is 222-235 
 
 Maximinu:^ 235-238 
 
 f Gordianus I. \ 
 <- Gordianus II. ^ 
 
 238-238 
 
 fPupienus Maximus \ 238-238 
 
 •-Balbinus -' 
 
 Gordianus III 238-244 
 
 Phillippus 244-249 
 
 Decius 249-251 
 
 Trebonianus Gall us 251-254 
 
 ^Emilianus 254-2-54 
 
 f Valerian 2-54-260 
 
 1 Gallienus 254-268 
 
 Claudius 1 268-270 
 
 Aurelian 270-275 
 
 Tacitus 275-276 
 
 Florianus 276-276 
 
 Probus 276-282 
 
 Carus 282-283 
 
 fCarinus | 283-284 
 
 •^Numerianus -' 
 
 rDiocletain 284-305 
 
 j Maximian , 286-305 
 
 C Constantius I ■- 305-306 
 
 Galerius 305-311 
 
 Under Constantine, the Great, a change is eflfected by the removal of the 
 capital from Rome to Byzantium, which is henceforth known as Constanti- 
 nople, 325. The latter rapidly becomes populous, while Rome correspondingly 
 declines. This reign is also a remarkable epoch in the history of Christianity. 
 The rule of Galerius, Constantine's predecessor, having been attended with 
 the most bitter persecutions of the Christian Sect, Constantine, while waring 
 against his rival, Maxentius, is by a supernatural influence, converted to the 
 Christian faith. He immediately grants entire religious freedom to the people 
 of his worship, and establishes many churches. Thus for the first time, Rome 
 feels the influence of a christian emperor. Constantine dies in the year 337. 
 
14 ROME. 
 
 From 337 A. D. to 476 A. D. 
 
 THE EASTERN AND WESTERN EMPIRES. 
 
 Constantine's sons, rule the empire until 361, when they are succeeded by 
 Julian, called the Apostate, for abjuring Christianity. He attempts to restore 
 paganism, but his efforts only strengthen the Christians. The true religion 
 brings about another result— intellectual advancement; as the great theolo- 
 gians Ambrose, Gregory, Nazianzen, Chrysostom, Jerome, and Augustine, 
 give evidence. After the death of Julian, 363, Jovian, Valentinian I., Gratian, 
 Valentinian II., reign successively. The latter's successor, Theodosius is the 
 last emperor who rules over the whole Roman Empire. On his death, 395, t'iG 
 dominions are divided between his two sons, Arcadius who takes the eastern 
 andHonorius, who takes the western empire. About this time the Goths, 
 commanded by Alaric, invade the Roman provinces; ai.d the army of Hono- 
 rius is compelled to retreat. All attempts to conclude peace fail, for Alaric 
 being made king of the Visigoths, determines the conquest of Italy. Rome 
 is taken and plundered; but Alaric dies soon after, 410, and peace is concluded 
 with his successor Ataulphus. Arcadius of the east, is succeeded by his son, 
 TheodosiusII., 423, and Honorius, by Valentinian III., 425. The provinces are 
 next invaded by the barbarous Huns, under Attilla, 434. The eastern emperor 
 makes peace with him by paying an annual tribute, but Attilla determines on 
 the destruction of the west. The opposing armies meet on the plains of Cham- 
 pagne where Atilla is defeated; but again reassembling his forces, the Romans 
 are, in turn, defeated. Compelled to flee many of them retire to the islands 
 of the Adriatic, where they found the now modern city of Venice, 453. Valen- 
 tinian III., imprisoned in Rome finally secures peace by paying Attila an im- 
 mense tribute. The latter shortly afterward dies, having received the epithet, 
 "Scourge of God," 453. The western empire draws rapidly near its end. 
 Valentinian is succeeded by Maximus, whose respective successors are Marcus 
 Avitius, Julius Majorianus, Livius Severus, Flavins Olytrius, Glycerius, 
 Nepos, and Augustulus. Their reigns are short, and deaths violent. Augus- 
 tulus is at last compelled to give up his throne to the invnder Odvacer, who 
 styles himself king of Italy; and thus completes the downfall of the western 
 empire, 476. 476. 
 
THE EASTERN EMPIRE. 15 
 
 From 476 A. D. to 550 A, D. 
 
 "With the fall of the western empire, ancient Roman history ends, and the 
 provinces are henceforth known as the Eastern or Byzantine Empire. Mar- 
 cian, Leo I., Ardaburius, Loo II., and Zeno, are the respective successors of 
 Theodosius. Italy now suffers an invasion of the Ostrogoths, 491, under their 
 king Theodoric "With a large army he defeats Odvacer in three successive 
 battles; and then besieges him in Ravenna, which after a two years siege is 
 surrendered and Odvacer put to death, 495, Theodoric establishes peace in 
 his kingdom, allying himself with the barbarous nations around him. He 
 dies at Ravenna, 526. In the east Justinian, Zeno's successor, with his army 
 under Belisarus, wages a successful war against Cabades, king of Persia. 
 Next turning upon Theodatus, king of the Goths; Belisarus defeats him and 
 enters Rome in triumph, 530. Little of interest occurs in the life of these bar- 
 barous nations of Italy; continual wars, attended with alternate successes, 
 mark their condition for many years. 550. 
 
 There is a striking similarity in the causes which produced the downfall of 
 the ancient nations, Greece and Rome; as a thorough study of their histories 
 will plainly show. The Romans like the Greeks once despised wealth; once 
 looked upon it, rather, as incompatible with national virtue. This is evi- 
 dent from the repeal of the Oppian law at the close of the Punic Avars. By 
 this law all those luxuries, characteristic of the Orientals, were strictly for- 
 bidden. But as the vices of the voluptuous Asiatic gave Hellas a death blow, 
 so did the spoils of foreign conquest forever crush Roman virtue. 
 
 Again, the prime cause of destruction is the same in each of these nations. 
 It was utterly impossible for Greece, with the form of government she pos- 
 sessed at the time of her conquests, to bind in harmony the many provinces 
 under her dominion; no more could Rome instill pure patriotism in her terri- 
 torj' of one hundred millions population. And, with no unity, no centraliza- 
 tion of power, discord must ensuo; discord and war did ensue, and their 
 destruction was inevitable. 
 
 Oh R'>me ! thy ambition ruined all. 
 Jlodet'n nations learn a lesson from thy fall. 
 
i6 THE FRANKS. 
 
 THE BRITONS. 
 
 From 550 A. D. to 750 A. D. 
 
 CHARLES M ARTEL. 
 
 After the fall of Rome the Teutonic 
 tribes Visigoths, Burgundians, and 
 Franks, establish themselves in Gau . 
 Of these, the Franks obtain the as- 
 cendency. Pharamand is supposed 
 to be the founder of the Frank mon- 
 archy, and h : is succeeded by Mero- 
 vins, the first of the Merovingian 
 kings. Clovis is the first christian 
 king of the Franks, having been c:ni- 
 vertedto that faith by his wife, Clo- 
 tilda. He fixes his capital at Lutetia 
 or Paris, and this event marks the 
 foundation of France. On the death 
 of Clovis, his dominions are divided 
 among his four sons; but these, by 
 their constant wars with each other, 
 arrest all steps toward improvement, 
 and the government, at last passes 
 into the hands of an officer, styled the 
 Mayor of the Palace. Of these, the 
 mostrenowned is Charles Martel, for 
 under his rule the country is invaded 
 by the Saracens, whose successes for 
 a time, threaten all Europe. Charles 
 rescues Christendom by defeating the 
 Saracen commander between Tours 
 and Poitiers, the battle lasting seven 
 days, 732. The death of Charles, 
 whose reign was one of wisdom and 
 moderation, is lamented by all his 
 people, 7-11. H s son, Pepin, sur- 
 named the short, succeeds him as 
 Mayor of the Palace, but the latter 
 seizes the purple and is crowned king 
 of the Franks by the Roman pontifT, 
 742. "With him commences the sec- 
 ond or Carlovingian race of kings, 
 named in honor of Charles Martel. 
 Pepin conducts several wars with ad- 
 vantage lor the Franks, and the mon- 
 archy under his reign makes consid- 
 erable progress; but he is soon to be 
 succeeded by one of the greatest char- 
 acters of mediaeval history. 750. 
 
 THE SAXON HEPTARCHY. 
 
 Britain, or as the Romans called it. 
 Britannia,* having remained under 
 the rule of those people since the 
 time of Caesar obtains freedom from 
 the Roman yoke by the f;vll of the 
 western empire. Like all lawless 
 and barbarous tribes, their history is 
 but a series of wars. In one of these 
 the southern Britons, being defeated 
 by the Picts and Caledonians, court 
 the aid of the Saxons and Angles. 
 These under Hengist and Horsa, de- 
 feat the Picts and Caledonians, and 
 finally make themselves master of tho 
 kingdom, which they name Anglia, 
 or England; and thus lay the founda- 
 tion of the modern Anglo-Saxon race. 
 During the fifth and sixth centuries, 
 the country is divided into seven dis- 
 tinct kingdoms, known as the Saxon 
 Heptarchy. The kingdoms are Kent, 
 Xorthumbria, East Anglia, Mercia, 
 Essex, Sussex, and Wessex. The 
 kingdom of Kent, founded by Escus, 
 lasts during the reigns of seventeen 
 successive princes, when it is con- 
 quered by the West Saxons. Xorth- 
 umbria has twenty-three princes; 
 East Anglia fifteen; Mercia twenty- 
 one; Essex fourteen; Sussex five* 
 when it is conquered by the West 
 Saxons. Wessex, the seventh king- 
 dom, is ruled by seventeen success- 
 ive princes. 
 
 Intestine disorders, caused by the 
 self-ambitious rulers, and repeated 
 invasions and ravages of the Danes, 
 keep these kingdoms in constant 
 confusion, and the r conquest is soon 
 contemplated. The beginning of the 
 9th century marks the birth of Eng- 
 land. 750. 
 
 *So called because the inhabitants 
 adorned their bodies with bbit or paint. 
 
THE EASTERN EMPIRE 
 
 From 550 A. D. to 750 A. D. 
 
 THE SARACENS. 17 
 
 JUSTINIAN. 
 
 The reign of Justinian is famous for 
 church improvements in the way of 
 buildings, among these is the great 
 church of St. Sophia. It is also noted 
 for the formation of that complete 
 system of Ptoman law called the Civil 
 Law, which is the groundwork of 
 modern jurisprudence. Justinian 
 dies in 565; and shortly afterward, 
 Italy, a dependency of the eastern 
 empire, is overwhelmed by an inva- 
 sion of the Lombards, who make 
 Paira their capital , 568. The Italians 
 are treated with the greatest cruelty, 
 many of them being driven from the 
 country. 
 
 A great many emperors rule Byzan- 
 tium after Justinian, but they pres- 
 ent only a monotonous history of 
 crownings, banishments, and resto- 
 rations; sedition, war, and bloodshed. 
 In the reign of Leo III., the Isurian, 
 the great iconoclastic controversy 
 commences, 726; and this alternate 
 prohibition, and restoration of im- 
 ages, increases the internal disorders 
 of the empire. About this time can 
 be noticed the rise of the papal au- 
 thority; that power which in after 
 years controlled the spiritual, as well 
 as the temporal interests of Europe. 
 After the downfall of Rome, the or- 
 ganization of society, is kept by the 
 influence of the church, an i the 
 Bishop nnturally wields this influ- 
 ence. The legate of the eastern em- 
 peror, residing at Ravenna, this 
 serves to increase the power of the 
 Bishop, and he finally assumes the 
 title of Pope, from Papa, father. 
 
 Mo'l"rn liistory commcrx^os witli 
 th • fallofRome, forthis ends the his- 
 tory of t 1-3 rn-ients, but from tl i 
 clo-e of the 5th to the close of the 15th 
 century is called Mediasval history; 
 and from the close of the 5th to the 
 11th century is known as the Dark 
 Ages. 
 
 MAHOMET. 
 
 The rise of Mahomet is an import- 
 ant epoch in European history. The 
 birth of this false prophet occurs at 
 Mecca, 571. At an early age, ambi- 
 tious of prominence and power, he 
 determines to make religion his 
 means of attaining it. Retiring to 
 seclusion, he frames the book, called 
 the Koran, and then boldly proclaims 
 himself the Apostle of God. The peo- 
 ple reject his doctrines, and he is 
 compelled to flee from Mecca, 622. 
 At Medina he obtains many follow- 
 ers, and then resolves to propagate his 
 religion with the sword. jS^umberless 
 tribes are conquered, their princes 
 embracing Mohammedanism. Arabia 
 is speedily subdued, and the prophet 
 determines on foreign conquest; but 
 his planning is ended by death, 632. 
 His designs, however, are executed 
 by his successors, called Calyphs. 
 The sword and the Koran spread the 
 new religion over Asia and northern 
 Africa. Alexandria is taken by Omar 
 and its library destroyed, 640. Under 
 Otmen, the successor of Omar, great 
 conquests are made; and one of his 
 generals, taking the isle of Rhodes, 
 destroys the celebrated Colossus, 672. 
 Cyrcne, Tripoli, and Carthage being 
 reduced, the Arabs cross into Spain, 
 landing on Gibralter Rock, so called 
 from their leader, Tarik-ben-zaid, 
 710. 
 
 Subduing thai corntry, they next 
 invade Gaul, but : re here checked by 
 the kingof the Franks, Charles Mar- 
 t.l. After this defeat they estabii.-h 
 themselves permanently in Spain, 
 founding the great moskm power in 
 the country. 
 
 Thus did Mohammedanism, with 
 astonishing ra pidity , sweep over Asia, 
 northern Africa and part of Europe, 
 and, though their invasions were at- 
 tended with d struct! on, in the end, 
 the results were beneficial, 750. 
 
i8 THE FRANKS. 
 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 From 750 A. D. to 950 A. D. 
 
 K 
 
 CHARLEMAGNE, 
 irl, commonly known as Charle- 
 
 magne, succeeds his father Pepin, and 
 is ambitious of re-establishing the Ro- 
 man Empire. With this idea, numer- 
 ous wars are undertaken; the German 
 tribes subdued, the Saracens defeated 
 in Spain, and their provinces placed 
 under subjection. At the entreaty of 
 the Pope, whose territories are assailed 
 by the Lombards, Charlemagne enters 
 Italy, defeats them, and himself as- 
 sumes the "Iron Crown of the Lom- 
 bards," 773. His military successes 
 still continue, and on Christmas day 
 800, he is crowned by Pope Leo III, 
 "Emperor of the West." The re- 
 mainder of his life is spent in advanc- 
 ing his people, being a great i)atron 
 of learning. He dies 814, and is suc- 
 ceeded by his son, Louis, who divides 
 the Frankish possessions among his 
 three sons, Lotharius, Pepin, and 
 Louis. Another son, by second mar- 
 riage, named Charles the Bald, claims 
 a share in the partition, and great 
 strife ensues. This, after several 
 years continuance, is ended by treaty, 
 and the crown placed on Charles, 
 Lotharius being given the province of 
 Lorraine, which he rules until his 
 death, 878. In this situation of af- 
 fairs, France is invaded by the Nor- 
 mans, who create much alarm by their 
 ravages. A truce is concluded and in 
 S '3, the crown is placed on Charles 
 III, the Simple. The great empire in 
 these years rapidly declines, division 
 after division being made until noth- 
 ing is left. The history of the Franks 
 here ends, and that of modern France 
 commences. 950 
 
 ALFRED THE GREAT. 
 
 Under King Egbert, of the West 
 Saxons, all these petty kingdoms are 
 united, and modern England dates 
 from this period, 827. Egbert's do- 
 minions suffer terribly from the rav- 
 ages of the Danes, 838. His sons, 
 Ethelwolf, Ethelbald, Ethelbert and 
 Ethelred reign successively, the latter 
 being killed in battle against the Dan3S 
 872. Ethelred is succeeded by Alfred 
 the Great, who assumes a throne sur- 
 rounded with difficulties. Anew tor- 
 rent of Danes pouring in, Alfred is 
 obliged to desert his throne, and 
 secretes himself in the country in the 
 garb of a peasant. Finally gathering 
 an army, Alfred marches against the 
 Dines, and completely defeats them. 
 This restores peace, and the king, se- 
 cure, diligently applies himself in 
 establishing prosperity. A lover of 
 learning, he founds the great Oxford 
 University, 890. He also organizes 
 England's first navy. His death oc- 
 curs, 900, reigning gloriously for 
 nearly twenty years. His son, Ed- 
 ward, after a reign of twenty-three 
 years, is succeeded by Athelstan, 923. 
 The latter causes the bible to be tran- 
 slated into the Saxon language, and 
 circulated among his people He en- 
 courages commerce, by giving every 
 merchant making three voyages the 
 rank of a thane. In 940, Edmund I, 
 the fifth son of E Iward, becomes king. 
 At this time the priesthood com- 
 mences to wield considerable influ- 
 ence over the monarchs. Under 
 Edred, Edmund's successor in 947, 
 Dunstan, thi fanatical abbot of Glas- 
 tonbury, obtains such control that he 
 is virtually king. 950 
 
 Silk-worms were brought to Europe 
 in the sixth century. 
 
CENTRAL EOROPE. 
 
 SARACEN EMPIRE, ^9 
 
 From 750 A. D. to 950 
 
 A. D. 
 
 THE BIRTH OF GERMANY. 
 
 Throughout the 8th and 9th centur- 
 ies, the same monotonous history at- 
 tends the Eastern Empire — short, 
 turbulent reigns, dethronements, in- 
 surrections, and wars. The rulers 
 are Leo IV, Constantine VI, and his 
 mother, Irene, Nicephorus I, Michael 
 I, Leo V, Michael II, Besilius I, Leo 
 VI, stj'led the Philosopher, Alexan- 
 der II, Constantine VII, Zoe, mother 
 of the latter, and Roman us Leca- 
 penus. 
 
 On the death of Charlemagne, Ger- 
 many is separated from the monarchy 
 of the Franks, and governed by Louis 
 IV, the last descendent of the great 
 king. After his death, in 911, the 
 dukes choose Conrad, Duke of Eran- 
 conia, to be king. The latter dies 918, 
 and the Saxons and Franconians 
 place He ry I, the Fowler, on the 
 throne 919. Henry raises his king- 
 dom to prominence, by reducing 
 Arnold, Duke of Bavaria, and con- 
 quering the Hungarians, Bohemians, 
 Sclavonians, and Danes. He also 
 takes Lorrain from Charles the Sim- 
 ple, and dies after a reign of seven- 
 teen years, 936. Henry is succeeded 
 by his son, Otho, the Great. Germany 
 under these rulers, loses something 
 of that wildness, and barbarism, ex- 
 isting among her inhabita nts for hun- 
 dreds of years, and agriculture, and 
 horticulture receive great encourage- 
 ment. Streaks of modern civiliza- 
 rion are noticed in the introduction 
 of carpets; paper making from cotton; 
 clocks brought into Europe ; glass 
 manufactured; pens made from quills; 
 and wine-presses introduced. 950. 
 
 INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT. 
 
 In 755, the great Saracenic empire 
 is divided, one caliph ruling in Spain, 
 and another in Bagdad. In Spain 
 the ruler Abdalrahman makes his 
 capital at Cordova, where he builds 
 many magnificent structures; among 
 them the mosque of Cordova, 800. In 
 his wars with the Franks, the caliph 
 loses the provinces of Aragon and 
 Xavarre. The most renowned of the 
 eastern caliphs is Haroun Al Raschid, 
 the successor of his brother Hadi in 
 786. His reign is characterized for 
 wisdom and justice, and an earnest ef- 
 fort to disseminate learning through- 
 out his realms. He wars against the 
 Greek emperor, Nicephorus, for re- 
 fusing to pay him tribute; and makes 
 eight invasions of the empire. To the 
 great Charlemagne of the west, he 
 sends an embassy bearing rich pres- 
 ents, and the keys of the holy sepul- 
 chre at Jerusalem. He dies at Tons, 
 in the twenty-third year of his reign, 
 809, The decline of the mighty Sara- 
 cenic empire is almost as rapid as its 
 rise. Independence is soon mani- 
 fested by the distant provinces. 
 Egypt throws off the yoke, followed 
 by Muritania, which is changed into 
 the modern empire of Morocco, 875. 
 The Saracens are renowned for their 
 preservation of science during the 
 Dark Ages; and in the 10th century 
 Spain is the "center of learning." 
 The moderns are indebted to them 
 fortheterms "Algebra," "Alcohol," 
 "Alchemy," "Zenith," "Nadir," 
 etc. Museums, libraries, and obser- 
 vatories, are instituted; and the 
 Greek works of science translated 
 into Arabic. In short the Saracens 
 are the bridge, connecting the science 
 of the ancient and modern world. 
 
 950. 
 
20 
 
 FRANCE. 
 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 From 950 A. D to 1100 A. D. 
 
 THE CRUSADES. 
 
 With Louis v., the sluggard, the 
 Carlovingian line of kings ends; and 
 the count of Paris, Hugh Capet, is 
 made king by his peers, 987. This 
 event commences the real history of 
 France, under the third, or Carpetian 
 race of kings. Robert, the successor 
 of Capet, 9'J6, and a prince of great 
 piety, lays the foundation of the 
 noted cathedral of Notre Dame; but, 
 for marrying his cousin, Bertha, he is 
 excommunicated by Pope Gregory 
 v., and abandoned by all his cour- 
 tiers. From this time he leads a 
 wretched life, which is finally ended 
 by death, 1031. His son Henry I. 
 next rules the kingdom, which Rob- 
 ert's misfortunes placed in a very 
 disordered condition. He reigns 
 thirty years, and is succeeded by his 
 son, Philip I., 1081. Philip wars 
 against William, the Conqueror, the 
 strife being continued until the death 
 of the latter. In his reign the Cru- 
 sades commence, and France plays 
 an important part. Peter the Her- 
 mit a French enthusiast, having 
 made a journey to Palestine, returns 
 to take measures for rescuing the 
 Holy city from the infidels. His 
 preachings rouse all Europe into 
 action. Expeditions are at once 
 planned. In France, nobles, barons, 
 vassals, and slaves, throng together 
 in great multitudes. Godfrey of 
 Bouillon, a descendant of Charle- 
 magne, is chosen to command an 
 army of seventy thousand foot, and ten 
 thousand horse. This immense host 
 ititer ;i long, toilsome march, reaches 
 Jerusalem, which is taken after 
 a siege of five weeks, 1099, and seven- 
 ty thousand Moslems are massacred. 
 Godfrey is chosen king of Jerusalem, 
 but dies one year after, 1100. 1100. 
 
 WILLIAM THE CONQUEKOR. 
 
 Edroy, Edgar, Edward the Marty, 
 and Ethelred I., reign in succession 
 until 1013, when the latter is dethron- 
 ed by the Danes under Sweyne. He 
 is succeeded by his son Canute, the 
 Great, .and the war between the 
 Danes and the Saxons continues. 
 At the close of the reign of Edward, 
 the Confessor, he names William, 
 Duke of Normandy, as his successor. 
 But Harold II., son of Edward, im- 
 mediately seizes the throne, and 
 unites the nobility in his interests to 
 maintain it. William raises an 
 army and invades England, and the 
 two opposing forces meet at Hastings, 
 where a decisive battle is fought, and 
 Harold defeated and slain, 1066. 
 William in the same year is crowned 
 king of England, at Westminster, 
 and a great political change is made. 
 Severe forest laws prohibiting the de- 
 struction of game are enacted; a sur- 
 vey of the lands made for taxing the 
 people; and Norman French made 
 the language of the kingdom. His 
 bad policy embroils the kingdom in 
 constant sedition, and in 1072, a rebel- 
 lion is raised in the north, headed by 
 Malcolm Conmore, king of Scotland. 
 It is with difficulty quelled. In 1086, 
 William invades France, beginning 
 the wars that have been waged be- 
 tween the kingdoms throughout all 
 modern history. He dies in 1087. He 
 introduced Feudalism in England, 
 giving estates, and receiving in re- 
 turn, military service. William's 
 sons succeed him, Robert ruling Nor- 
 mandy, and William II., England, 
 Willi.am proves a cruel and tyranni- 
 cal prince; and his oppressive reign 
 is ended by his death while hunting. 
 
 1100. 
 
 1100. 
 
C ;■ NTli AL EUROPE. MISCELLANEOUS. 2 1 
 
 From 950 A. D. to iioo A. D. 
 
 PAPAL POWER. 
 
 Otho, the Great, by marrying Ade- 
 laide, widow of the Italian king, 
 Lothaire, unites upper Italy with 
 Germany; and thus revives the 
 Western Empire. By Pope John XII., 
 in 962, he is crowned as King of Ger- 
 many, King of Italy, and Emperor of 
 the West. After the descendants of 
 Otho, the Franconian line of emper- 
 ors commences with Conrad II., in 
 whose reign Burgundy is added to 
 the empire, 1025. During the reign 
 of his son, Henry III, the great con- 
 flict between the popes and emperors 
 commences, 1040, the crisis being 
 reached under Henry IV. The latter 
 for setting aside the decrees of the 
 papal authority, is solemnly excom- 
 municated, and his subjects absolved 
 from their allegiance. Henry de- 
 clares war, but from the disastrous 
 effects of his sentence, he is compell- 
 ed to humiliate himself by imploring 
 the pope's pardon, 1077. However, 
 enraged at his treatment from Greg- 
 ory, Henry renews the war, forces 
 the pontiff to flee, and the latter dies 
 soon after, at S.ilerno, 1084. In the 
 Eastern Empire, besides domestic 
 sedition, the people suffer greatly 
 from inroads made by the Turks and 
 Arabians on the east, and the Bul- 
 garians on the west. On the com- 
 mencement of the *'Holy wars" Con- 
 stantinople is appointed as the ren- 
 dezvous of the Crusaders; and the 
 pouring in of immense throngs is at- 
 tended with gre.it confusion. The 
 city is, nt one tin*-, threatened with 
 destruction, which the emperor 
 Alexius averts, by transporting the 
 armies into A-^in, 1096. Theso Cru- 
 sades oocnsion thit great commercial 
 Hfitivity for which the Italian cities of 
 Venice, Pisa, and Genoa are re- 
 nowned. 1100 
 
 THE CRUSADERS. 
 
 The march of the army of Crusaders 
 under Peter the Hermit, is one con- 
 tinual scene of carnage; and their" 
 cruelties in the different countries 
 make numerous enemies. Solyman, 
 the Sultan of Nice, proves a very de- 
 termined enemy, and through his 
 efforts hundreds of thousands of the 
 Christians perish. 1100 
 
 FEUDALISM. 
 
 We here speak of Feudalism, the 
 chief characteristic of society in the 
 Middle Ages. It is defined to be the 
 tenure of land, for which service was 
 to be given by a vassal, to the lord 
 and owner, when demanded. When 
 the barbarians of Europe crushed the 
 civilization of the ancient world, the 
 lands by right of war, fell to the chiefs 
 or leaders of these tribes; the more ter- 
 ritory to the more successful warrior. 
 The victorious chiefs, as a natural 
 consequence had the largest number 
 of followers; and among these the 
 land was divided, the chief being 
 considered as the owner. From this 
 grew the Feudal System. Farmers 
 were vassals to the lords; the lords, 
 to the nobles; the nobles to the king; 
 and the kings often to another king. 
 This system was the direct opposer of 
 centralization. A king possessed no 
 real power, and during Feudalism all 
 Europe was isolated. Its downfall is 
 attributed to three causes— Royalty, 
 Municipalities, and the Clergy. The 
 Feudal System, however, in this 
 period, individually, introduced re- 
 finement, as the "Age of Chivalry" 
 following gives evidence. 
 
22 
 
 FRANCE. 
 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 From I loo A. D. to 1200 A. D, 
 
 THE CRUSADES. 
 
 The authority of the crown over the 
 grreat feudatories of France is consid- 
 erably increased by Louis VI., and 
 his successor, Louis VII.; and as a 
 result, the power of France as a na- 
 tion is enhanced. Their military op- 
 erations, though, are unfavorable. 
 In a second crusade against the In- 
 fidels, a large army of French, Ital- 
 ians and Germans, under Hugh, 
 brother to Philip I., is beaten and al- 
 most annihilated by the Turks, 1147. 
 The seige of Damascus proves a fail- 
 ure, and the Second Crusade ends 
 with the return of the army to their 
 own country. The last years of Louis 
 VII. are very unhappy, on account 
 of domestic trouble. He divorces his 
 wife, Eleanor, and loses her patrimo- 
 nial inheritance,— the province of 
 Poitou. After a reign of forty-three 
 years, he leaves the crown to his son, 
 Philip Augustus, 1180. The crown of 
 England being possessed by Richard, 
 the latter, Philip, and the Emperor of 
 Germany, organize a Third Crusade, 
 1187. Many successes are obtained 
 by the Crusaders, the crowning of 
 which is the capture of Acre after a 
 seige of twenty-three months, 1191. 
 Philip now, to the disgust of the ar- 
 mies, withdraws from the crusade, 
 and returns with his troops to France. 
 During Richard's absence, Philip 
 wrests Normandy, Anjou, and other 
 provinces from John, but Richard, on 
 his return, declares war, and gains a 
 complete victory at Gisors, 1198. 
 Philip then sues for peace. 1200 
 
 THE HOUSE OF PLANTAGEN. T. 
 Robert, the rightful heir to the 
 English throne, being absent in Pal- 
 estine, Henry, the younger brother of 
 William II., seizes the crown, and on 
 Robert's return, war ensues. But 
 the latter is vanquished, made pris- 
 oner, and Henry I. established. 
 During this reign Templars are or- 
 ganized, rents made payable in mon- 
 ey, and a standard fixed for weights 
 and measures; the English yard be- 
 ing measured from the king's arm. 
 A great domestic alBiction casts a 
 shadow of gloom over Henry's reign, 
 — the death of bis son, William, 
 drowned while on a visit to Norman- 
 dy, 1120. After the king's death, 1135, 
 the crown is disputed by his daugh- 
 ter, Matilda, and his nephew, the 
 earl of Blois. Stephen, however, 
 dies, 1154, and Matilda's son assumes 
 the throne as Henry II., the Plantag- 
 enet line of kings commencing with 
 him. Henry weakens the feudal 
 power in the kingdom by granting 
 charters to many of the towns. He 
 also attempts to limit the power of 
 papacy in temporal affairs, meeting 
 the determined opposition of Thomas 
 A. Becket, the archbishop. At last 
 Becket, through a hat-ty exclamation 
 of the king, is murdered, 1170 an act 
 for which the alarmed Henry pays an 
 humble penance. In this reign the 
 quarrelsome princes of Ireland are 
 brought under subjection. Richard 
 I., surnamed C enr de Lion, succeeds 
 his father, and his attention is mon- 
 opolized in tlie movements against 
 the Infidels. On his return from an 
 expedition against Palestine, Rich- 
 ard is taken prisoner in Germany, 
 but released on the payment of a 
 heavy ransom. He is killed by an 
 arrow from one of his vassals, 1199, 
 and leaving no issue, the crown is 
 placed upon his brother John, whose 
 reign marks a memorable period in 
 the history of English liberty. ^ 1200 
 
CENTRAL EUROPE. MISCELLANEOUS. 23 
 
 From iioj A. D, to 1200 A. D. 
 
 FREDERICK BARBARO^SA. 
 
 The hot controversy between Henry 
 IV., of (iermany and the pope, is con- 
 tinued with about the same spirit 
 during the reign of Henry V. With 
 his death, 1125, the Franeonian line 
 of einporors ends, and Lothaire of 
 Saxony, rules twelve years. After 
 him the Suabian emperors commence, 
 with Conrad III., 1138. This king 
 engages in the second crusade along 
 with the French monarch, but his 
 army is destroyed by the Turks, and 
 the last years of his reign are spent in 
 his own dominions. In 1152 his son, 
 Frederick Barl)arossa is elected king, 
 and three years after crowned em- 
 peror. In his reign is formed the 
 famous league of the Hanseatic towns 
 for the pVotection of commerce. 
 Frederick joins in the third crusade, 
 defeating the enemy in several en- 
 gagements, but in the midst of his 
 succeSoCS he suffers death from drown- 
 ing, while bathing in the river Cyd- 
 nus, Asia, 1193. With the freedom 
 and growth of towns, industries 
 spring up, and trade and commerce 
 are extended. Woolen manufactur- 
 ing, known as the "Flemish Stuffs," 
 is carried on successfully by the cit- 
 ies of Ghent and Bruges. Industry 
 in Italy receives an impetus by the 
 introduction of silk manufacturing by 
 Roger Guiscard, about the middle of 
 the twelfth century. Frederick is 
 succeeded by his son, Henry VI., sur- 
 named the Sharp. He reigns eight 
 years, when the crown is bestowed on 
 his brother, Philip, 1198. The East- 
 ern Empire maintains the same con- 
 dition of affairs throughout he 
 twelfth century, and no events tran- 
 spire worthy to be chronicled. The 
 dawn of m dern civilization can be 
 distinctly noticed in Central Europe 
 at this period. 12U0 
 
 SALADIN. 
 Popish persecutions commence 
 against the Albigenses, a christian 
 sect of the city of Albi, by Pope Inno- 
 cent, 1180.— Saladin, governor of 
 E^ypt, signalizes himself in the 
 "Holy Wars" for his resistance to 
 the Christians, being the opponent of 
 the great Coeur de Lion. In his suc- 
 cesses, he is noted for his humane- 
 ness and kind treatment of his ene- 
 mies. He dies. 1195, and bequeaths 
 his wealth alike on Christians, Ma- 
 hometans and Jews. 
 
 THE RISE OF CHIVALRY. 
 Society during the " Dark Ages," 
 was in the most degraded condition, 
 and its refinement and brilliancy to- 
 wards the close of the middle ages is 
 due to the influence of chivalry This 
 had its origin in feudalism. Vassals 
 of great barons, were in the family 
 school educated in military exercises, 
 and feudal etiquette. A boy between 
 the ages of seven and fourteen re- 
 ceived the name of Page or Varlet, and 
 his duty was to attend his lady, who 
 taught him lessons of obedien- e, gal- 
 lantry and bravery. At fourteen the 
 page became a squire and followed 
 his lord to the battle-field and tour- 
 nament. At twenty one his one 
 grand object was attained— to be a 
 knight, and he was leceived into the 
 order after a long and imposing cere- 
 mony. Chivalry existed and kept 
 pace with feudalism, and the decline 
 of the latter was attended with the de- 
 cay of the former. Many condemn its 
 influence, but our best writers speak 
 of its benefits— that from the knight 
 of the middle ages was molded the 
 modern gentleman. 
 
FRANCE. ENGLAND & SCOTLAND. 
 
 From 1 200 A. D. to 1300 A. D. 
 
 THE CRUSADES. 
 Louis VIII., ascends the throne in 
 1223, and during his short reign of 
 but three years, the province of Poi- 
 tou is re-annexed to the kingdom. 
 Louis is removed by poison; and his 
 son, styled St. Louis, succeeds. Dur- 
 ing his minority the regency is be- 
 stowed on Blanche of Castile. When 
 Louis IX. assumes the government, 
 he is induced through the solicita- 
 tions of the pope to organize another 
 crusade. Several years are spent in 
 preparation; the king of Cyprus join- 
 ing with an army. But the result is 
 complete failure. The forces are 
 defeated, Louis IX. taken prisoner, 
 and a heavy ransom exacted for his 
 release, 1249. Twenty-one years lat- 
 er, and St. Louis undertakes an- 
 other—the last crusade; the result 
 being similar. A dreadful pestilence 
 breaks out, and Louis is one of its 
 victims, 1270. His son, Philip, the 
 Hardy, conducts the army safely 
 back to France, where he is crowned 
 king. In the reign of his successor, 
 Philip, the Fair, commencing, 1285, 
 supreme tribunals called parliaments 
 are instituted. But oppressive meas- 
 ures raise many insurrections, de- 
 stroying prosperity. Trade is ruined 
 by an abased coinage, and the Jnqui- 
 sUiou is established at Toulouse to 
 destroy herotii-s. The 13th century 
 marks the birt.i of t'.io occupation of 
 banking, this being engaged in by the 
 merchants of Lombardy and South 
 France In this century too, Sshol.'.s- 
 tl'.3 Philosophy attains its greatest 
 l)erlection in the persons ox Aqalnas, 
 Da:is Sjotus, Roscelin, Anselm, and 
 Peter Lombard. Among the mediae- 
 val schools are those of Toulouse, and 
 Montpelier. 1300 
 
 MAGNA CHARTA. 
 
 Arthur, a claimant for the crown, 
 is basely murdered by order of John, 
 whose tyrannies soon render him 
 odious. He quarrels with the pope, 
 to whom he is obliged to make sub- 
 mission; and, at length, the discon- 
 tented barons uniting in a confeder- 
 acy, compel him to sign a charter of 
 liberties, known as the Magna Charta 
 — the bulwark of English liberty, 
 
 1215. John, soon after, attempts to 
 regain absolute authority, but the 
 barons assisted by the French mon- 
 arch, arm against him, and his ty- 
 rannical reign is ended by death, 
 
 1216. Henry III. is immediately 
 crowned, the earl of Pembroke being 
 appointed his guardian. Peace and 
 order are restored, and an important 
 event in the civil history af England, 
 occurs— the rise of the House of Com- 
 mons, an assemblage of the barons of 
 the realm. In this reign gold is 
 coined, and the use of coal for fuel 
 commenced. The later years of 
 Henry's life are disturbed by an in- 
 surrection headed by the earl of 
 Leicester, and in the battle of Lewes, 
 1266, he is taken prisoner. His son, 
 Edward, reseats him on the throne 
 which is secure until his death, 1272. 
 Edward II. annexes Wales to Eng- 
 l.ind, the king's son thenceforth tak- 
 ing the title, Prince of Wales, 1283. 
 Roger Bacon, the English scientist, 
 nourishes in Edward's reign. Scot- 
 1 uid is, at this time, the scene of a 
 fierce quarrel between Robert Bruce 
 and John Baliol, cluimants for the 
 crown. Civil war is, however, avert- 
 ed by their choo.'-ing Edward as um- 
 l>ire. His decision in favor of Baliol 
 renders the Scots indignant and a 
 rebellion headed bySir Willinm AVal- 
 
 1 t'-o is raised. The S'^ots though at 
 first successful, are completely over- 
 thrown in the battle of Falkirk, r20S. 
 1:300 
 
CENTRAL EUROPE. MISCELLANEOUS. 
 
 From 1 200 A. D. to 1300 A. D. 
 
 25 
 
 HOUSE OF HAPSEURG. 
 Balwin, Eirl of Flanders, taking 
 nd vantage of the unsettled Eastern 
 Empire, invades it, and lays siege to 
 Constantinople. The city is taken, 
 and the emperor put to death, 1203. 
 With the pope's sanction, Balwin is 
 made emperor, the first of the Latin 
 rulers. Philip of Germany, is suc- 
 ceeded by Otho IV., who after a reign 
 of four years is deposed and Fred- 
 erick II. made emperor, 1212. At 
 this time papacy under Innocent III., 
 has its greatest power; the pope claim- 
 ing to be "earthly king of kings " 
 A quarrel ensues between the pontiff 
 and Fi-ederick II., embroiling the 
 whole empire. Part acknowledge 
 the supremacy of the pope and part 
 that of the emperor; and, attempts 
 are finally made on the life of Fred- 
 erick, but he firmly maintains his 
 throne. During his reign much is 
 done for the encouragement of litera- 
 ture. On his death, through the de- 
 vices of the pope, William, Earl of 
 Holland, is made emperor; but he 
 dies after a short reign of five years, 
 1235. Thence for a number of years 
 th'j empire is without a sovereign, 
 and plunged in sedition. The elec- 
 tors finally allow Louis of Bavaria to 
 select an emperor, and he names 
 Rudolph, Count of Ilapsburg. His is 
 a prosperous reign of eighteen years, 
 dyr.ig, 1292. A fjw years prior to this, 
 the leaders of the conquered Greeks 
 raising an army, under John Paleolo- 
 gus, retnke their capital and the Luiiu 
 J'Jiiiplrd ends. Under the successors, 
 though, of John the empire gradually 
 relapses into its former weak and de- 
 mented condition. — Albert succeeds 
 Rudolph, on the German throne, 1298. 
 In the literature of this period, 
 D.mte, the Homer of Italy, stands as 
 a monument of his age. 1300 
 
 GENGHIS KHAN. 
 
 A great strife is carried on in Asia 
 in the 13th century. Genghis Khan, 
 the famous Mongol chief, with a large 
 army overruns and conquers all in- 
 land Asia; Tartary and China being 
 completely subdued. His conquests 
 are attended with the greatest blood- 
 shed, two million souls falling vic- 
 tims of the sword. He dies in 1227, 
 leaving to his posterity an empire of 
 about twelve hundred leagues in 
 length. His son, Oktai, continues 
 the Mongol successes, the armies 
 marching westward to Hungary and 
 Silesia, and after the great battle of 
 Wahlstat, 1241, the Mongol Empire 
 extends from China to the fron- 
 tiers of Poland and Germany.— A 
 horrible massacre on the island of 
 Sicily, blackens the history of the 
 13th century. Charles, of Anjou, a 
 French prince, obtains through 
 the influence of the pope, the govern- 
 ment of Sicily. His tyrannical usage 
 soon rouses the most bitter hatred on 
 the part of the Sicilians; and a plot is 
 formed to exterminate all the French 
 on the island. The plan is executed 
 on Easter Sunday, at the ringing of 
 the bell for vespers; neither age nor 
 sex being spared, 1282. About this 
 time, Marco Polo, a Venetian mer- 
 chant, journies into Eastern Asia; 
 residing at the court of Kublai Khan, 
 a descendant oi" Genghis Khan. En- 
 joying the favor of the monarch he 
 travels through the provinces, and on 
 his return to Europe, 1292, publishes 
 an account of Asia, until this time 
 an unknown land to the Europeans. 
 His knowledge is of no little conse- 
 quence in later searches for the India 
 route. 1300 
 
26 FRANCE. ENGLAND & SCOTLAND. 
 
 From 1300 A.D. to 1400 A. D. 
 
 THE HUNDRED YEARS WAR. 
 
 After Philip IV., Louis X., John 
 I, and Philip v., reign successively 
 short reigns; thelatter's, of five years' 
 duration, being characterized by the 
 expulsion of the Jews from France. 
 Philip is suceeded by Charles IV., 
 third son of Philip the Fair, 1322. 
 When Charles dies, no male issue be- 
 ing left, the crown is bestowed on his 
 cousin, Philip ofValois, with whom 
 commences the House ofValois, 1328. 
 The king of England, Edward III, lays 
 claim to the French throne, on the 
 grounds of his mother, Isabella, being 
 a sister of Charles IV , and accord- 
 ingly fits out a great fleet and army 
 to wrest the crown from Philip. The 
 war which ensues is known as the 
 Hundred Years' War. In the battle of 
 Crecy,-'" 1346, Philip's forces are to- 
 tally defeated. He dies in 1351; and 
 in the reign of his successor, John II., 
 another victory crowns the English 
 army at Poitiers, 1356. A peace is 
 finally concluded at Bretigny, Ed- 
 ward relinquishing his claim to the 
 French crown, and keeping the pro- 
 vinces of Calais, and Aquitaine, 1360. 
 When Charles V. assumes the throne, 
 136-4, he breaks the Peace of Bretig- 
 ny, and wrests, nearly all the con- 
 quered provinces from England. 
 Charles by his political talents re- 
 trieves in a great measure, the mis- 
 fortunes of his country, and France, 
 notwithstanding her constant wars, 
 steadily advances in power and extent. 
 In 1380, Charles dies and is succeeded 
 by the Mad King, Charles VI., whose 
 reign is an uunappy one for France. 
 
 1400 
 
 ^■■^English authority states that in this 
 battle the French army was thrown in 
 confusion by cannon placed in frunt of 
 tlie English— thus crediting the latter 
 with using the first pieces of artillery in 
 war. 
 
 THE REIGN OF EDWARD 111. 
 
 Wallace, having taken safety in 
 flight, returns in a few years to Scot- 
 land, where he is treacherously be- 
 trayed to Edward; taken to London, 
 and executed as a traitor, 1305. The 
 Scots now determine another attempt 
 for freedom, and headed by Robert 
 Bruce, grand-son of the former, they 
 attack and drive the English out of 
 Scotland. Edward I. dies while pre- 
 paring for battle, and Edward II., a 
 weak and indolent prince, succeeds 
 him, 1307. The English army is met 
 by King Robert Bruce with a force of 
 thirty thousand, on the field of Ban- 
 nockburn, where Edward is routed, 
 1314. The latter on his return to 
 London is conspired against and put 
 to death; and his son crowned as 
 Edward III. The long reign of Ed- 
 ward is one of splendid military re- 
 nown for England. In his successful 
 wars with the Scots and French, his 
 son, called from the color of his ar- 
 mor, the Black Prince, is greatly dis- 
 tinguished. His reign is also mem- 
 orable as the age of Chaucer, the 
 father of English poetry; and the faint 
 dawn of the Reformation, i y the de- 
 nunciations of John WickliiTe against. 
 papal abuses. Woolen manufacture 
 is introduced; the lords and com- 
 mons sit in separate chambers for the 
 first time; and by Edward the order 
 of the Garter is founded. He dies 
 one year after the death of liis son, 
 ending a glorious reign of fifty-one 
 years' duration, 1377. The reign of 
 his successor is greatly disturbed by 
 an insurrection headed by Wat Tyler, 
 who is finally murdered. Rich- 
 ard II is unpopular, and in 13'J'J he 
 is dethroned and imprisoned The 
 rim'agenet line here ends, by the peo- 
 ple placing Henry, of the House of 
 Lancaster, on the throne; crowned 
 as Henry IV. 1400 
 
CENTRAL EUROPE. MISCELLANEOUS. 
 
 From 1300 A. D. to 1400 A. D. 
 
 27 
 
 THE BIRTH OF SWITZERIiAND. 
 
 Under the harsh administration of 
 Albert, a rebellion is raised in Switz- 
 erland. William Tell's cruel treat- 
 ment from Gessler, the Austrian 
 governor of Uri, fans the flame of 
 war, and the Swiss, under Hurst, 
 Meletald and Stauzfach, make a de- 
 termined struggle, 1308. Albert's 
 forces are overthrown, and the king 
 himself, assassinated the same year, 
 by his nephew whose estates were 
 seized. Henry VII., of Luxemburg, 
 is elected emperor, and during his 
 reign of six years duration, the seat 
 of papacy is removed from Rome to 
 Avignon. In the reign of Louis IV., 
 Leopold, the arch-duke of Austria, 
 is sent with an army against the 
 Swiss; but is defeated in the Pass of 
 Morgarten, and his army put to rout, 
 1315. This event more firmly secures 
 the foundation of the Swiss lepublic. 
 The still continued contests between 
 the popes and the emperors, are now 
 engaged in by the people; and their 
 division into Guelphs and Ghibel- 
 lines occurs, the former taking sides 
 with the pope and the latter with the 
 emperor. Charles IV. is placed on 
 the throne in 1347. Under his rule 
 Germany assumes a more settled form 
 of government, by his proclaiming 
 the famous Golden Bull, regulating 
 the duties and rights of the electors, 
 the coronation of the emperors, the 
 coinage, and the privilege of the 
 free cities. This period marks the 
 division of Italy into the modern 
 states, Naples, States of the Church, 
 Tuscany, Parma, Lombardy, Venice 
 and Genoa. The Eastern Empire be- 
 comes so decayed that its emperors 
 pay homage to other provinces to pre- 
 vent invasion. A ter ihe death of 
 Charles IV., his son, Wenceslaus, 
 rules Germany until his death, 1400. 
 1400 
 
 THE TURKS. 
 
 The power of the Ottoman Turks 
 now commences in Asia Minor, and 
 the foundation of the Turkish em- 
 pire is laid by Othman, who makes 
 his capital at Byrsa, in Bithynia, 
 1302. He dies, 1328,and is succeeded by 
 his son, Orchm. Murad or Amurath 
 I. becomes sultan in 1356; taking the 
 city of Adrianople. His successor, 
 Bajazet, greatly advances the boun- 
 daries of the empire, but at last meets 
 with reveises in provoking hostilities 
 with the famous Tamerlane. This 
 warrior, king of Tartary, commences 
 the conquest of Asia, 1369. He first 
 subdues all ancient Persia, then in- 
 vades India, defeating the Indian 
 army with great slaughter takes 
 Bagdad, and lays the country all in 
 waste, 1398.— In Northern Europe, 
 some important changes occur in this 
 century. The crowns of Sweden, 
 Norway, and Denmark, are all united 
 in the person of Margaret, the daugh- 
 ter of Waldemar, and styled in his- 
 tory as the Semiramis of ihe North. 
 She rules until 1397, when iric IX. 
 is associated in the government. The 
 14th century clearly manifests the 
 dawn of modern civilization, in the 
 introduction of the mariner's com- 
 pass into Europe, and in the use of 
 gunpowder. In this century pins are 
 invented, and paper made from linen 
 rags. It also marks the period when 
 Gothic architecture is in its greatest 
 perfection, as the noble edifices re- 
 maining down through modern times 
 give evidence. Italy revives litera- 
 ture in the persons of Petrarch, and 
 Boccacio, and Spain with its Moors 
 and beautiful Alhambra, is awakened 
 into an activity that is soon to bring 
 it into the notice of European nations. 
 1400 
 
28 FRANCE. ENGLAND & SCOTLAND. 
 
 From 1400 A. D. to 1500 A. D. 
 
 FERDINAND AND ISABELLA. 
 
 Charles is stricked with insanity 
 shortly after coming of age, and the 
 kingdom is plunged in dissension. 
 Two factions, one headed by the 
 Duke of Bui'gundy, and the other by 
 the Duke of Orleans, contend for the 
 mastery. In the midst of this do- 
 mestic atfliction France is invaded 
 by the English, and the army under 
 D'Albret completely defeated in the 
 bloody battle of Agincourt, 1415. The 
 English continue their victories, at 
 last obtaining complete possession of 
 the crown; the Duke of B3dford being 
 made Regent. Charles dies, 1422, and 
 his successor, Charles VII,, d.'ter- 
 mines to recover his kingdom. This 
 is accomplished through the wonder- 
 derful influence of a young maid, 
 Joan of Arc, who raises the siege of 
 Orleans. She is given command of 
 the army, and the French obtain sev- 
 eral brilliant victories. Charles, thus 
 by degrees, succeeds in driving the 
 English from his kingdom, which he 
 governs with great wisdom and mod- 
 eration until his death, 1461. His 
 son, Louis XI., succeeds him, estab- 
 lishing, f jr the first time in Europe, 
 post houses. II J is succeeded by his 
 son. Charles VIII., 1483.— Ferdinand 
 IV., of Arragon, by marrying Q leen 
 Isabella of Castile, forms the unitjd 
 kingdoin ofSoiin. In their reign the 
 Moors, aitor a ten years' war, are 
 driven from the kingdom, settling in 
 Africa, 1492. F ordinand and Isabella 
 are associated with the discovery of 
 America in this same year, aidinj 
 Columbus wit'.i three small shi|)s for 
 the voyage. For this they become 
 sovereigns of the New World. 1500 
 
 THE WAR OF THE ROSES. 
 
 An insurrection is raised, headed 
 by Henry Percy, surnamed Hotspur, 
 but Hjnry IV. defeats the rebels at 
 Shrewsbury, where Hotspur is slain, 
 1403. To gain the favor of the Roman 
 pontiff", Henry persecutes the follow- 
 ers of Wickliff"e, and in this reign 
 martyrdom in England commences. 
 Henry dies after a reign of fourteen 
 years, leaving the Lancaster branch 
 in firm possession. 1U3. Henry V. 
 succeeds him, and he, taking advan- 
 tage of the French's demoralized con- 
 dition, invades their kingdom, mak- 
 ing a successful conquest. He 
 marries the princess Catharina, re- 
 ceiving all her dowry. On his death 
 in 1422, Honry VI. is proclaimed 
 king, though a mere infant, and the 
 Duke of Bedford appointed regent. 
 England now sees herself strippe J of 
 all French possessions, and civil 
 strife introduced at home. Jack Cade 
 heads a rebellion, 1450, and in 1455, 
 the war, called the ^Var 0/ the Eases 
 between the houses of York and 
 Lancaster, for the crown, ensues. 
 The Yorkers wear a white rose, and 
 thj Lancastrians, a red one; and the 
 wars drench all England in blood. 
 At length, after alternate successes, 
 Hmry VI. is deposed, 14G1, and the 
 York fiction place Edward IV, on 
 t iJ tarone. Hjre the great Earl of 
 Warwicjk figures prominently m re- 
 instating Honry, but is slain in the 
 battle of B trnot, nnd Edward restor- 
 ed, 1471. The l.itter's death i)laces 
 his brother. Richard III. on the 
 throne, but Hmry, Eirlof Richmon 
 determines possession; 'vnd on the 
 fijldofBasworth, 148^ R.ch-rd, the 
 List i lintagenet, is slain. The two 
 contenting ho^-^^s are now united 
 uad'r Hjnry A^II., and_ the W^rof 
 the Roses ends. In his roign shillings 
 are c ined and the Court of tho St ir- 
 chamber established. 15..0 
 
CENTRAL EUROPE. MISCELLANEOUS. 29 
 
 From 1400 A. D. to 1500 A. D. 
 
 THE FALL OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE. 
 
 In the reign of Sigisraund, the suc- 
 cessor of Rupert in 1411, the famous 
 council of Const..ncc convenes in 
 which John Huss, 1415, a id one j'er.r 
 later, Jerome, of Prague, are con- 
 demned to be burnt for preaching 
 against the corru tion of popery. 
 War with the Hussites follows, last- 
 ing a nimber of years. Sigismund is 
 succeeded by Albert II., who after a 
 short reign, dies, and the crown is 
 bestowed on Frederick III., 1440, 
 During the long reign of the latter, 
 science and literature are promoted 
 by the establishment of universities. 
 In Italy the family named Medicis is 
 renouned for their efforts in dissemi- 
 nating learning; Lorenzo de Medici 
 receiving the title of the Magnificent. 
 But the grand achievement of the 
 age is the invention of printing, this 
 honor being divided among three; 
 John Gutenburg, Peter Schoeffer, and 
 John Faust, 1452. Affairs at this 
 time, in the Eastern Empire, are in a 
 very critical condition; and its end 
 is near at hand. Long an object of 
 the ambitious Turks, they were only 
 prevented from invasion by the rav- 
 ages of Tamerlane; and, after his 
 death Mahomet II. lays siege to Con- 
 stantinople. The city is taken after 
 a feeble resistance, and the inhabi- 
 tants put to the sword, 1453. Thus 
 perishes the Eastern Empire of the 
 Romans, having existed one thou- 
 sand one hundred and twenty years. 
 Constantinople is made the capital of 
 the Turkish Empire. Maximilian I., 
 son ofFrederick is chosen emperor of 
 Germany in 1493, and being an active 
 and enterprising prince, many abuses 
 long distracting the peace of the coun- 
 try, are ended. Courts are improved 
 and a system of police organiz d. 
 
 1500 
 
 MARITIME DISCOVERIES. 
 
 The 15th century marks the com- 
 mencement of maritime discoveries, 
 an occupation in which the Portu- 
 guese take the lead. Prince Henry, 
 of Portugal, establishes an observa- 
 tory at Sagres where he gathers to- 
 gether all the noted astronomers and 
 navigators. Urged by the hope of 
 finding a southern passage to India, 
 Bartholomew Diaz, sailing along the 
 coast of Africa discovers the Cape of 
 Good Hope, 1487; and the good hopes of 
 the Portuguese are realized by Vasco 
 da Gama doubling the cape and ar- 
 riving at Calicut, a few years after- 
 ward. The same idea induces Chris- 
 topher Columbus to make his voyage 
 resulting in the glorious discovery of 
 America, 1492. Columbus makes 
 four voyages, discovering the conti- 
 nent on the third. England also en- 
 gages in this sea enterprise, and the 
 Cabots, John and Sebastian, discover 
 the island of Newfoundland, 1497. 
 They enter the mouth of the St. 
 Lawrence in 1499. This immense 
 continent is named after Americus 
 Vespucius, a Florentine navigator, 
 visiting and publishing an account of 
 the New World in 1499. Maritime 
 voyages, especially the circumnavi- 
 gation of Africa, revolutionize the 
 commercial interests of Europe. The 
 Portuguese, and soon the Dutch, en- 
 gage extensively in carrying and dis- 
 posing India produce to European 
 merchants. The close of the 15th and 
 the beginning of the 16th century 
 witnesses the death scene of feudal- 
 ism, and the rise of great monarchies; 
 a period when the nations of Europe 
 assume that position in which to 
 guard with jealous care, a something 
 of vital consequence— ^atonce of Power. 
 
30 
 
 AMERICA, 
 
 FRANCE & SPAIN. ENG'D & SCOTLAND. 
 From 1500 A. D. to 1550 A. D. 
 
 THE SPANIARDS IN AMERICA 
 
 With the discovery of 
 America, numberless ex- 
 peditions are organized 
 for its exploration; east- 
 ern adventurers being 
 charmed by the won- 
 derful accounts'"'" of its 
 ric".ness and beauty. In 
 this the Spaniards take 
 the lead. Jur.n Ponce de 
 Leon discovers Florida, 
 1512, and the next year 
 Nunez de Balboa first be- 
 holds the Pacific Ocean. 
 In 1519, an expedition is 
 sent out by the governor 
 of Cuba under Cortez, 
 for the reduction of Mex- 
 ico. Thishespeedily ac- 
 complishes entering their 
 capital in triumiih. 
 
 iMontezutna, the Mex- 
 ican kinpr is put to death, 
 1520. In this same 
 year Magellan discovers 
 Patagonia, and De Ayl- 
 h)n. the Carolinas. The 
 Spaniards, under Pizar- 
 ro, next invade Peru, 
 where the race of rulers 
 known as the Inci's, is 
 destroyed. 153?,. Cortez 
 discovers California, 1537, 
 and two years later Fer- 
 dinand de Soto obtains 
 SI commission from 
 Charl'^s V. to conquer 
 Florida. Landing on the 
 coast with six hundred 
 soldiers, ho begins his 
 march westward in 
 search o gold; the na- 
 tives fleeing before him. 
 In 1541, he discovers the 
 great Mississippi, pnd 
 dying soon after, is 
 buried on its bank. 
 
 1550 
 
 *It was believed that a 
 fountain existed some- 
 where in America, which 
 was fabled 10 restore tcj the 
 aged and infirm, all the 
 beauties and freshnpss of 
 j'outh. The Spnniards lo- 
 cated it in Florida. 
 
 THE AGE OF CHARLr:.^ V. 
 
 The good natured Louis 
 XII. .successor of Charks 
 VII., is succeeded in 
 1515, by Francis I., one 
 of the most distinguished 
 of French kings, and 
 called by his subjects the 
 "Father of Letters." He 
 renews the claim of his 
 predecessor, to the Duchy 
 of Milan, and in the re- 
 sulting wars performs 
 with his general, the 
 Chevalier Bayard, deeds 
 of great valor. But his 
 princii)al military opera- 
 tions are against the king 
 of Spain, Charles V., his 
 succes;i tI rival for the 
 throne of Germany. In 
 the si(>ge of Pavia, 
 Francis is taken prisoner, 
 and conveyed to Madrid; 
 where ho signs a treaty 
 ceding several of his pro- 
 vinces to his. conqueror, 
 lie then returns to his 
 kingdom, spends a 
 few years in recruiting 
 and remedying internal 
 abuses, rnd rmews the 
 war, 1527. Charles is 
 again successful and in 
 1528. Francis with his 
 ally Henry VIII. . is com- 
 pelled to conclude peace 
 atCambra. This is fol- 
 lowed by another war, 
 and another peace at 
 Crespy, 1544. and three 
 years after the death of 
 Francis, leaves Charles 
 in firm possession of the 
 German and Spanish 
 thrones. Spain in this 
 age is raised to a posi ion 
 of no little importan'^e. 
 With a highly talented 
 king, and rich posses- 
 sions in the New World, 
 she .' beds forth a brilliant 
 lustre, never before or 
 since equaled in her his- 
 tory. Aiter Francis, 
 Henry II. is made king 
 of France, and in his 
 r 'ign Cal'iis is reconquer- 
 ed from the English the 
 list of their provinces in 
 this kingdom. 1550 
 
 THE HOUSE OF TUDOR. 
 
 Henry VII., the first of 
 the Tudor kings. of Eng- 
 land, leaves the crown to 
 his son, Henry VIII, 
 15U9. He marries Kath- 
 arine of Arragon; but 
 alter eighteen years, he 
 determines to divorce her 
 for Annie Boleyn. Be- 
 coming incensed at his 
 cardinal, Wolsey, he im- 
 peaches the latter, who 
 dies in disgrace, 1530. 
 Henry renounces the pa- 
 pal authority, and es- 
 t.iblishes himself as the 
 head of the Church of 
 Englan>i. In a few years 
 he conceives a passion 
 lor another lady, and 
 Annie Boleyn is behead- 
 ed, 1530. In a war against 
 the Scots, Henry defeats 
 James IV. in the battle 
 of Flodden Field, 1513. 
 and also the army of his 
 successor, James V. He 
 abolishes convents, con- 
 fiscating their riches; 
 and though opposed to 
 popery, he cruelly perse- 
 cutes the followers of 
 Luther, by putting num- 
 bers to death. The no- 
 bility he treats with the 
 greatest severity. But 
 notwithstanding, some 
 advancement is made. 
 Domestic manufacturers 
 are encouraged, interest 
 of money fixed by law, 
 ship-building imi»roved, 
 and the navy extended. 
 Commerce is largely en- 
 g ged in. At last to the 
 grert relief of his people 
 Henry VIII. dies 1547; 
 being pronounced by all 
 writers, a merciless ty- 
 rant. His son, Edward 
 VI. succeeds and fivor- 
 intr the Reformation the 
 protestant religion pre- 
 vails. Aunionis effect- 
 ed, the result of which is 
 the Chur h of England, 
 its liturgv being framed, 
 1548, through the influ- 
 ence of Cranmer, Arch- 
 bishop of Canterbury, 
 and others. 1550 
 
CENTRAL EUROPE. NORTHERN EUROPE. MISCELLANEOUS. 3 I 
 From 1500 A. D. to 1550 A. D. 
 
 THE REFORMATION. 
 
 The beginning of the 
 16th century finds the 
 treasury of the Roman 
 Church in an exhausted 
 condition, and Pope Leo 
 X. to remedy this, insti- 
 tutes the sale of Indul- 
 gences '•• Dissention hav- 
 ing already arisen in the 
 church regarding its gov- 
 ernment, this action only 
 increases the discontent. 
 Martin Luther, an Agus- 
 tine monk publ cly in- 
 veighs against the finan- 
 cial measure of the pope, 
 who in return excom- 
 municates him. Luther 
 treats the sentence with 
 public contempt. On 
 the accession of Charles 
 V. to the Gr-irm m throne, 
 through th^ influence of 
 thi pope, Luther is sum- 
 moned to appear before 
 the Diet of VVorms; but 
 he refuses to retract, and 
 is dismissed, 1521. The 
 new doctrine spreading 
 rapidly, the pope makes 
 another attempt to crush 
 it, by action of the Diet 
 of Spires, 1527. Luther 
 and his followers protest 
 against this action, and 
 thenceforth take the 
 name of prolestants, 
 Charles V., after the 
 close of the wars with 
 Francis, convenes the 
 great Cmncil of Trent in 
 1545, dissolving the pro- 
 testant league. Science, 
 art and literature pro- 
 duce some great names 
 for the first half of the 
 16th century. Artists are 
 Michael Angelo, Ra- 
 phael. Italians; Durer 
 and Holbein, Germans; 
 Ariosto, an Italian poet, 
 and Copernicus, a cele- 
 brated Garman astrono- 
 mer. 1550 
 
 *An Indulgence was a 
 remission of the punish- 
 ment due to sins, and 
 granted by the pope or 
 church. 
 
 THE NERO OP THE NORTH. 
 
 Some fierce wars are 
 waged in the north in 
 this period. The crown 
 of Sweden, annexed to 
 Denmark during the 
 reign of Margaret, is 
 separated by the Swedes, 
 enr .ged at the treatment 
 received from Christian 
 II. This monarch, called 
 the "Nero of the North," 
 venting his rage on the 
 Swedish nobility, causes 
 the whole senate to be 
 massacred in Stockholm, 
 1520, The maddened 
 Swedes, t lereupon arm 
 in rebellion, being led by 
 the brave Gustavus Vasa. 
 The Danes are expelled 
 from Sweden and 
 Gustavus proclaimed 
 
 king, 1523. His being a 
 prince ofgreatenergy and 
 prudence, prosperity is 
 introduced into the king- 
 dom, and through his in- 
 fluence the doctrine of 
 Reformation is embrac- 
 ed. Christiari attempts 
 to reconquer Sweden, but 
 is defeated, and this, 
 with his tyrannical gov- 
 ernment, procures his 
 dethronement by the 
 Danes, 1523. His uncle, 
 Frederick, Duke of Hol- 
 stien, is then placed on 
 the throne, and after a 
 reign of eleven years, is 
 succeeded by his son. 
 Christian III., 1534. The 
 latter from his excellent 
 traits obtains the title. 
 "Father of his People." 
 introducing the Lutheran 
 faith into Denmark. 
 These Northerners are 
 credited with making 
 some of the earliest mari- 
 time discoveries; and ac- 
 cording to Icelandic ac- 
 counts, Columbus is rob- 
 bed of the honor of being 
 the first discoverer of 
 America. Their colonial 
 possessions at this time 
 are the Faroe Islands, 
 Greenland, and Iceland. 
 1550 
 
 THE MAMELUKES. 
 
 Turkish conquests do 
 not cease with the cap- 
 ture of Constantinople. 
 Under Selim, Syria and 
 Egypt are invaded. The 
 hxtter country is at this 
 time in the possession (.f 
 the Mamelukes, a body 
 of Circassians and 
 Georgians, taking pos- 
 session of the country in 
 the 13th century. These 
 Selim defeats and forces 
 subjection, 1517. His son, 
 Solyman, called the Mag- 
 nificent, continues the 
 invasions; takes the Isle 
 of Rhodes from the 
 Knights of St. John, 1521; 
 and afterward entering 
 Hungary, defeats, in the 
 battle of Molvatz, the 
 king, Louis II.; the lat- 
 ter losing his life, 1526. 
 In addition to his suc- 
 cessful foreign war- 
 fare, Solyman improves 
 i his empire internally. 
 Learning is encouraged, 
 and libraries, hospitals, 
 and caravansaries erect- 
 ed. — A great many mari- 
 time discoveries are 
 made in this first half of 
 the 16th century. Ceylon, 
 by the Portuguese, 1505, 
 Madagascar, 1506; Borneo 
 and Java 1513; Ch na 
 reached by sea, 1517; the 
 Philippine and Ladrone 
 Islands discovered by 
 Magellan, 1520; New 
 Guinea by the Spaniards, 
 1527. and Japan by ship- 
 wrecked Portuguese in 
 1542. 1550 
 
 The Mamelukes re- 
 mained a military body 
 in Egypt until 1810. 
 They were mounted 
 cavalry, ; nd noted for 
 their richly eomparison- 
 ed steeds Their quar- 
 rels with the Turkish 
 pasha, Mehemit Ali, led 
 to the massacre of the 
 leaders in 1811. 
 
32 AMERICA. FRA.:CE & SPAIN. ENGLAND & SCOT, 
 
 From 1550 A. D. to 1600 A. D. 
 
 EARLY SETTLEMENTS. 
 
 The rapid discoveries 
 in America are followed 
 by movements toward its 
 colonization. Florida is 
 settled by large number 
 of scourged French Hu- 
 guenots, whom the jeal- 
 ous Philip of Spain de- 
 termines to exterminate. 
 He commissions Melen- 
 dez de Aviles with a fleet 
 to destroy the settlement. 
 The ships reach the coast 
 on the day of St. Augus- 
 tine, after which, they 
 name the first town in 
 America, 1565. The 
 Spaniards then defeat 
 and massacre about 
 nine hundred Hugue- 
 nots. Other nations be- 
 side Spain are interested 
 in the New World. 
 Queen Elizabeth grants 
 a patent to Sir Hum- 
 phrey Gilbert in 1578, for 
 l)Ossession of all the lands 
 he discovers. He reaches 
 and takes Newfound- 
 land, but is in a short 
 time lost on his return 
 voyage to England, 1583. 
 Sir Walter Rileigh next 
 dispatches two vessels 
 under Amidas and Bar- 
 low who land on Roa- 
 noke Island. After a 
 brief stay, the voyagers 
 return to England, where 
 they give glowing ac- 
 counts of the territory 
 which is named Virginia. 
 Raleigh in 158;5, plants a 
 colony on the island, but 
 privation induces them 
 to return. A second is 
 sent out under Captain 
 White, the latter return- 
 ing in a few years for 
 provisions. On reaching 
 the island again, he finds 
 the colony destroyed. 
 
 1600 
 
 CIVIL & RELIGIOUS WARS. 
 
 Stirring events occur in 
 France iind Spain dur- 
 ing the latter part of this 
 century. In the former 
 kingdom Francis II. suc- 
 ceeds Henry, 1539; and 
 his reign is the era of the 
 great civil and religious 
 wars of France, between 
 Catholics and Protest- 
 ants, These latter re- 
 ceive the name of Hu- 
 guenots, The sickly 
 Francis dies after a reign 
 of but seventeen months, 
 and his brother, Charles 
 IX. is made king. This 
 monarch &,t the insti- 
 gation of his mother, 
 Catharine de Medici, en- 
 ters into a scheme for 
 exterminating all the 
 Huguenots in the king- 
 dom; and the horrible 
 plot is carried into exe- 
 cution on the eve of St. 
 Bartholomew, 1572. Sev- 
 enty thousand Protest- 
 ants are mercilessly 
 butchered. Charles dies 
 two years later and is 
 succeeded by Henry III. 
 — In Spain great confus- 
 sion is occasioned by the 
 revolt of the Nether- 
 lands, and Philip II., 
 enraged at England for 
 assisting, declares war 
 against that kingdom. 
 A powerful fleet called 
 the Invincible Antinda, 
 commanded by the Duke 
 Medina, sails against the 
 English, but it being 
 shattered by storms, the 
 remnant is defeated by 
 the English vessels, 1588. 
 This closes the war. — 
 In 1589, the House of 
 Valois ends, and the 
 Bourbons assume the 
 throne, in the person of 
 Henry IV.— Some liter- 
 ary stars belong to these 
 kingdoms in this period; 
 Cervantes, a Spanish 
 writer, and Montaigne, 
 the French essayist. 
 
 1600 
 
 AGE OF ELIZABETH. 
 
 On the death of Ed- 
 ward, leaving no direct 
 heir, Lady Jane Grey 
 assumes the crown, 1553, 
 She reigns but ten days, 
 when the people, dissat- 
 isfied, proclaim Mary, 
 daughter of Catharine, 
 queen, according to the 
 will of Henry VIII. 
 Lady Grey and her hus- 
 band are executed, and 
 Mary, cursed with the 
 epithet of the Bloody, 
 reigns five years. Under 
 her rule papacy is re- 
 stored, and hundreds < f 
 Protestants burn at the 
 stake. She dies. 1558, 
 and Elizabeth, daughter 
 of Annie B >leyn is 
 crowned. The latter re- 
 stores the Angelican 
 church, placing herself 
 at its head. Great ad- 
 vancements are made. 
 Francis Drake circum- 
 navigates the world re- 
 turning in three years, 
 1580. Commerce and 
 manufactures are in- 
 creased.— Scotland is at 
 this time undergoing a 
 religious reformation, 
 introduced by the cele- 
 brated John Knox. 
 Mary, grand-niece of 
 Henry VlII., and wife 
 of Francis ll., on the 
 1 ittjr's death, returns to 
 Scotland and assumes 
 the throne; marrying 
 Lord Darnly. The latter 
 is murdered, and Marj', 
 to escape the designs of 
 her evil court, places 
 herself in the power of 
 Elizabeth, and is be- 
 headed by order of the 
 jealous queen, 1587. In 
 the reign of Elizabeth, 
 English literature reach- 
 es its meridian of glory 
 under Shakespeare, Sid- 
 ney, Raleigh, Bacon, 
 and Spenser; and the 
 victorious navy places 
 England mistress of the 
 sea. 1600 
 
CENT. EUROPE. NORTH. EUROPE. MISCELLANEOUS. 33 
 
 From 1550 A. D. to 1600 A. D. 
 
 RISE OF THE DUTCH REPUB. 
 
 Charles V., elated over 
 Ms successes, becomes 
 tyrannical in his govern- 
 ment; and as a conse- 
 quence, he arouses the 
 hatred of alike, Protest- 
 ants and Catholics. Mau- 
 rice of Saxony forms an 
 alliance with Henry II., 
 of Fi'ance, and war is 
 declared against the em- 
 peror in 1552. The latter 
 meets with as many re- 
 verses, as his successes, 
 and is at last compelled 
 to grant the people re- 
 ligious liberty. In 1556, 
 he resigns his crown to 
 his brother, Ferdinand, 
 and dies two years after- 
 ward. Ferdinand's reign 
 of six years, is spent in 
 trying to reconcile the 
 contending religious fac- 
 tions, Catholics, Luther- 
 ians and Calvinist, but is 
 unsuccessful, and the 
 same results attend the 
 reigns of his successors, 
 Maximilian II. and Ru- 
 dolph II.— At this period 
 the Netherlandcrs whose 
 government Charles V. 
 gave to Philip II. , are en- 
 raged at the Litter's ef- 
 forts to crush the reform 
 spirit. They revolt and 
 Philip sends tlie Duke of 
 Alva ^ reduce them. 
 His terrible " Blood 
 Council" only makes re- 
 sistance more determin- 
 ed. AVilliam, ofOrange, 
 is made president of the 
 Dutch Republic at the 
 Union of Utrecht, 1579. In 
 their Avars, the Dutch are 
 aided by Queen Eliza- 
 beth, and the Spaniards 
 comi,elled to yield. — 
 Two great names grace 
 the history of Central 
 Europe in this age, viz.: 
 The Italians, Galileo, 
 the famous astronomer, 
 and Tasso, the poet. 
 
 1600 
 
 DENMARK AND SWEDEN. 
 
 The son of Christian 
 III., is placed on the 
 throne as Frederick II., 
 after his father's pros- 
 perous reign of twenty- 
 five years, 1559. His age 
 is honored with the per- 
 son of Tycho-Brahe, the 
 great astronomer of Cop- 
 enhagen. The king erects 
 an observatory on the 
 island of Huen, where 
 astronomical observa- 
 tions are made that prove 
 of great value. Christian 
 III. is crowned on the 
 death of Frederick, 1588, 
 and is chosen leader of 
 the Protestant league 
 against the emperor of 
 Germany. Nothing of 
 interest occurs in his 
 reign. — In Sweden also, 
 an uneventful history is 
 presented in the reiarns 
 of Eric XIV., son of Gus- 
 tavus Viisa, John III., 
 and Sigismund. The 
 whole reign of the latter 
 is disturbed by disputes 
 concerning the success- 
 ion to the crown, which 
 is finally bestowed on 
 Charles IX., brother of 
 John . 1600 
 
 The early history of all 
 the northern nations is 
 confused and uninterest- 
 ing; and it is not until 
 the latter part of the 14th 
 century th;it accounts of 
 their operations are 
 strictly authentic. They 
 were continually at war, 
 and their ravages were 
 attended with murders 
 and massacres of the 
 most brutal nature. The 
 modern Scandanavians 
 however, are character- 
 ized for honesty, indus- 
 try, and love of country. 
 
 THE EAST-INDIA COMPANY. 
 
 Frequent discoveries 
 keep alive the spirit of 
 navigation. The Eng- 
 lish in 1552, observe 
 Spitzenbergen, mistak- 
 ing it for a part of Green- 
 land. The next year 
 Chancellor, the English 
 navigator discovers the 
 White Sea. In 1575, 
 Mendana, a Sp-.niard 
 sent out by the governor 
 of Peru, discovers the 
 Solomon Islands. Fro- 
 bisher's strait is discov- 
 ered by the English nav- 
 igator Avhose name it 
 bears, 1576; Xcav Albion, 
 by Francis Drake, 1577; 
 and Siberia made known 
 to Europe in 1580. A be- 
 lief in the existance of a 
 northuest passage to India 
 occasions a great many 
 voyages. Davis search- 
 ing for this passes 
 through the strait which 
 bears his name, 1585. 
 Later the English navi- 
 gator, Hawkins, discov- 
 ers the Falkland Islands, 
 and the Spaniard, Men- 
 dana, the Marquesas, 
 1595. — The first mercan- 
 tile voyage fi'om Eng- 
 land to India oec urs in 
 1591. Others fallow, and 
 1600, a charter is obtained 
 from Elizabeth, by mer- 
 chants foruiLd into an 
 organizat'on known as 
 "The Governor and 
 Company of London 
 Merchants trading to the 
 East Indies." This lays 
 the foundation of British 
 authority in India — an 
 authority which is to- 
 day guarded with jeal- 
 ous interest. 1600 
 
34 AMERICA. FRANCE & SPAIN. GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 From 1600 A. D. to 1650 A. D. 
 
 EARLY SETTLEMENTS. 
 
 In 1606, the Plymouth 
 and London companies 
 are chartered by James 
 I., of England, and the 
 first settlement in New 
 England is made at 
 Jamestown, 1607. Many 
 annoyances are suifered 
 from the hostile Indians; 
 the leader, Captain John 
 Smith, being captured, 
 and only saved through 
 the efforts of the princess, 
 Pocahontas. New York 
 is settled by the Dutch, 
 1614, and in 1610, a Dutch 
 ship brands America, 
 with the curse of slavery. 
 The next year brings the 
 May-flower with its nick- 
 named "Puritans," who 
 land on Plymouth Rock. 
 Indian warfare with its 
 terrors is introduced in 
 
 1622, by the heartless 
 massacre of 317 men, wo- 
 men, and children of the 
 Virginia colony. Main 
 and New Hampshire are 
 settled by the Dutch, 
 
 1623, and New Jersey and 
 Delaware by the Swedes. 
 Charleston and Boston 
 are founded, 1629, by the 
 Massachusetts Bay Com- 
 pany, of which John 
 Winthrop is first gover- 
 nor. Maryland, by Lord 
 Baltimore, 16 U, and 
 Rhode Island by the ban- 
 ished Roger Williams, 
 1636. Two years later 
 Harvard College is 
 founded, and in 1639 the 
 first printing press set up 
 by Stephen Day. The 
 witch-craft excitement 
 commences in New Eng- 
 land in 1618. 1650 
 
 CAEDINAL EICHELIEU. 
 
 The long continued civ- 
 il strife in France is 
 ended by the famous 
 '^ Edict 0/ Nantes," grant- 
 ed by Henry IV., 
 restoring all the infring- 
 ed upon rights of the 
 French Protestants. Hen- 
 ry's reign is ended by his 
 assassination, 1610, thus 
 closing a career in which 
 he justly earned the title. 
 Father of his People. 
 Mary de Medici, the 
 queen mother, rules as 
 regent during the minor- 
 ity of Henry's son crown- 
 ed as Louis XIII. On 
 the latter becoming of 
 age, Mary is banished; 
 an event which again 
 throws France into a 
 state of anarchy. About 
 this time, a young man, 
 named Richelieu, is made 
 cardinal by the pope, and 
 gradually becomes the 
 central figure in the 
 state; gaining complete 
 control over the mind of 
 the stupid Louis. He 
 wars against the Hugue- 
 nots for asserting their 
 independence, conquer- 
 ing at the siesre of Roch- 
 elle, 1628. This crushes 
 the protestant power in 
 France, and the great 
 cardinal's attention is 
 next turned toward the 
 war in Germany. He 
 dies, 1642, and one year 
 after, Louis XIII.; being 
 succeeded by his son, the 
 renowned Louis XIV.— 
 The great French Philos- 
 opher. Descartes, dies 
 1650.-The throne of Spain 
 is occupied during this 
 period by Philip IV. 
 
 1650 
 
 THE STUARTS. 
 
 On the death of Eliza- 
 beth, 1603, the thrones of 
 England and Scotland 
 are united in the person 
 of James I., son of Mary, 
 Queen of Scots. With 
 him commences the Stu- 
 art period of English his- 
 tory. James is very rad- 
 ical in his government, 
 under the Stuart doctrine 
 of the *' Divine Right of 
 Kings," and, through his 
 weakness, parliament 
 gains many decided ad- 
 vantages. His reign is 
 blotted with the conspir- 
 acy that is known as the 
 Gunpowder Plot, being 
 an unsuccessful attempt 
 to restore papacy, 1605. 
 It is on the contrary, 
 brilliant with advance- 
 ments in learning. Har- 
 vey discovers the circu- 
 lation of the blood. 
 Napier calculates Logar- 
 ithms; Ben Jonson, poet 
 laureate, and Hobbs, a 
 philosopher, James is 
 succeeded by his son, 
 Charles I., 1625, in whom 
 all the follies of his fath- 
 er are displayed. He 
 quarrels with parliament 
 by which he is compelled 
 to sign the Petition 0/ 
 Jiight,iC,2S.^ He then dis- 
 solves p.irliament, but in 
 1610, ZiOng I'arliament con- 
 venes. Finally civil war 
 results with the king and 
 clergy on one side, and 
 parliament on ihe other. 
 In this war Oliver Crom- 
 well soon becomes prom- 
 inent; and in the battle 
 of Naseby, 1645, Charles 
 is vanquished. He is ta- 
 ken, condemned as a 
 traitor, and beheaded, 
 1649. The Commonwealth 
 is now established. 1650 
 
CENT, EUROPE. NORTH. EUROPE. MISCELLANEOUS' 3 5 
 
 From 1600 A.D. to 1650 A. D. 
 
 THE THIRTY YKARS WAR. 
 
 The first half of the ITtli 
 century in Central Eu- 
 rope, is the remarkable 
 period of the ''Thirty 
 Year's War," commenc- 
 ing in 1610. This war re 
 suits principally from the 
 bitter enmity of the Pro- 
 testant and Catholic 
 princes. Mathias being 
 succeeded on the imperial 
 throne by Ferdinand II, 
 1619, the Protestants re- 
 volt, and make Freder- 
 ick, the Elector Palatine, 
 their kinc But Freder- 
 ick is defeated and driven 
 out of Bohemia, 1620, and 
 the emperor, placing 
 Wallenstein at the head 
 of his army, determines 
 to destroy the protestant 
 power in Germany. His 
 schemes, however, bring 
 a league of the other 
 powers against him, and 
 a dreadful strife ensues, 
 in whicli the opposing 
 forces are led by Gusta- 
 vus Adolphus, and Car- 
 dinal Richelieu, Ferdi- 
 nand is succeeded by his 
 son, Ferdinand III, 16.S7; 
 and the latter pnrt of the 
 war being carried on 
 successfully for Protes- 
 tantism, by the French 
 leaders Turrenne and 
 Conde, the emperor sues 
 for pe:ce. The wnr 
 closes 1)V the great Treaty 
 of He.s////tn/ a, 1648. Ger- 
 many is left in a very 
 shattered condition by 
 this war; one from whi'^'h 
 it takes her many years 
 to recover,— Kepler, the 
 astronomer, Rubens and 
 Vandyck, artists, arc 
 i.ames belonging to this 
 age. 165LI 
 
 GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS. 
 
 Charles IX,, of Sweden, 
 is succeeded by his son, 
 Gustavus Adolphus, a 
 zealous Protestant, 1611, 
 A prince of noble charac- 
 ter, and tru^ christian 
 virtues, he at once es- 
 pouses the cause of his 
 people in Germany, and 
 entering that country, 
 commands the gaze and 
 admiration of all Europe, 
 The brilliant military ca- 
 reer of this "Lion of the 
 North," is closed at the 
 battle of Lutzen, where 
 he dies in the * ' arms of 
 victory," 1632. The 
 Swedes now intrust the 
 regency of their kingdom 
 to Oxensteirn, an able 
 statesman, and under 
 whose guidance, the war 
 is prosecuted with suc- 
 cess.— Denmark also par- 
 tK-ipntesin the "Thirty 
 Year's War;" Christian 
 IV,, being chosen at the 
 liead of the Protestant 
 Leanrue, Mi-^v Chris- 
 ti-Mi's denth Frederick 
 III. is placed on the 
 throne, and through his 
 efforts Denmark is chang- 
 ed from an elective to an 
 hereditary monarch. A 
 Avar of two years' dura- 
 tion is waged between 
 Denmark and Sweden, 
 but their differences are 
 all settled by the "Peace 
 of Westphalia. During 
 these years the northern 
 nations rise from their 
 semi-barbarous condit- 
 ion to equal ra:.k among 
 nations. 1650 
 
 *One of the most imporf 
 ant treaties recorded in 
 history. 
 
 DISCOVERIES. 
 
 The principal discov- 
 eries of this age are, 
 Australia by the Dutch 
 in 1606; Hudson Bay, by 
 the English navigator, 
 Hudson, in 1607; Chesa- 
 peake Bay, by John 
 Smith, same year. In 
 1616, Cape Horn is doub- 
 led by two Dutch navi- 
 gators, Le Maire and 
 Schouten, performing a 
 voyage around the world 
 in about two years. In 
 the same year William 
 BaflBn, an Englishman, 
 discovers the bay which 
 bears his name. A Rus- 
 sian ship, 1636, sails 
 down the river Lena, dis- 
 covering thus, that the 
 Arctic Ocean washes 
 northern Asia. New Zea- 
 land is discovered by 
 Tasman, a Dutch navi- 
 gator in 1642, The 17th 
 century indicates a strik- 
 ing advancement in the 
 intellectual condition of 
 mankind. Philosophy 
 under Bacon (1561-1626), 
 receives a new impetus 
 by his substitution of the 
 2rac?i<c^iwmethod:of reason- 
 ing. Scientific organiza- 
 tions are instituted. Lite- 
 rature is developed in the 
 cultivation of the drama; 
 and, although the means 
 and advantages of intel- 
 ligence are very limited, 
 the close of the century 
 witnesses a considerable 
 progress in general edu- 
 cation and refinement 
 
 1650 
 
36 AMERICA. FRANCE & SPAIN. GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 From 1650 A. D. to 1700 A. D. 
 
 COLONIAL WARS. 
 
 In addition to the 
 trouble arising from the 
 New England "persecu- 
 tions," these colonies 
 experience the first op- 
 pressive act of the moth- 
 er country; England 
 passing the "Navigation 
 Act." 1651, restricting 
 American trade. The 
 Quakers arrive in Massa- 
 chusetts, and their per- 
 secution commences in 
 1659. Many grants are 
 made by eastern kings 
 for colonizing under their 
 rule. Winthrop obtains 
 a charter for Hartford 
 and New Haven, and 
 Carolina is granted to 
 Lord Clarendon by the 
 king of England, 1663. 
 .Colonial conquests also 
 commence at this time. 
 The Swedes are conquer- 
 ed on the Delaware by 
 the Dutch, and the latter 
 are in turn deprived of 
 New York by the Eng- 
 lish, 1664. In 1675 "King 
 Philip's War" commen- 
 ces, in which six hun- 
 dred New Englanders are 
 killed. William Penn, 
 the philanthropist re- 
 ceives a grant of Penn- 
 sylvania from Charles 
 II., and founds Phila- 
 delphia, 1681, and the 
 next year. La Salle visits 
 and names Louisiana. 
 The tyrannical govern- 
 ment of And. 'OSS for a 
 long time destroys the 
 peace of the colonies, and 
 then "King William's 
 War," 1688. Texas is 
 settled by the Spaniards, 
 1692, and in the same 
 year William and Mary's 
 College, is chartered. 
 1698 marks the piracies 
 of Captain Kidd. 1700 
 
 AGE OF LOUIS XIV. 
 
 During the minority of 
 Louis XIV,, the regency 
 is placed in the hands of 
 Annie of Austria, though 
 the real power is wielded 
 by her minister, Maza- 
 rin. On the latter' s death 
 Louis assumes the gov- 
 ernment, 1661; and after 
 strengthening the finan- 
 ces of his kingdom, de- 
 termines to increase his 
 territory. He first in- 
 vades Holland, but an 
 alliance of other powers 
 compels him to yield his 
 gains. Four years after- 
 ward, a second war is 
 commenced against the 
 Netherlands, but again 
 the latter's brave resist- 
 ance calls aid from other 
 nations. The strife is 
 finally ended by the 
 Peace of Nimeguen, 
 1679. This treaty is of 
 
 freat advantage to 
 'ranee, and the people 
 confer upon Louis the 
 title of Great. In point 
 of prominence, this is a 
 glorious era for France. 
 Her great names are 
 Comeille, La Fontaine, 
 Moliere, Pascal, Bossuet, 
 Boileau, Ricine and 
 Fenelon, writers; in 
 Spain Murillo, artist. 
 But she does not enjoy 
 domestic happiness, 
 
 Louis persecutes the 
 Protestants by revok- 
 ing the ' ' Edict of Nantes;" 
 and thousands of Hu- 
 guenots leave the king- 
 dom. He engages in an- 
 other war against Wil- 
 liam of England, and 
 many battles are fought, 
 but it is finally ended by 
 the Peace of Ryswick, 
 1697. 1700 
 
 THE COMMONWEALTH. 
 
 This form of govern- 
 ment lasts eleven years, 
 and during the first 
 period, the ruling power 
 is exercised by a parlia- 
 ment of forty-one mem- 
 bers. But Cromwell's 
 military successes soon 
 center the real power in 
 himself. Charles II. at 
 the head of the Scottish 
 army, attempts to re- 
 cover the crown, but the 
 battle of Worcester, 
 1651, crushes his hopes 
 and he retires to the con- 
 tinent. In 1653, from a 
 parliament known as 
 "Barebone's Parlia- 
 
 ment," Cromwell re- 
 ceives the title. Lord 
 Protector of the Common- 
 weulih. His stern rule 
 lasts until death, 1658. 
 The people now thor- 
 oughly disgusted with 
 so-called self-rule, re- 
 call Charles II.; and the 
 Restoration is received 
 with joy. The age of 
 Charles, though consid- 
 ered a "fast one," is 
 progressive. Manufac- 
 tures are established, 
 Coach traveling intro- 
 duced, and the Royal 
 Society founded in Lon- 
 don, 1660. Isaac New- 
 ton, the philosopher, 
 Milton, Butler, Taylor, 
 Bunyan, and Dryden, 
 writers, are ornaments 
 of this period. In 1685, 
 Charles dies, and James 
 II., is made king. His 
 Catholic ideas procure 
 his dethronement in 1688, 
 and the reign of William 
 and Mary commences. 
 Here the growth of Lib- 
 erty is marked by the 
 famous Bill of Eights, 
 which places many re- 
 strictions on the crown. 
 Mary dies, 1694, and 
 William wars against 
 France. 1700 
 
CENTRAL EUROPE. NORTHERN EUROPE. MISCELLANEOUS. 3/ 
 From 1650 A. D. to 1700 A. D. 
 
 WILLIAM OF ORANGE. 
 
 On the death of Fer- 
 dinand III., Leopold I. 
 is elected to the imperial 
 throne, 1658. The prin- 
 cipal event in the history 
 of Central Europe at 
 this time, is the war with 
 Louis XIV. In this, 
 Holland, against whom 
 the French king directs 
 his assaults, makes a 
 vigorous detenoe. Wil- 
 liam, Prince of Orange, 
 commanding the army, 
 as a last resort, opens the 
 sluices, protecting the 
 land from th sea. The 
 Dutch fleet, under Dc 
 Ruyter, then gains ad- 
 vantages; and the Hol- 
 landers, obtaining aid 
 from other powers,* com- 
 pel Louis to make the 
 Peace of Rystvick, 1697. 
 Previous to this, howev- 
 er, a revoluti n in Eng- 
 land placed William 
 of Orange on that 
 throne; he being the 
 grand-son of Charles I. 
 Few representatives of 
 learning are found in 
 Central Europe during 
 the last half of this cen- 
 tury. Spinoza, a Jew of 
 Holland, gains notoriety 
 by his bold cours ■ of 
 reasoning. Leibnitz, a 
 mathematician, and 
 
 Rembrandt, the painter, 
 are great names of tlie 
 period. 170(> 
 
 *A league was formed 
 called the Gkand Alli- 
 ANCK consisting » f Eng- 
 land, Holland, and Ger- 
 many ; and the war on the 
 continent became almost 
 universal against Louis 
 XIV. In the treaty of 
 Kyswick. he was compell- 
 ed tn relinquish some of 
 the Rhine provinces gain- 
 ed previously, and recog- 
 niz • William, king of Eng 
 land. 
 
 NORTHERN WARS, 
 
 In 1654, Christina, the 
 daughter of Gustavus 
 Adolphus, abdicates the 
 throne of Sweden in 
 favor of her cousin, 
 Charles X. The latter 
 wars against the Poles 
 and also the Danes for 
 assisting them. But the 
 Danes making an ally of 
 the Dutch, Charles is 
 driven from Denmark. 
 He returns home, where 
 reverses hasten his death, 
 1660. His son, Charles 
 XI., succeeds him. Dur- 
 ing the latter's minority, 
 the long contest between 
 Pohtnd and ^weden is 
 ended by the Peace of 
 Oliva, in which disputed 
 provinces are confirmed 
 to Sweden, and the claim 
 of the Polish kings on 
 the Swedish crown re- 
 linquished. Another war 
 with Denmark breaks 
 out in 1675, in which the 
 Swedes are worsted, but 
 a treaty of advantage to 
 the latter, is made at 
 Fontainebleau. 1679. The 
 home rule of Charles XI. 
 is much disturbed by 
 struggles between the 
 king and senate, the 
 former supported by the 
 burghers and peasants, 
 and the latter by the no- 
 bles of th<^ kingdom. 
 Charles triumphs, and 
 in 1693, an act of Diet 
 makes the power of the 
 king absolute. In 1697, 
 he leaves his dominions 
 to one of the greatest 
 characters of history, his 
 son, Charles XII., known 
 in Europe as the "Alex- 
 ander," the "Quixote." 
 the "Madman of the 
 North." The kingdom 
 is now enjoying a high 
 state of prosperity and 
 power. 1700 
 
 RISE OF RUSSIA. 
 
 Russia, now one of the 
 great European Powers, 
 until about this period, 
 existed in little less than 
 barbarism; caused by the 
 continual invasion of the 
 Mongolian savages. Its 
 real beginning- is with 
 the foundation of the 
 great Hovse of Romunoff, 
 by Michael RomanoiF in 
 the early part of this cen- 
 tury. After his death, 
 his son Alexis rules as 
 Czar,--- until 1676. Dur- 
 ing this period, although 
 his government is at- 
 tended with severity, 
 rapid advancements are 
 made. Gold mines are 
 opened and worked, and 
 friendly intercourse car- 
 ried on wit the civilized 
 west. Alexis after a 
 reign of thirty-one years 
 dies leaving by his first 
 wife eight children, and 
 his second two. One of 
 these latter is Peter, 
 known in history, as 
 J'eter the Great. Great 
 disputes now ensue, re- 
 garding the successor- 
 ship to the throne; which 
 Peter; defeating the 
 l)lans of his half sister, 
 Sophia, secures for him- 
 self alone, 1689. Peter's 
 sole ambition is to in- 
 crease the prosperity and 
 power of his c untry; 
 and he at once commen- 
 ces the great work which 
 has characterized him in 
 history. 1700 
 
 *Ivan is mentioned as 
 the first Russian prince 
 who assumed the tit'e of 
 Czar, 1462. The word is 
 taken from the L-atin, 
 
 CAESAR. 
 
38 AMERICA. FRAXCE & SPAIN. GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 From 1700 A. D. to 1750 A. D. 
 
 COLONIAL HISTOKY. 
 
 Indian ravages are a 
 sourcL! uf much misery to 
 the American colonies; 
 and these are greatly in- 
 creased by the war 
 known in America 
 as ' Queen Anne's War," 
 in which the English , and 
 French and Indians are 
 engaged, 1702. Still, civ- 
 ilization advances. One 
 yeai before this, Yale 
 College is founded; and 
 in 1701 a newspaper call- 
 ed ' ' The Boston I^^eics Ze^- 
 <er,'* is published. Later, 
 free schools are establish- 
 ed in that city, and in 
 New York, a colonial 
 post office is instituted, 
 1712 Tea is introduced 
 for use in New England, 
 1720, and in 1722 paper 
 money is first issued in 
 Pennsylvania. General 
 Oglethorpe arrives from 
 England, 1733, with a 
 colony, and settles Geor- 
 gia, where he is joined 
 by many immigrants 
 After the close of Queen 
 Anne's War, the colonies 
 remain at peace for about 
 thirty years, when En- 
 gland and France carry 
 their differences to Amer- 
 ica in ^'J^ing George's 
 War," 1744. ' The princi- 
 pal event of this is the 
 capture of Louisburg, the 
 "Gibraltar of America," 
 by the English 1745. 
 Peace is concluded in 
 1748, and next broken by 
 the "0/tto Valley Claims," 
 in 1750. 1750 
 
 WAR OF THK SPANISH SUC. 
 
 When Philip Y. is 
 crowned king of Spain, 
 1700, his intimate rela- 
 tions with Louis XIY. 
 are looked upon by other 
 monarchs as dangerous to 
 the Balance of Bower, and 
 the " War of the Spanish 
 Succession," commences 
 1702. England, Holland 
 and Prussia support the 
 claim of the Archduke 
 Charles, and Louis, that 
 of Philip. The latter 
 maintains his throne, and 
 the war ends by the Peace 
 of Utrecht, 1713. The last 
 years of the reign of Louis 
 XIV. are spoken of as 
 the "Golden Age of 
 France," and are noted 
 for the grandeur of 
 the French court. The 
 fine buildings, libraries, 
 schools of learning, 
 among them the French 
 Academy of Sciences, are 
 monuments of his age. 
 He is succeeded in 1715, 
 by his great grandson, 
 Louis XV., a weak and 
 profligate prince, and 
 under whose reign 
 France rapidly sinks in- 
 to a demoralized state. 
 Foolish wars are waged, 
 to support which Louis 
 completely ruins the fi- 
 nances of France. Tax- 
 es, the most burdensome, 
 and unjust, are imposed 
 on the people. He, in 
 short, paves the way for 
 one of the most terrible 
 epochs in their history— 
 The French Revolution. 
 
 1750 
 
 HOUSE OF HANOVER. 
 
 In the age of Queen 
 Anne, the successor of 
 William III., 1702, a gal- 
 axy of literary stars 
 rises. — Pope, Addison, 
 Steele, Swift, Prior, 
 Fielding and Richard- 
 son, being the most bril- 
 liant. Her death, 1714, 
 marks the accession of 
 the House of Hanover. In 
 the reign of George I., a 
 rebellion occurs, headed 
 by a son of James II, 
 known as the i'refender; 
 but the would be James 
 III. is defeated, and 
 quiet restored. During 
 this reign, the financial 
 disaster, known as the 
 South Sea Bubble, oc- 
 curs, 1720. George II. 
 succeeds his father 
 1727, with Sir Rob- 
 ert Walpole, Prime Min- 
 ister, and durimj the lat- 
 ter part of his reign, 
 William Pitt, the Great 
 Commoner, distinguishes 
 himself. Several heavy 
 wars are engaged in by 
 the English— War with 
 Spain, 1739, War of the 
 Austrian succession, in 
 which George sides with 
 Maria Theresa, 1741. The 
 Stuarts in this reign made 
 their last attempt for the 
 crown. Charles, the son 
 of the Pretender, raising 
 an army of Scots, invades 
 England, but suffers an 
 overwhelming defeat on 
 the plains of Culloden, 
 1745. In the reign of 
 King George II. the 
 change in time, from the 
 old to the neiv style calen- 
 der is made. 1750 
 
CENTRAL EUROPE. NORTHERN EUROPE. MISCELLANEOUS. 3 9 
 From 1700 A. D. to 1750 A. D. 
 
 RISE OF PRUSSIA. 
 
 During the War of the 
 Spanish Succession, the 
 Elector of Brandenburg, 
 Frederick III., offers his 
 aid t the German em- 
 peror, on condition of 
 his obtaining for him, the 
 crown of the small 
 Dutchy of Prussia. This 
 is accomplished and the 
 Elector of Brandenburg 
 becomes King of Prussia, 
 with the title Freder- 
 ick I., 1701. He rules 
 until 1713, when the sec- 
 ond king, Frederick Wil- 
 liam is crowned. This 
 stern old monarch spends 
 his years in organizing 
 and disciplining the 
 Prussian army, making 
 it one of the best in Eu- 
 rope. He dies, 1740, 
 leaving the throne to his 
 son, Frederick II., better 
 known as Frederick the 
 Great. The same year 
 the emperor, Charles VI. 
 dies, and Maria Theresa, 
 his daughter, becomes 
 ruler over his poss'ssions. 
 To part of these Freder- 
 ick lays claim, and, in a 
 war, called the First ^i- 
 lesian War, he obtains the 
 province of Silesia, 1742. 
 The Seconil S>l".n'ii>. War is 
 engaged in by England 
 and France, but ended, 
 1745. Onf^ of the most im- 
 portant European treat- 
 ies is that of Aix-ln-Cha- 
 pelle, 1748, concluded 
 Mmong England, France, 
 Holland, Spain, and 
 Hungary. It not only 
 adjusted European, but 
 American colonial af- 
 fairs. 1750 
 
 CHARLES XII. 
 
 Charles XII, commenc- 
 es his military career by 
 hostilities against the 
 confederated powers, 
 Denmark, Russia and 
 Poland He speedily 
 subdues the Danes, and 
 then turning toward the 
 Russians, obtains a de- 
 cided victory at Narva, 
 1700. He then enters Po- 
 land and Saxony, where 
 for four years his move- 
 ments are crowned with 
 success. He dethrones 
 Augustus, and places 
 Stanislaus on the Polish 
 throne. Russia is next 
 invaded, but the expedi- 
 tion is unsuccessful, and 
 in the battle of Pultowa, 
 1709, the Swedes are 
 routed completely. At 
 last, in 1718, this "North- 
 ern Meteor" is swept 
 from the sky, being kill- 
 ed by a cannon shot, in 
 Norway. His sister, 
 Eleonora, now assumes 
 the throne and a period 
 of peace follows. Agricul- 
 ture and commerce flour- 
 ish, and Linngeus con- 
 contributes to science by 
 his classification of Bot- 
 any. In the Peace of Abo, 
 1743. through British 
 mediation, Finland is 
 yielded to Russia. 1750 
 
 Norway was incorpora- 
 ted with Denmark in 
 1397, and remained thus 
 until 1814, when by a 
 treaty between Denmark 
 and "Britain, the sover- 
 eignty of Norway was 
 given to Sweden. 
 
 PETER THE GREAT. 
 
 Leaving the govern- 
 ment in the hands of a 
 noble, Peter journeys 
 through England and 
 Holland, acquainting 
 himself with all the 
 modern improvements of 
 the age; and on his re- 
 turn in 1701, Russia un- 
 dergoes a thorough re- 
 form. During the inter- 
 vals of pe.'.ce, Peter 
 devotes his whole atten- 
 tion towai-d improving 
 the domestic interests of 
 his people. Manufac- 
 turing is encouraged; a 
 navy organized; print- 
 ing introduced; and by 
 his despotic rule, the 
 power of the priesthood 
 is crushed. In 1704, he 
 founds the city of St. 
 Petersburg making it the 
 capital of his kingdom. 
 His wars against the 
 Swedes and the Turks, 
 though he suffers several 
 defeats, are, on the 
 whole, advantageous to 
 Russia. He dies, 1725, 
 reigning thirty-six years. 
 The throne is now occu- 
 pied successively, by 
 Peter's widow, Catherine 
 I., Peter II., grand-son 
 of Peter the Great, Annie, 
 a niece of the same, and 
 Elizabeth, his daughter, 
 the latter assuming the 
 throne in 1740. Their 
 reigns are attended with 
 little advancement for 
 Russia. 1750. 
 
40 AMERICA. FRANCE. GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 From 1750 A. D. to 1800 A. D. 
 
 AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 
 
 The latter part of the 
 18th ce tury is one of the 
 most important eras of 
 American history. The 
 French and Indian War, 
 resulting favorably for 
 the English, is ended by 
 the Treaty of Paris, 1763. 
 Then commences serious 
 ti-ouble with the mother 
 country, and Parlia- 
 ment's scheme o^^'Taxa- 
 tion ivithoutRepresentidion^ ' 
 rouses a deep spirit of 
 opposition among the 
 colonies. Under the 
 leadership of the pat- 
 riots, Jefferson, Han- 
 cock, Henry, Lee, 
 Adams, Franklin and 
 others, they declare 
 themselves Free and In- 
 dependent, 1776. The war 
 of the Revolution follows 
 with Greorge Washington 
 commander-in-chief of 
 the colonial army. 
 Grreen, Putnam, Lafay- 
 ette, DeKalb, and others 
 figure prominently. In- 
 dependence is ac- 
 knowledged by England 
 and other powers in 
 1783. Washington is 
 chosen president of the 
 new republic; serves 
 eight years, and is suc- 
 ceeded by .John Adams, 
 1797. Freedom from war 
 brings prosperity to the 
 United States, industry 
 and commerce grow rap- 
 idly, and power abroad 
 inci-eases. The capital 
 of the United States is 
 removed to Washington 
 in 1800. 1800 
 
 FRENCH REVOLUTION. 
 
 Some great literary 
 and scientific names be- 
 long to French history of 
 this period. The former 
 are Rousseau, Voltaire, 
 Montesquieu, and Buf- 
 fon; the latter, D'Alem- 
 bert, Laplace, and La- 
 voisier.— Louis XVI. and 
 the beautiful Marie An- 
 toinette ascend the 
 throne of France under 
 the most distressing cir- 
 cumstances, 1774. The 
 people, crazed with tax- 
 ation refuse to labor 
 farther, and arm in 
 mobs against the nobili- 
 ty. In Paris, 1789, the 
 Bastile is destroyed. The 
 king retires to Versailles; 
 but a mob returns him 
 to Paris. A republic is 
 proclaimed; Louis is 
 seized, and through the 
 villainies of Robespierre; 
 Danton, and Marat, 
 brought to the scaffold, 
 1793. The Reign of Ter- 
 ror reaches its greatest 
 height, by the work of 
 the Guillotine. The queen, 
 and thousands, are be- 
 headed. At last the re- 
 action comes, and the 
 Revolution is ended by 
 the death of its leaders. 
 A government called the 
 Directory, consisting of 
 five executive rulers und 
 a council of A ncients and 
 the Five ITuvdred insti- 
 tuted, 1795. One of these 
 directors is afterward, 
 that great military star 
 that dazzled the whole 
 world— Napoleon Bona- 
 parte. 800 
 
 REIGN OF GEORGE III. 
 
 The reign of George 
 III., commencng in 
 1760, is an eventful one 
 for England. A long and 
 bloody war is carried on 
 with France, and ex- 
 tends into India. It re- 
 sults in the firm security 
 of that country to the 
 English. They, howev- 
 er, suffer the loss of 
 America, where their 
 armies under Cornwallis, 
 Howe, Burgoyne, and 
 other able generals* are 
 defeated. Rapid intel- 
 lectual advancement is 
 indicated by a host of 
 writers and thinkers* 
 Johnson, Hume, Sterne, 
 Goldsmith, Burke, Gib- 
 bon, and Burns, writers; 
 Reynolds, and Gaines- 
 borough, artists; and 
 Smith; Bentham, Brind- 
 ley, Ilargreaves, Wedg- 
 wood, and Ark Wright, 
 philosophers and inven- 
 tors. In 1796, a rebel- 
 lion is raised in Ireland, 
 in which the insurgents 
 are aided by the French. 
 But the latter are de- 
 feated and the revolt 
 quelled. A great victory 
 is also obtained, by 
 Nelson, over the Span- 
 iards in the Battle of the 
 Nile, 1798. The last years 
 of George's reign Avitness 
 considerable home dis-. 
 sension, caused by the. 
 constant drain upon the 
 resources to carry on, 
 military operations. 
 
 1800 
 
CENTRAL EUROPE. RUSSIA. MISCELLANEOUS. A I 
 
 From 1750 A. D. to 1800 A. D. 
 
 FREDERICK THE GREAT. 
 
 The last and greatest 
 of Frederick's wars, is 
 known as the Seven Yeai-x' 
 Tar, 1756, in which the 
 Prussian king, with a 
 feeble assistance from 
 Engl.md, battles against, 
 a confederation of Aus- 
 tria, Poland, Saxonj^ 
 Russia, and Sweden. 
 Wonderful successes at- 
 tend him; and in 1763, at 
 the Peace of Hubertsburg, 
 Prussia is recognized as 
 on 3 of the Great European 
 Powers, Frederick then 
 labors to retrieve his 
 country's loss internally; 
 commerce is revived and 
 prosperity soon intro- 
 duced. He dies in 1786, 
 leaving a well filled 
 treasury and a popula- 
 tion of over six millions. 
 Central Europe shares in 
 the mental development 
 of the 18th century; be- 
 ing represented in sci- 
 ence and philosophy by 
 Kant, Galvani, and Her- 
 schel; in music, by Han- 
 del, Haydn, and Mozart; 
 and iu poetry, by Schil- 
 ler. The throne of Ger- 
 many after Maria The- 
 ressa, is occupied suc- 
 cessively by Francis I., 
 Joseph II., and Leo- 
 pold II.; the latter being 
 succeeded by Francis II. , 
 1792. The year, 1796, 
 marks the commence- 
 ment of the Napoleonic 
 Wars, conducted in Cen- 
 tral Europe with glory 
 for France. 1800 
 
 CATHARINE II. 
 
 Next to Peter the 
 Great, Catharine II., as- 
 cending the throne in 
 1762, is mentioned as the 
 most successful ruler of 
 Russia. In a war with 
 the Turks, she wins 
 Crimea, thus gaining 
 complete control over 
 the Black Sea. She gains 
 still more in the so-called 
 Partition of Portland;'' 
 which notwithstanding 
 the spirit of its brave de- 
 fender. Kosciusko, is 
 divided among the "Roy- 
 al Robbers," Russia, 
 Prussia and Austria, 
 1795. After a prosperous 
 reign of thirty-four years, 
 during which she greatly 
 advanced the glory of 
 Russian arms, Catharine 
 dies, 1796, in the midst 
 of her plans for the pos- 
 session of Turkey. Her 
 son, Paul, now becomes 
 czar; being for a while 
 exceedingly popular. 
 But his weak and almost 
 insane ideas, soon show 
 the people his inability 
 to rule the now powerful 
 nation. 1800 
 
 *There were three parti- 
 tions made of this unfor- 
 tunate country; one in 
 1772 by Prussia, Austria, 
 and Russia, another iu 
 1792, by Prussia and Russia 
 only. The last was made 
 in 1795, when Poland was 
 totally d»^stroyed. While 
 many bitterly condemn 
 this action, others look 
 upon it as beneficial in 
 brinsring Russia under the 
 influence of Central Eu- 
 ropean civilization. 
 
 GREAT INVENTIONS. 
 
 The war in India is 
 conducted successfully 
 for England by the great 
 Clive, who gaines num- 
 erous victories. Many 
 shocking atrocities are 
 committed by the rebel- 
 lious natives, among these 
 the dreadful tragedy 
 of the Black Hole, 1756, 
 causing the death of one 
 hundred and twenty- 
 three Englishmen. Later 
 the celebrated Warren 
 Hastings conducts the 
 warfare.— Some of the 
 great inventions that 
 crown with glory the 
 modern man, are made 
 during this period. In 
 England, the spinning- 
 jenny, by . Hargreaves, 
 1765; the spinning frame, 
 by Arkwright, 1768; the 
 mule-jenny, by Cromp- 
 ton, 1775. Watt at this 
 time makes his great ex- 
 periments with steam. 
 In America, Benjamin 
 Franklin experiments 
 with electricity, 1746; and 
 Eli Whitney invents the 
 cotton-gin, 1793.— In dis- 
 coveries. Captain Cook 
 discovers the Sandwich 
 Islands in 1778; and Bass 
 Slrait by Lieut. Flinders, 
 1797.— In this century 
 also, public libraries, 
 clubs, co-operative so- 
 cieties, and Sunday- 
 schools are established. 
 1800 
 
A 2 UNITED STATES. FRANCE. GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 From 1800 A. D. to 1825 A. D. 
 
 WAR OF 1812. 
 
 Adams is succeeded bj^ 
 Thomas JeflFerson, 1801; 
 and the principal mili- 
 tary event in his admin- 
 istration is the War with 
 Tripoli whose corsairs 
 cripple American com- 
 merce. Commodore Pre- 
 ble's achievements bring 
 a treaty in 1805. This 
 period marks rapid ma- 
 terial and mental de- 
 velopment Great in- 
 dustries are nourished. 
 Robert Fulton with his 
 "Clermont." revolution- 
 izes the navigation sys- 
 tem, 1807; and the great 
 dawn of American pro- 
 gress commences. James 
 Madison is inaugurated, 
 1809, when the peace of 
 the country is disturbed 
 by a second war with 
 England. This is caused 
 by the latter's hindrance 
 to commerce, and insults 
 to the American flag. 
 In this war the American 
 navy is crowned with 
 laurels by Hull, Decatur, 
 Perry, and Mac enough; 
 and the army by Brown, 
 Scott, Jackson, and Har- 
 rison. Peace is concluded 
 at G^.ent, 1815; and com- 
 merce again unrestrict- 
 ed. Madison is succeed- 
 ed by James Monroe, 
 1817, who serves eight 
 years, and during which 
 Mississippi, Illinois, 
 
 Alabama, Maine, and 
 Missouri, are admitted 
 into the Union. 1825 
 
 NAPOLEON BONAPARTE, 
 
 Napoleon, campaign- 
 ing successfully in Egypt, 
 leaves his army in com- 
 mand of Kleber, and re- 
 turns to France; where 
 he finds the Directory dis- 
 organized; and the coun- 
 try in anarchy. A new 
 government is institu ed, 
 called the Consulate, with 
 Napoleon first counsul. 
 Having thus completely 
 Cassarized the republic, 
 he turns his attention 
 toward the furtherance 
 of his military schemes; 
 strengthening the finan- 
 ces by establishing the 
 Bank of France, and 
 gathering thousands into 
 his army. War crowns 
 him with success, and in 
 a treaty at Luneville, 
 Austria cedes France, 
 Belgium and the west 
 bank of the Nile. Na- 
 poleon is then proclaim- 
 ed First Counsul for life; 
 and diligently introduces 
 reforms; condensing the 
 laws into the celebrated 
 Code Napoleon. Wars 
 again ensue in which 
 Napoleon is more suc- 
 cessful than ever. France 
 crowns him emperor, 
 italy, King, and the 
 Rhine provinces. Protec- 
 tor. But at l;i?t, reverses 
 come, and in 1814, he 
 ubdicaies, Louis XVIII., 
 .•issuming the throne. 
 Rallying again in 1815, 
 Napoleon's hist hopes 
 are ended by his defeat 
 nt Waterloo, and he dies 
 in banishment, 1821. 
 France now enjoys peace 
 under Louis XVIII., 
 until his death in 1824. 
 
 1825 
 
 GEORGE IV 
 
 In 1810, George III. is 
 stricken with insanity, 
 and the Prince of Wales, 
 as regent, assumes the du- 
 ties of the government. 
 England during this 
 period is engaged in al- 
 most continual war.— 
 War with America in 
 which she is robbed of 
 her crown as "Mistress of 
 the Sea," and compelled 
 to conclude a humiliat- 
 ing treaty, 1814; war 
 with France, which on 
 the con rary, increases 
 the glory of her arms; 
 and her great generals, 
 Wellington and Blucher, 
 stain French war records 
 with the galling Water- 
 loo defeat, 1815. George 
 III. dies in 1820, in the 
 eighty-second year of his 
 age, and the sixtieth of 
 his reign, the longest and 
 most memorable in the 
 anaals of England. His 
 son is now crowned as 
 George IV. who through 
 all his reign leads a life 
 of the most licenfous 
 f>nd profligate character. 
 The domestic happiness 
 of the English people . 
 notwithstanding, in- 
 
 creases, and the close of 
 this period introduces an 
 era of great reforms. 
 
 1825 
 
 Emerson says, "Eng- 
 land is anchored at the 
 t-ide of Europe, and right 
 in the heart of the mod- 
 ern world. The sea Avhich 
 according to Vir^ril di- 
 vided the poor Britons 
 from the world, proves 
 to be the ring of mar- 
 riage with all nations. 
 As America, Europe, 
 and Asia lie, these Brit- 
 ons have the best com- 
 mercial position in the 
 world." 
 
CENTRAL EUROPE. RUSSIA. MISCELLANEOUS. 43 
 
 From iSoo A. D. to 1825 A. D. 
 
 NAPOLEONIC WARS. 
 
 In the year 180U, the 
 army of Napoleon crosses 
 the Alps, and enters the 
 valley of the Po. Here 
 the Austrians are met in 
 a large force, and the 
 bloody battle of Marengo 
 is fought, 1800. This is 
 followed in the same 
 year by the defeat of the 
 Austrians at Hohenlin- 
 der. A peace is shortly 
 afterward concluded, 
 but broken again in 1805, 
 when the combined Aus- 
 trians and Russians are 
 completely routed in the 
 battle of Austerlitz. The 
 year previous to this, 
 with the formation oi the 
 Conjederat ion of the Rhine, 
 the German emperor re- 
 signs the imperial crown, 
 and assumes the title, 
 Eyiiperor of A ustria. Prus- 
 sia, under Frederick 
 William III., is now 
 drawn into th war, and 
 the honors won by Fred- 
 erick the Grea: are lost 
 i.i the battles, Auerstadt 
 and Jsn i, 1806. In the 
 Treaty of TiUit., 1807,Prus- 
 sia loses the provinces of 
 Saxony, Westphalia, and 
 Prussian Poland. Fran- 
 cis of Austria again 
 places a Inrge army in 
 the field, but it is routed 
 by Napoleon in the bat- 
 tle of Wagram, 1809. 
 Their loss is retrieved 
 later, in the total defeat 
 of Napoleon in the bat- 
 tl • of Leipsic, 1813. After 
 the victory at Waterloo, 
 1815, a league, called the 
 Holy Alliance, is formed 
 iov the mutual protec- 
 tion of the powers. 
 
 1825 
 
 NAPOLEONIC WARS. 
 
 Paul is murdered in 
 1801, and his son, Alex- 
 ander!., placed on the 
 throne. The czar incurs 
 the displeasure of Na- 
 poleon, regarding Rus- 
 sia's trade with Eng- 
 land. War results, and 
 Napoleon leads a great 
 army toward Moscow. 
 He defeats the enemy at 
 Borodino, and enters the 
 city in triumph, 1812. 
 But during the night 
 Moscow is fired by the 
 Russians, and the French 
 compelled to make their 
 retreat,-'" one of the most 
 disastrous on record. 
 Out of an army of five 
 hundred thousand men, 
 about one fifth return to 
 France. Russia and her 
 allies then invade 
 France, and in 1814, 
 Paris surrenders without 
 a struggle. The reign of 
 Alexander I. is a pros- 
 perous one for Russia. 
 Excepting war, all fet- 
 ters are removed from 
 industry; roads and 
 canals are constructed; 
 and schools and univer- 
 sities established. Push- 
 kin, the greatest of Rus- 
 sian poets, adorns his 
 age. The government 
 and laws of his kingdom 
 are administered in a 
 thoroughly systematic 
 manner He dies in 1825; 
 well worthy of his title, 
 Czar of A II the Russias. 
 1825 
 
 *Besides being harrassed 
 by bodies of the enemy, 
 the French w^ere compell- 
 ed to endure all the suffer- 
 ings of a Russian winter. 
 It is estimated that 125,000 
 perished in battle; 100,000 
 died of hunger and cold; 
 and 175,000 were taken 
 prisoners. 
 
 LIBERTY IN AMERICA. 
 
 Independence and re- 
 publicanism ia America 
 in the 19th century, is 
 not confined to the 
 United States. Mexico, 
 tired of Spanish rule, 
 throws off the yoke and 
 establishes a repub/ic, 
 1820. In 1822, the Brazil- 
 Hans declare their inde- 
 pendence of Portugal, 
 and establish an empire 
 with Dom Pedro I., first 
 emperor. Paraguay is 
 at this time under the 
 rule of Dr. Francia, as 
 Dictator. A general 
 movement in fjivor of 
 liberty is inaugurated in 
 the South American pro- 
 vinces by the renowned 
 Simon Bolivar, a native 
 of Venezuela. One of 
 these assumes the name, 
 Bolivia, in honor of its 
 defender, 1825.— During 
 the career of Napoleon, 
 Spain is a scene of con- 
 tinual war and confus- 
 ion. Ferdinand VII., 
 son and successor of 
 Charles IV., is deposed 
 by the French and Joseph 
 Bonaparte placed on the 
 throne. The revolts con- 
 tinue and in 1814, on the 
 fall of Napoleon, Ferdi- 
 nand is restored. But 
 this does not bring peace 
 to the kingdom. The 
 king restores the horrible 
 Court of Inquisition, ai.d 
 the period between 1814 
 and 1820 is called the 
 Reign of Terror in Spain. 
 These events give the na- 
 tion a degraded position, 
 among other powers; one 
 from which she is to-day, 
 seemingly, powerless to 
 leave. 1825. 
 
 _ The Court of Inquisi- 
 tion was an institution 
 early established by the 
 Romish church, to try 
 persons accused of hold- 
 ing opinions contrary to 
 the church doctrine. 
 
44 UNITED STATES. FRANCE. GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 From 1S25 A. D. to 1850 A. D. 
 
 MEXICAN WAR. 
 
 John Quincy Adams is 
 elected president, 1825, 
 and, after one term's ser- 
 vice, succeeded by An- 
 drew Jackson, 1829. Dur- 
 ing the latter's adminis- 
 tration a fierce Indian war 
 is waged by the Indians 
 under Black Hawk. His 
 defeat by General Atkin- 
 son restores peace, 1832. 
 Another breaks out in 
 1835, with the Seminoles, 
 under Osceola, and is 
 ended with considerable 
 bloodshed. In 1837, the 
 domestic interests of the 
 country are greatly dis- 
 turbed by P. financial cri- 
 sis, known as the "Panic 
 of '37." Martin Van 
 .Buren serves as president 
 until 1841, when the ex- 
 ecutive power is given to 
 William H. Harrison. 
 During all these years the 
 tide of foreign immigra- 
 tion steadily pours in, 
 and America assumes 
 an enviable position 
 among nations. Ameri- 
 can statesmanship is 
 exalted by Clay, Webster, 
 Calhoun and Everett, 
 and American inventive 
 genius crowned by Morse 
 with his electric tele- 
 graph. Harrison dies in 
 office, and John Tyler 
 presides until 1845, when 
 James K. Polk is elected. 
 The Mexican War, con- 
 cerning Texas, now 
 occurs, in which Scott 
 and Taylor completely 
 vanquish the Mexican 
 leader, Santa Anna. 
 Peace is concluded in 
 1848. Z.ichary Taylor is 
 noxt elected president, 
 but dies in 1850, and Mil- 
 lard Fillmore takes the 
 chair. 1860 
 
 POLITICAL RKVOLUTIONS. 
 
 Charles X., the succes- 
 sor of Louis XVIII., for- 
 getting the terrible lesson 
 received by his predeces- 
 sors, displays a desire for 
 despotism. He disbands 
 the Civic Guard, 1827, 
 and in 1830 ordains the 
 suspension of the liberty 
 of the press, the dissolu- 
 tion of the Chamber of 
 Deputies, and the elec- 
 tions to be made by pre- 
 fects. These actions meet 
 with prompt resistance. 
 Ch'irles is deposed, and 
 Louis Philippe, of the 
 House of Orleans, electod 
 king, 1830.— Two learned 
 men belong to French 
 history of this period; 
 Arago, a distinguished 
 astronomer, and Comte, 
 a famous philosopher. 
 Louis, though honest in 
 his intentions, makes 
 several false steps which 
 bring popular feeling 
 ag:nnst him. In 1848, a 
 reform banquet being for- 
 bidden by the govern- 
 ment, on the day appoint- 
 ed, open insurrection 
 ensues in Paris. The 
 people with their motto, 
 —Liberty, Equality, iind 
 Fraternity, barricade the 
 streets, and Louis takes 
 refuge in flight. A re- 
 public is again proclaim- 
 ed, but the new govern- 
 ment is assailed by 
 rioters. A terrible strug- 
 gle breaks out in June, 
 1848, when Paris is 
 declared in a state of 
 seige, and General Cav- 
 aignac made Dictator. 
 Sixteen thousand persons 
 are destroyed before 
 peace is restored. Louis 
 Napoleon, nephew of 
 Bonaparte, is now elected 
 president for four years. 
 1850 
 
 ENGLISH REFORMS. 
 
 The first step in these 
 reforms is in the removal 
 of grievous laws regard- 
 ing the church of 
 England, 1828. Next the 
 Catholic question re- 
 ceives attention . In Ire- 
 la nd an association is 
 organized called the 
 Catholic Aasocialiim, head- 
 ed by Daniel O'Connell; 
 the object being to secure 
 civil rights. O'Connell is 
 elected to a seat in Par- 
 liament, and through his 
 earnest elforts a bill is 
 passed giving the Catho- 
 lics equal rights with 
 Protestants, 1829. In 
 1830 George dies and is 
 succeeded by his brother, 
 William, Duke of Clar- 
 ence. The latter's reign 
 is famous for the passage 
 of the I'iirliariientary Re- 
 form Bill, changing the 
 order of representation 
 in the government, 1832. 
 The year 1833 is memora- 
 ble for the abolition ot 
 slavery in the British 
 colonies, eight hundred 
 thousand slaves receiving 
 their freedom. Some 
 great philosophers, sci- 
 entists, and literary char- 
 acters lived during the 
 first half of the 18th cen- 
 tury. To the first class 
 belong Davy and Hamil- 
 ton; to the second, Brew- 
 ster; and to the third, 
 Wordsworth, Scott, Cole- 
 ridge, Campbell, Moore. 
 Byron and Macaulay, 
 Artists and inventors are 
 Turner, Brunei and Ste- 
 phenson. William is 
 succeeded by the present 
 ruler of England, Vic- 
 toria, daughter of his 
 brother, Edward, Duke 
 of Kent. The principal 
 event during this period 
 of her reign is the repeal 
 of the English Corn I.aics, 
 1846. 1850 
 
CENTRAL EUROPE. RUSSIA. MISCELLANEOUS. 4 5 
 
 From 1825 A.D. to 1850 A. D. 
 
 GERMANY AND ITALY. 
 
 After the Napoleonic 
 wars, a union of the prov- 
 inces is formed, called the 
 Germanic Confederation: in 
 which the common 
 affairs of the states are 
 regulated by a l>iet, or 
 Parliament. Another 
 step toward unification, is 
 made in the gradual 
 formation of the Zollve- 
 rein, or Customs' Union, 
 allowing free trade 
 among the states. As a 
 result of this, commerce 
 is greatly increased. 
 Science and art receive 
 much attention, and 
 popular education is en- 
 courged. Among the 
 great names belonging 
 to the first half of the 
 19th century in Central 
 Europe, are those of 
 Humboldt, Cuvier, and 
 Hegel, philosophers and 
 scientists; Thorwaldsen, 
 Beethoven, Weber, Don- 
 izetti, and Mendelssohn, 
 artists; and, Richter, 
 and Goeth, writers. 
 After the deposing of 
 Louis Philippi in France, 
 1848, the republican 
 spirit is manifested in 
 Germany, An uprising 
 ensues, and sharp con- 
 flicts occur between the 
 people and the soldiers. 
 Frederick William IV., 
 of Prussia, is obliged to 
 grant a new constitution. 
 A JS'aHonal Adsembly is con- 
 voked, but unification is 
 prevented by the jealou- 
 sies between Prussia and 
 Austria. Italy during 
 this time becomes the 
 prey of Austria, whose 
 troops defeat Charles 
 Albert, King of Sardinia, 
 in 1849. Charles then 
 abdicates, and is suc- 
 ceeded by his son, Victor 
 Emanuel II.; and the 
 period closes leaving 
 Italy in a very unsettled 
 condition. 1850 
 
 NICHOLAS. 
 
 Nicholas ascends the 
 throne on the death of 
 his brother, Alexander; 
 and proves a prince of 
 great energy and deter- 
 mination. In 1828 and 
 1829, a war is conducted 
 against Turkey, in which 
 the Russians gain num- 
 erous advantages. In 
 1830,the Poles revolt, and 
 their subjection is not 
 accomplished without 
 terrible bloodshed. With 
 this, the last trace of 
 nationality among these 
 unfortunate people is 
 obliterated. Under the 
 autocratic rule of Nich- 
 olas, the prosperity 
 which marked the reigns 
 of his predecessors, is 
 continued. The natural 
 resources of the kingdom 
 are developed; railroads 
 are constructed; and 
 great industries fostered. 
 1850 
 
 Siberia belongs to Rus- 
 sia; and its principal use 
 is in being a place of 
 banishment for govern- 
 ment oflTenders After 
 the division of Poland, 
 the number of exiles was 
 greatly increased. Many 
 of the unhappy Poles 
 whose only crime was at- 
 tachment to their coun- 
 try, were transported 
 and made to drag out a 
 miserable existence in 
 the life of a convict. 
 Society in Russia is di- 
 vided into four great 
 classes, the nobility, the 
 clergy, the merchants 
 and burghers, and the 
 peasants. 
 
 ARCTIC VOYAGES. 
 
 A war commences be- 
 tween Great Britain and 
 China in 1839; caused by 
 the Opium Traffic, British 
 merchants being engaged 
 in the contraband trade. 
 Peace is concluded in 
 1842, and China throws 
 open the ports of Canton, 
 Amoy, Foo-choo-foG, 
 Ningpo and Shanghai. 
 This breaks the seclusion 
 which China for so long 
 a period observed 
 toward nations.— About 
 this time, some excite- 
 ment is manifested, with 
 England principally, in 
 the possibility of finding 
 the Northuest Passage to 
 India. Many expeditions 
 are sent out. Parry, 
 Ross, Back, and hers, 
 make voyages. In 1845, 
 Sir John Franklin leaves 
 England, on a v yage 
 and never returns; being 
 lost with his party, in the 
 Arctic Regions.* Consid- 
 erable interest is shown 
 in the investigation of 
 unexplored countries. 
 Africa receives the prin- 
 cipal attention. Dr. 
 Livingston commences 
 his celebrated African 
 Explorations by the dis- 
 covery of Lake Ngami, 
 1849. 1850 
 
 *The interest felt in the 
 fate of Franklin and his 
 party, led many expedi- 
 tions to the Polar Regions. 
 Lady Franklin equipped 
 four expeditions at her 
 own expen^e. Two Ameri- 
 can voyages under Dr. 
 Kane, In 1850 and 1853, 
 were made; and one in 
 1855 in search of Kane. Dr. 
 Rae in 1854, obtained the 
 relics of Franklin's pnr'y 
 from the Esquimaux, nnd 
 they were pla< ed in Green- 
 wich Hospital. 
 
4^ UNITED STATES. FRANCE. GREAT BRITAIN 
 
 From 1850 A. D. to 1878 A. D. 
 
 THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 Franklin Pierce pre- 
 sides until 1857, then 
 James Buchanan until 
 1861. The latter is suc- 
 ceeded by Abraham Lin- 
 coln, whose election 
 causes a secession of the 
 Southern States, and the 
 bloody Civil War, shak- 
 ing the foundation of the 
 republic. This fierce con- 
 flict, commencing in 1861, 
 and ending in 1865, set- 
 tles forever the question 
 of slavery in America; 
 and its abolition, obliter- 
 ates the only stain in 
 American institutions. 
 The war for the Union is 
 conducted successfully 
 by Grrant, Sherman, 
 Burnside, McClellan, 
 and other able generals, 
 and for secession by 
 Jackson, Lee, Beaure- 
 guard, Johnston, and 
 others. A melancholy 
 event at the close of the 
 war is the assassination of 
 President Lincoln, whose 
 ability in the hour of 
 need, won the praise of 
 all true patriots. An- 
 drew Johnson assumes 
 the duties of prjsident, 
 and is succeeded, 18'3;>,by 
 Ulysses Grant. The lat- 
 ter serves eight years, 
 and during th se, save 
 the financial pani': of 
 1873, great prosperity is 
 enjoyed. In 1877, the 
 present executive officer, 
 Rutherford B. Hayes 
 was elected. America 
 now stands pre-eminent 
 among nations. With 1 
 over three million square I 
 miles, and a population I 
 of over forty millions, 
 she is ever iuiproviagthe 
 advantages of a FroeGov- 
 ernment. She has long 
 silenced the ominous pro- 
 phesies of the East, and 
 commences her .-econd 
 century with Repuhlican- 
 ism stamped upon her 
 every feature. 1878 
 
 THE FRENCH REPUBLIC. 
 
 Disagreeing with the 
 Assembly, the ambitious 
 Louis determines upon 
 the sovereignty of France, 
 and, (in 1851) by a coup 
 d'etat, the government is 
 placed in his hands, and 
 all resistance put down 
 by soldiery. Louis is 
 next proclaimed emper- 
 or, 1852, with the title of 
 Napoleon III.; being 
 crowned with grea t splen- 
 dor at Notre Dame. In 
 the European wars of this 
 nge, Louis plays an im- 
 portant part. He joins a 
 league against Russia in 
 the Crimean War, 1854, 
 and becomes the ally of 
 Sardinia, in a war be- 
 tween the latter and 
 Austria, 1859. The last 
 and greatest war is 
 known as the Franco- 
 Prussian War, ending 
 very disastrously for 
 Napoleon III. He is de- 
 posed by his people, and 
 dies in England. Peace 
 is concluded in 1871, in 
 which France loses the 
 provinces of Alsace and 
 Lorraine, and is compell- 
 ed to pay an indemnity 
 of five billion francs. 
 After the overthrow of 
 Napoleon, a republic is 
 again proclaimed, and 
 M. Thiers, a noted states- 
 man, made president. 
 The government of 
 Fr,inc3 is now under the 
 aduii'iistration of Presi- 
 d:int Mc.Mahon, who was 
 ebcted in 1873. The 
 country is enjoying pros- 
 perity. Among her wri- 
 ters and artists are Victor 
 Hugo, Offenbach, and 
 GustnveDore. The area 
 of Fr.ince in the census 
 of 1872 was 204,092 square 
 miles; population 36, 102,- 
 921. 1878 
 
 VICTORIA. 
 
 The Chartist--' agitation 
 of 1848, caused some ex- 
 citement;butit soon sub- 
 sided. England, under 
 Victoria, is, and has 
 been, making great in- 
 ternal improvement. 
 Excepting rebellions in 
 distant provinces, and the 
 Crimean War, 1854, she 
 has enjoyed all the bless- 
 ings of peace. The re- 
 form spirit still manifests 
 itself in the action of the 
 government. In 1867 a 
 bill passes in Parliament, 
 greatly extending the 
 right of franchise. In 
 1869 and 1870, some im- 
 portant changes are 
 made in Ireland, through 
 the able ministry of Mr. 
 Gladstone. Intellectu- 
 ally, England is not in- 
 ferior to other na- 
 tions. John S. Mill, 
 philosopher (1806-1873), 
 and Thackeray (1811- 
 1363), Charles Dickons 
 (1812-1870), and Alfred 
 Tennyson (1809—); the 
 latter, now Poet Laureate 
 of England, are among 
 the writers of this age. 
 England's India possess- 
 ions are to her, a source 
 of power and wealth, and 
 at present, she rules over 
 two hundred thousand 
 people in Hindostan. 
 She has colonial possess- 
 ions in Eurupe, America, 
 Asia, Africa and Aus- 
 tralia. According to the 
 latest official statements 
 and estimates, the num- 
 ber of square miles in the 
 British Empire is 8,613,- 
 343; and the population 
 285,480,500 . 1S78. 
 
 *The Chartists demand- 
 ed six changes in th" Con- 
 stitution. — ]. Universal 
 suffrage, 2. Vote by Ual- 
 lot; 3. Annual Parlia- 
 ments; 4. Ele(-'tor u dis- 
 tricts; 5. The abolition ol' 
 property qualihcation for 
 members; 6. Payment ut 
 representatives. 
 
CENTRAL EUROPE. RUSSIA. MISCELLANEOUS.47 
 
 From 1S50 A. D. to 1S78 A. D. 
 
 FRANCO — PRUSSIAN WAR. 
 
 Through the influence of 
 Count Cavour, prime min- 
 ister to Victor Emanuel, 
 France is induced to join 
 Sardinia in war against 
 Austria, 1859; and in the 
 great battles of Magenta 
 and Solferina, 1859. 
 The Austrians are de- 
 feated. Peace is con- 
 cluded at Villafranea, in 
 which Austria cedes part 
 ofLombardy to Sardinia; 
 and in 1860, Tuscany, 
 Modeua, Parma, and 
 Roraagna, are placed 
 under the government of 
 Emanuel. The same 
 year, Joseph Garibaldi 
 defeats the King of Na- 
 ples and establishes a 
 provincial government 
 under the King of Sar- 
 dinia. Next follows the 
 invasion of the Papal 
 States, and in 1861, the 
 uniftcatlon of Iluli/ is 
 accomplished; Victor 
 Emanuel made king by 
 the Italian Parliament. 
 A Six Weeks' n<ir, be- 
 tween Prussia and Aus- 
 tria, 1866, is followed by 
 the Franco- Prusaian War; 
 caused by the succession 
 of the Spanish throne. 
 Under the ministry of 
 Otto von Bismarck, and 
 the generalship of von 
 Moltke; Prussia's arms 
 are crowned with suc- 
 cess. After the battles 
 of Weissenberg, Worth, 
 Sedan, siege of Metz,and 
 Paris, 1870 and 1871, the 
 Treaty of Frankfort is con- 
 cluded, 1871. All the 
 states are again united, 
 and 1871 dates the Restor- 
 ation of the German Em- 
 pire. It is now ruled by 
 William I.; has in all, 
 203,739 square miles, and 
 in 1876 a population of 
 42,729,554. 1878 
 
 ALEXANDER II. 
 
 The Crimean War is 
 caused by the Czar wrest- 
 ing the provinces of 
 Moldavia and Wallachia 
 from Turkey; this being 
 looked upon by other na- 
 tions, as a menace to the 
 balance of power. The 
 Sultan is joined by Eng- 
 land, France, and the 
 king of Sardinia; and the 
 severe battles of Alma, 
 and Inkerman, are prin- 
 cipal victories of the al- 
 lies, 1854. The siege of 
 Sebiistopol, commencing 
 in October, 1854, contin- 
 ues three hundred and 
 forty-nine days, when 
 the place is evacuated by 
 the Russians. Peace is 
 proclaimed in 1856. Dur- 
 ing this war, Nicholas 
 dies, and is succeeded 
 by his son, Alexander II. 
 After the war is ended, 
 Alexander's whole atten- 
 tion is turned toward 
 bettering the condition of 
 his people, and a very 
 important step in this 
 direction is the emanci- 
 pation of the serfs of the 
 crown. In 1867 Russia 
 sells the territory of Alas- 
 ka, containing 577,390 
 square miles, to the 
 United States for 
 
 $7,200,000. The late 
 Turko-Russian War, com- 
 mencing in 1877, was 
 caused by Turkish cruel- 
 ty towards Christians; 
 whose condition the Czar 
 determined to improve. 
 The Russian armies have 
 been victorious, but 
 peace is not yet securely 
 established. Alexander 
 II. Emperor and Auto- 
 crat of all the Russias, 
 has dominion over 8,391,- 
 832 square miles of terri- 
 tory, on Avhich there are 
 86,586,014 inhabitants. 
 
 1878 
 
 AUSTRALIA. 
 
 Australia, until this 
 time used only as a place 
 of banishment for English 
 convicts, and almost un- 
 known to other nations, 
 is suddenly transformed 
 into a populous country 
 by the discovery of its 
 gold fields, 1851. Though 
 the real discovery was 
 made prior to this date, 
 it marks public knowl- 
 edge of Australia's rich- 
 es. Immigrants pour in 
 from all parts of the 
 world, and in a few years 
 the island's population 
 is swelled from a few 
 hundreds into many 
 thousands.— In 1857, In- 
 dia becomes the scene of 
 wild confusion and dis- 
 order, caused by a mutiny 
 in the Bengal army. 
 Massacres of the most 
 brutal character are com- 
 mitted. Delhi is taken, 
 and its native king pro- 
 claimed emperor by the 
 insurgents. The mutiny 
 is quelled by Sir Colin 
 Campbell, and in 1858, 
 the existence of the East 
 India company is ended 
 by act of Parliament. 
 Queen Victoria was pro- 
 claimed Empress of In- 
 dia at Delhi, 1877— 
 
 The earth is now inha- 
 bited by about 
 1,380,000,000 people; viz.; 
 
 380,000,000 Caucasians. 
 
 580,000,000 Mongolians. 
 
 200,000,000 Ethiopians. 
 
 220,000,000 Malays. 
 1,000,000 Am. Indians 
 
48 STATISTICS OF THE WORLD. 
 
 Country. 
 
 NORTH AMERICA, 
 
 Arctic Region 
 
 Bermuda 
 
 Columbia (Brit.) 
 
 Costa Rica • . 
 
 Greenland 
 
 Guatemala 
 
 Honduras 
 
 Honduras (Brit.) .. . 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Mosquito 
 
 New Britain 
 
 New Brunswick 
 
 Newfoundland 
 
 Nicaragua 
 
 Nova Scotia 
 
 Ontario 
 
 Prince Edward Island — 
 
 Quebec 
 
 San Salvador 
 
 St. Pierre 
 
 United States 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA. 
 
 Argentine Confederacy. . ■ 
 
 Bolivia 
 
 Brazil 
 
 Cayenne 
 
 Chili 
 
 Columbia 
 
 Demarara, etc 
 
 Ecuador 
 
 Falkland Isles 
 
 Par.igu.iy 
 
 Patagonia 
 
 Peru 
 
 Surinam 
 
 Uruguay .•... 
 
 Venezuela 
 
 WEST INDIES. 
 
 Antiqua 
 
 Bahamas 
 
 Barbadoes 
 
 Bermudas 
 
 Curacoa 
 
 Cuba 
 
 Dominica 
 
 Grenada 
 
 (xujidaloupe, etc 
 
 Hayti 
 
 Jamaica 
 
 Martinique. . . . . . 
 
 Moiiserrat 
 
 NevLs 
 
 Porto Rico 
 
 St. I3irtholomew's. 
 
 St. ' 'hristopher, etc — 
 
 St. Johns 
 
 St. Lucia 
 
 Square 
 
 Miles. 
 
 600.000 
 
 46 
 
 230,000 
 
 16.250 
 
 380,00) 
 
 44.778 
 
 47,092 
 
 13,500 
 
 773,144 
 
 26,0'JO 
 
 1,800.000 
 
 27,720 
 
 40,200 
 
 58 16J 
 
 19,630 
 
 180,000 
 
 2,173 
 
 210,000 
 
 7,23J 
 
 120 
 
 3,578,392 
 
 826,828 
 
 5;35,760 
 
 3,231,047 
 
 30,000 
 139,333 
 a56,l79 
 
 76.000 
 218,984 
 7.600 
 126,352 
 315,000 
 510,107 
 
 38,500 
 
 66,716 
 426,712 
 
 183 
 
 3,021 
 
 166 
 
 Population 
 
 580 
 
 43,383 
 
 290 
 
 133 
 
 534 
 
 11,718 
 
 6,400 
 
 322 
 
 47 
 
 50 
 
 3,895 
 
 25 
 
 103 
 
 72 
 
 250 
 
 12,000 
 
 5:,';j ) 
 
 150 UJO 
 
 1 •,) .0 
 
 1,1oU,jOO 
 
 ooO,\)Q'') 
 
 25,(3:^6 
 
 8.743,614 
 
 16,000 
 
 20U,0ja 
 
 28.5.777 
 
 146,536 
 
 4U0,000 
 
 387,000 
 
 1 620 842 
 
 93,338 
 
 1,190,505 
 
 750,000 
 
 2,250 
 
 40,000,0v.0 
 
 1,800,000 
 l,9S7,;i52 
 11,780,000 
 27.5t)0 
 2,084,945 
 2,794,470 ! 
 
 148,900 
 1,040,371 i 
 
 686 
 1,337,4U 
 
 r20,0J0 
 
 1,374,0 ,0 
 
 64,2:0 
 
 387,421 
 1,565,000 
 
 36,412 
 
 35,287 
 
 152,127 
 
 11, 7 W 
 
 3O,'.O0 
 
 1,500,030 
 
 ■ 26.882 
 
 36,672 
 
 l;M,544 
 
 .572,000 
 
 441,255 
 
 121,145 
 
 7,645 
 
 9,822 
 
 620.000 
 
 10,000 
 
 26,940 
 
 3,000 
 
 29.519 
 
 Title of Ruler. 
 
 Governor. 
 
 Governor. 
 
 President. 
 
 I'lspector. 
 
 President. 
 
 President. 
 
 Lt. Gov. 
 
 President. 
 
 King. 
 
 Lt. Gov. 
 (iovernor. 
 President. 
 Lt. Gov. 
 L . Gov. 
 Lt. Gov. 
 Lt. Gov. 
 President. 
 Com. 
 President. 
 
 President. 
 
 President. 
 
 Emperor. 
 
 Governor. 
 
 President. 
 
 President. 
 
 Governor. 
 
 President. 
 
 Governor. 
 
 President. 
 
 President. 
 Governor. 
 President. 
 Preside it 
 
 Governor. 
 Governor, 
 (iovernor. 
 Governor. 
 
 I C.ipt. Gen. 
 i Lt. Gov. 
 I Lt. Gov. 
 
 President. 
 C.ipt. Gen. 
 
 President. 
 Administrator. 
 C.ipt. Gen. 
 
 Lt. Gov. 
 Administrator. 
 
STATISTICS OF THE WORLD. 49 
 
 Country. 
 
 WEST INDIES. 
 
 St. Martin's (s.) 
 
 St. Thomas 
 
 St. Vincent 
 
 San Domingo ■ 
 
 Santa Cruz, etc 
 
 Tobago 
 
 Trinidad 
 
 Turk's Island 
 
 Virgin Islands. 
 
 EUROPE. • 
 
 Andorra 
 
 Austria 
 
 Belgium 
 
 Denmark . 
 
 Faroe and Iceland 
 
 France 
 
 Germany 
 
 NORTHERN CONFEDERATION. 
 
 Anhalt 
 
 Bremen 
 
 Brunswick 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 Hesse Darnstadt, (n.) 
 
 Lippe Detaiold 
 
 Lippe Schaumburg 
 
 Lubeek . 
 
 Mecklenburg Schwerin 
 
 Mecklenburg Strelitz 
 
 Oldenburg 
 
 Prussia 
 
 ReussGreiz 
 
 Reuss Schleiz 
 
 Saxe Altenburg 
 
 Saxe Colburg Gotha 
 
 Saxe Meiningen 
 
 Saxe Weimar 
 
 Saxony 
 
 Schwarzb Rudolstadt 
 
 Swarzb Sondershausen 
 
 Waldeck 
 
 SOUTHERN CONFEDERATION. 
 
 Biden 
 
 Biv.irii 
 
 Hi\sse Darnstadt (s.) 
 
 Lichtenstein 
 
 Wurtemburg 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 Gibralter 
 
 Heligoland 
 
 Malta 
 
 Greece 
 
 Ionian Islands 
 
 Italy 
 
 Monaco 
 
 Netherlands 
 
 Luxenburg 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Square 
 Miles. 
 
 11 
 
 37 
 131 
 
 18,000 
 
 81 
 
 97 
 
 1.754 
 
 450 
 
 57 
 
 149 
 240,381 
 11,373 
 14,734 
 40,258 
 20,402 
 
 1,026 
 
 74 
 
 1,42.5 
 
 156 
 
 1,280 
 
 438 
 
 171 
 
 107 
 
 5,190 
 
 1,052 
 
 2,469 
 
 136,806 
 
 145 
 
 320 
 
 510 
 
 760 
 
 956 
 
 1,404 
 
 5,779 
 
 374 
 
 332 
 
 433 
 
 5,912 
 
 29,373 
 
 1,690 
 
 62 
 
 7,532 
 
 120,769 
 
 2 
 
 115 
 
 18,347 
 
 1,006 
 
 114,389 
 
 15 
 
 12,685 
 
 991 
 
 36 494 
 
 Population 
 
 3,500 
 13,463 
 31,755 
 136,500 
 35,000 
 15,410 
 84.438 
 4,372 
 0,051 
 
 12,000 
 
 35,677.455 
 
 4,984,451 
 
 1,608,362 
 
 75,909 
 
 36,102,921 
 
 197,041 
 
 109.572 
 
 302,792 
 
 305,196 
 
 257,479 
 
 111,^52 
 
 31,186 
 
 48,538 
 
 560,618 
 
 98,770 
 
 315,622 
 
 24,039,668 
 
 43 889 
 
 88,097 
 
 141,426 
 
 168,851 
 
 180,3135 
 
 282,928 
 
 2,423,401 
 
 75,116 
 
 67,583 
 
 56,807 
 
 1,434,970 
 
 4,824,521 
 
 565.6 J J 
 
 8,320 
 
 1,778,3J6 
 
 31,817,108 
 
 24,175 
 
 2,300 
 
 143,003 
 
 l,0fJ6.8 J 
 
 2.:)1,71'; 
 
 25,766,2i7 
 
 1,887 
 
 3,829,070 
 
 199,958 
 
 3,829,618 
 
 Title of Ruler. 
 
 Lt. Gov. 
 President. 
 
 Lt. Gov. 
 Governor. 
 President. 
 President. 
 
 Rep. 
 
 Emperor. 
 King. 
 King. 
 
 President. 
 
 Duke. 
 
 Burgom. 
 
 Duke. 
 
 Burgom. 
 
 G. Duke. 
 
 Prince. 
 
 Prince. 
 
 Burgom. 
 
 G. Duke. 
 
 G. Duke. 
 
 G. Duke. 
 
 King. 
 
 Prince. 
 
 Prince. 
 
 Duke. 
 
 Duke. 
 
 Duke. 
 
 G. Duke. 
 
 King. 
 
 Prince. 
 
 Prince. 
 
 Prince. 
 
 G. Duke. 
 
 King. 
 
 G. Duke. 
 
 Prince. 
 
 King. 
 
 Queen, 
 
 Governor. 
 
 Governor. 
 
 Governor. 
 
 King. 
 
 King. 
 
 Prince. 
 
 King. 
 
 King. 
 
50 STATISTICS OF THE WORLD. 
 
 Country. 
 
 SOUTHERN CONFEDERATION. 
 
 Azores and Madeira 
 
 Russia (Proper.) 
 
 San Marino 
 
 Spain 
 
 Sweden 
 
 Norway 
 
 Sitzerland 
 
 Turkey 
 
 Montenegro 
 
 Roumania 
 
 Servia 
 
 ASIA. 
 
 Anam • . 
 
 Arabia 
 
 Borneo 
 
 British India . 
 
 Burmah 
 
 Ceylon 
 
 China 
 
 Japan 
 
 Java 
 
 Persia 
 
 Siam 
 
 Tartary 
 
 Turkey in Asia. 
 
 Abyssinia 
 
 Algeria 
 
 Cape of Good Hope. 
 
 Egypt 
 
 Gambia 
 
 Gold Coast 
 
 Liberia. 
 
 Madagascar 
 
 Morocco 
 
 Natal 
 
 Sierra Leone . 
 St. Helena... 
 
 Tripoli 
 
 Tunnis 
 
 Zanzibar . . . 
 
 AUSTRALIA. 
 
 New South Wales 
 
 Queensland 
 
 South Australia 
 
 Tasmania 
 
 Victoria 
 
 Western Australia 
 
 POLYNESIA. 
 
 Feejee Islands 
 
 New Guinea 
 
 •New Zealand 
 
 Philippine Islands 
 
 Sandwich Islands 
 
 Society Islands 
 
 Square 
 Miles. 
 
 1,483 
 
 7,862,568 
 
 22 
 
 195,607 
 
 128,776 
 
 120,295 
 
 15,722 
 
 131,295 
 
 1,709 
 
 46,710 
 
 21,218 
 
 198,043 
 
 1,026,040 
 
 300,000 
 
 1,545,336 
 
 190,517 
 
 24,454 
 
 4,695,334 
 
 149,399 
 
 51,336 
 
 562,344 
 
 309,024 
 
 640,516 
 
 660,870 
 
 148,392 
 
 259,313 
 
 200,610 
 
 659,081 
 
 21 
 
 6,000 
 
 9,567 
 
 232,315 
 
 672,300 
 
 16,150 
 
 468 
 
 47 
 
 61,760 
 
 50,000 
 
 1,600 
 
 323,437 
 678,600 
 '383,328 
 26,215 
 86,831 
 978,000 
 
 8,033 
 
 275,518 
 
 106,261 
 
 56,000 
 
 7,633 
 
 700 
 
 Population 
 
 363,638 
 
 78,400,000 
 
 5,770 
 
 16,302,625 
 
 4,158.7o7 
 
 1,712,628 
 
 2,510,494 
 
 10,510,000 
 
 1962,38 
 
 3,864,848 
 
 1,078,281 
 
 9,000, 
 
 4,000, 
 
 25,000, 
 
 192,012, 
 
 4,000, 
 
 2,081, 
 
 477,500, 
 
 35,000, 
 
 14,168, 
 
 11,000. 
 
 6,298, 
 
 7,870, 
 
 16,463, 
 
 Title of Ruler. 
 
 3,000,000 
 2,921,846 
 
 566.158 
 
 7,465,000 
 
 6,939 
 
 262,000 
 
 715,500 
 5.000,000 
 2,750,000 
 
 193,103 
 
 41,497 
 
 6,444 
 
 750,000 
 2,000,000 
 
 380,000 
 
 447,620 
 ] 09,897 
 176,293 
 
 98,455 
 703.817 
 
 21,065 
 
 200,000 
 1,000,000' 
 220,092- 
 2,250,000 
 62,959 
 15,000 
 
 Czar. 
 
 Repub. 
 
 Repub. 
 
 King. 
 
 President. 
 
 Sultan. 
 
 Prince. 
 
 Prince. 
 
 Prince. 
 
 Emperor. 
 
 Gov. Gen. 
 
 Comm. 
 
 Governor. 
 
 Emperor. 
 
 Mikado. 
 
 Gov. Gen. 
 
 Shah. 
 
 King. 
 
 Emperor. 
 
 Gov. Gen. 
 
 Governor. 
 
 Viceroy. 
 
 Administrator. 
 
 Administrator. 
 
 President. 
 
 Queen. 
 
 Sultan. 
 
 Lt, Gov. 
 
 Governor. 
 
 Goveruoi. 
 
 Bey. 
 
 Bex . 
 
 bult:;n. 
 
 Governor. 
 Capt. Gen, 
 Governor. 
 Governo^r, , 
 Capt. Gep. V) 
 G yvornpr. ^ • 
 
 King., . ; ./ 
 
 Governor. ' 
 
 King, 
 Queen. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Fr. & Sp. used for France & Spain. Eng.&Sco.used fo^ England &Sc^^^^^^^ 
 
 Am. 
 Egt. 
 Sar. 
 Gr. 
 Eas, 
 Mis. 
 
 America. 
 '« " Egypt. 
 " " Saracens. 
 " " Greece. 
 Em. " " Eastern Empire. 
 " " Miscellaneous. 
 
 Column. Page. 
 
 Assyria • I 
 
 Astyages Per 
 
 Aristides Gr 
 
 Artimisia ■ Per 
 
 Artaxerxes Per 
 
 Ariaspes ..■• - - ^"^ 
 
 Alexander, the Great. Per 
 
 Appelles Gr 
 
 Aristotle Gr 
 
 Arebella, Battle of. . - Per 
 
 Archimedes Rom — 
 
 Ai-atus ^r 
 
 Antony, Mark Uom... 
 
 Actium, Bittle of Rom. . . 
 
 Agrippa, Marcus Rom . • • 
 
 Ambrose Rom... 
 
 Augustine Rom ... 
 
 Arcadius Rom 
 
 Alaric Rom... 
 
 Augustulus Rom... 
 
 Alexandria Sar 
 
 Alfred, the Great ng... 
 
 Athelstan Eng .. 
 
 Arnold Cen.E 
 
 Abdalrahman . . Sar . 
 
 Alexius ^en-S 
 
 Albert ?,«."• ^ 
 
 Alhambra W'^ W 
 
 Angelo, Michael. Cen.E 
 
 Ariosto Cen.E. 
 
 Aviles Am ... 
 
 Australia Mis .. 
 
 Andross, Edmund j^^-n 
 
 Annie, Queen G. Br 
 
 Addison ^- ^V 
 
 Aix-la-Chapelle Cen. E 
 
 Abo. Peace of . . iNor. E 
 
 American Revolution. Am • ■ 
 Adams, John Am • • . 
 
 Nor. E. 
 Cen. E 
 Rom. 
 Car. 
 Rus. 
 
 Northern Europe. 
 Central Europe. 
 Rome. 
 Carthage. 
 Russia. 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 11 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 U 
 
 U 
 
 U 
 
 14 
 
 U 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 , 19 
 
 , 21 
 
 , 25 
 
 27 
 
 , 31 
 
 . 31 
 
 . 32 
 
 . 35 
 
 . 36 
 
 38 
 
 . 38 
 
 . 39 
 
 . 39 
 
 . 40 
 
 . 40 
 
 Antoinette. Marie Fr 
 
 Ancients, Council of. . Fr 
 Arkwright ... 
 
 Column. Page. 
 Austerlitz, Battle of. Cen E . • . . 4-> 
 
 Auerstadt. Battle of. Cen E 4-^ 
 
 Alexander I Rus^ f 
 
 Adams, John Q U. S 44 
 
 Atkinson, Gen U. S 44 
 
 Arago Fr 44 
 
 African Explor ^^ Mis 4o 
 
 American Civil War. U. S 46 
 
 Alexander II Rus 47 
 
 AlmaBattleof Rus 47 
 
 Alaska Rus 47 
 
 Australia Mis 47 
 
 Brennus Rom 4 
 
 Beneventum, Battle of.Rom b 
 
 Bagoas P^r 7 
 
 Bessus P^^r 7 
 
 Berenice Egt 10 
 
 Brutus Rom 11 
 
 Belisarus R >iu lo 
 
 Becket, Thomas.. Eng . . ■ 22 
 
 B.ieon, Roger Eng. it S-o. 24 
 
 Bruce, Robert Eng. & Sc-o. 26 
 
 BalioUJohn Eng. ^bco. 24 
 
 Baldwin Hen. E ^ • 2& 
 
 Bhxck Prince E g. & Sco. 26 
 
 Bajazet Mis 27 
 
 Koccacio Mis .^ . ^i 
 
 Barnet, Battle of Eng. & Sco. 28 
 
 Bosworth, Battle of. • . Eng. & Sco. 28 
 
 Balboa... Am ■■■ -30 
 
 Bayard, Chevalier Fr. & Sp .. 30 
 
 Boleyn, Annie Eng. & fcco. 30 
 
 Bartholomew, Massa 
 
 ere of 
 
 Fr. & Sp 
 
 30 
 
 Bourbon, House of. Fr. & Sp . 32 
 
 Bacon, Francis Eng. & Sco. 32 
 
 Baltimore, Lord Am 34 
 
 Biffin, William Mis v, • ' -^ 
 
 Bnssuet. Fr. & Sp . • 3b 
 
 Boileau Fr. & Sp • 3b 
 
 Barebone'sParliamentG. Br 
 
 G. Br. ' '. '. '. . '. 40 I Butler G.Bv. 
 
 B6 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Column. Page. 
 
 Bunyan, John Gr. Br 36 
 
 Bill of Rights G.Bt 36 
 
 Buffon ¥r 40 
 
 Burgoyne G.Br 40 
 
 Burke, Edmund U Br 40 
 
 Bums; Robert (x. Br 40 
 
 Brindley . G.Br 40 
 
 Bentham ..G.Br. 40 
 
 Black Hole Mis 41 
 
 Bass Strait. Mis 41 
 
 Brown, Gen U. S 42 
 
 Bonaparte, Napoleon. .Fr 42 
 
 Bank of Fra ce Er 42 
 
 Blucher G.Br 42 
 
 Borodino, Battle of . Rus 43 
 
 Brazil Mis 43 
 
 Bolivar, Simon Mis 43 
 
 Bonaparte, Joseph Mis 43 
 
 Black Hawk U. S 44 
 
 Brewster, David G. Br 44 
 
 Brunei G. Br 44 
 
 Beethoven Cen. E 45 
 
 Back Mis 45 
 
 Buchanan, James U. S 46 
 
 Burnside, Gen ...U. S 46 
 
 Beaureguard U . S 46 
 
 Bismarck Cen. E 46 
 
 Bengal Rebellion Mis 47 
 
 Chaldea 1 
 
 Carthage 1 
 
 Cambyses • Per 3 
 
 Cyrus, the Great .. ...Per — 3 
 
 Croesus Per 3 
 
 Coriolanus Rom 4 
 
 C.incinnatus Rom 4 
 
 Claudius Rom 4 
 
 Cimon Gr 5 
 
 Gunaxa, Battle of Per 5 
 
 Camillas Rom 6 
 
 Chaeronea, Battle of . Gr 7 
 
 Cato, the Censor. Rom 8 
 
 Cannoe, B.ittle of . ... Car 9 
 
 Cleopatra Egt 10 
 
 Caesar, Julius Rom.' 11 
 
 Cataline Rom 11 
 
 Crassus Rom 11 
 
 Cicero Rom 11 
 
 Cassius Rom 11 
 
 Catullus Rom 12 
 
 Caligula Rom... 12 
 
 Cfaudina Rom 12 
 
 Constantine, the Great. Rom 13 
 
 Chrysostom . Rom 14 
 
 Clovis Fr 16 
 
 CqIossus Sar 17 
 
 Charlemagne Fr 18 
 
 Charles, the Bald Fr 18 
 
 Charles, the Simple. .. Fr 18 
 
 Coprad Cen. E 19 
 
 Capet, Hugh Fr 20 
 
 Column. Page. 
 
 Ganute Eng 20 
 
 Conmore, Malcolm Eng 20 
 
 Conrad III Cen. E 23 
 
 Chivalry Mis 23 
 
 Charles IV Fr 26 
 
 Crecy, Battle of Fr 26 
 
 Charles V, Fr 26 
 
 Charles VI — Fr 26 
 
 Chaucer Eng 26 
 
 Compass, the Mis 27 
 
 Charles VII Fr. &Sp....28 
 
 Charles VIII Fr & Sp 28 
 
 Cade, Jack Eng. & Sco. 28 
 
 Constance, Council of. .Cen. E 29 
 
 Columbus, Christopher Mis 29 
 
 Cabots.John <fe Sebas- 
 tian Mis 28 
 
 Cortez Am 30 
 
 Charles V .... • Fr. &Sp.... 30 
 
 Crespy, Peace of. .Fr. & Sp. . . . 30 
 
 Cabiis Fr. &Sp.... 30 
 
 Church of England.... Eng. & Sco. 30 
 
 Cranmer Eng. & Sco. 30 
 
 Copernicus Cen. E. . 31 
 
 Christian III Nor. E 31 
 
 Ceylon Mis 31 
 
 Cervantes Fr. &Sp.... 32 
 
 Calvanists Cen. E 33 
 
 Charles I .Eng. & Sco. 34 
 
 Conde Cen. E 35 
 
 Christian IV Nor. E 35 
 
 Clarendon Am 36 
 
 CorneiUe Fr. & Sp • • 36 
 
 Cromwell, Olivar Eng. & Sco. 36 
 
 Charles II , .Eng. & Sco. 38 
 
 Christina Nor. E 37 
 
 Culloden, Battle- of. G, Br, 38 
 
 Charles XII Nor. E 39 
 
 Cornwallis, Lord G. Br 40 
 
 Catharine II Rus 41 
 
 Clive Mis 41 
 
 Crompton Mis . 41 
 
 Cotton Gin Mis 41 
 
 Cook, Captain Mis 41 
 
 Consulate, The ... Fr 42 
 
 Confederation of the 
 
 Rhine. Cen. E... 43 
 
 Clay. Henry U. S 44 
 
 Calhoun. John. .U. S 44 
 
 Charles X Fr 44 
 
 Comte . . . Fr 44 
 
 Cavaignac, Gen Fr 44 
 
 Catholic Association G. Br 44 
 
 Coleridge . G. Br 44 
 
 Campbell G. Br .44 
 
 Com Laws G. Br .44 
 
 Cuvier Cnn. E ... 45 
 
 China Mis 45 
 
 Chartists G. Br 46 
 
 Cavour, Count Cen. E 47 
 
INDEX. 
 
 CoLUMX. Page. 
 
 Crimean War Rus • 47 
 
 Campbell, Sir Colin .... Mis 47 
 
 Diana, Temple of Rom '2 
 
 Draev (ir 3 
 
 Darius for 7 
 
 Decius Rom 6 
 
 Demostlienes Ur 7 
 
 Diogenes ..(ir 7 
 
 Dunstan Eng 18 
 
 Dante . •• Cen. E 25 
 
 D'Albret Fr. Sc Sp ... 28 
 
 Diaz, Bartholomeu Mis 29 
 
 De Soto, Ferdinand — Am ,30 
 
 Diet of Worms Cen. E 31 
 
 DietofSpires Cen. E 31 
 
 Dures Con. E 31 
 
 Drake, Francis Eng. «fe Sco. 32 
 
 Darnley, Lord Eng. & Sco. 32 
 
 Davis' Strait Mis . . .33 
 
 Day, Stephen .Am 34 
 
 Descartes Fr. & Sp 34 
 
 Dryden John G. Br. 36 
 
 DdRuyter C^n. E 37 
 
 De Kilb Am . . ..40 
 
 D'Alembert Fr 40 
 
 Danton Fr 40 
 
 Dii-ectory Fr 40 
 
 Decatur, Com U. S 42 
 
 Dom Pedro Mis 43 
 
 Davy, Humphrey Gr. Br 44 
 
 Donizetti Cen. E 45 
 
 Dore, Grustave Fr 46 
 
 Dickens G. Br 36 
 
 Euripides Gr 5 
 
 Epaminondas Gr 7 
 
 Egbert Eng 18 
 
 Ethalvvolf Eng 18 
 
 Ethebald . Eng 18 
 
 Ethelred Eng 18 
 
 Ethelbert , Eng 18 
 
 Edmund Eng 18 
 
 Edred Eng 18 
 
 Edwy Eng 20 
 
 Edgar Eng 20 
 
 Edward I Eng 24 
 
 Edward III Eng. ... 26 
 
 EdwardlV Eng. .t Sc-o 28 
 
 E irl of Warwick Eng. & Sco. 28 
 
 Edward VI Eng. & Sso. 30 
 
 Elizabeth, Queen Encr. & Sco. 32 
 
 E.ist India Company . . Mis . . . 33 
 
 Edict of Nantes Fr&Sp.... 34 
 
 Eleanora Nor. E 39 
 
 Everett, Edward U. S 44 
 
 English Reforms G. Br. 44 
 
 First Triumvirate Rom 11 
 
 First Crusade Fr 20 
 
 Feudalism Mis 21 
 
 Frederick Barbarossa. Cen. E i3 
 
 Falkirk, Battle of Eng 24 
 
 COULMN. PaGE.> 
 
 Frederick II Cen. E 25 
 
 Furst Cen. E 27 
 
 Ferdinand Fr. &Sp.... 28 
 
 Frederick III Cen. E 29 
 
 Faust, John Cen. E 29 
 
 Francis I Fr. & Sp • . -30 
 
 Flodden Field, Battle ofEng. & Sco. 30 
 
 Francis II Fr. & Sp . . . . 32 
 
 Fenelon Fr. & Sp. . . . 36 
 
 Fontainbleau Nor. E 37 
 
 Fielding G. Br 38 
 
 Frederick III Cen. E 39 
 
 Frederick William Cen. E 39 
 
 First Silesian War ....Cen.E ^ 
 
 French & Indian War. .Am ,. . 40 
 
 Franklin, Benjamin. . .Am 40 
 
 Five Hundred, Council 
 
 of Fr 40 
 
 Frederick the Great Cen. E 41 
 
 Francis II Cen. E 41 
 
 Fulton, Robert U. S 42 
 
 Frederick William III Cen. E 43 
 
 Francia, Dr Mis 43 
 
 Ferdinand VII Mis 43 
 
 Filmore, Millard ..U. S 44 
 
 Frederick William IV. Cen. E .... 45 
 
 Franklin, Sir John Mis 45 
 
 French Republic. Fr 46 
 
 Franco-Prussian War.. Cen. E 47 
 
 Frankfort, Peace of. ...Cen. E 47 
 
 Granicus, B.ittle of. . . Per 7 
 
 Grachus, Caius & Tibe- 
 
 ^ rius Rom 11 
 
 Gralba Rom 12 
 
 (Valerius Rom 13 
 
 Gregory, Nazienzen Rom 14 
 
 Gregory, Pope Fr 20 
 
 Godfrey of Bouillon... Fr 20 
 
 Gisors, Battle of Fr 22 
 
 Guiscard, Roger Cen.E 23 
 
 Genghis Khan Mis 25 
 
 Garter, Order of Eng 26 
 
 (iessler Cen. E 27 
 
 Guelphs Cen.E . ..27 
 
 Ghibellines Cen. E 27 
 
 G .Iden Bull Cen. E 27 
 
 Guttenburg, John Cen.E 29 
 
 Good Hope, Cape of . . . . Mis 29 
 
 Gama, Vascade — Mis 29 
 
 Gust.ivus Vasa Nor. E 31 
 
 Gilbert, Humphrey ...Am 32 
 
 Grey, Lady Jane Eng. & Sco. 32 
 
 Galileo Cen. E 33 
 
 Gunpowder Plot Eng. & Sco. 34 
 
 Gustavus Adolphus Nor. E 35 
 
 Garibaldi, Joseph Cen. E 47 
 
 George I G. Br 38 
 
 George II ... G.Br 38 
 
 Green, Gen Am 40 
 
 Gullotine Fr 40 
 
INDEX. 
 
 COI.IMN. PaGK. 
 
 George III G.Br 40 
 
 Gains orough G. Br AJ 
 
 Gibbon, EJw^ird G.Br 40 
 
 Goia<iurtli .. G Br .... - 40 
 
 Galvaui Cen. E ,.- 41 
 
 Ghent, Peace of ...U S -- ^ . 42 
 George IV — G. Br - - . , - 4.: 
 
 Germanic Confed Cen . E ■ - ,.. 45 
 
 Goeth Cen E ... 45 
 
 Gladstone G.Br 4ii 
 
 Grant, Ulysses U. S 4o 
 
 Hostilius, Julius . . Rom ...'.. 2 
 
 Horatius .. Rom 4 
 
 Herodotus Gr , . 5 
 
 Hamik-ar. Car 9 
 
 Hannibal . Car .:. 9 
 
 Hasdrubal Rom ..^. 8 
 
 Herculaneum Rom. . . .'.'.... 12 
 
 Honorius Rom 14 
 
 Hengist Eng 16 
 
 Horsa ..' Eng 16 
 
 Henry, the Fowler Cen. E ....:. 19 
 
 Haroun Al Raschid Sa 19 
 
 Henry I .> Fr ... 20 
 
 Harold II Eng ;..:20 
 
 Hastin--, B.ittle of Eng. ....... .'20 
 
 Henry III Cen. E 21 
 
 Henry IV ..; Cen. E....;.. 21 
 
 Henry I Eng.. l. 22 
 
 Henry II Eng 22 
 
 Henry V Cen. E. ...... 23 
 
 Hanseatic Leasue Cen E.-ji- 23 
 
 Henry the Sharp Cen. E...... 23 
 
 Hapsburg, House of . . Cen. E . 25 , 
 
 Hundred Years' War. Fr 26 
 
 Henry IV Eng 26 
 
 Henry VII Cen. E ..27 
 
 Hotspur Eng & ?co. 28 
 
 Henry V Enfe. & Sod. 28 
 
 Henry VI Eng. & Sco. 28 
 
 Huss.John Cen. E ... 29 
 
 Henry III Fr. & Sp .. 30 
 
 Henry VIII Eng. A: Soo 30 
 
 Holbein Cen. E ... 31 
 
 Huffuenots .'. Fr. .k Sp .',.132 I 
 
 Hnvkins Mis ..•..3] 
 
 Henry IV Yr.&Sn . , 34 I 
 
 Harvey, Dr .Eng. <k Seo; 34 
 
 Hobbs Eng. «k Sc-o. .34 
 
 Hudson Bay . Mis ., 35 
 
 Horn. Cape Mis. .^.jSo 
 
 Hmover, House of G Br .38 
 
 Hane-oek, John Am 40 
 
 Henry, Patrick Am 40 
 
 Howe, Lord G Br 40 
 
 Hnnie G. Br .40 
 
 Hargreaves G. Br 40 
 
 Hubertsbut-g, Peace of-Cen. E 41 
 
 Herchel . . ..'. Cen. E 41 
 
 Handel. Cen. E ,.-. 41 
 
 COLIMX. P.VGE" 
 
 Haydne Cen. E 41 
 
 Hastings. Warren Mis 41 
 
 Hull. Com U.S 42 
 
 Harrison. Gen U. S 42 
 
 lloheuliuden, Battle of.Cen. E 43 
 
 Holy Alliance Cen E 43 
 
 llimilton G. Br 44 
 
 Humboldt ... Cen. E 45 
 
 Hegel ...Cen.E 45 
 
 Hayes, Rutherford. U.S 46 
 
 Hugo, Victor Fr 46 
 
 Issus, B.ittle of Per 7 
 
 Inquisition, Court of .Fr 24 
 
 Innoeeut, Pope Cen.E 25 
 
 Isabella Fr, A: Sp. . . . 28 
 
 India Mis 29 
 
 Invincible Armada Fr. A' Sp 32 
 
 Inkerman, Battle of Bus 47 
 
 Jugurtha Rom 11 
 
 Julian Rom .14 
 
 Jerome . . Rom 14 
 
 Justinian Eas. Em. . . . 17 
 
 John Eng. 24 
 
 Joan of Are Fr. JcSp... 28 
 
 Japan Mis 31 
 
 Jamestown Am .34 
 
 James I Eng. JL- Sco. 34 
 
 Jonson Eng. A" Sco. 34 
 
 James II G. Br 36 
 
 Jefferson, Thomas Amer 40 
 
 Johnson G. Br 40 
 
 Jackson, Gen U.S. 42 
 
 Jena. B.ittle of Cen.E 43 
 
 Jackson, Stonewall U. S. 46 
 
 Johnston, Gen U. S. ...46 
 
 Johnson , Andrew U. S. 46 
 
 Kno.x, John Eng. & Sco. 32 
 
 Kepler Cen. E 35 
 
 King Philip's War Am 36 
 
 King William's War. Am 36 
 
 King George's War Am 38 
 
 Kidd, Captain 'm 36 
 
 Kant Cen. E 41 
 
 Kosciusco Rus 41 
 
 Kleber Fr 42 
 
 Kane, Dr Mis 45 
 
 Lycurgus Gr 3 
 
 Laws of the Twelve Ta- 
 bles Rom .. .. 4 
 
 Leonidas Gr 5 
 
 Licinian Law Rom 6 
 
 Lysander Gr 7 
 
 Lepidus Rom ''■■ . 11 
 
 Livy Rom 12 
 
 Lucretius Rom 12 
 
 Leo III .,. Eas. Em. . . . 17 
 
 Lothair CenE...... 21 
 
 Louis VI Fr 22 
 
 Louis VII Fr , .... 22 
 
 Louis Vm Fr ., 24 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Column-. Page. 
 
 Lombard, Peter Fr 24 
 
 Lewes Battle of Eng 24 
 
 Leo X Cen. E 31 
 
 Luther, Martin Cen. E 31 
 
 Long Parliament. Eng. & See. 34 
 
 Lutzen, Battle of Xor. E 35 
 
 La Salle Am -.36 
 
 Louis XIV.. Fr. &Sp.... 36 
 
 La Fontaine Fr. &Sp.... 36 
 
 Leibnitz Cen. E ..... 37 
 
 Louis XV Fr. &Sp.... 38 
 
 Linnaeus Xor. E. 39 
 
 Lee, Henry Am 40 
 
 Lafiiyette Am ... 40 
 
 Laplace Fr 40 
 
 Lavoisier Fr 40 
 
 Louis XVI Fr 40 
 
 Luneville. Peace of Fr 42 
 
 Louis VIII Fr 42 
 
 Leipsic, Battle of Cen. E-.i.. 43 
 
 Louis Philippe Fr 44 
 
 Louis Xapoleon Fr ;... 44 
 
 Living.'^ton. Dr Mis 45 
 
 Lincoln, Abraham U. S .'. . 46 
 
 Lee, Oen U. S 46 
 
 Martins, Aneus Rom .'■■ .. 2 
 
 Marathon, Battle of. . . .Gr 5 
 
 Milti.ides Gr '.'.'. 5 
 
 Mardonius Gr .'.4. 5 
 
 Mycale, Battle of Gr 5 
 
 Ma-as Eg't 6 
 
 Mantinea, Battle of — Gr 7 
 
 Marcellus Rom 8 
 
 Metellus Gr 9 
 
 Marlus Rom 11 
 
 Midthridates .Rom 11 
 
 Ma.ventius Rom ..' 12 
 
 Maliomet Sar .-^ 17 
 
 Martel, Charles Fr 16 
 
 Ma^naCharta Eng 24 
 
 Meletald Cen. E '.•27 
 
 Mor-arten, Battle of. ...Cen. E .'27 
 
 Margaret Mis 27 
 
 Moors Fr. &Sp -.-''28 
 
 Medieis Cen. E -.'29 
 
 Mahomet II Cen. E .....-'29 
 
 Ma.ximilian ' en. E . . I"." 29 
 
 Montezuma Am .'. 30 
 
 Ma-rellan Am . .. ... 30 
 
 Mauielukes Mis 31 
 
 Mohatz, Battle of Mis ..'... 31 
 
 Montaign Fr. & Sp ... 32 
 
 Mary, Bloody Eng. Ac Seo. 32 
 
 Mary, Queen of Seots Eng. cfc Seo. 32 
 
 Mazarin Fr. A; Sp . . 36 
 
 Moliere Fr. ct Sp ". . . 36 
 
 ' Murilo Fr. A Sp- . . . 36 
 
 Milton G. Br .... 36 
 
 - Monteiquseu Fr 40 
 
 Marat Fr 40 
 
 I Column-. Pagr: 
 
 ! Mozart Cen. E 41 
 
 Mule jenny Mis 41 
 
 ; Madison, James U; S 42 
 
 ; Maedonough, Com .U. S 42 
 
 Monroe. James U. S 42 
 
 Marengo, Battle of . - Cen. E i 43 
 
 ; Mosc w, Burning of . Rus — j.... 43 
 
 ; Mexico Mis . - •.'^.., 43 
 
 Morse .. U. S .....!■ 4«t 
 
 ! Mexican War U. S ..=^...ii.44 
 
 Macaulay G. Br f,.44 
 
 Mendelsohn Cen . E'. . . . ..- 44 
 
 Moore G. Br 44 
 
 McClellan, Gen U. S 46 
 
 Mill, John S G. Br 46 
 
 Magenta, Battle of . . -Cen. E *7 
 
 Moltke, Gen. von Cen. E — ..47 
 
 Ximrod 1 
 
 Nebuchadnezzar Eg't i 2 
 
 Numa Rom 2 
 
 Nicias, Peace of Gr 5 
 
 Xero Rom 12 
 
 Xewfoundland Mis 29 
 
 Xero of the North Xor. E .. .31 
 
 New Guinea Mis 31 
 
 Xetherlands Cen. E 33 
 
 Northwest Passage Mis .33 
 
 Napier Eng. <t Seo. 34 
 
 Xaseby, Bittle of Eng. & Seo. S4 
 
 NewZ.-aland Mis ...So 
 
 Navigation Act - . Am 36 
 
 Nimeguen , P >ace of . . . Fr. it Sp — 36 
 
 Newton. Sir Isaac G- Br ....36 
 
 Narva, Bittla of Xor E 39 
 
 Xelson, Lord G. Br 40 
 
 Xile, Battle of G.Br ...40 
 
 Napoleonic Wars. Cen. E 43 
 
 Xational Assembly.. Cen. E 45 
 
 Xicholas Rus 45 
 
 Xapoloan III Fr 46 
 
 Olympiad First Gr 3 
 
 Oehus Per 5 
 
 Octavius Rom ..-. 11 
 
 Odoacer Rom 13 
 
 Omar Sar j. 17 
 
 Omen Sar ...17 
 
 Oxford Eng . 18 
 
 Otho, the Great Cen. E 19 
 
 Otho IV Cen. E -.25 
 
 Othman Mis 27 
 
 Oliva. Peace of . Xor. E .... 37 
 
 Offlethorpe .Am u . 38 
 
 Ohio V.i Hey Claims - Am - - 38 
 
 Oceola .. U. S 44 
 
 Orleans, House of ir .44 
 
 O'Connell, Daniel G. Br 44 
 
 Opium Traffic Mis 45 
 
 Plicenicians - . 1 
 
 Psammetiehus Eg't 2 
 
 Pharaoh Xecho Eg't 2 
 
INDEX. 
 
 CoLCMX. Page. 
 
 Pisistratus . . Gr 3 
 
 Phraortes Per 3 
 
 Piiusanias Gr 5 
 
 Plato, Battle of Gr 5 
 
 Pericles Gr 5 
 
 Plato Gr 5 
 
 Peloponnesian War . Gr — 5 
 
 Ptolemies Eg't ... 6,8,10 
 
 Pyrrhus Rom 6 
 
 Philip Gr 7 
 
 Parhasius Gr 7 
 
 Polyerates Eg't; 8 
 
 Punic Wars Rom 8 
 
 Perseus Gr 9 
 
 Pydna, Battle of Gr 9 
 
 Pompey Rom 11 
 
 Pharsilia, B :ttle of. . . Rom 11 
 
 Philippi, B.ttlo of .Rom.... 11 
 
 Pompei Rom 12 
 
 Pliny .. Rom 12 
 
 Plutarch Rom 12 
 
 Pharamand Fr 16 
 
 Pepin Fr 16 
 
 Peter, the Hermit Fr 20 
 
 Philip Augustus Fr 22 
 
 Plantaffcnt, House of. Eng. ....... . 22 
 
 Philip the ll.irdy. Fr 24 
 
 Philip the Fair Fr 2-t 
 
 Paleologus, John Cen. E 25 
 
 Polo, Marco Mis ^ 
 
 Philip IV Fr 26 
 
 Philip V Fr 26 
 
 Poitiers, Battle of Fr 26 
 
 Petrarch Mis 27 
 
 Printing Cen. E 29 
 
 Ponce de Leon Am 30 
 
 Pizarro Am. 30 
 
 Pavia, seige of Fr. .k Sp . . - 30 
 
 Pocahontas Am 34 
 
 Puritans Am 34 
 
 Petition of Rights Eng. & Sco. 34 
 
 Penn. William Am... ;% 
 
 Pascal Fr. &Sp . 36 
 
 Peter, the Great Mis 37 
 
 Pope G. Br 38 
 
 Prior G. Br ... 38 
 
 Pretender the G. Br ..... 38 
 
 Pitt, William . G. Br 38 
 
 Pultowa, Battle of Nor. E 39 
 
 Paris, Tre.-<ty of Am 40 
 
 Putnam, Gen Am 40 
 
 Partition of Poland. ...Rus 41 
 
 Paul Rus 41 
 
 Preble, Com U. S 42 
 
 Perry, Com... U. S 42 
 
 Pushkin Rus 43 
 
 Panic of '37 U. S 44 
 
 Parlimentai-y Reform 
 
 Bill G. Br 44 
 
 Poles Rus 45 
 
 Column. Page. 
 
 Parry Mis , 45 
 
 Panic of '73 U. S 46 
 
 Quakers Am 36 
 
 Queen Annie's War Am 38 
 
 Romulus Rom .... 2 
 
 Regulus Rom 8 
 
 Rubicon, the .,.Rom 11 
 
 Robert Fr 20 
 
 Richard Coeur de Lion Eng 22 
 
 Roscelin . . . Fr 24 
 
 Rudolph Cen.E 25 
 
 Richard II Eng 26 
 
 Reformation the.... . Cen. E 31 
 
 Raphael Cen. E 31 
 
 Raleigh, Sir Walter . Eng. dz .^co. 32 
 Richelieu, Cardinal .. Fr. A:Sp.... 34 
 
 Rochell, siege of. Fr. <k Sp — 34 
 
 Rubeni Cen.E ... 35 
 
 Raciene Fr. ct 8p — 34 
 
 Ryswick, Peace of. Fr. c\rSp.... 36 
 
 Restoration, the G. Br 36 
 
 Rembrant Cen.E ....37 
 
 Romanotf, House of — Mis 37 
 
 Richardson G. Br 38 
 
 Rosseau Fr 40 
 
 Robespierre Fr 40 
 
 Reign of Terror Fr 40 
 
 Reynold's, Joshun G. Br ... 40 
 
 Reign of Terror in SpainMis 43 
 
 Richter Cen, E 45 
 
 Ross, Captain Mis 45 
 
 Rai, Dr ... Mis 45 
 
 Snepherd Kings 1 
 
 Sabines Rom 2 
 
 Solon Gr 3 
 
 Salamis, Battle of. — Gr 5 
 
 Sophocles Gr 5 
 
 Socrates Gr 5 
 
 Sogdianus Per 5 
 
 Samnites Rom 6 
 
 Second Punic War Rom 8 
 
 Seipes Rom 8 
 
 Sulla Rom 11 
 
 Sallust Rom 12 
 
 Saxon Heptarchy Eng 16 
 
 Sweyne. Eng, 20 
 
 Solyman >l is 21 
 
 Second Crusade.. Fr 22 
 
 Saladin "Mis 23 
 
 St. Louis. .Fr 24 
 
 Sicillian Vespers, Mas- 
 sacre. .Mis — 25 
 
 Switzerland Cen. E 27 
 
 Slaffiich Cen. E 27 
 
 StarChambe, Court of.Eng. Sc Sco. 28 
 
 Sigismund Cen. E 29 
 
 Schfeflfer. Peter Cen. E 29 
 
 Selim Mis 31 
 
 Solyman the Magnifi- 
 cent Mis 31 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Column*. Page. 
 
 St. Agustine Am 32 
 
 Shakespeare, "William .Eng. & Sco. 32 
 
 bydney Eng. «k fcjco. 3: 
 
 Spencer Eng. «k Sco. 32 
 
 Solomon Isles Mis 33 
 
 Siberia Mis 33 
 
 Smitu, Captain John. ..Am. . 34 
 
 Slavery Am 34 
 
 Spinoza Cen. E 37 
 
 Steele G. Br 38 
 
 Swift G. Br 38 
 
 South Sea Bubble G. Br 38 
 
 Second bilesiua AVar ..ten.E 39 
 
 St, Petersburg Mis 39 
 
 Sterne G. Br 40 
 
 Smith G. Br 40 
 
 Seven Years' War Cen. E 41 
 
 Schiller Cen. E 41 
 
 Spinning jenny Mis 41 
 
 ' ' frame Mis 41 
 
 Sandwich Isles .... — Mis 41 
 
 Sunday schools Mis 41 
 
 Scott, Gen U. S. - • . 42, 44: 
 
 Seminole War U. S 44 
 
 Scott, Walter G. Br 44 
 
 Stephenson, George — G. Br 44 
 
 Sherman, Gen U. S 46 
 
 Solferins, B.ittleof ....Cen. E 47 
 
 Six Weeks' War Cen. E 47 
 
 Sedan, Battle of Cen. E 47 
 
 Sebastopol Rus 47 
 
 Tarquinius .Rom 2 
 
 TuUius, Servius Rom. 
 
 Tarquiu, the Proud Rom. 
 
 Theniistoeles .- Gr .. 
 
 Thucydides '...Gr .. 
 
 Torqu.itus Rom. 
 
 Timauthes Gr ■ . 
 
 Third Punic War. Rom 8 
 
 Thapsus, Battle of . . .Rom. 
 
 Titus Rom. 
 
 T:citus Rom. .. 
 
 Theodosius Rom . . . 
 
 Taeodoric Rom. . . 
 
 Third Crusade Fr . . . 
 
 Templars Eng 
 
 Tyler, Wat Eng .. 
 
 Tell, William Cen.E. 
 
 Tamerlane Mis 
 
 11 
 12 
 12 
 14 
 15 
 22 
 22 
 2<3 
 27 
 27 
 Tudor. House of Eng. & Sco. 30 
 
 3:3 
 
 ai 
 
 36 
 
 a5 
 
 36 
 39 
 43 
 44 
 44 
 
 Trent Council of Cen. E . 
 
 Tasso Cen. E 
 
 Tych-Brahe Nor. E- 
 
 Thirty Years' War Cen.E- 
 
 Turenne Cen. E- 
 
 Taylor Gr Br. 
 
 Theresa, Maria Cen. E. 
 
 Tilset, Peace of Cen. B. 
 
 Uyler, John U. S... 
 
 Taylor, Zachary U. S .. 
 
 Column. Pagb 
 
 Turner G. Br 44 
 
 Teorwaldsen Cen E 45 
 
 Thiers, M Pr 4B 
 
 Thackaray U. Br 43 
 
 Tennyson, Alfred G.Br 46 
 
 Turko-Russian War ..Kus .. ... 4^7 
 Utrecht, Peace of t v. &: ky. . . cA 
 
 Unification of Italy . L^^n. h 47 
 
 Virginia Rom 4 
 
 Valerius Rom . . 4 
 
 Virgil J om . . . 12 
 
 Vitellius Rom 12 
 
 Vespasian uom . . 12 
 
 Vespucius, Americus Mis. .29 
 
 Vandyck .... s en. E 35 
 
 Voltaire Ir 40 
 
 VanBuren, Martin L. S •• ... 44 
 Victo ia, Queen G. Er .46 
 
 Victor Emanuel . Cen.E 47 
 
 William the Conqueror. Eng .20 
 
 William II Eng 20 
 
 Wallace, William Eng . 24 
 
 Wahlestat, Battle of .Mis 25 
 
 AV^ickliffe, John Eng 26 
 
 War of the Roses Eng ...28 
 
 Wolsey, Cardinal Eng & Sco. 30 
 
 White, Captain Am 32 
 
 William of Orange Cen.E .. 33 
 
 White Sea Mis 53 
 
 Winthrop, John Am 34 
 
 Williams, Roger Am 34 
 
 Witchcraft Am . 34 
 
 Walledstein Cen.E 35 
 
 Westphalia, Peace of. Cen. E .35 
 
 Worcester, Battle of. . . Eng. & Sco. 36 
 
 William and Mary G. Br .36 
 
 War of Spanish Succes- 
 sion Fr. cfeSp ... 38 
 
 Walpole, Robert G. Br 38 
 
 War of the Austrian 
 
 Succession G. Br 38 
 
 Washington, George... Am 40 
 
 Wedgwood G. Br 40 
 
 Watt, James Mis 41 
 
 AVhitney, Esli Mis 41 
 
 War of 1S22 U S 42 
 
 War with Tripoli U. S i2 
 
 Wellington, Duke of .G. Br 42 
 
 Wagram. Battle of ... Cen. E 43 
 
 Waterloo, Battle of ...Cen E ^i 
 
 Webster, Daniel U. S 44 
 
 Wordsworth G. Br 44 
 
 Weber Cen.E 45 
 
 AVeissenburt', Battle of. Cen. E 47 
 
 AV'orth, Battle of Cen. E 47 
 
 Xenophon Gr 5 
 
 Xerxes Per 5 
 
 Zama, Battle of Car 8 
 
 Zeno Rom 15 
 
 Zollverin Cen- E 45