JI^H IB HH HH mm ■ MH1II HIDH Wm mm Hi HI JIUHHBL_ HhHHHBH IHHHHh ■ Hi HE iiiiliiiiii ■ IHBHR1 iiii IH HUBHl HHI HhHEI wBmm 1IBH KiinnHHiiiiii &l ^ov .°«S mar. +mJ OUTLINES OF GENERAL. HISTORY, TSS THREE PARTS: t. ANCIENT HISTORY. II. MODERN HISTORY III. AMERICAN HISTORY. DESIGNED FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS ANI> ACADEMIES. H BY CHARSiES YALE. ROCHESTER, N.Y.: PRINTED BY E. PECK & CO. 1830, Northern District of Neiv- York, to wit : -*»«*$«♦ BE IT REMEMBERED, that on the twenty-ninth day of xJl. s.# September, in the fifty-fourth year of the Independence of the #-$<*5*<#> United States of America, A. L). 1829, Charles Yale, of the said district, hath deposited in this office the title of a book, the right whereof he claims as author, in the words following, to wit : " Outlines of General History, in three parts: I. Ancient History. II. Modern History. III. American History. Designed for the use of Schools and Academies. By Charles Yale." In conformity to the act of the Congress of the United States, entitled 11 An act for the encouragement of learning, by securing the copies of Maps, Charts, and Books, to the authors and proprietors of such copies, during the times therein mentioned;" and also, to the act entitled "An act supplementary to an act entitled *' An act for the encouragement of learning, by securing the copies of Maps, Charts, and Books, to the au- thors and proprietors of such copies, during the times therein mentioned,'' and extending the benefits thereof to the arts of Designing, Engraving and Etching historical and other prints " R. R. LANSING, Clerk of the District Court for the Northern District of Neiv-Yor/r> 67£ PREFACE, A correct knowledge of past events, has ever been con ^idered as an important acquisition, not less interesting to the husbandman and the mechanick, than to the statesman and the politician. Early, therefore, to lead the minds of children and youth to an acquaintance with those events, is an object worthy of assiduous attention. But hitherto, the study of history has not generally formed any part of the course of education pursued in our common schools ; and hence, as most of our American youth enter early upon the active and laborious scenes of life, in which they find few opportunities of improving their minds, a very imperfect acquaintance with the history of their own country, or of other countries, is too often found among our citizens. One difficulty, and probably the principal one experienced in making general history a part of a common school education, has been the want of a work on the subject, suited to the capacities and the circumstances of children. An elementary work, in order to be extensively useful, must be sim- ple, both in its arrangement and style, so that it may neither perplex nor discourage the learner. A dry, intricate treatise, will never interest and please the minds of the young ; and hence we so often find difficulty in confining their attention to the study of grammar, arithmetick, &e. In these studies, the young mind finds nothing to interest or amuse, and it therefore often happens, that after several months constant drilling upon them, the student knows but little more respecting them, than when he commenced. The consequence is, that he becomes discouraged, acquires a disrelish for all study, together with ha- bits of idleness, disappoints the expectations of his friends, and comes into active life with but a slender stock of information to qualify him for usefulness or happiness. IV PREFACE. Many years experience in teaching, united with attentive ob servation, has convinced the author of the truth of the above remarks ; and to remove in some measure the ground of the discouragements above named, as well as to supply the deficiency in regard to a suitable general history for ->- PART I. AWCIEJST HISTORY. Page Sec. 1 Earliest authentick Records. Antiquity of the Scriptures. Primeval Ages, - - - 9 £ Nature of the early Governments, - 11 3 The Egyptians and Phoenicians, - - - 14 4 Greece, ------- 15 5 Grecian Colonies and Republicks, - - 17 6 Persian Empire, till the war with Greece, - £0 7 Philip of Macedon, Alexander the Great. Fall of Greece, ££ Sec. 8 The History of Rome, - £6 Sec. 9 Carthage. Sicily. PunickWars, - £9 Sec. 10 Gracchi. Civil Wars. Second Triumvirate. Fall of the Republick, - - 31 Sec. 11 Rome under the Emperors, 34 Sec. 12 Progress of Christianity. Extinction of the Roman Empire in the West, 38 Sec. 13 History of the Jews, - - 40 PART II. MODERS HISTORY. Sec. 1 Saracen Empire. Early ages of France. Em- pire of the East. State of the Church, 45 Sec. £ Empire of the West. Empire of the East. State of the Church, - - - - - 48 Sec. 3 Britain. Norman Conquest. State of Europe, 50 Sec. 4 Crusades. Chivalry. Romance. State of Eu- rope, - 55 Sec. 5 Scotland. England. France. Fall of the Greek Empire, - 59 VI CONTENTS. Sec. G France. Spain. Italy. Scotland, Sec. 7 Progress of Literature. Progress of Commerce. Discoveries of the Portuguese. Charles V. Francis I. .--.-- 67 Sec. 8 Reformation. Ottoman Power. State of Per- sia. India. China. 71 Sec. 9 Spain. Netherlands. France. England, 75 Sec. 10 Commonwealth of England. Charles II. James II. British Constitution. British Revenue, 80 Sec. 11 France. Spain. Constitution of Portugal and Spain. Germany. Lewis XIV. Consti- tution of France, 83 Sec. 12 Peter the Great. Charles XII. of Sweden. Progress of Science, - - - 87 France. England. Austria and Germany, 91 England. State of Europe. Seven years' War, 96 Accession of George III. Dispute with Ame- rica. Opening of the States General, - 102 Austria. France, 108 Great Britain. France, to the Peace of Amiens, 114 France. Spain, Portugal, - - 119 France. Poland. Great Britain, - - 120 France. Koi them States of Europe, - 131 Sec. 21 Southern States of Europe. India, - - 138 Sec. 22 Arts. Sciences. Laws. Government. Re- ligion, - 141 PART III. AMERICAN HISTORY. Sec. 1 Aboriginal America. Language. Manners. Customs, ------ 149 Sec. 2 Discovery of America by Columbus. Discove- ries by other adventurers. London Compa- ny. Plymouth Company, - - - 154 Sec. 3 Colony of Virginia. Settlement of the Dutch. Landing of the Puritans. New-England Confederacy, 160 Sec. i Affairs of the United Colonies. War with the Dutch. King Philip's War. French War of 1639, - 170 Sec. 5 Salem Witchcraft. Peace of Ryswick. Cap- tain Kid. Settlement of Georgia, - 182 Sec. 13 Sec. 14 Sec. 15 Sec. 16 Sec. 17 Sec. 18 Sec. 19 Sec. 20 CONTENTS. Vll Sec. 6 Old French War. Congress at Albany. French War of 1755, - - 191 Sec. 7 Stamp Act. First Congress. Commencement of the Revolutionary War, - - 201 Sec. 8 Declaration of Independence. Treaty with France, 211 Sec. 9 Evacuation of Philadelphia. Capitulation of Charleston. Arrival of the French Fleet, 228 Sec. 10 French Troops arrive at Rhode Island. Battle of Guilford. Capture of Comwallis, - 229 Sec. 11 Termination of the War. Federal Constitu- tion. Jefferson chosen President, - - 240 Sec. 12 War with Tripoli. Difficulties with France and England. Embargo laid. War with Eng- land. Capture of Hull, - 251 Sec. 13 War with England, continued. War with the Creeks, , 262 Sec. 14 Continuation of the War with England. Trea- ty of Peace with Britain, - 278 See. 15 War with Algiers. United States to 1829, - 294 FX.AN OF THE WORK. Each part is divided into sections, each of which embraces the leading events from one distinguished period to another; the sections are divided into paragraphs ; each of which commences with a memorable event, fact, or circumstance. The paragraphs are all numbered, and the ques- tions are also numbered to correspond with the paragraphs. The an- swer to each question is, invariably, to be found in the first words, line, or member of the paragraph ; generally in the precise words in which the scholar is expected to answer. In the American History, a more minute relation of events is given, than in either the Ancient or Mpdern History. For this part of the work also, a second series of questions has been introduced, designed to exer- cise the judgement of the learner in forming the answer, as well as to lead him to a more minute acquaintance with the history of America. These arc expected to be studied after the student shall have learned those which are placed in the body of* the work. SECTION L EARLIEST AUTHENTICK RECORDS. ANTIQUITY OF THE SCRIP- TURES, PRIMEVAL AGES. 1. History is a connected narrative of past and present events : it traces the progress of men from a savage state to a state of civilization ; and is a register of his experience in all ages, as well as a source of practical wisdom to legislators and statesmen, and of instruction and amusement to all class- es of men. When we contemplate the great outlines of his- tory, and reflect upon the important events which have formed the present aspect of the world, we may find abundant matter for observation. 2. History may be divided into General and Particular, Ancient and Modern. General history regards all the nations of the world, as one great family, united by a similarity in their form and features, as well as in their pursuits, wants, and interests. Particular history regards each nation or kingdom separately, and details the events which regard that nation or kingdom only, except as connected with other na- tions, and influenced by them. General history may also be divided into civil and ecclesiastical ; the former, regards men in their several relations to each other ; the latter, considers them as acting, or professing to act, in obedience to what they consider to be the will of God. 3. The books of Moses afford the earliest authentick ac- count of the ages subsequent to the deluge. No other wri- tings can compete the claim of antiquity with them. Moses lived more than one thousand years before Herodotus, the reputed father of Grecian history; and the Greeks themselves admit the priority of the Hebrew writers, for the Greeks ac- 2 10 ANCIENT HISTORY, knowledge that they received the alphabet from the Phoeni- cians, who, in all probability, received it from the Jews. 4. The creation of the world and of man ; the confusion of tongues, and the origin of nations, are some of the events recorded in the Scriptures, of which no other book gives us any account. From the same source, we are informed, that a deluge of water has once overwhelmed the earth, and de- stroyed all its inhabitants, except eight persons. We learn also from the Scriptures, that subsequent to the deluge, while as yet all men spake one language, they united in a design, which being displeasing to God, he, by an immediate and direct exertion of his power, caused among them a diversity of speech, so that of necessity, they arranged themselves into different tribes, or clans, and were dispersed over the earth. 5. Nineveh and Babylon, two of the most ancient cities of which we have any record, were built about one hundred and fifty years after the deluge. Nimrod, who is the Belus of pro- fane history, built Babylon, and is said in Scripture to have been "a mighty hunter ;" and it is not improbable, that by his courage and intrepidity, he raised himself to the dignity of command. Nineveh was built by Ashur, and it became in after-ages the capital of the Assyrian empire, and tho proud rival of Babylon. From the death of Ninias, down to the revolt of the Medes, a period of eight hundred years, we find a chasm in the Babylonian and Assyrian history ; and this we are obliged to supply from conjecture. 6. Menes, the Misraim of the Scriptures, was probably the first king of Egypt. He was the grandson of Noah, and invented the arts, as well as civilized a great part of the eastern world. But the early parts of Egyptian history, are involved in the same obscurity as the Assyrian. It seems probable, that after Egypt had attained a good degree of ci- vilization, the kingdom relapsed into a state of semi-barba- rism, in which it continued during some centuries, till the time of Sesostris, 1650 years before Christ, by whom the different principalities were reduced to one kingdom, and it* polity regulated. 7. But of the primeval ages of the world, little can be known. Of the antediluvians, we know only what is recorded in the books of Moses, and that is by no means sufficient to gratify curiosity. Mankind, while in a state of nature, even if acquainted with the art of writing, would have but few ANCIENT HISTORY. 11 things worthy of transmission to posterity, while all their care and exertions would be necessary to provide sustenance. But our own experience, in some degree, supplies the want of historick record, respecting the early ages of man. Experi- ence of the necessity of a shelter from summer heats and winter storms, leads us with reason to infer, that the erection of habitations would be an object of early attention. The same may be inferred in regard to the cultivation of the soil, and the practice of those arts, most essential to comfortable existence. 8. Traditionary tales, transmitted from father to son, were pro- bably the first rude sketches of history ; and these do in fact con- stitute the basis of the early historical records. The fabulous relations of the first historians among the Greeks, are of this character. The Egyptians were accustomed to allegorize the early periods of their history, as well as of their religion ; and the Greeks, adopting these historical legends, and in many cases mistaking their design and meaning, have transmitted to the world a narrative of fabulous kings, and imaginary heroes. 9. Till about 503 years before Christ, little credit is to be given to profane history. At this period, the Greeks had at- tained a degree of civilization by no means inconsiderable, and had begun to cultivate the arts. But none of their histo- rick records can be considered as authentick before the Per- sian war. Previous to that event, true history is so blended with fable, as not to be separated. QUESTIONS. 1. What is History ?—2. How may History be divided ? — 3. What books afford the earliest authentick account of the ages immediately subsequent to the deluge ?— 4. What are some of the events recorded in the Scriptures, of which we have no account in any other book? — 5. What two cities were built about one hundred and fifty years after the deluge ? — 6. Who was the first king of Egypt ? — 7. W hat is known of the primeval ages ? — 8. What were probably the first rude sketches of history? — 9. Till about what time is little credit to be given to profane history ? SECTION II. NATURE OF THE EARLY GOVERNMENTS. 1. The patriarchal form of government obtained in the early periods of society. From this to a monarchy the transition was easy ; and the regal office probably passed from father to son. The sovereign ruled his people as the patri- arch of a family, by right of birth. 12 ANCIENT HISTORY. 2. Weakness was probably a characteristic!* of the firs? monarchies ; and we may conclude their territories were very limited. According to modern ideas, extended territory, and vast power, is attached to the title of king ; and hence, wc are liable to be deceived in our notions respecting the early monarchies. 3. The kings of the h storick parts of Scripture, were no more than the chiefs of tribes ; but we may probably except some of the last of the kings of Assyria and of Babylon. Joshua, in the wars of Canaan, defeated thirty-one kings : Abraham five, in the valley of salt ; and Adonizedek tells Joshua that seventy conquered kings gathered their meat un- der his table. 4. Extreme severity was probably characteristick of flic first penal laws ; for the more barbarous the people, the stronger must be the restraints imposed. This position is supported by a reference to the early laws of the nations of antiquity, of which we have any information. 5. Laws relative to marriage, were the earliest enacted. The institution of marriage took place on the first formation of society, and the earliest I tws encouraged matrimony. 6. Among ancient nations, the husband purchased his wife, and marriageable women among the Assyrians were sold at auction ; the price of the more beautiful being given to the more ordinary as a dowry. 7. Laws of succession succeeded next in order to those of marriage. Though the power of every father was absolute in the division of his estate, yet primogeniture was supposed to confer certain rights. We may learn this from the his ton of Esau and Jacob. 8. A publick transaction in the presence of the tribe, was necessary to render valid all contracts, sales, &c, before the invention of writing, and in some cases afterwards. Thus Abraham, when he purchased a burying place of the sons of Heth, did it in the presence of his people. 9. Poetry and song were used by the ancients for publish- ing remarkable events, and also for transmitting them to pos- terity. Thus the children of Israel, after the passage of the Red Sea, composed a song ; also Deborah and Barak after the defeat of Sisera. The ::ume practice has prevailed among almost all nations, previous to the introduction of writing. Monuments of stone, and mounds of earth, were also often ♦ ANCIENT HISTORY. 13 erected for the same purpose. Thus Joshua set up twelve stones, taken from the midst of Jordan, to preserve the me- mory of the passage of the Israelites through that river. 10. Religious institutions were the earliest among man- kind. The idea of a God, who creates, preserves, and go- verns, is deeply rooted in the human mind. The construc- tion and order of nature, every where visible, will lead even the rudest savage to infer the existence of God, and an expe- rience of his own wants and weakness, an experience daily recurring, will lead him to some reverence for the unknown and unseen power upon which he is dependant. 11. The chief or monarch, anciently exercised the office of priest ; but as the tribe became numerous, a deputy would be appointed. In process of time these deputies became a distinct order. The Israelites had no distinct order of priests till after the Exodus. 12. Necessity undoubtedly gave birth to the most useful arts. Men early felt the necessity of a shelter ; hence the art of erecting dwellings. They would early feel the need of weapons of defence, and implements of husbandry; hence the art of manufacturing those weapons and implements, rude indeed at first, but by degrees better fitted for the pur- poses intended. 13. The sciences were probably the fruit of ease and lei- sure. Till men had leisure from the chase, or from the pur- suits of agriculture, they would not turn their attention to the study of speculative subjects. The priests, being maintained in that state by the monarch which would invite to reflection, were the first who cultivated science. All learning among the Egyptians, was confined solely to the priests. 14. Astronomy and medicine were among the earliest sci- ences. Superstition would lead to the cultivation of the for- mer } and the ills experienced in consequence of wounds and sickness, would lead to the study and practice of the latter. A pharmacy suited to their wants, is found among all rude nations ; but luxury, by creating new diseases, causes a ne- cessity for a more profound knowledge of medicine, and of the construction of the human system. QUESTIONS. 1. What form of government obtained in the early periods of the world? — 2. What was a charaeteristick of the first monarchies ?— 3. Of what rank were the kings of Scripture ?— 4. What was probably 2* 14 ANCIENT HISTORY. a characteristick of the first penal laws ? — 5. What were the earliest laws ? — 6. How among ancient nations did the husband obtain his wife? — 7. What laws succeeded those of marriage? — 8. What rendered contracts valid among the ancients ? — 9. What were used by the ancients to publish remarkable events, and perpetuate their memory? — 10. What were among the earliest institutions ? — 11. Who anciently exer- cised the priesthood ? — 12. What probably gave birth to the most use- ful arts ? — 13. What were probably the fruit of ease and leisure ? — 14, What were the earliest sciences ? ■i i ii t ^ 0k AiiiiM* SECTION III. THE EGYPTIANS AND PHOENICIANS. 1. Four hundred and thirty years after the deluge, Egypt is represented as being a great and nourishing kingdom. Pro- bably, therefore, it was settled soon after the confusion of tongues at Babel. 2. The fertile nature of the country, annually overflowed by the river Nile, is a strong evidence of the antiquity of the Egyptian empire. With a world before them where to choose, when dispersed by the confusion of languages, men would naturally select those spots where agriculture could be most easily practised. 3. The government of Egypt was a hereditary monarchy. But the power of the sovereign was limited by constitutional regulations, and the functions of his office were partly civil, and partly religious. His authority was, however, in many respects, extremely despotick. 4. Uncommon severity was a striking feature in the penal laws of Egypt. Rigorous decrees protected female chastity. 5. A judicial decree was necessary to the conferring of funeral rites. This decree was not passed till after a strict investigation into the character of the deceased. Even their kings were subject to this regulation. 6. The body of his father was pledged by the borrower of money, to the lender, and was deprived of funeral rites, if the money was not punctually repaid. 7. Architecture, geometry, and astronomy, were much cul- tivated by the Egyptians, and brought to a good degree of perfection. 8. The Pyramids, to this day, remain as specimens of their skill in architecture. These are supposed to have been erect* ed nine hundred years before Christ. ANCIENT HISTORY- 15 9. The national character of the Egyptians was low and despicable among surrounding nations. They were not known by their conquests ; they had little commerce, and manifested a strong antipathy to the persons and manners of foreigners. 10. The Canaanites, as the Phoenicians are called in Scrip- ture, were among the earliest civilized nations of the east. They are, however, not so ancient as the Egyptians, though nearly so. 11. The invention of writing, and the art of navigation, are to be attributed to them. 12. Fourteen hundred and fifty years before Christ, is the date of the most ancient Phoenician writings ; being the most ancient of any extant, except the books of Moses. 13. The Phoenicians were a commercial people in the time of Abraham. In the time of the Hebrew judges they had begun to colonize. They settled Cyprus and Rhodes ; and then passed into Greece, Sicily, Sardinia, and Spain. They had settlements also on the west coast of Africa. QUESTIONS. 1. How early is Egypt represented as being a great and flourishing kingdom? — 2. What constitutes a strong evidence of the antiquity of Egypt? — 3. What form of government was established in Egypt? — ■ 4. What was a striking feature in the Egyptian penal laws ? — 5. What was necessary to the conferring of funeral rites ? — 6. What did the borrower of money pledge to the lender as security for payment of the sum borrowed ? — 7. What were much cultivated among the Egyptians ? — 8. What at present exist as monuments of their skill in architecture? — 9. In what estimation was the Egyptian character among surrounding nations? — 10: By what name are the Phoeni- cians known in Scripture ? — 11. What inventions are to be atributed to them ? — 12. What is the date of the most ancient Phoenician wri- tings? — 13. What is said of the Phoenicians in the time of Abraham ! SECTION IV. GREECE. 1. The Egyptians and Phoenicians first sent colonies into Greece ; and introduced the first rudiments of civilization among the Pelasgi, the Hiantes, and the Leleges, the ancient barbarous inhabitants of the country. This occurred about the time of Moses. 16 ANCIENT HISTORY. 2. Ceerops, fifteen hundred and eighty-two years before Christ, settled a colony in Attica, and built twelve cities. He was an eminent law-giver and politician, and instituted the court of Areopagus. 3. Amphictyon, first established the Amphictyonick council. This was at first a league of twelve cities, but at length be- came a representative assembly, and produced good political effects. 4. Cadmus, fifteen hundred and nineteen years before Christ, introduced alphabetical writing into Greece from Phoenicia. 5. Sixteen letters then constituted the alphabet, and the method of writing was alternately from right to left, and from left to right. This was termed boustrophedon. 6. The aborigines of Greece were cannibals, it is said, ignorant of the use of fire, and barbarous in the extreme. 7. Superstition was a predominant trait in the character of the Greeks. This led them to establish, in honour of their gods, solemn games and oracles. 8. Olympick, Pythian, Nemean, and Isthmian, were the names of their four solemn festivals ; and each had ceremo- nies peculiar to itself. Excellent political effects were pro- duced by these festivals, as they promoted national union, diffused the love of glory, and trained the youth to martial exercises. 9. Erechtheus, the leader of a new Egyptian colony, insti- tuted the Eleusinian mysteries, in imitation of the Egyptian games of Isis. 10. These mysteries were of a religious and moral nature : and conveyed the doctrines of the unity of God, the immor- tality of the soul, and a state of future rewards and punish- ments. 11. Theseus laid the foundation of the grandeur of Attica. He united the twelve cities, and gave them a common con- stitution, and thus bound them in one common bond. 12. To open the commerce of the Euxine sea, and secure establishments on its coasts, the Argonautick expedition was undertaken, and w r as the first great enterprise of the Greeks. 13. Extremely rude and imperfect, were all the warlike expeditions of the Greeks, and of all ancient nations. Sieges in those days, were of the nature of blockades at present. ANCIENT HISTORY. 17 14. Homer furnishes all the authority upon which we can rest the details of the seige of Troy, which was taken 1184 years before Christ. - 15. Spring and summer were the seasons of the year best adapted to ancient warfare ; and perhaps to this fact. Scrip- ture writers refer, when they say " At the time when kings use to go out to war." QUESTIONS. 1. Who first sent colonies into Greece ? — 2. Who settled a colony in Attica, and when? — 3, Who established the Amphictyonick council ?-4. Who introduced alphabetical writing into Greece, and when?— -5. How many letters then constituted the alphabet ?— 6. What is said of the aborigines of Greece? — 7. W T hat was a predominant trait in the Gre- cian character ? — 8. What were the names of their four solemn festi- vals ? — 9. Who instituted the Eleusinian mysteries ? — 10. What was their nature? — 11. Who laid the foundation of the grandeur of Atti- ca? — 12. What was the object of the Argonautick expedition? — 18* What was the character of all ancient warlike expeditions ? — 14. Who furnishes all the authority upon which to rest the seige of Troy ? — 15, What seasons of the year were best adapted to ancient warfare ? — •»►*© o ©<«««— SECTION V. GRECIAN COLONIES AND REPUBLICKS. 1 . About one thousand years before Christ, the Greeks, being greatly oppressed at home, determined to send out colonies : and accordingly they founded twelve cities in Lesser Asia, of which Smyrna was chief. 2. Being weary of monarchy, the Athenians, about the same time changed their government, and established a re- publick, choosing Medon, the son of Codras, their Archon or chief magistrate. 3. Lycurgus and Solon, two distinguished civilians, arose about this time ; and by their wisdom and abilities, contribu- ted much to the prosperity of the new republicks. 4. Lycurgus, about 900 years before Christ, was invested with the power of reforming the laws and government of Sparta, which was his native country. 5. The regulation of manners was the first object of his attention; and one great 'principle ran through his whole system, which was to banish luxury, the bane of society, from his people, lb ANCIENT HISTORY. 6. The territory was divided into equal portions ; in which every free citizen shared alike. The number of these por- tions amounted to thirty-nine thousand. 7. Iron money was substituted for silver and gold, in order to lessen or destroy avarice among his people. 8. Slaves only were permitted to exercise the arts necessa- ry to life ; while all useless ones, and even commerce itself, was prohibited. 9. All the embellishments of the understanding, were re- jected by the Spartan mode of education. It taught obedi- ence to the laws, respect for parents, reverence for age, and deep regard for the duties of religion. 10. Looseness of manners among the women, the encour- agement of theft, and inhumanity to slaves, were blemishes in the institutions of Lycurgus ; which had no other end than the formation of a nation of soldiers. 11. The office of Ephori, who were magistrates chosen by the people, and whose power was in some respects paramount to that of the kings and senate, was a fault in the Spartan constitution ; and on many occasions produced the worst consequences. 12. The change in the Athenian constitution was more nominal than real, when the regal office was abolished. 13. A perpetual and hereditary magistracy was establish- ed, called the Archonship. This lasted three hundred years, and then nine Archons were chosen to hold the office ten years. 14. Draco, chosen Archon in the year six hundred and twenty-four before Christ, projected a reform in the constitu- tion, but was unsuccessful. 15. Solon, an illustrious Athenian, was chosen Archon in the year five hundred and ninety-four before Christ, and was entrusted with the care of forcriing a new constitution for his country, and a new system of laws. 16. He possessed extensive knowledge, but wanted intre- pidity of mind ; and being mild and temporizing, accommo- dated his system to the prevailing habits and passions of his countrymen. 17. Four classes were formed of the people; the three first enjoying all the offices of government ; but the fourth, or poorest class, had an equal right of suffrage with the three first, and being the most numerous, decided every question. ANCIENT HISTORY. 19 18. A senate of four hundred members was chosen, which was intended as a balance to the weight of popular influence. This number was afterwards increased to 500 or 600, 19. In regard to slaves and debtors, a distinguishing trait of the Athenian laws, was mildness and equity ; but the Athenian women were in a degrading state of vassallage. 20. The practice of the ostracism, was one of the most absurd and oppressive, which was tolerated by the Athenian constitution. By this, any citizen, wrote the name of the man whom he thought worthy of censure, upon a ticket, and he who was thus marked out by the greatest number of voices, was banished for ten years. 21. The greatest attention was paid to the fine arts, at Athens ; while at Lacedemon, they were entirely discounte- nanced. Of course, the former greatly excelled in them. 22. Five hundred and fifty years before Christ, Athens surrendered her liberties to Pisistratus, who established a splendid monarchy, and entirely gaining the affections of his people, left a peaceable crown to his sons, Hippias and Hip- parchus. QUESTIONS. 1. When did the Greeks begin to send out colonies? — 2. Why did the Athenians change their constitution ? — 3. What distinguished ci- vilians arose about this time ? — 4. AVho was invested with the power of reforming the laws and government of Sparta, his native country ? — 5. What was the first object of his attention ? — 6. How was the Spartan territory divided ? — 7. What was used as money instead of gold and silver ? — 8. Who exercised the arts necessary to life in Spar- ta? — 9. What were rejected by the Spartan mode of education ? — 10, What are mentioned as blemishes in the system of Lycurgus ? — 11. What was a fault in the Spartan constitution ? — 12. What is said of the change in the Athenian constitution when the regal office was abolished ? — 13. What was the Archonship ? — 14. Who was chosen Archon 624 years before Christ, and projected a reform in the govern™ ment ? — 15. Who was chosen Archon 594 years before Christ ? — 16. W T hat is said of him? — 17. How many classes of people were formed^ — 18. What was introduced as a balance to popular influence ? — 19 In what particulars were the Athenian laws distinguished for mildness and equity ? — 20. What absurd and oppressive practice did the Athe- nian constitution tolerate? — 21. What attention was paid to the fine arts at Athens ? — 22. When did Athens surrender her liberties to Pi sisiratfts 7 20 ANCIENT HISTORY. SECTION VI. PERSIAN EMPIRE, TILL THE WAR WITH GREECE. 1. Under Sardanapalus, the first Assyrian empire ended, and upon its ruins, the monarchies Ninevah, Babylon and Media arose. 2. Very little is known of the history of the two former of these monarchies, especially of the first. From Scripture, however, we learn that it was a powerful kingdom. 3. Nebuchodonosor II., king of Assyria, conquered Judea, and took the cities of Jerusalem and Tyre. He also subdued Egypt. 4. In the person of Cyrus, the kingdoms of Persia and Media were united. He vanquished the Babylonians and Lydians, subdued the greater part of Lesser Asia, and became master of Syria and Arabia. 5. Darius, the son of Hystaspes, after the death of Camby- ses, the son of Cyrus, was elected sovereign of Persia. He was a person of great enterprise and ambition, and readily undertook an expedition against Greece, at the suggestion of Hippias, who had been expelled from the sovereignty of Athens. 6. The lonians had been aided in throwing off the yoke of Persia by the Athenians ; this stimulated Darius in his enterprise, for he desired to be avenged upon the Grecian states. 7. On the plains of Marathon, the army of the Greeks met that of the Persians, and after a most sanguinary battle, the latter were defeated with great slaughter. 8. Miltiades commanded the Greeks, and by his bravery and judgement, contributed greatly to their success in the battle. 9. The most shocking ingratitude from his country was all the reward bestowed upon his merit; for being unjustly accused of treason, he was sentenced to die. The sentence, however, was changed to a fine of fifty talents, but being una- ble to pay it, he Was thrown into prison, where he died. 10. Themistocles and Aristides succeeded Miltiades in the command, and ably sustained the war against the Persians. 11. Xerxes, the son and successor of Darius, inherited all his father's ambition, and pushed the war with greater force end vigour. ANCIENT HISTORY, 2i 12. Five millions of men were now armed against the small states of Greece, and threatened them with utter ruin. 13. Leonidas, king of Sparta, was chosen to defend, with six thousand men, the narrow pass of Thermopylae, through which alone it was possible for the Persian army to enter Greece. 14. For two days, the whole strength of the Persians was brought against this pass, but without success. At length* treachery performed that which force could not effect. 15. A peasant showed the Persians a path, which led to the top of the hill commanding the pass ; and by that mean* Leonidas and his brave band were surrounded and destroyed. 16. At Salamis an engagement took place between the Greek and Persian fleets, in which Xerxes, who from an emi- nence beheld the action, had the mortification of seeing his fleet entirely dispersed. The Greeks had 380 ships, and the Persians 1200. 17. At Platae, the army of Xerxes, under Mardonius, con- sisting of 300,000 men, was totally defeated by the combined forces of the Athenians and the Lacedaemonians, four hun- dred and seventy-nine years before Christ. 18. Xerxes was soon after assassinated, and thus termi- nated an inglorious reign, distinguished more for the rashness of his schemes, and his vast preparations, than for any suc- cess of his arms. His son Artaxerxes Longimanus succee- ded him, four hundred and sixty-four years before Christ. 19. The national character of the Greeks was at this time very high. Common danger and common interests had ex« tinguished all jealousies between the states, and united them in mutual defence. 20. Pericles, after the Persian war, governed Athens with, almost arbitrary sway ; and as Athens at this time pretended to have the command of Greece, he was in effect master of the country. 21. The Athenians taking part with the people of Corcyra, an ancient colony of Corinth, which had rebelled, the latter city was offended, and war was declared between Athens and Lacedaemon. 22. This is called the Peloponesian war, which lasted 4wenty-eight years, with various and alternate success. Thucydides has left an account of this war. 23* The absolute submission of Athens, which had been 3 22 ANCIENT HISTORY. reduced to the last extremity by the defeat of their army at ' Potarnos, by Lysander, at length ended the war, and made the Lacedsemonians masters of Greece. 24. The execution of Socrates, which took place about this time, at Athens, reflected far more dishonour upon that city, than their national humiliation. He was the pattern oi" every virtue which he taught, and died with a manly fortitude, 25. Xenophon having gone with a Grecian army into Per- sia, to assist Cyrus in dethroning his brother, was defeated and obliged to retreat across the country from Babylon to theEuxine sea, a distance of 1600 miles. A minute history of the expedition was written by Xenophon, but he is considered as giving too flattering an account of the character of Cyrus. QUESTIONS* 1. Under whom did the first Assyrian empire end ? — 2. What is known of the history of the three monarchies which arose from the ruins of the first Assyrian empire? — 3. What king of Assyria con quered Judea and Egypt, and took Jerusalem and Tyre ? — 4. In whose person were the kingdoms of Persia and Media united ? — 5. Who was elected king of Persia after the death of Cambyses, the son of Cyrus ? — 6. What led Darius to make war against the Greeks ? — 7. Where were the Persians totally defeated ? — 8. Who commanded the Greeks in the battle of Marathon ? — 9. What reward did the merit of Miltiades receive? — 10. Who succeeded Miltiades in the command of the Gre- cian forces ? — 11. What king of Persia pushed the war against the Greeks? — 12. Of how many men did his army consist? — 13. Who commanded the Greeks at the pass of Thermopylae ? — 14. For how many days did the Persians attack Leonidas with their whole force ? — 15. How came Leonidas to be surrounded and destroyed? — 16. Where did a naval engagement occur between the Grecian and Persian fleets ? — 17. Where was the army of Xerxes totally destroyed? — 18. What became of Xerxes ? — 19. What is said of the national character of the Greeks at this time ? — 20. Who governed Athens after the Persian war ? — 21. What gave rise to the war between Athens and Lacedsemon ? — 22. What is this war called ?— 23. What ended the Peloponesian war ? — 24. What disgraceful event took place at Athens at this time ? — 25 Who led a Grecian army from Babylon to the Euxine sea, and wrote a history of the expedition ? SECTION TIL PHILIP OF MACEDON. ALEXANDER THE GREAT. FALL OI GRllECE. 1. Philip of Macedon, taking advantage of the decline of Grecian patriotism and love of glory, formed the project of extending his dominion ov A ,r the whole of Greece. ANCIENT HISTORY. 23 2. The perpetual quarrels and jealousies between the Gre- cian states, greatly farthered his design, and inspired him with hopes of success. 3. Demosthenes, the celebrated orator, penetrated the de- signs of Philip, and exposed them to the Grecian states : but his attempt to rouse them, proved unsuccessful. 4. At the battle of Choronsea, the fate of Greece was deci- ded, and all the states submitted to the king of Macedon, three hundred and thirty-seven years before Christ. 5. The conquest of Persia next occupied the attention of Philip ; and all the Grecian states were called upon to furnish aid for the enterprise. 6. He was assassinated, however, on the eve of this enter- prise, in revenge for a private injury, by Pausanias, a captain of his guards, three hundred and thirty-six years before Christ. 7. Alexander, surnamed the Great, the son of Philip, succeeded to the throne of Macedon, and to the dominion of Greece ; and convoking the states at Corinth, he informed them of his resolution to prosecute the war against the Persians, as his father had proposed. 8. His army consisted of thirty thousand foot, and ten thousand horse ; and he immediately crossed the Hellespont, to invade the Persian territories. 9. .Darius Codomanus, who was king of Persia at this time, resolving to crush at once this bold youth, assembled one hundred thousand foot, and ten thousand horse, on the Persian banks of the Granicus ; while Alexander drew up his compara- tively small army, upon the opposite shore. 10. The Greeks swimming the river, Darius was defeated after an obstinate battle ; the Persians leaving twenty thou- sand dead upon the field, and making a precipitate retreat. 11. Near the town of Issus, in Cilicia, another battle was fought, in which the army of Darius, amounting now to four hundred thousand, was totally routed, and one hundred and ten thousand of them left dead on the field. The Greeks lost only four hundred and fifty men. 12. All Syria now submitted to Alexander, who also took the city of Damascus, where Darius had deposited all his treasures, which also fell into the hands of the victor. 13. At Arbela, Darius having assembled an army of seven hundred thousand men, again offered battle to Alexander, after having proposed terms of peace, which were haughtily rejected* 24 ANCIENT HISTORY. 14. The Persians were again defeated, with the loss of three hundred thousand men ; and Darius, flying from province to province, was murdered by one of his own satraps, or gove- nours. Persia now submitted to Alexander, three hundred and thirty years before Christ. 15. The conquest of India was now projected by Alexan- der; being firmly persuaded that the sovereignty of the world was decreed to him. 16. He penetrated as far as the Ganges, and would have pursued his course to the eastern ocean, had the spirits of his troops been equal to his ambition. But seeing no end to their toils, they refused to proceed, and forced him to give over his mad enterprise and return home. 17. He died in a fit of debauch, at Babylon, in the thirty- third year of his age, and the thirteenth of his reign, three hundred and twenty-four years before Christ. 18. He was a great military genius, but not a profound politician. His moral character was corrupted by a constant train of uninterrupted success, while flattery stimulated him to uncontrolled indulgence. 19. Alexander named no successor, but on his death-bed, gave his ring to Perdiccas. When asked by his courtiers who should succeed him ; he replied, " the most worthy." 20. Four great monarchies were formed from the empire of Alexander, under Ptolemy, Lysimachus, Cassander, and Seleucus. The family of Alexander was totally excluded. 21. Demosthenes, after the death of Alexander, once more attempted to rouse the spirit of his countrymen to shake oft* the yoke. But he was unsuccessful. 22. A disgusting series of revolutions is all that Greece presents from this time ; with the exception of the states of Achaia, which made one effort to rekindle the expiring flame of liberty. 23. The Roman empire was now fast rising in strength, and becoming the most powerful among contemporary na- tions. A favourable opportunity soon presenting, a Roman army was led into Greece, and Macedonia was conquered. 24. Mummius, the consul of Rome, following up the suc- cesses of Metellus his predecessor, completed the conquest of the country ; and Greece became a Roman province, one hundred and forty-six years before Christ. 25. The infant periods of Grecian history, present those ANCIENT HISTORY, 29 splendid examples of patriotism and virtue, with the contem- plation of which we are delighted. In the more advanced years, the genius and spirit of the people seem to have un- dergone a total change. 26. An enthusiastick admiration of the fine arts succeeded the ardour of patriotism, and the thirst for military glory ; and by their success in the cultivation of those arts, the Greeks continued to excite admiration, long after their glory as a nation had departed. 27. The necessary and useful arts of life, did not receive the greatest attention orthe greatest improvement at Athens. Agriculture, manufactures or commerce, received but little attention, and in these they were but little distinguished. 28. Architecture, sculpture, and painting, were cultivated with the greatest care« and carried to a very high degree of erfection. 29. They had three orders of architecture ; the Dorick, the Ionick, and the Corinthian. The first was adapted to works of magnitude and sublimity ; the second was light and elegant ; while the third was pompous and splendid. QUESTIONS. 1. Who formed the project of extending his dominion over the states of Greece? — 2. What circumstances greatly promoted his design? — 3, Who penetrated the designs of ^Philip? — 4. Where was the fate of Greece decided? — 5. What next occupied the attention of Philip? — 6. What became of him ? — 7. Who succeeded to his throne and pro- jects? — 8. Of how many men did his army consist? — 9. Who, at this time, was king of Persia? — 10. What was the result of the battle at the Granicus? — 11. Where was Darius again defeated ?— 12. What was the consequence of the battle of Issus ? — 13. At what place did Da- rius again offer Alexander battle ? — 14. Who were defeated ? — 15. What did Alexander now project? — 16. How far did he penetrate? — 17. What was the end of Alexander?— 18. What is said of him ?— 19. What settlement did he make in regard to a successor? — 20. How many monarchies arose out of his empire? — 21. Who, after the death of Alexander, attempted to rouse the spirit of the Greeks? — 22. What scene does Greece present at this time? — 23. What empire now rose into importance? — 24. Who completed the conquest 'of Greece?— 25. What do the early periods of Grecian history present ? — 26. What passion succeeded the ardour of patriotism among the Greeks ? — 27. What arts received but little attention in Greece ? — 28. Which of the fine arts were cultivated with the greatest care and success ?— 29. How many orders of architecture had the Grecians ? 3* 36 ANCIENT HISTORY- SECTION VIIL THE HISTORY OF ROME. 1. The Roman empire, from the fall of Greece, claims a prominent place in ancient history. In its rise and fall, its history will embrace a collateral notice of most of the other nations of antiquity. 2. A refined and cultivated nation, probably inhabited Italy before the Roman name was known. This was the Etruscan ; and many monuments still exist, which prove that nation to have been luxurious and highly polished. 3. Romulus, founded, or perhaps rebuilt Rome, in the year 752 before Christ. The first settlers were shepherds or banditti, who peopled their new city by carrying off the wives and daughters of the Sabines, their neighbours. 4. Numa, a Sabine by birth, was chosen king of Rome, on the death of Romulus, which happened in the thirty-eighth year of his reign. Numa was of a pious and pacifick dispo- sition, and endeavoured to impress the same character upon his people. He reigned forty-eight years. 5. Tarquinius Priscus, the fifth king of Rome, added one hundred plebians to the senate ; and that body now consisted of three hundred members, at which number it remained for some time. 6. Servius Tullius, removed the poorer citizens from all share in the government, and caused its cares and its bur- dens to fall solely upon the rich. 7. Two hundred and forty-four years, the regal form ot government continued at Rome, under seven kings. Tar- quinius the Proud, was the last king, and was expelled the country for his abominable cruelty and tyranny. 8. The consular government, was then substituted in the place of the regal, and Brutus and Collatinus chosen consuls. This was that Brutus, who, finding that his two sons were engaged in a conspiracy to restore Tarquin, caused them to be beheaded in his presence. 9. The Valerian law, gave the first blow to the aristocracy at Rome. This law gave any one the right of appeal to the people, from the decisions of the magistrate. Owing to this law, the power of the consuls was of little avail ; and in a Avar with the Etrurians, it well nigh ruined the city. ANCIENT HISTORY. m 10. A dictator was chosen, as the means of remedying the evil, whose power was to continue six months, and be for that time unlimited and uncontrolled. 11. Lartius was first chosen to this office ; and arming his twenty-four lictors with axes, he summoned all the people to the comitia, and compelled, under penalty of death, every one whom he judged fit, to enrol himself in the army. 12. To appease the army, which was disgusted with the pride and arrogance of the patricians, the office of tribune was created. This disgust rose to such a height, that although the city was in the utmost danger from the enemy, the whole army carrying their standards with them, departed out of it, leaving the haughty faction to defend itself. 13. The tribunes had power to annul or suspend the de- crees of the senate and the consuls ; but they had no guards, neither did their power extend but a mile from the city. The creating of this office nearly rendered the senate and consuls a mere nullity, and placed the whole power in the hands of the plebians, from which order the tribunes were chosen. 14. Four hundred and seventy-one years before Christ, the government of Rome passed from the hands of the pa- tricians, and the constitution became decidedly a democracy. Yet till this time, the Romans had no code of civil laws. 15. To prepare and digest a body of laws, and thus reme- dy the great defect in the government, one of the tribunes proposed the appointment of ten commissioners. These commissioners were called the Decemvirate. 16. The laws of the twelve tables were formed, and these are the foundation of all Roman jurisprudence. Even in the most flourishing times of the republick, these laws were of the highest authority, and to commit them to memory, form- ed an essential part of a Roman liberal education. 17. The atrocious villany of Appius Claudius, the head of the decemvirate, so enraged the people, that they quickly abolished the office, and the consuls were again restored. 18. The law of intermarriage, by which a plebian was pro- hibited from connecting with a patrician, formed one barrier between the two orders ; and after a violent struggle, the plebians succeeded in inducing the senate to destroy it. 19. The law of limitation, by which all the higher offices were confined to the patricians, constituted another barrier ; 2S ANCIENT HISTORY. and the seriate, in a case of great emergency, partially acce- ded to the wishes of the people in annulling it. 20. By raising a revenue, and giving the army regular pay, the whole system of Roman warfare was changed ; for till this time, war had not been a profession ; every citizen going into the army when his services were required, and defraying his own expenses. 21. Veii, the rival of Rome, and her equal in pride, extent and population, was taken by Camillus, after a siege of ten years. A war with the Gauls, a branch of the great nation of the Celtse, next engaged the attention of the Romans. 22. Three hundred and eighty-five years before Christ, Rome was taken by the Gauls, and burned. In this confla- gration, the Roman writers say that all the ancient records and monuments of their city were destroyed. 23. Four hundred and eighty years after the building of the city, Rome became mistress of all Italy, by reducing the Samnites, the Tarentines, and all the other allied states. 24. The vanquished were admitted into a share in the pri- vileges and government of Rome ; the victors thus, by a wise and judicious policy, soothing the pride of the conquered, and increasing their own strength. QUESTIONS, 1. What empire upon the fall of Greece, claims a prominent place in ancient history? — 2. Who probably inhabited Italy before the Ro- mans? — 3. Who founded or rebuilt Rome? — 4. Who was chosen king of Rome on the death Romulus? — 5. Who added one hundred plebi- ans to the senate? — 6. Who removed the poorer citizens from the go- vernment ? — 7. How long did the regal government of Rome continue ? — 8. What was substituted in the place of the regal government? — 9. What law gave the first blow to the aristocracy at Rome? — 10. What officer was appointed as a remedy for the evils of the Valerian law ? — 11. Who was first chosen dictator? — 12. Why was the office of tribune created? — 13. What powers had the tribunes? — 14. When did the government of Rome become a democracy ? — 15. Why were the decern virate appointed? — 16. What laws were fiprmed ? — 17. What caused the people to abolish the decemvirate? — 18, What was one of the barriers which separated the plebians and patricians ? — 19. What was the other barrier ? — 20. How was a change effected in the Roman mode of warfare ? — 21. What city was taken by Camillus, after a ten years' siege ? — 22. When was Rome taken by the Gauls and burned ? 23. When did Rome become mistress of all Italy ?— 24. What policy did Rome pursue in regard to the vanquished ? ANCIENT HISTORY. 2? SECTION IX. CARTHAGE. SICILY. PUNICK WARS. 1. A colony of Tyrians, about seventy years before the building of Rome, founded the city of Carthage ; which be- came the rival of Rome, and one of the most splendid in the world, having under its dominion three hundred of the smaller cities of Africa, bordering on the Mediterranean sea. 2. The Phoenicians and Greeks, at an early period, had colonies upon the island of Sicily. The latter built Syra- cuse, which became an important city, under a monarchial government. 3. Sicily had long been considered as the granary of Ita- ly ; and as the Carthagenians possessed considerable territo- ries on the island, it was natural for the Romans to dispute with them the entire dominion of so important an acquisition* 4. The Punick wars arose from differences concerning the dominion of this island ; and the contest was long and bloody, ending in the final subjugation of Carthage. 5. At Messina, a Sicilian town, the first Punick war com- menced. This city belonged to Syracuse, and having been attacked by the Mamertines, the Syracusians called in the assistance of the Romans. 6. The consul Regulus, in the course of the war, was taken prisoner by the Carthagenians, and sent by them to Rome, to endeavour to persuade the senate to make peace ; under the promise, however, of returning to captivity if he failed. He magnanimously advised the senate against the peace, and returning to Carthage, according to his promise, was put to death in a most barbarous and cruel manner. 7. Two hundred and twenty years before Christ, Sicily was declared a Roman province ; Carthage having been under the necessity of purchasing a peace, at the expense of 3200 talents of silver, the restitution, without ransom, of all prisoners, and a promise never to make war upon Syracuse or her allies. 8. Twenty-three years this peace lasted ; during which the Carthagenians were recruiting their strength, and preparing to revenge their losses and disgrace. The siege of Sagun- tum, which was taken, commenced the second Punick war* 9* Hannibal, a young man of great bravery and military talent, was chosen to command the forces of Carthage* 30 ANCIENT HISTORY. His father had made him swear, when only nine years of age ? eternal enmity to the Romans, and charged him to do them every injury which lay in his power. 10. He determined to carry the war into Italy ; and gain- ing to his interest most of the Gaulick tribes, he passed over the Pyrenees and the Alps ; arriving in Italy, after a march of five months, with an army of twenty thousand foot, and six thousand horse. 11. At Cannse, in Appulia, the Romans, under Emmelius the consul, opposed Hannibal with their whole strength, but were defeated, as they had been in several previous battles. Forty thousand Romans were left dead on the field, and had Hannibal marched directly to Rome, the city must have fallen. 12. By sending an army to threaten Carthage, the Romans so alarmed the inhabitants of that city, that they speedily recalled Hannibal, who is said to have wept when he left Italy. 13. Two hundred and twenty years before Christ, the se- cond Punick war closed ; the Carthagenians purchasing a peace by giving up Spain, Sicily, and all the islands, with all their fleet, except ten galleys, and paying ten thousand talents. 14. The third Punick war commenced one hundred and forty-nine years before Christ. Carthage having suffered great losses, and been much weakened in a war with Numi- dia, was obliged to submit, and the city was razed to the ground, one hundred and forty-six years before Christ. QUESTIONS. 1. Who founded Carthage, and at what time? — 2. Who, at an early period, had colonies in Sicily ? — 3. What had long- been considered the granary of Italy ? — 4 What wars arose on account of the disagree- ment respecting the dominion of this island ? — 5. When did the first Punick war commence ? — 6. Who was taken prisoner by the Cartha- genians, and barbarously put to death ? — 7. When was Sicily declared a Roman province ? — 8. How long did peace continue after the close of the first Punick war ? — 9. Who commanded the Carthagenians in ihe second Punick war ? — 10. What did he do ? — 11. Where did the Romans suffer a signal defeat ? — 12. How did the Romans induce the Carthagenians to recall Hannibal ? — 13. When was the second Punick war closed ?— 14. When did the third Punick war, which ended in the fain of Carthage, commence. ANCIENT HISTORY. 31 SECTION X. GRACCHI. CIVIL WARS. SECOND TRIUMVIRATE. FALL OF THE REPUBLICK. 1. Tiberius and Cams Gracchus, two youths of noble family, seeing the growing corruptions of the state, project- ed a reform. An ancient law was attempted to be revived, which limiting landed property, would abridge the overgrown estates of the patricians. This created a tumult, in which three hundred friends of the Gracchi were killed. 2. Bribery and corruption were now very common in the senate. Jugurtha, by destroying his cousins, Hiempsal and Adherbal, attempted to usurp the kingdom of Numidia ; and bribing the Roman senate to his interest, obtained half the kingdom. 3. Sylla and Marius were at this time popular and rival leaders at Rome, and bitter enemies to each other. A civil war soon occurred, in which each faction triumphed in turn, 4. Marius, aided by Cinna, laid siege to Rome while Sylla was in.Asia, and proclaiming themselves consuls, massacred all whom they esteemd enemies. A few days after the surren- der of Rome, Marius died in a fit of debauch. 5. Sylla was afterwards chosen dictator, after having, by the help of Cethegus, Verres, and Pompey, then a youth, subdued the partisans of Marius, and restored quiet and or- der to the city. 6. His administration was wise and virtuous : he restored the senate to its judicial authority, regulated the election to all important offices, and made many excellent laws against oppression and the abuse of power. At length he resigned his office, and soon after died. 7. Lepidus and Pompey, after the death of Sylla, renewed the civil wars. The former was a man of no abilities, and Pompey, uniting his fortunes with Caesar and Crassus, formed the first triumvirate. 8. Lucius Cataline, a man of headstrong passions, and defiled with crime, raised a conspiracy about this time, which, from the numbers engaged in it, for a season greatly endan- gered the state. 9. Cicero, the celebrated orator, by his wise and prudent management, quelled the conspiracy, and Cataline was slain. 32 ANCIENT HISTORY. Cicero was soon after banished to Greece by the partisans of Caesar, who was now evidently aiming, equally with Pom- pey, to the supreme authority. Pompey feeling the need of Cicero's influence, procured his recall. 10. The death of Crassus dissolved the triumvirate, and left Caesar and Pompey at liberty, each to endeavour to gain the supreme power. In those degenerate days, the only question seemed to be, to which of these partisans Rome should surrender its liberties. 11. That both should continue in power, or both resign, was a proposition made in the senate by the friends of Caesar and passed. This motion, although it had the appearance of great moderation, was in truth only an artifice of Caesar, to retain his office of dictator ; for as his term of service was nearly expired, while that of Pompey had but just commen- ced, he well knew the latter would not resign. War soon en- sued between these two ambitious chiefs. 12. The senate and consuls joined Pompey, and appre- hending the designs of Caesar, who was yet in Gaul, passed a law, that any military commander who should pass the Rubicon, a small stream between Italy and Gaul, should be declared a parricide, and deemed an enemy to his country. Caesar, disregarding the prohibition, crossed the stream, and marched directly to Rome. 13. He was now chosen dictator and consul, and thus in- vested with two-fold power, to act in the name of the repub- lick. He now marched into Spain, where he defeated the lieutenant of Pompey, subdued the country, and returned to Rome after an absence of forty days. 14. At Pharsalia, in Macedonia, a severe and bloody bat- tle was fought between the two factions. •Pompey was de- feated with immense slaughter, and his army entirely dispers- ed. Twenty-four thousand men surrendered to the victor. 15. Pompey fled into Egypt, where he was treacherously murdered. Caesar was now at the head of the republick, and without a rival ; but from that moment he ceased to be a par- tisan, and sought only the glory and happiness of the Roman people. 16. Caesar was assassinated in the senate house, forty- three years before Christ, by a band of conspirators, at whose head was Brutus, whose life Caesar had once saved, and upon whom he had conferred many and great favours, ANCIENT HISTORY. S3 17. Mark Antony, Octavius, and Lepidus, after the death of Caesar, united their interest, and formed a second triumvi- rate. They divided the provinces between them, each putting to death even his nearest friends, if required by the others. Antony put to death his uncle Lucius ; Lepidus, his brother Paulus ; and Octavius, his guardian Toranius, and his friend Cicero. 18. Brutus and Cansius had a formidable army in Thrace ? where they made a determined stand against the triumvirate. An engagement occurred near the city of Philippi, in which Brutus and Cassius were killed, and their army totally routed, This battle decided the fate of the empire. 19. Cleopatra, queen of Egypt, was summoned into Cili- cia by Antony, to answer for her conduct in dethroning her infant brother. She came to Tarsus, where her beauty and her arts completely subdued Antony, who from that time forgot glory, fame, empire, and every thing except Cleopatra , and thus prepared the way for his own destruction. 20. At Actium, Octavius, who, being justly offended at the conduct of Antony, had declared war against him, met the fleet of the latter, and entirely destroying it, compelled his rival to flee into Egypt, whither the artful Cleopatra, through whose treachery the fleet had been lost, preceded him. 21. Antony and Cleopatra both committed suicide; the former, in despair of regaining his kingdom ; and the latter, to avoid being led in triumph to Rome. Thus Octavius be- came sole master of the Roman empire, twenty-seven years before Christ. 22. A sovereign power was given to every head of a fami- ly in Rome. Yet this power, great as it may seem, never was abused. While the head felt as a sovereign, he still re- membered that he was a father ; and great care was taken in the education of children, particularly in regard to their lan- guage. 23. Eloquence was the principal study among the Roman youth. They were taught, that by the exercise of this talent alone, they might expect to rise to eminence and distinction. Those bodily exercises also which harden the temperament, and give strength and agility, were much in practice. 24. The Romans were far from being greatly distinguished in regard to early literature. Previous to the conquest of •Greece, they were extremely rude and illiterate. 4 31 ANCIENT HISTORY. 25. Sallust, Caesar, and Tacitus, were the principal Ro- man historians. The first of these writers is admired for the matter of his compositions, though he is deficient in style. Caesar has more purity of style and simplicity of expression than Sallust, but his commentaries partake more of the na- ture of annals than of history. 26. Cicero is considered the prince of Roman orators. Many of his orations are still extant, and also some of his other writings. 27. Virgil, Horace, Ovid, and Tibulus, were the chief of the Roman poets, and were all contemporary. Virgil holds the same rank among the Roman poets, as Homer among the Greek. He is considered as the model of a correct taste. QUESTIONS. 1. Who projected a reform in the Roman state? — 2. What were iiow very common in the senate ? — 3. Who at this time were popular and rival leaders at Rome ? — 4. Who laid siege to Rome, and proclai- med themselves consuls ? — 5. Who was afterwards chosen dictator ? — 6. What is said of the administration of Sylla ? — 7. Who renewed the civil wars after the death of Sylla ?— 8. Who about this time raised a conspiracy at Rome ? — 9. Who, by his wise and prudent management quelled the conspiracy ? — 10. What dissolved the triumvirate ? — 11. What proposition was made in the senate respecting Csesar and Pompey ? — 12. Who joined Pompey in the war against Caesar ? — 13. How was Caesar invested with a two-fold power of acting in the name of the republick ? — 14. Where did a severe and bloody action occur between the two factions? — 15. What became of Pom- pey ? — 16. What became of Cresar ? — 17. Who formed the second triumvirate? — 18. Who made a stand against the triumvirate with a formidable force ? — 19. Who was summoned by Antony to answer for her conduct in dethroning her infant brother? — 20. Where did a naval battle take place between the fleets of Antony and Octavius ? — 21. What became of Antony and Cleopatra ? — 22. What power was given to every head of a family at Rome ? — 23. What was the principal stu- £is of the laws of England. 52 MODERN HISTORY. 10. At the age of fifty-three, after a glorious reign of twenty-nine years and a half, Alfred died. In whatever light we view his character, we must regard him as one of the wisest and best men that ever sat on a throne. He was a most accomplished scholar for the age, and composed, as well as translated, many works. 11. Confusion and disorder prevailed in the reigns of the successors of Alfred. The Danes again began to ravage the kingdom, and about eighty years after the death of Alfred, A. D. 981, they seriously projected the conquest of England. The clergy began to extend their authority over the throne, and the succeeding princes became the obsequious slaves of the priesthood. 12. William, duke of Normandy, claiming a right to the English throne, in virtue of the will of Edward the confessor, attacked and defeated the English at Hastings, on the 14th of October, 1066. This battle decided the contest, and Will- iam took possession of the throne, and thus put an end to the Anglo-Saxon line. 13. The government of the Anglo-Saxon kings was chief- ly military. They had no more authority than belonged to a general, or military leader. There was no regular suc- cession to the throne ; and though some one of the family of the last king was chosen, yet it was generally the person best fitted to govern. 14. There w r ere three ranks of the people ; the nobles, the free, and the slaves. The nobles held their lands of the king ; the freemen held of the nobles, and paid them rent ; and the slaves were employed in domestick services, or in cultivating the lands. The master was fined for the murder of his slave, and if he mutilated him, the slave recovered his freedom. 15. Pecuniary fines formed the ordinary atonement for every species of crime. Two-thirds of the fines went to the king, and constituted no inconsiderable portion of his reve- nue. Beside the fines, the king received the demesnes or rents of the crown lands, and certain imposts on boroughs and sea-ports. 16. The Norman conquest was a real advantage to Eng- land. The Anglo-Saxons w r ere far behind the Normans in civilization, and with the conquest came great improvements in arts, sciences, government, and laws. MODERN HISTORY. 53 17. Hugh Capet, on the death of Lewis V., was elected to the throne of France, in the year 987. Under his reign, and that of Robert, his successor, the kingdom suffered much misery. The latter became the victim of papal tyranny, for daring to marry a distant cousin, without a dispensation from the pope. 18. Pilgrimage and Chivalry were the prevailing passions of those times. In this career of adventure, the Normans greatly distinguished themselves. They expelled, in 983, the Saracens from the territories of the duke of Salano, and did a similar service for pope Benedict VII., and the duke of Capua. 19. Extreme barbarism marked the character of the nor- thern nations of Europe, at this period. Russia received the Christian religion in the eighth century ; Sweden, Hungary, and Bohemia, after, having received Christianity, relapsed again to idolatry. 20. The Moors possessed Spain and Portugal ; and Cor- dova, their capital, was the seat of luxury and magnificence. At this period, knight-errantry w T as much in vogue, and the country abounded with independent lords, who acted as champions in deciding the quarrels of princes, or enlisted in- to their service, with all their vassals and attendants. 21. The contest between the imperial and papal powers, marks a distinguished trait of those ages. The emperors clai- med the right of nominating the popes, without an interven- i tion of a council, while the clergy strenuously resisted the i claim. The popes at length prevailed, and the papal power was settled on a firm basis, by Innocent III. 22. William the Conqueror, king of England, was haughty and tyrannical. He disgusted the English by the preference which he showed to the Normans, in advancing them to all offices of trust and honour. A conspiracy arose from these discontents, which William defeated, and henceforth deter- mined to treat the English as a conquered people. 23. The feudal law was introduced into England by Will- iam. By this, the whole kingdom was divided into baronies, and bestowed, under military tenure, upon his Norman fol- lowers. But no act of William was more resented by his subjects, than that which was called the forest law. By this, he claimed the exclusive right of killing game over all the kingdom* 54 MODERN HISTORY. 24. Doemsdarj-book was formed by his order. This was a record of the survey of all the lands in the kingdom, with a distinct specification of their extent, value, names of their proprietors, and the number and class of inhabitants residing on them. This valuable record is still preserved, andis now printed. 25. William II. , sufrnamed Rufus, or Red, succeeded his father, William the Conqueror, and inherited all his vices, but none of his virtues. His reign was distinguished by no event of importance, and presents nothing but a dull career of unresisted despotism. He was succeeded by Henry I., whose character was equally bad. 26. Henry II. came to the throne in 1 154. He was every way worthy of the crown. He began his reign by reforming abuses, revoking impoliticly grants, regulating the administra- tion of justice, and establishing the freedom of the towns by charters. 27. Ireland was conquered in his reign ; though it was not considered as fully subdued till the reign of Elizabeth. Hen- ry imposed on the conquered country an annual tribute, and an obligation of allegiance to the crown of England. He also divided Ireland into counties, and introduced the English laws. The first Irish parliament was held in this reign. 28. Domestick misfortunes clouded the last years of Henry's reign. His four sons, Henry, Geoffrey, Richard, and John, instigated hy their mother, rebelled against their father, and aided by the king of France, prepared to dethrone him. The Scots seizing the opportunity, invaded and plundered the country. The spirits of Henry sunk under such complicated misfortunes, and he died of a broken heart, in the year 1189, and in the fifty-eighth year of his age. 29. Richard I. succeeded him. He soon embarked for Palestine, to join the war against the infidels, and plundered his subjects of immense sums of money, to defray his ex- penses. On his return, he was seized by the emperor of Germany, and detained prisoner till he was ransomed by his subjects, at the price of 150,000 merks. 30. Magna Oharta, the paladium of English liberty, was formed in the reign of John, the successor of Richard I. This is a compact between the king and the people, in which the rights and prerogatives of both parties are defined and settled. John was compelled by his subjects, to ratify and confirm it, two or three times during his reign. MODERN HISTORY. 55 QUESTIONS* 1. Who were probably the first inhabitants of the British isles? — 2. Who was the first Roman general that visited Britain ? — 3. How long did the Romans keep possession of the Island ? — 4. Who were invited by the Britains to assist them against the Picts, and Caledonians ? — 5. What was the government of the Saxons called ? — 6. Who, by their depredations, prevented the kingdom from enjoying tranquility ? — 7. Who conquered the Danes ? — 8. What is said of the character of Al- fred ? — 9. What division did he make of the kingdom ? — 10. At what age, and after how long a reign did Alfred die? — 11. What took place after the death of Alfred ?— 12. Who defeated the English at the battle of Hastings ? — 13. What was the government of the Anglo-Saxon kings?— 14. How many ranks of people were there? — 15. What form- ed the ordinary atonement for every species of crime? — 16. What was a real advantage to England ?-~17. Who was elected king of France in 987? — 18. What were the prevailing passions of those times ?— 19, What marked the character of the northern nations of Europe at this time? — 20. Who possessed Spain and Portugal? — 21. What marks a distinguished trait of those ages ? — 22. What is said of William the Conqueror ? — 23. What law did William introduce ? — 24. What book was formed by his order? — 25. Who succeeded William the Conqueror? — 26. Who came to the throne 1154? — 27. What country was conquered in his reign ? — 28. What clouded the last years of Hen» ry's reign ? — 29. Who succeeded him ? — 30. What was formed in the reign of John ? SECTION IV. CRUSADES. CHIVALRY. ROMANCE. STATE OF EUROPE. 1. The Crusades, or holy wars, undertaken for the pur- pose of driving the Saracens or Turks from Jerusalem and Palestine, distinguished the tenth and eleventh centuries. The holy land had been in possession of the infidels for more than four hundred years, and they inflicted many grievances upon the Christians who visited the tomb of our Saviour. 2. Peter the Hermit, a native of Amiens, having been on a pilgrimage, complained much of the exactions and tyranny of the Turks ; and Urban II. , who then filled the papal chair having long entertained the idea of arming all Christendom against the infidels, thought Peter a fit person to commence its execution. 3. Eighty thousand men, soon ranged themselves under the banners of Peter, and began their march toward Jerusa- lem. Their progress was marked by acts of rapine and hos- tility in every country through which they passed? and before 55 MODERN HISTORY. they reached Constantinople, the army was reduced two- thirds. A second army met with a similar fate, and Jerusa- lem still remained subject to the infidels. 4. Two millions of Europeans are supposed to have pe- rished in the crusades. By this means, Europe was in a manner purified ; the manners of its inhabitants improved, and the power of the feudal barons greatly lessened. The towns began to purchase their freedom from the nobles, and acquired the right of electing their own magistrates, and ma- king their own laws. 5. Chivalry was brought to perfection in the age of the crusades. Among the Germans, the profession of arms was the only employment esteemed manly, or honourable ; and the initiation of youth in this profession, was attended with peculiar solemnity, as well as ceremony. The candidate for knighthood underwent preparatory fasts and vigils, and then on his knees, received the commands and benediction of his chief. 6. Romance, or works of fiction, also took its rise in the time of the crusades. Chivalry presented a vast field for military glory, and was fruitful in adventure. The bards and romancers sung the praises of the knights, and recounted their exploits with a thousand circumstances of fabulous em- bellishment. The oldest romances were produced in the twelfth century. 7. In the year 1202, Constantinople was taken by the crusaders, and for sixty years, was under the government of France. The Greeks then retook it, under Michael Palae- ologus, who, by putting out the eyes of his pupil, Theodore Lascaris, secured the sovereignty to himself. 8. Frederick II. governed Germany in the beginning of the thirteenth century. He paid homage to the pope for Na- ples and Sicily ; but afterward they were given to the brother of Lewis IX., king of France. The Sicilians not being pleased with this arrangement, rebelled, and in one night murdered every Frenchman on the island. This massacre happened on Easter Sunday, 1282, and was followed by all the miseries of civil war and revolution. 9. The Inquisition was established in the beginning of the thirteenth century, by pope Innocent III. The first design of this institution was, to punish the Albigenses, an inoffen- sive people, who, in maintaining primitive Christianity, were MODERN HISTORY. 57 bold enough to dispute many of the tenets of the papal cfiurch. This object being accomplished, the benefits of the commission were judged by the pope to be so great, that he made it a permanent establishment* 10. From the year 1274, the rise of the house of Austria may be dated. At that time, Rodolphus, a Swiss baron, was elected emperor of Germany. He took Austria from the king of Bohemia, and it has ever since been in the family ol its conqueror.- The states of Venice, Genoa, and Pisa, were at this time flourishing and opulent ; while most of the king- doms of Europe were weak, feeble, and exhausted. 11. The revolution of Switzerland distinguished the be« ginning of the thirteenth century. Albert, the successor of Rodolphus, by his tyranny, exasperated several of the Swiss cantons ; which, uniting to assert their freedom, with a small army of four or five hundred men, defeated an im- mense host of the Austrians, at the pass of Morgate, in the year 1315. Sixty pitched battles were fought by the Swiss, before they secured their independence. 12. Henry VII., emperor of Germany, being engaged in a war with the pope, fought his way to Rome, where he was solemnly crowned, and imposed a tribute on all the Italian states. He died suddenly soon after, and his death is attri- buted to the resentment of the pope. The seat of the pope- dom, in his time, was removed from Rome to Avingnon, in France, where it continued sixty-eight years. 13. The imperial constitution, or the fundamental law of the German empire, was published in 1355, by Charles IV. By this, the number of electors was reduced to seven, and all the hereditary offices of state were settled on them. The electors soon exemplified their rights, by deposing the son of Charles for incapacity, in the year 1400. 14. The Council of Constance was summoned in 1414, by Sigismund, to settle differences and restore peace to the church. Three popes had been elected by the French and Italian factions; but the council deposed all three, and elect- ed a fourth, Martin Colonna. This division of the papacy is termed the great schism of the west 15. John Huss, and Jerom of Prague, were tried at this council for heresy, in denying the papal supremacy, and ridi- culing the vices and immoralities of the popes and bishops, They did not deny the charge, and refusing to confess their 5 53 MODERN HISTORY. errours, were condemned to the stake. They displayed great firmness and constancy, and are reckoned martyrs for the truth. 16. Henry III. at nine years of age, succeeded to the throne of England, on the death of John, his father. He was a prince of amiable disposition, but of weak understanding ; and his preference of foreign favourites, disgusted the nobles, while the want of economy in his government, and his oppressive exactions, deprived him of the affections of his people. 17. Montfort, earl of Leicester, brother-in-law to Henry, conceived the idea of usurping the government. He form- ed a league with the barons, and on the pretext of reforming abuses, compelled Henry to delegate all the regal power to twenty-four of their number. These divided the offices of government among themselves, and new-modelled the parlia- ment by summoning a certain number of knights from each county. But these barons, disgusted with Leicester, soon left him and joined the royal party. 18. The death of Leicester, who was slain at the battle of Evesham, on the 4th of August, 1265, put an end to the re- bellion, and restored Henry to the throne. His son Edward, a br.ave and gallant prince, was of eminent service to his fa- ther in subduing the rebellion. He afterward joined Lewis of France in the last crusade, and concluded an honourable and advantageous tyuee with the sultan of Babylon. 19. The conquest of Wales was effected in the beginning of the reign of Edward I. Lewellyn, prince of Wales, refu- sed to do homage to Edward, and the latter, marching an army into the principality, drove the Welsh into the mountains, and compelled them to unqualified submission. Lewellyn broke the treaty then formed, and Edward again marching into Wales, a decisive and desperate battle took place. The Welsh prince was slain, and the country entirely subdued, 1283. QUESTIONS. 1. What distinguished the tenth and eleventh centuries? — 2. Who was employed by the pope to excite the nations of Europe to the holy war? — 3. How many men soon ranged themselves under the banners of Peter? — 4. How many Europeans are supposed to have perished in the crusades? — 5. What was brought to perfection hi the age of the crusades? — 6. What took its rise in the time of the crusades? — 7. When was Constantinople taken by the crusaders? — S. Who go- verned Germany in the beginning of the thirteenth century? — 9 .What MODERN HISTORY. 59 was established by pope Innocent III. ?— 10. From what year may the rise of the house of Austria be dated? — 11. What distinguished the beginning of the thirteenth century ? — 12. Who imposed a tribute on the Italian states? — 13. What was published in 1355 by Charles IV. ? — 14 What did Sigismund summon in 1414 to settle the peace of the church ?■ — 15. Who were tried and burned at this council for he- resy ? — 16. Who came to the throne of England on the death of John ? — 17. Who raised a rebellion against him?— 18. What put an end to the rebellion ?— 19, What was effected in the beginning of the reign of Edward I. ? SECTION V. SCOTLAND. ENGLAND. FRANCE. FALL OF THE GREEK EMPIRE. 1. Very little is known of the true history of Scotland, till the reign of Malcolm III., A. D. 1057. That prince defea- ted Macbeth, the murderer of Duncan, the father of Mal- colm. For twenty-seven years, he maintained a spirited contest with England, and even succeeded in reducing Cum- berland and Northumberland, which he consented to hold in vassallage of the crown of England. 2. Alexander I., and David I., were the immediate suc- cessors of Malcolm. They were both princes of talent, and defended their country against invasion. Long and bloody were the contests between the Scots and the English, and both kingdoms suffered material, and about equal injury. 3. Bruce and Baliol, on the death of Alexander III., be- came competitors for the crown of Scotland. Edward I., of England, was chosen umpire, and compelling Baliol to do ho- mage to himself as lord paramount, adjudged the crown to him. Soon after, Baliol, renouncing his allegiance, Edward com- pelled him to abdicate the throne, and resign it into his hands. 4. William Wallace, one of the greatest heroes that ever lived, restored the fallen fortunes of his country. With a, few patriots, he attacked the forces of Edward, and after a series of victories, entirely defeated the English at Stirling, and compelled them to evacuate the kingdom. 5. Wallace was at length betrayed into the hands of the English, and slain. After his death, Robert Bruce, grand - son of the Robert who was competitor with Baliol, deeply re- senting the injuries of his country, again set up the standard df war, and after various successes, once more drove the 60 MODERN HISTORY. English from Scotland, and was crowned king at Scone, io July, 1307. 6. Edward II. succeeded to the crown of England on the death of his father, Edward I. In obedience to the dying in- junction of his father, not to give peace to Scotland, he led an army of a hundred thousand men into that country. Ro- bert Bruce met this immense force with thirty thousand men, at Bannockburn, and defeated it with great slaughter. 7. The queen of Edward, a vicious and unprincipled wo- man, soon after made war upon her husband, and by the aid of her brother, Charles IV., of France, took him prisoner. He was tried by parliament, deposed, and put in prison, where he was cruelly murdered, A. D. 1327. 8. Edward III., at the age of fourteen, ascended the throne, and speedily avenged the murder of his father, by the perpetual imprisonment of his mother. He then led an arm} into Scotland, defeated the Scots at Halidoun-hill, and pla- ced on the throne his vassal and tributary Edward Baliol. 9. In the right of his mother, sister of Charles IV., Ed- ward, on the death of his uncle, set up a claim to the crown of France. He fitted out an immense armament, both by sea and land, and at the battle of Cressy, August 26, 1348, with thirty thousand men, defeated a French army of a hundred thousand. Fire arms were first used in this battle. 10. John, who succeeded his father Philip on the throne of France, was defeated at the battle of Poictiers, and being taken captive, was carried to r London, where he died. The French carried on the war with great vigour during the cap- tivity of their sovereign, and the English gained little but honour from all their victories. 11. Richard II., grandson of Edward III., succeeded to the throne on the death of that prince. He was a weak and impotent prince ; little fitted to manage the powerful factions which arose between the Dukes of Lancaster, York, and Gloucester, and embroiled all publick affairs. Lancaster soon rose in open rebellion, and compelled the king to re- sign the crown, and he was soon afterward privately assas- sinated. 12. Henry IV., on the deposition of Richard, ascended the throne. A rebellion was immediately raised by the house of York, but was soon quelled. This reign was signalized by the first religious persecution in England, and the follow- MODERN HISTORY. 61 ©rs of Wickliffwere rigorously pursued. The youthful dis- orders of his son, the prince of Wales, greatly embittered the life of Henry, and he died at the age of forty-six. 13. His son, Edward V., succeeding to the throne, inva- ded France, and conquered the whole country. This war was terminated by a treaty, in which it was agreed that Hen- ry should marry the daughter of Charles Vlf of France, and receive the whole kingdom for her dowry, which, till his death, her father should govern as regent. 14. By the aid of the Maid of Orleans, a young enthusiast, Charles VII. recovered all France except Calais and Guig- nes. The Maid, after having accomplished her promise of delivering the kingdom, was taken prisoner by the English, and barbarously put to death. This impolitick act, increased the aversion of the French to the English yoke, and hastened their expulsion from the kingdom. 15. But little progress had been as yet made in the arts, even in England and France, the two most polished king- doms in Europe. Houses, even in cities, were roofed with thatch; glass in windows was rare, and the floors were carpeted with straw. Wine was sold only at the shops of apothecaries, and the use of linen for shirts was a very rare luxury. Some of the household of Henry III., who were indicted for robbing on the highway, plead in excuse, that the king allowed them no wages. 16. About the middle of the fourteenth century, the Turks crossed over into Europe, and took Adrianople. The Greek empire was at this time fast hastening to its fall. The em- peror, John Palseologus, was forced to conclude a treaty with the sultan, Amurat, and give his son as hostage. 17. Bajazet, the successor of Amurat, compelled the em- peror to destroy his fort at Galata, and to admit a Turkish officer into the city. He now made preparations for besieg- ing Constantinople in form, but the Asiatick princes having invited the prince of the Usbeck Tartars to aid them against the Ottoman power, he was forced to change his purpose and defend himself. 18. Tamerlane was flattered by this request, and imperi- ously summoned the Turk to renounce his conquests. He was answered with a proud defiance. The two armies met near Angora, and Bajazet was defeated and taken prisoner. Tamerlane made Samarcarid the capital of his empire, and 6* 62 MODERN HISTORY, for a time it was the seat of learning, politeness, and the arte. 19. Mahomet IL, son of Amurat, besieged and took Con- stantinople, and thus extinguished the eastern empire of the Romans, A. D. 1453. Constantinople had been the capital of the empire one thousand one hundred and twenty-three years. The Turks preserved all the publick edifices ; chan- ged the churches into mosques, but left the Christians the ex- ercise of their own religion. 20. The government of Turkey is an absolute monar- chy. The legislative and executive authority rests in the sul- tan, and his power is subject to no constitutional control. Religious opinion, however, limits it in some degree ; but the fear of deposition and assassination is a stronger restraint, and hence there is seldom an abuse of power. 21. Taxes and customs, annual tributes, stated gifts, and the confiscation of estates, are the sources of the sultan's re- venue. The certain and fixed revenues are, however, small when compared with those which are arbitrary. The abso- lute power of the sultan enables him to execute vast projects at a small expense. QUESTIONS. 2. What is known of the true history of Scotland previous to the feign of Malcolm III.? — 2. Who were the immediate successors of Mal- colm ? — 3. Who were competitors for the crown on the death of Alex ander III.? — 4. Who restored the fallen fortunes of his country? — 5. What became of Wallace? — 6. Who succeeded Edward I. ori the throne of England ? — 7. Who made war upon her husband ? — 8. Who revenged the murder of his father, Edward II.? — 9. By what right did Edward III. claim the crown of France? — 10. Who was defeated at the battle of Poictiers, and died a prisoner in London ? — 11. Who suc- ceeded Edward III. in England ? — 12. Who ascended the throne on the deposition of Richard ? — 13. Who conquered France? — 14. By whose aid did Charles VII. recover France? — 15. What progress had been made in the arts in Europe ? — 16. When did the Turks cross in- to Europe ? — 17. Who compelled the emperor to destroy his fort at Galata ? — 18. Who summoned the Turk to renounce his conquests? — 19. Who took Constantinople? — 20. What is the government of Turkey? — 21. What are the sources of the sultan's revenue? SECTION VI. FRANCE. SPAIN. ITALY. SCOTLAND. 1. The acquisition of Burgundy and Province toward the close of the fifteenth century, greatly increased the power of MODERN HISTORY. 68 France. Lewis XI. was then the reigning monarch. He was an odious compound of vice, cruelty and superstition, yet was the author of many wise and excellent publick regula- tions. He gave great encouragement to commerce, restrai- ned the nobles, and imposed salutary regulations upon the courts of justice. 2. Naples was conquered by Charles VIII., son and suc- cessor of Lewis. A league between the several European powers, soon compelled the French troops to evacuate Na- ples, and the rightful sovereign was restored to his throne. This confederacy gave rise to the plan of maintaining a bal- ance of power among the European states, so that no one may be able to obtain an inordinate aggrandizement. 3. The marriage of Isabella, queen of Castile, and Fer- dinand of Aragon, united into one those two monarchies. At that time Spain was in great disorder, on account of the depredations of the nobles and their vassals. To repress these disorders, was the first object of the new sovereigns, and for this purpose a society was instituted called the holy brotherhood. The inquisition also, about the same time sig- nalized itself by its sanguinary persecutions. 4. In the year 1491, the Moors were driven from Spain, after having been in possession of the country eight hundred years. They were, however, permitted to retire to a moun- tainous part of the kingdom, where they enjoyed, without molestation, their laws and their religion. From the time of the expulsion of the Moors, Ferdinand took the title of king of Spain. 5. In the year 1492, the Jews, to the number of one hun- dred and fifty thousand, were driven from Spain, on the absurd pretence, that they monopolized the commerce of the king- dom. Thus Spain voluntarily deprived herself of her most industrious and useful citizens. Other states following their example, the Jews often became victims of a persecution equally inhuman. 6. The discovery of America, was an event which distin- guished the reign of Ferdinand, This, while it stimulated the spirit of industry and enterprise in all the neighbouring nations, produced but little impression on Spain, who might have monopolized its benefits. In fact, Spain has probably derived the least benefit from that event, of any of the mari- time nations of Europe, 64 MODERN HISTORY. 7. Alexander V., who now filled the papal chair, was de^ testable for his crimes, which history records with horrour. He and his son, Caesar Borgia, attained every object of their ambition, but by the vilest means, and they met with that re- tribution which their crimes deserved. Alexander died by poison, and his son was carried a prisoner to Spain, where he perished in miserable obscurity. 8. The marriage of Henry VI. of England, with Marga- ret of Anjou, daughter of the king of Naples, greatly alien- ated the nobles. The factions of York and Lancaster, em- broiled the kingdom, and Henry, who was a weak prince, soon had a powerful competitor for the crown. 9. Richard, duke of York, a descendant of the ancient kings of England, claimed the throne. Henry was subject to periodical insanity, and this greatly strengthened the party of Richard. Henry was defeated and taken prisoner in the battle of St. Albans, 1455, and York was declared protector of the. realm. A red and white rose distinguished the two factions of York and Lancaster. 10. The duke of Warwick, a powerful nobleman, disgust- ed with Edward IV., joined the faction of Lancaster, and Henry was restored to the throne. But this change was of no duration. The faction of York again renewed th^ contest, and Warwick, who had now received the epithet of king-ma* ker r was slain at the battle of Barnet, 1472. This event pro- yed fatal to the Lancasterian faction, and Henry was soon after taken prisoner, at the battle of Tewksbury, and sent to the tower, where he was privately assassinated. 11. Edward IV. was a cruel and tyrannical prince. Ha- ving secured himself on the throne, by putting to death all his competitors, he gave himself up entirely to his passions. On the most frivilous pretence he put to death his brother Clarence. Preparing for a war with France, he died sudden- ly, in the forty-second year of his age, leaving his son Ed- ward to inherit his throne, and his brother, the duke of Glou- cester, to act as protector. 12. Edward V., and his brother, were smothered in the tower while asleep, by the order of the duke of Gloucester, (Richard III.,) who was now proclaimed king. Their bodies were not found till many years after ; when in taking down a flight of stairs, two coffins were discovered buried under them^ 6ut they contained nothing except bones. MODERN HISTORY. 65 13. The battle of Bosworth was fought 1485. Henry, duke of Richmond, the surviving heir of the house of Lan- caster, aided by Charles VIII., of France, landed in England, and revived the spirits of a party now almost extinguished. Richard met him at Bosworth, and was defeated and slain. Henry was immediately crowned ; placing on his head, with his own hands, the same crown which Richard had worn in battle. 14. The marriage of Henry of Lancaster, with Elizabeth of the house of York, united the two factions, and gave peace to the kingdom. He was wise and politick, and under him the kingdom recovered from the wounds it had received in the long and unhappy contests between the two factions. Excellent laws were passed in this reign, and produced as their fruit, industry, good order and subordination. Henry died at the age of fifty-two, and in the twenty-fourth year of his reign. 15. The feudal system was carried to its greatest extent in Scotland. The power of the greater barons, by rendering them independent of their sovereign, and often his rivals, was a perpetual source of turbulence and disorder to the kingdom. To retrench the powers and possessions of these barons, was a constant and favourite policy of the Scottish kings ; but they found a refractory spirit and a difficult task. 16. James I., of Scotland, was carried prisoner to Lon- don, where he was detained captive eighteen years. He passed his time there in adorning his mind with every valua- ble accomplishment. On his return to his kingdom, he turn- ed his whole attention to the improvement of his people : enacted excellent laws ; exacted them with vigorous resolu- tion ; firmly restrained the factious spirit of the nobles, and punished their excesses with severity. He was murdered in the forty-fourth year of his age. 17. His son, James II., succeeded him. He pursued the same course that his father had done, but not with the same moderation. He succeeded, however, in quelling the fac- tious nobles, slaying with his own hands the earl of Doug- lass, who justified his rebellious practises, even in the pre- sence of the king. James was killed in the thirtieth year of his age, by the bursting of a cannon, A. D. 1460* His *so% James III., succeeded him, 66 MODERN HISTORY. 18. He was a weak prince ; but without the talents of hi» predecessors, he affected to tread in the same steps. In order to humble his nobles, he bestowed his favours upon foreigners, an insult which the former revenged by rebellion. In an engagement near Bannockburn, the rebels were suc- cessful, and the king was slain. He perished in the thirty- fifth year of his age, and was succeeded by his son James IV. 19. He was a great and accomplished prince. His tal- ents were equalled only by his virtues, and his measures were the dictates of true patriotism, and he won, by well-timed confidence, the affections of his nobles. He married Mar- garet, the daughter of Henry VII. of England ; but the ami- cable intention of this step was frustrated. James invaded England, and was defeated and slain at the battle of Flod- den, 1513. Almost all his nobles fell in the same battle. 20. Anarchy and misrule prevailed in Scotland during the minority of James V., who was an infant at the time his father was slain. Having attempted to humble his haughty nobles, they determined on revenge, and sacrificed their honour and their country, to accomplish their purpose. In a war with England, during an engagement, in which James might have been, by their constancy, victorious, ten thousand of them surrendered to five hundred of the enemy. James soon af- ter died. He was the father of Mary, afterwards the unfor- tunate queen of Scots. QUESTIONS. 1, What, at the close of the fifteenth century, greatly increased the power of France ? — 2. What was conquered by Charles VIII. of France ? — 3. What-event united the two kingdoms of Castile and Ara- gon ? — 4. When were the Moors driven from Spain ? — 5. When were the Jews ? — 6. What event distinguished the reign of Ferdinand ? — 7. Who at this time filled the papal chair? — 8. What event alieanted the nobles of England? — 9. Who claimed the English crown ? — 10. Who joined the Lancasterians and restored Henry to the throne ? — 11. What was the character of Edward IV. ? — 12. What became of Edward V. and his brother ?— 13. What battle was fought 1485?-— 14. What event united the factions of Lancaster and York ? — 15. What system was carried to its greatest extent in Scotland? — 16. Who was carried pri- soner to London? — 17. Who succeeded James I. in Scotland? — 18. What was his character? — 19. What was the character of James IV.? 20, What was the state of Scotland during the minority of James V.I MODERN HISTORY. 67 SECTION VII. Progress of literature, progress of commerce, dis- coveries OF THE PORTUGUESE. CHARLES V. FRANCIS I. 1. The Arabians were the first restorers of learning in Europe. The caliphs procured from the Greek emperors copies of the ancient manuscripts, and had them carefully translated into the Arabick; esteeming those principally, which treated of mathematicks, physicks, and metaphysicks. In the progress of their conquests, they disseminated their knowledge, and in all the countries which they subdued, founded schools and colleges. 2. Alfred, who was himself a man of science, introduced a taste for literature into England ; but the subsequent disor- ders of the kingdom, plunged it again into barbarism. Learn- ing was, however, kept alive by the monks, who employed themselves in transcribing a few of the ancient authors, along with the legendary lives of their saints. 3. Roger Bacon, an English friar, whose comprehensive mind was filled with the stores of ancient learning, appeared in the fifteenth century. He made important discoveries in astronomy, opticks, chymistry, medicine, and mechanicks. He reformed the kalendar, invented the construction of tele- scopick glasses, and was probably acquainted with the com- position of gunpowder. 4. A taste for classical learning, in the fifteenth century, led to the discovery of ancient authors. But this taste was not generally diffused. France and England were extremely barbarous. The library at Oxford contained only six hundred volumes, and in the royal library at Paris, were only two classical authors. On the fall of the eastern empire, the Greeks dispersing among the neighbouring nations, carried with them a taste for polite literature. 5. The art of printing, which was discovered at Strasburg, by John Guttenburg, in 1440, greatly facilitated the progress of literature, and gave assurance of the perpetuity of every valuable art. A succession of popes, possessed of liberal and enlightened minds, greatly encouraged learning and science. 6. The Periplus of Hanno, which sailed from Carthage to the coast of Guinea, within four or five degrees of the equa- &qy % was the boldest naval enterprise of the ancients. They 68 MODERN HISTORY. had a very imperfect knowledge of the earth, and supposed that the torrid and frigid zones were uninhabitable. Their world extended to the sixty-third degree of north latitude, and to the equator south. 7. Genoa, Florence, and Pisa, were among the earliest modern commercial cities. They traded to the coasts of Egypt and the Levant, for the spices and other merchandise of Arabia and India. The sugar cane was planted in Sici- ly in the twelfth century, and thence was carried to Madeira, and ultimately to the West Indies. A silk manufacture was established at Palermo, in the year 1130. 8. About the end of the twelfth century, commerce began to spread into the north of Europe. To protect their trade from piracy, Lubeck, Hamburgh, and most of the northern ports, joined in a confederacy under certain general regula- tions, termed the league of the Hanse towns. This union be- came at length so formidable in point of strength, that its alli- ance was courted by most of the powers of Europe. 9. The woollen manufactory was considerable in England in the twelfth century. Henry II. incorporated the wea- vers of London, and gave them various privileges and im- munities. By a law passed in his reign, all cloth manufac- tured of foreign wool was condemned to be burnt. During the civil wars, trade and manufactures languished ; but after the reign of Henry VII., they began to revive and flourish. 10. Henry VII. gave great encouragement to all manu- factures, but especially woollen. He invited foreign artists into the kingdom, and settled them at Leeds, Wakefield, and other places. The navigation acts were passed in his reign, and treaties were made with the continental nations for the protection of merchant shipping. 11. In the middle of the fourteenth century, the compass was first used in sailing, but another century had elapsed, before mariners ventured far out of sight of their own coasts. The Atlantick ocean was supposed to be an almost bound- less expanse, reaching to the eastern shores of Asia; and a promontory in the twenty-ninth degree of north latitude, on the continent of Africa, was supposed to be the limit of the habitable earth south, and therefore was called cape Non. 12. John, king of Portugal, in the beginning of the fif- teenth century, sent out a few ships to explore the African coast, which went within two degrees of the tropick. In the MODERN HISTORY. m next reign, a single Portuguese ship, being driven out to sea, reached the island of Porto Santo, one of the Madeira isles! In 1420, the Portuguese established a colony on Madeira., and planted the vine and the sugar cane. 13. Vasco de Gama doubled the cape of Good Hope, and sailing on, passed the mouths of the Persian and Arabian gulfs, and arrived at Calicut, in the East Indies. He enter- ed into a treaty with the rajah, and returned to Lisbon with specimens of the wealth and productions of the country. 14. Antwerp and Amsterdam, about this time rose into commercial importance, and became the great marts of the north. The former was destroyed in the sixteenth century by the blocking up of the Scheldt. On this event occurring, Amsterdam rose in wealth and importance, and the United Provinces, dependant on industry alone for their support, be- came an example of commercial activity to all nations. 15. Charles Y., the son of Philip, archduke of Austria^ and Joanna, the daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella, came to the throne of Spain in 1516. In the right of his grandfather Maximillian, he preferred his claim to the empire of Germany and obtained it, although he had for a competitor, Francis I,. king of France. Henceforth, these two princes became im- placable enemies, and during the whole course of their reigns, were almost continually engaged in war with each other. 16. At the battle of Pavia, Francis was taken prisoner, and carried to Madrid. He regained his liberty by the ces- sion of Burgundy, and the superiority of Flanders and Ar- tois. The states refused to ratify this treaty, and the failure was compromised for a sum of money. 17. The disorders of Germany, occasioned by the dis- putes concerning religion, induced Charles to conclude the peace of Crepi, in 1544. Soon after, Francis died. He was a prince of great abilities and spirit, of a generous and noble mind, and his misfortunes were only occasioned by being obliged to contend with a power exceeding him both in re« sources and policy. The order of Jesuits was founded about this time by Ignatius Loyola. 18. Charles V. resigned to his son and brother all his do« minions, in 1556, and retired from the world at the age of 53. The protestants in Germany, by their constant struggles to preserve their liberties and their religion, gave him great trouble, especially in the latter part of bis reign. Henry II, 7 70 MODERN HISTORY. of France, was as formidable an antagonist as his father Francis, and Charles retired from the world under the full conviction of the vanity of all its greatness, and never after, during his life, took any interest in its concerns. 19. Maximilian I. formed the Germanick confederation. He divided the empire into ten circles ; each circle to send its representative to the imperial chamber, which was estab- lished for the settlement of all difficulties. The constitution of Germany does not, however, secure the rights of the sub- ject, but provides only for the independence of the several princes, guaranteeing to each the enjoyment of his sovereign- ty. Each state has its own constitution and laws, some com- paratively free, others more despotick. 20. The electors, the princes, and the free cities, consti- tute the diet. The diet has power to enact all publick laws. The emperor must propose these laws, and no complaint or request can be made to the diet, unless by the approbation of the elector, the archbishop of Mentz. These are some of the great defects of the German confederacy, and as each prince has the power of contracting foreign alliances, the whole confederacy is frequently involved in serious difficulty. QUESTIONS. 1, Who were the first restorers of learning in Europe? — 2. Who introduced a taste for literature into England? — 3. What distinguished man appeared in the fifteenth century? — 4. What led to the discove- ry of ancient authors ? — 5. What greatly facilitated the progress of literature ? — 6. What was the boldest naval enterprise of the ancients? — 7. What were among the earliest commercial cities? — 8. When did commerce begin to spread into the north of Europe ? — 9. What man- ufactory was considerable in England in the twelfth century ? — 10, Who gave great encouragement to all manufactures ? — 11. When was the compass first used in sailing? — 12. By whom were ships sent out to explore the African coast, in the beginning of the fifteenth century ? — 13. Who doubled the cape of Good Hope and discovered the East Indies? — 14. What two cities became the great marts of the north? 15. Who came to the throne of Spain in 1516? — 16. Where was Fran- cis I. of France taken prisoner? — 17. What induced Charles to con- clude the peace of Crepi in 1544? — 18. Who resigned his dominions and retired from the world at the age of 5^? — 19. Who formed the Germanick confederation ?— 20. Who constitutes the diet of Germany.' MODERN HISTORY 71 SECTION VIIL REFORMATION. OTTOMAN POWER. STATE OF PERSIA. INDIA. CHINA. 1. The abuse of the sale of indulgences, and the vicious lives of the clergy, were the principal causes which led to the Reformation. Pope Leo X., in order to defray the vast ex- penses in which his taste and splendour involved him, found it necessary, either to invent some new method of raising money, or to press some former plan with greater vigour. Accordingly, he instituted the sale of indulgences, or remis- sions from the pains of purgatory. 2. Martin Luther, a Benedictine monk, witnessing the detestable conduct of the agents of the pope employed in this business, ventured to preach against it, and to arraign the power that authorized it. He found many willing hearers, particularly in the electorate of Saxony, and was countenan- ced by the elector, Frederick. 3. Henry VIIL, of England, was one of the first who wrote against Luther, and for this piece of service, the pope rewarded him with the title of " Defender of the Faith." Charles V. also took part against Luther, and summoned him to answer for his doctrines at the diet of Worms. Here, af- ter defending his doctrines with firmness, by the aid of the elector Frederick, he made his escape, and still propagated his opinions with zeal, ability, and success. 4. Zuinglius, about the same time, rose as a reformer in Switzerland. He preached the new doctrines with such zeal and success, that the whole canton of Zurich was con- verted, and the senate publickly abolished mass, and purified the churches. Berne followed the example, a/ter a solemn deliberation in the senate, which lasted two months. But other cantons took up arms in defence of their religion, and the protestants were defeated in a desperate engagement, 1531. 5. Wickliff, in the middle of the fourteenth century, in England, attacked the doctrines of Rome, and prepared the way for a reformation. He translated the Bible into the ver- nacular tongue, but at that time his followers were not nume- rous. Henry VIIL was a prince of intemperate passions* and must be considered the immediate cause of the reforma- tion in England. He quarrelled with the pope, and the re- sult was 3 a total rejection of his authority. 72 MODERN HISTORY. 6. In the reign of Edward VI., the protestant religion was established in Britain. He died young, however, and was succeeded by Mary, who was a bigoted catholick. A per- secution for religion began soon after her accession, and ra- ged with great fury during the whole of her reign, which las- ted five years. In that period, above eight hundred victims were burnt at the stake for their religious opinions. 7. The Turks were a great and conquering people in the fifteenth century. They subdued Syria and Mesopotamia, undertook the conquest of Egypt, and put an end to the go- vernment of the Arabian princes. 8. The knights of St. John, had, for many years, posses- sed the island of Rhodes. The Turks attacked this island with a hundred and forty thousand men, and four hundred ships. The knights, aided by the English, Italians and Span- iards, made a noble defence, but after a siege of many months, they were forced to capitulate, and evacuate the island, 1522. Since that time, Rhodes has been the proper- ty of the Turks. The maritime jurisprudence of Europe is founded on the commercial regulations of the ancient Rho- dians. 9. About the end of the fifteenth century, Persia under- went a revolution on account of religion. Hadyr or Sophi, a religious enthusiast, established a new sect of Mahometans; and the Persians, glad of any thing to distinguish them from their enemies, the Turks, eagerly embraced his doctrines. Following the example of Mahomet, he propagated his opin- ions with the sword, and in a short time subdued all Persia and Armenia. 10. The government of Persia is despotick. The sove- reign draws his revenue from a small yearly tax on every sub- ject, and from stated gifts on particular occasions. The crown is hereditary, but females are excluded. There is no other rank in Persia, than that which is attached to office ; and this is held only during the sovereign's pleasure. The national religion is Mahometan, as reformed by Sophi. 11. Herodotus furnishes the earliest accounts of India, and the account which he gives of the character of the peo- ple, though he wrote a hundred years before Alexander the Great, corresponds perfectly with that of the present race of Hindoos. From this we infer, that their laws, manners, and customs, are subject to very little variation. MODERN HISTORY. 73 12. As early as the year 1000, the Mahometans began to establish an empire in India. Mahmoud conquered a great part of the country, extirpating the Hindoo religion wherever he came, and establishing the Mahometan in its stead. One of his successors, in 1194, penetrated to Benares, and fixed the seat of his government at Delhi, which has continued to be the capital of the Mogul princes. 13. The British East India company, in the beginning of the eighteenth century, conquered Bengal and some other provinces. These territories afford the company an im- mense revenue, as they have the benefit of the whole com- merce of the Mogul empire, together with Arabia, Persia, Thi- bet, Siam, Malacca, China, and most of the oriental islands. 14. The whole body of the Hindoos are divided into four classes. The Brahmins are the cultivators of science ; these are the first class. The second are appointed to take care of the state. The third are magistrates in peace, and sol- diers in war. The fourth are artisans, labourers, and ser- vants. These distinctions are perpetual, and descend from generation to generation. Every man is obliged to follow the profession, and remain in the class of his father : hence every one knows from earliest life, the station and employ- ment assigned to him. 15. A system of feudalism is a characteristic!* in the civil policy of the Hindoos. The rights of land flow from the sovereign, to whom the husbandmen pay a certain duty, and their possessions descend to their children on the same con- dition. One class of officers has the care of agriculture, tanks, highways, &c: another regulates the police of cities, while a third attends to the military department. 16. The government and laws of China have been permanent from time immemorial. The reigning family has been chang- ed, but its princes have wisely forborne to make any change in the principles of government. The Tartars conquered China in the tenth century, and the same race of Tartars oc- cupy the throne to this day. 17. The Hindoos were probably the progenitors of the Chinese. The ancient Sanscrit records mention a class termed Chinas, which, at an early period emigrated from Hin- doostan to the east of Bengal. As the condition of the arts and sciences are stationary with the Chinese, this proves that they have not originated with them, and many of their pecu- 7* 74 MODERN HISTORY. . liarities, institutions and manners, bear a strong resemblance to those of the Hindoos. 18. The government of China is an absolute monarchy * The patriarchal system pervades the whole, and binds all the subjects of this vast empire in the strictest subordination. Every father is absolute in his family, and may inflict any pun- ishment, short of death upon his children. The mandarines have the same power in their districts, and the emperor is ab- solute over the mandarines, and over every subject of the empire. 19. Merit, and that chiefly literary, is the only qualifica- tion for office. The civil mandarines, and all magistrates and judges, are appointed to office according to the measure of their knowledge and mental endowments. No office is hereditary, but any one may aspire to it. The penal laws of China are remarkably severe. There are three judicial tribunals. One judges of the qualifications of the manda- rines ; another inspects the morals and manners of the peo- ple, and a third reviews the laws, the conduct of magistrates, and even ©f the emperor himself. 20. Agriculture in China is carried to the highest degree of improvement. There is not a spot of waste land in the whole empire, nor any which is not under the highest cultiva- tion. The emperor annually holds the plough, as an exam- ple to his subjects, and the day on which he does this is kept as a festival. 21. The religion of China is different in the different ranks of society. There is no religion of the state. Many of the higher ranks believe in one Supreme Being, and they worship him without any idolatrous rites. The Lama of Thibet is regarded as the high priest of this religion. There are seve- ral other sects who believe in magick, and are idolaters, wor- shiping a great number of hideous idols. QUESTIONS. 1. What were the principal causes which led to the Reformation 1-2. Who first dared to preach against the abuse in the sale of indulgences: 3. Who was one of the first that wrote against Luther? — 4. Who rose as a reformer in Switzerland, about the same time that Luther rose in Germany ?— 5. Who in England, about the middle of the fourteenth century attacked the doctrines of Rome ? — 6. In whose reign was the protestant religion established in England ? — 7. What is said of the Turks in the fifteenth century ? — 8. Who possessed the island of Rhodes for many years ? — 9. At what time did a revolution occur in Persia oii MODERN HISTORY. 7S account of religion ?— 10. What is the government of Persia?— 11, What writer furnishes us with the earliest accounts of India? — 12. When did the Mahometans begin to establish an empire in India ? — 13. Who, in the beginning of the eighteenth century, conquered Bengal and the adjacent provinces ?— 14. Into how many classes are the Hindoos di- vided ?— 15. What is a characteristick in the civil policy of the Hindoos ? 16. What is said of the government and laws of China ? — 17. Who were probably the progenitors of the Chinese ? — 19. What is the govern- ment of China? — 19. What is the qualification for office in China? — 20. What, in China, is carried to the highest degree of improvement ? — 21. What is said of the religion of China? SECTION IX. SPAIN. NETHERLANDS. FRANCE. ENGLAND. 1. Philip II. succeeded his father Charles V. on the throne of Spain. The balance of power was at this time held by England, France, Spain, and Germany, all of them at that time flourishing and respectable kingdoms, and governed by sovereigns of more than ordinary talents. Philip, in addition to the sovereignty of Spain, the two Sicilies, Milan and the Netherlands, had, by his marriage with Mary, queen of Eng- land, the control for a few years of the power of that kingdom. 2. An attempt to repress the protestant religion in the Ne- therlands, by the arm of the inquisition, led to a revolt of its inhabitants from the crown of Spain. The duke of Alva, famous in history for his cruelties and rigorous severity, was sent to repress the rebellion, and the inquisition began its work. His ill-timed severity completely alienated the minds of the people from the government, as well as the religion of Spain, and they only wanted a leader to give union to their measures. 3. William, prince of Orange, a count of the German empire, was chosen stadtholder, or chief. He had incurred the papal displeasure by his attachment to the protestants, and was under the sentence of the inquisition. He raised an army, and compelled Spain to give up the idea of for- cing the rebels to return to their duty. Seven of the pro- vinces out of seventeen united in a league, in 1579, and agreed to defend their liberties. These constituted the re- publick of Holland. 4. The government of Holland was republican. Each province preserved its laws and independence, but the right 7G MODERN HISTORY. of making treaties, and regulating the common affairs of the republick, was vested in a representative council, called the States General. An important evil in this constitution, and often a dangerous one was, that in all publick measures, all the towns and nobles of a province, must deliberate and in- struct their deputy, before the states general could take the matter into consideration. 5. The acquisition of Portugal, in some measure compen- sated Philip for the loss of the Netherlands. After the death of Henry, king of Portugal, Antonio, prior of Crato, and Philip, were competitors for the crown. Philip defeated his rival in an engagement at sea, and without farther difficulty took possession of the kingdom, A. D. 1580. 6. Elizabeth, queen of England, having given aid to the revolted Netherlands, Philip, in revenge, fitted out a fleet of a hundred and fifty ships of war, with twenty-seven thousand men, and thre89. 10. Henry of Navarre, a protestant, succeeded him. His character was excellent, and after many struggles, he succee- ded in restoring the kingdom to order. But his title was not acknowledged by the catholicks, and as religion was the sole cause of the disunion of France, Rosni, duke of Sully, the able minister and devoted assistant of Henry, advised him to profess himself a catholick. He accordingly abjured the pro- testant religion at St. Denis, and was crowned king 1594. 11. To the able counsels, and unwearied industry of Sul- ly, Henry owed most of his successes. Rosni had been ed- ucated with Henry, and a strong and mutual attachment sub- sisted between them. Sully has in his memoirs of Henry, beautifully depicted the life and character of his master. In them we see, not only the great designs, but the private vir- tues of this illustrious prince, who, while he was arbiter of the nations of Europe, was the father of a happy people. 12. Henry was assassinated at the age of fifty-seven, May 4, 1610, by Ravaillac, an insane fanatick. This event filled all France with consternation and sorrow. At the time of his death, he was meditating the design of a perpetual peace be- tween the states of Europe ; a design highly characteristick of the benevolent mind of its author. His minister, on the death of his master, retired to private life, and employed him- self in writing his memoirs. 13. Elizabeth, daughter of Henry VIII., succeeded to the throne of England, on the death of her sister Mary. In her reign the kingdom attained a high degree of splendour. Her talents enabled her to discern and pursue the true interests of her people, while she at the same time maintained the balance of power in Europe. It was her fortune to have able minis- ters, and her merit to place confidence in their counsels. 14. Her conduct toward Mary, queen of Scots, who was her cousin, has fixed an indelible stain upon her character. Mary, having been unfortunate in her own kingdom, and compelled to resign the crown to her infant son, took refuge in England, from her enemies, and implored the protection of Elizabeth, The queen ordered her to be kept in confine* 78 MODERN HISTORY. ment ; and after a lapse of eighteen years, on pretence of her being engaged in a conspiracy against the government, put her to death. 15. In 1603, at the age of seventy-six, Elizabeth died. Her talents were great, and the firmness of her mind was unequalled ; but her private character was sullied by cruelty, hypocrisy, and an inordinate love of admiration. Her max- ims of government were despotick, and she manifested little regard for the liberties of her people. She never allowed her parliaments to dispute her commands, and she had little rea- son to complain of their obstinacy. 16. James VI., of Scotland, the son of Mary, queen of Scots, having been nominated by Elizabeth, succeeded her on the throne, and in his person both kingdoms were united. He is known in history as James I.; being the first of that name on the English throne. He was a prince of small talents, though of considerable learning ; yet he had but little vigour of mind, or political energy. He was infatuated with notions of kingly prerogative, and became very unpopular. 17. Domestick events chiefly distinguished the reign of James. Several conspiracies were planned, but they were all discovered in season to prevent much injury. The most daring of these, and the one which came the nearest to exe- cution, was the one called the gunpowder treason. In this, the plan was, to blow up the king and both houses of parlia- ment, by means of powder placed under the parliament- house. The powder was placed, but one of the conspirators wishing to save the life of a friend, who was a member of the house of lords, wrote him a letter, which led to a dis- covery. 18. Charles I. succeeded James. He came to the throne in a critical time. Publick opinion had undergone a change in regard to the regal prerogative, the powers of parliament, and the rights of the subject. Charles had not sufficient po- litical prudence to teach him the policy of yielding to the neces- sity of the times. 19. The right of levying money without consent of parlia- ment, was the first subject of controversy. These taxes had been continued from reign to reign, and on this ground, the king conceived that he had a right to levy them, without any new grant ; and a member of the house of commons was imprisoned because he refused to pay them. This arbitrary MODERN HISTORY. 79 measure produced a great ferment in the house of commons, and in consequence the parliament was dissolved. 20. Religious enthusiasm increased the discontents. Arch- bishop Laud was at the head of ecclesiastical affairs, and by his advice, the penalties against the catholicks were relaxed, and he imprudently attempted to extend the English liturgy into Scotland. These measures greatly excited discontents among the Scots, and led to that bond termed the National Covenant, or oath of resistance to all religious innovations. 21. Charles was finally brought to trial, and executed. He had been obliged to make concession after concession, till at last, being stripped of his authority, and all but the name of a king, he was forced to take up arms in defence of his life. After a variety of events, the constitution of England was overturned, the regal office nominally abolished, and a com- monwealth established. 22. Oliver Cromwell, who had commanded a regiment of horse, under Fairfax, general of the parliament, was placed, or rather placed himself, at the head of the commonwealth. He marched to London with his army, and assuming an abso- lute control over the parliament, imprisoned all who resisted his authority. QUESTIONS. 1. Who succeeded Charles V. in Spain?— 2. What led the Nether lands to revolt from Spain?— 3. Who was chosen stadtholder of the United Provinces ? — 4. What is the government of Holland? — 5. What in some measure compensated Philip for the loss of the Netherlands ? —6. Who gave aid to the revolted Netherlands ? — 7. What caused the reformation in France to make greater progress? — 8. When did the massacre of St. Bartholomew take place? — 9. Who was king of France at that time ?— 10. Who succeeded him ? — 11. To what did Henry owe much of his success? — 12. What became of Henry? — 13. Who suc- ceeded Mary on the throne of England? — 14. What fixed an indeli- ble stain on the character of Elizabeth ? — 15. When did Elizabeth die? — 16. Wly> was her successor? — 17. What chiefly distinguished the reign of James I.?— 18. Who succeeded him? — 19. What was the first subject of controversy between Charles and his parliament ? — - 20. What increased the discontents ? — 21. What became of Charles? —22. Who was placed at the head of the commonwealth ? 80 MODERN HISTORY. SECTION X. COMMONWEALTH OF ENGLAND. CHARLES II. JAMES II, BRITISH CONSTITUTION. BRITISH REVENUE. 1. Scotland and Ireland, on the death of Charles I., readi- }y acknowledged the sovereignty of Charles II. Scotland, in particular, had protested against the doings of the English parliament, in the trial of the king. Before the Scots ac- knowledged Charles as king, however, they compelled him to sign the covenant, and to ratify their confession of Faith. Cromwell now made war upon the Scots, and defeated them at the battle of Dunbar. 2. Charles, having been defeated in the decisive battle of Worcester, fled into France. Cromwell now returned in tri- umph to London, and soon after gained great advantages over the Dutch in a naval war, taking and destroying above sixteen hundred of their ships. These maritime successes led the parliament to conceive that the army was an unneces- sary incumbrance, and they determined to reduce it. To prevent this measure, Cromwell went to the house of Com- mons, and by the aid of his soldiers, turned them out of door ; and thus dissolved the parliament, and annihilated the repub- lick of England. 3. The title of Lord Protector of the kingdom, was now bestowed upon Cromwell, and he was invested with the pow- er of making peace, declaring war, and forming alliances. An army of thirty thousand men was ordered to be kept up for the support of government. His administration was des- potick, but spirited and ^vigorous. He had a fixed revenue, and power to appoint his successor : he was king in all but the name. He died September 3, 1658. 4. Richard Cromwell, his son, succeeded to the protector- ate, by his father's appointment. He was a man of weak understanding, and entirely unfit for a station of so much dif- ficulty, which he had wisdom enough to resign in a few months, and the family of the Cromwellssunk again into obscu- rity. Charles II. was now restored to the throne, and the na- tion returned to its former constitution and mode of govern- ment, with transports of joy, A. D. 1660. 5. Charles was humane and complacent, but indolent, luxurious and prodigal. He was neither able to support the national honour abroad, nor to command respect and obedf- MODERN HISTORY. Si once at home, Dunkirk was sold in his reign, a measure which was highly offensive to the pride of the nation. He afterward united with the French in a war against the Dutch, and the republick of Holland was brought to the brink of destruction. 6. An oath, abjuring papacy, was required of every officer of the government. This measure arose from the constant apprehension of the catholicks, whom the king was supposed to favour, as well as from the frequent reports of catholick plots and catholick conspiracies. James, duke of York, brother to the king, was, by act of parliament, excluded from the throne, because he was a catholick and refused to abjure. 7. The epithets, whig and toiy, were first used in this reign. A whig, denoted one who was opposed to the king and his ministers and measures ; and tory, denoted the parti- sans of the crown. Both parties carried their principles to their full extent, and great dissatisfaction prevailed. Charles died February 6, 1685. 8. James, duke of York, was his successor. His reign was short and inglorious. By an attempt to establish the catholick religion, in the room of the protestant, and by ex- pressing the most marked contempt for the parliament, and a firm purpose of exercising an unlimited despotism, he exci- sed and inflamed the passions and prejudices of the nation,, and he Was finally expelled from the throne and from the kingdom. 9. William, prince of Orange, stadtholder of Holland, who had married Mary, the daughter of James, was elected by the parliament to the vacant throne. At this time, a decla- ration fixing the rights of the subject, and the prerogatives of the crown, was made. By this, the king cannot suspend the laws, or their execution ; he cannot levy money without con- sent of parliament ; the people have a right to petition the crown ; a standing army cannot be kept in time of peace ; elections must be free, and parliament must be frequently as- sembled. 10. As far back as the Norman conquest, the rudiments of the British constitution may be traced. William the Con- queror, then divided the kingdom into sixty thousand two hundred and fifteen military fiefs, all held of the crown, and requiring the vassal to take up arms for his sovereign when- 3 S2 MODERN HISTORY. ever requested. The vassals, who often suffered from op« pression, struggled frequently for their freedom, but with little success. 11. In the reign of Henry II., trial by jury was first estab- lished. This was another step toward freedom ; but John, the successor of Henry, imprudently resisting this natural course, was soon compelled to make very important conces- sions, and to sign the Magna Charta. The constitution of England, from that time, was that of a limited monarchy. Edward I. ratified the Magna Charta eleven times during his reign. 12. In the reign of Charles II., the Habeas Corpus act was passed, and gave the utmost possible security for personal liberty. By this act every prisoner must be brought before a judge, the reason of his arrest certified, and if the cause of his imprisonment should be found illegal or insufficient, the judge is authorized and bound to discharge him. This act may be suspended in cases of iminent danger to the state, or during the existence of a conspiracy or a rebellion. 1?. The king, lords, and commons, constitute the parlia- ment of England. The house of lords consists of all the temporal and spiritual peers of England ; sixteen peers from Ireland, and thirty-two from Scotland. The house of com- mons consists of representatives from all the counties and the principal towns and boroughs in the kingdom, and the two universities ; forty-five from Ireland, and one hundred from Scotland, making in all six hundred and fifty-eight members. The chancellor presides in the house of lords, and the speaker in the house of commons. The king has a negative on all the acts of parliament, and each house has a negative upon the decrees of the other. 14. The king is vested with the executive power. He is the administrator of justice ; the fountain of honour ; the super- intendent of commerce ; the head of the church ; the com- mands in chief of the naval and land forces ; has the power of making peace and war, and is above all courts of justice, and is not responsible to any judicature for his conduct in the administration of the government. 15. Once in three years, at least, the parliament used to be assembled, and. a notice of forty days was given before the time of its meeting. Though the king is head of (fee church, yet he cannot alter the established religion, nor franv MODERN HISTORY. 83 Ecclesiastical regulations. These require an assembly of the clergy. With the administration of justice, the king cannot interfere, nor can he refuse his consent to the prosecution of crimes ; and though the sovereign is not amenable, yet his ministers maybe impeached for any acts of mal-administration. 16. From taxes and customs, the revenue of England is chiefly derived. Taxes are either annual, a£ the land tax and malt tax; or perpetual, as the customs, excise, salt duty, postoffice duty, stamps, house and window tax, duties on ser- vants, hackney coaches, pensions, &c. The customs are a tax paid by the merchant on all imported and exported goods : the excise is an inland duty, laid sometimes on the consu- mer, and sometimes on the retailer. 17. The payment of the interest of the national debt is the first object to which the revenue can be applied ; and the surplus is used for the ordinary purposes of government. A century ago, the national debt amounted to only sixteen mill- ions of pounds : it is now upwards of four hundred millions. As the revenue yearly produces something more than suffi- cient to pay the interest of the national debt, and to carry on the government, the surplus constitutes what is called a sink- ing fund, being applied to the extinguishing of the principal. QUESTIONS. 1. Where was the sovereignty of Charles II. first acknowledged ? — 2. What became of Charles after the battle of Worcester ? — 3. What title was now given to Cromwell? — 4. Who succeeded him in the Pro- tectorate? — 5. What was the character of Charles IL? — 6. What was required of every officer of government in the reign of Charles ? — 7. What epithets were first used in this reign ? — 8. Who succeeded Charles ? — 9. Who was elected to the vacant throne on the deposition of James II.? — 10. To what period may the rudiments of the British constitution be traced ?— 1 1 . When was trial by jury first instituted ? — 12. When was the Habeas Corpus act passed ? — 13. Who constitute the parliament of England ? — 14. Who is vested with the executive power ?— 15. How often used the parliament to be assembled ? — 16. From what is the revenue of England derived ? — 17. What is the first object to which the revenue can be applied ? SECTION XL FRANCE. SPAIN. CONSTITUTION OF PORTUGAL AND SPAIN. GERMANY. LEWIS XIV. CONSTITUTION OF FRANCE. 1. France sunk into a state of weakness, anarchy, and dis- order? on the death of Henry IV. Mary Medici, regent J U MODERN HISTORY. during the minority of Lewis XIII., the successor of Henry- was a weak woman, and by her partiality for Italian cour- tiers, greatly disgusted the French nobility. Her party, and that of her son, were at perpetual variance, and filled the whole kingdom with confusion. 2. The abilities of cardinal Richelieu, were the principal support of France during the reign of Lewis XIII. As soon as he came into power, he reconciled the mother and son ; soothed the contending factions, and when the minority of the king expired, directed all publick measures to the complete re-establishment of the monarchy. By the aid of the Dutch, he took Rochelle, which had set up for an independent state, and thus crushed for ever, Calvinism in France. 3. Lewis XIII. was a weak prince, and of small abilities. He had, however, discernment enough to see his advantage of entering into all the plans of his able minister. Richelieu influenced the politicks of all Europe ; and his talents were equally displayed in active war, in negotiations with foreign states, and in domestick arrangements. The death of this minister, which happened in 1642, was soon followed by thai of Lewis, in 1643. 4. Spain had declined in power, and become disordered in her finances, after the death of Philip II., notwithstanding its great sources of wealth, arising from the discovery of America. Philip III. was forced to conclude a peace with the Dutch, and restore to the house of Nassau, all its confis- cated estates. With a weak and despicable policy, he ex- pelled the Moors from his kingdom ; and this depopula- tion, together with the emigration to America, left Spain a lifeless and enervated kingdom. 5. The duke of Braganza, who commanded the Spanish forces in Portugal, and who was descended from the ancient kings of the country, seeing the spirit of the nation favoura- ble to a revolt, caused himself to be proclaimed king at Lis- bon. From that period, 1640, Portugal became an inde- pendent sovereignty, after having worn the yoke of Spain for sixty years. 6. The government of Portugal was nearly an absolute monarchy. The ordinary business of government was trans- acted by the king and his council of state. The revenue arose from the domains of the crown ; from duties on exports and imports ; from the taxes and from a stated proportion o\ MODERN HISTORY. 85 the gold brought from Brazil. Agriculture was much neglect- ed, although the soil and climate are favourable. 7. Spain, though formerly an elective, is now an absolute monarchy. The crown is hereditary, though at times chan- ges have been made in the limitation of succession by the reigning monarch. The king's council is the organ of go- vernment ; but no department of state has any power to regu- late the will of the king. 8. A civil war of thirty years duration, between the ca- tholicks and protestants, nearly reduced the states of Ger- many to extremity. Under the emperor Ferdinand II., a zealous catholick, the protestant states of Bohemia confer- red their crown on the elector Palatine. In revenge, Ferdi- nand deprived him of his crown and electorate. 9. Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, revived the pro- testant cause in Germany, which was fast declining. He defeated the emperor's generals, and overran all the country ; completely humbled the emperor, and nearly restored the Palatine to his possessions. He was slain at the battle of Lutzen, 1632. His generals prosecuted the war with suc- cess, and France, under cardinal Richelieu, was not back- ward in giving her assistance. 10. The peace of Westphalia, in 1648, laid the foundation of the future greatness and prosperity of the German empire. By this celebrated treaty, all disputes between the contending princes, and the contending religions, were adjusted ; the Swedes, besides being indemnified for the charges of the war, acquired several provinces; their sovereign became prince of the empire ; the Palatine was restored to his pos- sessions, and an equal establishment of religion was decreed. 11. Lewis XIV. succeeded Lewis XIII. on the throne of France at the age of five years. Jealousy of cardinal Ma- zarin's power, the unpopularity of his measures, the disorder of the finances, and the oppression of the taxes, inflamed the nation during the minority of Lewis, and a civil war ensued. Paris was besieged by the rebels, and the royal family were obliged to remove to St. Germain. At length the parlia- ment of Paris assuming the responsibility of banishing Ma- zarin, peace was restored. Mazarin died in 1661. 12. A great improvement was apparent in the condition of France, immediately upon the death of Mazarin. Lewis, no longer under the control of a violent and unprincipled man* 8* 36 MODERN HISTORY. entered upon a vigorous and splendid career. The finances were admirably regulated; commerce and manufactures were wisely encouraged; the principal sea ports were enlarged and fortified, and the internal police of the kingdom was enforced with vigour and regularity. 13. The revocation of the edict of Nantz, granted by Henry IV., for the security of the protestants, is considered the weakest and most impoliticly act of Lewis' reign. The worship of the protestants was suppressed, and their ministers banished ; but the laity were forbidden, under the severest penalties, to leave the kingdom. France, however, by this unjustifiable act, lost above half a million of her most useful and industrious subjects, and the name of Lewis XIV. was execrated throughout Europe. 14. The prince of Conde, and marshal Turenne, two oi the greatest generals France ever had, flourished in the reign of Lewis, and by their talents and valour, contributed much to the success and glory of his arms. The duke of Marlbo- rough, celebrated in English history, lived also at this period. 15. Lewis XIV. was a prince of good talents, great vi- gour of mind, and of dignified and amiable manners. His mind was not improved by education, and his greatest fault, was an inordinate ambition, to gratify which, he often sacri- ficed the real interests of his people. Yet he discerned and recompensed every species of merit ; and in his time, France was equally illustrious for the talents of her generals, and the splendour of her literature. 16. The ancient government of France was a limited mo- narchy. Under the Merovingian princes, the general assem- bly of the nation had the right of electing the sovereign, and the power of legislation. Under the Carlovingian race, the regal office sunk to a mere shadow, and the power of the state passed into the hands of a turbulent aristocracy. * 17. Under the third, or Capetian race, the crown acquired more weight, and the sovereigns began to restrain the nobles and to punish their outrages. As a balance to the weight of the aristocracy, a third estate was added to the national as- sembly ; but this body was used to ratify, rather than to de- cree. Previous to the reign of Lewis XIII., the states gen- eral rarely met, and after his reign it was discontinued. 18i The parliament of Paris, came in the course of time to be paramount to those of the provinces, and by courtesy at MODERN HISTORY. 87 first, acquiring the right of appeal, came at length to be the depository of the laws of the kingdom* By degrees, the sovereign consulted with its members on important questions, and the parliament came to share the powersof government with the monarch. But this power, as it was a usurpation^ became a constant subject of dispute. 19. The catholick was the established religion of France. But though the supremacy of the pope was acknowledged, yet his ancient prerogatives within the kingdom were very much abridged. By a decree of the Gallican church, in 1682, no temporal sovereign could be deposed by the pope, or sub- jects absolved from their allegiance. The pope had no power to levy money in France, without consent of the king. QUESTIONS. 1. What became the state of Fiance on the death of Henry IV.? — 2. What were the principal support of France during the reign of Lewis XIII.?— 3. What was the character of Lewis XIII.?— 4. What became the state of Spain on the death of Philip II.? — 5. W r ho caused him self to be proclaimed king at Lisbon? — 6. What is the government of Portugal? — 7. What is the government of Spain? — 8. What nearly reduced the states of Germany to extremity ? — 9. Who revived the protestant cause in Germany ?— 10. What laid the foundation of the future greatness of the German empire? — : 11. Who succeeded Lewis XIII. in France ? — 12. What change took piace in France on the death of Mazarin ? — 13. What is considered the weakest and most impoli- tick act of Lewis XIV.?— 14. What distinguished French generals flourished in his reign ? — 15. What was the character of Lewis XIV.? — 16. What was the ancient government of France? — 17. Under whai race did the crown begin to have more weight ?— 18. What came in the course of time to be the depository of the laws of France: — 19 What was the Established religion of France? SECTION XII. l?£TER THE GREAT. CHARLES XII. OF SWEDEN. PROGRESS OF SCIENCE. 1. Peter the Great, of Russia, and Charles XII. of Swe- den, two illustrious men, adorned the age of Lewis XIV. The father of Peter was the first who gave a code of laws to Russia. Previous to his reign Russia was uncultivated, and its inhabitants barbarians. Near the end of the sixteenth century, Siberia was added to the empire, which had till that. €me been bounded by the limits of Europe. MODERN HISTORY. 2. Ry setting aside a weak elder brother, and banishing a factious sister, Peter became master of the empire in 1689. He was uneducated, and his youth had been spent in debauch- ery ; but his new situation displayed his talents, and developed the wisest plans for the improvement of his barbarous subjects. 3. The army and navy demanded his first attention. He began by breaking the militia of the Strelitzes, and by de- grees raised an army of twelve thousand men, formed on the strictest model of discipline. He employed some Dutchmen to build him a fleet, and as the first experiment of his arms, took Azof from the Turks, 1696. 4. He now resolved to travel in search of knowledge. Appointing Le Fort, an able Genevese, his ambassador, he travelled in his suite through Germany to Holland, and stu- died the art of ship-building, by labouring personally in the dock-yard. From Holland he passed to England, and by personal application, acquired the knowledge of every art suited to the improvement of his kingdom. In sixteen months he returned to Moscow, to reduce his acquirements to practice. 5. His system of reform was extended to almost every de- partment and usage of both publick and private life. The finances were arranged and systematized ; the church was reformed ; the patriarchate abolished, and the civil and crimi- nal jurisdiction taken from the clergy. The national dress was changed, and many ancient usages and habits of publick life suppressed. 6. In 1695, Charles XII. came to the throne of Sweden ; and for a time disputed with Peter the sovereignty of the north. At the time of his accession, he was but fifteen years of age ; but the situation of Ins kingdom soon brought his genius into action. Russia, Poland, and Denmark, united in a league to seize and divide his dominions. The Danes seized Holstein, the Poles invaded Livonia, and the Russians occupied Ingria. 7. Charles immediately landed an army at the gates of Copenhagen, and in six weeks time, forced the Danes to sue for peace. At the battle of Narva, he defeated an army of sixty thousand Russians, and took thirty thousand prisoners. This he accomplished in one campaign, though he was yet only seventeen years of age. He then marched into Poland, deposed Augustus the reigning king, and placed Stanislaus, one of his own dependants, on the throne. MODERN HISTORY. 89 8. At the head of forty-five thousand men, he now entered Russia, telling the czar that he would treat of peace at Mos- cow. But deceived by the promise of aid from the Cossacks, he was led to march into the Ukraine, in the depth of winter, where the czar attacked his army, worn down by famine and fa- tigue, and defeated him at the battle of Pultowa, 1709. Nine thousand Swedes fell in the field, and fourteen thousand were taken prisoners. Augustus was restored to the throne of Po - land, and Peter took possession of Finland and Livonia. 9. Charles retreated into the Turkish territories, and form- ed a camp at Bender. His army being reduced to eighteen hundred men, he endeavoured to persuade the grand seignior to arm against the Russians. In this, after a long negotia- tion, he succeeded, and two hundred thousand Turks took the field. The Russian army was surrounded, and obliged to capitulate. This destroyed all the hopes of Charles, and he returned to Sweden in disguise. 10. Charles was killed by a cannon ball, on the eleventh of December, 1718. He had formed the plan of dethron- ing George II., of England, and of placing James on the throne. In this scheme he was joined by Peter of Russia, and Philip V. of Spain. But the death of Charles put an end to the design. By the death of her king, Sweden gained a reformation in her government, and a salutary limitation of the powers of the sovereign. 11. January 28, 1725, Peter the Great died. He was succeeded by the czarina Catharine, formerly a Livonian captive, who was every way worthy of her station. The only son of Peter, having been guilty of treason, was executed ; but the manner of his death is unknown. Russia owes to Peter all those institutions which, within a century, have rai- sed her from obscurity, to the highest rank among the powers of Europe. 12. From the close of the fifteenth century, science made rapid progress in most of the states of Europe. Classical learning, criticism, poetry, and history, were much cultivated and with success. Philosophy did not keep pace with litera^ ture. Aristotlean dogmas kept possession of the schools, and even the doctrines of theology were subject to them. A superiour genius was necessary to banish the clouds of erromv and to take even one step forward in useful science. ,13, hotd Bacon, the most profound philosopher as well 90 MODERN HISTORY. as the most universal genius that any age has ever produced, arose at this period. He exploded the system of Aristotle, but attempted to revive that of Epicurus. Yet, to Bacon we owe the sure method of advancing in knowledge, by means of experiment and demonstration, instead of theory and con- jecture. 14. Galileo, in 1609, constructed telescopes. He disco- vered the satelites of saturn and Jupiter, and their motions, and was rewarded with imprisonment. Kepler investigated the laws of motion, and the analogy between the distances of the planets from the sun, and their periodical revolutions. Napier, 1614, invented logarithms. Harvey, in 1616, disco- vered the circulation of the blood. 15. Sir Isaac Newton arose near the end of the seven- teenth century. Before he was twenty-four years of age, he had discovered the principle of universal gravitation ; a prin- ciple which solves the chief phenomena of nature. His theory of light and colours, is the foundation of the whole science of opticks. 16. Locke, who was cotemporary with Newton, applied Lord Bacon's method of investigation to the human mind, and to the operations of the soul. From the fact, that an in- fant gains its knowledge gradually, and that all knowledge is acquired progressively, he concluded that there are no innate ideas in the mind ; but that all are immediate perceptions, or acts of the mind reflecting on those perceptions. This con- clusion has never been shaken. 17. Milton in England, Tasso in Italy, and Camoens in Portugal, were the most distinguished epick poets of this pe- riod. The " Paradise Lost," of Milton, is considered the greatest epick poem in the English language. When com- pared with the Iliad of Homer, or the iEneid of Virgil, it is more irregular as a whole, but many of its detached parts have greater sublimity than either of those works. 18. Dryden, in the end of the seventeenth century, carried lyrick poetry to perfection. His ode on St. Cecilia's day exceeds all ancient or modern compositions of the lyrick kind. Shakspeare, the most celebrated dramatick poet of any age, lived in the sixteenth century ; and though he was ignorant of dramatick writing, yet he far exceeds modern writers in touching the passions, and in giving just views of 3the human character. MODERN HISTORY, 91 QUESTIONS. 2. What two illustrious men adorned the age of Lewis XIV.? — 2. In what manner did Peter become master of the Russian empire in 1689 ? — 3. What demanded his first attention in the improvement of his em- pire ? — 4. What did he now resolve to do ? — 5. How far did his system of reform extend? — 6. When did Charles XII. come to the throne oi Sweden ? — 7. What method did he take to force the Danes to sue for peace ? — 8. How many men did he lead into Russia ? — 9. What did he do after the battle of Pultowa? — 10. How and when was Charles killed? — 11. When did Peter the Great die?— 12. From what period did science begin to make rapid progress in Europe ? — 13. What dis tinguished genius and philosopher arose at this time ? — 14. Who, I609 r constructed telescopes? — 15. What distinguished man arose near the end of the seventeenth century ?— 16. Who was cotemporary with New- ton? — 17. Who were the most distinguished epick poets of this peri- od? — 18. Who in the end of the seventeenth century carried lyrick poetry to perfection ? SECTION XIII. FRANCE. ENGLAND. AUSTRIA AND GERMANY, 1. Severe domestick misfortunes clouded the last years oi" the long and splendid reign of Lewis XIV. of France, and a great change took place in the sentiments and manners of the sovereign and his court. A mystical religion became the vogue, which was greatly countenanced and supported by the amiable Fenelon, the most distinguished ecclesiastick of that age. 2. Lewis XV., a child of five years of age, succeeded to the throne on the death of his grandfather, Lewis XIV. Great losses had, in a very short time, occurred in the royal family. Three heirs to the crown, the dauphin, his son, and his grand- son, had died in the space of eleven months. Strong suspi- cions existed, that the duke of Orleans had been in some way the author of these losses, but they are now considered as unfounded. 3. France being incumbered with debt, and surrounded by jealous and exasperated neighbours, rendered it necessa- ry, as well as a matter of policy, for the nation to remain at peace. For this purpose the duke of Orleans, who had been chosen regent during the minority of Lewis, endeavoured to form alliances with the courts of London and Vienna. 4. The celebrated Mberoni, a man ol extraordinary gen- \m and talent, and who had raised himself from a situation thr 92 MODERN HISTORY. most obscure, was now the prime minister of Spain. He seemed to be bent upon disturbing both the French and Eng- lish governments, in order to recover what had been taken from Spain at the the treaty of Utrecht, and to deprive the duke of Orleans of his regency. These obstacles seemed to forbid the idea that Europe would long remain in repose. 5. In 1733, France was again involved in a war, on account of the settlement of the crown of Poland, which was claimed by two competitors ; the son of the deceased king, and Stanislaus the former king, whom Charles of Swe- den had placed on the throne. The principal seat of the war was Italy, but Stanislaus did not recover his throne. In lieu thereof, he received the dutchies of Lorrain and Bar, retaining his kingly title. These dutchies were, however, to revert to France on his death, which took place 1766. 6. George Lewis, elector of Brunswick Luneburg, succee- ded queen Anne on the throne of England. She had succee- ded William and Mary, and parliament had fixed the succes- sion in the house of Hanover. Every catholick branch of the royal family of England was excluded from the throne,, and the protestant succession secured. 7. In September, 1714, George I. made his .entrance into his new dominions, and was greeted with such demonstra- tions of joy as must have been extremely gratifying to his feelings. Many disappointed hopes, however, and secret heart-burnings, prevented that cordial unanimity which such an occasion rendered desirable. The tories were discomfi- ted, and the friends of the pretender stood confounded. In this perplexity of feeling, many refused to take the oaths of supremacy and abjuration. 8. In August, 1715, a rebellion broke out in Scotland, headed by the earl of Mar, and in September, the standard of the pretender was erected at a place called Brcz JSIar. In December following, the prince himself landed in Scotland, and was received with regal honours. But the heads of the rebellion, convinced of their inability to effect a revolution, felt compelled to abandon the enterprise, and the pretender returned to Fiance. 9. The septennial bill, about this time, passed the parlia- ment, after much opposition. By this, the continuance of parliament was extended from three to seven years, unless sooner dissolved by the king. This bill was passed chiefly MODERN HISTORY. 93 on account of the ill effects of too frequent elections, in keeping up party divisions, interrupting business, and lessen- ing the confidence of foreign states in the measures of government. 10. The celebrated quadruple alliance was formed in 1718, and George I. became a party to it. This alliance was form- ed for the purpose of defeating the projects of Alberoni. This celebrated man, who managed to involve almost the whole of Europe in contests and jealousies, had nearly excited Charles XII. of Sweden to invade England, for the purpose of placing the pretender on the throne. But this alliance embarrassed the plan, and the death of Charles soon after, totally defeated it. 11. The South Sea scheme, disastrous in its consequen- ces, and strange and extravagant in its origin and progress, occurred in this reign. By this, some made vast fortunes in a short time, but many also were ruined, and publick cre- dit was severely shaken. Such an instance of general infatua- tion and credulity, is seldom met with in history ; and is only to be matched by the Mississippi scheme, which was projec- ted in France a few years before, and produced the same re- sults and disasters. 12. June 11, 1727, died George I., at Osnaburgh, on his way to visit his electoral dominions. He had the reputation of being a brave and a generous prince. Under his reign, England improved in wealth and credit, and enjoyed a great- er degree of tranquility at home, and peace abroad, than at any period since the reign of queen Elizabeth. He died in the sixty-eighth year of his age. 13. In the year 1711, Charles VI. became emperor of Germany, on the demise of his brother, Joseph I. In 1714, he concluded the treaty of Rastadt, by which he obtained possession of the Spanish Netherlands ; but they would have been wrested from him three years after, had not the English sent a fleet, under admiral Byng, into the Mediterranean, by which means matters were brought to a favourable issue. 14. A war with the Turks engaged the attention of the emperor in 1716. Prince Eugene, so famous in history as a military leader, commanded the Austrians in this war. By his valour and skill, the war was soon successfully termina- ted. These successes of Austria, soon checked the opera- lions of Spain, and disposed her to become a party to the 9 94 MODERN HISTORY. quadruple alliance. Spain and Austria, however, were no< fully reconciled till 1725, when the emperor relinquished his pretensions to Spain and the Indies. 15. The pragmatick sanction was formed by Charles VI. This was a law of the empire, guaranteed by most of the kings of Europe. By this law, it was provided, that if Charles at his death should have either sons or daughters, the domin- ions and crowns of Austria should remain united. In failure of such issue, the daughters of Joseph, his deceased brother, were to succeed ; if tliey died without heirs, his sisters and their descendants were to inherit. England, Holland, and France, were prevailed upon by negotiations and conces- sions to give their guarantee. 16. In 1740, Charles died. He was the last heir of the Austrian line ; and notwithstanding the great care he had ta- ken to secure the succession and to prevent disputes, he was no sooner dead, than numerous claims were set up, war was enkindled, and all Europe involved in its calamities. Maria Theresa, consort of Francis, duke of Tuscany, succeeded on the death of her father, to the throne of the empire. 17. At the time of the emperor's death, the finances were embarrassed ; the army was in a bad condition, and a great famine prevailed in the country. These circumstances were calculated to encourage claimants for portions of the estates, nor were they tardy in advancing their pretentions. Many of these, who now advanced their claims, had formerly given their sanction to the pragmatick decree, and even pledged themselves by solemn treaty, to cause it to be observed ; but they now felt no scruples in promoting their several views. 18. Frederick II., of Prussia, was the most active of the dif- ferent claimants, and till that time was but little known in Eu- rope. He had succeeded by means of the prudence of his father to an army and a treasury of no small importance, and both of these he had found time to improve. At first, he desired to occupy Silesia, only as a friend to the queen, and promis- ed, if his demands were granted, to protect Austria against other enemies, and assist Theresa in placing her husband on the imperial throne. But he soon threw off the mask, and made it apparent, that, at all hazards, he intended to become master of Lower Silesia. 19. The bravery of the Hungarians, saved the queen from destruction. By taking the ancient oath of Andrew II., and MODERN HISTORY. 95 by throwing herself, with her infant son, entirely upon their protection, she firmly attached these brave men to her inte- rests. Supported by their valour, and aided by the money of the English and Dutch, she disappointed all her enemies, and scattered the storm which so fearfully threatened her. She also derived some assistance from the king of Sardinia. 20. Francis, grand duke of Tuscany, and the husband of Maria Theresa, received the imperial crown in 1745. To effect this, the queen agreed to admit the young elector of Bavaria to the full possession of his hereditary dominions ; and in a treaty concluded at Dresden, she yielded to Freder- ick, her grand adversary, Silesia and the county of Glatz, the chief objects for which he had been contending. 21. A general peace took place, October 7, 1748, by the conclusion of the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. This treaty was made one hundred years after the famous treaty of Westpha- lia, which served as the basis of the present convention. At this treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, a general restitution of con- quests took place, so that the contending nations gained no- thing by a long war, but the miserable satisfaction of having gratified their passions, and that too, at a vast expense of blood and treasure. QUESTIONS. 1. What clouded the last years of Lewis XIV. of France? — 2. Who succeeded him?— 3. What rendered it necessary for France, at this period, to remain at peace with other nations ? — 4. Who, at this time, was prime minister of Spain ?— 5. When was France again involved in war ? — 6. Who succeeded queen Anne on the throne of England ? 7. When did George I. enter upon his new dominions ? — 8. When did a rebellion break out in Scotland ? — 9. What bill about this time pass- ed the parliament of England? — 10. What alliance was formed in 1718 ? — 11. What disastrous and extravagant scheme occurred in this reign ? — 12. When did George I. die ? — 13. When did Charles VI. be- come emperor of Germany ? — 14. What engaged the attention of the emperor in 1716?— 15. What was formed by Charles VI,?— 16. When did he die ?— 17. What was the state of the empire at his death? —18. Who was the most active of the different claimants of the imperial estates? — 19. What saved the queen from destruction ? — 20. Who re- ceived the imperial crown in 1745 ?■— 21. What took place October 7, 1748. N MODERN HISTORY. SECTION XIV. ENGLAND. STATE OF EUROPE. SEVEN YEARS* WAR* 1. George II. came to the throne in the year 1727, in time of profound peace. His accession was not attende< with so many changes as had been expected. Even Sir Ro- bert Walpole, was retained in his office of prime minister, although he belonged to the party in opposition to the king. This course of policy, we now know, is to be attributed to the advice of the queen, who possessed an influence over the king, at that time little suspected, but which was justified by her good sense and prudent conduct. 2. The dissatisfaction arising from the manner of con- ducting the war with Spain, caused Walpole to resign. That power had for a series of years, made great depredations upon the trade of England with America and the West Indies ; and beside many deeds of insult and plunder, had been guilty o^ various acts of atrocious cruelty. With these, England had borne patiently, and as many, particularly the sufferers, thought with apathy, and such were clamorous for a vigorous war of reprisal. 3. Walpole was an able, intelligent, and prudent minister. He was a lover of peace, in the way of defence and preven- tion, and it was upon this that he prided himself. Being of the ivhig party, he was exposed to the rancour of his political opponents. By these he was alledged to have brought cor- ruption into a system ; while by his own party, he was justi- fied from this charge. He governed, probably, by party at- tachments, and not by bribery. 4. In regard to the excise bill, and the sinking fund, the views of Walpole were frustrated by those who lived to see and retract their errour. The former was calculated, in an eminent degree, to prevent frauds upon the revenue, and to lighten the publick burdens. But such was the clamour rai- sed against it, by faction and ignorance, that it was for that time abandoned. Mr. Pitt was one who opposed it, though he afterward confessed and corrected his errour. 5. A rebellion broke out in Scotland, in 1745, the very year that Sir Robert Walpole died. The object of this re- bellion was, to set Charles Edward, the heir of the Stuart family, on the throne of England, and though, on account of the state of the country and of Europe, the enterprise was ro- MODERN HISTORY* 97 mantick, yet it was by no means weak or contemptible. In its progress, it became so alarming, as to threaten London and the protestant succession, and it was not subdued except by great exertions. 6. At a place called Preston Pans, a severe action took place between the rebels and the army of the king. The for- mer were victorious, and the army of the pretender was able to march far into England, and afterward to retreat in the face of a powerful army. 7. The battle of Culloden, which was fought April 16, 1746, put an end to the rebellion. The hopes and spirits of Charles were so sunk by the issue of this engagement, that he never rejoined his friends ; but after wandering about for some time, in constant danger of being taken, he escaped into France. Thirty thousand pounds had been offered by government for his head, yet his friends concealed him with an attachment and fidelity, which is surpassed by nothing in history, and which reflects the greatest honour upon their high and disinterested feelings. 8. An act for correcting the calendar was passed in 1751. By this, it was enacted that the year should begin on the first of January, and that eleven days, between the second and fourteenth of September, 1752, should be omitted for that time ; so that the day following the second should be called the fourteenth. This change was very important ; and gave rise to the terms Old Style and New Style. It has, howev- er, in some instances, created a little obscurity, and some apparent discrepances in writings of that period ; as some dates are written in this manner, for instance, 1765 — 6, it is difficult to determine which year is meant, 1765 or 1766. 9. In the year 1760, died George II., aged 77, having reigned thirty-four years. He was a prince of great integ- rity and honour, as well as veracity ; but he possessed a warm and irritable temper; was of a warlike disposition, and strongly inclined to take a very active part in the disputes of the con- tinent. He was greatly under the influence of his queen, who was eminent for her many virtues, and justly beloved and revered by the nation. 10. By the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, the house of Hano- ver was effectually established on the throne of England, and the house of Stuart for ever excluded. By this peace, Eng- land was left in possession of a maritime force far superiour to 9* 98 MODERN HISTORY. that of all the other countries of Europe. This naval supe riority amounted almost to a monopoly of commerce, credit, and wealth, and rendered her the principal in nearly all suc- ceeding political movements. 11. Silesia, Parma, Placentia, and some other places, were lost to Austria by the peace of 1748. All she gained by the war was the article in regard to the succession. All former treaties were recognised, and the succession was fixed according to the pragmatick sanction. Maria Theresa was, to the last, indignant on account of the losses she sustained ; but these were the means of forming a more compact and stable empire. 12. Silesia and the county of Glatz, were gained by Prus- sia at the peace. These were guaranteed to her by all the contracting powers, and by this accession of territory, she was raised so as to be the rival of Austria. The character and achievements of Frederick II. contributed not a little to the aggrandizement of his kingdom. He was active and bold ; brave in the field, and wise in the cabinet. Yet he often appeared as a merciless tyrant, deficient in economy, and at least very lax in his religious sentiments. 13. Holland lost much by the peace, and gained nothing, The stadtholdership was made hereditary in the family of the prince of Orange, and in this, the female heirs were included as well as the male. The female heirs, however, were pre- cluded from marrying any king or elector of the empire ; and the subsequent history of Europe, shows this to have been a wise measure. 14. Spain obtained Parma, Naples, and some other pla- ces by the peace. But her power was not much increased either by sea or land. Upon the former, England had indeed obtained a vast superiority, and though the armies of Spain were brave, yet they were badly conducted, and her govern- ment was such as rendered her disreputable in the eyes of Europe. 15. Russia had now become a formidable power. Pos- sessed of vast territories, and immense natural resources, she needed only a head to guide them into the proper channel, in order to rise to power and consequence. Such a head she found in Peter the Great, and under his management, she soon came to be regarded as the most considerable power on Uie continents MODERN HISTORY- 09 16. France gained Lorrain by the treaty of 1748. This was indeed but little in point of extent, but its relative situa- tion and actual condition, gave it immense importance. By the possession of Lorrain and Alsace, she was enabled to strengthen and complete the whole of her eastern frontier, and take a commanding attitude in regard to Germany. 17. Four classes may be made of the kingdoms of Europe at the time of the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. England and France, were of the first class ; Austria, Russia and Prussia, of the second; Portugal, Sardinia, Sweden and Denmark, of the third ; and the fourth comprehended Switzerland, Genoa, Ve- nice, and the German states. 18. The maritime strength of England, in a short time after the peace of 1748, became an object of jealousy to France. The navy of that power, under the administration of cardinal Fleury, had been suffered to fall into decay. This they now began to increase, and at the same time form pro- jects for dispossessing Britain of her principal settlements in the east and the west. 19. The effects of the peace of 1748,upon Asia and Amer- ica were very inconsiderable. The conquests on each side it is true, had been restored, but the boundaries and limits of territories had been fixed, if fixed at all, in the most negligent and indefinite manner. The French and Spaniards had each very able and enterprising servants, who were willing to im- prove, what they considered a favourable opportunity for ag- grandizing themselves and their country at the expense of Britain. 20. By interfering in the appointment of the governours of kingdoms and provinces, the French attempted to reduce the peninsula of India, and indeed the whole Mogul empire, under their dominion. This conduct ultimately brought the French and English in contact, not as principals in war, but as auxiliaries to the different and contending princes, or na- bobs. In no long course of time, the French had all their possessions wrested from them in the east, and they were completely baffled in all their projects. 21. The connecting of their northen with their southern possessions in America, by a chain of forts, extending from the great lakes down the Ohio and Mississippi, had early and long been a favourite project with the French. This accom- plished, the English would be confined to the sea board, anti 100 MODERN HISTORY. the trade with the natives beyond the Mississippi and around the lakes would be intercepted. At the same time, in case of war between the two nations, allies would be secured, of whose assistance they never had hesitated to avail themselves, 22. War was declared in 1755, although the colonies of both nations had for some time been in a state of actual hos* tility. The colonies of Britain were greatly divided in their views — had many disagreements among themselves, and for a time they seemed to be unable to act in concert. The French had no such disagreements, but were united both in the object and the means for attaining it. 23. Three hundred French ships, and eight thousand sai- lors, were taken the first year of the war by the English. En- surance in France rose thirty per cent., while in England it con- tinued as usual. But on the land, the French were more suc- cessful. The British armies were often commanded by inade- quate officers, and the dissensions of the colonies, frequent- ly caused a campaign to come to a disastrous conclusion. 24. To transfer the war from the colonies to Europe, was found expedient by both parties. France solicited from the king of Prussia, permission to pass through his kingdom for the purpose of attacking the electorate of Hanover. He, however, thought proper to refuse, and thus George II. was relieved from any anxiety respecting his continental posses- sions. 25. Frederick the Great, was king of Prussia at this time, and it was in this war that he acquired that glory, which has rendered his reign conspicuous. Having reason to suppose that an overwhelming confederacy of crowned heads was formed for his ruin, he lost no time in making preparations for defence. Though attacked on all sides, and forced to fly from one field of battle to another, he did not fail to hum- ble every power that attacked him, and in some instances, he inflicted exemplary punishment. 26. Two hundred thousand men, are supposed to have an- nually fallen in these contests. Frederick had to contend with the armies of Austria, Russia, Sweden, France, and Sax- ony ; and though his situation often appeared desperate, yet by some new effort of his superiour genius, he extricated him- self, and routed his foes. AH this time he was under the ban ot the empire, by which every circle in Germany was bound to »sgist in dethroning him. MODERN HISTORY. 101 27. In 1762, England declared war against Spain. The latter seeing the great success of the English in Asia, Africa, and America, began to fear for her own possessions in the new world, and as a measure of security, entered into a. family compact with France. By this compact, each guaranteed the dominions of the other ; and an article was inserted, which proved so disagreeable to England as to lead to the com- mencement of hostilities. 28. The conquest of Canada was one of the most impor- tant achievements of the English during this war. From near- ly the first settlement of the English in America, the French of Canada had viewed them with a jealous eye, and spared no labour, intrigue, or expense, in creating them difficulty. Most of the wars with the aborigines, were undoubtedly the result of French instigation ; and often did they accompany the In- dians in their barbarous incursions. Great was the rejoicing of the English colonies, when Canada was conquered. 29. A change of the ministry in England, prepared the way for the conclusion of a war, of which all parties began to be weary. Mr. Pitt, under whose able and firm administra- tion England had been conducted through the long contest honourably and successfully, on the death of George II. , re- signed his post, and was succeeded by lord Bute. This minister owed his elevation, more to the attachment and good will of the king, than to the voice or the favour of the people. Peace was proclaimed in 1763. 30. England undoubtedly gained more by this long war than any of the other contending powers. Her navy was left unimpaired ; her commerce extended from %ne extremity of the globe to the other, and in almost every quarter of the world she obtained important accessions of territory. Aus- tria and Prussia closed the contest without gain or loss ; re- storing matters to the same state they were in, 1748, after seven severe and expensive campaigns. QUESTIONS* 1. Who came to the throne of England in 1727 ?— 2. What caused Walpole to resign? — 3. What is said of him ? — 4. In regard to what two measures were the views of Walpole defeated by those who after- ward saw and retracted their errour ?— 5. What occurred in 1745?— 6. Where did a severe action take place between the rebels and the king's forces ? — 7. What battle put an end to the rebellion ? — 8, What act was passed 1751 ?— -9. When did George II. die ? — 10. By what, treaty was the house of Hanover secured on the throne of England ? — 102 MODERN HISTORY. 11. What did Austria lose by the peace of 1748?— 12. What did Pwis- s ia gain ? — 13. What effect did the peace have on Holland ? — 14. What Uid Spain obtain by the peace? — 15 What power had now become formidable ?—16. What did France gain by the peace of 1748? — 17. Into how many classes might the kingdoms of Europe have been di- vided at the peace ? — 18. What in a short time became an object of jealousy to France ? — 19. What were the effects of the peace upon Asia and America? — 20. In what manner did the French attempt to reduce the peninsula of India and the Mogul empire? — 21. What had long been a favourite project of the French ? — 22. When was war de- clared? — 23. How many ships and sailors c^dthc French lose during the first year of the war? — 24. What did botn parties find expedient? —25. Who was king of Prussia at this time ? — 26. How many men are supposed to have fallen annually in these contests ? — 27. When did England declare war against Spain? — 28. What was one of the most important achievements of England during the war ?~29. What prepar- ed the way for the conclusion of the war ? — 30. What power gained the most by the war ? \ SECTION XV. 1CCESSION OF GEORGE III. DISPUTE WITH AMERICA, FRANCE. OPENING OF THE STATES GENERAL. 1. October 25, 1760, George III. ascended the throne of England on the death of his grandfather. The king, in his first speech to parliament, expressed the glory he felt, in be- ing born and educated in Britain. In addition to this claim to the affection of his subjects, every thing, so far as related to the character, manners and disposition of the king, seemed to give hopes of a quiet and peaceable reign. 2. To render the judges independent of the crown, was one of the first acts of his reign, and it was calculated to im- press the idea of his being a true friend to the liberty of the subject. The king, soon after his accession, was married to Charlotte of Mecklenburgh Strelitz, and with her was crowned at Westminster, September 22, 1761. 3. The right of issuing general warrants, and of seizing private papers, had always been exercised by the crown. Mr. Wilkes, member of parliament for Aylesbury, disputed this right, maintaining its illegality, and in 1765, parliament by a solemn decree, sustained his position. Being elected for Middlesex, after having been expelled the house, he claimed his seat, and after a contest of five years, he was ad- mitted. But the parliament maintained its right of declaring an individual disqualified, even against a majority of the electors. MODERN HISTORY. 103 4. The administration of lord Bute was extremely unpop- ular, and gave rise to distressing riots and tumults, which contributed greatly to disquiet the first years of the reign of George III., and involve him in many difficulties. Petitions and remonstrances flowed from all quarters ; and much pains was taken to increase the popular ferment, and heighten the dissatisfaction with the administration. All that the adminis- tration did, seemed to be the result of intrigue, private influ- ence, and cabal. 5. The letters of Junius, an anonymous publication, ap- pearing about this time, greatly added to the popular agitation. The writer of these letters, who has never yet been discover- ed, appeared to possess so intimate a knowledge of the pro* ceedings of the court and the cabinet, and expressed himself in so vigorous, pure and satirical a style, as to confound those whom he attacked, and arrest the attention of all parties. 6. Whether in cases of libel, the jury were judges of law as well as of fact, was an important constitutional question, which arose for consideration about this time. Lord Mans- field adjudged that the jury were only to decide on the fact ol publication, and leave the law of libel to the court ; but ju- ries generally have disputed this, and have evaded the diffi- culty, by either referring the law to the judge, by giving a spe- cial verdict, or of general acquittal. 7. The commencement of the dispute with America, dis« tinguished the year 1764. As the mother country had, during the seven years' war, expended vast sums in defending her colonies from the encroachments of France, the question arose, whether they ought not to be called upon by direct tax- ation, to contribute to the relief of their defenders, and it was decided in the affirmative. 8. George Grenville was then prime minister of England* and through his influence and suggestion, the Stamp- Act was passed, by which the colonies were directly subjected to a tax without their own consent. This act made it necessary for all deeds, conveyances, letters of attorney, processes of law, notes of hand, &c. to be executed upon paper, bearing the arms of England stamped upon it, and which was fur- nished by government at an exorbitant price. 9. A little more than a year the stamp-act was continued in force, and then repealed. The Grenville administration had previously been dismissed, and the marquis of Rocking- 104 MODERN HISTORY. ham placed at the head of the new one. But at the same time that parliament repealed the obnoxious act, another was passed declaratory of the right of taxation. Although there was no intention of acting upon this declaration, yet it served to keep alive the jealousy and the fears of America ; and in many of the colonies, the provincial assemblies voted that the right of taxation rested solely in the king, or his represen- tative, and the general assembly of the colony. 10. Ten years after the passing of the stamp-act, hostili- ties commenced. The first blood was shed at Lexington ; and from that time the prospect of reconciliation grew every day less, and the Americans continually gained strength for the contest. The campaign of 1776, closed auspiciously for them, and reflected no small credit upon their commander in chief. In a short time, however, the war became more com- plicated, involving the continent of Europe, and leading to greater changes and convulsions than the world ever before experienced. 11. France, at the solicitation of the Americans, granted ihem aid, both in men and money ; and after acknowledging their independence, entered into a treaty of alliance with them. It was indeed a singular circumstance, that the Americans should apply for assistance to a power noted for its refined despotism ; and to a court signal for its gaiety, dissipation, and corruption. 12. The defence of Gibraltar, under Gen. Elliot, was one of the most brilliant and glorious achievements of the Eng- lish, during the war. The French and the Spaniards made greater preparations for the siege of that fortress, than any occasion had ever before called forth ; and as no doubt was entertained of their success, many of the French princes re- paired to the place to witness its surrender. The siege last- ed three years, but was finally abandoned, October, 1782, with the loss of all the Spanish floating batteries, and the de- feat of the combined fleets of France and Spain. 13. September 3, 1783, peace was ratified between the contending powers. As the basis of the treaty, the thirteen United States were acknowledged by Britain, to be " Free, Sovereign, and Independent States." Toward the close of the war, it was found that a very serious division existed in the British parliament respecting American independence. Tliis difference was rendered memorable, by its being the MODERN HISTORt. 105 subject of the last speech and appearance in parliament of lord Chatham. He died a few days after at his seat in Kent. 14. The Jesuits and Jansenists in France, entered into a contest in the reign of Lewis XI Y., respecting certain ob- scure points in theology, which, after much abuse and railing on both sides, and much unavailing argument, was referred to the pope for decision. By him, the Jansenists were con- demned in the celebrated bull called " Unigenitus." But this decision, instead of restoring peace, became the signal for fresh animosities, complaints, and murmurs. The king 5 however, ordered it to be received, and soon after died* 15. The most perfect despotism had hitherto marked the course of the kings of France, in all disputes between them and their parliaments. Whatever remonstrances the latter made, they were not allowed to have the least effect against the determination of the court. If these judicial bodies be- came refractory, they were banished, and no regard was paid to the complaints they might make, or resistance they might offer. 16. The Jesuits undoubtedly laid the foundation of the revolution in France. Their disputes with the Jansenists displayed such superstition, bigotry, and contempt of publick order, as to astonish every reflecting mind ; and in the dis- putes of the parliament of Paris, these Jesuits taking part with the king, while his private life was profligate and aban- doned, and the whole course of his government, one system of publick plunder, venality, and favouritism, gaye great occasion to their enemies to insist upon the necessity of re- form. 17. In the year 1759, the Jesuits were expelled from Por- tugal, on an accusation of making an attempt upon the king's life. After the attempt upon the king of France, Lewis XV.^ in 1757, by one Damiens, a Jesuit, their enemies had charg- ed them with regicide principles ; this event, therefore, in Portugal, seemed to prove the charge, and to brand them in the eyes of the publick as the friends of arbitrary power, and the enemies of liberty. 18. The disclosure of the articles of their institution, or their book of constitutions, imprudently made in a court of justice, greatly contributed to hasten their downfall. This book, which for more than two hundred, years, had been kept perfectly and mysteriously secret from the world, was found 10 106 MODERN HISTORY. to contain principles, hostile both to civil government and sound morality. The king hesitated about proceeding against them, being as much afraid of the Jansenists as of the Jesu- its ; but at length, August 6, 1762, he ordered all their pos- sessions to be secularized and sold. 19. In November, 1767, France, Spain, Portugal, Na- ples and Sicily, abolished the order of Jesuits, and they were expelled from Mexico, Pern, and Paraguay. The power of this order had become enormous, and their wealth immense ; and both their power and wealth were profusely used to ad- vance the interests and promote the plans of the society. In many instances, they had been a real benefit to mankind, es- pecially in educating youth, and promoting the interests of science. But in the general odium they had incurred, all their services were forgotten, and no exertions or submissions could save them from ruin. 20. The defects of the French jurisprudence, next drew the attention of the nation. Some very extraordinary pro- cesses of law, especially in the case of a family at Thou- louse, of Labarre, at Abbeville, and of Lally, commander in India, in the course of which, shocking instances of depravi- ty occurred, had the effect of exciting attention to the subject. 21. The archduchess, JS/Iarie Antoinette, daughter of the empress dowager, was married in 1770, to the dauphin, after- ward Louis XVI. The marriage was celebrated with extra- ordinary festivity, and took place at a time when the differen- ces between the king and his parliaments had arisen to the greatest height. The parliament of Paris, as well as several provincial ones was suppressed, and as many as seven hun- dred magistrates were exiled or confined. 22. In 1774 died Lewis XV., in the 65th year of his age, having reigned fifty-eight. The latter part of his life was very disgraceful in a private point of view, and very feeble in a publick one. He was succeeded by his grandson, Louis XVI., who lost an elder brother, his father, and his mother, between the years 1771 and 1775. This was a strange mor- tality in one family, and resembled the losses in the family of Lewis XIV. Those losses were ascribed to poison, and a similar charge was revived on the present occasion, but pro- bably without any foundation. 23. The old parliaments were restored at the very com- mencement of his reign, in compliance with the general wish MODERN HISTORY. 107 of the nation ; but not without some sacrifice of his private opinions and feelings. He had taken into his service two ministers favourable in their sentiments to the wishes of tru people ; and conjunctly with them, he was undoubtedly jMs posed to reform abuses, and promote the happiness of his subjects. But, unfortunately, the state of France, and of the world in general, destroyed all hope of a temperate and gra- dual change. 24. The declaration of rights which the Americans had published to the world, was well calculated to open the eyes of those who had not seen the abuses in the French govern- ment, and to encourage revolutionary movements. The seeds of revolution and of republicanism being thus sown in France, it seemed only to require the bringing of that coun- try by some means in contact with America, to cause them to germinate and revolutionize the nation. This was done by the treaty of alliance formed in 1778. 25. Chatham, Fox, and Burke, at the same time, by their speeches in the British parliament in opposition to the war with America, which were as so many lessons of liberty pro- mulgated to the world, fanned the flame already kindled in France. The court of Versailles, while the finances were in the utmost disorder, with the exception of the king, fell into the greatest extravagance and folly, and manifested a disposition to exchange forms and etiquette, for trifling and expensive amusements. 26. The celebrated M. Necker, of Geneva, in 1776, was appointed to the office of supreme director of the finances. This appointment was highly gratifying to the people at large, but very offensive to the privileged orders, who thought they saw in a citizen of a republick, and a protestant, a decided friend to liberal ideas, and the enemy and corrector of abuses. They therefore insisted upon his removal, and by cabal and intrigue, effected their object, and M. de Calonne was ap- pointed his successor. 27. He proposed a general land tax, from which there should be no exemption, and thus brought matters to a spee« dy crisis. This was a much bolder attack upon the privileged orders than had ever before been made ; and to carry this great point into execution, he advised the king to call an as- sembly of the Notables, which had not met since the year 1626* The king consented, and in February, 1787, this ex- 108 MODERN HISTORY. traordinary assembly met. But it was so far from answering the purposes for which it was called, that it was dissolved in May, of the same year. 28. To call a meeting of the states general, was the next step of the king. This assembly had not met since the year 1614, and much was hoped from it, in regard to restoring or- der and quiet into the kingdom. But the measure greatly alarmed the clergy and the nobility, who foresaw in it the destruction of all their privileges, and the lessening of their power and influence in the state. The event has shown how justly their fears were founded. QUESTIONS. 1. In what year did George III. come to the throne of' England?— 2. What was one of the first acts of his reign ? — 3. What right had al- ways been exercised by the crown? — 4. What is said of the adminis- tration of lord Bute? — 5. What added to the popular agitation ? — 6. What important constitutional question arose about this time? — 7. What distinguished the year 1764 ? — 8. Who was then prime minister of England ? — 9. How long did the stamp-act continue in force ? — 10. How long after passing the stamp-act did hostilities commence? — 11, What European power granted assistance to the Americans? — 12. What was the most brilliant and glorious achievement of the English during the war? — 13. When was peace ratified between the contend- ing powers ? — 14. Between whom did a contest arise in France in the reign of Lewis XIV.? — 15. What had hitherto marked the course of the French kings in their disputes with their parliaments? — 16. Who laid the foundation of the revolution in France? — 17. When were the Jesuits expelled from Portugal ? — 18. What greatly contributed to hast- en their downfall? — 19. What powers abolished the order of Jesuits in November, 1767? — -20. What next drewthe attention of the French nation? — 21. Whom did the dauphin marry in 1770? — 22. When did Lewis XV. die? — 23. What was done at the very commencement of the reign of Louis XVI.? — 24. What was well calculated to open the eyes of all who had not seen the abuses in the French government? — 25. Who by their speeches in the British parliament fanned the flame already kindled in France? — 26. Who was appointed to the supreme direction of the finances in France, in 1776? — 27. What brought mat- ters to a speedy crisis ? — 28. What was the next step of the king? SECTION XVL AUSTRIA. FRANCE. 1 . The condition of Austria was peculiarly flourishing during the latter part of the reign of the empress Maria The- resa. Her army was well disciplined and in good order ; her finances in a prosperous state, and the alliance with France MODERN HISTORY, 109 secured by many marriages with its princes. She employed herself in advancing by every possible way the happiness of her people, in founding schools and academies, encouraging man- ufactures, and reforming abuses. She introduced inocula- tion into her kingdom, abolished the inquisition, and the prac- tice of torture, and suppressed the Jesuits. 2. November 29, 1785, in the sixty-fourth year of her age, and the forty-first of her reign, died the empress Maria Theresa. During her illness she displayed a great mind, an affectionate heart, and Christian fortitude. She was not ex- empt from weaknesses, but her virtues preponderated. Her publick virtues were of the most splendid kind, and her pri- vate ones of the most amiable. She was the mother of six- teen children, nine of whom survived her; four sons and five daughters. \ 3. Joseph, her son, who in 1764 had been chosen king of the Romans, succeeded her. He had indeed been chosen emperor fifteen years before the death of his mother, and fill- ed the imperiaf^irone jointly with her. He made it manifest soon after the death of his mother, that he meditated great changes, and the reformation of many abuses. But he was by no means fitted for such great undertakings ; and the em- press, his mother, had, during her life, greatly restrained his impetuous and warlike disposition ; but after her death, he pursued without control his own whims. 4. He travelled through Europe in search of knowledge ; and had his education been proper for his station, he might have done much good to the human race. His manners were such as w r ould have led him, had he been rightly directed, to have obtained a just knowledge of the wants of the middle and lower ranks of men, and a just sense of their claims up- on society. In his travels he affected no pomp or parade ; sought the conversation of those far below him in rank, and encouraged every one to give him information upon those subjects which most nearly interested them. 5. The establishment of a general toleration for all dis- senters from the Romish faith, was one of the wisest acts of" his reign. He abolished the privilege of primogeniture, and the custom of feudal vassallage ; but he made no provision for those who were thus deprived of their property, or for those who were relieved from bondage. He gave great en- couragement to trade, letters, arts, and manufactures ; foun- 10* ilO MODERN HISTORT, ded schools and universities, libraries and observatories ; im- proved the publick roads, and established free ports. 6. In November, 1789, the Netherlands declared them- selves independent of Austria, and a federal union was form- ed, under the title of the " United Belgick States." The hasty and injudicious measures of the emperor, in pursuance of his plans of reformation, led to this defection of an im- portant part of the empire. Had he proceeded with more circumspection, and not suddenly and forcibly attempted to suppress institutions, forms, and ceremonies, grown sacred in the eyes of the people, by long usage, his plans might have been carried into effect, and a lasting benefit conferred upon his subjects. 7. February 20, 1790, died the emperor Joseph II. His death was probably hastened by the opposition and ill success which attended his political course ; and he suffered greatly in his mind on account of the loss of the Netherlands., Al- though in numerous instances his plans of reform were ill- timed and injudicious, and his measures of Avernment often oppressive and really tyrannical, yet his conduct is to be at- tributed to the defects of his education, and not to his natural disposition. He displayed in his last moments great resig- nation, fortitude/ and composure; but it is a melancholy thought, that his whole life was spent in making himself and his fellow creatures wretched. 8. Leopold II., the brother of Joseph, succeeded to Ihe imperial crown. His brother had left his dominions in a mi- serable state of discontent and confusion, and exposed to the attacks of formidable enemies ; and Leopold himself was judged unequal in talents to the management of a mighty empire. But he soon relieved the apprehensions of his sub- jects, by revoking many of the impolitick and oppressive acts of his brother, and restoring some of the ancient privileges and immunities. 9. He regained the Netherlands to the empire, though he failed in gaining the affections of the people. The progress of the revolution in France, and the critical situation of the royal family of that kingdom, to which he was near related, greatly embarrassed Leopold. He appears to have been very cau- tious of engaging in a war with France, and was probably forced intovit by the violence of the Jacobins at Paris. He did not, however, live to take any share in the war, but died MODERN HISTORY. Ill February 27, 1792, aged forty-four years, after an illness of three days. 10. He was succeeded by his son Francis, who became emperor in the July following his father's death. He began the war with France, but soon found himself in an unpleasant situation, from not meeting with that co-operation which he had been taught to expect from the French loyalists. Instead of invading France with any effect, he found his own domin- ions invaded, and before the end of the year, Austrian Ne- therlands was wrested from him, and several cities in Germa- ny laid under contribution. 11. May 5, 1789, the states general of France met ac- cording to the summons of the king. His address at the opening of that assembly, has been admired as that of an upright, patriotick, and humane prince, to a body from whose legislative exertions was to be expected the restoration of peace, and an improvement of the nation. By a vote nearly unanimous, and to which the king was obliged to give his as- sent, that body assumed the title of the "National Assembly," and was declared one and indivisible. 12. M. Necker was dismissed the second time from the post of minister of finance, July 11, 1789 ; but tumults and insurrections being the consequence of this ill-timed mea- sure, he was soon recalled. In the interim, the state prison, called the Bastile, once filled with the victims of arbitrary power, but now, under the mild reign of Louis XVI., nearly empty, had been assaulted by a furious mob, taken, and le- velled to the ground. Alarmed at the posture of affairs, ma- ny of the nobles, and one of the king's brothers, left the kingdom. This was undoubtedly an injudicious procedure, and greatly added to the miseries of the kingdom. 13. The aristocrats and democrats, the two parties into which the national assembly soon divided itself, filled that body with their dissensions, and made it manifest, that no be- nefit would arise to the kingdom from its sittings. The for- mer of these parties were those who favoured royalty, the privileged orders, and the nobles and clergy ; the latter of them were the advocates of freedom, and the enemies of all distinct privileges. They were also called royalists and patri- ots. Among the royalists also, may be reckoned those who were termed moderates, whose speeches in the assembly are admired for their good sense, and sound political principles /< 112 MODERN HISTORY, 14. The democratick party was the most powerful, as was* soon seen ; for, on the fourth of August, 1789, decrees were passed, abolishing the privileges of the nobles and of the clergy, of the provinces and the towns ; and pronouncing persons of every rank and description, eligible to all offices, ecclesiastical, civil, and military. All church property was placed at the disposal of the nation ; all monastick institu- tions, feudal privileges and rights were dissolved ; the provin- cial parliaments were suppressed, and the whole kingdom divided into eighty-three departments. 15. The king, with his family, attempted to escape from Paris, but was intercepted on his journey, and compelled to return. Soon after, the national assembly having completed a constitution for the kingdom, it was presented to the king, who, after a delay often days, gave it his signature ; and on the thirtieth of September, 1791, dissolved the body. Ano- ther immediately assembled, denominated the "Legislative Assembly," whose deliberations were limited to the space of one year. 16. Austria and Prussia, in the year 1792, interfered in behalf of the French king and his family ; but so far from its having any good effect, and alarming the revolutionary party, it only instigated it to deeds of greater violence, and more determined courage. War was declared without hesitation against the king of Hungary and Bohemia, and every prepa- ration was made to resist any counter revolutionary project. 17. An attack was made on the palace, in the month of August, by a lawless and infuriate mob, and all the Swiss guards of the king murdered in the most barbarous manner. This attack completed the triumph of faction ; for, as the guards, in self-defence, had fired upon the mob, the dema- gogues charged the king with having made war upon his peo- ple. The cry of " liberty and equality" was now only to be heard; and the "chief of the executive power," as they chose to call the king, was suspended from his functions, and with his queen and family, committed prisoners to the temple. 18. The execrable Robespierre was now at the head of affairs, and it is impossible adequately to describe the barba- rities of his inhuman career. This period has justly been called u the reign of terrour" La Fayette abandoned the army, being unwilling to serve under such masters. Du- mouri^r , who succeeded him, was not generally trusted by i MODERN HISTORY. 113 the army or the faction ; and to lessen the number of aristo- crats, five thousand of them were imprisoned and massacred. 19. On the eleventh of December, 1792, the king appear- ed before the convention, to hear the charges preferred against him. The president addressing him, said, "You are accused of a multitude of crimes, committed for the purpose of re-establishing your tyranny," and then entered into a few particulars. The king, with great dignity replied ; " No ex- isting laws prohibited me from acting as I did. I had no in- tention of injuring my subjects, or of shedding their blood." And when farther accusations were pressed upon him, he de- fended himself with the same simplicity, coolness, and intre- pidity. 20. On the twenty-first of January, 1793, Louis XVL, king of France, was beheaded. Nothing could exceed the resignation with which he submitted to the cruel sentence ; and when he was going to the square where the guillotine was erected, he manifested no fear or anger. When on the scaf- fold, he signified a desire to address the people, but the drums were ordered to be beaten, and he was commanded in a rude and cruel manner to be silent : in a moment after, his head was severed from his body, and shown to the people as that of a tyrant and a traitor. 21. On the fifteenth of October, in the same year, Marie Antoinette, queen of France, was beheaded. Since the exe- cution of the king, every possible indignity had been heaped upon her; and after her trial and condemnation, she was cast into a dismal dungeon, and delivered into the care of a jailer^ seemingly selected on purpose to aggravate her sufferings, and insult her misfortunes. On the day of her execution, she was conveyed to the scaffold in a common cart, with her hands tied behind her, amid the shouts and insults of a brutal mob. She was executed in the thirty-eighth year of her age, QUESTIONS. 1. What was the condition of Austria during- the latter part of the reign of Maria Theresa ? — 2. When did she die, and at what age ? — 3, Who succeeded her ? — 4. What did he do in search of knowledge ?•— 5. What was one of the wisest acts of his reign ? — 6. When did the Netherlands declare themselves independent of Austria ? — 7 When did Joseph II. die? — 8. Who succeeded to the imperial Crown? — 9, What did he regain ? — 10. Who succeeded Leopold? — 11. When di(| the states general of France meet? — 12. Who was dismissed the se- cond time from the finance department July 11, 1789?— 13, Wto 1U MODERN HISTORY. were the names of the parties into which the states general of France divided itself ? — 14. Which was the most powerful? — 15. What did the king- attempt to do ? — lb\ Who, in 1792 interfered in behalf of the French king and his .family ? — 17. What was done by a mob in the month of August ?-■- -18. Who was at the head of affairs in France ? — 19. When did the king appear in the contention to hear the charges preferred against him? — 20. When was Louis XVI. beheaded ?— 21. When was Marie Antoinette queen of France executed ? ■» mi 90 ft »ii' SECTION XVII. GREAT BRITAIN. FRANCE, TO THE PEACE OF AMIENS. 1. The coalition ministry in Great Britain succeeded that which negotiated the peace, by which the American war was closed. This ministry was so called, from the circumstance of Mr. Fox and lord North, after an opposition peculiarly an- imated, and a declaration by the former that they differed so in principle, as to render a union impracticable, becoming joint secretaries of state. This partnership administration, md not, however, subsist but a short time, and both secreta- ries were dismissed. 2. Mr. Pitt, a younger son of lord Chatham, at the early age of twenty-four, was made prime minister. He entered upon the duties of his office under circumstances peculiarly embarrassing ; for he had to contend against a majority of both houses of parliament, who threatened to effect his re- moval by withholding the supplies. But this being thought too great an interference with the prerogative, the parliament was dissolved, and the people elected new members, who "were favourable to Mr. Pitt's administration. 3. A new sinking fund was established in 1792. By this, one per cent., beside the dividends, is raised and applied b} the commissioners for the reduction of the national debt. In this way every loan has its own fund, which, operating by compound interest, will discharge the debt in forty-seven years at longest. This is what now constitutes the sinking fund of Great Britain. 4. The extraordinary trial of Mr. Hastings, governour-ge- neral of Bengal, occupied the British parliament from 1786 to 1795. Mr. Burke, affected by the abuses practised in India by the servants of the East India company, exhibited charges against the governour-general,and he was taken into custody, / MODERN HISTORY. IIS but afterward admitted to bail. Many and very great abuses were oy this trial brought to light ; but its great length gave it the appearance of a persecution, and Mr. Hastings was finally acquitted. 5. In 1788, the attention of parliament was first called to the slave trade. But it was found so interwoven with the in- terests of the West Indian settlements, and depended so much on foreign states, as to render it necessary to proceed cautiously. The information, however, laid before the house was such, as to strike every feeling heart with horrour, on ac- count of the cruelties committed in transporting the slaves from Africa to the islands. 6. In the year 1806, after a patient investigation of se- veral years, the slave trade w 7 as finally abolished in England, and all her dependancos. Some years after this, the Con- gress of the United States passed an act, which ranks the slave trade with piracy ; but owing to the remissness of seve- ral of the European governments, the traffick is not wholly suppressed. To the honour of England, however, it ought to be mentioned, that no exertion or expense has been spared by the government, to detect and punish those who still con- tinue the trade. 7. The dangerous illness of the king, compelled the par- liament to meet on the 20th of November, 1788. As the king was totally incapacitated for business, and would remain so, in all probability, for some time, it became a question into whose hands the suspended executive had fallen. The prince of Wales did not personally claim the regency, but his party claimed it in his behalf; and Mr. Pitt stating that to parliament belonged the right of appointing the regency, it was debated and settled by vote. The illness of the king was, however; of short continuance, and rendered unnecessary all the chan- ges which had been contemplated. 8. A dispute relative to a settlement on the northwest coast of America, in the year 1790, nearly involved the courts of Spain and England in a war. Some British subjects had formed a settlement at Nootka Sound, for the purpose of carrying on the fur trade with China. The Spaniards conceiv- ing their rights to be infringed, attacked the English, destroyed their fort, and captured their vessels. But finding little pros- pect of aid from France, Spain acceded to terms before the end of the year, and yielded every point in dispute. 116 MODERN HISTORY, 9. The dismission of the French minister from England, in consequence of the execution of Louis XVI., induced the French government to decree war against the king of Great Britain, February 3, 1793. In this decree, an evident at- tempt was made to separate the people from their sovereign. Indeed the French revolutionists, in all their conduct, made it manifest, that monarchy, wherever found, was the object of their hatred ; and in many instances, they made war, not so much because the people had violated any of the rights of France, as because they refused, like the French, to decapi- tate their king, conform to liberal principles, and adopt a republican government. 10. On the part of the French, the war was attended with great and rapid success on the land, but they met with many losses at sea. Many of the French West India islands fell into the hands of the English, and lord Howe obtained a great victory over the Brest fleet, on the first of June. At the close of the year 1797, his majesty, George III., with both houses of parliament, went in procession to St. PauPs church to offer up a thanksgiving for the signal success which had attended the naval arms of Great Britain, in all parts of the world. 11. A rebellion broke out in Ireland; 1798, the leaders of which, kept up a constant correspondence with the French revolutionists. The state of Ireland led to the project of a union of that kingdom with England ; and in January, 1799, Mr. Pitt brought the measure before parliament. Though many and great obstacles presented, the minister persevered in his design, and the object was happily effected, in the year 1801. 12. The defeat of Tippoo Saib, sultan of Mysore in the East Indies, particularly distinguished the last year of the eighteenth century. History does not probably exhibit on its records, any stronger instance of duplicity and treachery, than was practised by this celebrated sultan, against the Brit- ish, in the years 1797 and 1798. While he professed the warmest attachment to the English, and the greatest devo- tion to their service, he managed by secret negociation, to excite the French, the Turks, and the native princes, to at- tempt the destruction of their empire in the east. 13. The destruction of their fleet in Egypt, by lord Nel- son, and the consequent defeat of their army, disposed the MODERN HISTORY. 117 French government to listen to propositions of peace, which was concluded at Amiens, March 25, 1802. Previous to this, by a convention held at Petersburgh, between England, on the one part, and most of the powers of Europe, on the other, the rights of neutrality were settled, and what may be considered the law of nations on that point established. 14. Arms and ammunition, were, by this convention, es- tablished as contraband articles ; and if found on board of neutral vessels, both vessel and cargo were subjected to con- fiscation. The right of search was established as belonging to publick armed vessels, and was extended even to merchant ships under convoy. It was because of the abuse of this principle, by British ships, that the United States of America some years after declared war against England. 15. The situation of France , toward the close of the year 1793, was extremely deplorable. It lay at the mercy of a faction, whom nothing but blood would satisfy. The Rebes* pierrean faction determined to destroy every thing which even appeared hostile to their plans ; and a decree was framed, by which their agents were empowered to arrest and imprison any person suspected, not merely as principals, but in any way connected with them. 16. The catholick religion, and indeed all religion, was publickly abjured by the French government, on the seven- teenth of November, 1793 ; and what was called the religion of reason, established by decree. The churches were depri- ved of their ornaments, the altar destroyed, and liberty and equality, consecrated as objects of worship. The calen- dar also underwent a reformation ; the year was divided into twelve months of thirty days each ; the names of the months denoted the prevalent seasons ; the Sabbath was abolished, and every tenth day devoted to rest and amusement. 17. In July, 1794, Robespierre was accused, condemned , and executed by his associates, much to the satisfaction of the whole civilized world. His faction quarrelled among themselves ; their very crimes rendering them jealous of one another, so that in a few months after the execution of the queen of France, the earth was rid of such monsters. 18. Napoleon Bonaparte, a native of Corsica, first distin- guished himself, in the year 1793. He was first employed in the direction of the artillery, at the seige of Toulon, which tbr-a short time had fallen into the hands of the English, 11 118 MODERN HISTORY, The French generals were placed in such a strange state of responsibility by their rulers, that it is a matter of astonish- ment that any success attended the efforts of their armies; and indeed some of them were compelled to desert, and others were proscribed, often for that very valour which had cover- ed the nation with glory. 19. A new constitution was prepared, in 1795, and formal- ly accepted and proclaimed, September twenty-third. By this, the government was lodged in the hands of five directors, chosen by the legislature ; but their responsibility was not clearly defined, neither was there sufficient connection be- tween them and the legislative bodies, to operate either as a balance, or as a restraint. But with all its defects, it made a much nearer approach to order, than any which had prece- ded it. 20. A high degree of prosperity at this time marked the external condition of France. The campaigns of 1794, and 1795, under some of the ablest generals which France ever had, were eminently successful. The Belgian states surrendered the chief of their fortresses, and associated them- selves in a close confederacy with the French republick. They soon had reason to repent of their precipitation, for the English immediately dispossessed them of many of their for eign settlements, particularly the cape of Good Hope, an the island of Ceylon. 21. Louis XVII., the son of Louis XVI., died in the tern pie, in June, 1795. His death occurred under circumstan- ces very suspicious, having been for some time in the custo- dy of a low, drunken wretch, who made it his pastime to insult and torment him. He was in his eleventh year when he died. His sister was soon after released from prison, being exchange cd for certain members of the convention, who had fallen into the hands of the allies. QUESTIONS. 1. What was the ministry called which succeeded that which nego liated the peace with America? — 2. Who was made prime minister or; the dismission of the coalition ministry? — 3. What was established in 1792? — 4. What occupied the British parliament from 1786 to 1790* — 5. When was the attention of parliament first called to the slave trade?— 6. When was it abolished? — 7. What compelled parliament to meet in November, 1788? —8. What, in 1790, nearly involved thr courts of Spain and England in a war ?— 9. What induced the French government to declare war against the kin** of Great firitajn ir\ 1793 ' ! MODERN HISTORY. 119 —10. With what effect was the war conducted? — 11. What occurred in Ireland, in 1798? — 12. What event particularly distinguished the last year of the eighteenth century ? -^13. What induced the French government to listen to propositions of peace? — 14. What articles were established by the convention at Petersburgh, as contraband? — 15. What was the situation of France toward the close of the year 1793?— 16. What took place on the 17th of November, 1793?— 17. When was Robespierre executed ? — 18. Who first distinguished him- self in 1793?— 19. What was prepared in 1795?— 20 What at this time was the external condition of France? — 21. Who died in the Cemple in June, 1 795 ? SECTION XVIII. FRANCE. SPAIN. PORTUGAL. 1. Early in the year 1796, Napoleon Bonaparte was ap- pointed to the command of the army of Italy. Hitherto the arms of the French had been more successful in the norths than in the south of Europe. But now a new scene of vic- tories, revolutions and conquests, such as the world had never witnessed, opened to view. Bonaparte was twenty-six years of age when he took command of the army of Italy. 2. Three pitched battles, and seventy inferiour engagements were fought by Bonaparte's army in one year ; and in the same space of time, he captured a hundred thousand prison- ers, fifty field pieces, and two thousand battering cannon : and beside supporting his army from the plunder of the con- quered countries, he sent thirty millions of francs to the French treasury, and three hundred of the choicest and most valuable pieces of art, to the national museum. 3. Not being able to calculate upon the final issue of the contest, the Venetians, united neither with the Austrians or French. But being divided by broils and dissensions among themselves, Bonaparte seized the opportunity, and introducing an army into their territories, took possession of their fleet, and delivered the country into the hands of Austria, the very power from which he pretended he came to rescue them. 4. On the 15th of April, 1797, preliminaries of peace were settled at Campo-Formio, between the emperor of Austria and the French republick. Previous to this, Bonaparte had compelled the emperor to fly from his capital ; his army had been reduced to X 5,000 men, and his dominions plundered t20 MODERN HISTORY and overrun, till he was now in a manner left to the mercy of his enemies. 5. On the fourth and fifth of September, 1797, two of the directors of the French government, many publick ministers, several men of letters, and the authors, editors, &c. of forty- two publick journals, were banished to Guiana, South Ameri- ca. Some found means to escape ; those who did not, suf- fered dreadfully from the voyage, and after their arrival, many died from the unwholesomeness of the climate. Some few found means to escape after their transportation, and returned to Europe. 6. An expedition against Egypt was undertaken by Bo- naparte, in the year 1798 ; at least, this was his ostensible object, for to this day it remains a doubt what was the real design. It seems most probable, however, that the plan was to co-operate with Tippoo Saib, in India, in subverting the British empire in the east. He was accompanied by many artists, naturalists, and antiquarians, and a large proportion of the army which had served under him in Italy. 7. On his way to Egypt he conquered the island of Malta : and that island, as well as its dependances, Goza, and Cumi- no, was subjected to the French republick. On the second of July, Bonaparte moored his fleet in the bay of Aboukir. Here he was attacked, on the first of August, by a British fleet under Lord Nelson, and his whole naval force destroyed. When he left Toulon, he had 400 sail, including ships of thfe line and transports. 8. This victory of Nelson, gave a new turn to the war. He carried his fleet with the captured ships to Naples, where the greatest joy was manifested at his victory. The queen of Naples urged the Austrians to renew the war, and the Czar of Russia, the grand Seignior, the kings of England and Sardinia, and the duke of Tuscany, all united in preparing to attack France. 9. Naples, as she had begun the war, suffered first from its ravages. The city was taken, the royal family expelled from the kingdom, and a new government was established. Rome surrendered to the French, and the pope being taken prisoner, was carried to Valence, where he died, August 29, 1799. On the establishment of the consular government, his body was honourably interred, and a monument erected to his memory. MODERN HISTORY. 121 10. Bonaparte marched into Syria, while these events were transpiring in Europe, took many strong fortresses, and for three months carried on a war in the very heart of the country. But failing in an attempt upon Acre, he resolved to return into Egypt ; where, receiving letters from France, informing him of the disorders at .Paris, and pressing him to return, he embarked secretly for Europe, and escaping all the English cruisers, arrived safe in France, where his presence excited the liveliest expressions of joy. 11. The consular government was now established in France, and Bonaparte chosen first consul. Popular liberty, by reason of the excesses of the Jacobins, had fallen into disrepute, and the minds of the French were evidently pre- paring for a willing return to monarchy. " Unity of thought and action ivas declared to be a fundamental quality in the ex- ecutive power." As consul, Bonaparte had all the power of a king, though not the name. 12. A spirit of moderation, forbearance and reconciliation marked the first acts of Bonaparte's power. He made over- tures of peace to England, which were rejected ; and a large subsidy granted to Francis XL, to enable him to carry on the war. The French lost no time in endeavouring to re- gain what they had lost in Italy ; and in May 1800, the first consul left Paris to take command of the army in that quarter. He passed through Switzerland, and appearing in Italy be- fore the Austrians expected him, they were compelled to retire. 13. On the fourteenth of June 1800, was fought the fa- mous battle of Marengo. The Austrians fought for fourteen hours with the greatest intrepidity, and in the commencement of the action, with the fairest prospect of success ; but the French receiving a re-enforcement at a critical moment, victory decided in favour of the latter, and the Austrian gen- eral immediately after, found it necessary to demand a sus- pension of hostilities 14. The treaty of Luneville was signed, February 9, 1801, between the French republick and the empire. By this trea- ty the Rhine was made the boundary of the French repub- lick, and the independence of the Batavian, Helvetick and Cisalpine republicks was recognized and guaranteed by both parties. At this time, the power of the French republick was enormous, and her territories immense. Her West Indian 122 MODERN HISTORY, possessions had been recovered, and she had also gained considerable footing in South America. 15. The catholick religion was restored on Easter day, 1802. A convention had been made with the pope the year before. By this it was agreed, that the French republick should be divided into diocesses ; that the first consul should nominate the new archbishops and bishops ; that the pope should procure the ancient bishops to resign, and not disturb the alienated property of the church ; and that no bull or re- script from the court of Rome, decrees of synods, or gene- ral councils, should be received or promulgated in France without the consent of government 16. On the second of August, 1802, Bonaparte was cho- sen first consul for life. It had been proposed only to extend the first period of service, which was ten years ; but the peo- ple almost unanimously voted to grant it to him for life, and the senate readily gave their consent. This appointment was followed by such, a change in the constitution as gave the first consul power to nominate his colleagues, make war, form alliances, conclude peace, and pardon criminals. All this was done, while liberty, equality, and popular representation, were the professed objects in view. 17. In May 1803, hostilities were renewed between France and England. The first consul professed to be bound by the treaty of Amiens only in some specified points ; and the great liberties taken with him by some of the English journals, might very justly offend him. Still, it is probable that the jealousy and distrust manifested by the English government, provoked and irritated him. 18. All the English, whom either business or pleasure had led into France, during the short peace, were detained by the first consul as a sort of hostages, for the future conduct of their country. He also projected an invasion of England ; but this only had the effect of rousing the latter country to greater exertions and sacrifices, and thus to frustrate all his schemes and intentions. Another act of vengeance was, to send an army to occupy the electorate of Hanover, belong- ing to the king of Great Britain. 19. On the 18th of May, 1804, Bonaparte was declared emperor of the French. By a decree of the senate, the title was to be hereditary in his family, and in case he should lie without male issue, he was empowered to adopt any of the MODERN HISTORY. 12S descendants of either of his brothers. All laws were to origi- nate with the sovereign, or to be proposed in his name. The emperial title thus conferred on Bonaparte, was acknow r - ledged by most of the states of Europe, except England^ 20. On the 2d of November, 1804, Napoleon and his wife, were crowned emperor and empress of the French, with extraordinary pomp and splendour. The pope having been previously invited, was present at the ceremony, and anointed the new sovereigns. The two brothers of Napole- on, and his two colleagues in the consulship, were promoted to the highest dignities, and several eminent persons were brought to trial and executed. General Moreau was ban- ished to America, and every measure was taken to render the new throne firm and stable. 21. The memorable battle of Trafalgar, was fought, Oc- tober 21, 1805, between the combined fleets of France and Spain, and a British fleet under lord Nelson. The combined fleets consisted of thirty-three ships ; that of the English of twenty-seven. The latter were victorious, taking or destroy- ing more than half of their opponents. Lord Nelson was killed in this action. 22. " The confederation of the Rhine," was formed in 1806. By this, several princes of Germany renounced the laws of the empire, and contracted an alliance with Napoleon, engaging to supply him with troops when he should demand. In consequence of this, the emperor of Germany abdicated the government; absolved all the electors-, princes, and states, from their obligations to him, and thus terminated a government which had subsisted a thousand years, and con- tinued in one family, since the year 1438. 23. Prussia, in 1806, entered into a war with Napoleon,, and sustained a fatal defeat. Bonaparte entered the Prussian capital in triumph, where he was well received by the peo- ple ; but he took due advantage of their submission. The rapid progress of the French in Prussia, alarmed the czar of Russia and the king of England ; and their fears induced them to afford that assistance to Frederick, king of Prussia, which at least he had not merited. 24. The famous Berlin decree was issued by Napoleon, in November, 1806, during his stay at Berlin. By this, he declared all the British islands to be in a state of biockade v , though he had no naval force to carry it into effect. The 124 MODERN HISTORY. whole trade of England was proscribed ; the vessels of any nation touching at any of her ports, and afterward entering a French port, were confiscated ; and every port in Prussia, Denmark, the Hanse towns, Holland, Flanders, France, Spain, Italy, &c, shut against British vessels and merchan- dise. 25. In December, 1788, Charles IV. came to the throne of Spain. As this was just at the commencement of the French revolution, the Spaniards were soon involved in the catastrophes it occasioned. Early in the year 1793, the Spanish court, offended at the indignities offered to the royal family of France, invaded that country, and took the town of Belgrade. The French in their turn, invaded Spain, and gained some important places in it. 26. The unjustifiable seizure of the Spanish treasure ships by the English, led to a war between the two countries in 1805. In this war she was far from successful, losing great part of her fleet in the battle of Trafalgar, already mentioned. The Spanish government was at this time of but little weight in the scale of European politicks, and her security was de- rived chiefly from the jealousy of the different powers toward each other. 27. Portugal was invaded by France, in 1807, Spain ha- ving given the armies of Napoleon permission to pass through her territories. The king of Portugal, advised and protected by the English, left his kingdom, and with his family embarked for America, on the 21st of November, 1807. On the 30th of the same month, the French army entered Lisbon. 28. On the 19th of March, 1808, Charles IV., king of Spain, harrassed and distressed by the tumults and disorders of his kingdom, resigned his crown in favour of his son, since, Ferdinand VII. ; but he soon after revoked his abdication, declaring that it was forced from him by the dread of person- al violence. Soon after, Napoleon, in a manner very extra- ordinary, obtained the resignation of both Charles and Fer- dinand, in favour of Joseph Bonaparte, whom he causedto be proclaimed king of Spain, and on the 20th of July, 1808, the new sovereign entered Madrid. 29. The Spanish nation refused to ratify the abdication of their sovereign, and place one of the Bonaparte family on the fhrone. In the same month that Joseph entered Madrid, a general insurrection took place in all the principal provinces : MODERN HISTORY. 125 a junta, or council of the magistrates and constituted authori- ties, was formed at Seville, and other remote places ; Ferdi- nand VII. was proclaimed king, and war openly denounced against the French. Joseph was compelled to retire from Madrid to Burgos, after plundering the treasury and securing the crown jewels. 30. The English, solicited by Spain and Portugal, took up arms in order to rescue those kingdoms from the grasp of Napoleon. Sir Arthur Wellesley, afterward duke of Welling- ton, was sent with an army into Portugal, and defeating the French at the decisive battle of Vimeira, compelled them to evacuate the kingdom. 31. Sir John Moore, now led an army of twenty thousand men into Spain, and about the same time, Napoleon quitted Paris to take command of the French army in that country. The English, not being supported by the Spaniards, as they had given them reason to expect, and the French receiving continual re-enforcements, were compelled to evacuate the kingdom, and Joseph Bonaparte re-entered Madrid, in Jan- uary, 1809, with great pomp. 32. In June, 1809, Wellesley re-entered Spain with a more formidable English army, and by the 2Cth of July, was so situated as to be able to threaten Madrid. On the 27thr and 28th of the same month, he was attacked at Talavera by Joseph Bonaparte, assisted by four marshals, but repelled him with great loss. For his great skill and bravery in this hard fought action, the British commander was raised to a peerage, with the title of viscount Wellington, of Talavera. 33. The battle of Salamanca, fought on the 22d of July, 1812, completed the overthrow of the French power in Spain, and on the 12th of August opened the gates of Madrid to the English. Lord Wellington was hailed as the liberator of Spain, and Joseph Bonaparte with his army quitted the king- dom, never to return. Had the Spaniards at the first, con- fided the war wholly to the English government, their deliver- ance might much sooner have been effected. 34. In the year 1819, the old king, Charles IV., died at Rome. The same battle which delivered Spain from the armies of France, restored independence to Portugal. On the 20th of March, 1816, Maria Isabella, queen of Portugal, died, and was succeeded by John VI. The seat of govern- ment was then at Rio de Janeiro, in Brazil, South America, J2at consul for life? — 17. When were hostilities renewed between France and England?— 18. Who were detained in France by the first consul as a sort of hostages: — 19. When was Bonaparte declared emperor of the French ? — 20. When were he and his wife crowned? — 21. What battle was fought, October 21, 1805?— 22. What was formed in 18067—23. Who in 1806 entered into a war with Napoleon and sustained a fatal defeat? — 24. What was issued bv Napoleon in November 1806? — 25. When did Charles IV. come to the throne of Spain ? — 26. What led to a war between England and Spain in 1805? 27. What country was inva- ded by France in 1807 7 — 28. When did Charles IV resign the crown of Spain to his son ? — 29. What did the Spanish nation refuse to do ? ■ — 30. Who took up arms to rescue Spain and Portugal from France? — 31. Who led an army of twenty thousand men into Spain? — 32. When did Wellesly re-enter Spain ? — 33. iVhat completed the over- throw of the French in Spain ?— 34. When did the old king, Charle:, XV., die? SECTION XIX. FRANCE. POLAND. GREAT BRITAIN. 1. On the 17th of December, 1807, Bonaparte issued hib celebrated Milan decree. In virtue of this, every ship which should consent to be visited by the English, or consent to any exactions whatever, was to be confiscated. His Berlin decree, had shut all the ports of Europe against British ships, and all British ports against foreign vessels, if they intended to proceed ultimately to any part under French dominion. These two decrees, with the corresponding British orders in council, almost entirely closed all commercial intercourse be- tween different parts of the world, and pressed heavily upon rrcutral powers. MODERN HISTORY. 12? 2. On the 9th of April, 1809, war was renewed with Aus- tria. So rapid was the progress of the French, that after three severe actions, Bonaparte found himself master of Vienna, on the twelfth of May ; but before the autumn was past, a peace was concluded which was extremely humiliating to the emperor, Francis II. He was compelled to cede several of his provinces to different powers, and to acknowledge Joseph Bonaparte as king of Spain. 3. April 2, 1810, Napoleon was married to Maria Louisa, daughter of the emperor of Austria. He had previously di- vorced his wife Josephine, for reasons of state, and not for any blemish which could be attached to her character. On the 20th of March, 1811, Napoleon was gratified with the birth of a son, who, in accordance with previous arrange- ments, was dignified with the title of king of Rome. 4. In June, 1812, Napoleon, offended with the czar o Russia, declared war against him, and induced Prussia and Austria to give him assistance. The force which he led into Russia, consisted of 400,000 infantry, 60,000 cavalry, and twelve hundred pieces of cannon. The army was composed of French, Germans, Poles, Dutch, Swiss, Spaniards, and Portuguese. 5. On the fourteenth of September, the French emperor entered Moscow; having left France the ninth of May* and crossed the river Neimen on the twenty-fourth of June* His reception in the chief city of Russia, was very different from that which he had been in the custom of receiving in other conquered cities. The city was fired by order of the governour, and the ruins only were left to shelter the French,, in a climate to which they were wholly unaccustomed, and with a]l the severity of a Siberian winter before them. 6. On the tenth of October, having vainly solicited a sus- pension of arms, Napoleon, and his ill-fated army, com- menced their return toward France. Nothing can equal the difficulties and distresses of their march : the weather was uncommonly severe, even for that climate ; the country around them was rendered desolate by its inhabitants ; food ? ►shelter and fuel were scarcely to be obtained : and to crown their miseries, the Russians and Cossacks continualy hovered around them, killing and destroying all who ventured far from the main army. 7. Bonaparte quitted his army in disguise, on the sixth of 128 MODERN HISTORY. December, and with a few of his officers pursued his way to Paris, where he arrived at midnight, on the 18th of the same month. In this rash expedition, he lost in various ways a hundred and sixty-seven thousand men. Such an issue of his project, it was naturally expected, would have terminated his exertions ; but in this the world was disappointed ; for early the following year he recommenced hostilities. 8. Afresh army of three hundred and fifty thousand men was raised, and led into the field. But he had not now to contend with Russia alone. Austria, Prussia, and Sweden, now op- posed him, and many of his German confederates ventured to abandon his cause. The allied powers appeared to be more United and more in earnest than on any former occasion; and in the course of the summer, many battles were fought, but none of them were decisive. 9. On the 16th, 18th, and 19th days of October, was fought the great battle of Leipsick, which has been fitly called the " battle of nations." The French sustained a signal de- feat, and Leipsick was taken, with its garrison of thirty thou- sand men, and twenty-two thousand sick, with all the French magazines, artillery, and stores. The emperor of Russia, the king of Prussia, and the crown prince of Sweden, entered the city at different points, and met in the great square amid the acclamations of the people. 10. On the 2d of December, the allies having passed the Rhine, invaded France. On the 31st of March, 1814, the emperor of Russia, and the king of Prussia, at the head of their armies, entered Paris, which city, Bonaparte and his generals had left some time before. The allied sovereigns, in all their manifestoes and declarations, were careful to make a distinction between the French people and Napoleon, and wisely manifested a disposition to bury the past in oblivion. 11. On the 11th of April, Bonaparte abdicated the throne, having, on the 2d of the same month, been deposed by the senate. The allies permitted him to retire to Elba, and retain his imperial titles, having that island and its dependances as- signed to him as sovereign, with a revenue of two millions of francs. The duchies of Parma, Guastalla, and Placen- tia were assigned to Maria Louisa, and her descendants. Provision was made for all the other members of Napoleon's family. On the 20th of April, Bonaparte set out for the seat of his new dominions. MODERN HISTORY. 129 12. The defects of her constitution has probably caused Poland more and greater sufferings, than any country of Eu- rope has experienced. The monarchy being elective, every vacancy in the throne gave rise to cabals, commotions, and intrigues, produced generally by foreign interference. At no period did Poland suffer more from these causes, than at the beginning of the eighteenth century. From that period to the present, Poland has been in a state of internal disunion and distraction, extremely favourable to the views of foreign potentates. 13. The king of Prussia originated the plan of dismem- bering Poland, and particular circumstances greatly favoured the project. Frederick, not being very rapacious himself, was willing, in order to induce the other powers to favour his plans, to allow them more territory and greater population than fell to his share. In admitting Austria to any share at all, he made no scruple in declaring, that his principle motive was, that she might bear her part in the blame which might be attached to an act so arbitrary and rapacious. 14. One third of Poland was seized by the partitioning powers, Russia, Prussia, and Austria, at the time of the first division. A second partition took place in 1793, by which Russia gained four thousand square miles of territory, and Prussia one thousand. A third and last partition took place in 1798, which may be said to have ended the kingdom of Poland. The slaughter attending these two last partitions, resisted as they were by the Poles, was dreadful ; and the Russians were chargeable with acts of cruelty, of which, hap* pily, there are but few examples on record. 15. In the year 1807, Louis XVIII. of Franco, and his family took up their residence in England, as their situation on the continent became every day more and more insecure. The king, who styled himself the count de Lisle, and who declined all attentions not due to a private nobleman, fixed his residence at Hartwell, in Buckinghamshire. 16. The orders in council were issued in January and November, 1807. By these, all intercourse between Britain and France was prohibited, and all neutrals, trading to any French port, were compelled to stop at a port in England^ and pay a duty proportionate to the value of the cargo. The effect of these prohibitory and regulating decrees, involved Crreat Britain in some very unpleasant disputes, particularly 12 130 MODERN HISTORY. with the United States of America, whose commerce greatly suffered. 17. On the 20th of December, 1810, in consequence of the partial derangement of his father, George III., who had now entered upon the 50th year of his reign, the prince of Wales was appointed regent of the kingdom, subject to those restrictions which had been adopted on a similar occasion, in 1788. Early in 1812, these restrictions were to cease, and the prince, though remonstrating against them, accepted the trust. Few changes were made in the ministry. 18. Mr. Percival, prime minister of England, was assassi- nated in the lobby of the house of commons, in May, 1812. A person by the name of Bellingham perpetrated the deed, in revenge, as he afterward confessed, for a private injury, which he said he had received from government. It did not appear that Mr. Percival was the particular object of his re- venge, but being the first who presented himself to his view* he made him the victim. 19. In May, 1816, the princess Charlotte, only child of the prince of Wales, and heiress to the British crown, was mar- ried to Leopold George Frederick, prince of Cobourg. This marriage was highly gratifying to the English nation ; but then- joy was quickly turned into mourning, for the princess sud- denly expired, in November, 1817. In November of the fol- lowing year, queen Charlotte also expired ; and in January, 1820, these deaths were followed by that of George III. The king died at a very advanced age, and in the 60th year of Ins reign. His death was greatly regretted by the nation, by whom he was justly beloved for his many virtues. QUESTIONS. 1. When did Bonaparte issue his celebrated Milan decree? — 2. When was war renewed with Austria? — 3. When was Bonaparte married to Maria Louisa'? — 4. When did Napoleon declare war against the czar of Russia? — 5. When did he enter Moscow? — 6. When did he commence his return toward France? — 7. What became of Bonaparte after the destruction of his army in Russia? — 8. How large an army did he now raise and lead into the field? — 9. When was fought the battle of Leipsick, called the "battle of nations?" — 10. When did the allies cross the Rhine, and invade France? — 11. When did Bonaparte abdicate the throne? — 12. What has caused Poland more and greater sufferings than any other country in Europe? — 13. Who originated the plan of dismembering Poland? — 14 How much of Poland was seized by the partitioning powers? — 15. When did -Louis XVIII. take up his residence in England ? — 16. What were is- MODERN HISTORY. 131 saed in January and November, 1807? — 17. When was the prince of Wales appointed regent of the kingdom? — 18. What took place in May, 1812 ?— 19. What took place in May, 1816 ? SECTION XX. FRANCE. NORTHERN STATES OF EUROPE. 1. Louis XVIII., soon after Napoleon left France for El- ba, was recalled by the French people to the throne of his ancestors. His departure from England was attended with acclamations ; the prince regent accompanied him to Dover, where he took leave of him in a manner at once impressive and affecting ; and on almost all the churches near which he passed, white flags were displayed. France, however, did not so generally manifest joy at his return. France, since he left it, had been entirely revolutionized, and had undergone great changes ; many who returned with the king, were in- terested in having these changes reversed, and in reclaiming all that had been confiscated. 2. The armies of France were in general much attached to Bonaparte, as having raised them to a high degree of glo- ry, and though his treatment of them in the disastrous Rus- sian campaign had been cruel, yet they felt both disgust and resentment at the intrusion of strangers into their country and metropolis. The proximity of the place of Napoleon's exile, enabled him fully to learn what was passing in France, and the sentiments of the people toward him, and he determined to return, in order to try the event of another struggle for the throne. 3. On the 1st of March, 1815, Napoleon once more land- ed on the coast of France, with only 1140 attendants, and immediately set out for Paris. On his way, he was every where received with the greatest expressions of joy, and the troops sent against him, instead of opposing his progress, ranged themselves under his standard. On the 20th of March., Louis quitted Paris; and on the evening of the same day, Napoleon entered the city, amid the acclamations of that populace, which so short a time before, in the same man- ner, saluted the return of the Bourbons. 4. On the 18th of June, 1815, was fought the battle of Waterloo, which decided for ever, the hopes and the prospects of Napoleon. The duke of Wellington, and marshal Blu~ 132 MODERN HISTORY. cher, commanded the allied forces, and obtained a decided victory over the armies of the French. Bonaparte fled from the field, and seeing that all was lost, in a few days after the battle, resigned his throne the second time. 5. On the loth of July, he surrrendered himself into the hands of the English, by going on board of the Bellerophon man of war, captain Maitland, commander, who sailed imme- diately for England, with his prisoner. On the 3d of July. Paris once more surrendered to the allies, and on the 8th. Louis returned, greeted as before by the cheers of the fickle multitude. 6. St. Helena, a small rocky island in the Atlantick ocean, was assigned as the residence of the dethroned emperor, as be- ing the only place where he could with safety be kept. He was accordingly sent thither, the British government undertaking his custody, and the Austrian, French, and Russian govern- ments, sending commissioners to reside on the island. 7. A general restoration of the works of art to the several countries from which they had been taken, was determined upon by the allied commanders. This measure, though se- verely mortifying to the French nation, was, nevertheless, undoubtedly an act of justice. Prussia had a special inter- est in claiming this restitution, for Berlin and Potsdam were among the despoiled cities ; but England had no such in- terest. 8. An army of occupation, consisting of one hundred and fifty thousand men, maintained chiefly by France, by the se- cond pacification of Paris, was left by the allies to secure the country from revolution. This army was put in possession of all the frontier fortresses for the space of five years, and the boundaries of France were still farther reduced. But be- fore the expiration of the five years, the state of the country was such as to justify a departure from the strict letter of the treaty, and in 1817, one-fifth of the army was withdrawn, and in 1818, the whole of it, and the fortresses were restored. 9. Peter II., grandson of Peter L, succeeded the em- press Catharine I., in Prussia. MenzicofT, who had been prime minister in the last reign, was now banished to Siberia with his wife and children. In 1730, Peter died of the small pox ; and in him the male line becoming extinct, Anne, duch- ess of Courland, was called to the throne, contrary to the order of "succession established bv Peter the Great, and to th< MODERN HISTORY. 133 prejudice of the duchess of Mecklenburg, her eldest sister. They were both the daughters of I wan, the eldest brother of Peter. 10. The reign of Anne was prosperous and glorious. She resisted the intrigues, and balanced the power, of her states- men, counsellors, and generals, with great sagacity and firm- ness, and maintained her prerogatives against all who inva- ded them. She banished the minister Dolgorouki, who had raised her to the throne, into Siberia, on account of his ambi- tion, which created continual disturbances. Her death hap- pened in 1740. 11. Iwan, her nephew, son of the princess of Mecklen- burg was her successor ; but she appointed count Biren, whom she had brought with her from Courland, regent, and this threw the empire into disorder. The count was deserv- edly unpopular among the Russians, twenty thousand of whom he is said to have banished in Siberia ; and he had moreover a powerful rival in count Munich, who finally over- threw the power of the regent, and caused his banishment. A revolution in the empire was the consequence of all these discontents. A party was raised, whose object was to place the princess Elizabeth on the throne, and aided by the French, quickly became strong. The emperor and his pa- rents were seized, put in confinement, and Elizabeth was proclaimed empress. This revolution took place in Novem- ber, 1741. 12. An uninterrupted career of glory and success, distin- guished the reign of Elizabeth, and the greatest powers of Europe courted her alliance. She took wise and prudent measures to advance the happiness of her people, and pro- mote the glory of the nation, as well as the security of the throne. The order of succession, as established by Peter the Great, was restored, and the duke of Holstein, son of her eldest sister, was declared her successor. He took the name of Peter III. Elizabeth died in 1762. 13. The reign of Peter was short and unpopular. His wife, Catharine, a woman of singular character, and to whom the prince, her husband, had not behaved well, connived at, if she did not encourage a party which had conspired against him, and he was deposed, if not assassinated, not many months after his accession to the throne. Catharine?, by her address and intrepidity, succeeded in placing herself on the 12* 134 MODERN HISTORY. vacant throne, and destroying all her competitors, and even the party which had aided her designs. 14. Catharine II. reigned thirty-four years, with great glo- ry arid success ; continually occupied in advancing the pros- perity of her people, increasing her dominions, and rewarding merit. She wrested the Crimea from the Turks ; undertook an expedition for the liberation of the Greeks, which was however unsuccessful ; and took an active part in the parti- tion of Poland, of which country a large share fell into her hands. In this last act, she appears to have been restrained by no principles of justice, humanity, morality, or virtue. She died in 1796, and was succeeded by her son, Paul I. 15. Paul I. was a prince of strange character, unestab- lished in his principles, dissolute in his manners, and jealous and vindictive in his disposition. Toward the close of his life, he appeared to have lost his senses. On his first acces- sion, however, he seemed anxious to prevent the evils arising from an unsettled succession, by passing an act, securing the crown to his direct and lineal descendants, not excluding females. 16. A conspiracy was formed against him by some of his officers and nobility, and he was dethroned and slain, March 24, 1801. This event gave great joy to his subjects, who groaned under his tyranny and oppressions. He was suc- ceeded by his son Alexander, who was a wise and virtuous prince, seeking the true happiness of his people ; and under him the nation arrived at a very high degree of glory and prosperity, 17. Prussia, as a kingdom, is not older than the eighteenth century. Its power and glory may be said to have taken its rise from the wisdom, good sense, and judgement of the elec- tor, Frederick William, who died in 1688. The kingly title was first assumed by his son, in 1701 ; and it was confirmed to him by the acknowledgement of the other states of Europe. By his prudence, good management and attention, he repair- ed the losses sustained by his father's extravagance, and amassed great treasures, and laid the foundation of all that glory and prosperity which has raised Prussia in the scale of Europe. 18. Frederick William II., sometimes called Frederick III., came to the throne in 1740. He so managed, as to raise his scattered, ill-sorted and disjointed kingdom to the first MODERN HISTORY. 135 rank of power and renown, and applied himself unremitting- ly to the improvement of his dominions, to increase the wealth and happiness of his subjects, and to diffuse among them a knowledge of science and of arts* 19. In August, 1786, at the age of seventy-five, Freder- ick died. He was more admired than esteemed ; more dis- tinguished for bravery in the field, wisdom in council, and great attainments in literature, than for any great and noble virtues. He is generally reputed the author of two very im- portant measures ; the partition of Poland, and the armed neutrality. The credit of the first measure, may probably be divided between him and Catharine, of Russia ; the last reflects no disgrace to his memory. 20. Frederick was succeeded by his nephew, Frederick William II. He took part in the opposition to France, in 1792, and was active in the two last partitions of Poland, in 1793, and 1795. By these two partitions, he gained consi- derable additions to his territories. He died in 1797, at the age of fifty-three, leaving his crown to his son, Frederick III. This prince coming to the throne just at the time that Bona- parte began his career, was necessarily involved in all the troubles and confusion of the times. Since the pacification of Paris, in 1815, Prussia has enjoyed a state of extwnal peace, though her internal concerns have been somewhat disturbed. 21. Ulrica Elenora, the youngest sister of Charles XII., succeeded him on the throne of Sweden, at his death, by the free election of the states. The new queen submitted to all the conditions which the states thought proper to impose, for limiting the royal authority; but soon after her accession, she resigned the crown to her husband, the hereditary prince of Hesse Cassel, who was crowned in 1720, by the title of Fred- erick I. The new king ruled the kingdom with little dignity or spirit ; submitted to every thing the states imposed, till, in the end, the government became less monarchial than repub- lican. 22. The factions of Hats and Caps, originated in this reign, and caused great trouble. The former was under the influence of France, the latter of Russia. By the influence of the Hats, Sweden was involved in a war with Russia, for which she was not prepared, and from which she suffered considerably. By the treaty of Abo, in 1743, her losses were m MODERN HISTORY. in some measure restored, but upon the consideration that Frederick should adopt as his successor, Adolphus Freder- ick, who was also presumptive heir to the throne of Russia. 23. In 1751, Adolphus Fredenck came to the crown, and was disturbed by the same tactions which had distracted the former reign. He made some endeavours to recover his lost authority, and put down foreign influence ; but his efforts were vain. The anarchy and confusion which prevailed, are inconceivable ; and the king, wholly dispirited by these dis- turbances, died in 1771. 24. His eldest son, Gustuvus III., succeeded him. He was twenty-five years of age at his accession ; by birth, a Swede ; active and spirited, and bent on recovering what had been so tamely surrendered by hi3 predecessors of their rights and prerogatives. He found means to gain the army to his interests, and in 1772, he established a new constitution, with such good management and address, as hardly to disturb the publick tranquility. 25. The convening and dissolving the states, the entire disposal of the army and navy, and all publick appointments, were by this constitution placed in the hands of the king. In 1789, some alterations were made, but nothing could satisfy the party which had been put down, and in 1792, while the king was preparing to assist the unfortunate Louis XVI., he was assassinated at a masquerade, by a person employed by the malecontents. 26. His son, Gustavus IV., a youth of fourteen years of age, succeeded to the throne. He was a prince of weak judgement, rash, and incapable of governing, and in 1809. he was forced to abdicate the crown. The duke of Suder- mania, uncle to Gustavus, was then chosen protector, and soon after king, by the name of Charles XIII.; but having no issue, left it to the nation to choose a successor. 27. Bernadotte, one of Bonaparte's generals, was chosen by the states to succeed to the throne. He joined the confe- deracy against Napoleon, his old master, and was present at the battle of Leipsick. On the death of Charles XIII., in 1818, he succeeded to the crown, and still reigns. By the treaty of Vienna, in 1815, Norway, in Europe, and Gauda- loupe, one of the West India islands, were given to Sweden, 28. Five kings have occupied the throne of Denmark, since the close of tho seventeenth centurv. Christian VI. MODERN HISTORY. 137 who came to the throne in 1730, was a monarch who gave great attention to the welfare of his subjects ; lightened their taxes, and encouraged trade and manufactures. In 1746, he was succeeded by Frederick V., his son, who imitated his fa- ther in promoting knowledge, manufactures, and commerce. 29. Christian VII., succeeded Frederick. This king mar- ried Caroline Matilda, the sister of George III. of England. The principal event of his reign, was one which involved this princess in difficulty, and probably hastened her death. She was undoubtedly saved from the scaffold, by the spirited ex- ertions of the British minister ; and quitting Denmark, she retired into Germany, where she died, May 10, 1775, aged twenty-four. In the latter part of his life, Christian fell into a state of mental derangement, and his son, with the queen dowager, carried on the government as regents. 30. Frederick VI. came to the throne, in 1788, just at the time that the revolutionary commotions were commencing in France. Yet, in the continental wars of 1788, and 1793, Denmark took no share ; but by joining the armed neutrality in 1808, she excited the resentment of Great Britain, which was manifested by sending a fleet under lord Nelson, to at- tack Copenhagen. By the treaty of Vienna, in 1815, Pen^ mark received Pomerahia, and the isle of Rugen, in exchange for Norway. QUESTIONS. 1. Who was called to the throne of France on the abdication of Napoleon ? — 2. What was the feeling of the armies of France toward Napoleon? — 3. When did Napoleon land in France from Elba? — 4, When was fought the battle of Waterloo? — 5. When did Napoleon surrender himself into the hands of the English ?-— 6. What place was now assigned for the residence of Bonaparte ? — 7. What determina- tion did the allied commanders make in regard to to the works of art which the French had formerly taken from other countries ? — 8. What was left in France by the allies to secure the country from revolution? — 9. Who succeeded Catharine J. in Russia? — 10. What is said of the reign of Anne? — 11. Who succeeded her?— 12. What distinguished the reign of Elizabeth ? — 13. What is said of the reign of Peter III.?-** 14. How long did Catharine II. reign? — 15. What is said of Paul I.? 16. What happened, March 24, 1801 ?— 17. Of what age is Prussia as a kingdom ? — 18. Who came to the throne of Prussia in 1740 ? — 19. When did Frederick III. die?— 20. Who succeeded him?— 21. Who succeeded Charles XII. on the throne of Sweden? — 22. What factions agitated Sweden in the rejgn of Frederick 1 .?— 23. When did Adol-> phus Frederick come to the crown ? — 24. Who succeeded him ? — 25. what power did the constitution formed by Gustavus give to the king ? 138 MODERN HISTORY. 26. Who succeeded GustavuslII.?— 27. Who was chosen by the states of Sweden to succeed Charles XIII.? — 28. How many kings, since the J 7th century, have occupied the throne of Denmark ? — 29. Who suc- ceeded Frederick?-- -30. Who came tu the throne of Denmark, 1788 ? SECTION XXL SOUTHERN STATES OF EUROPE. INDIA. 1. A dispute between the catholicks and the protestants. agitated Switzerland in the beginning of the eighteenth cen- tury. A convention, in 1717, however, by which an equality of religious rights was established, put a period to these dif- ferences, and from that time till the commencement of the French revolution, all the cantons remained tolerably quiet. In the towns of Geneva and Berne, however, some distur- bances arose, but the only effect produced at that time was, to induce some judicious reforms in the government. 2. In 1798, the French first began to interfere in the affairs of Switzerland ; and the occasion was given them by the dis- putes in the Pays de Vaud, the gentry and citizens of which began to be clamorous for a change in the government. These disputes opened the way for the introduction of French troops, first under the directory, and then under Bo- naparte ; and from that period to the congress of Vienna, in 1815, Switzerland cannot be said to have enjoyed repose even for a year. 3. The power of the papal court of Rome has been con- stantly on the decline, since the close of the eighteenth cen- tury. The troubles of Europe, excited by the French revo- lution, extended to the papal dominions, and subjected the pontiffs to much inconvenience and mortification. When Bonaparte became emperor of the French, from motives of policy, he restored to the pope the shadow of authority, not only in France, but in the countries under French influence. 4. Clement XIV., who filled the papal chair in 1773, after much deliberation suppressed the order of the Jesuits. Dying next year, suspicions were raised that he had been poisoned, but the body being opened in the presence of the French and Spanish ministers, the Jesuits were freed from the charge. This pontiff was of an amiable disposition, fond of literature, plain and simple in his manners, and much respected by for- eign nations. MODERN HISTORY. 130 5. Pius VI., a descendant of the family of Cesena, was chosen to fill the papal throne, in 1775, contrary to the wish- es and intentions of most of the members of the conclave. Having risen to the supreme power in this manner, he acted more independent of the cardinals than any of his predeces- sors. In the year 1796, he began to be involved in the trou- bles of France, and in 1798, his government was overthown, and Rome was lost. Pius was forcibly removed from his capital, and compelled to reside first in Florence, then in Briancon, and lastly at Valence, where he died. 6. In March 1800, a new pope was elected, who took the name of Pius VII. Soon after, he removed his court to Rome, which had been taken from the French by a British fleet under captain Trowbridge. In September, 1801, the pope con- cluded a concordat with Napoleon, who was then first consul, by which the catholick religion was re-established in France. This pope restored the order of the Jesuits, and the inquisition; measures which created some alarm at the time in Europe, but as he had the credit of being a man of sense, prudence and moderation, the fears which had been excited were allayed* 7. The celebrated Aurungzebe occupied the throne of Delhi, in India, at the commencement of the eighteenth century. He seemed to posses the spirit of the great Timur, and lived to a great age, being nearly a hundred years old when he died. He succeeded in rendering almost the whole peninsula subject to his power, and ruled over all the coun- tries from the tenth to the thirty-fifth degree of latitude, and nearly as much in longitude. 8. About the year 1717, the English East India company obtained the celebrated grant, by which their goods were freed from export and import duties. This has been regard- ed as their commercial charter in India ; and no other Euro- peans were indulged in a similar manner. At this time, such was the state of semi-barbarism in which India was involved, that in the short space of eleven years, five princes who had attained the throne, and six who were candidates for it, were assassinated. 9. Nadir Shah, the celebrated Persian usurper, put an end to the power and glory of the Mogul empire in India, in 1739. From that period, the subordinate states, princes, and viceroys, began to aspire to independence, and acquired geology, and geography, are among the sciences which have been cultivated and improved since the commencement of the eighteenth century ; and some of them may be regarded as discovered since that period. Chymistry in particular, has undergone great changes, and is now a very different science from that which was cultivated previous to that time. Its leading principles have undergone an entire change ; the old theory of heat, light, and combustion, has been exploded, as well as that called the phlogistick system. 4. In pneumatick chymistry, the new discoveries have been of the utmost importance. The discoveries in this branch of science, which has the air for its subject, are full of utility and interest. By analyzing the common atmosphere, a se- ries of physical operations constantly going on, have been opened to our view, equally wonderful and curious : such as the respiration of animals. The atmosphere is now well known to be a compound of two sorts of air, or gases ; one, capable of supporting life and flame, and the other, destruc- tive of both. The proportion of these two parts has been found to be twenty-two parts of pure or vital air, and seventy- eight of impure or azotic k gas. 5. Dr. Priestly, a celebrated English chymist, first disco- vered vital air in 1774. Dr. Black, of Edinburgh, has gener- ally the credit of being the author of pneumatick chymistry. It has also been assigned to Dr. Priestly, Scheeie, and M- Lavoisier. But whoever may have been the author of the system, the discoveries made in consequence, form a grand efra in chymistry. Many different and curious gases havo MODERN HISTORY. 143 been discovered ; new instruments to render experiments certain have been invented, by means of which, new com- pounds have been detected, and their operations and effects in almost every branch of physicks ascertained and fixed. 6. The decomposition of water is one of the most extra- ordinary discoveries of pneumatick chymistry. Within less than half a century ago, water was esteemed an elementary principle ; but in the course of certain pneumatick experi- ments, Mr. Cavendish ascertained that water was a combi- nation of two particular gases, oxygen and hydrogen. The latter is the base or radical of water ; and the proportion be- tween the two, is eighty-five of oxygen, to fifteen of hydrogen. 7. Sir Humphrey Davy, of England, was the inventor of the safety-lamp, a most important instrument, by means of which, the fatal effects of the fire-damp in coal mines are obviated, and probably thousands of lives saved. Davy was a most laborious chymist, and to him the world is indebted for some of the most remarkable discoveries which have been made under the new system. 8. Linnaeus, born in Sweden, May 24, 1707, was the most celebrated botanist that has ever lived. Before he was twenty-one years old, he had made himself so well acquainted with plants, and with the defects of former systems of botany, as to lead him to conceive the idea of re-modelling the sci- ence, and of placing it on anew foundation, viz: the sexuality of vegetables. At first, his ideas were considered as vision- ary ; but by degrees they were received, and his system bore down all opposition, and met with universal reception. 9. More than forty thousand species of plants are now known to botanists ; but still there are many regions of the earth which are unexplored, and there are " flowers without a name." It is worthy of remark also, that the arts of draw- ing, engraving, and colouring plants, so perfectly as to con- vey to the mind at all times and in all places accurate repre- sentations of the various productions of the vegetable king- dom, have made astonishing progress. No branch of know- ledge has furnished more splendid works of this nature than botany ; and in none have the above arts been carried to greater perfection. 10. Dr. Franklin, a native of Boston, Massachusetts, in 1752, first discovered that electrick fluid and lightning were the same, Mr. Hawksbee, of England, first wrote learnedly 144 MODERN HISTORY, on the subject in 1709 ; and about twenty years after, M. dto Faye, at Paris, made some experiments which threw light up- on electrical science. In these experiments he was followed by Mr. Grey, who supposed electricity and lightning to pro* ceed from the same cause. Dr. Franklin proved this by a number of decisive experiments ; and as he always aimed to render his knowledge useful, he invented metalick conduc- tors, for the preservation of houses, ships, &c, during a storm. 11. The celebrated Galvani, of Bologna, in 1791, disco- vered galvanism, or animal electricity, as it is sometimes called. M. Yolta, improving upon the discoveries of Galva- ni, conceived the plan of forming au instrument, since called a voltaick pile, or galvanick battery. This consists simply of metalick plates, or a set of different conductors, by means of which, the most interesting experiments are made, and the most astonishing results produced. 12. Sir Humphrey Davy has particularly distinguished himself in electro-chymical researches. By his experiments on alkalis and earths, he has opened a wide field for investi- gation, and made it reasonable to suppose, that there is scarcely any substance in nature above or below the surface of the earth, which is not subject to electrical agency. Many useful instruments have been formed since the above disco- veries in electricity, or greatly improved; such as the barome- ter, thermometer, hydrometer, pluviameter, anemometer, and electrometer. 13. Mineralogy and geology, toward the close of the se- venteenth century, began to be more cultivated. About the middle of the eighteenth century, the modern scientifick ar- rangement of minerals began to claim attention. Linnaeus, the celebrated botanist, paid much attention to this branch of natural science, and published in 1768, a systematick ar- rangement of minerals, rocks, and fossils. 14. Geology is an inquiry into the structure of the earth, and has arisen out of mineralogy. Modern geologists have chiefly confined themselves to the study of the changes which the earth has undergone since its formation, in order to un- derstand the course of the revolutions which have taken place. Many very singular circumstances have been developed in ihe progress of this science : among which are the extensive operations of fire and water ; the extinction of many specirs MODERN HISTORY. 145 of plants and animals ; the very remarkable preservation of some of the latter in a frozen state ; the remains of animals in places where the species no longer exists, and the entire absence of human remains. 15. Two new quarters of the world, Australasia and Po- lynesia, have, according to the French geographers, been presented to the world since the close of the seventeenth cen- tury. Geography, since that period, may be regarded as al- most a new science, not only because of the above discove- ries, but because almost every part of the earth has been ex- plored, and great additions made to our previous knowledge of its parts. 16. The Copernican and Newtonian systems of astrono- my, have not undergone any material change during the last and present centuries. All the change which has been effect- ed, is by additions made to the two systems ; and these are so few as to be easily enumerated. Five new planets have been added to the solar system, and our knowledge concern- ing the celestial regions is much enlarged. Among the dis- tinguished individuals who have devoted their talents to astro- nomical science, Sir William Herschel may be placed in the first rank. He discovered a new planet, Georgium Sidus, in 1781, and its satellites, in 1782. 17. From late discoveries and observations, it is now gen- erally conceded that the sun is not what formerly it was sup- posed to be, a body of fire. Some late astronomers have advanced the idea that the sun is inhabited. In regard to the via lactea, or milky-way, Herschel made some very great ad* ditions to our former knowledge. By means of his instru- ments, he discovered, that in the short space of forty-one minutes, two hundred and eighty thousand stars in the milky- way, passed through the field of view of his telescope. He also discovered many new stars ; some double, some triple, and some, what he calls changing stars. 18. The celebrated Bayle, a French writer in the last century, did much to unsettle the minds of his countrymen in regard to politicks and religion. But the seeds which Bayle had sown, did not come to maturity, till Voltaire, by visiting England, became acquainted with the philosophy of Newton and Locke, and saw some of the political principles of the latter reduced to practice. When Voltaire returned to his own country, he quickly disseminated his deistical and revo- 13* 146 MODERN HISTORY. lutionary sentiments, in which work, he unhappily found bii too many coadjutors. 19. Shaftesbury, Wolston, Collins, Toland, Tindal, and some others in England, bold in deism and impiety, in the eighteenth century, attacked revelation with all the powers of their great minds, and either openly or secretly, laboured to instill their principles into the minds of their countrymen. But all their exertions produced no great effect, and the pub- lick generally were but little moved by their writings. 20. Newton, Locke, Addison, Steele, Clarke, &c, men of superiour talents, superiour learning, and superiour credit, defended the truths of revealed religion against the attacks of the infidels. They were successful in supporting the out- posts of Christianity, and turning aside the shafts of ridicule ; and by means of such periodical papers as the Spectator, Guardian, Tattler, &c, they succeeded in rescuing the young from the influence of evil examples, and false prin- ciples. 21. Montesquieu, another celebrated French writer, visited England about the same time that Voltaire did. The great object of his researches appears to have been, to ascertain the spirit of the English laws, and the leading principles of the British constitution. To the effects of his work, entitled " The Spirit of the Laws," may be traced the remonstran- ces of the French parliament, and the high tone which they assumed as the representatives of the people. But though the principles diffused by Voltaire and Montesquieu, were no doubt productive of the French revolution, yet neither of these philosophers were republicans. Indeed, they de- spised and ridiculed the populace. 22. The eighteenth and nineteenth centuries have been distinguished by the invention of steam-boats 9 and steam-en- gines ; printing of linen and cotton cloths; paper for rooms ; spinning machines; stereotype printing; lithographick engrav- ing, and many other interesting things, too numerous to men- tion. Labour-saving machines have multiplied to a very great degree, by which the comforts of life, and many of its luxuries, are placed within the reach of a large proportion of the community. 23. Laws and government have been advancing toward a greater degree of perfection, during the eighteenth and nine- teenth centuries. The French revolution opened the oyes MODERN HISTORY. 147 of men to ancient abuses, but as it induced all the evils of an- archy and misrule, it did not accomplish so much for real liberty as was wished and expected. Hitherto, its effects on the continent of Europe have been partial, and apparently of little importance toward meliorating the condition of the people. 24. As respects religion, paganism continues to prevail over the greater part of Asia, Africa, and the islands in the Southern Pacifick, as well as among the Indians of North and South America. Since the commencement of the nineteenth century, many attempts to Christianize pagan nations have been made by different religious societies, and not without a considerable degree of success. In these attempts, Eng- land and America have taken a conspicuous place, and many thousands of dollars are annually expended by the benevo- lent societies in those countries, for the melioration of the condition of mankind. 25. In Persia, Arabia, Egypt, the Barbary states, Syria ? Turkey, and some portions of India, Mahometanism is the prevailing religion. The Jews continue dispersed among all nations ; and while they are still " a proverb and a by-word," according to divine prediction, they are in a far better condi- tion than in the 17th and 18th centuries. In some countries, they have obtained important privileges, and in Europe they are no where exposed to oppression and persecution. In Abyssima, the majority of the people are said to be Christians, though exceedingly corrupt in faith and practice. QUESTIONS. I. What countries made little or no advances in knowledge and ci- vilization during the 18th century ? — 2. What countries claim the credit of nearly all the progress which has yet been made in know- ledge? — 3. What particular sciences have been cultivated and impro- ved since the commencement of the 18th century ?~ 4. In what have the new discoveries been of the utmost importance ? — 5. Who disco- vered vital air in 1774? — 6. What is one of the most extraordinary discoveries of pneumatick chymistry ? — 7. Who invented the safety lamp ?~8. Who was the most celebrated botanist that ever lived ? — 9. How many species of plants are known to botanists ?~ 10. Who discovered the electrick fluid, and lightning to be the same? — 11. Who discovered Galvanism? — 12. Who particularly distinguished himself in electro-chymical researches ? — 13. What sciences began to be more cultivated toward the close of the 17th century ?— 14.. What is geology ?— 15. What two new quarters of the world have been dis*. 146 MODERN HISTORY. covered since the close of the seventeenth century ? — 16. What is saiti of the Copernican and Newtonian systems of Astronomy ? — 17. What is now conceded respecting the sun, in consequence of late discove- ries ? — 18. Who did much to unsettle the minds of his countrymen in regard to politicks and religion ? — 19. What infidel writers attacked revelation in the eighteenth century ?— 20. What writers defended the truths of revealed religion? — 21. What distinguished French writer visited England about the same time with Voltaire ? — 22. What arc some of the inventions of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries? — 23. What is said of laws and government in the eighteenth and nine- teenth centuries ?— 24. Over a greater part of what countries does Paganism prevail ?— 25. In what countries is Mahometanism the pre railing religion ? fARf XXX. AMERICAN HISTORY. SECTION I. ABORIGINAL AMERICA. LANGUAGE. MANNERS. CUSTOMS, 1. From the northeast part of Asia, the first inhabitants* of America probably emigrated. The coasts of the two continents, in latitude 66°, approach near to each other, and two islands lie about twenty miles from either shore, so that the passage from one continent to the other is by no means difficult or dangerous. The tribes of Indians on the northwest coast of America, and the wandering tribes on the northeast coast of Asia, bear so strong a resemblance to each other, as to make the idea of a common origin very probable. 2. Traditionary record furnishes all the information that the civilized world has of the aborigines of America. They possessed no books or manuscripts, and were destitute of the knowledge of letters. In some instances, however, they had advanced so far toward writing, as to use hieroglyphicks; and in others, certain symbols or signs were used to con- vey intelligence, or perpetuate events, Thus : a bundle of arrows sent from one tribe to another, denoted a declaration of war ; and a string of wampum so sent, was expressive of a desire for peace. 3. The Delawares, or Lenni Lenape, according to tradi- tion, emigrated from the western part of America, to the east- ern. After travelling a great distance, they came to the banks of the great river Namtesi Sipu, or Mississippi, where they met with another powerful people, the Mengwe, or Iroquois, who, emigrating from a far distant country in the north, rea- ched the same river nearer to its source. 4. The Alligewi, a powerful nation, possessed the territo- ry east of the Mississippi, and, according to tradition, had ma- ny large towns. From this tribe the Allegany river and moun* 150 AMERICAN HISTORY. tains are probably called. The Delawares desiring permis- sion to pass through the country of the Alligewi, and being refused, determined to force their way, and united with the Iroquois. The Alligewi fortified their towns, and made a stout resistance. Many were slain, and according to tradi- tion, they were buried in holes, or laid in heaps, and covered with earth. The Alligewi being overcome, fled down the Mississippi, and returned no more. 5. The country around the Lakes fell to the share of the Iroquois ; and from thence, they extended themselves along the valleys which are formed by their tributary streams. The island of Montreal was the original seat of the Iroquois ; and in process of time, the different tribes united in forming what was termed by the English, " The confederacy of the Five Nations." The nations or tribes of the confederacy, originally consisted of the Senecas, Onondagas, Mohawks, Cayugas, and Oneidas, The three first were called the el- der, and the two last the younger tribes. The Tuscaroras emigrated from North Carolina, and joined the confederacy more recently, and therefore it is now called the confederacy of the Six Nations. 6. New-England and the southern states, were possessed by the Delawares and their descendants, and the Delaware river was the seat of their government. The Mohicans, and all the tribes inhabiting New-England, acknowledged the Delawares as their ancestors ; or, in their figurative language, as their grandfather ; and in process of time, the latter en- larged their council-house, and admitted their grandchildren to their council-fire. 7. The Hurons were conquered by the Iroquois. These, according to tradition, were the only people on the eastern coast of the continent who were not descended from the Men- gwe, or Lenape. The Hurons being driven from their coun- try by the Iroquois, fled to the place where the French built Quebec. At length, disputes arose between the Delawares and the Iroquois, and a war ensuing, the sovereignty of the latter was established. When Capt. Smith first arrived in Virginia, this war was still raging ; and from the Delawares he first heard of the Iroquois. 8. The Powhattans were the chief of the tribes of Virgin- ia, between the sea and the falls of the rivers. Forty tribes occupied the country between the Potomack and James ri AMERICAN HISTORY, 15! vers ; and of these, thirty tribes were united in one confede- racy. Powhattan was the great chief or sachem of the coun- try. The seat of his government was on the south side of James river, about a mile below the rapids ; but soon after the English settled at Jamestown, he removed to the river Chickahominy. 9. The Tuscaroras were the chief of the thirteen tribes of North Carolina. They were settled on the Roanoke river, and were a powerful tribe. But attempting to massacre the English, who were settled in the north part of Carolina, they were attacked, and most of them destroyed. Those who escaped, fled to the north, and were admitted into a confede- racy of the Five Nations. The Indians of Cape Hatteras reported that their ancestors were white people ; and this is probably true, as many of them had gray eyes. From this circumstance, it has been conjectured that Sir Walter Ra- leigh's people, who were lost in Virginia, removed to the cape, and became incorporated with the Indians. 10. Eight considerable tribes inhabited South Carolina, The Stonoes were situated on the Stono river ; the Westoes dwelt near where Charleston is now situated ; the Catawbas lived on and near the Catawba river. The Cherokees exten^ ded their limits into the present state of Tennessee, and as far as Eutau Springs. The Congarees dwelt on the Congaree ri- ver, and the Yamasees were seated south of Charleston, not far from Savannah. The latter were at length expelled the prov- ince, and fleeing into Florida, took refuge among the Spaniards, 1 1 . The Muskogee, or Creek Indians, possessed Georgia, and were so called from the circumstance of their country abounding in creeks. The nation was divided into three di- visions : The Upper and Lower Creeks, and the Seminoles. Their principal settlements were on the Flint, Chatahochy, Coosa, and Talapoosy rivers. Seminole means wild, and was a term of contempt applied by the Creeks to all the vaga- bonds of their nation. The remnant of the Seminoles are now located near Spirito Santo Bay, in Florida. The Choctaws lived between the Tombigby and Mississippi rivers ; the Chickasaws possessed the country lying between the Ohio on the north, Tennessee on the east, the Choctaw country on the south, and the Mississippi on the west. The three last named tribes are, at this time, considerably advanced in the arts of civilized life. 152 AMERICAN HISTORY, 12. Five principal tribes possessed the southern parts of New-England. These were the Pautuckets, on the Merri- mack river ; the Massachusetts, on the bay of that name ; the Pokanockets, possessing the country around Cape Cod. and the eastern part of Rhpde -Island ; the Narragansetts, .seated around a bay still bearing that name ; and the Pequots, dwelling near the mouth of the river Thames, in Connecticut Just before the landing of the English at Plymouth, a fa- tal epidemick swept away thousands of the New-England Indians ; and in some instances, whole tribes in Massachu- setts were destroyed. 13. The language of the American Indians abounds in natural sounds, but is deficient in copiousness. As, howev- er, it is rich in metaphor and allusion, it is peculiarly effectual in the mouths of their orators to excite passion, and to stim- ulate revenge. The language of the Iroquois is said to excel in pathos and energy, and in this respect, to bear some re- semblance to the Greek. That of the Cherokees is said to be peculiarly sweet as well as rich, and may be considered as the Italian of America. 14. The skins of the moose, deer, fox, bear, and other animals, formed the dress of the Indians. Their desire of what they considered as ornamental was excessive ; and they painted their bodies with various gaudy colours, dressing their hair with much art. In their ears and noses they wore glitte- ring stones and shells, or small pieces of gold ; but in these ornaments they seemed to have more regard to the terrours of war, than to the embellishments of society. The love of ornament was confined almost exclusively to the males, and the dress of the women was very simple. 15. Hunting and fishing furnished the Indians with most of their food. Agriculture was but little practised; maize, beans, pumpkins, and squashes, being the only things culti- vated. The former, after being parched, was pounded into a course meal, which, moistened with a little water, formed at times an important article of food. They used knives made of bone or flint ; mats served them for repose when weary, or at night ; while for pounding their corn, stone mor- tars were in use. In forming their canoes, their greatest in- genuity was exercised. These consisted either of the trunks of trees hollowed by fire, or of birch bark sewed together wd strengthened by a light frame of cedar. AMERICAN HISTORY. 153 16. The government of the Indians was patriarchal. Eve- ry family or town had a sachem : several families or towns constituted a tribe, and each tribe had a chief. Several tribes formed a nation, and a chief was appointed to preside over the whole. The chiefs or sachems had no power to enforce obedience ; nor was it necessary. Their reputation for wis- dom and integrity secured a cheerful acquiescence in their wishes. The chief men of a town or a family settled all matters relative to that town or family ; those of a tribe, as- sisted by the chiefs of towns, assembled in council, attended to the affairs of the tribe ; while all things relative to the na- tion were decided in a national council, consisting of the chiefs of tribes, assisted by the chief warriours and sachems of towns or families. 17. The Indians treated their women rather as slaves than companions. The contract of marriage was really a purchase, and as such the Indians considered it. The most servile and laborious services were apportioned to the females ; they tilled the earth, procured wood and water, dressed the food, carried the baggage when they removed, and on the slightest provo- cation were severely beaten. It may be remarked, however, that some tribes, on affairs of much importance, were accus- tomed to consult their women, and paid great attention to their opinion. 18. The Indian weapons of war and of the chase, were a bow and arrows, a tomahawk, and a spear. The chief ob- ject of the Indian was military renown. The young Indian was early taught to use his weapons, and to hunt the buffalo and the deer. By attention to these pursuits, he became inured to hardships and toil, and in process of time he was led to use his arms and skill against his enemies. The Indi- ans seldom gave quarter in battle ; when prisoners were ta- ken, they were put to death with the most excruciating tor- ture. But let their sufferings be ever so great, no complaint escaped their lips ; they would even taunt their tormentors, and sing their death-song with an air of triumph. 19. Small shells or beads of various colours, strung on belts or in chains, formed the money of the Indians. These belts or chains were called wampum, and were used in every treaty. On such occasions, each party held one of the ends of the belt, and these ends were formed of black beads or shells, while white ones were placed in the middle, 14 154 AMERICAN HISTORY. am- signifying that the parties were destitute of feelings of mosity or hatred. 20. The religion of the Indians was pagan. They be- lieved in the existence of a good and evil spirit, both equal in power. The one was worshipped to secure his favour ; the other to avert his vengeance. The natives had no idea of a future existence entirely spiritual, but believed that their de- parted friends dwelt in a land where they enjoyed a cloudless sky, and where the forests were plentifully stocked with game of every kind, and the rivers with fish. To their bravest war- riours was assigned the first place in their Elysium, and to their most successful hunters the same rank was allotted. The hatchet and other implements of warfare, together with veni- son and maize, were buried with their deceased friends, that they might not want in the other world. QUESTIONS. 1. From whence did the nrst inhabitants of America emigrate? —2. What furnishes all the knowledge we have of the aborigines ot America? — 3. Who emigrated from the western to the eastern parts of America? — 4. Who at that time possessed the country east of the Mississippi ?— 5. What part of the country fell to the share of the Iro- quois ? — 6. What part fell to the Delawares ? — 7. What nation did the Iroquois conquer ? — 8. What was the chief tribe of Virginia ? — 9 What was the chief tribe of North Carolina? — 10. How many tribes inhabited South Carolina? — 11. Who possessed Georgia ? — 12. How many tribes possessed the southern parts of New-England ? — 13. What is said of the language of the American Indians ? — 14. What formed the dress of the Indians ? — 15. What furnished the Indians with most of their food ?— 16. What was the government of the Indians ? — 17. How did the Indians treat their women ? — 18, What were the Indian weapons of war and of the chase? — 19. What formed the money of the Indians ? — 20. What was the religion of the Indians? SECTION II. DISCOVERY OF AMERICA BY COLUMBUS. DISCOVERIES BI OTHER ADVENTURERS. LONDON COMPANY. PLYMOUTH COMPANY. 1. That all countries inhabited by savages, should belong to the nation who first discovered them, was a principle early adopted in Europe, and sanctioned by the pope. One mort unjust or absurd can hardly be conceived. On this princi- ple, a stranger passing through a country, might claim and AMERICAN HISTORY. 155 lake possession of any valuable estate with which he might chance to meet, simply because he had not before known such an estate existed. In the application of the above principle, England, France, and Spain, first founded their claim to different parts of America. 2. The Welsh, Norwegians, and Germans, have each in their turn claimed the honour of having first discovered Amer- ica. As yet, however, their claims have not heen supported by sufficient evidence ; and the traditions on the authority of which their claim rests, are confused, unsatisfactory, and vague. At the time America was discovered, the darkness of the feudal ages was beginning to pass away from Europe, and science to scatter here and there a ray to penetrate the gloom. A spirit of adventure was arising, and in some in- stances the attempts at discovery were successful. In these attempts the Portuguese took the lead. 3. Christopher Columbus, a native of Genoa, first formed the design of seeking new countries in the west. At the time of forming his scheme, the great object of discovery in Eu- rope was, to find a passage to the East Indies by sea. As the globularity of the earth was known, it seemed obvious, that the desired end might be sooner attained by sailing west, than in any other course. To find this shorter and more di- rect rout to India, appears to have been one end, if not the immediate object, of the first voyage of discovery made by Columbus. 4. Genoa, Portugal, Spain, and England, were succes- sively applied to for assistance ; but the monarchs of those days had not sufficient comprehension to understand the schemes of Columbus. Many considered him as a visiona- ry, and his plans as the dreams of a disturbed imagination ; some rejected him and his plans because he was a man in low condition ; while the learned repelled his shemes, because an obscure seaman had discovered that which they had over- looked. 5. Isabella, the queen of Ferdinand, king of Spain, at length ventured to patronize the adventure. At her expense, three small vessels were fitted out, and on the 3d of August, 1492, Columbus sailed from Palos in Spain, to test the truth or falsity of his scheme. He arrived at the Canary islands without accident, and there refitting his crazy and ill-appoint- ed flotilla, boldly ventured into an unknown ocean. His 156 AMERICAN HISTORY. course was due west ; but after sailing some days, he found that the magnetick needle varied from the pole, a discovery which filled his crews with consternation. 6. On the night of the 11th of October, 1492, land was first discovered. In the morning all the boats were manned, and the Spaniards rowed toward the shore with colours dis- played. Columbus was the first European who set foot in the new world. His men followed, and kneeling, kissed the ground ; while Columbus, planting a crucifix, took formal possession in the name of Ferdinand and Isabella. The island thus discovered, was called by the natives Guanahana ; but Columbus named it St. Salvador. It is one of the clus- ter called Bahama, and lies more than three thousand miles west of Gomera, the port in the Canaries from whence he \^ sailed, but only four degrees south of it. 7. On the 4th of January, 1493, Columbus having erect- ed a fort, and left a party of men on the island of Hayti, sel sail for Europe. A violent storm overtook him on his return, by which the important discoveries he had made were near being buried in the ocean. The storm however abated, and he arrived safe at Palos, from whence he proceeded to court, where he was received with distinguished honours. From the similarity of the productions, the newly discovered islands were supposed to belong to Asia, and lying west of the meri- dian of London, they were called West Indies, and the abo- rigines, Indians. 8. In 1498, Columbus made his third voyage, and disco- vered the continent, and landed at several places in the pro- vinces of Paria and Cumana. On his return from his fourth voyage, he found his friend and patroness, queen Isabella, dead, his enemies at the court numerous and powerful, and sinking under his misfortunes and infirmities, died at Valla - dolid on the 20th of May, 1506, in the 57th year of his age. The court of Spain erected a monument to his memory. 9. Amerigo Vespucci, a Florentine, in 1499. went on a voyage to the new continent, and on his return, having pub- lished an account of the country, mankind, with one consent, united in calling it by his name ; thus robbing Columbus of a part of that honour which was justly his due. On the 20th of November, 1497, Vasco de Gama, sailing in the service of the Portuguese, first doubled the cape of Good Hope, thus opening a way to the East Indies. Thenty-three years after AMERICAN HISTORY. 15T ilie discovery of America, Magellan reached the Pacifick ocean, by sailing through the strait which bears his name. 10. The English were the second nation which visited the new continent. John and Sebastian Cabot, sailing under the patronage of Henry VII. of England, in 1497, discover* ed Newfoundland, and called it Prima Vista. They also discovered the island of St. Johns. After sailing north as far as 56° they returned, and pursuing a southwesterly course,, traced the continent as far as Florida, and returned to Eng- land without attempting to make any settlement. The French made no discoveries in the new world till 1512. That year, John Verrazano explored the coast from the thir- tieth to the fiftieth degree of latitude. 11. In 1534 or '5, the gulf and river of St. Lawrence was discovered by James Cartier, sailing in the service of France. After discovering the Baye de Chakur, and entering the river St. Lawrence, he returned to France, without attempting a settlement. The next year he returned, and sailing up the river, reached the isle of Orleans. Continuing his course, he came to the island of Montreal, then the resort of all the Indians of Canada. Returning, he spent the winter at the isle of Orleans, and built a fort. He gave the country the name of New France, which was afterward changed to Canada. 12. Four years after the discovery of the St. Lawrence, the Mississippi was partially explored. Ferdinand de Soto, set out in 1539, from Cuba, in search of gold. Passing through the Chickasaw country, he reached the Mississippi twelve hundred miles from its mouth, and penetrating still westward, reached the Red river, where he died. His troops returning to the Mississippi, built vessels, and sailing down the river, arrived at Cuba in 1543. 13. In 1540, the first settlement was made in Canada, Francis de la Roque, being appointed viceroy of the country, sent out several ships under the command of Cartier, and fol- lowed in 1542 with three ships and two hundred settlers. Proceeding up the St. Lawrence four leagues beyond the isle of Orleans, he built a fort and stayed during the winter. When he returned to France is not known, but in 1549, he Ttgain embarked for Canada, with his brother and many ad- venturers, but they were never afterward heard of, and proba- bly perished at sea. The settlers in Canada received no more md from their countrymen for fifty years. 14* 158 AMERICAN HISTORY. 14. The religious wars by which France was distracted, induced Jasper Cologni, one of the principal protestant com- manders, to attempt, in 1562, the planting of a colony in America. Two ships were accordingly sent out under John Ribault, who discovered the river Albemarle, and eight others in that neighbourhood. Sailing up one of these, which he called Port Royal, he built a fort and left it under the command of captain Albert. In consequence of his severity, the colo- ny was ruined ; but two years after, Laudonier was sent out with three ships to the river St. Mary, where he built a fort, and called it Carolina, in honour of Charles IX., king of France, 15. In 1565, the Spaniards from Cuba attacked the French on the St. Mary, and massacring them all, took pos- session of the country, and erected three forts. Three years after, the French crossed the Atlantick, determined to avenge the death of their countrymen, and attacking the Spanish set- tlements in Florida, put most of the men to death, and re- embarked for France. These untoward events discouraged both nations, and for a century the country was left a howling wilderness. 16. Sir Humphrey Gilbert conducted the first English co- lony to America. In 1 578, queen Elizabeth, by patent, granted to him all the lands he should discover between the thirty- third and the fortieth degrees of north latitude. He soon collected associates and embarked on his enterprise ; but his attempts were not crowned with success. In 1583, after having taken possession of Newfoundland, on his return to England, he was shipwrecked and perished. 17. Sir Walter Raleigh, not discouraged by the ill success of Gilbert, who was his brother-in-law, in 1584, applied for and obtained a patent, giving him powers as ample as those given Sir Humphrey. Under this patent, two vessels were despatched, the commanders of which, avoiding the errour of Gilbert in going too far north, took their course so as to ap- proach the continent by the gulf of Florida. Coasting north- wardly, they first landed at an island near Pamlico sound, and then proceeded to Roanoke, and in both instances had some traffick with the Indians. Returning to England, they gave such a description of the country, and the mildness of the climate, that Elizabeth gave it the name of Virginia. 18. In 1585, Sir Richard Grenville was sent by Raleigh, with a squadron of seven ships, and left a colony on the is!- AMERICAN HISTORY. 159 and of Roanoke. This colony was reduced to great extre- mity by famine, and in June of the same year, Sir Francis Drake, returning from a successful expedition against the Spanish West Indies, took the colonists and carried them to England. A few days after the departure of Drake, a small vessel sent by Raleigh, touched at Roanoke, but not finding the colony, returned home. Soon after, Grenville appeared with three ships, but after searching in vain for the colony, and leaving fifteen men to keep possession of the island, he also departed for England. 19. The London company was formed about this time, and Raleigh, discouraged by his ill success in colonizing, was easily induced to sell to that company, all his right of proper- ty in America, and all the privileges granted by his patent. This company made no attempt to colonize, but were satis- fied with a paltry traffick with the natives. 20. Cape Cod was discovered in 1602, by Bartholomew Gosnold. He was the first navigator who sailed due west from England to America ; all his predecessors having pur- sued a circuitous course by the West Indies, and the gulf of Florida. Following the coast toward the south west he dis- covered Martha's Vineyard, and the other Elizabeth islands. He returned to England in something less than four months from the time of his departure, having made the quickest voy- age to America at that time known. 21. In 1803, the French king granted to De Monts, a pa- tent of all the country between the fortieth and forty-sixth degree of north latitude. In 1604, De Monts sailed from France, with one Samuel Champlain for his pilot, and disco- vered Port Royal, St. Johns, and St. Croix, on all of which he commenced settlements. Champlain was afterward drowned, while exploring the lake which bears his name. 22. In 1606, king James I. of England, divided the coun- try lying between the thirty-fourth and the forty-fifth degrees of north latitude into two nearly equal portions ; one was called North and the other South Virginia. The latter was given to the London company, and the former to the Ply- mouth. The London company's limits extended from the thirty-fourth to the forty-first degree ; the remainder was as- signed to the Plymouth company. 23. In 1607, the Plymouth company sent out admiral Gil- bert, with one hundred planters. Captain George Popharo 160 AMERICAN HISTORY. was appointed president. They landed at Kennebeck river. where forty-five men were left to begin a settlement. The rest returned home. Those that were left suilered extreme- ly daring the winter, losing their store-house by fire, and their president by death ; and being discouraged uy these unto- ward events as well as the severity of the climate, the next year they too returned to England. Thus, after the lapse of one hundred and ten years from Cabot's discovery of North America, not a single Englishman was settled in the country. QUESTIONS. 1. What principle was early adopted in Europe and sanctioned by the Pope?— 2. What nations have claimed the honour of discovering America ? — 3. Who first conceived the design of seeking a new conti- nent in the west? — 4. To what countries did he successively apply for assistance ? — 5. Who at length ventured to patronize him ? — 6. When did he first discover land? — 7. When did he set sail for Europe ? — 8, When did Columbus discover the continent? — 9. Fiom whom does America derive its name ? — 10. Who were the second nation that vis- ited the new world ? — 11. When did James Ca : tier discover the gulf and river of St. Lawrence? — 12 How long after the discovery of the St. Lawrence, was the Mississippi partially explored ? — 13. Where was the first settlement made in Canada ? — 14. What induced Jasper Co- logni to attempt the settling of a colony in America in 1562? — 15. What happened to the French at St. Mary's in 1565 ? — 16. Who con- ducted the first English colony to America? — 17- Who obtained a patent in 1584? — 18. When did Sir Richard Grenville leave a colony at Roanoke? — 19. What company was formed about this time to which Raleigh sold his right ?— 20. What did Bartholomew Gosnold discover in 1602 ? — 21. When did the French king grant a patent to De Monls'l —22. What did James I. of England do in 1606?— 23. When did the Plymouth company send out planters ? SECTION III. COLONY OF VIRGINIA. SETTLEMENT OF THE DUTCH. LAND* ING OF THE PURITANS. NEW ENGLAND CONFEDERACY. 1. Capt. Christopher Newport in 1607, discovered Chesa- peake Bay. He was sent out by the London company with three ships, and 105 men, and reached the American coast by ♦he old rout, the West Indies, but being driven northward, ac- cidentally discovered cape Henry, and entered the bay. He then sailed up the river of the Powhattans, giving it the name of James river, and forty miles from its mouth selected a place for settlement, which was afterward called Jamestown, and the first which was formed by the English in America. AMERICAN HISTORY, 161 2. Indian hostilities, famine, and disease, caused much suf- fering to the colonists. The Indians were numerous and powerful, and though they made no united and vigorous at- tack, still they greatly distressed them by a petty warfare. The stock of provisions brought from England was soon almost exhausted, and what remained was of so bad a quality as to be unfit to eat. This scantiness of provision, and its quality, together with the influence of a climate to which the colonists were unaccustomed, soon produced diseases among them, so that their number rapidly diminished. 3. Capt. John Smith, a man more distinguished for talent and activity than any of the early settlers of America, relieved them by his courage and prudence, from the difficulties un- der which they laboured. On the first arrival of the settlers. Smith had been excluded from the council, though chosen to it by the king himself, but he was now unanimously invited to his seat, and accordingly took a chief part in the adminis- tration. Jamestown was fortified sufficiently to protect it from the attacks of the Indians, with whom, partly by force, and partly by address, he made peace, and thus succeeded in procuring from them a supply of provisions for the colony. 4. While on an excursion to discover the sources of the Chickahominy, Smith was surprised and taken prisoner by the Indians. By his captors he was led in triumph through the country, and at last conducted to Powhattan, the chief of all the tribes on James river and its branches. Being by him sentenced to die, he bowed his head to receive the fatal blow, when Pocahontas, the youngest daughter of Powhattan, by her prayers and tears prevailed on her father to spare his life. She soon after procured his liberty , and after a captivity of seven weeks, he arrived at Jamestown, within the walls of which he found only thirty-eight persons remaining. Not- withstanding the spirits of the colony were broken, he per- suaded them to remain in the country, and supplies soon af- ter arriving from England, prosperity was again restored. 5. In 1609, Henry Hudson, sailing in the service of the Dutch; entered the river called by his name. This discover ry was the origin of the Dutch claim in this part of the coun- try. The year before the discovery of Hudson, Samuel Champlain, in the French service, wishing to secure the friendship of the savages around Quebec, went on an expedi- tion to aid them in a war, which they were then carrying on 162 AMERICAN HISTORY. with the Iroquois. On this expedition he traversed lake Champlain, till near its junction with lake George. Here, near Ticonderoga, the hostile parties had a battle, in which the Iroquois were defeated. 6. A new charter was granted to the colony at Jamestown in 1609, more enlarged and liberal in its terms than the form- er. Thomas West, lord De la War, was appointed governour for life, but being unable to leave England immediately, Sir Thomas Gates, and Sir George Summers, were despatched with five hundred settlers, in nine ships. Eight of these arri- ved at Jamestown ; the other, with Summers and Gates, was wrecked on the Bermuda isles, and as these two men only were commissioned to exercise the government, the col- ony soon fell into disorder. Smith at this time was ill from the effect of injuries received from the accidental explosion of a quantity of powder, and could not act with his usual promptitude. 7. Dispirited by the distresses they endured, the colonists, with one voice, determined to return to England. This reso- lution, the arrival of Gates and Summers did not shake, but they embarked and sailed down the river. But just as they had reached its mouth, they met lord De la War with three ships, laden with every thing necessary for the comfort and defence of the colony. The governour, by his affability and attention to the wants of the settlers, soon gained their affec- tions ; but in 1611, his health obliged him to return home, and he was succeeded by Sir Thomas Dale, under whose ad- ministration the colony greatly prospered. 8. In 1612, the marriage of Pocahontas with Mr. Rolfe, a young man of rank in the colony, took place. The alliance was encouraged by Dale, as promising of usefulness to the colony. Powhattan did not disapprove of it, and thus the foundation was laid for a lasting peace with the Indians. Mr. Rolfe carried his wife to England, where she was recei- ved with respect and attention. She embraced the Christian religion, and in her baptism took the name of Rebecca. As she was on the point of embarking for America, she died, leaving an only son, from whom are descended some of the most respectable families in Virginia, who are justly proud of their descent. 9. The right of property in land was first granted about fhis time. Hitherto, all had laboured in a common field, bu! AMERICAN HISTORY. 163 it was found that the united toil of all the settlers did not ac- complish in a week, what might have been done in a day, if each had worked on his own account. As a remedy for this evil, a considerable portion of the land was divided into three acre lots, and one of these was granted to each settler. Soon after, fifty acres were assigned to each one, and the common field was entirely relinquished. Tobacco was the chief arti- cle cultivated. 10. In 1613, the states general of Holland, granted to certain Dutch merchants the exclusive navigation of the Hud- son river. These merchants erected a fort or trading house where Albany now stands, and another on Manhattan island, now New- York. The English rejected the claim of the Dutch to the country, on the ground that Hudson, although sailing in the Dutch service, was an English subject. Ac- cordingly Capt. Argal, returning from Nova Scotia, whither he had been to disposess the French, visited the Dutch at Man- hattan island, and demanded possession in the name of king James. The Dutch not being able to resist, yielded, but the next year they threw off the yoke, and built a stronger fortress. 11. Captain Smith, whose name has been so often men- tioned, explored the American coast from Penobscot to cape Cod in 1614. On his return, he presented an accurate map of the coast to Prince Charles, and gave so splendid a descrip- tion of the country, that the prince bestowed upon it the name of New-England, which it still retains. Out of respect to the. mother of Charles, cape Ann received its name. 1 2. Sir George Yeardly, in 1619, was appointed governour of Virginia. He called the first general assembly ever held in the colony, and gave the settlers the rank and privileges of freemen ; for till then, they had only been the servants of the London company. Eleven corporations, by their represen- tatives, were present at this assembly. About this time, a number of young women of unexceptionable characters, though of humble birth, were sent over to be sold to the plan- ters as wives. At first, one hundred pounds of tobacco was the price of a wife, but it was afterward raised to one hun- dred and fifty pounds. 13; Negro slaves were first introduced into Virginia, in 1619. A Dutch ship from Africa, arrived at Jamestown with slaves, and a part of her cargo was purchased by the planters. 164 AMERICAN HISTORY. and in a short time, the whole of the field labour was perform- ed by negroes. Since the time that James I. made the parti- tion of territory between the London and Plymouth compa- nies, the former far exceeded the latter in zeal and success ; indeed all its exertions seem to have terminated unfavour- ably, 14. Opposition to ecclesiastical tyranny, and a desire for religious freedom, at length effected the object sought by the Plymouth company. Many of the dissenters in England, or Puritans, as they were then called, finding that they could no longer enjoy the rights of conscience at home, determined to seek an asylum in a foreign country. They accordingly removed to Ley den, in Holland. B ut not finding their circumstances as agreeable as they expected, they de- termined on a removal to America. Having obtained a pro- mise from James I., that they should not be molested in the exercise of their religion, and a grant from the Virginia com- pany of a tract of land, they prepared to embark. 15. September 6, 1620, apart of the congregation at Ley- den sailed for America, in a ship called the May-Flower. Touching at England, w r here they were joined by some oth- ers, they at length departed for the new world — Hudson river being the place were they designed to settle. But the captain either through design or mistake, carried them far north, the first land they made being cape Cod. Here they found them- selves obliged to land, both on account of the lateness of the season, and the sickness with which they were afflicted ; but being not only out of the limits of the company from whom proceeded their grant of territory, but also out of the limits of their patent, before leaving the ship, they drew up and signed a civil compact and chose a governour. 16. A place now called Plymouth, was the spot upon which they fixed for a settlement, after exploring the coast. Although divine providence had prepared the way for these pilgrims, by sending three years before a desolating sickness among the Indians, yet the inclemency of the weather, want and disease, soon brought them into a distressed situation. Nearly one half of their number died before spring, among whom was Mr. John Carver, their worthy governour. Mas- sasoit, a sachem of the Wampanoag tribe of Indians, be- friended them in their calamity, made a treaty with them, and proved faithful to their interests till his death. AMERICAN HISTORY. 105 17. The "Grand Council of Plymouth, for planting and governing New England, in America," was incorporated by James L in 1620. By this act, all the territory lying between the 40th and 48th degree of north latitude, was granted to them, and the name New-England was confirmed by royal authority. The society thus incorporated, did nothing to effect toward colonizing^ and had it not been for private ef- forts, stimulated by the operation of the same causes which induced the puritans to emigrate, New-England would have remained a wilderness. 18. Sir Ferdinando Georges and John Mason, in 1622, obtained a grant from the Plymouth colony of all the lands between the rivers Merrimack and 3agadahock. The next year a few persons were sent over to establish a fishery and colony at Piscataqua, and a fish-house was also erected in the present town of Dover. In 1621, Holland made a grant to the Dutch West India company of an extensive territory on both sides of the Hudson river, and called the country New Netherlands. The boundaries of this grant were indefinitCj but were supposed to include Connecticut river on the north, and Delaware river on the south, and the subject afterward became the source of much contention, both in Europe and America. 19. A conspiracy of the Indians to massacre the whites, nearly proved fatal to the colony of Virginia in 1622. Pow- hattan was now dead, and his son and successor, not enter- taining the same sentiments of friendship toward the English, determined to strike a blow of utter extermination. Four years were spent in maturing the plot, and during all that time^ the most profound secrecy was observed. To each tribe was allotted its station and its part to act. At length, on the 22d of March, 1622, all the settlements of the English, were at the same moment, attacked, and nearly one-fourth of the co- lony was destroyed. Jamestown was saved by the friend- ship of an Indian, who revealed the secret to his master, the night before the massacre. A bloody war followed, and the Indians were subdued. 20. In 1624, king James dissolved the London company, and assumed its rights and privileges. A council of twelve was appointed to manage the affairs of Virginia, while the king set himself to devise a plan for establishing a permanent government in the country ; but death prevented the comple- 15 166 AMERICAN HISTORY. tion of his schemes. His son Charles I. followed the plane of his father, and the will of the lung became the only law of the colony. Harvey was sent over as governour, but his conduct so displeased the colonists, that they seized and sent him prisoner to England. The king sent him back with en- larged powers, and the dissatisfaction of the colony increased. 21. Sir William Berkley was then appointed, and Harvey recalled. But the discontents still continued, although the government of Berkley was of a mild and judicious charac- ter. At length Charles, wearied with contention at home and abroad, granted the settlers permission to choose repre- sentatives, and in conjunction with the governour and coun- cil to exercise the government of the colony. In 1627, a number of Swedes and Fins landed at cape Henlopen, and began the settlement of Delaware. 22. Seventeen vessels arrived from England with emi- grants in 1629. These at first settled at Salem, and soon after founded Charlestown, Boston, and some other towns. The cause of this rapid progress of emigration, was an altera- tion made in the charter by the king, by which the power of disposing of lands and exercising government was vested in the settlers. On the 18th of May, 1631, the first election in New-England, under the new charter, was held at Boston, and John Winthrop was chosen governour, and Thomas Dud- ley deputy-governour. 23. George Calvert, lord Baltimore, a Roman catholick, in 1631, obtained a grant of a tract of land, lying on Chesa- peake bay, which he called Maryland. Before his grant was fully completed, lord Baltimore died, and the grant was given to his son Cecil. As this grant extended from the Potomack to the fortieth degree of latitude, including what before had been given to the London company, and what afterward was granted to William Penn, the foundation was laid for long and obstinate contentions between the descendants of Penn and Baltimore. 24. Two hundred settlers, late in the year 1633, sailed with Leonard Calvert, brother to Cecil, for America, and early in 1634, arrived in the Potomack. These settlers pur- chased of the Indians Yamaco, one of their settlements, where St. Marys now stands, and thus, by the adoption of a pacifick course, secured the friendship of the natives, as well as comfortable habitations, and some improved land?. AMERICAN HISTORY. 167 The pleasantness of the country, the religious freedom en- joyed, and liberality of the charter, were circumstances which greatly promoted the prosperity of the new colony. 25. In 1633 was built the first house in Connecticut, at Windsor, by a party of adventurers from Plymouth. The Dutch, anticipating the design, sent a party just before, which erected a fort on or near the spot where Hartford now stands. The Dutch forbade the Plymouth settlers to advance, but the commander of the party paid no regard to their menaces or orders. 26. The government of Massachusetts, in 1634, was changed from a simple to a representative form. This inno- vation was caused by the distance of many of the settlements from Boston, some of which were more than thirty miles dis- tant? and it was found very inconvenient for all the male in- habitants to attend the general court. Each town was there- fore empowered to choose two or three of its inhabitants, and these, when met in general court, were authorized to act for those by whom they were chosen. Still, the freemen met once a year in their respective towns, to elect a governour, and other officers, 27. Hugh Peters, chaplain to Oliver Cromwell, and Mr. Vane, son of Sir Henry Vane, arrived from England in 1635. The reputation of Mr. Vane for piety and wisdom, and his grave deportment, induced the people to choose him govern- our the next year after his arrival. But after two years, some of die people becoming disaffected with him, he returned to Englando 28.. In 1635, Wethersfield, in Connecticut, was settled by a company of adventurers from Watertown, (Mass.) Nearly at the same time, some persons interested in the Connecticut patent, sent Mr. John Winthrop to erect a fort at the mouth of Connecticut river. A few days after the arrival of Win- throp and his party, a Dutch vessel from New -Netherlands appeared off the harbour, with the intention of taking posses- sion of the country. But the English presenting a warlike attitude, the Dutch desisted. 29. Mr. Hooker and his congregation, from Newtown, (Mass.) in 1636, induced by the fertility of the soil on Con- necticut river, determined to remove and settle at Hartford. They pursued their journey by land, taking with them their wives and children, and driving their cattle through the wil~ LG8 AMERICAN HISTORY. derness. The settlements at Hartford, Wethersfield, and Windsor, then united, elected magistrates and took the name of the Colony of Connecticut. About this time, or a little before, the first permanent settlements were made in Maine, at Kittery and York. 30. In 1636, Roger Williams, having been banished from Massachusetts on account of his religious sentiments, com- menced the settlement of Rhode Island. He settled at a place which he called Providence. In 1637, a publick school was founded at Newtown, now Cambridge, (Mass.) which was afterward established by the legislature, and called Har- vard college, in honour ofits principal benefactor, Mr. Harvard. 31. The great theological disturbance, made by Ann Hutchinson, distinguished the year 1637. At length a ge- neral synod was. called, by which Mrs. Hutchinson's opinions were condemned, and the general court banished her from the colony. Many, however, embraced her opinions, among whom were governour Vane, Mr. Cotton, and Mr. Wheel- wright. A party of her adherents, withdrawing from the communion of their brethren, joined Williams at Providence. Wheelwright, however, went north and commenced the set- tlement of New-Hampshire. £*2. A war with the Pequods commenced in 1G37. This nation proposed to the Narragansetts, a neighbouring tribe, to unite against the English, but instead of acceding to the proposal, they took up arms against the Pequods. But this did not intimidate them in the least ; on the contrary, they seemed the more exasperated, and used every means and every opportunity to annoy and distress the English, re- tiring to their almost inaccessible fortresses when in danger of being attacked. 33. At fort Mystick, situated on a rising ground in the middle of a swamp, was fought a bloody battle, between *he Pequods and English. Captain Mason, who command ;! the Connecticut troops, reached the fort after a fatiguing march of two days through the woods, and if a dog had not by his barking given the alarm, an unresisting massacre would have taken place. But the Indians being alarmed, flew T to arms, and the parties fighting hand to hand, the ^onflictbecame deadly. At length, captain Mason, seeing the issue to be doubtful, seized a fire-brand, and crying "we must hum Ihcm," applied it to a wigwam. In a moment the whole foil AMERICAN HISTORY. 169 was in a blaze, and the English having surrounded it to pre- vent escape, warriours, women, and children, perished in the flames. 34. In a swamp, situated in the present town of Fairfield, another action soon afterward occurred. This battle com- pleted the subjugation of the Pequods. in less than three months the whole tribe was exterminated, a few excepted, who took refuge among the neighbouring tribes. The vigour of the colonists in prosecuting this war, and their success, gave the surrounding tribes so high an opinion of their valour, as secured a long period of repose to the English settle- ments ; and at the same time the conduct of the administra- tion in the mother country, forced many to emigrate to the new world. 35. Mr. Davenport, Mr. Eaton, and other gentlemen of fortune, from Boston, settled New-Haven, in 1638. The next year the free settlers assembled in a large barn, and en- tered into a solemn compact, to be governed by the rules of Scripture, as well in their civil as religious concerns. Mr. Eaton was chosen governour. In 1640, this colony made some settlements on the Delaware ; but two years after, they were broken up by the Dutch. 36. In 1643, the colonies of Massachusetts, Plymouth, Connecticut, and New-Haven, entered into articles of con- federation for their mutual benefit. This confederacy took the style of " The United Colonies of New- England." Each colony appointed two commissioners, who were to meet by rotation annually in one of the confederated colonies to con- sult and determine upon all objects of common interest to the whole. Rhode Island petitioned to be included in the union, but was refused, unless she would acknowledge the jurisdic- tion of Plymouth, to which she did not accede. This confed- eracy was of great service to the colonies, and continued up- ward of forty years. QUESTIONS. 1. Who discovered Chesapeake bay, and when ? — 2. What caused much suffering to the colonists ? — 3. Who by his courage and pru- dence relieved them from difficulty? — 4. What happened to Smith when on an excursion to discover the source of the Chickahominy ?— - 5. When did Henry Hudson enter the river called by his name?— 6. What was granted to the colony at Jamestown in 1609 1 — 7. Why did the colonists determine to return to England ? — 8. What took place in 1612?— 9. What was first granted about this time?— 10. What did 15* 170 AMERICAN HISTORY. lie States General of Holland do in 1613?— 11. Who explored the American coast from Penobscot to cape Cod, and when? — 12. Who was appointed governour of Virginia in 1619? — 13. What were first introduced into Virginia the same year? — 14. What at length effected the object sought by the Plymouth company? — 15. When did a part of Mr. Robinson's congregation sail from Leyden to America ? — 16. What spot did they fix upon for a settlement? — 17. What was incor- porated by James 1. in 1620? — 18. Who obtained a grant of the Ply- mouth company in 1622? — 19. What nearly proved fatal to the colo- ny of Virginiajthe same year ? — 20. What did king James do in 1624 ? — 21. Who was appointed governour of Virginia when Harvey was tecalled? — 22. How many vessels arrived from England with emi- grants in 1629?— 23. Who obtained a grant of Maryland?— 24. How many settlers sailed with Leonard Calvert, brother to Cecil? — 25. When was the first house built in Connecticut, and where ? — 26. How was the government of Massachusetts changed in 1634? — 27. Who arrived from England in 1635? — 28. When and by whom wasWeth- ersfield, Conn, settled? — 29. Who settled Hartford, and when ? — 30. Who began the settlement of Rhode Island, and when ? — 31. What dis- tinguished the year 1637? — 32. What war commenced the same year? — 33. Where was fought the bloody battle between the Pequods and the English? — 34. Where did another action afterward occur ? — 35 Who settled New-Haven in 1638 ?— 36. What was done in 1643 ? SECTION IV. AFFAIRS OP THE UNITED COLONIES. WAR WITH THE BUTCH. KING PHILIPS WAR. FRENCH WAR OF 1689. 1. In 1644, Roger Williams, who went to England the year before for that purpose, obtained of the Plymouth com- pany a free charter of incorporation for Rhode Island. The same year Mr. Fenwick, agent of the proprietors, assigned fort Saybrook, and all the rights given by the patent, to the general court of Connecticut, for seven thousand dollars. The settlement at Saybrook then became a part of Con- necticut. 2. An insurrection occurred in Maryland in 1645, headed by one Clayborne, who some years before had caused distur- bances, and excited an Indian war. Governour Calvert now fled into Virginia, while Clayborne and his associates usurped the government of the colony. The insurgents were sub- dued the next year, and peace restored. In 1646, at Strick- land's plains, in the present town of Greenwich, (Conn.) a bloody battle was fought between the Dutch and Indians. Many fell on both sides, but the Indians were defeated. The AMERICAN HISTORY. 173 graves of the dead were to be discerned more than a hundred years after the battle. 3. Between 1640 and 1650, the first settlements were made in North Carolina, by some planters from Virginia, and emigrants from other places. Many Quakers were among them. As the settlement fell within the limits of the grant of Carolina, the proprietors authorized governour Berkley, of Virginia, to take it under his protection., and he appointed a man by the name of Drummond for governour. But the settlers being dissatisfied with some of the regulations impos- ed revolted ; their grievences being however redressed, they returned to their duty. 4. In 1650, the Dutch relinquished all claim to jurisdiction in Connecticut. Long Island was divided between them and the English. While the commissioners of the colonies for the adjusting of claims was in session at New-Haven, the French sent agents to ask aid against the Six Nations ; but their re- quest was not granted. The people of New-Haven now re- newed their attempt to settle themselves on the Delaware, but the Dutch opposing the design, it was relinquished. 5. In 1651, the Dutch erected a fort at Newcastle, on the Delaware. The governour of the Swedes settled on that river, considering Newcastle as within the Swedish jurisdic- tion, made a formal protest against the settlement. The next governour of the Swedes made the Dutch fort a visit, under colour of friendship, and seizing the opportunity, treacher- ously took possession. The Dutch, under Peter Stuyvesant, governour of New- York, not relishing such friendship, in 1655, paid the Swedes a visit, recaptured Newcastle, and took all the forts in the possession of the Swedes in Dela- ware, sending such of the occupants as refused to take the oath of allegiance, home to Sweden. 6. The dissensions in England between the king and the parliament, produced a civil war. in Maryland. The New- England colonies took part with the parliament, and were greatly favoured ; but those on Chesapeake bay, adhering to the king, force was applied for reducing them to submission. In Maryland, Calvert, by acknowledging the authority of par- liament retained his station ; but a contest commencing be- tween the catholicks and the protestants, the latter became the dominant party, and the catholicks were declared to be out of the protection of the laws. The persecution extended al~ m to Episcopalians and Quakers. \12 AMERICAN HISTORY. 7. The apprehension of a Dutch and Indian war, excited great alarm among the colonies in 16ol. Stuyvesant, go- vcrnour of JS (ew-N efnerland^, having made no satisfaction for former injuries, added fresh insults, and used every art to excite the Indians to hostilities. Agents were sent to him by the English to obtain satisfaction, but leturned unsuccessful. The commissioners of the colonies met, and determined up- on a war with the Dutch and the Narragansett Indians. But Massachusetts refusing to raise her quota of men, the war was not prosecuted, and an altercation took place between the colonies. Connecticut and New-Haven sent to Crom- well for aid. 8. An insurrection, headed by one Josiah Fendal, took place in Maryland in 1656. He was a man of an intriguing and restless spirit, and caused great disturbances in the colo- ny. The same year peace was made between the Dutch and English, and Stuyvesant sent a letter to the New-England commissioners, congratulating them respecting the event, and expressing a wish for a nearer union between the colo- nies of the two nations. With the former part of his message the commissioners were satisfied, but in their reply, they gave no intimation of a desire for any closer union. 9. The Quakers were at this time greatly persecuted in Massachusetts. A law was passed, forbidding them to come into the colony ; their rights as freemen were denied them ; some were imprisoned, others were fined, and a few who had been banished and returned were put to death. While these things were transpiring in New-England, Cromwell died, and Charles II. was proclaimed. As the New-England colonies had been great favourites with the Protector and parliament, the information of the restoration of the king was by no means agreeable. 10. The colony of Virginia having been the last to ac- knowledge the authority of parliament, was the first to pro- claim Charles II. Great discontents had arisen on account of the restrictions put upon their commerce, and on the death of governour Matthews, these discontents broke out into open violence. Berkley, their former governour, was forced from his retirement, and compelled to assume the adminis- tration. By the unexpected revolution in favour of royalty, this movement of the Virginians was rendered less unfortu- nate than it otherwise might have been. AMERICAN HISTORY. 173 11. Generals Goffe and Whalley, two of the judges of Charles I., and who had signed the warrant fot his execution, arrived at Boston in 1660, the year of the restoration of mo- narchy. Gov. Endicot and the chief men received them cau- tiously, and they lived retired^ but not screted } in Cambridge. But in 1661, receiving intelligence that they were not inclu- ded in the act of pardon, they removed to New-Haven, and were concealed by the inhabitants. Officers were sent from England to apprehend them, but not being very nice in their inquiries, they escaped. 12. In 1664, they removed to Hadley, (Mass.,) and for some years were concealed in the house of the Rev. Mr. Rus- sell. In 1675, when the Indians attacked Hadley, and the inhabitants were thrown into confusion, a person hoary with age, in a strange dress, and of a ccramaading appearance, suddenly appeared among them, placed himself at their head, exhorted them to courage, and by \m military skill conducted them to immediate victory, and then as suddenly disappeared. This person was Goffe, fetal the people for a long time sup- posed that an angei had appeared for their deliverence. Whalley died, it is supposed, in 167b 1 , after wlreh Goffe went southward, and no certain information of him was ever recei- ved. 13. In 1662, Connecticut applied for a charter, and obtain- ed it. By the charter, the constitution which the people had adopted was in every respect confirmed. New-Haven was in- cluded in the charter, and though extremely averse to a union, yet three years after, the colorie ? consented to be united. A mint was established at Boston the same year that C onnecti- cut received her charter. The year before, a settlement was made in Carolina, near Clarendon river, by adventurers from Massachusetts. They abandoned the country in 1663, but two years after, some emigrants from the island of Barba- does, with Sir John Yeamans for thei* governour, renewed the settlement. 14. The duke of York, in 1664, obtained of his brother Charles II., a grant of all the country which the Dutch clai- med. Charles saw the impolicy of having a foreign power in the heart of his American dominions ; and therefore, although the two nations were in a state of profound peace, sent out a body of forces to put his brother in posf ssion of the country. Colonel Richard Nichols was appointed commander. Pro- 174 AMERICAN HISTORY. ceeding to Manhattan, he demanded immediate surrender oi the fort. Stuyvesant, though very reluctant to yield, was yet unprepared for defence, and accordingly surrendered. Nich- ols changing the name of Manhattan to that of New- York, proceeded to reduce the Swedes and Dutch on the Delaware river. 15. Lord Berkley and Sir George Carteret, in 1664, ob- tained of the duke of York a grant of all the territory lying between the Delaware and the Hudson rivers. This tract was called New-Jersey, as a compliment to Carteret, who iiad been governour of the islaad of Jersey. Berkley and Carte- ret, in 1665, formed a constitution for the settlers, who had become numerous, and Carteret came out as governour, and fixed the seat of his government at Elizabethtown. 16. In 1670 ? Charleston, in South Carolina, was founded by William Sayle, governour of the colony. During his ad- ministration, the celebrated Mr. Locke, at the request of the proprietors, drew up a constitution for the colony ; but on at- tempting to put it in force, so great an opposition was raised, that it was abandoned. Governour Sayle died in 1671, and his colony was put under the government of governour Yea- mans, of the colony of Clarendon. 17. In 1673, England and Holland were again engaged in war. The latter immediately sent out a fleet to regain her American possessions, and the fort at New- York not being in astate to offer resistance, that and die city were immediately sur- rendered. The next year the war was closed, and the Dutch by treaty ceded New- York to the English. The duke of York to prevent any dispute about his title, took out a new patent, and appointed Sir Edmund Andross governour. In 1675, Andross led an expedition against Connecticut, over that part of it which lay west of the river the duke claimed ju- risdiction. But finding the colony prepared for defence, he abandoned the enterprise. 18. King Philip's war commenced in 1675. His father Massasoit was the first and firm friend of the whites, and his ancestors were lords of the country. The cause of Philip's taking up the hatchet, seems to have been a jealousy of the increasing power and population of the English, and a well founded apprehension, that the Indians must ultimately retire, and leave their favourite hunting grounds and the places of their father's sepulchures to the strangers. The same spirit AMERICAN HISTORY. 175 which animated Philip, spread through all the Indian tribes, and a general rising of all the savages of New-England was feared. 19. On the 20th of June, 1675, Philip commenced hosti- lities by attacking Swanzey, a frontier town of New-Ply- mouth. But the Indians being vigorously assaulted, fled, and took shelter in a swamp. The English, being re-enforced by troops from Boston, approached the Indian towns, which they found deserted ; even that where Philip himself resided, bore evident marks of having been left with precipitation. The course of the savages in their retreat, could easily be traced by the ruin of buildings, and the heads and scalps of their slaughtered victims fixed upon poles by the side of the way. 20. On the 18th of July, the forces of Massachusetts and Plymouth attacked Philip and his warriours in a swamp at Pocasset, near Mount Hope. The position was advanta- gious for the Indians ; and as the English entered the swamp, the enemy retreated farther and farther into it, till the troops came to a thicket so dense and entangled, that it was impos- sible for them to keep their order. After continuing the ac- tion till night, the English retreated ; and had they the next day renewed the attack, Philip could not have escaped, and the war would have been terminated. But neglecting the re- quisite precaution, Philip, six or eight days after the battle, made his escape, and took refuge with the Nipmucks. 21. Brookfield, Deerfield, Hatfield, and Hadley, suffered most severely in this war. In the former of these towns ev- ry house was burned except one. Deerfield and Hatfield resolved to collect a magazine of provisions at Hadley, and form a garrison in the town. Accordingly a troop of young men under the command of captain Lathrop was sent to transport a quantity of corn from Deerfield. But the Indi- ans, apprised of the design, attacked the party at a place ever since called Bloody-Brook, and killed almost every man. In the month of October, the same year, the Indians attempt- ed to burn Springfield ; but the design was discovered in season to prevent its complete accomplishment. 22. A general rising of all the Indians in New-England was apprehended in the autumn of this year. The Narra- gansetts, notwithstanding the treaty they had made with the English, openly received the warriours of Philip, and aided 176 AMERICAN HISTORY. ihem against the colonics. An army was therefore sent into the Narragansett country, and on the 18th of December, the troops assembled at Petty quamscot, about fifteen miles from the enemy's head-quarters. Goveruour Winslow, of Plymouth, commanded, but the Connecticut troops were conducted by major Treat. 23. On the 19th of December, the troops began their march, after passing a stormy night in the open air, and wa- ding through the snow 16 miles, about one o'clock approach- ed near the strong-hoid of the enemy, situated on a rising ground in the center of a large swamp. The fort which was encircled with palisades and trees, had only a single entrance, which was over a log lying across a collection of water, and this entrance was securely guarded. About 4000 Indians, men, women and children, were it is supposed collected in the fort. Soon after the English commenced the attack, it was discovered that on the side opposite to the entrance, there was a place destitute of palisades. Through this opening a party of the assailants rushed, and falling on the rear of the Indians, secured an easy victoiy. 24. One thousand warriours were killed ; three hundred more, and as many women and children were made prisoners. Six hundred wigwams were burned, in the flames of which, many of the savages perished; and though the Indians never entirely recovered from this defeat, yet to the frontier towns they did great damage. Philip had made some at- tempts to arouse the Mohawks to a quarrel with the English ; and for this purpose, he killed several of that tribe, and ac- cused the colonists of performing the deed. But the Mo- hawks discovering his treachery, he fled to Mount Hope, whither he was pursued by captain Church, and after flying from swamp to swamp, was finally killed. 25. The celebrated Navigation Act was passed by the parliament of England, in 1676, and occasioned great dis- contents in Virginia. By this act, it was provided that no commodities could be imported, unless in vessels built either in England or her colonies ; none but Englishmen could act as factors in America, and the produce of the colonies could not be sent to any country but England, neither could any European goods be imported into the colonies except from Britain. This statute, which in fact deprived the inhabitants of the colonies of the privileges of native Englishmen, was AMERICAN HISTORY. 177 deeply resented, and after having in vain petitioned for re- lief, the colony of Virginia felt that it was time to assert its rights by force of arms, and nothing but a leader was wanting to produce an actual rebellion. 26. Such a leader was soon found in Nathaniel Bacon, an Englishman, and a lawyer of superiour talents and distin- guished eloquence. By his eloquent harangues, and encou- raging promises, the inhabitants of the colony were persua- ded to assemble in arms, and choose him for their leader. Bacon proposed to lead his forces against the Indians, and sent to governour Berkley for a commission, but was refu- sed. He then led his army to Jamestown, obtained a com- mission by force, and retired. The governour immediately declared him a rebel, and ordered his followers to disperse ; upon which Bacon returned to Jamestown, compelled the governour to retire, and assumed the powers of government. After keeping the colony in a state of alarm for a few months., he died, and the governour resumed his authority. 27. In 1679, New-Hampshire became a separate govern- ment, being erected into a province under the crown. The assembly was chosen by the people, but the president and council were appointed by the king. Two years before the separation of New-Hampshire, the controversy which had so long subsisted between Massachusetts and the heirs of Geor- ges, was settled in England, in favour of the latter. The former then purchased the title to the district of Maine, and it became a part of the colony. 28. Edmund Andross, governour of New- York, in 1680. set up a claim to East and West Jersey in favour of the duke of York. Carteret and Fenwick, the proprietors, resisted the claim, but Andross persisted, and seizing them, carried them to New-York, where they were imprisoned. Andross next laid a duty upon all imported goods, and upon the pro- perty of those who came over to settle as colonists. These proceedings caused much dissatisfaction, and the whole case was finally referred to commissioners. By them the duties were adjudged illegal, and they were removed. Edward Billinge was appointed governour, and in 1681, he assembled the first general assembly ever held in New-Jersey. 29. William Penn, the son of an English admiral, having acted as one of the above-named commissioners, and thus 16 178 AMERICAN HISTORY. acquired some knowledge of the country, obtained from Charles II. the grant of a tract of country extending from the fortieth to the forty-third degree of latitude, which he after- ward called Pennsylvania. This tract was granted him as a discharge of a debt which the crown owed his father, and in consideration of services performed by him as admiral. In 1682, the duke of York granted two tracts called the " Ter- ritories," to Penn ; comprehending the present state of De- laware. These being annexed to Pennsylvania, were go- verned as a part of that province for twenty years. 30. On the 24th of October, 1680, Penn, with one hun- dred settlers, arrived at Newcastle. Proceeding up the Delaware, he held a talk with the Indians, at the place where Philadelphia now stands, and made an amicable purchase of the country, and took quiet and peaceable possession. More than fifty houses were erected before the setting in of win- ter, and the foundation of a new town laid, which he called Philadelphia ; or, brotherly love. In less than one year from the time Penn came into his new province, more than thirty ships laden with settlers arrived. These were principally Quakers, whose chief object in coming to America was, the undisturbed enjoyment of their religion. 31. Thomas Dongan, in 1682, succeeded Andross as go- vernour of New-York. By him, the first general assembly ever held in the colony was called, and consisted of a coun- cil and house of representatives. The assembly possessed the sole power of making laws and imposing taxes ; but no law- could have any force till approved by the duke of York. Governour Dongan gave great attention to Indian affairs, and was held in high esteem by the natives. 32. De La Barre, governour of Canada, in 1684, com- plaining that the Five Nations obstructed the French trade with more distant tribes, proceeded with a force of seventeen hundred men, to lake Ontario, intending the total destruction of the confederate tribes. But after a delay of six weeks at fort Frontenack, during which a mortal sickness broke out among his troops, he found it desirable to enter into a treaty with the Indians. Having succeeded in inducing three tribes to meet him, he talked to them respecting the cause of the war, and the evils they must suffer if it should continue. The warriours replied to his talk with eloquence and spirit, AMERICAN HISTORY. 179 and in such a manner as greatly to enrage him. But he was compelled to enter into a treaty, and thus closed his cam- paign " in a scold with an old Indian." 33. Montreal was soon after invaded by the Five Nations, and all the country around sacked and plundered. Men. women, and children, to the number of one thousand, were killed, and twenty-six taken prisoners, while the Indians lost but three in the expedition. In consequence of these disas- ters, the French power in America became so much weaken- ed, that they were, for the time being, unable to attempt any thing against the settlements of the English. 34. The government of England determined, about this time, to annul the charters of the colonies, and to place over them officers who should subserve the purposes of the crown. Each colony was directed to place an agent in London, fully empowered to act in its behalf; and in 1684, the charter of Massachusetts was declared to be forfeited, on account of disrespect to the laws charged upon the colony. The go- vernment was immediately placed in the hands of the king, and Edmund Andross was appointed govern our. 35. Andross, in 1687, assumed a control over the press, and Edmund Randolph was appointed licenser. Soon after. Andross, with his suite and a guard, went to Hartford while the general court were in session, and demanded the charter of the colony. The debate was protracted till evening, when the charter was produced and laid on the table. The lights were instantly extinguished, and a member of the court took the charter and deposited it in the cavity of a large oak. The candles were immediately re-lighted, but the charter was not to be discovered, or the person who had taken it away. 36. In 1689, on the accession of William, prince of Or- ange, to the English throne, the people no longer able to en« dure the despotick rule of Andross, seized both him and his minion, Randolph? and cast them into prison. In New- York, a party was formed in favour of the prince of Orange, at the head of which was Jacob Leisler, a man in some esteem among the people, of small fortune, but destitute of every qualification for the enterprise he had undertaken. Milb6rhe ? his son-in-law, was his counsellor. They first seized the fort, and then declared in favour of William. The council and magistrates were opposed to Leisler, and for a time great di- visions existed in the colony. Leisler, being at length super- 180 AMERICAN HISTORY. ceded in his office of governour, and refusing to surrender the garrison, was taken prisoner, and executed. Peace was then restored to the colony. 37. An expedition against Schenectady, consisting of French and Indians, was sent out in 1689, by the governour of Canada, — France and England being then at war. After a march of twenty-two days, in the midst of winter, with their provisions on their backs, on the 8th of February the enemy reached Schenectady. The inhabitants, thinking it imprac- ticable for the foe to reach them, on account of the distance and the severity of the season, were lulled into such perfect security, that they retired to rest on the fatal night without even closing the gates of the town. About 1 1 o'clock, the enemy having divided themselves into small parties of six or seven each, that they might invest every house, began the attack. Sixty persons were slain ; twenty-seven were ta- ken prisoners, and the rest (led to Albany, from which place a party of young men set off in pursuit, and overtaking the invaders, captured twenty-five of their number. 38. The settlement at Salmon falls, was surprised about the same time, by another party of French and Indians under the command of the Sieur Hertel. On the 18th of March, the place was attacked at day break ; and though the inhabi- tants defended themselves in the fortified houses for some time, yet they were at last obliged to surrender at discretion. Thirty persons were killed, and fifty taken prisoners. The fort and settlement at Casco was destroyed by the same party. 39. An expedition against Port Royal and Quebec, was set on foot by New-York and the eastern colonies, who be- gan to be aroused by the barbarities of the enemy. In 1690, a fleet of small vessels, commanded by Sir William Phipps, sailed for the reduction of Port Royal, of which, as well as the whole country as far as Penobscot, he made an easy con- quest, and the fleet and army returned to Boston in about a month after their departure. Encouraged by this success, an expedition was next undertaken for the invasion of Que- bec and Montreal. But a combination of unlooked-for cir- cumstances defeated the plan, and the different detachments of troops returned. The failure of these expeditions produced unhappy effects. The soldiers on their return were on the point of mutiny for their pay ; the Five Nations blamed the English for their inactivity, and the enemy were encouraged* AMERICAN HISTORY. 181 40. In 1691, major Peter Schuyler, of Albany, collecting three hundred Indians, proceeded down lake Champlain to La Prairie, where he engaged eight hundred French troops, and gained a complete victory. Three hundred of the ene- my were slain. — Seth Sothel, on account of his injustice was compelled to relinquish the government of North Carolina. Having taken refuge in South Carolina, he was made go- vernour of that colony, but two years after he was removed. He died in 1692. QUESTIONS. 1. Who obtained a charter for Rhode Island in 1644?— 2. What occurred in Maryland in 1645?— 3. When were the first settlements made in North Carolina? — 4. What did the Dutch relinquish in 1650? — 5. Where did the Dutch erect a fort in 1651 ?— 6. What produced a civil war in Maryland? — 7. What excited great alarm in the colo- nies in 1651 ?— 8. What took place in Maryland in 1656?-— 9. Who at this time were greatly persecuted in Massachusetts ? — 10. Which colony was the first to proclaim Charles II.? — 1 1. Who arrived in Bos- ton, 1*660 ?—12. To what place did tliey remove in 1664?— 1.3. When did Connecticut obtain a charter ? — 14. Who, in 1664, obtained a grant of all the country claimed by the Dutch in North America? — 15. Who obtained the same year, of the duke of York, a grant of all the country between the Delaware and Hudson rivers? — 16. When and by whom was Charleston, in South Carolina, founded ? — 17. What countries again engaged in war in 1673? — 18. What Indian war commenced in 1675? — 19. When was Swanzey attacked ? — 20. What took place on the 18th of July ?— 21. What places suffered severely in this war? — 22. What was apprehended in the autumn of this year? — 23. When did the troops under governour Winslow and major Treat march into the Narragansett country ? — 24. How many Indians were killed in the battle of that day ? — 25. What celebrated act did the parliament of England pass in 1676? — 26. Who headed the re- bellion in Virginia at this time ? — 27. When did New-Hampshire be- come a separate government? — 28. Who, in 1680, set up a claim to East and West Jersey ? — 29. Who obtained of Charles II. a grant of Pennsylvania? — 30. When did he arrive at Newcastle? — 31. Who succeeded Andross as governour of New-York in 1682?— 32. Who made war on the Five Nations in 1684?— 33. What place did the Five Nations soon after attack?— 34. What was determined by the government of England about this time? — 35. What did Andross do in 1687 ?— 36. What did the people of New-England do in 1689, on the accession of William, prince of Orange ? — 37. What expedition was Bent out by the governour of Canada the same year? — 38. What set- tlement was attacked about the same time ?-^39. What expedition did New-York and the eastern colonies undertake ?— 40. Who defeated the French at La Prairie in 1691 ? 16* 182 AMERICAN HISTORY. SECTION V. iALEM WITCHCRAFT. PEACE OF RYSWICK. CAPTAIN KIDr SETTLEMENT OF GEORGIA. 1. Sir William Phipps arrived from England, May 14, 1692, with a new charter for the colony of Massachusetts. By the charter, he was constituted governour and Capt. General, and he entered immediately on the duties of his office, with- out any opposition from the people, with whom he was deser- vedly popular. Almost the first act of his government was, the formation of a court for the trial of persons accused of witchcraft. Parliament had enacted a law punishing the sup- posed crime with death, and many in England had been exe- cuted. Two or three had also suffered death in Massachusetts. 2. In February, 1692, the delusion first appeared at Salem, (Mass.) in the family of Mr. Paris, minister of the place. A daughter and a niece of this gentleman, were affected in a most singular and surprising manner. A council of physi- cians being unable to account for the unusual contortions oi body which they witnessed in these persons, pronounced them bewitched. This decision was in perfect accordance with the credulity of the times ; and the children affected, soon pro- nounced an Indian woman, living in the family, to be the cause of their torments. This woman, more ignorant, but not less credulous, than her master and his neighbours, confessed herself guilty. 3. In June, the court which had been specially instituted for this purpose, held a session for the trial of those accused of witchcraft. Many were tried, and some were sentenced to die. But these proceedings so far from arresting the evil, only increased it. In proportion as the matter assumed im- portance in the view of the publick, the number of accusers, and of course the accused, increased. Those who were ac- cused, were not the old, the infirm, and the ignorant only ; no age, rank or sex was exempt. Even the brutes were in- volved in the calamity. At Andover, a dog was accused and put to death. 4. Twenty persons were executed, and more than a hun- dred were imprisoned. The wife of Sir Wm. Phipps, two sons of Gov. Dudley, and other persons of distinction, wen accused, and probably would have suffered, had not the evil now become so extended as to fill the whole country with ap AMERICAN HISTORY. 188 prehension. People began to see their errour, and numbers were filled with remorse. One of the judges made publick confession, and asked forgiveness of God and man, and se- veral who had acted as jurors, followed his example. A day of publick fasting and prayer was appointed, and observed by all ; for they felt that all had sinned. Thus, the cloud so portentous of ruin, slowly and gradually retired, and the calm sunshine of reason and sober reflection, once more beamed upon a mourning country. 5. Colonel Benjamin Fletcher was appointed governour ot New- York, in 1692. He was also directed to command the militia and garrison of Connecticut. In major Schuyler. Fletcher found an able and experienced assistant, and he was much governed by his advice, especially in Indian affairs. The governour went to Connecticut to assume the command of the militia and the garrison, but the officers of the colony making a firm and spirited refusal, he withdrew. 6. William Penn, being suspected of carrying on a trea- sonable correspondence with the exiled king James, fell at this time under the displeasure of king William. He was se- veral times imprisoned on charges not well defined, and de- prived of his government. But after the severest investiga- tion, nothing appeared to countenance even suspicion,, and he was acquitted, and restored both to his government and to the favour of his sovereign. — In 1693, at the request of the inhabitants, the proprietors of Carolina abrogated the consti- tution of Locke, and the colony was afterward under the rule of a governour, council, and house of representatives. 7. New-Hampshire and Maine suffered more from the wars with the savages, than any other of the colonies. This arose from the circumstance of their being frontier provinces. Baron Castine, a French nobleman of distinction in his own country, early formed an establishment at Penobscot, for tra- ding with the Indians, with whom he intermarried, and over whom he attained an unbounded influence. This person was justly regarded by the English, as a most dangerous en- emy, and a party was sent out to apprehend him. But being apprised of the design, he escaped into the wilderness. His buildings were, however , demolished, and he returned to France, where he lived till the year 1697. 8. A number of French protestants, about this time, plan- ted themselves on the river Neuse ? in North Carolina, in the 164 AMERICAN HISTORY. present county of Craven. Between these and the English settlements in the same province, dissensions arose which greatly disturbed the peace of the colony. The English de- nied the French settlers every civil privilege, even the right of being represented in the colonial assembly. As their mar- riages were performed by French ministers, a law was passed declaring them void, and their issue incapable of inheriting. 9. For the purpose of settling these difficulties, John Arch- dale was sent over as governour, and by his wisdom and firmness, fully accomplished the object. The French set- tlers were restored to their rights, and the colony returned to a state of peace. About this time, a vessel from Madagas- car touched at Carolina, the captain of which presented the governour with a bag of rice, and gave him some information as to the manner of cultivating it. From this circumstance, arose the cultivation of a grain, which has since become a staple commodity of Carolina. 10. An attack on Boston was planned in 1697, by the French in Canada, and a large fleet was sent from France to aid in the design. The marquis of Nesmond was appointed to the command of this fleet, and count Frontenack, govern- our of Canada, was directed to meet him at Penobscot. To give full effect to the design, after having destroyed Boston, the fleet was to proceed to New- York, from whence the arm) was to march by land to Canada. The colonies were struck with consternation, and every preparation was made for de- fence. But the fleet arrived so late in the season, that the design was frustrated, and the colonies released from appre- hension. In December of this year, a treaty of peace was made between France and England, at Ryswick in Germany, and a mutual restoration of conquests took place. 11. Richard, earl of Bellamont, in 1698, arrived in New- York as governour of that province. As the seas had become much infested with pirates during the late wars, Bellamont was instructed to take measures for their apprehension. To effect this object, the earl was appointed to the command of not only New- York, but also of New-Hampshire and Mas- sachusetts. But neither of the three colonies would afford any aid against the pirates, and the governour was obliged to have recourse to private adventure to suppress them. 12. Captain Kid was recommended to the earl as a man of courage and integrity, and well acquainted with the pirates AMERICAN HISTORY. 185 and their places of rendezvous, for an agent in the business. Kid undertook the expedition, but he had not been long at sea, before he turned pirate himself. After some time, he de- stroyed his ship, and ventured to appear openly at Boston, where he was at length arrested, and sent to England and ex- ecuted. A tradition still exists, that he buried great sums of money in divers places, and many persons have from time to time given themselves much trouble in searching for it. This ridiculous search has even been made in places which Kid not only never saw, but probably never knew were in existence. 13. The depredations of the pirates, and the divided state of the colony, caused the administration of Bellamont to be attended with many difficulties. Fletcher, his predecessor, had been warmly opposed to the Leislerian party, and when the new governour arrived, all who adhered to that party claimed him as their head. Bellamont died in 1701, and was suc- ceeded the next year by lord Cornbury ; the government in the interim, being administered by Nanfan, the Lieut, governour. 14. In 1701, William Penn again visited his colony, and finding great dissatisfaction among the people, he granted them a new charter. By this, the right of originating bills was vested in the assembly, as well as of amending or rejec- ting those presented to them- The governour had the fight of rejecting all bills passed by the assembly, and also to ap- point his own council, and to exercise the executive power* This charter did not fully appease the discontents of the peo- ple, although it was accepted by the assembly. The " terri- tories" rejected it entirely. Penn immediately returned to England, and the colony was afterward governed by deputies appointed by himself. 15. The government of New- Jersey was surrendered to the crown by the proprietors in 1701. The queen accepted the surrender, and lord Cornbury was appointed governour. The peace of Ryswick continued but a short time. In addi- tion to a violation of treaties in regard to European affairs, the French began to encroach on the British possessions in Ame- rica. Orders were given to Villeborne, governour of Cana- da, to claim not only all Acadia, but extend his claim even as far as Kennebeck. Orders were also given to prevent the English from fishing on the coast, and to seize all vessels so employed. In 1702, war was proclaimed by England against France and Spain, ISO AMERICAN HISTORY . 16. An expedition against the Spaniards of St. Augustine? in Florida, was fitted out by governour Moore, of South Car- olina, before he had received official intelligence of the dec- laration of war. A party of Indians under the command of colonel Daniel, were to proceed by land, while the governour and the main body proceeded by water. Daniel fully suc- ceeded in his part of the enterprise ; but Moore managed his part so injudiciously, that the main object of the expedition entirely failed. A great debt was by this means entailed up- on Carolina, to discharge which, paper money was issued for the first time in the colony. 17. An expedition against the Appalachian Indians, who had been incited to hostilities by the Spaniards, was next un- dertaken by governour Moore. This enterprise proved suc- cessful, and the towns lying between the Altamaha and the Savannah rivers were burned. While these things were do- ing in the south, the eastern colonies were engaged with the French from Canada. The eastern Indians had indeed pro- mised to remain at peace, but hostilities were soon commen- ced, and the whole frontier, from Casco to Wells, was one scene of devastation. 18. The town of Deerfield was surprised early in the year 1704, !>y a party of three hundred French and Indians, under the command of Hertel De Rouville. After a march of near three hundred miles through the wilderness, in the depth of winter, the enemy reached the fort, and finding the snow in many places drifted nearly to the top of the palisades, they entered the place without much diffic ulty. The inhabitants were in a profound slumber, from which the yells of the sava- ges and the groans of the dying soon roused them. The surprise was complete, and a few only made their escape. Forty-seven were killed, and one hundred were carried pri- soners to Canada. 19. At the Penobscot and St. Croix rivers, captain Church, who had been despatched with five hundred men, defeated the enemy and took many prisoners, among whom was a daughter of Baron Castine. In the autumn of the same year, the Seine, a large French store ship, with a cargo estimated at a million of livres in value, was lost. This disaster great- ly hindered the operations of the French, and the colonies re- mained in tolerable quiet during the year 1705. AMERICAN HISTORY. 187 20. In 1706, the first Episcopal church was established in Connecticut, at Stratford. About the same time the colony of Carolina was alarmed by rumour of an intended invasion by the French and Spaniards. Every exertion was immedi- ately made to prepare for defence ; but the work was hardly commenced, before a French frigate appeared off the harbour of Charleston. The commander of the ship summoned the town to surrender, and landed a few troops. But he met with so spirited an opposition, that in a few days he made a hasty departure, leaving a small party of his men behind, who were taken prisoners. 21. Haverhill, on the Merrimack river, was burned in 1708. Forty persons were slain, and some taken prisoners. New-England, not long before, had set on foot an expedition against Port Royal, but nothing important was effected. The same year that Haverhill was destroyed, the churches of Connecticut met in convention at Saybrook, and framed that ecclesiastical constitution, which is known by the name of the Saybrook Platform. By a subsequent act of the legisla- ture, all the churches which should unite according to this constitution, were acknowledged as established by law. Other churches were, however, left at liberty to worship ac- cording to their dictates of conscience. 22. A considerable body of Palatines from Germany, who had been reduced to indigence by the long wars of that coun- try, were sent to America by queen Anne, in 1710, and set- tled on the Roanoke, in North Carolina. Here they lived in security a few years, but at length the Tuscarora and Coree Indians fell upon them, and an indiscriminate massacre fol- lowed. A few of the settlers escaping, fled to governour Craven, of South Carolina, who sent a thousand men to their relief, and the Indians soon sued for peace. 23. Another expedition against Canada was projected in 1711, and the colonies were directed to co-operate with the fleet sent from England. On the 25th of June, admiral Walker, with the expected squadron arrived at Boston. He was immediately joined by two regiments of provincial troops, which made the whole force amount to seven thousand men, beside a large train of artillery. An army of provincials was also directed to assemble, at Albany, and to penetrate Cana- da by the way of lake Champlain. Colonel Nicholson com- manded this division. 188 AMERICAN HISTORY. 24. On the 30th of July, the fleet sailed from Boston, and on the 20th of August, it reached the mouth of the St. Law- rence. Here, a thick fog coming on, several of the trans- port ships fell among rocks and islands, and were totally lost. One thousand men perished by this disaster. A council of war was then called, and the result was, a determination to abandon the expedition. The fleet returned to England, and the provincial troops to Boston. Nicholson, with the force under his command, amounting to four thousand men, ad- vanced as far as Wood creek, where, receiving intelligence of the return of Walker's squadron, he also abandoned the enterprise, and returned to Albany. 25. In 1715, an Indian war broke out in South Carolina. The Yamasees, a powerful tribe living near Savannah river, insti- gated by the Spaniards, suddenly attacked the English traders among them, all of whom were massacred. They then at- tacked the southern frontier, in company with some other tribes, and dessolation and death marked their course. The Yamasees, Creeks, Appalachians, Congarees, Catawbas and Cherokees, were all engaged in this war, and their united force amounted to upward of six thousand fighting men. 26. At a place called the Salt Catchers, governour Cra- ven came up with and engaged the savages. The battle was obstinate and sanguinary, but the Indians were totally defeated. Craven pursued them into their own country, and compel- led them to cross the Savannah, and take refuge among the Spaniards in Florida, by whom they were cordially received. After this, Carolina enjoyed a long period of repose from In- dian aggression. 27. One hundred families from the north of Ireland set- tled Londonderry, in New-Hampshire, in 1719. By them, the manufacture of linen, the foot spinning-wheel, and the culture of potatoes was introduced. The year before, the go- vernment of Maryland was restored to lord Baltimore, from whom it had been taken by the people of the province. New- Orleans was laid out the same year, and so named in honour of the duke of Orleans, then the regent of France. 28. The Aurora Borealis was first noticed in New-Eng- land, on the evening of the 17th of December, 1719. The people were much alarmed, and many supposed the dissolu- tion of nature, and the day of final retribution to be at hand. The same year Peter Schuyler was appointed governour of AMERICAN HISTORY. 189 New-York, Commissioners were also delegated to settle the line of partition between the colonies of New-York, New- Jersey, and Connecticut. 29. Disputes with regard to bills of credit, a large quantity of which had been issued during the war, prevailed at this time in Massachusetts. To sustain the value of this paper curren- cy, it was proposed to establish a bank ; and whether this bank should be a private or a publick one, was the matter in dispute. At this juncture, colonel Shute arrived in the colo- ny as successor to governour Dudley. He espoused the cause of the patfty in favour of a publick bank ; and having ob- jected to the speaker of the house of representatives, whom that body had chosen, an open rupture soon took place. Shute wanted a fixed salary, but the house would not give it. although they were willing to compensate him handsomely from year to year. The governour soon returned to England. 30. Mr. Burnet, son of bishop Burnet, in 1720, was ap» pointed governour of New- York, in the room of colonel Schuyler. The new governour attempted to stop the illicit trade carried on between Canada and New- York, much to the injury of the latter, and to encourage a direct trade with the Indians. For this purpose he built fort Oswego, on lake Cataraqui, or Ontario. At this time, the grand plan which the French ever had in view, began to be developed. This was, to connect by a chain of forts, their possessions in Can* ada with those on the Mississippi, and thus confine the Eng- lish to the coast. To defeat this scheme, Burnet pursued judicious measures, but becoming unpopular, he was remo ved in 1727, and appointed governour of Massachusetts. 31. He was received at Boston with every demonstration of respect; and to defray the expenses of his journey, and sup- port his rank as governour, the general court voted him the sum of ,£1700. But they wholly refused to settle upon him any fixed salary, as he had by his instructions been required to demand. The governour was much irritated, and threat- ened the colony with an appeal to the king. The general court prepared a statement of the controversy, with their rea- sons for refusing the demand of the governour, and sent it to all the towns in the province, who signified their approbation of the conduct of their representatives. In the midst of the contest Burnet died. 32. The first settlement of Georgia was made in 1732, a*? 17 190 AMERICAN HISTORY. Yaraacraw bluff, now Savannah. The settlement originated in the benevolent design of providing for the great number of poor persons in England, a place where they might, with industry and economy, obtain a competence. A corporation was formed with the title of " Trustees for settling and es- tablishing the colony of Georgia," and large sums were raised for providing arms, clothing, food, and utensils for the poor, who were willing to cross the Atlantick, and also to pay for their transportation. General Oglethorpe, one of the trustees, was appointed governour. 33. The southern tribes of Indians could at this time mus- ter fourteen thousand two hundred warriours. These tribes, governour Oglethorpe made it his first business to propitiate. He accordingly called a meeting of the chiefs at Savannah, and by means of interpreters, made a treaty with them, and obtained assurances of their friendship. QUESTIONS 1. When did Sir William Phipps arrive with a new charter for Mas- sachusetts? — 2. When did the delusion repecting witches first appear at Salem ? — 3. When did the court hold a special session for the trial of witches? — 4. How many persons were executed, and how many im- prisoned ? — 5. Who was appointed governour of New-York, 1692? — 6. Why did William Penn at this time fall under the displeasure of king William ? — 7. Which of the colonies suffered most from the wars with the savages ? — 8. Who planted themselves on the river Neuse about this time? — 9. Who was sent over for the purpose of settling the difficulties between the French and English settlers? — 10. What was planned by the French in Canada in 1697? — 11. Who was appointed governour of New-York 1698? — 12. Who was recommended to him as a proper agent to suppress piracy ? — 13. What caused difficulties to the administration of Bellamont? — 14. What did William Penn grant his colony in 1701? — 15. When was the government of New-Jersey surrendered to the crown? — 16. What expedition was fitted out by governour Moore? — 17 Against what tribe of Indians did he next un- dertake an enterprise ? — 18. What town was surprised by the French and Indians, 1704? — 19. What took place at Penobscot and St. Croix rivers ? — 20. When was the first Episcopal church established in Con- necticut? — 21. Whattown was burned, 1708? — 22. Who were sentto America by queen Anne, 1710? — 23. What was projected 1711 ? — 24. When did the fleet sail from Boston ?— 25. When did an Indian war break out in South Carolina?—- 26. Where did governour Craven en- gage and defeatthe savages ? — 27 By whom was Londonderry in New- Hampshire settled in 1719 ? — 28. What was first noticed in New-Eng- land the 11th of Dec. 1719 ? — 29. What disputes prevailed at this time in Massachusetts? — 30. Who was appointed -governour of New-York in the place of Schuyler ? — 31. How was he received at Boston ? — 32. When and where was the first settlement in Georgia made ? — 33. How many men could the southern tribes of Indians muster at this time 7 AMERICAN HISTORY. 191 SECTION VL OLD FRENCH WAR. CONGRESS AT ALBANY. FRENCH WAR OF 1755. 1. The first settlers of Georgia were many of them poor> indolent, and vicious, and though in a short time their num- ber amounted to five or six hundred, yet the trustees were desirous of introducing colonists of a different character. Accordingly, eleven townships were laid out and divided into portions of fifty acres each, one of which portions was as- signed to each settler. As the effect of this arrangement, a large number of emigrants soon arrived from Germany, Scot- land, and Switzerland. Still the colony did not flourish ac- cording to the anticipations of its founders, and Oglethorpe, the governour, went to England for the purpose of devising measures to remove the impediments which existed. 2. The Chickasaw Indians opposed the French in their design of proceeding up the Mississippi to unite with their settlements in Canada. A body of forces sent from New- Orleans, to act in concert with one from the northern settle- ments, did not arrive in season, and the Canadian troops pro- ceeded alone into the Chickasaw country. Here they were attacked by the Indians, who slew sixty and took the remain- der of the party prisoners. Four years after, the Indians being threatened by a larger force, sued for peace, which was granted. — John Wesley, the founder of the Methodist deno- mination of Christians, visited Georgia in 1736. In 1738, George Whitefield, another celebrated divine arrived in the province. The object of the latter was, to found an orphan house for the maintenance and education of poor children. But the design did not prosper during his life, and after his death it was wholly abandoned. 3. England and Spain now prepared for war. The latter strengthened Florida, and the former sent out six hundred men to Georgia. Before the commencement of hostilities, the Spaniards endeavoured to detach the Indians from the cause of the English, but without success. They next made an at- tempt upon the fidelity of the blacks in Carolina, promising them their liberty if they would escape to St. Augustine. 4. The blacks, excited by these artifices, collected at Sto- no, and forcing a warehouse, possessed themselves of arms 192 AMERICAN HISTORY. and ammunition, and marched southerly. Flushed with the .success of their attempt, they were lulled into security, and encamping in an open field, gave themselves up to dancing and mirth. The whites having in considerable numbers as- sembled that day for religious service in the vicinity, and ha- ving according to law carried their arms with them, marched immediately to attack the negroes, and killing great numbers of them, the insurrection was quelled. New-Jersey, in 1738, received a separate charter from New- York. The same year, a college was founded at Princeton, in New- Jersey, which was called Nassau-Hall. 5. In 1739, war having been declared between England and Spain, an expedition was sent from Georgia against St. Augustine. But from various causes the enterprise was un- successful ; — the troops returned home with considerable loss, and Carolina was involved in a burdensome debt. The city of Charleston was also burned in 1739, by which calami- ty most of its inhabitants were reduced to poverty. The par- liament of England being applied to for aid, generously grant- ed <£20,000 to the sufferers. 6. The Spaniards from Havamia invaded Georgia in 1742. General Oglethorpe being apprised of the design, hastily made preparations for defence. Toward the close of the month of June, the Spanish fleet appeared on the coast, and Ogle- thorpe judging fort Simons to be indefensible, abandoned it and retired to Frederica. Learning from a deserter that the Spaniards were divided by jealousy, and that the troops from Cuba and those from St» Augustine were encamped in differ- ent places, he determined to attack the Spanish camp, and accordingly marched for that purpose. 7. At this moment a French soldier deserted from the English line, and firing his musket, fled to the Spanish army. This event, as it discovered, entirely frustrated the plan of at- tack, and Oglethorpe immediately returned to his former po- sition. Fearing that the deserter would disclose his weakness, the Gen. devised an expedient whereby the Spaniards were deceived, and the danger averted. A letter was written to the deserter, directing him to inform the Spaniards of his weak- ness, and thus induce them immediately to attack him ; or, if this could not be done, to endeavour to detain them in their camp, till some assistance which he expected from Europe should arrive. This letter, as was designed, fell into tho AMERICAN HISTORY. 193 hands of the Spanish commander, and while he was delibera- ting on the information it contained, some vessels of war, sent by South Carolina, unknown to Oglethorpe, making their appearance, the invading army hastily embarked, leaving be- hind all its artillery, provisions, and stores. In 1752, Geor- gia relinquished its charter. 8. In 1744, war again occurred between England and France. The French having made attempts to destroy the English Cod-fishery, and Louisburg affording a refuge to nu- merous French privateers, governour Shirley, of Massachu- setts, applied to the English ministry for leave to attempt its reduction. He also proposed the plan to the general court of the colony, but they judging it too hazardous, refused their approbation. But the scheme being discovered, petitions in great numbers were sent to the court, praying them to re- consider their vote, and accept the proposition of the govern- our. This was finally done by a majority of one voice, and preparations were made for the enterprise. 9. Colonel William Pepperell was entrusted with the com- mand of the forces appointed for this service, and as a disco- very of the design by the French was feared, but a short lime was spent in preparation. Commodore Warren, who com- manded a fleet in the West Indies, although he had been ap- plied to early in the season for assistance, declined furnishing it; but soon after, receiving orders from England, he sailed for Boston, and with a part of his fleet arrived at Canseau early in April. The French as yet were entirely ignorant of the design upon Louisburg, and the appearance of the fleet off that place caused no small surprise. The English troops ef- fected a landing, and after a close siege of forty-eight days, the place surrendered. 10. In 1746, the French, exasperated by the loss of Lou- isburg, sent a large fleet, with a considerable land force, against the English colonies. Information of its approach being communicated, spread consternation and dismay. But a contagious and mortal disease breaking out on board the fleet, and a severe storm destroying some of the ships, and damaging others, nothing was effected, and the expedition was abandoned. In 1748, the peace of Aix-k-Chapelle restored tranquility to the colonies. According to the terms of this peace, all conquests on both sides were restored, and Louisburg was again placed in the hands of fhe French 17* t94 AMERICAN HISTORY. 1 1. In 1750, the Ohio company was formed in England, and obtained from the crown a grant of sixty thousand acres of land on the Ohio river, and its tributaries. This being a part of the country claimed by the French, and in the vicinity of which they had already established forts, collisions and jea- lousies soon occurred between them and the servants of the new company. The governour of Canada threatened to ap- prehend the English traders if they did not retire, but no at- tention being paid to this menace, several of them were taken and carried to the French fort at Presque-Isle. The Ohio company made complaint to the governour of Virginia res- pecting the depredations of the French, and he so far inter- fered as to send an agent with a remonstrance to the French commander on the Ohio. 12. George Washington, at that time a major in the Virginia militia, was sent with a letter to the French general, requiring him to depart from the territories claimed by the English. Washington, after surmounting great difficulties, reached the Ohio, and delivered his despatches ; but his mis- sion was not attended with the desired success. The French continued their aggressions, and it was found necessary by *he colonial governments, to assert by force the rights of the British crown. Preparations for this purpose were made in Virginia by governour Dinwiddie, although no declaration of war had as yet been made. 13. Major Washington, at that time commissioned a colo- nel, was appointed to the command of a regiment raised to dispossess the French of their usurped territory. The colo- nel, having made all necessary preparations, early in the spring of 1754, began his march through the wilderness to- ward the Ohio* Proceeding as far as the Great Meadows, he there learned that the French, having driven the agents of the Ohio company from a fort which they were erecting at che confluence of the Allegany and Monongahela rivers, had appropriated it to their own use, and named it Fort Du Quesne. Aided by the Indians, Washington surprised and captured the French forces who were encamped a few miles from the Great Meadows. The French commander was the only per- son killed, and only one person escaped. 14. On his return to the Meadows, he built a small fort, which he called fort Necessity. Having received a re-en- forcement ftom North Carolina and New- York, and his forcr AMERICAN HISTORY. 195 amounting now to four hundred men, he marched to attack foil Du Quesne. After proceeding to Laurel Hill, thirteen miles from the Meadows, he received information that a large bo- dy of French and Indians, amounting to fifteen hundred men, were marching to attack him. By the advice of a council of war, he retired to fort Necessity, but before he could com- plete a ditch around it, the enemy appeared, and commenced a furious attack. After a hard-fought battle, which lasted from morning till night, Washington found himself under the ne- cessity of surrendering ; and the troops marching out of the fort with the honours of war, returned unmolested to Virginia. 15. A congress of delegates from seven of the colonies, met at Albany in 1757, in order to devise measures for acting in concert against the common enemy in the contest which w r as evidently approaching. Orders had been sent out from England, directing the colonies to cultivate the friendship of the Six Nations, and accordingly, while the congress was in session, about one hundred and fifty warriours of these tribes came to Albany, with whom a treaty was formed, binding them to the English interest. A plan of colonial union was also formed by the congress, which was, however, rejected both by the king and the colonies. The latter, thought the plan gave too much power to the crown ; while the former, re- jected it because it gave too much power to the people. 16. General Braddock, with a force of fifteen hundred re- gulars, was sent from England in 1755, to aid in the defence of the colonies. On his arrival, he summoned a convention of the colonial governours to meet him in Virginia, in order to concert a plan of operations. Four expeditions were pro- posed to be undertaken ; one, led by Braddock against Du Quesne ; another, under the command of governour Shirley, of Massachusetts, against Niagara ; a third, against Crown Point, under the command of generals Johnson and Lyman ; while the fourth was to attempt Nova Scotia, under generals Monckton and Winslow. The first of these expeditions fai- led, and Braddock was slain ; that against Nova Scotia was successful, and the country submitted to the English. 17. Gen. Lyman, while advancing toward Crown Point, built fort Edward, near the south end of lake George. Be- ing soon after joined by general Johnson, who had remained at Albany to forward the artillery and the stores, the whole army encamped on the borders of the lake, preparing fo^ 196 AMERICAN HISTORY. crossing it. While in this situation, intelligence was recei" ved that a large body of the enemy was advancing to attack tort Edward, which was garrisoned by live hundred men un- der colonel Blanchard. Colonel Williams was sent with a detachment to re-enforce the garrison, but he fell into an am- buscade which the French had prepared to intercept him, and which was completely successful. Colonel Williams and many of his men were slain, and the survivors, panick-struck. tied to the English encampment. 18. The French army now attacked the camp with great fury, but meeting with a warm reception, they were obliged to retire. Seven hundred were killed, and thirty made pri- soners, among whom was baron Dieskau, the French com- mander. The next day after the attack upon the camp, a detachment under captain M'Ginnes discovered a party of the enemy amounting to four hundred men, sitting by a pond near the place where colonel Williams had been defeated. M'Ginnes, though his force was inferiour, immediately attack- ed them, and after a severe action, entirely routed them. Af- ter erecting a fort at lake George, named fort William Hen- ry, the enterprise against Crown Point was abandoned for that season. That against Niagara was also laid aside, after the troops had waited some weeks at Oswego for supplies. 19. In 1756, a formal declaration of war between France and England took place. Governour Shirley, after the defeat and death of general Braddock, was appointed to the supreme military command. He proposed to the colonies to under- take two expeditions, — one against Crown Point, and the other against Du Quesne. But before either of these enter- prises were commenced, Shirley was superseded, and Aber- crombie appointed in his place. In 1756, the earl of Lou- don was appointed governour of Virginia, and commander- in-chief of all the British forces in America. Still the same inactivity prevailed as during the previous year, and the French not only had time to make preparation for war, but to commence operations. 20. On the 14th of August, 1756, the fort at Oswego sur- rendered to the French under the marquis de Montcalm, go- vernour of Canada. General Webb had been ordered to march to the relief of the garrison at that post, but as he did not leave Albany till the 12th of August, he had not advan- ced farther than Wood creek, when he received information. MODERN HISTORY. 197 that the fort had capitulated. By the loss of Oswego, the English were dispossessed of the command of the lakes Erifc and Ontario, and also of the whole country of the Six Na- tions. Lord Loudon now pretending that the season was too far advanced for active operations, devoted the time to ma- king preparation for an early campaign the next year, 21. The ensuing summer, the French, under Montcalm, besieged fort William Henry with a force of five hundred men. General Webb was at this time lying at fort Edward with five thousand men under his command, while the num- ber of the garrison amounted to twenty-two hundred provin- cials and regulars, under command of colonel Monroe. The siege commenced the 3d of August, and lasted till the 9th. Monroe, having frequently sent to Webb for aid, but in vain, then found it necessary to capitulate. By the terms granted, the troops were to retain their arms and be escorted to fort Edward. 22. Immediately after the French had taken possession of the fort, a most horrid massacre of the English troops was commenced by the Indians. Colonel Monroe complained of this violation of the terms of capitulation, but in vain. At length the garrison left the fort, but without the stipulated es- cort. The Indians again commenced the work of butchery, which the French not only witnessed, but witnessed without any endeavour to prevent it. General Webb en being infor- med of the surrender of the fort, sent a detachment to meet the captured troops, and the escort ; but to his great surprise, he met only single individuals, or small parties flying through the woods in a state of the greatest apprehension and distress, and some even in a state of delirium. 23. The celebrated William Pitt, afterward earl of Chat- ham, was now placed at the head of the English ministry. His character was well known in America, and extremely popular ; and the first measures of his administration evinc- ing a determination to prosecute the war with vigour, he be- came a great favourite with the people. The colonies wera called upon to raise as large quotas of troops as the popula- tion of each would admit, and to make every preparation within the compass of their resources. The provincial army was therefore increased to twenty thousand men : and early in the year 1758, a powerful fleet under admiral Boscawen, conveying twelve thousand regulars under general Amherst ? was sent out. 198 AMERICAN HISTORY. 24. Three expeditions were planned for the campaign oi 1758. One of these was directed against Louisburg, ano- ther against Ticonderoga and Crown Point, and the third against Du Quesne. The force destined to act against Lou- isburg amounted to fourteen thousand men, under the com- mand of general Amherst ; and admiral Boscawen was di- rected to co-operate with twenty sail of the line, and eighteen frigates. On the 24th of May, the army embarked at Hali- fax, and on the 2d of June, arrived before Lauisburg. The siege was pressed with great vigour and success, and on the 6th of July, the governour found it necessary to ca- pitulate. 25. General Abercrombie, with sixteen thousand men, conducted the expedition against Ticonderoga and Crown Point, accompanied by lord Howe, a gallant and amiable of- ficer. On the 5th of July, the army passed lake George, and landed without opposition from the French, who deserted their camp, and made a hasty retreat. Abercrombie then advanced toward Ticonderoga, through an almost impervi- ous wilderness, and with very unskillful guides. Near the fort a slight skirmish with the enemy occurred, and lord Howe was killed. The troops, by whom he was greatly beloved, moved forward impetuously to the attack, determined to avenge his death. Three hundred of the French were slain, and one hundred made prisoners. 26. The English commander, fearing that the enemy might be re-enforced, determined to storm the fort, without even waiting for his artillery. The troops were immediately led to the attack ; but after, a contest of four hours, they were obliged to retire with the loss of near two thousand men, in killed and wounded. The French loss was not great, as they were protected by the works. Abercrombie, after this re- pulse, returned to his former position near lake George, from whence he detached colonel Bradstreet with three thousand men to attack fort Frontenack, which surrendered on the 27th of August, after a siege of two days. The reduction of this fortress, as it contained the stores designed for the Indians and the southwestern troops of the French, greatly facilitated the capture of fort Du Quesne, which was taken without op- position on the 25th of November, the same year. 27. The entire subjugation of Canada was the object of the campaign of 1759. The army was divided into three AMERICAN HISTORY. 199 parts, each of which was to enter Canada by a different route, and attack simultaneously the three strong holds of the French, viz : Niagara, Quebec, Ticonderoga and Crown Point. The first, after sustaining a vigorous siege, surren- dered to general Prideaux ; and the last was deserted by the enemy on the approach of the English under general Amherst, who, instead of following up his success, retired to Crown Point, and put his troops into winter quarters. 28. Brigadier Gen. Wolfe, who had greatly distinguished himself at the siege of Louisburg, was appointed to conduct the expedition against Quebec. As soon as the navigation of the St. Lawrence was open, he sailed from Louisburg with eight thousand men, and after a favourable voyage, anchoring near the isle of Orleans, which lies below Quebec, he effect- ed a landing without much opposition. Here he viewed the fortifications, which appeared of such strength and magnitude, that success, even to his ardent and fearless mind, appeared doubtful. 29. Quebec is situated on the northern bank of the St. Lawrence, and on the west side of the river St. Charles. There are two towns, distinguished as the upper and lower. The latter is built at the base of the lofty rock on which the former is situated, and which with a bold and majestick front extends far to the west, rendering the city impregnable on that side. The St. Charles river has a rough and broken channel, with steep and high banks. A little below is the river Mont- morency, between which and the St. Charles the French ar- my was encamped. 30. After making several fruitless attempts to annoy the city, he took possession of Point Levi, on the bank of the ri- ver opposite the town, and from that position cannonaded the city. But the distance was so great that little effect was pro- duced. He therefore determined to break up his camp and endeavour to land above it ; and having embarked his army, the fleet moved up the river. He now discovered that the fortifications were not so strong on that side of the city as on the other, and that a narrow path leading to the plain on the top of the precipice, was guarded only by a captain's guard. Having during the night landed his army near this path, his whole force succeeded in reaching the heights of Abraham by morning ; and being drawn up in order of battle, presented themselves to the astonished French. 200 AMERICAN HISTORY. 31. Montcalm, the French commander, now prepared for a battle which he foresaw would decide the fate of Canada, He accordingly left his camp on the Montmorency, and ad- vanced to attack the English army. Wolfe, who perceived all the movements of his opponent, drew up his forces in or- der of battle, taking post himself on the right, as Montcalm had done on the left. Thus the two commanders were op- posed one to the other. The French marched briskly to the attack, but the English reserving their fire till the enemy were near, gave it with great effect. 32. Wolfe and Montcalm were both mortally wounded in the very commencement of the action. The former, on re- ceiving his wound, was carried into the rear, where hearing the distant shout, "They fly! they fly!" eagerly inquired, " Who fly?" Being answered "the French;" then said he, " I die content !" and almost immediately expired. Mont- calm, when told that he could survive but a few hours, said, a So much the better ; I shall not live to see the surrender of Quebec." The French army being defeated, the city ca- pitulated two days after the battle ; and the next year the whole of Canada submitted to the English arms, and thus terminated for ever the power of the French in the northern parts of America. In 1763, the treaty of Paris put an end to the war, and the colonies were delivered from a near and pow- erful enemy. QUESTIONS. 1. What is said of the first settlers of Georgia? — 2. Who opposed the French in their design of proceeding up the Mississippi ? — 3. What nations now prepared for war ? — 4. Who were excited to an insurrec- tion by the Spaniards, and assembled at Stono ? — 5. What expedition was sent from Georgia in 1789 ? — 6. Who invaded Georgia in 1742?- 7. What took place at the moment that Oglethorpe was about to attack the Spanish camp? — 8. When did war again occur between England and France ? — 9. Who was entrusted with the command of the forces sent against Louisburg? — 10. What did the French do in 1746? — 11. What company was formed in England in 1750? — 12. Who was sent by the Gov. of Virginia, to the French commander on the Ohio with a letter ? — 13. Who commanded the forces sent to dis- lodge the French from the Ohio ? — 14. What fort did he build at the Great Meadows ?— 15.— What met at Albany in 1754?— 16. Who was sent from England to aid in the defence of the colonies ? — 17. What fort did general Lyman build near the south end of lake George? — 18. What did the French army now do ? — 19. What took place in 1756? — 20. When did the fort at Oswego surrender to the French ? — 21. What did the French do the ensuing summer ? — 22. What took place jrnmc- AMERICAN HISTORY. 201 diately after the French had taken possession of the fort?— 23. Who was placed at the head of the English ministry ? — 24. How many ex- peditions were planned for the campaign of 1758? — 25. Who conduct- ed the expedition against Crown Point? — 26. What did the English commander determine to do ? — 27 What was the object of the cam- paign of 1759?— 28. Who was appointed to conduct the expedition against Quebec ?— 29. How is Quebec situated ?— 30. What did Wolfe do after making several attempts to annoy the city ? — 31. What did Montcalm the French commander do after the English had ascended the heights ? — 32. Who were mortally wounded in the commencement of the action? SECTION VII. STAMP ACT. FIRST CONGRESS. COMMENCEMENT OF THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR. 1 . By the late war, England found that though she had gained immense territories to her empire, she had also added the im- mense amount of three hundred and twenty millions of pounds to her debt. To obtain the means of defraying the annual interest of this sum, and to meet the other exigences of the state, was a task imposed upon her legislators both difficult and perplexing. A regard for their own popularity and in- terest, led to the wish of avoiding, if possible, the imposition of the whole burden upon the mother country, and as the colonies were greatly benefitted by the issue of the war, it seemed but just that they should defray a part of the expense. 2. A system of colonial taxation was therefore resolved on, and the ministers eagerly seized the first favourable opportu- nity for carrying their plan into execution. At this time the general opinion in Europe was, that colonies were depend- ant upon the will of the parent country ; the inhabitants a subordinate and distinct class of subjects, and that their in- terests were only to be considered in subserviency to her prosperity. In this view of the matter the parliament of England had already enacted laws of navigation and trade, by which the commerce of the colonies was made to centre in Britain. ' The restrictions thus imposed on her commerce, had already awakened the jealousy and the fears of New- England, and the spirit thus aroused, had manifested itself sufficiently plain, to indicate the danger which might arise rom any arbitrary measures. 18 202 AMERICAN HISTORY. 3. Sugar, coffee, indigo, and some other articles, were now charged with additional duties. At the same time that the resolutions imposing these duties were moved in parlia- ment, Mr. Grenvilie, the prime minister, notified his intention of proposing at the next session of parliament, " certain stamp duties on the colonies." As it was for seen that much oppo- sition would be excited in the colonies by thy proposed mea- sure, and the law evaded and disregarded, extraordinary means were used to enforce it, and an act passed directing that all penalties incurred by a violation of any of the revenue laws, might be recoverable in the courts of admiralty. 4. The effect of these proceedings was to spread dismay and alarm through the colonies. They were viewed as the beginning of a system of oppression, which eventually would deprive them of the rights of British subjects. At the J urn session, the general court of Massachusetts took into con sideration the late acts of parliament imposing the new duties and especially the proposed stamp act. Instructions were sent to the agent of the colony in London, directing him t remonstrate both against the duties already imposed, and als against those in contemplation. The colony of Virginia also prepared to address the king ; and in all the provinces asso- ciations were formed encouraging the disuse of all articles of British manufacture. 5. On the 22d of March, 1765, the proposed stamp act was passed. Great opposition was made by several members of parliament to the bill, among the most distinguish- ed of whom was colonel Barre. But his arguments and his eloquence were of no avail ; the act was passed, and received the approbation of the crown. Dr. Franklin, who was then in London, as agent for Pennsylvania, wrote to Charles Thompson, his friend in America ; — " The sun of liberty is set ; you must light up the candles of industry and economy.' 7 "Be assured," replied Mr. Thompson, "we shall light up torch- es of quite another sort." 6. In opposition to the obnoxious law, Virginia led the way. The burgesses of that colony were in session when the intelligence arrived of the passage of the act, and Patrick Henry, a member of the assembly, and a distinguished orator, immediately proposed five resolutions for adoption. The four first of these asserted the rights and privileges of the colonists, and the fifth denied the right of the British parlia- u I e AMERICAN HISTORY. 203 inent to tax America. At the same time, in all the colonies, the flame of opposition burst forth, and a feeling of general indignation pervaded the country. Letters from the assem- bly of Massachusetts were addressed to the other colonial assemblies, proposing that deputies should be sent from each colony to meet in congress, in order to consult upon the general interests. 7. On the first Tuesday of October, 1765, the proposed congress met in the city of New- York, at which were pre- sent delegates from Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecti- cut, New-Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, and South Carolina. The first act of the congress was, a decla- ration of rights, in which they asserted that the inhabitants of the colonies were entitled to all the privileges of persons born in Great Britain ; and as the most essential of these, they enumerated the right to tax themselves, and the privilege of trial by jury. The congress also agreed upon a petition to the king, and a memorial to both houses of parliament. 8. Non-importation agreements, and a suspension of all proceedings in courts of justice were proposed, in order to render unavailing the obnoxious acts. In the mean time, the ministry of England was changed ; and as it was perceived that the statutes of which the Americans complained, must either be repealed, or that they must be enforced by arms, a proposition to repeal, was laid before parliament. Mr. Gren- ville, who had proposed the stamp duties, opposed the mo- tion for repeal, in which opposition he was joined by several other distinguished members. On that side of the question it was urged, that to repeal the act would be a degradation of the government, and an encouragement of rebellion- 9. Mr. Pitt, lord Camden, and some others, advoc ated the motion for a repeal. The former, m an eloquent and powerful speech, exposed the folly and injustice of the measures' adopt- ed ; and in the course of his remarks, vindicated America from the charge of ingratitude, which some of the opposite side had attempted to fix upon her. The stamp act was fi- nally repealed ; but at the same time, another was passed, declaring " that parliament have, and of right ought to have, the right to bind the colonies in all cases whatever." This declaration greatly diminished the joy with which the Ameri- cans would otherwise have received the information of the repeal of the stamp act. 204 AMERICAN HISTORY. 10. New taxes on tea, glass, paper, and other articles, were imposed in 1767. This measure produced a circular from the general court of Massachusetts, inviting the other colonies to act in concert in seeking a redress of their grie- vances. These proceedings and this opposition greatly alarmed and irritated the ministry ; and Sir John Bernard, then governour of Massachusetts, was directed to require the general court to rescind their circular letter, which, by a vote of ninety-two to seventeen, they refused to do, and the go- vernour according to his instructions dissolved them. 11. Approaching war was indicated by the affairs of the col- onies, at the commencement of the year 1768. The agent of Massachusetts was refused admission into the presence of the king, and governour Bernard refused to convene the gen- eral court of the province, though earnestly requested to by all ranks of men. But these attempts to intimidate the colonies only strengthened their opposition. The non-importation agreements which had lately been abandoned, were again more generally adopted, and a convention of delegates from every town in Massachusetts met at Boston, and its acts were received with the same respect as those of a legal assembly. 12. General Gage, the commander-in-chief of all the regu- lar troops in the colonies, was ordered to station a regimen* of troops at Boston, not only to overawe the people, but to pro- tect the revenue officers in the discharge of their duty. On the 28th of September, two regiments of troops, and seven armed vessels arrived at Boston from Halifax. The authori- ties of the town were ordered to provide quarters for the troops, but they refused, and the governour commanded the state house to be opened for their accommodation. All the rooms except one, which was reserved for the councrl, were filled, and two pieces of cannon were placed before the en- trance. 13. An affray between the soldiers and some of the inha- bitants of the town of Boston took place on the 5th of March, 1770, in which four persons were killed. The town and the neighbouring country were alarmed, and the soldiers, to avoid the popular fury, were obliged to retire into the castle. A court was instituted for the trial of the soldiers who fired upon the people, and all, except two, who were found guilty of manslaughter, were acquitted. John Adams and Josiah Quincy, both noted for their resistance of British aggression AMERICAN HISTORY. 205 were the advocates for the accused, and the readiness with which they engaged in the cause, was equally honourable to themselves and to their country. 14. All the increaseo duties except those on tea, were about this time removed by parliament, which showed in all its conduct a mixture of obstinacy and timidity, peculiarly characteristick of that period. The duty on tea would also have been relinquished, had it not been deemed proper to re- tain it in order to assert the sup testacy of the parliament over the colonies. The non importation agreements were chang- to meet the altered statutes, and tea only was banished from the country. 15. About this time, three ships laden with tea arrived at Boston. The captains of these ships apprehending danger from the highly excited state of the publick mind, offered to return without landing the tea, provided a clearance could be obtained from the custom house ; but the officers of that establishment refused to grant the necessary papers, and the vessels remained in the harbour. The people of Boston, fearing that if the ships remained, some part of their cargoes would find its way into the country, determined to remove the danger at once, and in a summary manner. For this purpose, seventy or eighty persons, some of whom were dis- guised so as to appear like Indians, went on board the ships, and breaking open the chests, emptied their contents into the water. The number of chests thus destroyed, amounted to three hundred and forty-two. 16. As a punishment for this spirited conduct, parliament imposed a fine upon the citizens of Boston equal to the value of the tea destroyed, and shut the port by an armed force, till it should be paid. An act was also passed, giving tc the crown the appointment of counsellors, removing the custom house to Salem, and appointing general Gage governour, in the place of governour Hutchinson. Gage having summon- ed the general court to meet at Salem, their first act after they came together was, to resolve that a congress of dele- gates from all the colonies was necessary* and to appoint Janies Bowdoin, Thomas Cushing, Samuel Adams, John Adams, and Robert Treat Paine, men distinguished for their talents and opposition to England, to represent the colony of Massachusetts, in that assembly. 17. Gage, learning their proceedings, sent an officer to 18* 206 AMERICAN HISTORY. dissolve them, who, finding the door closed, and entrance de- nied, was compelled to read the order aloud on the stair- case. The inhabitants of Salem, far from manifesting a spi- rit hostile to the people of Boston, published a declaration, in which they asserted, that could they for a moment think of taking advantage of the distress of the latter, to increase their own wealth, they should consider themselves lost to every sentiment of justice and humanity. The other colonies sym- pathized with Massachusetts, and eleven of them approved of her proposal for a general congress, and nominated their del- egates ; Georgia and N. Carolina yet remained undecided. 18. On the 4th of September, 1774, the first general con- gress assembled at Philadelphia. Of this most important de- liberative body ever convened in America, Peyton Randolph. Esq., of Virginia, was chosen president. Upon this congress the eyes of all, both in the old and new world, were turned with the utmost anxiety. The officers of the British crown, justly alarmed at the calm and collected spirit which the co- lonies manifested, awaited, with dread, the results of the deli- berations of their delegates. 19. Congress resolved that each colony, whatever might be the number of its delegates, should have but one vote, and that the sittings should be with closed doors. Their first measure was to express a decided approbation of the conduct of Massachusetts ; to exhort that colony to perseverence in the cause of liberty, and to direct that contributions should be made in all the provinces for the relief of the citizens of Bos- ton. They next addressed a letter to general Gage ; drew up and adopted a bill of rights ; sent a petition to the king ; and an address to the people of England. In all these docu- ments, they expressed their readiness to obey all commands of the crown which did not infringe their rights ; but at the iiame time declared their unalterable determination to resist every attempt to take from them any of their privileges as Englishmen. 20. The party distinctions of Whigs and Tories, was first made in America about this time. The former favoured the colonies, the latter supported the demands of the crown. Gen. Gage having assembled a considerable body of troops at Boston, thought it prudent to fortify the neck of land which unites that city with the continent, and to seize the gunpowder, ammunition, and arms, stored at Cambridge and AMERICAN HISTORY. 207 Charlestown. The general court of Massachusetts having assembled about this time, the governour forbade its sitting ; but disregarding his order, the court resolved itself into a provincial congress, and adjourned from Salem to Concord. 21. April 19, 1775, at Lexington was shed the first blood in the war of the revolution. Gen. Gage having received intelligence that the provincials had deposited a large quan- tity of stores at Concord, a small town twenty miles from Boston, sent a detachment of eight hundred men under colo- nel Smith and major Pitcairn, to destroy them. Having ad- vanced as far as Lexington, five miles from Concord, the de- tachment found a small body of militia drawn up to oppose its progress. Major Pitcairn rode up to the provincials, and ordered them to disperse. Not being instantly obeyed, he ordered his men to fire. Eight of the militia fell, and the rest dispersed. The British proceeded to Concord, and destroy- ed the stores ; but on their return they were greatly annoyed by the inhabitants, who fired upon them from behind stone walls, fences, barns, &c, so that their loss during the retreat., amounted to two hundred and seventy-three, wounded, kill- ed, and missing. 22. The provincials believing an appeal to arms inevitable^ projected an expedition against Ticonderoga and Crown Point. Colonel Ethan Allen, of Vermont, and Benedict Aiv nold, of Connecticut, were appointed to head the expedition 3 aided by two hundred and seventy volunteers from those two provinces. Both forts were surprised and captured without bloodshed, and thus was obtained the command of the lakes, and the possession of one hundred pieces of cannon, and other munitions of war. 23. On the 10th of May, 1775, the second congress as- sembled at Philadelphia. As the general sentiment was, that a reconciliation might still be effected, congress once more ad- dressed the king by humble petition ; but at the same time, not having much confidence in its success, they issued bills of credit to the amount of $3,000,000 for meeting the ex- penses of the war. In Virginia, lord Dunmore, the govern- our, seized some powder belonging to the colony, and con- veyed it on board of a ship of war lying in James river. Pat- rick Henry putting himself at the head of a few companies of militia, marched to Williamsburg, and compelled the governour to pay the value of the powder. 203 AMERICAN HISTORY. 24. The last of May, general Gage having received a powerful re-enforcement from England, proclaimed martial law in the colony of Massachusetts. At the same time, he offered pardon to all who would return to their allegiance, ex- cept Samuel Adams and John Hancock. This measure, instead of dividing and intimidating as it was designed, only increased the indignation ot the Americans, and stimulated them to activity in preparing for resistance. 25. On the 16th of June, 1775, the provincials determined to fortify themselves on Breed's Hill, in order that they might annoy the British in Boston, and prevent them from issuing out into the country. The detachment sent for this purpose, laboured with such diligence that by the dawn of day, they had completed a strong redoubt. As soon as the morning dawned, the British perceiving what the Americans had done, commenced a heavy cannonade upon the new fortification from their ships. Not intimidated, the provincials continued their labour till they had completed a breast-work, reaching eastward from the hill to the water. 26. In order to dislodge the provincials, general Gage sent general Howe with a force of three thousand men, compos- ing the flower of the British army, to attack them. They left Boston in boats, and landed at Charlestown. Forming as soon as they landed, they marched slowly up the hill, fre- quently halting to allow the artillery time to demolish the American works. While advancing, the better to protect the troops, the village of Charlestown, containing about four hundred buildings, was set on fire and consumed. The Americans waited in silence the approach of the regulars, till they came within ten rods of the redoubt, and then open- ing upon them a deadly fire, threw them into confusion. Af- ter being twice repulsed, they attacked the redoubt, and the Americans having spent their ammunition, were forced to re- treat. 27. The British loss in this action amounted to one thou- sand and fifty-four killed and wounded ; the American to four hundred and fifty. The latter had to regret the loss of gene- ral Joseph Warren, an officer greatly esteemed for his many virtues. He was slain near the close of the engagement by an English officer who knew him. Though the British re- mained in possession of the field of battle, yet the provincials claimed the victory, and the question was triumphantly asked. AMERICAN HISTORY. 209 how many such successes the English could afford ? By the result of this action the confidence of the provincial troops in their own strength was greatly increased, while the British were convinced they were opposed by a resolute foe. 28. On the 15th of June, two days before the battle of Bunker's Hill, congress appointed George Washington commander-in-chief of the American armies. At the same time, Artemas Ward, of Massachusetts, colonel Lee, former- ly an officer in the British service, Philip Schuyler, of New- York, and Israel Putnam, of Connecticut, were appointed major generals, and Horatio Gates adjutant general. Soon after his appointment, Washington repaired to the army at Cambridge. He found it posted on the heights around Boston, with a line extended from Roxbury on the right, to the river Mystick on the left, while the British occupied Boston Neck, together with Bunker and Breed's Hills. 29. The first care of Washington, was, to inure the army to subordination and military discipline, to both of which it was a stranger. He requested congress to appoint a commis- sary-general and a paymaster-general ; formed the soldiers into brigades ; kept a number of the most active ment con- stantly employed in learning to manage the artillery ; and in a short time, by his talents and efforts, organized the army, and rendered it fit for service. In June, Georgia united in the opposition to British aggression. About this time also, a general post office was established, and a mail route opened from Falmouth in New-England, to Savannah in Georgia. Dr. Franklin was appointed the first Postmaster-general. 30. Congress now determined to send a force into Cana- da, in order to close the northern frontier against the British. Two parties were accordingly sent out under the command of generals Schuyler, Montgomery, and Arnold. The two former were to proceed by the way of Ticonderoga and Crown Point ; the latter, by the river Kennebeck. The par- ty under Schuyler and Montgomery reached St. Johns, which surrendered; and Montgomery proceeded to Montreal, which also capitulated. Arnold and his party, after enduring al- most incredible hardships, arrived before Quebec, and being joined by Montgomery, made an attack on the city, but failed. Arnold was wounded and Montgomery was killed. 31. About this time, Falmouth, in Massachusetts, and Bristol, in Rhode Island, were burned by the British. The 210 AMERICAN HISTORY. Americans were excited by these and some other outrages; to turn their attention to their navy. Massachusetts granted letters of marque and reprisal ; congress fitted out several frigates, while Washington sent several cruisers to intercept the store-ships of the enemy. By these measures, the spi- rit of adventure was awakened, and privateers soon swarmed upon the American coast. Captain Manly, of Marblehead. greatly distinguished himself in these privateering exploits. 32. Lord Dumnore, of Virginia, in November, issued a proclamation offering freedom to such of the blacks as should enlist under the royal standard. Several hundred of them in consequence, ran away from their masters, and repaired to Yorktown. A body of the Virginia militia immediately as- sembled, and defeated a large number of tories, regulars, and negroes, who were marching to attack them. Lord Dun- more, followed by his white and black troops, embarked on board one of his majesty's ships, and repaired to Norfolk. Here, he demanded a supply of provisions, which not being granted, he set fire to the town and destroyed it. 33. Parliament now passed laws prohibiting all intercourse with the revolted colonies, and hired oi the landgrave of Hesse Cassel and other German princes, seventeen thousand men to aid in reducing the rebels, as they were termed, to submis- sion. At this time the situation of the American army was such as was calculated to fill even the most enthusiastick mind with despondency. On the last day of December, when the old army was to be disbanded, only nine thousand six hundred and fifty men were enlisted for the ensuing campaign. Through the influence, however, of a bounty offered by con- gress, the regular army, by the middle of February, amounted to fourteen thousand men. 34. On the 17th of March, 1776, the British evacuated Boston, and sailed for Halifax, taking with them such of the loyalists as preferred to follow the royal standard. The British were forced to evacuate the town, or risk a general engage- ment, in consequence of the measures pursued by Washing- ton. On the night of the 4th of March, he caused a redoubt to be erected on Dorchester heights, by which the British found their shipping exposed to destruction. A detachment was sent to dislodge the Americans, but a violent storm of wind and rain rendered the undertaking impracticable, and it was therefore abandoned. AMERICAN HISTORY. 21 1 35. On the 1st of June, 1776, the British fleet came to anchor in the harbour of Charleston, South Carolina, and on the 28th attacked the American fort on Sullivan's Island, The troops in this fort amounted to four hundred men, under the command of colonel Moultrie. The fire from the British shipping commenced early in the day, and continued till dark; but Moultrie and his troops returned the fire with such spirit and success, that the British were repulsed and forced to abandon their design. Their loss was two hundred men ; that of the Americans no more than twenty. QUESTIONS. 1. How large a sum did England add to her national debt by the French war ?— 2. Upon what did the ministry now resolve? — 3. What articles were charged with additional duties ? ■— 4. What was the effect of these proceedings ? — 5. When was the stamp act passed ? — 6. In op- position to this act what colony led the way ? — 7. What took place on the first Tuesday in October, 1765? — 8. What were proposed in order to render unavailing the obnoxious acts ?— 9. Who advocated a repeal of the stamp act ? — 10. What new taxes were imposed in 1767? — 1L What did the affairs of the colonies indicate at the commencement of the year 1768 ?— 12. What was general Gage ordered to do? — 13, What took place at Boston on the 5th of March, 1770?— -14. What du- ties were removed by parliament about this time ? — 15. What arrived at Boston at this time ? — 16. What did parliament do to punish the in- habitants of Boston for their spirited conduct ? — -17. What did Gage do when he learned the proceedings of the general court? — 18. When did the first general congress meet at Philadelphia ? — 19. What did congress resolve? — 20, What party distinction was first made about this time ? — 21. When and where was shed the first blood of the revo» lution ? — 22. What expedition did the provincials project ? — 23. What took place on the tenth of May, 1775?— 24. What on the last of May ? 25. What on the 16th of June ?— 26. What did Gage do to dislodge the provincials from Breed's Hill ? — 27. What was the British and Amer- ican loss in this action ? — 28. What did congress do on the fifteenth of June ?— 29. What was the first care of Washington ?— 30. What did congress now determine to do? — 31. What towns did the British burn about this time ?— 32. What did lord Dunmore of Virginia do in No- vember ?— 33. What laws did parliament now pass ? — 34. When did the British evacuate Boston? — 35. Where did the British fleet anchor on the first of June, 1776? SECTION VIII. DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. TREATY WITH FRANCE. 1. On the 4th of July, 1776, the American Declaration of Independence was published to the world, and the reasons 212 AMERICAN HISTORY. assigned why the colonies withdrew their allegiance from the crown of Great Britain. This event, while it exalted Amer- ica in the eyes of the world, impressed a new character upon the contest. Under the solemn and deliberate sanction of congress, it was no longer a contest of subjects against their king, or of "children against their parents ;" but of men, and of freemen, contending for rights of which they knew the val- ue and the limits ; of men who had coolly estimated the cost, and were willing to abide the event of their undertaking. The declaration of independence also contributed to unite the colo- nies ; for they all felt that the Rubicon was now passed, and that to conquer or die was all that remained. 2. Staten Island was occupied by the British commanders early in July, with an army amounting to near thirty thousand men. Impressed with the idea that this display of power had intimidated the Americans, lord Howe, the English comman- der-in-chief, thought proper to make overtures of peace. He therefore issued a proclamation of pardon to all who would return to their duty ; and promising great rewards to all who should assist in aiding to re-establish the royal authority. His overtures not producing the expected eiieets, Howe next ad- dressed a letter to " George Washington, Esq." This letter Washington returned unopened, declaring that as it was not addressed to him in his official station, he could not receive it, and that as a private citizen, he could not hold any commu- nication with the servants of the king. 3. The British commanders now directed all their efforts to the capture of New-York. This post once gained, both parties foresaw would give the English a firm footing in America, and enable them to annoy New-England as well as as to keep the more southern colonies in awe. It was also expected that general Carleton, who commanded in Canada, would, by passing the lakes and down the Hudson, form a junction with Howe, and thus divide the eastern and south- ern colonies. But unforeseen causes prevented the execu- tion of these plans, and Washington was not compelled to di- vide his army in order to counteract them. 4. The American army nominally consisted of twenty- seven thousand men ; but a quarter of these were unfit for service, and another quarter were poorly supplied with arms. From these and some other causes, the whole effective force 22 AMERICAN HISTORY. indignation being expressed against his enemies, they thought proper to retire. 38. February 6th, 1778, France concluded a treaty with the United States. The basis of this treaty was, the acknow- ledgement of American independence, and a promise to sup- port it. This treaty was signed on the part of France by M. Gerard, and on the part of the United States, by Benjamin Franklin, Silas Deane, and Arthur Lee. "On the 20th of March, the American commissioners were received at the court of France as the representatives of a sister nation ;" an event which in the eyes of Europe was of the utmost impor- tance, and which for ever sealed the separation between Britain and her colonies. QUESTIONS. 1. What took place on the fourth of July 1776 ?— 2. When was Staten Island occupied by the British commanders ? — 3. To what did the British commanders now direct their efforts ?— 4. Of how many men did the American army nominally consist?— 5. When did the British land on Long Island? — 6. Who was executed as a spy about this time ?— 7. What took place on the 15th of September ?— 8. What at this time was the situation of the American army ? — 9. What ap- pears to have been the policy of Washington in conducting the war ? — 10. What did the Americans do on the 16th Sept.?— 11. When did the action of White Plains occur? — 12. What did the British do on the 16th Nov.? — 13. What did the American army now do ?— 14. What did congress resolve about this time ? — 15. What did Gen. Howe offer at this juncture? — 16. How numerous was the American army at this period ?— -17. What did Washington now determine to d« ?— 18. What did lord Cornwallis do? — 19. When and where did Washington retire to winter quarters ? — 20. What occurred on the 11th Oct.?— 21. What did congress do to defray the expenses of the war? — 22. What was the first attempt made by the British in the campaign of 1777 ? — 23. Who about this time embarked for America? — 24. Who was captured by Col. Barton on the night of the 10th July ? — 25. Who at this time was appointed to the command of the northern British army? — 26. What was Burgoyne's plan of operations ? — 27. What was done 3d May ? — 28. How far had Burgoyne advanced on the 30th June ? — 29. When did he reach the Hudson ?— 30. Where did he encamp on the 14th Sept.? — 31. When did he and his army surrender? — 32. What was an ob- ject upon which the mind of Howe seems to have been intent ? — 33. What battle was fought on the 11th Sept.?— 34. When did the British army enter Philadelphia ? — 35. What did the British do on the 22d Oct.? — 36. When and where did Washington retire to winter quarters ? — 37. What were formed about this time? — 38. When did Franco •onclude a treaty with the United States ? AMERICAN HISTORY. 223 SECTION IX. EVACUATION OF PHILADELPHIA. CAPITULATION OF CHARLES- TON. ARRIVAL OF THE FRENCH FLEET, 1. Carlisle, Eden, and Johnston, British commissioners for negotiating a reconciliation with America, arrived at Phi- ladelphia on the 9th of June. The concessions which they were empowered to make, came too late, and congress wholly refused to negotiate on any other terms except an acknow- ledgement of independence, and the withdrawal of the British troops. The commissioners next resorted to intrigue and bribery, but all their efforts were unsuccessful, and their con- duct being exposed, congress passed an act forbidding all far- ther intercourse with them. 2. On the morning of the 18th of June, preparations hav- ing previously been made, the royal army evacuated Philadel- phia, and took their course through New-Jersey to New- Fork. The American army under Washington hovered around them on their retreat, and an engagement took place at Monmouth, on the 28th of June, in which the British were defeated with the loss of seven hundred men. Gen. Lee, for his misconduct in this action, and for subsequent disre- spect to the commander-in-chief, was suspended from service, by congress, for the term of one year. 3. On the 8th of June, a French fleet under the command of count D'Estaing, arrived in Delaware bay. It was his intention to have blockaded the British fleet in the Delaware river ; but on his arrival, finding it had sailed for New- York, he followed it, intending to come to an engagement there. But owing to their size, he was not able to get his vessels over the bar between Sandy Hook and Long Island, and therefore sailed for Rhode Island to act in conjunction with general Sullivan, in an attack which he meditated upon the British troops there stationed. 4. On the 14th of August, Sullivan commenced the siege of Newport, relying upon the promised aid of the French. D'Estaing, having given chase to the British fleet under lord Howe, which on the morning of the 8th appeared on the coast, the latter decoyed him out to sea, and a partial en- gagement ensued. The hostile squadrons were separated by a violent storm, by which they were both so much shatter- ed, as to compel them to put into harbour to refit. D'Es- 224 AMERICAN HISTORY. taing, thus situated, refused to listen to the wishes or the re* monstrances of Sullivan, and sailed for Boston, in order to repair the damages his squadron had sustained by the tem- pest. Sullivan was now obliged to raise the siege, and re- treat to the main land, which was hardly accomplished, be- fore Sir Henry Clinton, with four thousand troops from New- York, made his appearance. 5. September oth, general Gray destroyed sixty large ves- sels near New-London, and also many mills, warehouses, &c, at New-Bedford and Fair-Haven. The conduct of the French admiral in refusing to aid Sullivan in the siege of Newport, excited much resentment, and it required all the address of Washington to sooth the disaffected, and prevent an open rupture. The campaign of 1778, was more distin- guished by the depredations and cruelties of the Indians, than any one during the war. The chiefs who led them on to these sanguinary deeds, were Butler and Brandt, two beings whose whole delight seems to have been in acts of blood. 6. The excision of Wyoming, a settlement consisting of eight towns on the Susquehannah, occurred about this time. The youth of this settlement were at this period with the ar- my, and but five hundred men remained capable of making any defence. In July, Brandt and Butler appeared on the banks of the Susquehannah with sixteen hundred tories and Indians under their command, and the two forts nearest to the frontier immediately surrendered. The men of the gar- rison were instantly butchered, and the women and children made prisoners. 7. Kingston, the principal fort, was then surrounded, and to dismay the garrison, the savages hurled into it two hun- dred scalps, reeking with blood. Colonel Denison, the com- mander, knowing it to be impracticable to defend the fort, in- quired of Butler what terms would be allowed should he sur- render, was answered, "the hatchet." The garrison was soon overpowered, and the savages, weary with slaughter in the detail, enclosed the men, women, and children, in houses and barracks, and then setting these on fire, the whole were consumed. 8. On the 3d of November, the French squadron sailed from Boston for the W r est Indies, and was soon followed by the British fleet on the American station. The English min- istry had placed their principal hopes of success in this cam- AMERICAN HISTORY. 225 paign, in the reduction of the southern states ; but it was not till iate in the season that preparations were made for carry- ing the plan into execution. On the 28th of December, a body of two thousand five hundred Hessians, English, and refugees, under the command of colonel Campbell, appeared before Savannah, and the city being totally unprepared for defence, surrendered. Four hundred and fifty American sol- diers fell into the hands of the British, together with a large quantity of arms and ammunition. Near the close of the year 1778, Washington retired to winter quarters at Middle- brook. 9. A change in the theatre of war from the northern to the southern states distinguished the campaign of 1779. Gene- ral Prevost, who commanded in Florida, marched to Geor- gia, and uniting his forces with those under Campbell, all Georgia submitted to their arms, the American troops that could escape retreating into South Carolina. In a short time after the reduction of Georgia, general Lincoln took com- mand of the American forces in the southern states. But the heat of the season prevented any active operations till September by either army ; and in the course of that month, count D'Estaing arrived on the American coast from the West Indies, with a fleet carrying six thousand French troops. 10. About the beginning of October, the combined forces of the French and Americans made an attack on Savannah. Great gallantry was displayed on both sides, but the British were successful, and the assailants were repulsed with the loss of near one thousand men in killed and wounded. Count Pulaski, a Polish nobleman, celebrated in the annals of his country, was mortally wounded in the assault, and soon after died. The next day after the action, the French troops em- barked for Europe, and the Americans retired to South Carolina. 11. Early in May, general Mathews, in order to promote the design of subduing the southern states, was sent to make a descent on Virginia. He proceeded to Portsmouth, Nor- folk, Suffolk, and Gosport, which he destroyed, and devasta- ted the surrounding country. But failing in exciting a revolt, which was the principal object of the expedition, Mathews was recalled, and an expedition against Verplank's Neck, and Stony Point was projected. Both these forts fell into the hands of the British, and their loss was a material detri* 20 226 AMERICAN HISTORY. e merit to the Americans, for they were now obliged to make a circuit of ninety miles in order to communicate with the nor- then or southern provinces. 12. The re-capture of Stony Point and Yerplank's Nee was an object of great importance to the Americans. Was ington accordingly sent general Wayne to attack the former, while general Howe attempted the latter. Wayne, with his troops arrived under the walls of the fort about midnight, and separating into two columns, attacked the fort on two sides. The British garrison opened a tremendous fire upon the as- sailants, but undismayed, they pressed forward, opened their way with the bayonet, and scaling the walls, the two columns met in the centre of the fort. The British lost six hundred in killed, wounded, and prisoners, and the Americans one hundred. The attack on Verplank's Neck was unsuccessful. 13. In July, congress directed general Sullivan, with two thousand men, to march against the Indians at the west, and repress their incursions. At Wyoming, he was joined by sixteen hundred men under James Clinton, and proceeded to Newtown, at the confluence of the Conhockton and Canisteo rivers. Here, the Indians under their chiefs, Brandt, But- ler, and Johnson, were assembled in considerable numbers, and had thrown up an entrenchment, and strengthened it by a redoubt and palisades. General Sullivan immediately at- tacked them ; and after a contest of two hours, compelled them to fly. The savages were struck with terrour, and Sul- livan marching through their country, destroyed forty villages and an immense quantity of grain. 14. In September, on the coast of Scotland, occurred one of the most bloody naval battles recorded in history; in which Paul Jones acquired great reputation as a bold and fortunate commander. He was a Scotchman by birth, but had been by congress appointed a captain in the American navy, and now commanded a squadron which had been fitted out in the ports of France. His fleet consisted of the Bon-homme Richard, of forty guns, the Alliance, of thirty-six, the Pallas, of thirty-two, and two smaller vessels. While cruising on the coast of Scotland, he fell in with a fleet of British mer- chantmen, convoyed by the Serapis, of forty-four guns, and the Countess of Scarborough, of twenty. 15. After an action of an hour, the Bon-homme Richard and the Serapis approached so near each other, that Jones, sei- AMERICAN HISTORY. 227 aing the opportunity, grappled them together. The battle now raged with terriflck fury, and the carnage on board both vessels was appalling. Both frigates were several times on fire, till at length the magazine of the Serapis blew up, and killed several of her men. At ten o'clock she surrendered ; but Jones' ship was so shattered that her crew were obliged to go on board the conquered ship, and their own soon after sunk. The Pallas in the mean time engaged the Countess of Scarborough, and captured her. Jones with his prizes sailed for Holland, and anchored in the Texel October 6th. 16. Toward the close of the year 1779, the paper curren- cy of the States was so much depreciated, that thirty dollar? in paper were worth no more than one in specie. This de- preciation of the currency, produced an alarming degeneracy of publick morals. A set of men arose, in whose breasts patriotism was extinguished by the spirit of avarice, and who cared nothing for the distresses of their country, if they could enrich themselves with her spoils. Hence, many worthless characters suddenly amassed immense wealth, while many honest, deserving persons sunk into poverty. The amount of bills issued by congress up to this time, was one hundred and sixty millions of dollars. 17. In July, the British sent a detachment from Halifax, and established a post on Penobscot river, in the province of Maine. Their force consisted of one thousand men, under the command of general Maclean, with several armed ves- sels, which occupied the river. Massachusetts, whose territo- ry was thus invaded, sent general Lovell with a force of fifteen hundred men, and a number of armed vessels and transports, to dislodge the enemy. But the enterprise was unsuccess- ful, owing principally to the conduct of the officer command- ing the armed vessels, who refused to aid me troops in their attack upon the British works. Of the American fleet, two ships fell into the hands of the enemy, and the rest were blown up and destroyed. 18. Early in October, the British evacuated Newport, and the Americans took possession of the town. The enemy left the place in good condition, treated the inhabitants with ci- vility, and abandoned to them a large quantity of hay, wood, and military stores. At this time congress was greatly per- plexed by the intrigues of the courts of France and Spain. To the former, they were urged to abandon the valuable fish- 228 AMERICAN HISTORY. cries of Newfoundland, and to yield the latter the exclusive navigation of the Mississippi. Congress, however, continu- ed inflexible, and Spain having in view the same object as France, the humbling of England, joined in the conflict. 19. The armed neutrality was formed about this time, by the courts of Russia, Sweden, and Denmark, in which they were afterward joined by France, Spain, and Holland. Eng- land had for a long time regarded herself as the mistress oi the sea, and claimed the right of searching even neutral ves- sels for articles contraband of war ; a right which she now ex- ercised with a vexatious and exulting scrutiny. By the treat) of the "armed neutrality" the contracting powers stipulated that neutral vessels might freely navigate from one port to an- other ; that all effects, except such as a former treaty had re- cognized as contraband, should be free as soon as on board a neutral vessel ; that no port should be considered as block- aded unless invested by a competent actual force, and thai all prizes should be adjudged according to the rules provi- ded by this instrument. 20. To this treaty, England and Portugal refused to be- come parties. Holland was threatened by the British court with exemplary punishment if she should accede to the treaty; but disregarding all menances, she became a party in the alli- ance. The British ministry unwilling to engage in a war with Russia at that juncture dissembled their displeasure, and eva- ded giving a direct answer to the solicitations of that power. These movements in Europe, had the effect of causing the war in America to be prosecuted with less vigour on the part of Britain, and many of her statesmen began to apprehend that the contest would end in the loss of the revolted colonies to the English crown. 21. At this period of the contest, the women of South Carolina displayed a heroism and love of country which rai- sed them above the wives and daughters of Sparta. They gloried in the appellation of "rebel ladies ;" and though strong- ly solicited by the British officers, refused their presence at every party of pleasure and scene of amusement. Though surrounded with peril, they visited the prison-ships and the dungeons ; sought out and relieved the suffering soldiers ; encouraged and animated their husbands and brothers to fight the oppressor ; and at every hazard, to prefer imprisonment and death to servitude and infamv. AMERICAN HISTORY. 229 22. A society of ladies for providing clothing for the sol- diers, was formed at Philadelphia. At the head of this so- ciety was Mrs. Martha Washington, the wife of the command- er-in-chief. This lady was prudent in the management of the private affairs of her illustrious husband ; presided over his domestick finances ; and by her amiable virtues, enabled him to devote himself to his publick duties and cares. Mrs. Washington and the ladies associated with her, subscribed considerable sums for the publick use, and by their influence stimulated others to similar deeds of liberality. QUESTIONS. 1. Who arrived at Philadelphia on the 9th June ? — 2. When did the British army evacuate Philadelphia ?— 3. Who arrived in the Dela- ware on the 8th June ? — 4. What took place on the 14th August ? — 5. What on Sept. 5th ?—6. What occurred about this time ?—7. What occurred at Kingston ?— 8. What did the French squadron do on the 3d Nov.?— 9. What distinguished the campaign of 1779?— 10. What occurred about the beginning of Oct.? — 11. What early in May ? — 12. What was an object of great importance to the Americans ?— 13. What did congress direct Sullivan to do in July ? — 14. What occurred on the coast of Scotland in Sept.? — 15. What happened after an action oi an hour ? — 16. What is said of the paper currency toward the close of 1779?— 17. What did the British do in July ?— 18. What, early in Oct.? — 19. By what powers was the "armed neutrality" formed ? — 20. What powers refused to become parties to this treaty ? — 21. What is said of the women of South Carolina at this period of the contest ?—• 22. What society was formed at Philadelphia ? SECTION X. FRENCH TROOPS ARRIVE AT RHODE ISLAND. BATTLE OF GUILFORD. CAPTURE OF CORNWALLIS. 1. The campaign of 1780, commenced with an attack upon Charleston, the capital of South Carolina. Sir Henry Clinton, with a part of his army, appeared before the place early in the month of February, and erected batteries, frcm which an incessant and destructive fire was kept up. The city soon offered terms of capitulation, which were rejected by Clinton, who proposed terms which the citizens in their turn rejected. Clinton then pressed the siege with increased vigour, and the inhabitants, seeing no hope of escape or of relief, consented to the very terms they before rejected, and m the 12th of May, the capitulation was signed* 20* 230 AMERICAN HISTORY. rails land. 2. About this time, a French fleet, with a number of tr; ports, carrying six thousand men, arrived at Rhode Islam The fleet was commanded by M. de Fernay, and the troops by count de Rochambeau ; but by an agreement between the court of Versailles and congress, Washington was to be commander-in-chief of all the troops, both French and Ame- rican. The French were immediately put in possession of Rhode Island, and in order to unite more closely the two ar- mies, Washington " ordered the distinctive colours of the national flags to be blended in the banners of his army." 3. Colonels Sumpter and Marion, two partisan officers, greatly distinguished themselves in South Carolina. The former was a native of that state, and was greatly beloved by his fellow citizens, over whom he had great influence. He collected great numbers of them, and though they were often almost destitute of the means of subsistence, and obliged to use their implements of husbandry for weapons of war, yet they kept the enemy in check, and often caused them serious disasters. In some instances, Sumpter and his men were known to charge the enemy with but three rounds of am- munition to a man, but their frequent skirmishes with the British, soon furnished them with arms and cartridges. Ha- ving thus equipped his men, whose number now amounted to six hundred, he determined to attack some of the strong holds of the enemy. 4. August 6*h, Sumpter attacked a British regiment sta- tioned at Hanging Rock, and totally routed them. Mean- while the Baron de Kalb, who had been sent from Maryland to defend South Carolina, was advancing by slow marches toward the point of his destination, being re-enforced on his way by some Virginia militia, and the troops of North Caro- lina, under general Caswell. General Gates, who had been appointed to the command of the southern army, joined de Kalb at Deep river, and advanced at the head of four thou- sand men toward South Carolina. When he arrived on the frontier of that state, he issued a proclamation, inviting the in- habitants to join him, which had so great an effect, that even whole companies, which had been raised for the service of the king, deserted, and he took post at Clermont, near Camden. 5. On the 16th of August, a general engagement took place at Camden, between the Americans under Gates, and *he British under lords Cornwaflis and Rawdon. The two AMERICAN HISTORY. 231 armies had simultaneously marched from their respective camps, each with the design of surprising the other, and at two in the morning, the advanced guards of both armies met. and the firing commenced* From the prisoners taken, each commander learned the designs of the other, and the two ar- mies, suspending their fire, halted in order of battle, and waited for the dawn of day. 6. The Americans were defeated, fleeing in the greatest disorder, and pursued by the British twenty-three miles. The ill conduct of the Virginia and North Carolina militia ? who broke and fled in the very commencement of the action,, was the probable cause of the disaster. The loss of the Americans in killed, wounded, and prisoners, amounted to two thousand, together with all their artillery, baggage, and stores. Baron de Kalb was wounded, and died three days after the battle, greatly lamented by the American army. General Gates retired into North Carolina. General Sump- ter was defeated near the Wateree, by colonel Tarleton, and colonel Marion alone kept the field. 7. While these events were transpiring at the south, the attempt of general Arnold to betray his country was disco- vered at the north. Arnold was greatly beloved by the Ame- rican people, on account of his bravery and good conduct. Having been severely wounded at the attack on Quebec, and again in the battle of Saratoga, from the last of which he had not entirely recovered, he was excused from active service, and congress conferred upon him the command of Philadel- phia. Here he lived in an expensive style, far above his in- come, and contracted large debts. To discharge these, and support his extravagance, he engaged in commerce and priva- teering, and in these he was unfortunate. 8. To supply his wants, he next had recourse to the pub- lick money, to which as an officer he had access, and to pre- vent discovery, made large claims upon the government. Congress being dissatisfied, appointed a committee to inves- tigate his accounts, andthe result of their examination was, a reduction of nearly one half the amount of his claims. Ar- nold, much incensed, appealed to congress, who caused his accounts to be re-investigated, and they were found worse than they had been represented by the first committee. Ar- nold poured out invectives against congress, till Pennsylvania, greatly offended, accused him of peculation, and brought him 232 AMERICAN HISTORY. before a court martial, by which he was sentenced to be re- primanded by Washington. 9. To obtain money, and gratify his revenge, he now sold himself and his country, to the British. His offers were ac- cepted ; and at the instigation of Clinton, he asked and ob- tained the command of West Point, the most important post in the possession of the Americans. This fortress, he enga- ged to deliver to the British commander, and for this purpose the traitor made instant dispositions, by so scattering his troops as to render them an easy prey, when his treason should be ready for consummation. All things were now prepared, and a few days would probably have sealed the fate of Ame- rica, when the whole plot was providentially discovered. 10. To complete the negotiations, major Andre, aid-de- camp of general Clinton, was sent to have a personal inter- view with Arnold. Andre landed from the Vulture, a British sloop of war, which had been stationed near West Point, to facilitate the business. Arnold and Andre met at the house of one Smith, a refugee, situated within the American lines, where they spent the night in conference. But the day dawned before their arrangements were completed, and An- dre remained concealed through the day, during which time the Vulture found it necessary to change her position, in or- der to get out of the reach of a gun which had been so placed as to annoy her. 1 1 . At night, Andre, at the persuasion of Arnold, changed his uniform for a common dress, and taking a pass, under the name of John Anderson, and being furnished with a horse by Smith, set out on his return to New- York, by land. He passed all the American out-posts in safety, and had reached Tarrytown, near the British lines, w r hen he was stop- ped by three militia men. Instead of producing his pas?. which would at once have procured his release, he inquired, " where are you from V 9 The soldier replied, " from below." " So am I," said Andre. The soldiers now commenced searching him, and found in his boot, papers in the hand writing of Arnold, which disclosed the whole plot. He of- fered them great rewards if they would permit him to escape. Happily for America, the love of country was stronger in the breasts of these brave men, than the love of wealth, and they delivered Andre to colonel Jameson, who commanded the advanced guard. AMERICAN HISTORY. 233 12. The names of Andre's captors, were John Paulding^ David Williams, and Isaac Van Wart — names which ought to be held in lasting remembrance by every American. An- dre, having been conducted to Jameson, solicited of him permission to send a letter to Arnold, informing him of the arrest of John Anderson. In the confusion of the moment^ this was granted, and Arnold, thus learning a fact so impor- tant to his own safety, ordered his barge, and escaped on board the Vulture. An express was immediately sent to Washington, who was that day expected at West Point from Hartford. The express missed him on the way, and he ar- rived at the fort without any intelligence of what had trans- pired. 13. Andre was tried by a court martial, found guilty of having acted as a spy, and condemned to suffer death. Sir Henry Clinton, by whom he was greatly beloved, made every exertion to save him, but without effect. Washington was disposed to spare him, but strict adherence to military duty, and regard for the good of his country, forbade the exercise of that mercy which his heart dictated. Arnold escaped to the British, who rewarded his treason with the office of briga- dier general, and the sum of ten thousand pounds in money. At the close of the war, he went to England with the British army, but while he lived, he was scorned and derided by all who could despise a traitor. 14. The battle of King's Mountain, occurred late in the summer of 1780. Cornwallis, after the battle of Camden, determined upon the subjugation of Korth Carolina. Col. Ferguson, a man infamous for his cruelty, had been sent into the province, where his course was marked with devastation. The Americans, collecting under several commanders, and arming themselves as well as they were able, determined to attack him, and if possible, punish his barbarity. The at- tack commenced with great vigour, and the Americans were successful. Ferguson was slain, and 300 of his men were killed or wounded, and the remainder surrendered. 15. *On the night of the first of January, 1781, thirteen hundred of the Pennsylvania troops in the main army mutined. They paraded under arms at a given signal, and declared their intention of marching to Philadelphia, and demanding from congress a redress of their grievances. They procee- ded in good order as far as Princeton, general Wayne for- 234 AMERICAN HISTORY. warding them provisions to prevent them from plundering the inhabitants. Here they were met by emmissaries from Sir Hemy Clinton, who made them liberal offers if they would desert the service of their country. The offers were reject- ed with disdain, and the emmissaries seized and placed in strict custody. 16. At Princeton, a committee of congress, and a deputa- tion from the state of Pennsylvania, met the the mutineers, and the latter by granting a part of their demands, persuaded them to return to their duty. The emissaries of Clinton were then given up and executed as spies. This mutiny and ano- ther which occurred about the same time, excited the attention of the several states to the deplorable situation of their troops. The amount of three months pay was immediately raised and sent to them in specie. This was received with joy, as it af- forded evidence that their country was not ungrateful nor un- mindful of their sufferings. 17. The plan of besieging New- York was again resumed by the Americans early in 1781. France, beside the force already sent out under Rochambeau, determined to send a large squadron under count D' Grasse, who was to perform certain duties in the West Indies, and then repair to America, and co-operate with Washington. Congress, at the close of 1780, made every exertion to raise money and men. The bills of credit were now of no value, and congress itself had enacted that they should no longer be a legal tender in the payment of debts, or received for taxes. In this extremity, the American agents were authorized to borrow money from France, Spain, and Holland, and their attempts were success- ful. France gave the states six millions of livres, and Hol- land, on the security of Louis XVI. loaned them ten millions. 1 8. Robert Morris, of Philadelphia, a man of pure integ- rity, and great financial ability, was appointed treasurer. By his exertions, the most favourable results were produced. Congress gave their consent to a national bank, and by this means the wealthy were induced to invest their funds where they could be of use to the publjck. The treasurer also borrowed money in the name of the government, and pledg- ed for payment, the taxes not yet collected. He also used his own private credit to a great extent ; as at one time bills signed by him alone, to the amount of five hundred and eighty-one thousand dollars, were in circulation. AMERICAN HISTORY. 235 19. On the 17th of Jan. was fought the battle of the Cow- pens, in which the British under colonel Tarleton met with a signal defeat by the Americans under colonel Morgan. The British lost in killed and wounded, three hundred men, while that of the Americans was only twelve killed and sixty wound- ed. Colonel Morgan took five hundred prisoners, and all the artillery and baggage of the enemy. Cornwallis was ex- tremely mortified at the defeat of his favourite, and immedi- ately prepared to pursue Morgan and re-capture his prisoners. A military race through the Carolinas now commenced, in which the Americans were twice saved from destruction only by the providential rising of the streams flowing between them and the pursuing army. 20. The battle at Guilford court-house between the Amer- icans under general Greene, and the British under lord Corn- wallis occurred on the 15th of March. The army of Greene at this time amounted to six thousand men, militia and regu- lars. Soon after the firing commenced, several companies of the militia fled, and left the regulars to sustain the action alone. They fought an hour and a half with determined va- lour, and when forced by superiour numbers to retreat, they did it in good order, and without breaking their ranks. The total loss of the Americans in this action was about thirteen hundred ; that of the British was something less. Both com- manders found it necessary to retreat from the field of battle, and Greene retired to Speedwell's iron works, and Cornwal- lis to Wilmington. 21. The principal posts of the British in Carolina, were at Camden, Charleston, Ninety-Six, and Augusta. They had garrisons also at several other places, so that their forces were much divided, and thus a fine opportunity was present- ed to the partisan generals, Sumpter and Marion, to cut them off in detail. This they did not fail to attempt, and by their prudent and alert movements, gained so many advantages over the British regulars and loyalists, that they held the whole of the lower part of the Carolinas in check, while Greene and his army kept lord Rawdon employed in the High-lands. The latter, finding his situation becoming dan- gerous, called in all his garrisons from places not capable of defence. 22. On the 25th of April, the armies of Rawdon and Greene ? had an engagement at Hobkirk's hill, in which the 236 AMERICAN HISTORY. latter was defeated. After the action, Greene retired a few miles from the field, to re-organize his army, while Rawdon, unable to follow him, though boasting of victory, evacuated Camden, and retired toward Charleston, and took post at Eutau Springs. In the meanwhile, the British garrisons at fort Watson, fort Motte, and at Georgetown, all of which had been invested previous to the action at Hobkirk's hill, surrendered to the Americans. By the capture of these places, eight hundred prisoners, and a quantity of military stores, fell into tne hands of the captors. The posts at Ninety-Six and Augusta, were the only ones which remained in the hands of the British in the upper country, and these were already invested by the militia under colonels Clark and Pickens, and that at Augusta soon capitulated. 23. On the 1 8th of June, the Americans under Greene, hearing that Rawdon was approaching at the head of two thousand men, made an assault upon Ninety-Six. The gar- rison received them with great bravery, and the assailants were repulsed. Greene then withdrew toward North-Caro- lina, and three days after, Rawdon arrived at the fort. He examined the works, and finding them incapable of defence, he abandoned the place, and established his head quarters at Orangeburgh. Greene followed him, and took post on the heights of Santee. 24. About this time, occurred the execution of colonel Hayne, one of the most tragical and disgraceful acts of which the British commanders were guilty during the war. At the commencement of the war, Hayne took part with America, and at the capture of Charleston, was among the prisoners. He was offered his choice of either becoming a loyalist, or of going into close confinement. As his family was at that time ill with the small-pox at his plantation, his feelings as a husband and a father, triumphed over those of a patriot, and he consented to acknowledge his allegiance to the British crown, on the express condition that he was not to bear arms against his countrymen. 25. By the "death of his wife and two of his children, and still more by the total disregard of the British to their solemn engagement, that he should not be called upon to bear arms against his country, Hayne felt himself released from his ob- ligations, and he again joined the Americans. In a skirmish soon after, he was again taken prisoner, and without even the AMERICAN HISTORY. 237 form of a trial, condemned by Rawdon to suffer death. The loyalists, the governour of Carolina, and the ladies of Charles- ton, interceded in his behalf, but nothing could move the sa- vage heart of Rawdon, and amid the tears of even sympa- thizing foes, Hayne was led to execution. Soon after, Raw- don, followed by execrations, sailed for England, and colonel Stuart took command of the army. 26, The battle at Eutau Springs, which was fought on the 8th of September, 1781, waf distinguished as be- ing one of the most bloody during the war, and the last en- gagement of any note, which occurred at the south. After a severe contest, victory seemed to declare for the Americans under Greene, who had drawn up his forces with great skill The British being forced to retire, took possession in their flight of a large stone house, where they made so determined a stand, that Greene, finding it impossible to dislodge them, withdrew his troops. The whole loss of the British amount- ed to one thousand killed and wounded > and five hundred taken prisoners. The loss of the Americans was about six hundred. The whole of the states of South Carolina and Georgia, except Charleston and Savannah, were now in the possession of the Americans. $7. Previous to these events, Arnold, the traitor, had landed in the vicinity of Richmond, Virginia, at the head of seventeen hundred men, and destroyed all the publick stores collected at that place. La Fayette was sent by Washington, at the head of twelve hundred light infantry, to oppose the progress of Arnold, and the commander of the French squad- ron at Rhode Island, detached a part of his fleet to cut off his retreat by the way of the Chesapeake. Clinton, hearing of this movement, sent admiral Arbuthnot, with a squadron equal in force to that of the French, to relieve Arnold. The ■two fleets met off Cape Henry, and a partial engagement en- sued, with nearly equal loss on both sides. 28. Cornwallis was now directed to fortify himself at Yorktown, by Clinton, who having received a re-enforcement of three thousand Germans, believed himself able to defend New-York, which was threatened by Washington. On the 23d of August, Cornwallis entered Yorktown, and immedi- ately commenced erecting fortifications. Washington had in reality intended to have besieged New- York, but not re- reiving the supplies he expected, and hearing that D'e Grassc 21 238 AMERICAN HISTORY. the French admiral, could not remain on the coast longei than October, and that his instructions destined him to the Chesapeake, he changed his purpose, and determined to use every exertion for the capture of Cornwallis. 29. For this purpose he suddenly broke up his camp at New- Windsor, crossed the Hudson, and attended by the French army under Rochambeau, began a rapid march to- ward Virginia. To prevent Clinton from sending aid to Cornwallis, which he might at this time easily have done, Washington caused a report to be spread, that this was only a feint to draw Clinton out of New-York, and bring on a general battle. Hearing that De Grasse was now near the Chesapeake, the American commander no longer delayed crossing the Delaware, well satisfied that no aid could now reach Cornwallis. On the 25th of August he reached the head of Elk, the northern extremity of the Chesapeake, and embarking his troops, on the 25th of September the allied forces arrived at the appointed place of rendezvous. The united French and American forces amounted to sixteen thousand men, provided with a formidable train of artillery. 30. To withdraw Washington from his design, Clinton despatched Arnold, who had just returned from Virginia, on an expedition against New-London. Arnold despatched a part of his troops against fort Griswold, which stood nearly opposite New-London, and assaulted it on three sides at once. Many of the assailants were killed, but pressing for- ward, they entered the fort, and all resistance on the part of the garrison immediately ceased. A British officer inquired who commanded the fort. "I did," replied colonel Led- yard, " but you do now," and surrendered his sword. The wretch immediately plunged it into his breast, and his sol- diers, following his example, commenced an indiscriminate massacre. One hundred and twenty were either killed or wounded, forty only escaped. The enemy then entered New-London and destroyed it. 31. On the 9th of October, the Americans and French at Yorktown, opened a heavy cannonade upon the British lines. On the 11th, the second parallel, three hundred yards in front of the first was commenced. From the bat- teries here erected, the fire was still more furious and de- structive. Cornwallis, seeing no hope of safety except in flight, on the evening of the 16th, attempted to cross over to AMERICAN HISTORY. 239 Gloucester, intending to force his way through the troops stationed at that point, and proceed by rapid marches to New- York. But before the first division of his army reached the opposite shore, a violent storm dispersed his boats, and the project was abandoned. 32. On the 19th of October, Cornwallis and his army capitulated. The naval force in the harbour surrendered to the French admiral, and the garrison to the Americans. The same terms were granted to the British, as they had conceded to the Americans, at the surrender of Charleston, and gene- ral Lincoln was designated by Washington to receive the sword of Cornwallis. The whole number of prisoners taken amounted to seven thousand, of which near three thousand were unfit for service. Five hundred and fifty-two of the British fell during the siege. The same day that the capitu- lation was signed, Clinton passed Sandy Hook with a strong force, to go to the relief of Cornwallis ; but on reaching the Capes of Virginia, and learning the surrender of the army, he returned to New- York. p 33. The capture of a second British army, caused great exultation and joy throughout the United States, and in one instance, the emotions produced were so great as to cause immediate death. A day of publick thanksgiving was ap- pointed, and congress went in procession to the Lutheran church, to acknowledge their obligations to the Supreme Ruler of the universe. The loss of a second entire army, fully convinced the British ministry of the hopelessness of a longer contention ; and the people of England, groaning under the weight of the heavy expense incurred for carrying it on, demanded, with unanimous voice, the termination of the war. QUESTIONS 1. With what did the campaign of 1780 commence?— 2. What ar- rived at Rhode Island about this time ? — 3. Who greatly distinguish- ed themselves in South Carolina ?— 4. What occurred August 6th ?— 5. What August 16th ?— 6. What was the result of the battle of Cam- den ? — 7. While these events were transpiring at the south, what was discovered at the north ?— 8. What did Arnold do to supply his want of money to support his extravagance ? — 9. To gratify his revenge, what did he do ? — 10. What measure was taken to complete the nego- tiation ?— 11. What did Andre do at night ?—- 12. What were the names of Andre's captors ?— 13. What became of Andre ?— 14. What battle occurred late in the summer of 1780 ?—l5. What took place on the night of the 1st Jan, 1781 ?— 16. What took place at Princeton ?— 240 AMERICAN HISTORY 17. What plan was resumed by the Americans early in 1781 ? — Ife, Who was appointed treasurer bv congress ? — 19. What battle occur red 17th Jan. ?— 20. What on 'l 5th xMarch ?— 21. Where were the principal posts of the British in Carolina ? — 22. What occurred on the 25th April ?— 23. What on the 18th June ?— 24. What about the same time? — 25. For what reasons did Hayne feel himself released from his obligations ? — 26. What is said of the battle of Eutau Springs, fought on the 8th Sept. 1781 ? — 27. What took place previous to these events ?— 28. What did Clinton direct Comwallis to do?— 29. After Washington had determined to attack Cornwallis, what did he do ? — 30. What did Clinton do, in order 10 withdraw Washington from his design ? — 31. What took place on the 9th October? — 32. What on the 19th ? — 33. What effect did the capture of a second British army pro duce ? tiamm y^, flh 0fk A444* gmm SECTION XL TERMINATION OF THE WAR. FEDERAL CONSTITUTION. JEFFERSON CHOSEN PRESIDENT. 1. About the last of February, 1782, the English house of commons resolved " that they should consider as ene- mies to his majesty and tneir country, all who should advise or attempt a further prosecution of offensive war on the con- tinent of America." The resignation of lord North as prime minister, immediately followed the adoption of the above resolution. Sir Guy Carleton was appointed to succeed Sir Henry Clinton, as the commander-in-chief of the British forces in America, and admiral Digby was united with the former, to act as agents for treating with congress with regard to a peace, adopting as a basis, the acknowledgement of American independence. But congress, finding that parlia- ment had not authorized this step of the ministry, declined the negotiation. 2. In order to be prepared for an overture, when it should be properly offered, congress appointed John Adams, Benja- min Franklin, John Jay, and Henry Laurens, commissioners to treat with the court of Great Trritain. To meet these commissioners, Mr. Fitz Herbert and Mr. Oswald were sent to Paris on the part of the British. On the 20th of January, 1783, preliminary articles of peace were agreed upon at Versailles. As the differences between France and England were not yet adjusted, the definitive treaty was not signed till September 3, 1783. The terms granted to America by this treaty, were fully equal to the most sanguine expectations AMERICAN HISTORY. 241 of her friends, and the British ministers seemed aware of the policy of making her independent in fact as well as in name, and the more so, as France appeared to indulge a contrary disposition. 3. On the 10th of March, the American army, then lying at Newburgh, a serious disturbance took place among the officers, arising from aqi apprehension that they should be disbanded before the settlement of their arrearages. An anonymous address, written in the most glowing style, was circulated among the officers, and inviting them to meet on the ensuing day. Washington, aware of the state of feeling in the army, and intent on guiding what he could not prevent, issued a general order, calling a meeting of the officers on the day mentioned by the anonymous writer, but at a later hour, and alluding to the address in terms of the most pointed disapprobation. 4. In the interim, he prepared an address, and at the time appointed repaired to the place of meeting, where the officers being assembled, the illustrious chief arose to read the manu- script which he held in his hand. Being unable to distin- guish the characters, he took off his spectacles, and wiping them, said, " My eyes have grown dim in the service of my country, but I never doubted her justice. " Ke then deliver- ed his address, in which he alluded to the services and suffer- ings of the army, in the most feeling manner— -services and sufferings of which he had borne his full share ; treated with dignified severity the proposition to obtain by unlawful means redress of their grievances ; assured the officers that con- gress were favourable to the best interests of the army ; and concluded by conjuring them not to tarnish their glory by any act of folly and rashness, and pledging himself to use his exertions to procure from congress the just reward of their merit. 5. On the 4th of December, Washington took leave of the officers of his army, at New- York, which place had been evacuated by the British on the 25th of November, and im- mediately entered by a detachment of the American army. On Tuesday, at noon, the principal officers haying assembled at Francis' tavern, to take a final leave of their much loved commander-in-chief, his excellency entered the room. With emotions too strong to be concealed, he filled a glass with wine, and said/ " With a heart full of love and gratitude, I 21* A- 242 AMERICAN HISTORY. now take my leave of you. I most devoutly wish that you * latter days may be as prosperous and happy, as your former ones have been glorious and honourable." Then having drank, he requested the officers in succession to take him by the hand. General Knox, standing nearest, turned to him. Washington, in tears, grasped his hand, embraced and kissed him. In the same manner having taken leave of all the of- ficers, he left the room and passed to White Hall, where his barge was waiting to convey him to Paulus Hook. He then, having entered the barge, took off his hat and waved a silent farewell to his companions in arms, who had followed him. They paid him the same affectionate compliment, and the barge leaving the wharf, they returned in mute procession to the inn they had left, and soon after separated, each to his respective home. 6. On the 23d of December, Washington resigned into the hands of congress the commission which, eight years be- fore, they had given him. This being accomplished, in the presence of an immense concourse of spectators, who were deeply affected at the recollection of the scenes through Which the illustrious man before them had conducted his country, he bade farewell to congress, and retired to Mount Vernon, followed by the prayers and benedictions of his countrymen, and the esteem and admiration of Europe. 7. The United States, at the close of the war, were in a deplorable situation ; commerce languished ; a heavy debt was incurred ; manufactures had decayed ; heavy taxes were necessarily imposed ; and great discontents prevailed. The state governments adopted various expedients for the relief of their citizens. Rhode Island issued a quantity of paper money, a measure which involved that state in a difficulty which the general government had experienced — a depreci- ation of currency and loss of credit. 8. In Massachusetts an insurrection happened, at the head of which was one Daniel Shays. The passing of several laws by the general court, which were deemed oppressive, and the distress which everywhere prevailed, were the causes Of the rebellion. In August, fifteen hundred insurgents as- sembled at Northampton, and took possession of the court- house, intending, by preventing the sitting of the court, to prevent the execution of the obnoxious laws. General Lin- coln was sent against the rebels, and general Shepard was AMERICAN HISTORY. 24g directed to secure the arsenal at Springfield. On the 25th of January, Shays, at the head of eleven hundred men, ap- proached the barracks in that town, and demanded their sur- render. Shepard, after warning the insurgents of their dan- ger, ordered his men to fire over their heads. This not in- timidating them, he caused his fire to be directed against the centre of the column, by which three were killed and one wounded. The rebels then dispersed and returned to their homes. 9. A convention of delegates to form a new constitution for the United States, met at Philadelphia, in May, 1787, George Washington was chosen president of the convention, and after deliberating four months, they agreed upon a con- stitution for the United States of America, which being re- ported to Congress, was submitted for ratification to the se- veral states. Eleven of them gave their consent to its pro- visions, and subsequently the other two also acceded. The 4th of March, 1789, was the day appointed for the new con- stitution to go into operation, and for the inauguration of the president. 10. According to this constitution, the general government consists of three departments, the legislative, the executive, and the judicial. The first consists of a senate and house of representatives ; the former chosen by the state legislatures, each state choosing two ; the latter are chosen by the people, according to a fixed ratio of population, and each represen- tative holds his office two years. The executive power is vested in the president, who is chosen by electors, and holds his office four years. He is commander-in-chief of the land and naval forces of the United States ; nominates to the senate all officers of the general government, and with the advice and consent of two thirds of that body, ratifies trea- ties. A vice-president is chosen at the same time with the president, and in the same manner, who in case of the ab- sence, death, or resignation of the president, performs the du- ties of his office. He is also president of the senate. The judicial power of the United States is vested in a supreme court, and such inferiour courts as congress may establish, and its power extends to all controversies between citizens of different states, and between citizens and foreigners ; to admiralty and maritime cases, as well as to those which arise under the constitution, the laws of congress, and treaties* ;J44 AMERICAN HISTORY. The judges hold their offices during good behaviour, and re- ceive a salary from the general government. 11. George Washington, by a unanimous vote of the elec- tors, was chosen the first president under the new constitu- tion, and on the 30th of April his inauguration took place at the city hall in New- York. An immense concourse of spec- tators assembled to witness the ceremony ; and the novelty of the transaction, as well as its importance ; the mild dignity of Washington's manners, united with his exalted character ; the remembrance of the recent sufferings and achievements of America, in all of which he had borne a conspicuous share, contributed to give interest and solemnity to the scene. The several departments of the general government were next filled. Thomas Jefferson was made secretary of state ; colonel Hamilton secretary of the treasury ; general Knox secretary of war ; Edmund Randolph attorney general ; and John Jay first judge of the supreme court. 12. At the next session of congress, 1790, Mr. Hamilton made his celebrated report on the subject of the publick debts. In this report, after taking an able and enlarged view of the subject, he recommended that all the debts of the con- tinental congress, as well as those of the several states, in- curred in the common cause, should be assumed by the ge- neral government, and that provision should be made for paying the interest, by imposing a tax on certain articles of luxury, and on spirits distilled within the country. This re- port occasioned a long and animated debate in congress, and greatly excited the publick mind. At length the recommen- dation of the secretary was adopted, and the debts were as- sumed. The whole sum thus funded, amounted to about .seventy-five millions of dollars. Of this, a part was to draw three percent., and the remainder six per cent, interest. 13. In the year 1791, a national bank was incorporated. The same year, the tax on domestick distilled spirits was laid, according to the recommendation of the secretary, but the measure met with violent opposition. This year, Ver- mont adopted the federal constitution, and was admitted into the union. To the territory of this state, both New-Hamp- shire and New-York had laid claim, and within its limits both had made grants of land. Refusing to submit to either, the inhabitants, in 1777, declared themselves independent. The 6?Bt census of the United States was completed in 1791 AMERICAN HISTORY. 24B The number of inhabitants at that time, amounted to three millions nine hundred and twenty-one thousand three hun- dred and twenty-six ; the revenue to $4,771,000 ; the ex- ports to $19,000,000, and the imports to $20,000,000. 14. A war with the Indians in Ohio, commenced in 1792, The president, after having in vain attempted paciiick mea- sures, sent general Harmer, at the head of fourteen hundred men, to attempt the reduction of the hostile tribes. He suc- ceeded in destroying many of their villages, as well as much of their corn ; but in an engagement near Chilicothe, he was defeated, with the loss of a considerable number of his men. General St. Clair, upon the defeat of Harmer, was sent into the Indian country, with a force amounting to two thousand men, with which he marched into the wilderness in the month of October. 15. On the 3d of Nov., St. Clair encamped near the Mi- ami villages with his army, which, by various means, was now reduced to fourteen hundred. At this place he intended to remain till re-enforced. Before sunrise the next morning* immediately after the troops were dismissed from parade, 4 the Indians made an unexpected attack upon the camp. The militia who were posted in front, fell back in great disorder upon the regulars, and these having been hastily formed, were thrown into confusion. With great intrepidity, however, they rallied, and advancing into the midst of the enemy, forced them from covert to covert. But as soon as the troops re- turned, the Indians renewed the attack. At length, after a conflict of three hours, general St. Clair being wounded, a retreat was ordered, which was effected, and the remains of the army saved from total destruction. In this action the Americans lost six hundred and thirty killed and missing, two hundred and sixty wounded, together with the camp and ar- tillery. 16. Kentucky was admitted into the union in 1792. The same year a mint was established by congress, and the weight and value of the coin to be used in the United States regulated. The first term of Washington's service as pre- sident having expired, he was again unanimously chosen* and was inaugurated March 4th, 1793. Mr. Adams was also re- elected vice-president. Through the intervention of the Six Nations, a treaty of peace was made with the Indians on the Wabash this year, and the Miamis consented to a conference. 246 AMERICAN HISTORY. 17. The French revolution about this time began to affect the politicks of the United States. Greatly oppressed by in- stitutions which originated in times of despotism and igno- rance, and excited by the example of America, the people of France had risen in their strength, and declared their intention of being free. Under their united exertions, the ancient forms of government were overthrown ; the king, the queen, and all the hereditary orders were destroyed, and a new form of government arose from the ashes of the old. The funda* mental principle of this government was, the universal equal- ity of man, and his right to adopt such forms of government as his exigences might appear to require. 18. In April, 1793, the president issued a proclamation of neutrality. France had just declared war against England and Holland, and Washington, sensible that, aa America had but recently closed a long and expensive war, paace was es- sential to her prosperity, deemed it unwise to involve the country in a contest with either of the belligerants. The adoption of a neutral course was strongly advised by the cabi- net of state, and was the more honourable to the government, as the sympathies of the people were strongly enlisted on the side of France, as being a sister republick, and as having es- sentially contributed to the establishment of American inde- pendence. About this time, the French minister, Genet, ar- rived at Charleston, South Carolina, and presuming from the flattering reception given him that he should be able with ease to induce America to espouse the cause of his country, he began to fit out privateers from the port of Charleston to cruise against the commerce of Britain. The president dis- approved of Mr. Genet's measures, and congress when it met sanctioned that disapprobation. The French government immediately recalled the offending minister, and appointed Mr. Fauchet in his room. 19. In the autumn of 1794, the Whiskey insurrection took place in Pennsylvania. Ever since the passage of the act imposing a duty on domestick distilled liquors, great dissatis- faction had existed. At Pittsburg, a meeting of the disaffect- ted was held, committees of correspondence were establish- ed, andaforce of seven thousand malecontents was organized. A proclamation which the president had issued, enjoining all persons to abstain from all illegal associations, being disre- £arded,he thought it necessary to resort to more vigorous men AMERICAN HISTORY. 247 sures. Accordingly the militia of the neighbouring states was called out to the number of fifteen thousand men, and placed under the command of general Lee, of Virginia. This display of force had the desired effect. No resistance was attempted, and sixteen of the most active leaders of the in-* surrection were arrested, tried, and convicted of treason — but afterward pardoned. 20. About this time, general Wayne was appointed to suc« ceed St. Clair in the command of the army destined to act against the western Indians. Having in vain attempted to negotiate with them, Wayne, at the head of three thousand men, marched into their country, and a battle ensued near the Miami of the Lakes. The Indians were defeated, a vast number of them were killed, and their towns destroyed. This victory disposed the hostile tribes for peace, and had a favour- able influence upon the Six Nations. January 1, 1795, Mr. Hamilton resigned his office of secretary of the treasury, and Oliver Wolcott, of Connecticut, was appointed his successor. At the same time, general Knox resigned the office of secre- tary of war, and was succeeded by Timothy Pickering. 21. Mr. Jay, in the spring of 1795, negotiated a treaty with England, and returned to America. This treaty gave rise to long and spirited debates in the senate, but it was fi- nally ratified. By the terms of the treaty, all the posts which the British had retained, were to be given up to the Ameri- cans ; compensation was to be made for illegal captures ; the United States were to pay <£600,000 to the British govern- ment in trust for the creditors of American citizens in Eng- land ; but it contained no relinquishment of the right of search, or recognition of the principle that "free ships make free trade." While the treaty was under consideration in the senate, a member of that body incautiously divulged a part of its provisions, and the information was circulated with rapidi- ty to every part of the union. Much irritation of the publick mind was the consequence, and the president received ad- dresses from all quarters, praying him to withhold his signa- ture frofn the treaty. Washington, however, thinking it the best which could be procured at that time, in defiance of pop- ular clamour, signed it, and the senate, after some delay, made the necessary appropriations for carrying it into effect. 22. The same year, treaties were also made with Algiers, the Indian tribes in the west, and with Spain. By these x& 248 AMERICAN HISTORY. spective treaties, the American commerce in the Mediterra- nean was opened, and the American captives at Algiers re- stored ; the -vestern frontiers secured from invasion ; and the right of navigating the Mississippi and of deposit at New-Or- leans obtained. The conduct of France still giving umbrage to the American government, Mr. Monroe was sent out as minister to that power, and was received in the most flatter- ing manner by the French national convention. Mr. Adet was soon after sent by the French as minister to the United States, in the room of Mr. Fauchet, who was recalled. But notwithstanding the professions of friendship made on these occasions, France still laboured to involve America in her European contests, and committed great depredations on her commerce. Mr. Monroe was at length recalled, and Charles Pinkney sent out in his stead. 23. In September, 1796, Washington being about to retire from publick life, published a farewell address to the Ameri- can people. John Adams, of Massachusetts, was chosen to -succeed Washington in the presidency, and Thomas Jeffer- son, of Virginia, was elected vice-president. They were inducted into office on the 4th of March, 1798. Soon after he came into office, Mr. Adams received information from Mr. Pinkney, that he had not been accepted as American minister by the French directory, and that he had been order- ed to quit the kingdom. Congress was immediately conven- ed, and passed laws, increasing the navy, augmenting the re- venue, and authorizing the president to detach eighty thousand men from the militia. 24. To prevent war if possible, Mr. Adams sent three en- voys-extraordinary to France — Mr. Pinkney, Mr. Marshall, and Mr. Gerry. These the French government also refused to receive ; but an indirect intercourse was opened with them by M. Talleyrand, Minister for foreign affairs, by means of unofficial persons. From them a proposal was received, that a considerable sum of money should be given to Talley- rand, intimating, that if this was done, negotiations might be opened. The envoys rejected the proposition with disgust. -.After a residence of several months in Paris, all the envoys except Mr. Gerry were ordered to leave France, and he was solicited singly to enter into a negotiation. This he refused, :ind Mr. Adams soon after recalled him. • 25. These events were followed by depredations onAmr- AMERICAN HISTORY. 249 jfican commerce by the cruisers of France. Publick indig- nation was greatly excited, and congress not considering the treaty with France any longer in force, adopted measures for retaliation and defence. A provisional army was raised, and general Washington was appointed commander-in-chief. The navy was increased, and reprisals made on the ocean. The French frigate L'Insurgente, of forty guns, was captured by the American frigate Constellation, of thirty-eight, com- manded by commodore Truxton. Wljen France heard of these vigorous movements, the government made proposals for renewing the negotiations, and Mr. Adams appointed 01i« ver Elsworth, Patrick Henry, and William Yan Murray, en- voys to Paris, for concluding a peace. The envoys, on their arrival, found Napoleon Bonaparte at the head of the govern* ment, and with him they soon came to an amicable arrange- ment of all differences. , 26. On the 14th of December, 1799, general Washington expired at Mount Vernon, after an illness of twenty-four hours. He died in the sixty-eighth year of his age. The news of his death spread with rapidity through the union, and as it spread, filled every heart with grief, and every eye with tears. The publick journals, dressed in mourning, uniting with the tolling bells, announced to the weeping sons of liber- ty, " the father of his country is no more." In every consi- derable town the people assembled in the churches to listen to addresses, sermons, and elegies, adapted to the solemn and mournful occasion. The senate addressed a letter to the president of the U. S. expressing their sense of the common loss; and the house of representatives* directed that the speaker's chair should be dressed in black, and that the members should wear black during the remainder of the session. A commit- tee from both houses of congress were also appointed to de- vise a suitable method of paying proper honours to the memo- ry of the illustrious dead. In conformity to arrangements made by the committee, congress assembled in the German Lutheran church, where an eloquent and impressive oration was delivered by general Lee, of Virginia. 27. In the year 1800, the seat of government was removed from Philadelphia to the city of Washington. The states of Virginia and Maryland had ceded to the United States a ter- ritory ten miles square, on both sides of the Potomack, 4& few miles from Mount Vernon. In November of this year? 22 S 250 AMERICAN HISTORY. congress met for the first time in the new capital. Indiana was constituted a state this year, and a territorial government established in Mississippi. About this time, congress passed the alien and sedition laws. By the former of these laws, the president was authorized to direct any alien whom he should judge inimical to the publick peace, to depart the country immediately on pain of imprisonment. By the sedi tion law a heavy fine and imprisonment was inflicted upon a! such as should "combine or conspire together to oppose any measure of government," and upon all such as should " write, print, utter, publish, &c. any false, scandalous and malicious writing against the government of the United States, or either house of the congress of the United States, or the president, &c." Under this last law, several persons were actually im- prisoned, and the publick sympathies being awakened in their behalf, Mr. Adams, and all who promoted the passage of the two laws above mentioned, became very unpopular. 28. On the 4th of March, Thomas Jefferson was inaugu- rated president, and Aaron Burr vice-president of the United States. On his accession to office, Mr. Jefferson instead of addressing congress by a speech, as had been usual with his predecessors, sent them a written message, which, after being read by the senate, was by them transmitted to the house of representatives. This practice has uniformly been sanction- ed by all successive presidents. This year a second census of the United States was taken. The population was found to be 5,319,762, being an increase of 1,400,000 in ten years. In the same space of time, the exports increased from 19,000,000, to 94,000,000*and the revenue from 4,771,000. to 12,945,000 dollars. 29. Ohio was admitted into the union in 1802. The terri- tory occupied by this state, was originally claimed by Virginia and Connecticut, but was ceded by them to the United States at different times. Slavery was entirely excluded from the new state. In the same year the port of New-Orleans was closed against American shipping. The Spanish govern- ment having ceded Louisana to the French, the Intend- ant received orders to make preparations for delivering the country to the French commissioners. In consequence of this order, notice was given that the citizens of the United States would no longer be permitted to deposit their mer- chandise at New-Orleans. Thus the Western states were AMERICAN HISTORY, 25i in danger of suffering the total ruin of their commerce, and the publick mind was greatly excited. All difficulties were however removed in 1803, by the purchase of Louisana from France for the sum of fifteen millions of dollars. QUESTIONS. 1. What did the English house of commons resolve about the last of Feb. 1782?— 2. Whom did congress appoint commissioners to treat with Great Britain ? — 3. While the American army was lying at New- burgh, what took place on the 10th March ? — 4. What did Washington do in the interim to appease the discontents ? — 5. What took place on the 4th Dec.?— 6. What on the 23d Dec.?— 7. What is said of the Uni- ted States at the close of the war ? — 8. What occurred in Massachu- setts ?— 9. What met at Philadelphia May, 1787 ?—10. Of how many departments does the government consist, according to this constitu- tion? — 11. Who was chosen first president of the United States? — 12. What was done at the next session of congress? — 13. When was a na- tional bank incorporated 1 — 14. What war commenced in 1792? — 15 Where did St. Clair encamp on the 3d Nov.? — 16. When was Ken- tucky admitted into the union ? — 17. What about this time began to af- fect the politicks of the United States ? — 18. What was done in April. 1793?— 19. What occurred in the autumn of 1794 ?— 20. Who about this time was appointed to succeed St. Clair ? — 21. What did Mr. Jay do in the spring of 1795? — 22. What other treaties were made the same year ?— 23. What did Washington do in Sept. 1796?— 24. Whta did Mr. Adams do to prevent war with France ?- 25. What were these events followed by ?— 26. What occurred on the 14th Dec. 1799?— 27. When was the city of Washington made the seat of government ?— 28. What occurred on the 4th March, 1801 ? — 29. When was Ohio admit ted into the union ? SECTION XII. WAR WITH TRIPOLI. DIFFICULTIES WITH FRANCE AND ENG- LAND. EMBARGO LAID. WAR WITH ENGLAND. CAPTURE OF HULL. 1. In 1801, war was commenced between the United States and Tripoli. In the prosecution of this war, congress sent out commodore Dale with a fleet consisting of two fri- gates, and a sloop of war. With these he blockaded the har- hour of Tripoli, and prevented the vessels of those pirates from leaving it, thus affording protection to American com- merce. Congress having determined on more vigorous mea- sures, early in 1803, sent commodore Preble with a squadron of seven sail into the Mediterranean, 252 AMERICAN HISTORY. 2. la October, Preble sent captain Bainbridge in the fri- gate Philadelphia, to reconnoitre the harbour of Tripoli, but in chasing a small vessel, he ran the frigate aground, and she was captured. The Tripolitans considered the officers prisoners of war, but treated the crew as slaves. As soon information of the capture of the frigate reached the squad- ron, Stephen Decatur, then a lieutenant in the navy, determin- ed to prevent the barbarians from reaping any benefit from their success. Obtaining the consent of the commodore, he procured a small ketch, and in February, 1804, sailed from Syracuse, with a crew of seventy men. He entered the harbour of Tripoli, laid his vessel along side of the fri- gate, which was moored under the guns of the castle, rushed with his crew on board the Philadelphia, drove the Tripoli- tans into the sea, and settkig fire to the ship, made his escape without the loss of a man. 3. In 1803, captain William Eaton, who had been United States' consul at Tunis, having obtained the sanction of con- gress, undertook to dethrone the bashaw of Tripoli. To effect this, he entered into a league with Hamet, an elder brother of the bashaw, and whom he had expelled from the throne. Hamet was furnished with an army by the bey of Egypt, and Eaton was appointed to the command. With a few hundred men, he marched across the desert from Egypt to Derne, a Tripolitan city on the Mediterranean, a distance of one thousand miles, which he summoned to surrender. The governour returned for answer, "My head or yours." Eaton then attacked the city, and after a conflict of two hours and a half, took it. 4. On the 8th of May, Eaton was attacked by the whole Tripolitan army. Although the assailants were far more numerous than the army of Eaton, yet, after a contest of four hours, they were compelled to retire. On the 10th of June, they made another attempt, with no better success. The next day an American frigate came into the harbour of Derne, and the Tripolitans fled into the desert. The alarm spread to Tripoli, and while the bashaw was under its influ- ence, colonel Lear, the United States' consul, concluded a treaty, by which it was stipulated that an exchange of pri- soners should take place, and as the bashaw had a balance in his favour of nearly two hundred, it was agreed that the United States should pay sixty thousand dollars, as the prior AMERICAN HISTORY. 253 of their ransom. Upon the conclusion of this treaty, all support from Hamet was withdrawn, and the war in the Me- diterranean terminated. 5. In July, 1805, general Alexander Hamilton was mur- dered in a duel by colonel Aaron Burr, vice-president of the United "States. Colonel Burr had addressed a letter to general Hamilton, requiring him to deny or acknowledge certain offensive expressions in a publick journal, of which the former supposed the latter to be the author. This was refused, and a challenge ensuing, the parties met, and at the first fire Hamilton fell. He was the idol of one of the great political parties in the union, and the aversion of the other ; but as a man of talents and of eloquence, as a scholar and as a gentleman, he stood without a rival. The city of New- York paid extraordinary honours to his memory. Colonel Burr, his antagonist, from the time that Hamilton fell, ap- peared to sink in the estimation of his countrymen, and sub- sequent events contributed to lessen him still more, till at the present time, his name seems to be forgotten, except as brought to mind by the pen of the historian. 6. On the 4th of March, 1805, Mr. Jefferson was the se- cond time inducted into office as president of the United States. George Clinton, of New- York, was chosen vice- president. The condition of Europe at this time placed the American states in a situation eminently difficult. France, after surviving the war of the revolution, found a man at the head of her government, who, by his immense powers of mind, and his resources, acquired a greater or less control over many of the European nations. With Bonaparte at her head, France made a stand against the maritime power of England, and the latter power resisted France in her attempts by land. Both these nations seemed determined that even those who wished to be neutral, should unite with either one or the other contending powers ; and the maxim upon which they both appeared to act was, that any nation which should not resent the injuries of the one, should experience the dis- pleasure of the other. 7. With regard to the right of search, and the impress- ment of British subjects from neutral merchant vessels as well as ships of war, a great difference of sentiment was professed by the governments of England and America. By the constitution of the U« S., man is considered as being 22* 254 AMERICAN HISTORY. born free ; having the right to withdraw his allegiance from the government under which he was born, and remove to any other which he might prefer. Acting upon these principles, congress had early enacted laws, by obedience to which, all who chose to emigrate to the United States might become naturalized, and enjoy the same privileges as ^natural born citizens. This principle was not recognized by England, who contended that a man born under any government, could not, by any act of his, change his allegiance to that govern- ment. Hence, whenever her interest or convenience requir- ed, she claimed her subjects, and as the two nations speak the same language, many acts of unjustifiable oppression oc- curred, and much publick and private injury was sustained. 8. In 1807, a suspicious enterprise, projected by colonel Burr, excited the publick attention. By his intrigues against Mr. Jefferson, he had lost the confidence of the republican party, while the murder of general Hamilton, lost him the confidence of the federalists. Thus circumstanced, he had retired to the western states as a private citizen. Here he collected and armed a great number of men, whose ostensi- ble object was to form a settlement in Louisana. But go- vernment having reason to suspect the designs of Burr, in- stituted prosecutions against him in Tennessee, Kentucky, and in the territory of Mississippi ; but not obtaining suffi- cient proof for conviction, he was discharged. At length, as his plans became more developed, he was arrested on the Tombigbee river, and in February, 1807, sent prisoner to Richmond, Virginia, and in August following put upon his trial before judge Marshall, chief justice of the United States. 9. The two charges upon which he was tried were, first, a misdemeanor, in setting on foot an expedition against the king of Spain, with whom the United States were at peace ; second^ treason against the United States. But full evidence of his guilt not being found, he was acquitted. Still the people of the union believed him guilty, and in conse- quence treated him with marked neglect and contempt, till he was reduced to abject wretchedness. By these events, the strength and decision of the government was fully tested, otntp the vi- cinity of Boston, where he awaited the decision of the presi- dent of the United States, to whose mercy the court had re- 23 262 AMERICAN HISTORY. commended him, in consequence of his services in the war the revolution. The president approved the sentence of th< court martial, but remitted its execution, depriving Hull of al military command. QUESTIONS. 1 . When was war commenced between the United States and Tripoli —2. What took place in Oct.?-3. What in 1803?— 4. What on tin Sth May ?— 5. What in July, 1804 ?— 6. What on the 4th March, 1805 — 7. In regard to what subjects did the United States and England profess difference of sentiment? — 8. What excited publick attention in 1807 ? — 9. Name the two charges upon which Burr was tried ? — 10. What took place in June, 1807 ? — 11. What was done to manifest re- sentment for this insult? — 12. Who were elected president and vice- president in 1809?— 13. What occurred in March, 18G9?— 14. What proposition was made in 1810 ? — 15. What occurred about this time ? —16. Who marched against the Indians ? — 17. What did the presi- dent recommend at the meeting of congress in November ? — 18. What took place June 18th, 1812? — 19. Who was appointed commander-in- chief of the American army? — 20. What orders were transmitted to Gen. Hull about this time ? — 21. What occurred on the 5th July ?— 22. What on the 8th Aug.?— 23. What was to take effect early in Aug. ? — 24. What did the president do ? — 25. What occurred on the 16th Aug. ? —26. What did Gen. Brock do on the 15th ?— 27. When did Hull sur- render? — 28. Who were included in the capitulation? — 29. What be- came of Hull after he was exchanged ? SECTION XIII. WAR WITH ENGLAND CONTINUED. WAR WITH THE CREEKS. 1. On the 19th of August, 1812, the British frigate Guer- riere, commanded by captain Dacres, was captured by the American frigate Constitution, commanded by captain Hull, after an action of thirty minutes. Captain Dacres, a short time previous to the rencounter, challenged any American frigate of the class of the Guerriere, to a meeting. On the approach of the British frigate, captain Hull directed that her fire should be received without returning it, and the crew calmly obeyed the order. As soon as the enemy was suffi- ciently near, and his own position favourable, Hull gave or- ders to fire one broadside after another in quick succession, which was done with such precision, that in a short time the Guerriere had all her masts and rigging shot away, and her hull so much injured as to be in danger of sinking. The 1 British had sixty-five killed and sixty-three wounded. TV AMERICAN HISTORY. 263 Constitution was but little injured. Seven of her men were killed and seven wounded. 2. Soon after, the United States frigate Essex, captain Porter, captured the British sloop of war, the Alert, after an action of eight minutes. These successes healed in some measure the wounded pride of the American people — wound- ed by Hull's disgraceful surrender — and reanimated their sinking spirits. On the frontier of New-York, the military operations were under the direction of general Dearborn, and Greenbush was still his head quarters. At Plattsburgh, brigadier-general Bloomfield was stationed, and general Smyth at Buffalo. On the Niagara frontier, a portion of the New- York militia, amounting to five thousand men, under the command of general Yan Rensselaer, had taken post. Considerable bodies of regulars and militia were also sta- tioned at Ogdensburg, Sacketts Harbour, and Black Rock. In this manner the frontier was so carefully guarded, that the British seldom found an opportunity to commit any depreda- tions. 3. On the 13th of October, an attack was made upon the British post at Queenston, on the opposite side of the river from Lewiston. An attempt to cross had been made on the 1 1th, but owing to unfavourable weather, had failed. On the 12th, colonel Christie arrived at the American camp^ with a body of three hundred regulars, and the design was renewed. Colonel Solomon Yan Rensselaer was appointed to com- mand the militia, and colonel Christie the regulars. The two divisions landed on the Canada shore about the dawn of day, and were immediately formed by colonel Yan Rensse* laer, in order to storm the heights of Queenston. While waiting for orders to ascend the heights, the troops were at- tacked by the British, and colonel Yan Rensselaer was dan- gerously wounded. Colonel Christie not having crossed with the regulars, the command now devolved on captain Wool, the senior officer. Though he was also severely wounded, yet he led the troops against the batteries on the heights, and gaining an eminence which commanded them, the enemy soon retired^ leaving the post in the hands of the Americans. 4. At this instant, general Brock arrived from fort George with a re-enforcement of British troops. A furious charge ensued, in which Brock was at first victorious ; but receive 201 AMERICAN HISTORY. ing a mortal wound, his men fled in disorder. The Ameri^ cans now considered the day as their own, but they soon dis- covered general SheafFe approaching, with a body of one thousand British and Indians. General Van Rensselaer then recrossed the Niagara, to expedite the passage of the militia, who lay inactive on the American shore. But they now wholly refused to leave the territories of the United States, alleging that it was unconstitutional to require them to make offensive war. Thus abandoned by their brethren in arms, the troops already on the Canadian shore, after a brave resistance, were overpowered and obliged to surrender. Sixty Americans were killed, one hundred wounded, and se- ven hundred taken prisoners. 5. In September, William Henry Harrison, governour of Indiana territory, was appointed to the command of the north western army. At this time, Harrison was at the river St. Marys, with the main division, consisting of three thousand men. General Winchester, with the other division of two thousand men, was posted at fort Defiance. They were in want of provisions, and having sent to Harrison for relief, that officer marched with a considerable part of his forces, and on the 3d of October joined general Winchester. The next day he returned to St. Marys, having detached general Tupper with one thousand of the Ohio militia, to proceed to the rapids of the Miami, to dislodge the enemy. In this he failed, and the British still retained possession. On the 4th of September, several hundred Indians attacked fort Harri- son on the Wabash. Captain Taylor, who commanded the fort, with but fifty men, fifteen of whom only were effective, repelled the assailants, killing a considerable number of them, while he lost but three of the garrison. Soon after, the In- dians, in revenge for their defeat, attacked and massacred an entire settlement at the mouth of White river, consisting of twenty-one persons. 6. On the 12th of November, general Alexander Smyth, who had succeeded general Van Rensselaer in the command of the centre army, issued an address to the men of New- York, inviting them to join his standard, which he assured them he would in a few days plant in Canada. A considera- ble number obeyed the call, probably more from confidence in general Porter, who commanded the volunteers, than from the effect of Smyth's appeal. On the 30th of November, AMERICAN HISTORY. 265 the preparations for invading Canada having been completed, orders were issued for the troops to be in readiness to embark the next morning. But not having boats enough to embark three thousand men at once, and having reason to fear that should those who had crossed be in danger, the remainder would not venture over, Smyth ordered the troops to disem- bark, and gave up the design. The regulars were ordered into winter quarters, and the volunteers to return home. The troops were indignant, and a scene of riot and disorder ensued. 7. On the 18th of October, the American sloop of war Wasp, captain Jones, captured the British sloop of war Frolick, commanded by captain Whinyates, off the island of Bermuda. The last broadside of the Wasp was fired when the two vessels were so near that her rammers, while loading, were shoved against the sides of the Frolick. Captain Jones then boarded her, but found only four men alive on the deck. The whole crew of the Frolick, which at the commencement of the action consisted of one hundred and twenty men, were either killed or wounded, except twenty. The Ameri- cans had five killed and five wounded. Two hours after the battle, the Poictiers, a British 74, appeared, and took the Wasp and her prize, and carried them into Bermuda. On the return of captain Jones and his crew to the United States, they were received with the most distinguished honours. The crew received twenty thousand dollars, and captain Jones was promoted to the command of the frigate Mace- donian, which was soon after captured from the British. 8. On the 25th of October, the frigate United States, commodore Decatur, fell in with and captured the British fri- gate Macedonian, captain Garden. The action took place in the 29th degree of north latitude, and 29° 30' west longitude. The Macedonian being to windward, was enabled to choose her own distance, which was so great for the first half hour, that the carronades of the American frigate were useless. But as soon as a close action commenced, the well-directed and rapid fire of the United States, soon rendered her anta- gonist an " unmanageable log," and the British captain found it necessary to surrender. When Decatur went on board the Macedonian, captain Carden presented him his sword. De- catur refused, and instead of the sword, grasped the hand of his opponent, and expressed admiration of his bravery. On ? 2G6 AMERICAN HISTORY. board of the United States, only twelve were lolled an wounded. The British loss was one hundred and four. 9. On the 29th of December, the American frigate Con stitution, commanded by commodore Bainbridge, captured the Java, a British frigate, captain Lambert commander. The action continued two hours. The British had nailed their colours to the mast, but at length they were forced to strike them. The British lost in killed, sixty, and in wound- ed one hundred and one. The Constitution had nineteen killed and twenty-five wounded. During the year 1812, the Americans captured from the British two hundred and fifty ships, and took three thousand prisoners. The commerce of England was almost driven from the ocean, while but few of 4he American vessels fell into the hands of their enemies. 10. On the 4th of March, 1813, Mr. Madison was re-elected president, and Elbridge Gerry chosen vice-president of the United States. The plan of the campaign for this year, embraced the whole western frontier. General Harrison, with his army, was stationed near the head of lake Erie ; general Dearborn was posted between lakes Ontario and Erie ; while general Hampton occupied the shore cf lake Champlain. The conquest of Canada was still the object of the American government, and Sir George Provost had but a small force to defend the provinces from invasion. Colonels Proctor and Vincent were entrusted with the defence of Up- per Canada, while general Sheaffe was appointed to com- mand the troops of the lower province. Early in February, major Forsyth, who commanded some American troops sta- tioned at Ogdensburg, crossed the St. Lawrence with a party of riflemen and some volunteers, and surprised the British guard at Elizabethtown, and took fifty-two prisoners, and a quantity of arms and ammunition. 11. The massacre at Frenchtown commenced about this time. The head quarters of general Harrison were at this time at Franklinton, in Ohio. General Winchester had gone in advance of the main army, and hearing that a party of the enemy were stationed at Frenchtown, he attacked and dispersed them. On the morning of the 22d of January, while part of his army was encamped in the open field, and a part behind a breastwork, Winchester was surprised by a combined force of British and Indians, under the command of colonel Proctor. Those of the Americans who were sta- AMERICAN HISTORY. 267 tioned in the open field were soon thrown into disorder. Ma- ny of them were killed by the Indians, and general Winches- ter and colonel Lewis were made prisoners. After his cap- ture, Winchester seeing resistance to be useless, sent his troops orders to surrender, confiding in the assurance of Proctor, that they should be protected from the Indians. Af- ter the surrender, Proctor marched for Maiden, leaving the wounded prisoners without a guard. The Indians soon re- turned, set fire to the town, massacred the wounded, and left their mangled bodies in the highway. In this affair the Ame- ricans lost five hundred in killed and wounded, and the same number taken prisoners. 12. On the 1st of May, general Proctor with a force of one thousand regulars, and twelve hundred Indians, besieged general Harrison in fort Meigs, at the rapids of Miami. The Americans resisted all the efforts of the assailants, and on the 5th, general Clay, with twelve hundred volunteers from Ken- tucky, came to the relief of Harrison. A sortie was made from the fort in conjunction with the troops under Clay ? and the British were defeated. Proctor raised the siege and returned to Maiden. The Six Nations in July took up arms on the side of the United States. The American go- vernment had declined accepting the services of the Indians, but it was now found that if they were not accepted, they would join the enemy ; and as the British had not scrupled to employ the savages, the president felt justified in pursuing a similar course. 13. Fort Stephenson, on the Sandusky, was next besieged by general Proctor. On the 2d of August the fort was in- vested, and a surrender demanded. Major Croghan, a young man of twenty-one, who commanded the garrison, which consisted of one hundred and sixty men, took the resolution of defending the fort, and answered Proctor's demand with a firm defiance. The contest commenced with great fury on the part of the assailants, but the judicious measures of Cro- ghan, and the cool courage of his brave associates, completely foiled the enemy, and Proctor was obliged to retire with the loss of a hundred and fifty men. The Americans lost but one killed, and seven wounded. On the 8th of October* 1812, captain Elliot with a hundred men crossed the Niaga- ra, at Black Rock, and took two British vessels from under the guns of fort Erie. One of these was burned, and the 268 AMERICAN HISTORY. other, called the Caledonia, was added to the American squad- ron on lake Erie. 14. York, the capital of Upper Canada, surrendered to the Americans under general Pike. On the 27th of April, 1813, Pike embarked from Sackets Harbour with one thousand se- ven hundred men. The force of the enemy consisted of seven hundred regulars and militia, and one hundred Indians, under general Sheaffe. The Americans formed at the place of debarkation, nearly a mile and a half from the British fort, and were warmly received by the enemy. After a contest oi an hour and a half, Sheaffe retired to the fort, to which he was followed by the invading forces, advancing in solid columns. When within sixty yards of the enemies main works, a maga- zine exploded, and scattering huge stones and fragments of wood in every direction, made dreadful havock among the troops. One hundred of the Americans, and forty of the British were killed by the explosion. General Pike was mor- tally wounded. A large quantity of stores was captured, to- gether with all general ShearTe's baggage and papers. In the executive chamber of the capital, the Americans found a hu- man scalp, occupying the same situation as the mace and oth- er emblems of royal authority. 15. Fort George and foil Erie were captured by the Ame- ricans in May. General Dearborn commanded in person, while commodore Chauncey, with his squadron on lake On- tario, made the most judicious arrangements for silencing those of the enemies batteries which were near the place of disembarkation. Col. Vincent, the British commander, see- ing that fort George was no longer tenable, blew up the mag- azine, spiked the cannon, and abandoned the place. The loss of the British amounted to three hundred men ; that oi the Americans was seventeen killed and forty-five wounded. While these events were transpiring at Niagara, Sir George Provost and commodore Yeo embarked at Kingston, on the very day that fort George was assaulted, and on the next ap- peared before Sacketts Harbour, where they landed twelve hundred men. General Brown, who commanded at that post, immediately rallied the militia, and Sir George was compelled to abandon the project and return to Canada. 16. Soon after the attack on Sacketts Harbour, an action occurred at Burlington Heights, between the British troops under colonel Vincent, and the Americans under generals AMERICAN HISTORY. 269 Chandler and Winder. At the dead of night, Vincent stole in silence upon the Americans, drove in the pickets, and with the roar of artillery and the yells of the Indians, rushed into the camp. A scene of carnage ensued, and the darkness was so great that neither party could distinguish friend from enemy. General Chandler was taken prisoner by a party of British troops, whom in the darkness and confusion he had approached, supposing them to be Americans ; general Winder shared the same fate. The British, however, were forced to retire with considerable loss, while that of the Amer- icans was probably two or three hunered, in killed, wounded, and prisoners. Colonel Burns, upon whom the command of the American troops now devolved, finding himself unable from the want of ammunition to maintain his position, retired from Stony Creek, the place of the action, to Forty Mile Creek, where the detachment was previously posted. On the 22d of June, another action occurred at Beaver Dams, in which the Americans under colonel Bcerstler were defeated* and the whole party, amounting to five hundred men, were obliged to surrender. 17. On the 10th of September, the American fleet on lake Erie, under the command of commodore Perry, after a severe action of four hours, captured the whole British squad- ron on that lake, under the command of commodore Barclay. The two fleets were about of equal force, but the British commander was a veteran and experienced officer, while Perry was young and inexperienced. The Americans com- menced the action about 12 o'clock, and it soon became general. The Lawrence, Perry's flag ship, being reduced to a mere wreck, he left it in an open boat, and amid a shower of bullets, removed his flag on board the Niagara, and the action was renewed with greater severity. At four o'clock the whole British squadron, consisting of six vessels, and carrying in all sixty-three guns, surrendered to the Ameri- cans. The capture of the enemy's fleet, opened a passage to the territory of Michigan, and general Harrison immedi- ately carried the war thither ; and on the 29th of September entered Detroit, which had been previously evacuated by Proctor, after having destroyed all the publick property and the fort. 18. General Harrison after taking possession of Detroit, immediately set off in pursuit of Proctor, and overtook him 270 AMERICAN HISTORY. at a Moravian village on the Thames, about eighty miles from Detroit. The British army consisted of about two thousand men, while that of the Americans was something greater in numbers. To counterbalance his inferiority of troops, the British general had the advantage of choosing his ground. His left wing accordingly rested on the Thames, and was de- fended by artillery ; his right extended to a swamp running parallel with the river, and was supported by Tecumseh and lus warriours, strongly posted in a thick wood. Harrison or- dered colonel Johnson's mounted regiment of Kentucky vol- unteers, to charge the enemy's centre, with the intention of getting into their rear. But failing in this, Johnson wheeled to the right and left upon the enemy's flanks, and poured in a destructive fire. In the heat of the action, colonel Johnson, who had received five musket shots in his body, and had his horse shot under him, encountered Tecumseh, who was also wounded. The savage raised his tomahawk, but before he could strike, Johnson drew a pistol and laid him dead at his feet. 19. In this action nineteen of the British regulars were killed, fifty were wounded, and six hundred made prisoners. Of the Indians, one hundred and twenty were left on the field of battle. The loss of the Americans in killed and wounded, was upward of fifty. All the British artillery fell into the hands of the victors ; among which, there were two brass field pieces, bearing the inscription, " surrendered by Burgoyne, at Sara- toga." These had fallen into the hands of the British at the surrender of Hull. Soon after the action, the Ottowas, Chippewas, Miamis, and Potowattamies sent deputations to general Harrison, and entered into treaties of alliance with the United States, and took up arms against the British, their recent allies. Proctor after the fall of Tecumseh, seeing that all was lost, took with him two hundred dragoons and fled from the field ; and although Harrison immediately or- dered a vigorous pursuit, he succeeded in making lus escape. 20. In the early part of this year, the British declared the Chesapeake and Delaware bays in a state of blockade, and stationed admiral Warren on the coast to enforce it. Admi- ral Beresford was sent up the Delaware, and on the 10th of April he appeared before Lewistown and demanded provisions. The inhabitants refused, and an attack was commenced upon the village. But after a bombardment of several days, the AMERICAN HISTORY. 271 British retired, and the squadron sailed for Bermuda. In the mean time another fleet was carrying on a disgraceful and savage warfare in the Chesapeake. The commander took possession of several small islands in the bay, from whence they made descents upon the neighbouring coasts, pillaging the inhabitants and committing excesses unworthy of Goths or Vandals. They took possession of Frenchtown and Havre de Grace, and what property they could not carry away, they destroyed. They then proceeded into the adjacent coun- try, marking their route with devastation and ruin. Publick and private dwellings fell a sacrifice to their rapacity, and neither age nor sex escaped their disgraceful outrages. On the 16th of May, satiate with plunder, they returned onboard their fleet. 21. Soon after leaving the Delaware, admiral Warren ap- peared in the Chesapeake, having re-enforced his fleet, and having on board two thousand troops, under the command of Sir Sydney Beckwith. On receiving intelligence of the arri- val of this force, the Americans made preparations for de- fence. A frigate was stationed at the mouth of Elizabeth river, and ten thousand of the Virginia militia were called in- to service. On the 22d of June, Craney's Island was at- tacked by four thousand British troops, while at the same time another party attempted to land on the main shore. But meeting with a vigorous resistance, they were compelled to relinquish both attempts and betake themselves in confusion to their ships. On the 25th of June, Sir S. Beckwith with two thousand five hundred men, made an attempt upon the village of Hampton, but was repulsed. In a few days the attempt was renewed with better success. Here again the troops were guilty of barbarities of which the savages would have been ashamed. About this time the harbours of New- York and New-London were closely blockaded by the British fleet under commodore Hardy. 22. On the 5th of October, commodore Chauncey, com- mander of the American squadron on lake Ontario, captured a British fleet of five sail, laden with troops and provisions. General Wilkinson, who had command of the army on the Mississippi, was now appointed to command the army of the centre, and on the 20th of August he arrived at Sacketts Har- bour. The chief object to which his attention was directed by his instructions, was the reduction of Montreal, and the 272 AMERICAN HISTORY. conquest of Canada. To effect this object, dependance was placed upon an army of four thousand men, stationed at fort George ; another of two thousand under general Lewis, at Sacketts Harbour, and the troops under Harrison, who were expected to join general Wilkinson, and with him proceed down the St. Lawrence. General Hampton, who command- ed the northern army, was directed to penetrate Canada by the way of Champlain, and at some convenient place form a junction with Wilkinson. 23. To facilitate the operations, general Armstrong, se- cretary of war, proceeded to Sacketts Harbour, where he ar- rived on the 5th of September. Wilkinson waited on him for orders, and received directions to proceed immediately to Montreal, without waiting to attack Kingston, according to former instructions, and Grenadier Island, near the outlet of lake Ontario, was fixed upon as the place of rendezvous. On the 30th of October, the several bodies of troops having ar- rived, they set sail, and on the sixth of November they had proceeded within a few miles of Prescott. The stores and troops were landed on the Canadian shore, in order to proceed by land that they might avoid the fire of the British batteries. The flotilla under general Brown, on passing the fortress, sustained a heavy fire, without however receiving much injury. 24. On the 11th, a force of two thousand British regulars which had followed the Americans from Kingston, attacked them at Williamsburg, and after an action of three hours, compelled them to retire from the field. In this engagement the British loss was one hundred and eighty, while that of the Americans amounted to three hundred and thirty-nine. The next day after the action, despatches were received from ge- neral Hampton, in which he declined a junction with Wilkin- son, alledging that his stock of provisions was not sufficient for both armies, and intimating that he would join him lower down the river. Upon receiving these despatches Wilkinson called a council of war, by which it was decided to abandon the design of attacking Montreal, and to go into winter quar- ters at French Mills. General Hampton, who had advanced toward Montreal as far as Ormstown, hearing that the object of the campaign was abandoned, returned to Plattsburg, and took up his winter quarters. He soon after resigned his com- mission, and was succeeded by general Izard. AMERICAN HISTORY. 273 25. On the 10th of December, the Canadian village of Newark was burned by the orders of general M'Clure, who commanded on the Niagara frontier. On the 19th, by way of retaliation, although the American government had disa- vowed the act of M'Clure, the British sent over four hun- dred troops under colonel Murray, and surprising the sentries at fort Niagara, captured that fortress, and put nearly all the garrison to the sword. Being re-enforced, the British now proceeded under general Rial!, to destroy Lewiston, Man- chester, and the villages of the Tuscarora Indians. On the 30th of December, general Riall again crossed at Black Rock, and destroyed that village and Buffalo. This being accomplished, the British then proceeded several miles into the interiour, destroying every thing in their progress. 26. On the 29th of February, 1813, the United States ship Hornet, captain Lawrence, fell in with and captured the British sloop of war Peacock, commanded by captain Peake. The action took place off the coast of Brazil, and lasted but fifteen minutes. The loss of the British in killed and wounded, was about forty : that of the Americans was but five. The conquered vessel was so much injured in the ac- tion, that she sunk before her crew could all be removed to the Hornet, and thirteen of those unfortunate men went down with their ship. On board the British ship, were three impressed Americans, who were compelled, against their earnest and repeated solicitations, to fight against their country. One was killed in the action, and the other two were found among the prisoners. 27. The United States frigate Chesapeake was captured by the British frigate Shannon, on the 1st of June. The former was lying in Boston harbour, having just completed the recruiting- of her crew, and received captain Lawrence as her commander, to whom the officers* and men were stran- gers. The latter also were in a state of insubordination and dissatisfaction, on account of not having received their pay. While in this situation, the Shannon appeared off the harbour, thus challenging Lawrence to come out and fight. The challenge was accepted, and the Chesapeake stood out to sea and prepared for action. A furious battle ensued, and in a few minutes every officer on board the Chesapeake, ca- pable of commanding, including Lawrence himself, was either lulled or severely wounded. The heroick Lawrence, 24 274 AMERICAN HISTORY. when asked " if the colours should be struck," replied, " No ; they shall wave while I live." At the moment when Law- rence was carried below, the British boarded the Chesapeake, and lowered her colours. Lawrence survived four days, and was buried at Halifax, whither the Shannon had carried her prize. He was interred with every mark of distinction ; the oldest captains on the station bore his pall, thus evincing that they loved and admired his bravery. 28. Another naval disaster soon followed the loss of the Chesapeake. On the 14th of August, the United States sloop of war Argus, commanded by lieutenant Allen, was captured in St. George's channel, after an action of nearly an hour, by the British sloop of war Pelican, commanded by captain Maples. Lieutenant Allen was mortally wounded in the com- mencement of the action, and died in England, regretted even by his foes, who buried him in the same manner as they would have buried an officer of their own nation. The loss of the Americans was forty ; that of the British was only eight. 29. On the 4th of September, the American brig Enter- prise, lieutenant Burrows, sailed from Portland, and the same (lay descried and captured the British brig Boxer, captain Blyth commander. As soon as the Enterprise was discover* ed, the captain of the Boxer fired a gun as a challenge, and raised three British ensigns, which he caused to be nailed to the mast. Soon after the engagement commenced, lieu- tenant Burrows was mortally wounded, but refusing to be carried below, in his last moments he raised his head and de- sired that the flag might never be struck. Lieutenant M'Call, upon whom the command now devolved, gave directions to board the enemy. It was now discovered that captain Blyth too was slain, that his vessel was rendered unmanageable, and that his colours, being nailed to the mast, could not be struck. The crew demanded quarter, and the Enterprise returned to Portland with the captured vessel, where the bo- dies of the deceased commanders were received and interred with every mark of respect. 30. The Creek Indians commenced a war with the United States early in the spring of 1813. The American govern- ment had erected a fort in the Tensau settlement for the pro- tection of the whites. This fort was called fort Mims, and was now filled with the adjacent inhabitants, and under the command of major Beasely. This officer, though repeatedly AMERICAN HISTORY. 275 warned of the approaching storm, still delayed making any preparations to avert its consequences. On the 30th of Au* gust, at mid-day, the fort was attacked by about six hundred Indians, thirsting for carnage. At first the garrison stood its ground and forced the savages to retire ; but they again returned, enclosed the besieged in the houses, which they set on fire. An indiscriminate and cruel massacre followed. Out of three hundred souls which the fort contained, only seventeen escaped to tell the tale of wo. 31. To avenge this massacre and punish the Indians, three thousand men from Tennessee under the command of gene- ral Jackson, and five hundred under the command of general Coffee, marched into the Indian territory. Jackson, who took the ^command, fixed his head quarters at the ten islands, in Coosa river, from whence he detached general Coffee, at the head of nine hundred mounted men, to attempt the destruc- tion of a party of the Creek Indians, who had taken post at Tallushatchie. Here a desperate and sanguinary battle was fought, in which the Americans gained the victory. Not one of the savages escaped. Two hundred of them fell on the field of battle, and eighty-four women and children were taken prisoners. Of the Americans, forty-six were killed and wounded. 32. At Talladega a bloody battle was fought on the 7th of November. General Jackson hearing that a party of friendly Creeks were surrounded and in danger of destruction, march- ed with twelve hundred men to their relief. Having come up with the enemy, he made the most judicious preparations for completely surrounding them, and commenced an attack. Two hundred and ninety of the Indian warriours were killed. Forty-five of the whites were slain, and eighty-five wounded. On the 11th of November, general White was detached to attempt the destruction of the Hillabee towns. Destroying two villages on his route, White entered the towns on the 18th, at the dawn of day. Here were about three hundred inhabitants. Sixty warriours were slain, and the remainder of the Indians, consisting of the aged and helpless, were made prisoners. 33. The last of November, general Floyd attacked and defeated the Indians at Autossee, or Sacred Ground. He had been detached by the governour, with nine hundred and fifty militia, and near four hundred friendly Indians, to protect 276 AMERICAN HISTORY. nto the frontiers of that state. With this force, he marched 1 the most flourishing part of the Creek country. He found the Indians drawn up in order of battle at Autossee, which they supposed it would be death for any white man to approach. Eight towns had poured out their warriours to defend their consecrated ground ; and as was to be expected, they fought with a bravery bordering on desperation ; but they fought in vain. The Americans were victorious, and the towns of the Creeks, containing upward of four hundred houses, were burned. Two hundred Indian warriours were slain, among whom were the Autossee and Tallasee kings. The Americans lost fifty, killed and wounded ; among the latter was general Floyd. 34. On the 23d of December, general Claiborne, at the head of the Mississippi volunteers, gained another important victory over the Creeks at Eccanachaca, or Holy Ground, on the Alabama river. The term of service for the militia of Tennessee having expired, they became mutinous, and were disbanded and dismissed. On the 14th of January, general Jackson was re-enforced by eight hundred volunteers ; but as their term of service was only sixty days, it was determined to attack a considerable force of the enemy, collected on Emuckfaw creek. On the 17th, the troops marched, and on the 18th they reached Talladega, where they were joined by four hundred friendly Indians. On the 22d and 23d, the In- dians made a spirited attack upon the Americans, but were repulsed. The loss of the whites in these engagements, was twenty killed, and seventy-five wounded. 35. To rescue their country from destruction, the Creeks determined to make one more desperate effort. For this purpose they strongly fortified the bend of the Tallapoosa, called by the Indians Tohopeka, and by the whites, the horse- shoe bend. This was a place of great security. Here the Creeks erected a breastwork, from five to eight feet rnVh. across the peninsula. This could not be approached without an exposure to a double and cross fire from those who were lying behind. At this spot one thousand warriours had col- lected. To prevent the savages from escaping, general Cof- fee was sent across the river to take post opposite the bend.' With the remainder of his force, general Jackson attacked the fortifications in front. The Indians made a brave resist- ance, and the combatants fought through the port-holes, and AMERICAN HISTORY. 27? muzzle to muzzle. But the Greeks were entirely cut to pieces. Five hundred and fifty of them were killed on the peninsula, beside many who were shot in attempting to cross the river. Gen. Jackson's loss, including the friendly Indians, was fifty four killed, and one hundred and fifty-six wounded. 36. The effect of this decisive victory, was the entire sub- mission of the Creeks, and the termination of the Creek war. Among those who threw themselves upon the mercy of the victors, was Weatherford, equally distinguished for his ta- lents and his cruelty. " I am in your power," said he, " do with me what you please. I have done the white people all the harm I could. I have fought them, and fought them bravely. There was a time when I had a choice. I have none now ; every hope is ended. Once I could animate my wariours to battle; but I cannot animate the dead. They can no longer hear my voice ; their bones are at Tal- lushatchie, Talladega, Emuckfaw, and Tohopeka. While there was a chance of success, I never supplicated peace ; but my people are gone, and I now ask it for my nation and myself." During the summer of 1814, a treaty was formed with the Creeks, on terms very advantageous to the United States. General Jackson was soon after appointed to the command of the army at New-Orleans. QUESTIONS. 1. What took place on the 19th Aug., 1812?— 2. What occurred soon after the capture of the Gurriere ? — 3. What on the 13th Oct. ?— - 4. What took place at the instant the Americans possessed the heights of Queenston ?— 5. Who was appointed to the command of the north- western army in Sept. ?~6. What took place on the 12th Nov.?— 7. What on the 18th Oct.?— 8. What on the 25th ?— 9. What on the 29th Dec. ? — 10. Who were elected president and vice-president of the U States the 4th of March, 1813?— 11. What occurred about this time? — 12. What occurred on the first of May ? — 13. What fort was next besieged by Proctor ? — 14. What place surrendered to the Americans under general Pike ? — 15. What places were captured by the Ameri- cans in May ? — 16. What occurred soon after the attack on Sackettg Harbour?— 17. What took place on the 10th Sept.?— 18. What did general Harrison do after taking possession of Detroit ? — 19. In the action at the Moravian towns, how many men did the British lose ?— * 20. What did the British do in the early part of this year?— 21. What did admiral Warren do soon after leaving the Delaware ? — 22. What took place on the 5th Oct. ? — 23. W T hat was done to facilitate opera- tions ?— 24. What occurred on the 11th Oct. ? — 25. What village was burned on the 10th of Dec, and by whose orders ? — 26. What navaj action took place on the 29th Feb., 1813 ?— 27. What naval loss did tfesU. States suffer on the first June ?— 28. What sooa followed the 24* 278 AMERICAN HISTORY. loss of the Chesapeake?— 29. What occurred on the 4th Sept.? — 30 What early in the spring of 1813?— 31. What was done to punish the Indians ? — 32. Where was a battle fought on the 7th Nov. ? — 33. Where were the Indians defeated the last of Nov. ?— 34. What took place on the 23d Dec. ? — 35. What did the Creeks do to rescue their country from destruction ? — 36. What was the effect of the victory at Tohopeka SECTION XIV, CONTINUATION OF THE WAR WITH ENGLAND. TREATY 01 PEACE WITH BRITAIN. 1. In the spring of 1813, the emperor of Russia offered his mediation in the quarrel between the United States and England. This offer was cordially accepted by the presi- dent, and John Q. Adams, Albert Gallatin, and James A. Bayard, were sent to Russia to meet commissioners from Great Britain. England, however, declined the overtures of Russia, but offered to treat directly with the United States. To this proposition the American government acceded, and the commissioners proceeded to Ghent, where they were met by lord Gambier, Henry Golbourn, and William Adams, com- missioners on the part of England. The United States also added Henry Clay and Jonathan Russell to the commission previously appointed. At this juncture, Great Britain being released from the war in Europe by the treaty of Paris, found her arms and resources at liberty to be employed against the United States, and the opinion of her ministry seemed to be, that the British fleets would soon sweep from the ocean the ships of America, while the very appearance of her veteran armies, would drive the soldiers of the union far into the interiour. 2. In pursuance of these views, soon after the peace of Paris was ratified, fourteen thousand of the troops who had served with such glory under Wellington, were embarked for Canada, and a strong naval force was sent to invade several parts of the coast of the U. States. On the 24th of May, 1813, congress assembled for an extra session. Great clamours were at this time raised by the party opposed to the war ; but congress, notwithstanding, proceeded with firmness in the dis- charge of their duty. A system of internal duties was fixed, and taxes were laid upon lands and houses, distilled liquors, refined sugars, retailers' licenses, carriages, sales at auction. AMERICAN HISTORY, 279 and bank notes. A revenue of five millions of dollars was expected to be raised by these means, and the president was authorized to borrow seven and a half millions. On the 2d of August congress adjourned. 3. About the time congress adjourned, forty persons, who had long resided in the United States, and become naturali- zed, having been taken in arms against Great Britain, were sent to England to be tried for treason. When congress met in December, the president, by message, communicated these circumstances to that body, who, after mature delibera- tion, feeling themselves bound to protect the citizens of the United States, determined upon measures of retaliation. Forty British prisoners were accordingly selected, and sub- jected to the same hardships inflicted upon the Americans in England. This measure the British retaliated by doubling the number confined, and this again was retaliated by the Americans. At length, both governments weary of retaliato- ry measures, consented to an exchange of prisoners, except those first sent for trial, and should any violence hereafter be done them, the United States reserved the right to retaliate, 4. In a short time after the adjustment of this difficulty ? the president recommended to congress, laying an embargo upon exports, with a view both to deprive the enemy of sup- plies, and protect the commerce of the United States. After much warm debate, the proposed measure was adopted, and a law was enacted, prohibiting the importation of any articles of British manufacture. The adoption of these measures was regarded by those opposed to the war, as calculated to injure Britain less than America, and they were pronounced oppressive and unconstitutional. But as the great political changes which had taken place in Europe, had in a mea- sure rendered it expedient to change the policy of America, these restrictions on her commerce were not of long continu- ance, and in April, the embargo and non-importation acts were both repealed. 5. On the 5th of May, 1814, the British made an attack upon Oswego, which was a deposite for nnval stores. The place was defended by a fort mounting only fi\e guns, and a garrison of five hundred men under colonel Mitchell. Fif- teen hundred British troops under general Drummond, ap- peared before the place, but could not effect a landing. On the 6th he renewed the attempt, and was more successful, 280 AMERICAN HISTORY. Colonel Mitchell stood his ground for half an hour, and then retreated twelve miles, to a place whither he had caused the stores to be removed. The British pursued : but Mitchell breaking down a bridge in his rear, they were defeated in their object, and evacuated the town. The fleet returned to Kingston, leaving only a few gun boats on the lake. Soon after, major Appling and captain Woolsey, were directed to remove the stores to Sacketts Harbour. When off Sandy Creek, perceiving that they were discovered by the enemy, they ran their boats into the creek, landed their men, and formed an ambuscade on its banks. The British followed, supposing the stores would be an easy prey, and were com- pletely surprised, surrendering after an action often minutes. 6. On the 21st of February, 1814, a severe action occurred near the river Thames, about two days march from Detroit. Captain Holmes had been sent to dislodge a party of British stationed near the Thames ; but when within fifteen miles of their position, he received information that three hundred of the enemy were within an hour's march of him. He imme- diately retired five miles to a more favourable position, and sent a detachment to discover their strength. These soon returned, followed by the British, who feigned an attack and then retreated, in order to draw the Americans from their fa- vourable position. Holmes followed five miles, when he found the main body of the enemy preparing for action. He then retired to his former position, where he was attacked on all sides, and a severe contest ensued, which lasted about an hour, when the British retreated. The enemy lost sixty-nine* killed and wounded ; the Americans only six. 7. Early in the spring, the British ascended the Connecti- cut river as far as Pettipaug, where they destroyed shipping to the value of two hundred thousand dollars. The Liver- pool Packet, a British privateer, doing great damage to the American commerce, commodore Lewis went in pursuit, and succeeded in chasing her off. Taking under convoy about fifty vessels which he found lying at Saybrook, he eluded the squadivn, then blockading the harbour of New- London, and conducted them safe to sea. On the 3d of July, general Brown, with a force amounting to three thou- sand five hundred men, crossed the Niagara, and invested fort Erie, which immediately surrendered. On the 4th, the Americans marched to attack the British, who were advan- AMERICAN HISTORY. 281 lageously posted at the mouth of the Chippewa. The num- ber of the enemy amounted to three thousand men, under the command of general Riall, and they were mostly veterans, who had seen much service in Europe. 8. On the 5th of July, a general and bloody engagement occurred at Chippewa, in which the American troops, who had seen scarcely two years service, vanquished, in fair fight, those soldiers of whom it had been predicted, that they would conquer America. Generals Brown, Scott, Ripley, and Por- ter, led on their men, and their officers nobly seconded their efforts. The English gave way on all sides, and retreated with the greatest precipitation, seeking shelter behind their entrenchments. The movements of general Scott and his brigade were so decisive and rapid, that the enemy were to- tally defeated, before the brigade of general Ripley could be brought into action. General Brown now ordered up the artillery to batter the British fortifications ; but the day was so far spent, and the works appeared so strong, that he called off his men, and returned to his camp. The loss of the British in this action was five hundred and fourteen, in killed, wounded, and prisoners : that of the Americans was three hundred and twenty-eight. 9. On the 25th of July, another action took place at Bridge water, between the British under general Drummond, and the Americans under general Brown. The enemy's forces amounted to about five thousand ; that of the Ameri- cans to nearly the same as at the battle of Chippewa. Gen. Swift, who was stationed at Queenston, in charge of the wounded, and to protect the stores at fort Schlosser, finding his post threatened, informed general Brown of his situation, who detached general Scott with his brigade and Towson's artillery, to make a movement on the Queenston road, in or- der to divert the enemy from their design. While performing this service, Scott unexpectedly fell in with the whole of the British army, strongly posted on an eminence behind a wood, from whence they intended to attack the Americans the next day. Having transmitted this intelligence to general Brown, he immediately commenced the engagement. After a hard fought action, which commenced before sunset and lasted till midnight, the British gave way, and left their position and artillery to the victors. The British loss was eight hundred and seventy-eight : that of the Americans eight hundred anq 282 AMERICAN HISTORY. sixty. Generals Drummond and Rial] were wounded, and the latter was taken prisoner. Generals Brown and Ripley were also among the wounded, and major M'Farlahd and captain Ritchie. 10. On the 4th of August, general Drummond commenc- ed the siege of fort Erie. The garrison amounted to six teen hundred men : the number of the besiegers to five thou sand. On the morning of the 15th, the British advanced in three columns, under the command of Drummond, Fischer, and Scott. The right and left columns frequently attacked, and were as frequently repulsed. The centre column, under Drummond, succeeded in scaling the walls and taking pos- session of a bastion. Drummond cried out to give the Ame- ricans no quarter ; but while he was giving the order, a barrel of gunpowder beneath him took fire. The assailants and assailed, together with the bastion, were blown into the air. The British who survived fled in dismay, and in passing the American batteries, their numbers were greatly thinned. According to the accounts of the British, their loss amounted to fifty-seven killed, among whom were Scott and Drum- mond, three hundred and nineteen wounded, and five hun- dred and nineteen missing. The loss of the Americans was only eighty-four. Among the killed were captain Williams and lieutenant Macdonough, officers of great merit. 11. Early in the year 1814, commodore Barney was block- aded in the Patuxent by a British squadron, which carried on a predatory warfare upon the shores of the Chesapeake. As the design of the British was evidently to make a descent up- on some part of the coast, the American government was not inattentive to their movements, or dilatory in making prepa- rations to receive them. Measures were taken for defending the cities of Washington and Baltimore. On the 4th of July the president made a requisition upon the governours of the different states, for the detachment of ninety -three thousand militia. Fifteen thousand of these were required from the tenth military district, embracing Maryland, the district of Colum- bia, and a part of Virginia. To these were added one thou- sand regulars, and the whole was placed imder the command of genera] Winder. 12. On the 17th of August the British squadron, in three divisions, prepared for more active operations in the Chesa- peake. One division proceeded up the Patuxent ; another AMERICAN HISTORY. 283 ascended the Potomack ; while a third went up the Chesa- peake, as if to threaten Baltimore. On the 19th, Gen. Ross landed at the head of five thousand men, and on the 20th he commenced his march along the Patuxent. On the 22d they came in sight of the American fleet, which was abandoned and set on fire by commodore Barney. The enemy were now only sixteen miles from Washington, toward which they began their march. When general Winder was informed of the near approach of the British troops, he advanced toward them and encamped half way between Marlborough and Washington. On the 23d, at night, the British encamped only five miles from the American army. The president of the United States, and the secretary of war, here visited ge- neral Winder, and it was resolved to "fall back to a position nearer to Washington, for the purpose of concentrating the American force. This retreating policy was pursued till Win- der had crossed the eastern branch of the Potomack, when he made provision for guarding the bridge ; it being supposed that the enemy would attempt to reach the capital from this quarter. The militia from Baltimore, to the number of two thousand two hundred, under general Stansbury, now ad- vanced to the relief of Washington, and rested on the night of the 23d near Bladensburg. The next day, Stansbury, by the orders of general Winder, commenced an attack on the enemy, who had by a circuitous route reached the Bladens- burg road, and were advancing toward the capital. In this action the Americans were defeated with considerable loss. 13. On the 24th, at 8 o'clock in the evening, general Ross, at the head of the British army, entered the city of Washing- ton. Their conduct here would have disgraced the barbari- ans of the middle ages; and they rendered themselves and their country odious in the eyes of the civilized world. The Bri- tish commenced their devastations by destroying the capital, together with the extensive library, publick records, and every thing else of value which it contained. They next destroyed the president's house, and the publick offices ; but the stores at the navy yard, and the vessels on the stocks, were burned by the order of the president, in order to prevent them f»om fall- ing into the hands of the enemy. The loss of the publick property alone, amounted in value to one million of dollars. On the evening of the 24th the British left Washington, and without any opposition, returned to their shipping, which they 284 AMERICAN HISTORY . reached on the 27th, and embarked. The loss of the Ameri- cans at the battle of Bladensburg, was eighty killed and wounded : that of the British, two hundred and forty-nine. 14. The British squadron which passed up the Potomac k appeared on the 27th of August before Alexandria, and the inhabitants entered into a capitulation, by which they deliver- ed up all their merchandise and shipping to the enemy. The fleet under Sir Peter Parker, which had sailed up the Chesa- peake, landed about two hundred and fifty marines near Bel- lair, in order to surprise a party of militia encamped at that place under the command of colonel Reed. In this attempt, the British were repulsed with the loss of forty-one in killed and wounded. Sir Peter Parker received a mortal wound. The British, much elated with their success at Washington and Alexandria, next turned their attention toward Baltimore, and passing down the Patuxent, they sailed up the Chesa- peake as far as the mouth of the Patapsco, fourteen miles from the city, and general Ross, with five thousand men, land- ed at North Point, on the morning of the 12th of September, and commenced his march for his object. 15. In the attack upon Baltimore, the enemy were entirely defeated, and general Ross was killed. Colonel Brooke then assumed the command, and at about half past three, on the 12th, advanced to attack the Americans under general Striek- er. After maintaining the action some time, the Americans retired behind their intrenchments. On the morning of the 1 3th, the British army moved to within a mile and a half of the American fortifications, and made several movements to draw them from their strong position. Colonel Brooke, aware of his own inferiority of numbers, and the strong position of his opponents, made no attack during the day, but disposed his troops for a night attack. But in the evening he received in- formation from the commander of the naval force, that he had found fort M 'Henry wa3 impregnable, and that the harbour was blocked up by vessels sunk for the purpose, and that the fleet could not co-operate with the army. Colonel Brooke therefore abandoned the contemplated attack, and on the 15th re-embarked his troops. 16. On the 11th of July, commodore Hardy made a de- scent upon the coast of Maine, with eight ships of the line, and two thousand men, and took Eastport and all the towns on the east side of the Passamaquoddy bay. In August the AMERICAN HISTORY. 285 governour of New-Brunswick, took possession of Castine, and proceeding up the river Penobscot for the purpose of de- stroying the frigate John Adams, which had been placed there for preservation. The militia who had been stationed there for its defence, fled on the approach of the British, after blow- ing up the frigate. Commodore Hardy next appeared before Stonington, in Connecticut, and threatened to destroy the tdwn. But they were so much annoyed by a battery of two eighteen pounders, that they withdrew to another part of the town, which they hoped to find defenceless. But here the well-directed fire of a six pounder, forced them to retire to their ships. During the night they kept up a heavy bombard- ment upon the place, and in the morning renewed the attack. In this also they were repulsed, and compelled to retire. 17. In July and August, the British made preparations for invading the United States by the way of lake Champlain. Sir George Provost, placing himself at the head of an army of fourteen thousand men, many of whom had acquired ex- perience and reputation in the war of the Spanish peninsula, under Wellington, advanced in two columns upon Plattsburg. One column, with all the baggage and artillery, took the lake road, and the other took the road leading by Beekmantown. The American army at Plattsburg, which had been greatly weakened by the departure of general Izard for the relief of fort Erie, was commanded by general Macomb, who, when he received intelligence of the intended invasion, called upon the militia of Vermont, and the northeastern part of New- York. Nor was his call in vain, for the inhabitants willingly offered themselves to aid in repressing the invaders of their country. 18. The 11th of September, 1814, is memorable for the defeat of the British squadron pn lake Champlain, and of the British army before Plattsburg. On the morning of that day, Sir George had but just completed his preparations for as- saulting the American lines, wn©n the British squadron, un- der commodore Downie, entered the bay of Plattsburg. This fleet consisted of the frigate Confiance of thirty-nine guns, a brig of sixteen, two sloops of eleven, and several gallies — the whole mounting ninety-five guns, and carrying one thousand men. The American squadron, under commodore Macdo- nough, was anchored in the bay, and mounted in all, eighty-six guns, and carried only eight hundred and twenty men. At 25 296 AMERICAN HISTORY, nine o'clock the British fleet anchored within three hundred yards of the American line, and commenced the action. The surface of the lake was unagitated ; and the two fleets, for an hour and a half, poured upon each other a terrible and destruc- tive fire. The British frigate then surrendered, and soon af- ter, the smaller vessels followed her example. Commodore Downie was slain, with eighty-four of his men. One hun- dred and ten of the British were wounded. The Americans lost in killed and wounded, one hundred and ten. At the same moment in which the fleets commenced the engage- ment on the lake, the British opened their batteries upon the American works, but with little effect. As soon, however, as the British fleet surrendered, Sir George called off his troops, and commenced his retreat toward Canada, leaving behind him large quantities of military stores and ammunition. 1 9. In April, commodore Porter returned from a cruise of nearly two years in the Pacifick ocean. In the autumn of 1812, he left the Delaware, and arrived at Valparaiso in March, 1813, from whence he proceeded to Lima. He then cruised among the Gallipagos islands till October, greatly annoying the British commerce. He captured twelve armed whale ships, carrying in all, one hundred and seven guns, and three hundred and two men. One of these ships, the Atlan- tick,he equipped for a store ship, calling her the Essex Junior, and gave lieutenant Downs the command. The British go- vernment, alarmed at the success of Porter, sent out commo- dore Hillyar, with the frigate Phebe, of fifty-three guns, and three hundred and twenty men, and the Cherub sloop of war, of twenty-eight guns, and one hundred and eighty men, to stop his career of victory. On learning the approach of this force, commodore Porter sailed for the island of Noaheevah to refit his vessel. He took possession of the island in the name of the United States, changed its name to Madison's Island, and established a friendly intercourse with the natives. Having r.efitted the Essex, his own sriip, he left three of his prizes at the island, under the care of lieutenant Gamble, and departed for the neutral port of Valparaiso, accompanied by his store ship, the Essex Junior, where he met commodore Hillyar, who had been searching for him five months without success. 20. On the 28th of March, 1814, after having been block- aded in the port five weeks, the wind being favourable, he de- termined to make an attempt to escape. In passing the err- AMERICAN HISTORY. 287 irance into the bay, a sudden squall carried away his main top mast. The enemy having given chase with both their ships, the American commodore, in his disabled state, was obliged to return and anchor in a small bay within pistol shot of the shore, expecting that Hilly ar would regard the neutra- lity of the port. Seeing, however, that he continued to ar> proach, the Essex made every preparation for defence. Com- modore Hillyar commenced the attack, but so warm was his reception, that after an action of half an hour, the Phebe and Cherub were obliged to haul off for the purpose of repairing damages. This being quickly accomplished, a tremendous firing was renewed. The Phebe being able to choose her distance, took a position out of the reach of the guns of the Essex, while with her own long guns she poured a most de- structive fire upon the American frigate, many of whose guns had all their men killed, and one gun was manned three times during the action. Porter then attempted to board the ene- my, but his masts and rigging were so much disabled, that the ship was unmanageable. He then endeavoured to run his ves- sel on shore, but the wind shifting, rendered it impracticable. At length, seeing the hopelessness of a longer contest, Porter summoned the officers for the purpose of consulting upon the expediency of surrendering. To his surprise, lieutenant M'Knight was the only officer remaining. The colours were then struck, but the Phebe continued the fire ten minutes after- ward. The whole crew of the Essex were either killed or wounded, except seventy-five. The loss of the British was evere, and their ships were in a sinking condition. 21. On the 21st of April, 1814, the British frigate Orpheus, captured the United States sloop of war Frolick, commanded by commodore Bainbridge. On the 29th of the same month, the United States sloop of war Peacock, captured the British brig Epervier, The action took place in latitude 27° 47 / north, and 30° 9' west longitude : the Epervier lost eight men killed, and fifteen wounded ; while the Peacock had only two men slightly wounded, and not one killed. On the 28th of June, the American ship Wasp, fell in with and captured, near the entrance of St. George's channel, after an action of nineteen minutes, the British brig Raindeer, captain Man- ners commander. The Raindeer lost her commander, and twenty-seven men killed, and forty-two wounded : the Wagp had twenty-six, killed and wounded. The Wasp continued 288 AMERICAN HISTORY. her cruise, and on the 27th of August, she met the Englisl brig Avon, captain Arbuthnot commander. After an action of forty-five minutes, three British vessels came in sight, and the Wasp was obliged to leave her prize, which sunk soon af- ter. The Wasp continued her cruise, and captured fifteen sail of merchant vessels ; but she never returned to the United States, neither is it known what has become of her or her crew. She undoubtedly foundered at sea, or was wrecked on some inhospitable coast, and her men fell victims to savage barbarity. 22. The last naval action during the war, resulted in the loss of the American frigate President, then under the com- mand of commodore Decatur. Four British vessels, the Pomone, the Tenedos, the Majestick, and the Endymion, were off Sandy Hook,~ blockading the harbour of New-York* On the 15th of January, 1815, Decatur attempting to put to sea, the blockading squadron immediately gave chase, which continued eighteen hours, when the commodore was brought to an action with the Endymion. The action con- tinued two hours and a half, and the guns of the enemy were silenced, when the whole fleet appeared. Decatur having one fifth of his crew disabled, and being opposed by a force far superiour to his own, yielded to necessity, and struck his flag. 23. In October, the American commissioners in Europe informed their government, that Great Britain demanded such terms as made the prospect of a speedy reconciliation almost hopeless. The state of the union was such, at this time, as to fill the friends of their country with alarm. The income of the nation was far less than its expenditure ; its credit was low, its finances disordered, and in some parts of the country the most bitter opposition to every measure of government was manifested. Yet congress, not dismayed, hastened to discharge the duties imposed by the crisis. New loans were authorized, taxes were augmented, and every measure neces- sary for carrying on the war with vigour was adopted. Mr. Armstrong was removed from the post of secretary of war, and colonel Monroe appointed to the office, and Mr. Dallas, of Pennsylvania, was made secretary of the treasury. 24. On the 15th of December, 1814, the Hartford conven- tion, consisting of delegates from Massachusetts, Connecti- cut, Rhode Island, Vermont, and New-Hampshire, met at the city of Hartford, and continued its sittings for nearly three AMERICAN HISTORY, 289 weeks, with closed doors. After their adjournment, they published an address, in which they charged the national go- vernment with adopting measures hostile to the interests of New-England, and recommended certain amendments to the constitution. Among these amendments, they proposed that congress should not have power to lay an embargo for a long- er time than sixty days ; that they should not pass any non- intercourse act, or declare war without the concurrence of two-thirds of both houses ; that no person, hereafter naturali- zed, should be eligible to a seat in either the senate or house of representatives, or to any civil office under the govern- ment of the United States ; that the same person should not be twice elected president ; and that the president should not be elected from the same state two successive terms. These proposed amendments, were submitted to the several states, and rejected by all except Massachusetts, Connecticut and Rhode Island. Probably no measure, since the declaration of independence, had been taken so odious to the greater part of the American people, as the calling of this convention ; and certainly, no one subjected its agents to more severe personal as well as political censure. 25. Soon after the peace with the Creeks, general Jackson fixed his head quarters at Mobile, where he learned that three English ships had entered the harbour of Pensacola, and landed three hundred men under colonel Nichols, with a large quantity of arms and ammunition for the equipment of the Indians. Information was also received, that the British contemplated making a descent upon the southern shores of the United States, with a large force. Jackson immediately made a requisition upon the state of Tennessee, for two thousand militia, which was promptly answered. A rendez- vous of pirates having for a long time been established on the island of Barataria, west of the mouth of the Mississippi, Nichols, instead of endeavouring to assist in routing them* as he had been requested by the officers of the United States, entered into a conference with La Fitte, their leader, disclos- ing to him the intended attack upon New-Orleans, and of- fered him a large reward, if, by his knowledge of the passes leading to the city, he would aid the British in their projected descent. La Fitte drew from Nichols a full disclosure of the plan, and then discovered the whole to go vernour Clai- borne, of Louisiana ; who, struck with the generosity of the 25* 290 AMERICAN HISTORY. pirate toward a country which had set a price upon his head* issued a proclamation, offering a pardon to his whole band, if they would come forward in defence of their country. The offer was accepted, and they afterward rendered important services, 26, On the 7th of November, Jackson attacked and cap- tured Pensacola. The Spaniards had professed neutrality, but, notwithstanding, they suffered the British to enter the port and use it for the purpose of annoying the Americans. Jackson represented these facts to his government, but not receiving an answer, he assumed the responsibility of taking possession of the place. On the 6th of November, having arrived in the neighbourhood of the town, he sent a flag to desire a conference with the governour ; but his messenger was fired upon. On the 7th he entered the town at a place where he had not been expected, and after an ineffectual at- tempt at resistance, the governour capitulated. The British troops destroyed the forts at the entrance of the harbour, and retired from the bay with their shipping. Jackson now retired to Mobile, and receiving such intelligence as led him to the full belief that an attack would soon be made upon New-Orleans, he marched for that place, which he reached on the 1st of December. 27. The circumstances favourable to an attack upon New- Orleans were, that it was assailable from many points ; it was settled by a motley population, consisting of French, Span- ia/ds, Creoles, Africans, and Americans; and these had so lately become members of the union, as hardly to be suscep- tible of that love of country which was indulged by the in- habitants of older states. The most distinguished citizens of Louisiana felt well grounded alarm at the prospect before them, and were stimulated to make greater exertions to meet the threatened danger. Governour Claiborne issued a pro- clamation, calling upon the inhabitants to arouse for the de- fence of their country. Edward Livingston, Esq., a distin- guished citizen, made use of his influence and talents, in ex- citing the people to courage and activity. To secure unity of effort, as soon as general Jackson arrived, the inhabitants, in full confidence of his abilities and valour, confided all their strength to his disposal, and placed him at the head of affairs. Under his direction, every measure for defence which could be used with any prospect of success, was adopted, and eve AMERICAN HISTORY. 291 ry hand which could wield a sword, or handle a spade, was fully employed. 28. Early in December, the enemy's fleet, to the number of sixty sail, and carrying upward of ten thousand men, ar- rived off Ship Island, and soon passed into lake Borgne. Jackson immediately despatched lieutenant Jones, with a small naval force, to oppose their passage into lake Ponchar- train. The British having a great number of boats, sent forty-three, carrying twelve hundred men, to attack the American flotilla, which carried only one hundred and eighty men. Lieutenant Jones sunk several of their barges, and killed a great number of their men ; but, after a brave resistance, he was obliged to surrender to superiour force. This loss placed New-Orleans in greater danger; and in or- der to expedite the defences, the prisoners were released from the jails on condition of their serving in the ranks. At this time, La Fitte with his Baratarians arrived, and were imme- diately employed. The circumstances of the times appear- ing to warrant the measure, general Jackson suspended the functions of the civil government, and proclaimed martial law, until the approaching crisis should have passed. 29. On the 22d of December, three thousand British troops under general Kean, landed at the head of lake Borgne, and advanced, by two o'clock, to a position nine miles below New-Orleans. On the 23d, at five o'clock in the afternoon, Jackson made an attack upon the British camp ; but though the Americans fought with great bravery, the enemy retained their position, and Jackson withdrew to a position four miles below the city. His camp now occupied both sides of the river. On the left was a parapet a thousand yards in length, with a ditch in front, containing five feet of water. The right wing of the army rested on the river, and the left on a wood, which nature and art had rendered impervious. On the west bank of the river, batteries were erected, which completely defended the position on the right. 30. On the 25th, Sir Edward Packenham, commander-in- chief of the British forces, arrived at the English camp witfc the main army, and a heavy train of artillery. On the 28th, Sir Edward advanced with his army, with the intention of forcing Jackson from his position. At the distance of half a mile from the American camp he halted, and opened a fu- rious cannonade upon the half finished works. This was 292 AMERICAN HISTORY returned with spirit by the armed ship Louisiana, then lying in the river, and by the batteries on both banks. After a contest of seven hours, the British commander retired, with the loss of one hundred and twenty men. That of the Americans was only six killed and twelve wounded. During the action, general Jackson received information, that the le- gislature of Louisiana were forming plans for negotiating with the enemy. He immediately sent an order to governour Claiborne, to place a guard at the door of the place where they were assembled. The governour misconstrued the or- der, and instead of confining them in the house, turned them out, and placed a guard to prevent their reassembling. 31. On the morning of the 8th of January, 1815, the whole British army, under the command of general Packen- ham, aided by generals Gibbs and Kean, advanced to attack the American intrenchments. Under a heavy fire the troops slowly but firmly pressed forward, carrying fascines and sca- ling ladders. Jackson had posted his army in two lines, and ordered the rear line to load for those in front. When the enemy came withing reach of their rifles, the whole line fired, and every soldier brought down his man. As soon as one rifle was discharged, another, loaded, was handed by those behind. In an instant, the plain was strewed with the dead and the dying, and the enemy fled in confusion. Sir Edward endeavoured to rally them for a second attack. While thus engaged, two balls struck him, and he fell, mortally wounded. Again the troops, encouraged by generals Gibbs and Kean, moved toward the intrenchments, and again they were met with the same deadly fire. A third time they ral- lied, and a third time they fled. Gibbs and Kean were both carried wounded from the field, and general Lambert, who now took the command, seeing the day irretrievably lost, re- turned to his former position, from whence, on the 18th, the British retired to their shipping, and left the coast. The British loss in the battle of New-Orleans, was twenty-six hundred, while that of the Americans was only seven hilled, and six ivounded. 32. February 17th, a messenger arrived from Europe, bearing a treaty of peace with England, which had been made in December, and it was immediately ratified by the president. In this treaty, it was stipulated, that all places ta- ken by cither power during the war, should be immediately AMERICAN HISTORY. 298 restored, and that the boundaries between the United States and the British possessions should be revised and settled. If any difficulty should arise respecting the settlement of boun- daries, it was to be referred to the arbitration of some friend- ly power, mutually selected. No express provision was contained against those maritime outrages of Britain, which had been the chief cause of war ; yet as the orders in coun- cil had been repealed, and the political state of Europe was greatly changed, there was less occasion to fear the recur- rence of similar acts of aggression. 33. After the promulgation of peace, two naval battles were fought, in both of which the flag of the United States was triumphant. On the 20th of February, the Constitution, captain Stewart, fell in with and captured the Cyane and Levant, off the island of Madeira, after an action of forty minutes. The enemy lost thirty-eight, and the Constitution fifteen men in killed and wounded. On the 23d of March, the United States sloop of war Hornet, captured the British brig Penguin, after an action of twenty-two minutes. April 6th, captain Shortland and the garrison at Dartmoor prison, committed a barbarous massacre upon the American prisoners there confined. Sixty-three were killed, and several wounded, QUESTIONS. 1. What took place in the spring of 1813? — 2. What soon after the peace of Paris was ratified? — 3. What about the time congress ad- journed? — 4. What did the president recommend soon after the ad- justment of this difficulty ? — 5. What did the British do on the 5th IViav, l 1814?—p\ What occurred on the 21st Feb., 1814?— 7. What did the British do early in the spring ? — 8. What occurred on the 5th July ? — 9. What on the 25th July ?— 10. What on the 4th August ?— 11. What occurred early in the year 1814? — 12. What on the 17th August? — 13. When did general Ross with a British army enter Washington ? — 14, What did the British squadron do, which passed up thePotomack ? — 15. What was the result of the attack upon Baltimore ? — 16. What did commodore Hardy do on the 11th July ? — 17. For what did the British make preparations in July and August ? — 18. For what is the 11th Sept. 1814, memorable?— 19. What occurred in April ?— 20. What on the 28th March ?— 21. What on the 21st April? -22. In what did the last naval action during the war result ? — 23. What did the Amer- ican commissioners in Europe do in October? — 24. What met on the 15th Dec, 1814? — 25. What took place soon after the peace with the Creeks? — 26. When did Jackson attack and capture Pensacola? — 27. What were the circumstances favourable to an attack upon New Orleans?— 28. What took place early in Dec. ?— 29. What onthe 22d Dec. ?— 30. What on the 25th ?— 31. What on the morning of the 8th January?— 32. What on Feb, 17th ?— 33. What after the promulga- tion of peace ? 294 AMERICAN HISTORY. SECTION XV. WAR WITH ALGIERS. UNITED STATES TO 1829. 1. Soon after the ratification of peace with Great Britain, the United States declared war against Algiers. Two squad- rons were fitted out under the command of commodores De- catur and Bainbridge. The former officer sailed from New- York in May, and while proceeding up the Mediterranean, on the 17th of June, captured an Algerine frigate, and on the 1 9th, an Algerine brig carrying twenty-two guns. He then proceeded to Algiers, and the Bey being intimidated, gladly signed a treaty both honourable and advantageous to the Americans. From thence he proceeded to Tunis and Tri- poli, and obtained ample satisfaction for the unprovoked vio- lation of subsisting treaties. Arriving at Gibraltar, Decatur joined the squadron under commodore Bainbridge, to whom he resigned the command, and returned to America. Bain- bridge paid a visit with his squadron to Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli, but seeing no disposition to violate the treaties, he returned to the United States. 2. At the close of the war, the army of the United States was reduced to ten thousand men, and for the better protec- tion of the country in case of another war, a large sum of money was appropriated for fortifying the sea coast and the frontiers, and for increasing the navy. Measures were also taken for obtaining a peace with the several tribes of Indians which had been hostile to the United States. Several of their chiefs met commissioners from the government at Detroit, where, on the 6th of September, they readily acceded to a re- newal of former treaties. In April, 1816, a national bank was incorporated, with a capital of thirty-five millions of dol- lars. In September, general Jackson concluded treaties with the Chickasaws, the Choctaws, and the Cherokees, on terms extremely favourable to the United States. In December, Indiana territory having the requisite number of inhabitants, was erected into a state, and admitted into the union. 3. A society for colonizing the free blacks of the United States was formed in 1816. This society was not under the direction of the government, but many of the first men in the American nation became its warm friends and efficient pa- trons. A large tract of land in Africa was purchased, and a colony commenced, to which considerable numbers of tho AMERICAN HISTORY* 296 free blacks in America are yearly sent. The object of the society is not gain, but the opening of a channel by which the coloured population of the United States may be removed ; and by establishing a colony at the very fountain of the slave trade, prevent in future that traffick in human beings, which has so long been the disgrace of civilized nations. By this means also, will be afforded to those masters of slaves who may wish to liberate them, an opportunity of doing it without exposing the country to the dangers to be apprehended from a numerous free black population. 4. March 4th, 1817, James Monroe and Daniel D. Tomp- kins were inaugurated ; the former as president, and the latter as vice-president of the United States. During the summer of 1817, Mr. Monroe made the tour of the northern and mid- dle states, which gave great satisfaction to the people, by whom he was treated with every mark of affection and re- spect. This year, the chiefs of the Wyandots, Delawares, Shawnees, Senecas, Otto was, Chippeways, and Potowatta- mies, entered into a treaty with the United States, by which they ceded to the American government all the lands claimed by these tribes within the limits of Ohio. Mississippi terri- tory became a state, and was admitted into the union this year. About the same time, an arrangement was made with Great Britain for the mutual reduction of the naval force on the lakes. By this it was provided, that neither power should keep in service more than one armed vessel on lake Ontario, or more than two on lake Erie ; the vessels to carry only one gun each. 5. In the year 1818, the United States were engaged in a war with the Seminole Indians, who resided on the southern borders of the union, and the northern frontier of Florida. Runaway negroes from the southern states, and out-laws from the Creek nation, united with the Seminoles in committing depredations upon the lives and property of citizens of the United States ; and for many months the southern frontier was kept in such a state of alarm, that at length the inhabi- tants fled into the older settlements for security. General Jackson with an adequate force was sent against the marau- ders, and defeated them in several engagements. Being ful- ly persuaded that the Spaniards furnished the Indians with supplies, Jackson entered Florida, and took possession of St. Marks and Pensacola, where he took as prisoners two 296 AMERICAN HISTORY. Englishmen, Arbuthnot and Ambrister, and also the Indian prophet, Francis. Arbuthnot and Ambrister were tried by a court martial, condemned, and executed. St. Marks and Pensacola were restored to the Spaniards, by the order of the president, at the conclusion of the Seminole war. 6. Treaties of commerce were this year concluded be- tween Great Britain, Sweden, and the United States. In the treaty with the former power, the northern boundary from the lake of the Woods to the Stony Mountains was adjusted. Congress now passed a law abolishing internal duties, and also for giving a pension of twenty dollars a month to every indigent revolutionary officer, and eight dollars a month to every indigent private who had served during the war. All the lands west of the Tennessee river, within the limits of the states of Tennessee and Kentucky, were this year ceded to the United States by the Chickasaws. In 1819, congress appropriated ten thousand dollars annually, for the establish- ment of schools among the Indian tribes within their territo- ries, and to promote in other ways their civilization. In ma- ny instances, these efforts have been crowned with success. 7. Florida was ceded to the United States for five millions of dollars, in 1819. Possession, however, was not given till 1821, the king of Spain on various pretences refusing to rati- fy the treaty till October, 1820. The purchase money for Florida, was appropriated by Spain to pay those citizens of the United States who had claims upon the former for spolia- tions and injuries formerly inflicted. Three commissioners were to be appointed by the president, for examining and de- ciding upon the validity of all claims included in the treaty. Alabama was made a state in 1820, and admitted into the union. The territory of Missouri, and the District of Maine also petitioned to be erected into states, but the request of the latter was only granted at that time. 8. The Missouri question, or the question whether the in- troduction of slavery should be permitted in the new state of Missouri, greatly agitated the minds of the American people during the year 1820. In congress, the members from the northern states anxiously contended for prohibiting slavery in the new state about to be erected ; while those from the south- ern, as strenuously advocated the granting of the request of Missouri, without any restriction. Probably no question was ever agitated in the United States, which so greatly endan- AMERICAN HISTORY. 297 gtered the union as the one at this time agitated. At length a compromise was effected, by prohibiting slavery north of 36° 30' in the territories of the United States, and Missouri was admitted into the union, without any restriction. The same year in which Missouri became a state, Mr. Monroe entered upon the second term of the presidency, by nearly a unanimous vote of the electors. 9. The alarming increase of piracy demanded the atten- tion of the American government in 1822. The West In- dian seas were infested by a lawless and bloody set of men, who paid no respect to any flag, nor spared any vessel which they could overpower. Great quantities of property fell into their hands, and their captives were often inhumanly murder- ed. The United States schooner Alligator, lieutenant Allen, was despatched to the gulf of Mexico, in pursuit of the ma- rauders. When about entering the harbour of Matanzas, Allen receiving information that two American vessels, which had been seized by the pirates, were near that place, he immediately sailed to their relief. An action with the pirates ensued, in which the Americans were conquerors. Five American vessels were recaptured, and one piratical schooner taken. Lieutenant Allen, however, was wounded in the ac- tion, and soon after died, greatly lamented. 10. The island of Cuba was made the principal place of rendezvous by the pirates, from whence they made such de- predations, that it became extremely hazardous for vessels to enter or leave the port of Havanna. Congress at length appropriated a sum of money for the suppression of piracy, and commodore Porter was sent with a squadron, consisting of one frigate, eight schooners, and five barges, to cruise in the gulf of Mexico. This display of force, and the protec- tion afforded to merchant vessels, greatly lessened the in- stances of piratical depredation, though it was some years before the pirates were entirely rooted out. The indepen- dence of the South American republicks, was this year ac- knowledged by the American government, and ministers were sent to Mexico, Buenos Ayres, Colombia and Chili. 11. On the 15th of August, 1824, La Fayette visited the United States. He was received with the liveliest demon- strations of affectionate regard by the American people, wha thus testified that the important services rendered by him to their country in the day of her peril, had made a deep impres- 26 296 AMERICAN HISTORY. sion upon their hearts. Fayette made the tour of the United States, and in all places through which he passed, the citizens vied with each other in paying him the tribute of respect so justly due to his virtues. Before he left America, he paid a visit to the tomb of Washington, his early friend and compan- ion m danger, as well as his commander in the day of battle. When he arrived at the tomb, Mr. Custis, the adopted son of Washington, presented the illustrious visiter with a portion of the locks from the head of the Father of America. La Fayette received it with deep emotion, and unattended, en- tered the repository of the dead. " Nothing occurred to disturb its reverential solemnity. Not a murmur was heard save the strains of solemn musick, and the deep and mea- sured sound of artillery." 12. Mr. Monroe's second term of service having expired, John Quincy Adams was elected to fill the presidential chair. During the administration of Mr. Monroe, near sixty mill- ions of the national debt were paid off; the Floridas were peaceably acquired, and the boundaries of the United States were extended to the Pacifick ocean. The internal taxes were repealed, the army reduced to the narrowest extent of efficiency, and its organization improved ; great progress was made in the suppression of the slave trade, and the In- dian tribes were advanced in civilization. 13. In 1825, a treaty of commerce and navigation was formed between the United States and Colombia. " The basis of this treaty was laid in the principle of entire and unqualified reciprocity, and the mutual obligation of the par- ties to place each other on the footing of the most favoured nation." An invitation was received, about this time, by the United States government, from the South American repub- licks, to send representatives to the congress, which they had called at Panama. This was to be merely an assembly of diplomatick agents, having no powers except to negotiate and to discuss, and who were to be sent from those govern- ments only, by whose constitutions all foreign treaties are re- quired to be ratified by the delegates of the people, before they can go into effect. President Adams, in his first mes- sage to congress, recommended the acceptance of the invi- tation, on the ground that the relations subsisting between the government of the United States and the South American re- publicks, were different from those subsisting with the powers AMERICAN HISTORY. 299 of Europe ; that a similarity in form of government existed between those repubiicks and the United States ; and that the states of South America looked to their brethren in North America, as their elders in the cause of freedom, and expect- ed friendship in their opposition to tyranny. After a warm and protracted debate, congress finally agreed to send two ministers to Panama. 14. On the 4th of July, 1826, within a few hours of each other, died John Adams and Thomas Jefferson. The almost simultaneous death of these two illustrious patriots of the revolution, who had each of them filled the highest office in the gift of Americans, and on the anniversary too of that in- dependence which they had contributed so much to gain, im- pressed every mind with a deep feeling of awe and astonish- ment. In all the principal cities of the union, funeral proces- sions were formed, and funeral orations delivered ; the vessels in the harbours wore their colours at half mast ; the ships of the United States in port fired minute guns, and from one end of the union to the other, the revered dead were mourned with grief the most sincere. 15. Early in the year 1826, a treaty of amity, navigation and commerce, was negotiated with Denmark, and ratified by the president and senate. By this treaty, the principles of equality and reciprocity, in their broadest and most liberal extent, were established ; each party agreeing to admit the vessels of the other into its ports, of the products of whatev- er quarter of the globe their cargoes might consist, upon the payment of such duties, and such only, as were charge- able upon their own. The relations subsisting between the United States and Prussia, Spain, and Portugal, and the Eu- ropean states in general, still continued to remain on terms of amity and friendly intercourse. But the parliament of Great Britain, acting upon the principle of monopolizing the trade of her colonies, passed an act, to restrain all colonial trade, except in British bottoms ; closing all colonial ports, except a few which were specified, to all foreign productions, unless imported in English ships. The United States sent an envoy extraordinary to the court of St. James, to enter into negotiations for the opening of colonial ports to Ame- rican vessels and American produce ; but he failed of suc- cess in the object, and another act was passed, refusing to the United States that which was granted on certain term? 300 AMERICAN HISTORY. to vessels of other nations, the privilege of entering certain ports with specified articles of merchandise. 16. In December, 1826, the navy of the United States consisted of twelve ships of the line, seventeen frigates of the first class, three of the second class, sixteen sloops of war, four schooners of twelve guns each, and three other vessels. Commodore Rogers was stationed in the Mediterranean with a part of this naval force, to protect the American commerce in that sea, and to cultivate the friendship of the powers on its borders ; commodore Jones was stationed, for the same pur- pose in the Pacinck, while at the same time, a watchful care was exercised over the interests of American commerce in the gulf of Mexico, and the Caribbean sea. An armed ves- sel was kept on the coast of Africa, for the suppression of the slave trade, which was still carried on to a great extent under different flags, and often attended with circumstances of the most unfeeling barbarity on the part of the captains and crews of the slave ships. 17. During the session of congress in 1826, a general bankrupt law for the United States was proposed. The mea- sure, however, did not succeed. Great sympathy was mani- fested throughout the union, in behalf of the Greeks, who suf- fered unheard of distresses from the Turks, against whom they had revolted. In every part of the United States, dona- tions in money, clothing, and articles of food, were made to a large amount, and sent to the sufferers. Many citizens of the United States sailed for Greece, and entered into her ar- mies to aid in defending her from her oppressors. In 1827, the British, in accordance with an arrangement entered into with the United States, paid the sum of upward of twelve hun- dred thousand dollars, as a compensation to the owners of those slaves who had, during the war, either voluntarily left their masters, or been forcibly carried off by the British troops. 18. In 1828, a treaty of navigation and commerce was formed between the United States and the emperor of Aus- tria, on the principles of reciprocity and liberal intercourse. These principles were developed to the world in the first commercial treaty ever formed by the United States, and they have ever been the cherished policy of the union. During the wars, which so long agitated Europe, immediately subse- quent to the French revolution, and at the period when neu- tral rights were disregarded, the king of Denmark made mn AMERICAN HISTORY. 303 iiy depredations upon the commerce of the United States, Soon after, a special mission was sent to demand of the Danes reparation for the injuries committed, and the king gave assurances, that at a period of greater tranquility and less distress, the claims for indemnity should be examined and adjusted. During this year, 1828, this promise was fulfilled in part, and a portion of the claims honourably adjusted. 19. On the 25th of August, 1828, a treaty was formed be- tween the United States and the Winnebago, Pottawatamie, Chippewa, and Ottawa Indians, by which large portions of valuable territory were ceded to the American government. In the early part of this year much excitement prevailed throughout the union on the subject of the new tariff, by which, increased duties were imposed upon various articles of for- eign manufacture, with the intention of protecting and encour- aging American enterprise. As Mr. Adams was supposed to be in favour of the increased duties, his administration be- came quite unpopular, particularly in the southern and wes- tern states, and great preparations were made to elevate a person to the presidency, whose views and influence might be more favourable to the feelings and wishes of those parts of the union. 20. On the 4th of March, 1829, Andrew Jackson, of Ten- nessee, was inaugurated president of the United States. Du- ring the administration of Mr. Adams, the internal and exter- nal interests of the union gradually improved ; the publick debt was lessened ; the resources of the country were multi- plied ; and though many interesting subjects were agitated, which in a greater or less degree affected different sections of the union, yet nothing transpired to afford any well ground- ed apprehension, in regard to the stability of the government, or the strength of the bond which unites the different states to each other. The revenue of the United States, in 1828, was $24,094,863, which, with a balance in the treasury on the 1st of January, 1828, of $6,668,286, made the sum total of $30,763, 149, applicable during that year to publick purposes, 21. In reviewing the history of the United States of Ameri- ca, the attentive observer cannot but notice the almost total departure from European principles and practices, which has marked their progress from colonies, to independence and freedom. Those who first began to people the wilds of America, emigrated from that country in Europe, in which 26* 302 AMERICAN HISTORY. knowledge had made the greatest advancement, but in whicii they had endured such persecutions and privations, as had rendered civil and religious liberty dear to their hearts. The period of their emigration was one which was eminently fit- ted for the formation of a new system of government, and no men could have been selected, better qualified for the task. By their knowledge, they were prepared to discern between the evil and the good of the political institutions of Europe : while their sufferings, by softening their feelings and eleva- ting their views, prepared them to reject all provisions whicii sacrificed the happiness of many, for the glory of a few, and they adopted only such as conferred equal rights upon all. 22. Ecclesiastical establishments were almost co-existent with civil government in nearly every nation of Europe. In these establishments, were found numerous officers, for whose support, in almost regal splendour, and with enormous privile- ges, a tenth part of the income of the laity was rigidly exact- ed. In process of time, the clergy becoming possessed of wealth and rank, acquired nearly unbounded influence, and this was exerted to fix deep and firm their dominion over the human mind. Nor were the means they used unsuccessful. By continuing to increase their power and wealth, to which they added luxury and corruption, they at length incumbered society with burdens " grievous to be borne," and laid the foundation of a revolution, not only in the principles, but also in the forms of government. 23. No part of these ecclesiastical establishments were received in America. The first settlers of the colonies were generally men eminent for their religious knowledge, unwil- ling to submit to a spiritual head on earth, or to receiv: dictation in regard to matters of faith. An apostolical sim- plicity in doctrine and practice was maintained, while the ministers of religion, neither sought or enjoyed any greater influence than that which was granted to superiour talents and piety. The first colonists, in their aversion and opposition to prelatical tyranny and religious establishments, undoubtedly ran into an extreme of bigotry in some instances, while in others, they seem to have been actuated by a spirit equally in- tolerant with that which forced them to seek an asylum in the wilderness. 24. The doctrines of hereditary right, and inheritance b) primogeniture, were recieved and practised in Europe. Bv AMERICAN HISTORY. 303 the fundamental regulations of the former, both monarchs and nobles transmitted their privileges and rank to their eldest son, even although he might be destitute of integrity or talents. In consequence, men who had been guilty of the most enormous excesses, by which whole communities, and even nations were involved in the calamities of blood-shed and war, were frequently found elevated to a throne, and to other exalted stations, while any attempt to remove or punish on the part of the suffering people, was stigmatized with the name of rebellion, and followed by confiscation and death. By the latter, the law of primogeniture, not only the title but the possessions of the father descended to the eldest son. while the younger members of the family were doomed to comparative, if not to actual indigence. Thus, one portion of the people were rich and the other poor ; and very few were placed in that happy mediocrity which has been proved fa- vourable to virtue and to improvement. 25. These doctrines of hereditary right and of primogeni-' ture are rejected in America. In the colony of Virginia, and perhaps in some others, the latter was in force till after the war of the revolution, when it was abolished. But though, from the time of the first emigration to America, an equality of rights and privileges was established, yet as many of the governours made extravagant grants of territory to their fa- vourites, a great inequality of property was introduced. But the operation of salutary laws, and the revolution to which all human concerns are subject, have been constantly removing this inequality, and estates, which were once overgrown, and to the publick in a degree unproductive, are now divided and sub-divided among many, and consequently a greater portion of individual happiness is diffused. 26. Enormous expenditure, and in consequence, burden- some taxes form a distinguishing feature in all the European, and indeed in all monarchial governments. In England, for instance, the mere support of the king and his relatives, costs the people nearly two and a half millions of dollars annually; while the compensation of the president of the United States is only twenty-five thousand dollars, for the same length of time. Great Britain expends yearly, for her military peace establishment, thirty-four millions of dollars : the United States but five millions. The tax in England annually amounts, on an average, to fifteen dollars for each individual : 301 AMERICAN HISTORY that of the citizens of the United States is but two dollars; yearly. The lightness of the burdens imposed, and the ab- sence of all monopolies, have encouraged American citizens to embark in every enterprise embraced in the common pur- suits of man, in which they have met with the most anima- ting success. 27. By far the greatest proportion of the inhabitants of the United States is engaged in Agriculture ; for which the country is most favourably situated. The soil in most parts is fertile, and may with ease be made to produce almost eve- ry vegetable necessary for manufactures, or for the suste- nance of man. In the northern states, maize, wheat, rye, oats, flax, hemp, and potatoes, are produced in large quanti- ties ; and vast numbers of sheep and cattle are fed and fat- tened in their pastures. Tobacco is produced in the middle and western states ; and also much larger quantities of wheat man in the northern. Cotton, rice, and sugar, form the prin- cipal productions of the southern states. The number of persons in the United States engaged in agriculture, in 1820, was two millions seventy thousand six hundred and forty- six. During the year ending on the 30th of September, 1823, was exported from the United States, cotton to the value of $20,445,000 ; flour, to the value of $4,962,000 ; tobacco, to the value of $4,852,000 ; and rice, to the value of $1,821,000. Industry, morality, and intelligence, gene- rally distinguish the agricultural class of Americans ; but ow- ing to various causes, few of them have hitherto studied their profession as a science. Of late years, however, many cul- tivators of land, especially in the Atlantick states, have made practical application of the discoveries of scientifick men, and have enjoyed an ample reward in the increased products of their fields, and the visible and rapid improvement of the country. 28. The commerce of the United States has, hitherto, yielded a most ample harvest to their citizens. Enjoying a sea-coast of near two thousand miles ; possessing in abun- dance, and easily to be obtained, the finest ship timber in the world ; living in the vicinity of fishing stations yielding inex- haustible supplies of the finest fish ; and enjoying, from the Mate of the world, for several years subsequent to the French revolution, almost the whole carrying trade of Europe, \merican citizeng found every encouragement for commcr- AMERICAN HISTORY. 305 cial enterprise. Nor were they backward in taking advan- tage of these circumstances. In fifteen years from the year 1793, the tonnage of America increased from 490,000, to 1,242,000 tons. In 1820, the number of persons engaged in commerce was 72,493. Since the restoration of peace in Europe, the commerce of the United States has in some de- gree declined. Other nations are now permitted to become competitors with Americans, and to divide with them the profits of commercial intercourse. But the independence of the South American republicks, has opened a new and ex- tensive field for the enterprise of the merchants of the United States. 29. To impart the advantages of education to the whole mass of the population, has been a leading and favourite ob- ject with the people of the United States. To effect this, many of the state legislatures have passed laws, ordaining that schools for the instruction of all the youth in reading, writing* and arithmetick, should be instituted and supported by a ge- neral and publick tax. As early as 1647, this system was adopted by Massachusetts. By a law then passed, every town in that colony, having fifty householders, was obliged to support a school, in which all the children who might resort to it should be taught to read and write. As the population of the towns increased, districts were established, in each of which a school was supported. Other colonies imitated the example of Massachusetts. Connecticut, having a large tract of land in Ohio, soon after the close of the revolutiona- ry war, sold it, and appropriated the avails, being $1,200,000, as a perpetual fund for the support of common schools. This fund has since been augmented to $1,700,000, and the interest is annually distributed among the several districts in the state, according to the number of children taught in each. No district is, however, entitled to the benefit of this fund, unless, in the preceding year, it had expended a certain amount derived from its own resources for the same purpose. The state of New- York has also a common school fund, amounting, in 1820, to $1,220,000. 30. Harvard college, at Cambridge, (Mass.) is the oldest literary institution in the United States. It was founded in 1638, eighteen years after the first settlement at Plymouth. In 1642, the first degrees were conferred upon nine gradu- ates, The library attached to this institution contains about 0- : 306 AMERICAN HISTORY. twenty-five thousand volumes. In 1824, the faculty consist- ed of a president and twenty professors ; the number of stu- dents was two hundred and twenty-two, and of resident gra- duates, one hundred and forty-six. Yale college was found- ed in 1700, and incorporated the next year. It was first es- tablished at Say brook, but was removed in 1716, to INew- Haven, in Connecticut. Klihu Yale, of London, having made a donation to it of more than four thousand dollars, its name, in 1718, was changed from the Collegiate School, to Yale College. The library of this institution contains about ten thousand volumes, and the faculty consists of a president and eleven professors. The number of students in 1824, was three hundred and forty-nine. There are in the union, about fifty colleges and universities, beside several theolo gical seminaries. 31. Concerning the United States, the remark has ofte been made, that no literary and distinguished performa ces of merit, have marked the national character, and that they have produced no eminent scholars. This remark is comparatively just. America has not indeed produced any writers who have exhibited that polish of style, or that perse- verance and extent of investigation, which have distinguished those of the old world ; neither are their historians equal to Hume or Robertson ; their chymists to Lavosier or Davy ; or their poets to Milton or Pope. But America may boast of a Marshall, a Ramsay, a Belknap, a Williams, and a Holmes, in the historick department ; while as theological writers, Edwards, Hopkins, O wight, Davies, Koiiock and Buckminster, would do honour to any country, and to any na- tion. Many of the political writers of the United States, have displayed great force of expression, as well as great depth of thought. Of this, many numbers of the Federalist, the official letters of some of the secretaries of state, and of the American commissioners at Ghent, bear ample testi- mony. To the fine arts, less attention has been paid, than to other departments of science ; but America has the honour of being the birth-place of West, of Copley, of Stuart, of Trumbull, and of Alston, all of them eminent either in por- trait or historical painting. 32. The enjoyment of religious liberty has resulted in the most favourable consequences. Religious toleration and free discussion are not only permitted but encouraged ; and AMERICAN HISTORY, 307 the result has been, that the ignorant have been enlightened* superstition disarmed, and many erroneous sentiments con- signed to forgetfulness. In New-England, the most nume- rous denomination are the Congregauonalists, or independ- ents ; in the middle states, the Presbyterians : and in the south- ern, Methodists. Baptists and Episcopalians, in respectable numbers, are found m all the states. In Maryland and Lou- isiana, the Roman Catholicks are more numerous than in any other of the states. Beside the denominations already mentioned, the Quakers, the Shakers, the Moravians, and several other sects, are found in nearly all the states, each en- joying the most perfect liberty of conscience, and living in harmony with those who may differ from them in sentiment and practice. 33. The distinguishing national character of the Ameri- cans, as far as developed by their history, may be said to be ? " an energy of purpose, capable of surmounting all obstacles; a spirit of enterprise that leaves nothing useful unattempted ; a proud sense of personal dignity and independence ;" and a love of knowledge which has in a great measure banished ig- norance from the land. Those who stand in the first ranks of society, are generally free from ostentation, formality, and re- serve ; but perhaps they do not display the same elegance and refinement of manners, as those of the same class in Eu- rope. Of the great body of the people, it may be said, that they are "serious, shrewd, inquisitive, manly," and generous; knowing little, and practising less, the ceremonies of mere compliment. When respectfully treated, they treat others with respect ; but when their feelings are needlessly wound- ed and their rights invaded, no people in the world will mani- fest a quicker or more determined resistance. Time, we may anticipate, will remove the more gross defects from the American character : but may the day be very far distant when it shall be so much debased as to threaten the destruc- tion of our free institutions. 34. Compared with the principal nations of Europe, the United States are in some respects inferiour. But should they hereafter progress with the same rapidity as they have done, they will overtake and pass them. Unshackled and free, and possessing great natural advantages, Americans will be urged forward in the march of improvement, till in science and arts, in commerce and manufactures, they shall 308 AMERICAN HISTORY. far surpass the mighty genius and enterprise of the old world, and assume an elevated rank among the nations of the world. The citizens of the United States should not forget that solemn responsibilities rest upon them ; that this nation is the oldest in the western hemisphere ; that as they are the first among existing republicks, the eyes of all na- tions are upon them ; that to them is committed an experi- ment, in the result of which, is suspended the happiness and freedom of unborn millions ; and that the question is not yet decided, whether the genius of liberty or of despotism shall foe finally triumphant in the earth. QUESTIONS* 1. What occurred soon after the ratification of peace with Great Britain ? — 2. What is said of the army of the United States at the close of the war? — 3. What society was formed in 1816? — 4. What occur- red March 4, 1817 ?— 5. With whom were the United States engaged in a war in the year 1818 ? — 6. With what nations did the U. States conclude treaties of commerce this year ? — 7. For how many dollars was Florida ceded to theU. States in 1819? — 8. What question geatly agitated the minds of the American peopie during the year 1820? — 9. What demanded the attention of the American government in 1822 ? 30. What is said of the island of Cuba?— 11. When did La Fayette visit the U. States ? — 12. When Mr. Monroe's second term of service expired, who was elected to the presdential chair? — 13. What treaty was formed in 1825 ?-— 14. What occurred on the 4th July, 1826? — 35. What treaty was negotiated in the year 1826? — 16. What is said of the navy of the U. States in Dec. 1826? — 17. What was proposed during the session of congress in 1826 ? — 18. What treaty was formed in 1828 ?-— 19. What one on the 25th August, 1828 ?— - 20. Who was inaugurated president of the U. States on the 4th March, 1829? — 21. In a review of the U. States, what will an attentive observer no- tice ?— 22. What were co-existent with civil government in Europe ? 23. Were any part of these establishments received in America? — 24. What doctrines were received in Europe ? — 25. Are these doctrines received in America ? — 26. What form a distinguishing feature in all jmonarchial governments? — 27. In what is the greatest proportion of the inhabitants of the U. States engaged? — 28. What is said of the commerce of the U. States? — 29. What was a leading and favourite object with the people of the U. States ?— 30. Which is the oldest lite- rary institution in the U. States? — 31. What remark has often been made concerning the U. States ? —32. What has produced the most favourable consequences? — 33. What may be said respecting the na- tional character of the Americans? — 34. How do the U. States com- pare with the principal nations of Europe ? H/UESTIOHS FOR THE REVIEW OF SECTION I. 1 What reasons are given for supposing- that America was peopled from Asia ? 2 Did the Indians of America possess any books or manuscripts ? 3 What method was in use among them to declare war, or express a desire for peace ? 4 What powerful people did the Leni Lenape meet with on the banks of the Mississippi river ? 5 From whence did the Iroquois emigrate ? 6 What river and mountains probably received their names from the Alligewi ? 7 What took place between the Delawares and the Alligewi ? i 8 What became of the Alligewi ? 9 Where was the original seat of the Iroquois ? 10 Of what tribes did the confederacy of the Five Nations consist ? 11 What tribe afterward joined the confederacy ? 12 What tribes acknowledged the Delawares as their ancestors ? 13 What took place between the Delawares and the Iroquois ? 14 What was the event ? 15 At what time did this war rage ? 16 Why were the Tuscaroras driven out of North Carolina? 17 What is said of the Indians of cape Hatreras? 18 What is conjectured from this circumstance ? 19 What became of the Yamasees ? 20 What does Seminole mean ? 21 What is the present state of the Choctaws, Cbickasaws, and Cherokees ? 22 What happened to the Indians of New-Euglaad jast before the English landed at Plymouth ? 23 What is said of the language of the Iroquois ? 24 What of that of the Cherokees ? 25 What is said of the method of using the wampum in making' treaties ? 26 To whom do the Indians assign the chief place in their Elysium? SECTION II. 27 What is said of the claims of the Welsh, &c, to the htntur ©f dis- covering America ? 28 Who took the lead in attempts at discovery ? 27 29 What seems to have been the immediate object of the first voyage of Columbus ? 30 How were the plans of Columbus received by the great and learned 31 What island was first discovered? 32 To what cluster does it belong ? 33 What happened to Columbus while returning to Spain ? 34 How was he received in Spain ? 35 Why were the newly discovered islands called West Indies? 36 When did Columbus die, and at what age ? 37 When and by whom was the cape of Good Hope doubled? 38 How long after the discovery of America, did Magellan reach the Pacifick ocean? 39 Who discovered Newfoundland, and when ? 40 How far north did they sail? 41 When did the French first make discoveries in America ? 42 What did John Verrazano do? 43 In whose service did James Cartier sail ? 44 Where did he winter, and build a fort ? 45 What name did he give the country ? 46 Who set out in 1639 from Cuba in search of gold? 47 How far from its mouth did he reach the Mississippi? 48 To what river did he penetrate westward ? 49 What did his troops do after his death ? 50 How many settlers did La Roque carry out to Canada in 1542 ? 51 Where did he build a fort, and winter ? 52 What became of him ? 53 For how many years did the settlers in Canada receive no aid from their countrymen ? 54 Where did Laudonier build a fort? 55 What did he call it ? 56 Why ? 57 What did the French do three years after the Spaniards destroyed the settlement at St. Marys 58 W T hat lands did queen Elizabeth grant to Sir H. Gilbert ? 59 What became of him ? 60 What course did the commanders of the vessels sent by Raleigh take to approach America ? 61 Where did they land 1 62 What name did Elizabeth give the country ? 63 What became of the colony left by Grenville at Roanoke ? 64 Did the London company attempt to colonize ? 65 What islands did Gosnold discover ? 66 How long was he absent from England on that voyage 1 67 What was the name of De Monts' pilot ? 68 What became of him? 69 Where did the planters sent out by the Plymouth company land f 70 What happened to those that were left? SECTION III. 71 Up what river did Newport sail 1 72 How far from its mouth did he select a place for settlement 1 73 What did he call the place ? 74 Did the Indians annoy the settlers ? 75 What causes produced diseases among the colonists? 76 Had Smith been excluded from the council ? 77 Was he now invited to take his seat, and share in the adminis- tration ? 78 What did those who captured Smith do with him ? 79 Was he sentenced to die? 80 Who interposed to save his life ? 81 How long was he in captivity ? 82 Who assisted the Indians around Quebec, against the Iroquois? 83 Where did the hostile parties have a battle ? 84 Which party was defeated ? 85 Who was made governour of Virginia for life ? 86 Whom did he despatch with settlers ? 87 How many ships reached Jamestown ? 88 What became of the other vessel? 89 Did the colony fall into disorder ? 90 What disabled Smith from acting with his usual promptitude? 91 Whom did the returning colonists meet at the mouth of the river ? 92 What induced him to return to England in 161 1 ? 93 Who succeeded him ? 94 How was Pocahontas received in England ? 95 Did she return to America ? 96 What is said of her descendants? 97 Into how large lots was the land at first divided ? 98 How many acres were afterward assigned to each settler ? 99 What was the principal article cultivated ? 100 Where did the Dutch erect trading houses? 101 Why did the English reject the claim of the Dutch to the country ? 102 Who visited the Dutch at Manhattan, and demanded possession of the country ? 103 Did the Dutch yield ? 104 What name did Prince Charles bestow upon the country explored by Smith? 105 For what reason did cape Ann receive its name? 106 What did governour Yeardly do ? 107 How many corporations sent representatives to the general as sembly of Virginia. 108 Who were about this time sent over from England? 109 What was the price of a wife? 110 What is said of the London and Plymouth companies, after the partition of territory made by James I. ? 111 What name was given to the dissenters in England ? 112 What promise did they obtain from James I. ? 113 At what place in America did they intend to settle ? 114 What was the first land they made ? 115 What did they do before they left the ship ? 116 What soon brought them into a distressed situation ? 117 How many of their number perished before spring? 118 Who befriended them ? 119 How far were the boundaries of the grant made by Holland sup posed to extend ? I 209 How many wigwams were burned ? 210 What means did Philip use to excite the Mohawks to war 211 What became of Philip ? 212 What were the provisions of the navigation act ? 213 How did Bacon obtain a commission from governour Berkley ? 214 What became of Bacon ? 215 What controversy was settled two years before the separation oi New-Hampshire from Massachusetts ? 216 How did Massachusetts obtain the title to Maine ? 217 Did the proprietors of N. Jersey resist the claim of the duke oi York to that province ? 218 What did Andross do? 219 How was the difficulty settled ? 220 Who was appointed governour ! 221 What did he do in 1681 ? 222 Whv was Pennsylvania granted to William Penn 1 223 What did the duke of York grant to Penn in 16&2 ? 224 How long was Delaware a part of Pennsylvania? 225 Where did Penn hold a talk with the Indians ? 226 How many ships arrived with settlers in less than one year ! 227 What sect were they, principally ? 228 What object had they in coming to America ? 229 What did Dongan, governour of New-York call ? 230 Of what did the assembly consist? 231 What power did it possess ? 232 How many men did De La Barre lead against the Five Nat 233 Why did he find it desirable to make a treaty ? 234 How did, the campaign end ? 235 How many perished at Montreal ? 236 What was the consequence of these disasters ? 237 What was each colony directed to place at London ? 238 What charter was declared forfeited in 1684? 239 Who was appointed governour? 240 For what did Andross go to Hartford ? 241 What took place there ? 242 Who headed the Orange party in New-York ? 243 What is said of Leisler ? 244 Who was his counsellor ? 245 What became of Leisler? 246 Relate the circumstances of the attack on Schenectady . 247 Relate those of the attack on Salmon Falls ? 248 What fort and settlement were destroyed by the same party 249 Who commanded the forces sent to take Port Royal ' 250 How long was the fleet gone from Boston ? 251 What expedition was next undertaken ? 252 Was it successful ? 253 How many of the French were slain at La Praire'' 254 What is said of Seth Sothel ? SECTION V. 255 What was the first act of governour Phipp's administ»v> iuii 256 What law had been passed in England respecting witchcraft 257 Did the physicians pronounce the children of Mr. Paris bewitched v 258 Whom did the children accuse as the author of their torments ? 259 What distinguished persons were among the accused ? 260 Why did governour Fletcher go to Connecticut? 261 What did the proprietors of Carolina do in 1693? 262 What French nobleman early formed a settlement on the Penob- scot ? 263 Did the English succeed in capturing biiw ? 264 Relate the manner in which rice was introduced into N. Carolina 265 Who commanded the French fleet sent to destroy Boston ? 266 Was the design successful ? 267 When was a treaty of peace made between France and England ? 268 To what party was Fletcher opposed? 269 When did Bellamont die ? 270 Who succeeded him ? 271 What were the terms of Penn's new charter ? 272 Did it appease the discontents of the people? 273 Whom did queen Anne appoint governour of New-Jersey ? 274 Whatorder was given to Viileborne, governour of Canada ) 275 Against what powers did England declare war in 1701? 276 Under whose command was the party which proceeded by land to St, Augustine ? 277 For what reason did the expedition fail ? 278 What did tfie government of N. Carolina do to defray theexpcn ses of the expedition ? 279 Did the expedition against the Appalachian Indians succeed ? 280 Did the eastern Indians continue friendly to New-England? 281 By what means did the Indians enter the fort atDeerfieki? 282 What loss did the French sustain in the autumn of this year 1 283 By whom was the colony of Carolina invaded ? 284 How many persons were slain at Haverhill in 1708? 2S5 What happened to the Palatines settled on the Roanoke? 286 Who commanded the fleet sent against Canada in 1711 287 Where was an army of the provincials assembled ? 288 Who commanded it ? 289 What befel the fleet at the mouth of the St. Lawrence 7 290 What was the result of a council of war ? 291 What tribe of Indians attacked South Carolina ? 292 How many warriours could the six southern nations of Indians muster in this war ? 293 What was the result of the battle at Salt Catchers ? 294 What did the settlers at Londonderry introduce ? 295 What took place in Maryland the year after ? 296 What effect did the appearance of the Aurora Borealis have on the minds of the people ? 297 Who was appointed governour of New-York the same year t' at the Aurora appeared 1 298 For what purpose were commissioners delegated? 299 How was it proposed to sustain the value of the paper curren cy in Massachusetts ? 300 What was the matter in dispute ? 301 What produced a rupture between the Gov, and the assembly ? 8 302 What did the new govemour of New-York attempt? 303 What fort did he build for this purpose? 304 What grand plan did the French have in view at this time SECTION VI. 305 How many acres of land were assigned to each settler in Georgia 306 What was the effect of this arrangement? 307 W r ho visited the colon v in 1736? 308 Who in 1738? 309 W r hat did the Spaniards do before the commencement of hostilities' 310 What did tbey next attempt? 311 Did the insurrection df the negroes succeed? 312 When did New-Jersey receive a separate charter from N. York" 313 What was founded the same year? 314 What city was burned in the year 1739? 315 How large a sum did parliament grant the sufferers? 316 What measures did Oglethorpe take to deceive the Spaniards? 317 When did Georgia receive its charter? 318 Of what place did govemour Shirley propose the reduction? 319 Did the general court of Massachusetts at first disapprove the design? 320 Did it afterward consent? 321 How long did the siege last? 322 By what causes were the French induced to abandon their in- tended invasion of New-England? 323 When did the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle take place? 324 Did the French annoy the servants of the Ohio company? 325 How far did the govemour of Virginia interfere? 326 Was the mission of Washington successful? 327 When did he begin his march toward the Ohio? 328 What did he learn at the Great Meadows? 329 Did be determine to attack fort Du Quesne? 330 Relate what afterward occurred? 331 Why was not the plan of colonial union adopted by the king and the colonies? 332 How many, and what expeditions were proposed in 1755 ? 333 What was the result of the first and fourth? 334 Who was sent to re-enforce colonel Blanchard, at fort Edward? 335 What happened to him 1 336 How many of the French were killed in the attack upon tin English camp? 337 What occurred the next day? 338 How many, and what expeditions were proposed in 1756? 339 By whom was Shirley suspended? 340 Who was appointed govemour of Virginia in 1756? 341 How long did the siege of fort William Henry continue? 342 What were the terms of the capitulation? 343 Were they violated ? 344 Was Mr. Pitt's character popular in America? 345 What three expeditions were undertaken in 1758? 346 Who commanded the force destined to act against Louisburg 347 When did the army under Abercrombie pass Jake George'' 348 Who was killed in a skirmish near Ticonderoga? 349 How long- did the attack on the fort continue? 350 What was the plan of the campaign of 1759? 351 Where was the French army encamped ? 352 By what means did Wolfe's army reach the plains of Abraham? 353 What took place after Wolfe was wounded and carried into the rear? 354 What reply did Montcalm make when told he could not survive his wound ? 355 How long after the defeat of the French army did Quebec capitu late? SECTION VII. 356 What at this time was the opinion in Europe respecting colonies ? 357 Who in parliament proposed the stamp-Ect ? 358 Who was among the most distinguished in parliament for his op- position to the stamp-act? 359 Did the act pass I 360 What did Dr. Franklin write to Mr. Thompson, and what wa? the reply of the latter ? 361 What did the general court of Massachusetts propose? 362 What was the first act of the first congiess ? 363 What declaration did parliament make when they repealed the stamp-act 1 364 How many regiments of troops arrived at Boston on the 28th of September '( 365 Where did the governour quarter them ? 366 How many chests of tea were destroyed at Boston? 367 Who was appointed governour of Massachusetts in the room o( Hutchinson ? 368 Where did he direct the general court to meet ? 369 What was their first act 370 Who was chosen president of the first congress ? 371 What was the first measure of congress ? 372 What was their next measure? 373 Who commanded the detachment sent to destroy the stores at Concord ? 374 Relate the circumstances which occurred ? 375 Who led the expedition against Ticonderoga and Crown Point ? 376 What was the result of the expedition ? 377 What provision did congress make for meeting the expenses of the war ? 378 What village did the British burn while advancing to attack the Americans on Bunker Hill ? 379 How many times were the British repulsed in that attack ? 380 What distinguished American officer was slain ? 381 When did Georgia join the confederation? 382 What was established about this time ? 383 Who was appointed postmaster general ? 384 Who greatly distinguished himself in privateering exploits? 385 What was the result of the attack by the British on Sullivan V Island ? 386 How many men did they lose ? 10 SECTION VIII. 387 What effect did the declaration of independence have upon the contest * 388 What upon the colonies ? 389 Upon taking possession of Staten Island, what proclamation did Howo issue ? 390 Why did not Washington receive the letter which Howe address- ed to him ? 391 What was Carleton, who commanded in Canada, expected to do : 392 How were the three divisions of the American army stationed ? 393 VV hen did the British attack the Americans, and with what result ? 394 Who were appointed to meet the British commissioners? 395 Why were not terms of accommodation agreed upon? 396 What measures did congress adopt for recruiting the army? 397 What American officer was slain in the action near N. York? 398 What did the British commander now labour to do ? 399 What course did Washington take after the battle of White Plains? 400 How many of the British were killed in the assault on -fort Wash- ington? 401 What did the British do on the 8th of Nov.? 402 Mention the events of the American retreat across N. Jersey? 403 What did Howe do after Washington had crossed the Delaware ' 404 Was the American army in a distressed situation? 405 What classes accepted the terms of Howe's proclamation? 406 By the presence and counsels of what generals was Washington at this time aided ? 407 How many prisoners did Washington take in the attack upon Trenton? 408 Relate what occurred while Cornwallis was advancing to attack Washington at Trenton? 409 What were the consequences of the excesses of the British and Hessians? 410 When did the British take possession of Rhode Island ? 411 What did congress do on the 4th of October? 412 Who were sent to France as commissioners? 413 What were they instructed to do? 414 What did governour Tryon do on the 25th of March? 415 What was La Fayette's reply when told of the poverty of America ; 416 Of how many regulars did Burgoyne's army consist? 417 Where did Burgovne make his first encampment? 418 What did he here do? 419 What befel genera) Herkimer? 420 Who commanded the fort at Ticonderoga? 421 By what mount was the fort overlooked ? 422 What did Burgoy ne do on the 5th of July ? 423 Relate the circumstances of the battle of Bennington 1 424 Where did an engagement take place on the 19th Sept.? 425 Where, on the 7th of Oct.? 426 How long did it last, and what was the result ? 427 How many prisoners, muskets, and field pieces fell into the hands of the Americans at the surrender of Burgoync ? 11 428 What were the terms of the capitulation ? 429 How many men did Howe land at the head of Elk river 3 430 At what place did *N ashington encamp ? 431 What was the result of the battle of Brandy wine ? 432 To what place did congress remove from Philadelphia ? 433 How did count Donop's attack on Red Bank result? 434 What afterward occurred ? 435 Who was at the head of the cabal against Washington ? 436 By whom was the treaty with France signed ? 437 W hat took place on the 20th of March ? SECTION IX. 138 To what did the British commissioners next resort, after the fail- ure of their negotiations with congress ? 439 When did the battle of Monmouth take place, and with what result? 440 Why did not De Estaign attack the British fleet in the harbour oi New- York ? 441 By what was the campaign of 1778 distinguished ? 442 What were the names of the chiefs who led them to these deeds ? 443 Why was the settlement of Wyoming defenceless at this time 1 444 How many men had Brandt and Butler 1 445 What reply did Butler make to colonel Denison, when asked what terms he would grant ! 446 Relate what took pace on the 28th of December ? 447 What number of American soldiers fell into the hands of the British 1 448 Where did Washington take up his winter quarters near the close of 1778? 449 Who took command of the American forces at the south, after the reduction of Georgia ? 450 What prevented active operations till September ? 451 Who in that month arrived from the West Indies 1 452 What was the result of the assault on Savannah l 453 Who was mortally wounded in the assault 1 454 Did the Americans re-capture Stony Point? 455 Relate the circumstances of the attack ? 456 Of what nation was Paul Jones ? 457 Of how many ships did his squadron consist? 458 With what did he fall in, on the coast of Scotland \ 459 What were the circumstances of the action after the two frigates were lashed together ? 460 What effect did the depreciation of the currency have upon the publick morals ? 461 What amount of bills had been issued by congress up to this time f 462 What did Massachusetts do to dislodge the British from Penobscot 1 663 To what was the failure of the expedition owing? 464 What at this time perplexed congress? 465 What was congress urged to yield to each ? 466 What was the character of Mrs. Washington? SECTION X. 467 When did Clinton and his army appear before Charleston v 468 Did the city capitulate ? 12 469 What was the agreement between the court of Versailles and congress ? 470 What order did Washington give in regard to the national flags ? 471 Who was appointed to the command of the southern American arm v . 472 Where did he take post ? 473 What was the probable cause of his defeat at Camden ? 474 What was his loss ? 475 What officer was mortally wounded ? 476 With what command did congress invest Arnold ? 477 What course did congress take in regard to his claims upon go- vernment ? 478 What sentence did the court martial pronounce upon him ? 479 Of what important post did he ask and obtain command? 480 What did he agree to do ? 481 Where did Arnold and Andre meet ? 482 Relate the circumstances of Andre's capture? 483 Was Clinton anxious to save Andre ? 484 What reward did Arnold obtain for his treason? 485 What became of him ? 486 Relate the circumstances of the mutiny of the Pennsylvania troops 1 487 Who met them at Princeton ? 488 How much money did France give the United States ? 489 How much did Holland loan them ? 490 What amount in bills, signed by the treasurer alone, were at one time in circulation 7 491 What was the British loss at the battle of the Cowpens? 192 At the battle of Guilford court-house, how numerous was the array of Greene ? 493 What did both commanders find it necessary to do? 494 Soon after the battle at Hobkirk's hill, what British posts surren. dered to the Americans ? 495 When the war commenced, what part did colonel Hayne take ? 496 After he was taken prisoner what was he offered? 497 Which did he choose, and why? 498 Was he again taken prisoner? 499 Relate the circumstances of the action at Eutau Springs? 500 What was the loss of the British ? 501 Whom did Washington send to oppose Arnold in Virginia ? 502 Where did the British and French fleets meet ? 503 When did Cornwallis enter Yorktown ? 504 What did Washington do to prevent Clinton sending aid to Corn wall is? 505 When did the allied armies reach the place of rendezvous ? 506 Of how many men did they consist? 507 Did Cornwallis and his army capitulate? 508 What terms were granted to them ? 509 To what number did the prisoners amount? 510 What took place the same day the capitulation was signed ? 511 What effect did the loss of a second army have upon the miniv and people of England ? 13 612 Who were appointed agents to treat with the American commit sioners ? 613 Why did congress decline the negotiation ? 614 Who were sent to Paris by the British to meet the American go vernment ? 615 What took place on the 20th January, 1783? 616 When was the definitive treaty signed ? 617 What is said of the terms granted to America ? 618 What was circulated among the officers of the army at ISevvburgh ? 619 What did Washington say, when he arose to address the officers ? 620 Relate the circumstances of Washington's taking leave of his offi- cers ? 621 What did the insurgents in Massachusetts do in August ? 622 What occurred on the 25th of January ? 623 How many of the states at first ratified the constitution ? 624 When was the newly organized government to go into operation 1 625 Of what does the legislative department of the government consist? 626 By whom were the several departments of state filled ? 627 What did Hamilton in his report recommend ? 628 Were his measures adopted ? 629 How many inhabitants did the U. S. contain at the first census ? 630 What was the amount of the revenue ? 631 Of the exports ? 632 Of the imports? 633 Who was sent against the Indians ? 634 Where was he defeated ? 635 Who succeeded him ? 636 Relate the circumstances of the action at the Miami villages? 637 Who arrived at Charleston as minister from France ? 638 What did he do ? 639 Did Washington approve of his conduct? 640 Where did Wayne and his army engage the Indians? 641 Which were defeated ? 642 What were the terms of Jay's treaty ? 643 Did the president ratify it ? 644 Who was sent as minister to France? 645 What information did Mr. Adams receive soon after he came in- to office ? 646 What laws did congress pass ? 647 What measures did congress adopt for retaliation and defence ? 648 Who were now sent as envoys to France ? 649 Whom did they find at the head of the French government? 650 What was the president authorized to do by the alien law ? 651 What were the provisions of the sedition law? 652 How much did the United States give for Louisiana? SECTION XII. 653 What American commander blockaded the harbour of Tripoli? 654 What courageous act did lieutenant Stephen Decatur perform? 655 With whom did general Eaton enter into a league ? 656 What city did Eaton capture? 657 Who made a treaty with Tripoli ? 28 14 058 How many dollars did the United States pay for the ransom oi two hundred men ? 659 Relate the cause and circumstances of the duel between Burr and Hamilton ? 660 Upon what maxim did England and France appear to act about this time ? 661 In what political condition is man considered by the American constitution ? 662 Acting upon these principles, what laws had congress earlv passed ? 663 By what means had Burr lost the confidence of the two parties in the union ? 664 Thus situated, where did he retire ? 665 What did he there do, and under what pretext ? 666 When and where was he arrested, and where taken for trial 7 667 Was he acquitted ? 668 To what place was the frigate Chesapeake sent on a cruise ? 669 What happened soon after she left the coast ? 670 What did the British government do in regard to this transaction r 671 Did they finally make satisfaction ? 672 What did congress do on the recommendation of the president ? 673 Did the embargo cause discontents in New-England? 674 How long was the non-intercourse act to be in force, and what was provided by it ? 675 What took place in April ? 676 Did the British government refuse to sanction the engagement of its minister ? 677 What assurance did Bonaparte give Mr. Armstrong in August 9 678 What proclamation did the president issue in November? 679 What had Great Britain promised ? 680 Relate the circumstances of the rencounter between the frigate President, and Little Belt ? 681 What took place at Tippecanoe 1 682 Relate the circumstances of the action ? 683 How many American vessels had fallen into the hands of tht British since 1803? 684 What documents did the president lay before congress February 25th, 1812? 685 Who was the British agent in this business ? 686 What reasons did the president assign for declaring war? 687 Did the British in Canada receive the news of the declaration ol war before general Hull in Ohio ? 688 AVhat were they in consequence able to do ? 689 Where did Hull take post on the 12th of July, and what did he there do ? 690 Were general Hull and his armv included in the armistice agreed to by general Dearborn ? 691 What opinion do subsequent events appear to warrant 692 What took place on the 9th of August ? 693 Relate the circumstances of Hull's surrender ? 694 Was the sentence of the court martial executed upon Hull ' 695 Why not ? 15 SECTION XIII. 696 What did captain Dacres do a short time previous to the rencoun- ter between the Constitution and Guerriere ? 697 What was the British loss in that action ? 698 What was the American ? 699 Where did general Dearborn have his head quarters ? 709 How many of the New-York militia were stationed on the Niagara frontier ? 701 Relate the circumstances of the attack upon Queenston ? 702 What British general received a mortal wound in that attack ? 703 Why did the militia refuse to cross the river? 704 How many of the Americans were, killed, wounded, and taken prisoners ? 705 Where was general Winchester posted ? 706 What occurred on the 4th of September ? 707 What was the result of the attack ? 708 What did the Indians do soon after, in revenge for their defeat? 709 What was the comparative loss of the British and Americans in the action between the Wasp and Frolick ? 710 What took place two hours after the action ? 711 Relate the circumstances of the action between the frigates United States and Macedonian ? 712 Between the Constitution and the Java? 713 What were the circumstances of the massacre et Frenchtown ? 714 Give an account of the attack on fort Stephenson ? 715 What American general was mortally wounded in the attack upon York? 716 What took place while these events were transpiring on the Nia- ara frontier ? 717 Relate the circumstances of the attack on Burlington Heights ? 718 Give an account of Perry's victory on Lake Erie? 719 What noted Indian chief was slain in the action on the Thames r 720 What British admiral was sent up the Delaware ? 721 Of what tplace on the Delaware did the British take possession r 722 What took place on the 22d of June ? 723 What on the 25th? 724 What orders did Wilkinson receive from the secretary of war? 725 What took place soon after the action at Williamsburg ? 726 What did a council of war decide ? 727 What did the British do by way of retaliation for the burning of Newark ? 728 Relate the circumstances of the naval action between the Hornet and Peacock ? 729 Of the action between the Chesapeake and Shannon ? 730 Who was mortally wounded in the action between the Argus and Pelican? 731 What was the loss of the Indians at the battle of Tallushatchie ? 732 What was it at Talladega ? 733 What at Autossee ? 734 Relate the circumstances of the action atTohopeka ? 735 Narrate Weatherford's speech ? 16 SFCTIOS XXV m .3(3 Who were sent to Russia, to meet commissioners from Grekt Britain ? 737 What did England decline, and what did she offer? 738 Who were appointed commissioners on the part of England ? 739 What financial measures did confess adopt at their extra session in May, 18)3 ? 740 What retaliatory measures did they adopt at the same time? 741 What took place at Sandy Creek ? 742 What occurred on the 3d of JuJy ? 743 Relate the circumstances of »he battle at Chippewa? 744 What was the British loss at the battle of Bridgewater? 745 What was the American ? 746 What was the loss of the Biitish at the assault on fort Erie? 747 What occurred on the 19th, 20th, and 22d of August, in the Che- sapeake? 748 To what did the loss of pubiick property amount at the capture of Washington ? 749 How many men did general Ross land at North Point on the 12tl of September ? 750 What did the governour of New Brunswick do in August ? 751 How many men did Provost lead against Plattsburg ? 752 Of how many vessels did the British flotilla on lake Cham plain consist? 753 Of how many did the American 1 754 Relate the circumstance;; of the action on lake Champlain ? 755 Relate the principal circumstances of Porter's cruise in the Pa- cinck ? 756 Give an account of the action between Porter and Hillyar at Valparaiso ? 757 What took place on the 29th of April, 1814 ? 758 What on the 28th June ? 759 Did the Wasp ever return to the United States? 760 What amendments did the Hartford convention propose to the constitution ? 761 Why did Jackson take possession of Pensacola ? 762 Relate the circumstances of the attack on New-Orleans, Jan. 8th? 763 What were the stipulations of the treaty with England ? 764 What naval action took place on the 20th of February ? 765 What on the 23d of March ? I 'CTIOHT ".XV. 766 What is the capital of the national bank established in 1816? 767 What did congress do in 1819 f 768 When was Alabama made a state? 769 Under what circumstances was lieutenant Allen killed? 770 Relate the circumstances of La Fayette's visit to Washington's tomb ? 771 What did president Adams recommend in his first message" 772 What was the revenue of the United States in 1828? 'ff 83 LK3JL78 *° >m&: \f * Deacidified using the Bookkeeper process. , Neutralizing agent: Magnesium Oxide Treatment Date: ... „ IAY 2002 ' PreservationTechnologies A WORLD LEADER IN PAPER PRESERVATION 111 Thomson Park Drive Cranberry Township, PA 16066 (724) 779-2111 P* ,*' * ♦ ° '*•"•• \ 5°.* * < ip«, • *b& € ^*. *^^ * • ©^ ^ <^ * © » ° ° <*?r WERT BOOKBINDING U A? Crantville, Pa ■ . A JULY- AUG 1 989 ■ ^ <> ** re Quthty -Bound '■ U\-.' 0> mm ■ : ■ i'^ RY0F CONGRESS ' $31 In ■