aass_LLiil_5i Book_X-^5— — Gop}TightN°_ COEffilGHT DEPOSIT. MODERN EDUCATION IN EUROPE AND THE ORIENT IHome an^ Scfjool Series Edited by PAUL MONROE Curtis: Education through Play. Curtis: The Practical Conduct of Play. Cjtrtis : The Play Movement and its Significance. Cloyd: Modern Education in Europe and the Orient. Howerth : The Art of Education. Kilpatrick: Froebel's Kindergarten Principles Critically Examined. MODERN EDUCATION IN EUROPE AND THE ORIENT BY ^ DAVID ErCLOYD, Ph.B., M.A. PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION AND PSYCHOLOGY DEAN OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION DES MOINES COLLEGE, DES MOINES, IOWA THE MACMILLAN' COMPANY 1917 jill rights reserved v>^ Copyright, 1917, By the MACMILLAN COMPANY. Set up and electrotyped. Published October, 1917. Xorfasooti ^xies J. 8. Gushing Co. — Berwick & Smith Co. Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. Q OCT -4 19(7 {J ©G1.A476467 n ^ / PREFACE The purpose of this book, "Modern Education in Europe and the Orient," is to present to the Normal School and College student a simple, clear, and comprehensive statement of what the countries treated are doing through their educa- tional systems to better society. The method of study sur- veys the practical workings of the several school systems rather than the scientific principles underlying particular phases of education. It accepts and apphes the familiar conclusions of the many writers who have treated exten- sively such topics as humanism, rationalism, realism, natural- ism, individualism, etc., without making these theories prom- inent in the discussions. In other words, the text attempts to present each government and society at work, in the re- construction of its passing school system to meet the chang- ing demands of to-day and to-morrow. In this respect, the problem of each nation is shown to be the same. Out of this similarity of national conditions and the oneness of national purposes it is hoped that the student will find suggestions of things to do and not to do in the development of the educa- tional system of his own country. At no time in the history of society has the educational system occupied the central position in social institutions so completely as it has during the past fifty years. Each indi- vidual, each vocation, and each institution is looking to the educational system for strength and guidance. vi Preface The spirit of cooperation characterizes the work of all these nations. All institutions of society are working to- gether for the individual and common good as never before known. Private initiative is welcomed and encouraged by the state. Through systems of state aid and standardization, private and denominational schools are coming into har- monious relations with the state systems. And by a broaden- ing spirit of religious toleration, the state is being left free to foster phases of education that fit all types of individuals for social and economic efficiency. Vocational education is everywhere winning its way into the curriculum to supply what the traditional subjects have never been able to give. Continuation classes and schools for adolescents and adults are multiplying in urban and rural districts. The application of science to the development of rural industries is helping to keep the rural population con- tented and happy and away from the city. Technical edu- cation, for the training of leaders in commercial and industrial pursuits, is stimulating the development of the resources of the nation. Closer political and commercial relations between the nations are driving them to study each other's means of training their citizens for rivalry in peaceful and martial pursuits. * The higher technical training of teachers and the fuller recognition of teaching as one of the learned professions is drawing a higher type of men and women into the work of education. The compulsory school laws that protect chil- dren from industrial exploitation and society from an unedu- cated and inefficient citizenship are filling up the schools and calling for an enormous expenditure of public and private funds. Preface vii The state is modifying its government so as to make more efficient the local and state control of the organization and administration of education to guarantee the greatest social returns. These, in brief, are the problems, the movements, the methods, and the social aims, to which this text is designed to direct the interest and attention of the student of modern education. For information about these educational systems, the author acknowledges his indebtedness to the sources named in the bibliographies listed in the text, and also to many not listed. He is likewise indebted to many professors of educa- tion and history, with whom he has discussed freely the dif- ferent phases of this book. Another valuable aid to the author has been criticisms of the manuscripts on the different systems, by prominent for- eigners from these different countries, whom he has met in educational work in the United States. A year and a half, spent by the author as inspector of schools in the Southern States for the General Education Board, and eight years as instructor of College classes in the History of Education, have been of value to him in drawing comparisons between the foreign systems and that of the United States, and in adapting the treatment to class use with college students. For those engaged in the administration of county, state, and institutional systems of education, the book should have much of interest and value. It is with pleasure and appreciation that the author acknowledges the assistance of Dr. Paul Monroe, with whom, for a year, he was a student in the History of Education. viii Preface While the merits of the book are due to many sources, its defects are due solely to the author. Finally, if the reader finds the book of interest and value, he is indebted to my wife, whose intelligent criticism and constant encouragement have made the completion of the work possible. DAVID E. CLOYD Des Moines College, Des Moines, Iowa, March lo, 1917, TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I ENGLAND FACE The Government — Transition from the Old Education to the New — Present English School System — Administration of Education — Pictogram of School System — Special Subjects — Secondary Edu- cation — " Great Public Schools " — The Training of Teachers — Ex- aminations for Certificates — Teachers' Annuities — Technical Edu- cation — The English Universities — The Rhodes Scholarships — Rural Education — Religion and Education — Topics for Further Study — Special Bibliography i CHAPTER n SCOTLAND The Government — Administration of Education — Special Features of the Old Scottish Schools — The Present Scottish System of Schools — Primary Education — Intermediate Schools — Supplementary Classes — Higher Grade Schools — Continuation Classes — Secon- dary Education — Types of Secondary Schools — Articulation with the Universities — School Statistics — General Welfare of Children — Training of Teachers — Technical Education — Scot- tish Universities — Women in the Universities — Carnegie Trust Grants — The Kirk and Education — Topics for Further Study — Bibliography 6i CHAPTER HI FRANCE The Government — The Administration of Education — Specialization versus Centralization — Primary Education — Secondary Educa- tion — Types of Secondary Schools — The Baccalaureate — Girls' Table of Contents PAGE Diplomas — Teachers in Secondary Schools — Trade and Technical Education — Agricultural Education — The Practical Schools of Commerce and Industry — Higher Education — The Universities — The Normal Schools — Pensions — Critical Condition Regarding Primary Teachers — Religious Education — Education in the French Colonies — Present Tendencies in French Education — Topics for Further Study — Special Bibliography 92 CHAPTER IV GERMANY The Government — The Empire — State Governments — Administration of Education — State Control of Education — Local Control of Education — Compulsory Education — Kindergarten and Bewahran- stalten — The Volksschule — Problem of Overcrowded Classes — Whe Mittelschule — Gymnasium — Other Types of Secondary Schools — The Lyzeum — StUdienanstalt — The Reifepriifung — The Training of Teachers — Elementary Teachers — Lehrerseminar — For Vocational Schools — Secondary Teachers — Gymnasial Seminars — The Oberlehrer — Industrial Education — Continuation Schools — Special Trade Schools — Engineering and Scientific Schools — German Universities — The Culture Caste — The Student and His Life — New University at Frankfort — Recog- nition of American Bachelor Degree — Women in the Universities , — Religious and Moral Instruction — Critical Conditions in Ger- man Education — War and Education — German Influence on Amer- ican Education — Topics for Further Study — Special Bibliography 129 CHAPTER V SWITZERLAND History — The Government — Plan of School Administration — National Ideals Influencing Education — Pictograms of Swiss School System — Educational Statistics — • Elementary Schools — Secondary Schools — Commercial Education — Agricultural Education — Training of Teachers — Universities and Polytechnic Institute — Compulsory Education for Apprentices — Religious Education — Topics for Further Study — Special Bibliography 169 Table of Conitnts xi CHAPTER VI HOLLAND PAOK The Government. — Geography and Population — Administration of Education — Elementary Education — Secondary Schools — Higher Education — The Normal Schools — Control of Religious Education — Support of Education — Holland's Colonial Policy — Education in Netherlands-India — Types of Dutch Schools — Infant Schools — Primary Schools — Continuation Schools — Intermediate Schools — Elementary and Secondary School Statistics — Higher Education — The Gymnasia — The Dutch Universities — Technical Education — Trade Schools — Industrial Schools for Girls — Schools of Commerce — Polytechnic Schools — Agricultural Education — Itinerary Classes for Rural Industrial Education — Religious Education — The Training of Teachers — Salaries and Pensions — Topics for Further Study — Special Bibliography . . 193 CHAPTER VII DENMARK Introduction — Geography and Population — History and Government — Industries — The Danish People — General Plan of School Or- ganizations — Coordination of Parts of the System — Pictogram of the Danish School System, 1914 — The Primary School (Folkeskole) — Secondary Schools — Historic Development — The Middle School (Mellemskole) — Gymnasium — Relation to Higher Schools — The People's High School (Folkehojskoler) — The School Year — Com- pulsory' Attendance — Prominence Given to Music — Physical Train- ing of Teachers — Teachers' Pensions — The Problem of Coeducation — Religion and Religious Instruction — Provision for the Defective — Polytechnic and Professional Schools — The University of Copen- hagen — Topics for Further Study — Special Bibliography . .227 CHAPTER VIII NORWAY History — Her Government — The People and Their Language — Plan of School Control — Pictogram of School System — The Primary Schools — Rural and City — The Middle Schools — The Gymna- xii Table of Contents PAGE sium — The University — The'Training of Teachers — Agricultural Education — Rural Education for Adults — Folk High School — Workingmen's Colleges — Technical Education — Continuation Schools of Secondary Rank — The Problem of Coeducation — Moral and Religious Education — Private Initiative in Norwegian Edu- cation — Topics for Further Study — Special Bibliography . . 260 CHAPTER IX SWEDEN Geography and Industries — Historic Sketch — The Government — Or- ganization of Education — Pictogram of the Swedish School System — Administration of Education — The Elementary Schools — Sec- ondary Education — People's High Schools — Teachers' Training Schools — The Higher Institutions — Schools for Abnormals — Popu- lar Education — Course of Study — Continuation Schools — Pro- posed Reorganization of Elementary Education — Genesis of the Secondary Schools — Girls' Secondary Schools — Boys' Secondary Schools — Higher Education — Number and Character of Institu- tions — Upsala — Degrees — Faculty and Students — Technical Education — Special Types of School Work — For Crippled Chil- dren — Workshops for Children — School Gardens — Swedish Gym- nastics — Sloyd — Domestic Economy — Vacation Colonies — Neglected Children — Temperance Education — People's High Schools — Religious Education — Topics for Further Study — Special Bibliography 296 CHAPTER X JAPAN Her History — Geography and Industries — Her Government — The Ancient System of Education — Education under the Early Feudal Regime — Education under Buddhist Domination — Education under Military Control ^ Transition to Modern Education — Picto- gram of Japanese School System — Modern Education — The Ad- ministration of Education — The Kindergarten — Elementary Edu- cation — Special Features of Elementary School Work — The Middle School — Higher Schools — The Imperial Universities — Girls' High Schools — The Training of Teachers — Of Elementary Table of Contents xiii PAOE Teachers — Of Secondary Teachers — Technical Education — Spe- cial Features in Japanese Education — Position of Japanese Women — University of Waseda and Pri\ate Initiative — Moral Education — Religious Education — Limitations of Japan's Religions — The Caste System and Education — Textbook Regulations — Medical Education — Topics for Further Study — Special Bibliography . 336 CHAPTER XI CHINA Her History — Her Industries — The Recent Republic — The Old Edu- cation — Transition to Modern Education — The First Period of Modern Education — Pictogram of the Chinese School System from 1905 to 191 2 — Pictogram of the Chinese School System from 191 2 to 1916 — The Present School System — The Universities and Colleges — The Tsing Hua College — The Canton Christian College — Agricul- tural and other Technical Colleges — Medical Education — China's Educational Problems — Financing Education — The Need of Modern Teachers — The Language Problem — New Content and New Methods in Education — An Emancipated Womanhood — The Problem of a New Philosophy — Moral and Religious Educa- tion — The Government's Program — Topics for Further Study — Special Bibliography 391 MAPS Political Map of Europe i Political Map of Asia 384 MODERN EDUCATION IN EUROPE AND THE ORIENT ENGLAND CHAPTER I THE GOVERNMENT General Character. — The government of England is very complex in character. In theory, it is an absolute monarchy with a king who makes the laws, enforces them, declares war, makes peace, acts as the fountain of justice, and the head of the church. In form, the government is a hmited monarchy in which ParHament, and not the king, makes the laws, and the Cabinet, not the king, administers them. In fact, the EngHsh government is a democracy, doing the will of the people as no other government, at least in its promptness of response. The Will of the People. — Democracy was established as a fact in four distinct acts of ParHament that stand out in great prominence in English Constitutional history, (i) John Russell's reform act of 1832 enfranchised the middle class, the farmers, and shopkeepers. (2) Disraeh's reform act of 1867 gave the workingmen the franchise. (3) Gladstone's reform measure of 1884 added to the voting body nearly two million persons, mainly rural laborers. (4) Finally, the Parlia- ment Act of 191 1 reduced the Lords to a subordinate house 2 Modern Education in Europe mid the Orient by a provision that enables the House to pass bills over the veto of the Lords. How it Functions. — The House which controls legislature is elected by an almost universal manhood suffrage. The Cabinet, which is the actual executive department, also has the initiative power in appropriating money. The members are selected from the two houses of Parhament and must be of the same pohtical opinions as the majority of the House and must be the recognized leaders of that majority. If a lack of harmony arises between the Cabinet and the majority of the House, either the Ministry must resign, or the Parha- ment must be dissolved and an appeal be made to the people through a general election. This, in brief, is the democratic procedure of the EngHsh government. Added to this is the striking fact that no British court can set aside an act of Parhament as unconstitutional. Furthermore, the Eng- Hsh Constitution is not a written one and any act of Parha- ment is law. And, finally, the king's veto has not been used for more than two hundred years. In fact England is a democracy. Why a Monarchy. — The title to the Enghsh throne is decided by an act of Parliament and has been so since 1688. The Act of Settlement, passed in 1701, fixed the succession to the throne, and this has remained unchanged, though Parha- ment could change it at any session. His rights are merely advisory, and his advice has only the influence that an intelh- gent personahty in an honored position gives it. The essen- tial reasons for the retention of monarchy are : (i) It is a time- honored institution of an extremely conservative people ; (2) it serves a social, moral, and ceremonial purpose as a visible symbol of the unity of the nation ; (3) a parhamentary England 3 system of government needs at least a figurehead for its successful workings ; (4) kingship has been found to be not incompatible with democracy. The Limiting Constitution. — The Constitution of England which hmits the so-called monarchy is not a written document in the sense that the Constitution of the United States is such. It consists of customs^ laws, precedents, treaties, charters, bills of rights, acts of Parliament, court decisions, etc., which stretch out through several centuries. These are both written and unwritten. This Constitution can be changed in the same way that it has become what it is. An act of Parha- ment is both law and constitution. It is the most flexible and at the same time the most permanent constitution in existence. An insight into this characteristic of the EngHsh government will aid one in his appreciation of the typical system of education that has grown up under it. Parliament. — The British Parhament consists of the House of Lords and the House of Commons. It is the abso- lute authority of the nation, subject only to the will of the people. For election to the House of Commons any male British subject who is of age is eligible, unless he belongs to one of the few debarred groups. The distribution of seats in the House is on a population basis similar to that of the House of Representatives in the United States. This is strictly a democratic House. The House of Lords consists of six distinct groups of mem- bers, sitting by various rights, as follows : (i) Princes of the royal blood, (2) peers with hereditary seats, the number of which may be increased at the will of the crown for the pur- pose of honoring men or for the purpose of changing the 4 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient political balance in the House, (3) the representative peers of Scotland, chosen by the whole body of Scottish peers, (4) the representative Irish peers, chosen by the whole body of Irish peers, (5) the Lords of Appeal in Ordinary, who serve as the highest national court of appeal, and (6) the " lords spiritual," or ecclesiastical members, restricted to the English church. At present there are 620 members in the House of Lords. House of Lords Inharmonious with Nation. — The House of Lords has lost the confidence of the nation, and the power of the government has passed into the hands of the Commons. This transition in the Parliament is simply the reflection of the tremendous social, economic, rehgious, and educational evolution that has occurred in English society. The people and the interests to be represented in Parliament to-day are vastly different from the people and the interests repre- sented there in the days when the Lords were in public favor. Landed property, hereditary nobility, and the Anglican Church are no longer the pillars of the British state. The ParHament Act of 191 1 subordinated the House of Lords to the House of Commons and left it with only the power of a suspensive veto in legislation. Local Government. — The central government exercises a form of local control through five central ministerial de- partments, chiefly by the promulgation of regulations and the giving or withholding approval of the actions of local bodies. One of these five departments is the Board of Edu- cation which directs and supervises education relative to government aid. For local administrative purposes the entire kingdom is divided into counties and county boroughs ; and the counties England 5 are subdivided into rural and urban districts, and boroughs ; and London is a unit by itself. Each of these units has an elective council. The term '' borough " is appUed to any non-rural area under a charter granting the right of local self-government. The Councils in these administrative units, in addition to the ordinary civil duties, direct the educational work in their areas, under the rule and regulations of the central Board of Education. TRANSITION FROM THE OLD EDUCATION TO THE NEW The Evolution of Educational Theories. — Education in England, during the past several centuries, cannot be better described than by the simple statement of the philosophical doctrine of Herachtus : " Change, movement, is Lord of the Universe. Everything is in a state of becoming, of continual flux." It has been well said that, " Few na- tions show the influence of so many different forces in their educational history as may be recognized in England : the church, the state, economic conditions, private enterprise, philanthropic endeavor, educational theories — all have contributed some tradition to what is gradually developing into a well-defined system." And with England, time is what Kant conceived it to be, " only a subjective way in which we cognize reaHties which in themselves are non-spatial and non-temporal." So, what matter when a thing is done, just so it's in the doing? The Medieval period shows strikingly the influence of the church in the many forms of schools with church names, such as cathedral, cloister, con- vent, monastic. The pohtical influence is found in the Anglo- Saxon and Norman elements of dialect, language, laws, and the social classes, and feudal customs. The theories of the 6 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient scholastics are found in their school curricula and their phi- losophy. All were mighty forces in their day, and each has transmitted a vital inheritance to the present. The sixteenth century renaissance and reformation mingled the theory and practice of education, the theory of church and state, the doctrine of the worth and right of the individual, around the dawning of the thought of a state system of education for the masses. The history of these movements is volumes in the Uves of men and institutions familiar already to the scholar. They too have left their imprint upon the present as theories and institutions cherished through tradition and belief. The sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries were illumined with struggles of political, religious, and economic theories of freedom, all of which found their way into the changing schools of the day to linger on till now. The in- terest in nature and the new philosophy of experience as the basis of knowledge won the mind away from humanism and reUgious dogmas and shook the traditions of the school and the church. Thus, the new world sHpped away from old England and she, like an individual in loss, turned consciousness inward and set about a reconstruction of self for adaptation to a new environment which she through her own inherent attributes had helped to produce. Nineteenth Century Reconstruction. — The practical, util- itarian social philosophy of such writers as Rousseau, Adam Smith, Bentham, and Robert Owen, together with the wars with America and Napoleon, brought such intellectual, social, and political changes in England at the close of the eighteenth and the opening of the nineteenth centuries that society turned from the church to the state for reUef . England 7 Education of Factory Children. — The impoverished and embittered poor found strength in the new class of political theorists, and encouragement and assurance in the theories of the social economists. The result was the clause in the Factory Act of 1802 that required the master of the apprentice to provide for his education. Less fortunate was the bill of 1807 which proposed, in opposition to the will of the clergy, the establishment of schools for the poor, by the civil officials of any town or parish. Again, in 181 5 and 1820, similar bills were doomed in the stubborn contention of the church against the beginnings of a national system of education. But out of these attempts at legislation came commissions of inquiry into the conditions of popular education and endowed schools that furnished a great amount of the information that was used for the promotion of the cause of free education. National Aid and Child Welfare. — Then came John Rus- sell's great reform bill in 1832, that took away representation from the dead bones of old England and gave it to the living energy and industry of the new England. The large increase of the suffrage through this reform bill stimulated interest in the necessity of education for the masses. The result was the first Parliamentary grant of £20,000 in aid of elementary education. It is interesting to observe in this connection that the same spirit and powers that worked for education of the masses likewise worked for humanity. In the same year Parliament abolished slavery and appro- priated £20,000,000 to pay for emancipation. And another act by this same Parliament prohibited the employment of children under nine years of age, limited to nine hours a day the labor of those between nine and thirteen, and to twelve hours those between thirteen and eighteen. Education and 8 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient freedom without bloodshed was the glory of England in 1833. A noble beginning of a national system of education ! The appropriation for education was distributed through the National and the British and Foreign School Societies, a compromise method that has always marked England's progress. This money was used to supplement private sub- scriptions in the building of schoolhouses. State Supervision of Education Begun. — Six years later the grant was increased to £30,000 to be used in any desirable way to aid elementary education, but administered now by a separate committee of the Privy Council, and under govern- ment inspection and supervision. This was a very important advance by the state and a distinct lessening of the church control. Public School Associations Organized. — Important pubUc school associations and leagues were organized in the leading manufacturing centers, such as Manchester and Birmingham, for the propagation of the theories and activities of public education on a broad basis. In 1847, as a result of this more tolerant spirit, the Roman Catholic and Wesleyan Associa- tions were admitted on an equality with the estabUshed church to the benefit of the education grants. State Control of Funds Established. — The state control of education through the Committee of the Privy Council was further extended in 1856 by the appointment of a Vice President of the Committee, who, as Chairman, was directly responsible to the House of Commons for the use of the funds voted for education purposes. Payment by Results. — The growing interest in all kinds of social reform, that led to the adoption of free trade in 1846, turned educationally to the investigation of the state of popu- England g lar education, by a Royal Commission, appointed for that purpose in 1858. The report was full of stimulating recom- mendations and resulted in the Act of 1861, that established the system of "payment by results." The success of both the teacher and the school, by this method of government aid, was made dependent upon the number of pupils who could pass the government's examinations. This was a very narrow system of state aid to private or church schools and was soon seen to be evil in its consequences, as narrowness in teaching and unfairness in the distribution of the funds were inevitable. Even the supplementing of the system by the employment of inspectors to pass opinion upon the schools applying for aid did not materially improve the condition. Board Schools and School Taxes. — The state turned from the principle of state aid to voluntary educational agencies, in 1870, to the new principle of local pubUc control and taxation. But the victory for the secular school advocates was only a partial one. The voluntary schools (church schools) with their sectarian instruction, though optional to scholars, were still permitted to share in the government aid. The secular principles firmly established by this bill are : (i) a compulsory local tax, (2) a representative local school official, (3) compulsory school attendance, and (4) the right of the school to earn the government grant without requiring the pupils to receive religious instruction. This dual system of Board Schools and voluntary schools has continued until the present day, though several times modified, and always in the direction of free secular universal education understate con- trol. The government grant to support the Act of 1870 was $2,810,000, which was thought to be sufficient to meet one-half of the expense of the public elementary schools. All- schools lo Modern Education in Europe and the Orient were permitted to charge fees, but only Board Schools were allowed to share in the local tax. Important acts were soon passed to meet these two conditions. In 1 891, an extra grant was appropriated to take the place of local fees, and by the Act of 1902 the voluntary schools were admitted to a share in the local rates. Central Board of Education and Coordination. — The coordination of all the educational activities came in the Act of 1899 which created a Central Board of Education to which were transferred the functions of all other existing education bodies. To this Board was given the power and duty to extend education to the secondary field as well as to the ele- mentary. Local Boards Supplanted by Councils. — This change in the administration of education was followed in 1902 with a still more radical and sweeping one in the abolishment of the local boards and the substitution of the local councils for them. During these transition days public education had made such great strides that in 1902, when the present system went into effect, 93% of the elementary schools were free, and approximately 50% of the children were in Board Schools. ADMINISTRATION OF THE SCHOOL SYSTEM Conditioned by Private and Sectarian Schools. — The present system of educational administration in England, as has been traced, is the outgrowth of private and sectarian control of education during the past several centuries. The state has endeavored to preserve all of the valuable features of the old system and to create a new system that would continue to foster local freedom and at the same time establish the principle of aid and control by the central government. England 1 1 The government has not sought, however, to create a strongly centralized and bureaucratic system, such as is found in France and Germany and in the newer system in Japan. The control of education in the English system is largely through its plan of financial assistance, guided by the advisory and supervisory function of the education department. This method of control is somewhat slow and compromising in its results, but it is in keeping with the English political theory of slow and well-measured progress. This policy of regard and caution, since the establishment of public education in 1870, has almost completely overcome the threatening in- fluences of political, religious, and social interests. The most stubborn of these three interests has been the social one, which, because of its financial independence, continues to maintain a number of institutions separate from state aid and control. Central Authority in Present System. — The present Board of Education was created in 1899 for the administra- tion of education in England and Wales. The Board of Education consists of not fewer than five nor more than fif- teen members. The President of the Board is appointed by the Crown. The other members of the Board are the lord president of the council, the chancellor of the exchequer, the first commissioner of the treasury, and the several secretaries of the state. This Board is advised by a Consultative Com- mittee, composed of persons representing Universities and other educational interests. The specific functions of this Board are : (i) to see that the school laws are observed and (2) to supervise the administration of the government grants to education. In harmony with these two functions, the Board of Education prepares annually a Code of Regulations 12 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient for Public Education. This Code when approved by Parlia- ment becomes operative in the sense of school laws. It deals with all of the problems of the schools necessary to a minimum of efficiency required for participation in state aid. The prevailing spirit of the Code is a tendency toward greater local freedom in the management of the schools, in the ar- rangement of the curriculum, and in the formulation of the methods of instruction. • Standard Required for Government Aid. — The Board of Education prescribes only minimum requirements for the government aid. These pertain to teachers, curriculum, equipment, attendance, and the factors that vitally condition the efficiency of the school. Physical training is the only subject insisted upon in the list of subjects designated in the curriculum, and it is the only subject in which the prescribed syllabus must be followed. And the time to be given to each subject is designated only for handicrafts, domestic science, and physical training. Likewise the Board fixes 400 sessions per pupil as the minimum attendance necessary for the grant. The Board of Education recognizes four grades, or classes of teachers, for the purposes of the educa- tion grants. These are : (i) certificated teachers, for whom there may be 60 children in average attendance, (2) non- certificated teachers, for whom there may be 35 pupils, (3) supplementary, and (4) student teachers for each of whom there may be 20 pupils. These facts show the extent to which the Board is leaving the work of the school to the local author- ities. The only uniformity the Board is seeking to secure is the kind that has as its purpose the best school for each indi- vidual locaHty. And the means by which it is securing this is the Code of Regulations, and a system of advisory-inspection. England 13 The Plan of Inspection. — A staff of inspectors is employed by the Board of Education whose duties are to report on the efficiency of the teachers and the adequacy and hygienic con- ditions of the buildings. These reports are for the informa- tion of the Board and are not intended, except in the most indirect way, to result in the improvement of the local condi- tions. However, a closer relation between inspection and local efficiency is being brought about through a recent agitation resulting in the appointment of a number of inspec- tors who have had training and experience in elementary school work. Such inspectors, it is thought, even though vested with no authority, should be able to secure the con- fidence of the local teachers and, by suggestion, gradually bring about an improvement in the administration and meth- ods of instruction. Local Units of Administration. — For the local adminis- tration of schools there are four types of areas recognized. They are : (i) administrative counties, similar to counties in American states, (2) municipaUties wdth a population of from 10,000 to 50,000, (3) county boroughs, or cities, with a population of not less than 50,000, and (4) urban districts (corresponding to townships in an American state) with a population not less than 20,000. The civil officials, or coun- cils, in these four areas have charge, not only of the educa- tional, but the other governmental matters. This method of local school administration was substituted in 1902 in the place of the old school boards of the smaller areas. This extension of the school area and the corresponding increase of powers has attracted to the management of the schools a more capable type of men and women. In such cities as London, Manchester, and Liverpool the civil councils control all 14 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient branches of education through a special education committee. The control of education in England by the public service council characterizes the Enghsh system, in contrast to the system of control by a Board of Education in the United States. This system of local control includes not only elementary education, but also higher elementary and central schools, secondary education, technical schools, and various forms of continuation courses, medical inspection, meals for poor children, vacation and recreation schools, and employment agencies. Classes of Elementary Schools. — Under the Education Act of 1902, which is now in force, there are two classes of elementary schools under public control. These are : (i) pro- vided schools, and (2) non-provided, or voluntary schools. For the first class, the buildings have been provided out of pubhc funds or have been presented to the local school au- thorities. For the second class, the buildings, which have been constructed out of private funds, are rented to the local school authorities. The main difference between these two classes of schools, so far as the pubUc is concerned, consists in the fact that the foundation managers of the non-provided schools must keep the buildings in repair, and that the de- nomination owning the buildings is allowed to give reHgious instruction in the building, at an hour not interfering with school work. This plan of union of the church and state schools aboUshed the dual system of schools and extended the local rates to the church schools as a part of one public system. Local Managers and Care Committees. — The local educa- tion authority in each administrative unit is required to ap- point a body of four or more managers for each school or group England 15 of schools under its control. In the case of the non-provided or denominational schools, . two thirds of the managers are chosen from the foundation managers and the other third are appointed by the local authorities. The powers and duties of these managers are mainly inspectorial and advisory. They serve without salary for a term of three years. Their efficiency depends largely upon their individuahty , and their recommendations to the Council have more or less weight accordingly. The vital significance of this method of local control lies in the recognition which it gives to the principle of representative government as a balance to the tendency toward a centralized bureaucratic control. In America there are no such official provisions for perennial advisor}^ relations between parents, teachers, and school officials. Such work is done in part by voluntary parents' associations, self-appointed committees, and periodic school board elec- tion campaigns. Doubtless, the genius of each of the two peoples is best served by the method in vogue. In addition to the school managers, there is another body in a few cities, known as the care committee. The duties of this committee are charitable and philanthropic and are directed toward the home life and the daily physical, economic, and moral needs of the children. This committee is composed of two or three members of the body of managers and several voluntary members selected by them. In some cities a paid organizer is employed by the council to advise and direct the care committees in their work. The functions and work of these committees offer a splendid opportunity for the study and development of the social community welfare. In the city of London there are as many as a thousand care com- mittees, organized into local associations, one for each of the 1 6 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient twenty-seven districts , for systematic work . The method seems to be meeting with popular favor but the efficiency of the work is in all cases dependent upon the personnel of the committees. Compulsory School Attendance. — The compulsory school age in England is from five to fourteen years. An educa- tional certificate of exemption may be secured, however, after a pupil is twelve years of age, and has passed the fourth grade of the elementary school. The organization for the enforcement of the attendance law is very efficient, as shown by the high percentage of attendance, which for the year 1910-11 was 90% of the pupils of compulsory school age, five to fourteen. There are several factors that bring about these favorable results. Aside from the law itself, which empowers local school authorities to employ attendance officers and to punish negUgent parents and refractory chil- dren, the payment of government grants for education on the basis of school attendance is unquestionably the strongest influence in securing the high percentage of attendance. For this purpose the government requires an attendance of not fewer than 400 school sessions. A pupil who fails to reach this mark causes a financial loss to his district. This fact, as well as the educational one, stimulates the teacher and special school agencies to secure the best attendance possible. This special interest results also in securing a close cooperation between the attendance officers and the medical officers for the purpose of preserving the physical fitness of pupils for school attendance. A recent inquiry showed the average cost per pupil for the enforcement of school attend- ance to be from 16 to 53 cents in 13 of the largest towns in England. The grant earned for the school by such a pupil would be about $5.50. England 17 Support of Schools. — The sources of income for the sup- port of schools are government grants, local rates, school fees, and endowments. The last two, however, are of no con- siderable consequence since the passage of the education act of 1903 that permits the denominational schools to share in the local rates More than half of the elementary school expenses is now met by local rates. The government grants are as follows: (i) a grant of $1.00 per scholar, and an additional sum to areas of a low tax-rate value, (2) fee grant of $2.50 per child in average attendance between the ages of 3 to 15 to take the place of pupils' fees so as to make edu- cation free, (3) an average attendance grant of nearly $3.50 per unit of average attendance (400 sessions) between the ages of 3 to 5 and of nearly $5.50 for pupils 5 to 15, (4) special subjects grants for instruction in handicrafts, gardening, domestic subjects, and (5) a special grant in areas with small population. As has been pointed out elsewhere, the main emphasis of this method of apportioning the government grants is upon school attendance. The former method which this supplanted apportioned the grants on the basis of results, as shown by the number of pupils passing the state examinations. This method was narrowing and unfair from the point of view of real educa- tional efficiency. The present method is doubtless more stimulating in a broad sense. The tendency is toward a proportional increase in the local rates. In London, in 1913, the local rate amounted to about 70% of the total cost of education. This increase in local rates pro- vides for a decrease in class enrollment and for other improvements. 1 8 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Organization. — The English elementary schools are char- acterized by a variety in their organization. Instead of a uniform type, as is found in the United States, there are in England three distinct types. These types differ from one another in the grouping of the two sexes. In one type, co- education exists in all grades (standards) ; in another, above the Infants department, the sexes are separated ; and in the third, the separation of sexes occurs only in the grammar grade (senior) department. This scheme of organization is the product of two opposing theories regarding coeducation that have been prevalent for centuries in English education and elsewhere. The following pictogram will make clear this three-type scheme of organization. The arguments for and against this arrangement are the conventional ones of differences in sex ability, vocational needs, moral influence, male or female principals and teachers for the different sexes. All of these problems are being met in various ways, and in the main the tendency seems to be towards a unified system of organization with coeducation throughout. The junior department as a rule includes the three lower grades and the senior department includes the four upper grades. The division into grades is arranged on the general supposition that the pupils entering at seven years of age will pass a grade each year and thereby complete the elemen- tary school at fourteen years of age. As a matter of fact such provisions are made for the brighter students as enable many of them to make two grades a year and so complete the course by the time they are eleven or twelve years old. The flexibility of the system in this respect is one of its England 19 PICTOGRAM OF THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS Grades Secondary Schools — 10 to 16 Age 5 years 3 years 7 Type I Boys Trade Schools — 13 to 18 Higher Elementary — 12 to 15 Occasional 8th Standard Type II 16 15 14 Type III 13 Senior separate 12 and Coeducation Girls Junior 2 Separate Coeducation 8 Infant School 4 7 to 8 3 6 to 7 2 5 to 6 I Babies' Class, 3 to 5 years old 20 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient merits. It is estimated that by this arrangement about ten per cent of the pupils pass through two grades each year. In many schools an eighth grade, known as the extra-seventh, is maintained. A higher elementary or central school is also found in some districts for pupils from twelve to fifteen years of age, a three years' course of a vocational character. Only about one per cent of the pupils above twelve years of age are found in this school. The secondary school dips down into the elemen- tary school and receives pupils at the tenth, eleventh, or twelfth year of age upon the completion of the work of the fifth grade. Trade schools and other forms of extension schools also admit pupils from the elementary schools at twelve or thirteen years of age. These facts and conditions make the problem of coordination of elementary and higher schools a confusing one ; especially is this true with the re- lation of the secondary and elementary schools, each of which has its own distinct purpose and method of work. In locali- ties where secondary schools are first established as public institutions there are no traditions to overcome and there coordination is easily settled. The Infant School. — The Infant department receives pupils from three to seven years of age, though the number of pupils from three to five is rapidly diminishing. The prevailing type of the English Infant school is much more formal and discipHnary than the FroebeUan Kindergarten in the United States. Until recently these schools were subjected to rigid examinations in the formal subjects, reading, writing, and arithmetic, just as were the elementary schools. But in recent years they are becoming more like kindergartens in the spirit of freedom and the character of the curriculum England 21 and methods of teaching. For the younger pupils (babies' classes), the work consists of games, songs, stories, handwork, etc. ; and for the older ones, a continuation of the work of the lower group with beginning work in formal reading, writing, and arithmetic. It must be remembered, in viewing the work of the English Infant schools, that the age Umit of the pupils extends from one to two years higher than it does in the American Kinder- garten, thus properly permitting more of the formal work. Recently the Board of Education has substituted women in the place of men as inspectors of the Infant schools. This change is having a good effect upon the general character of these schools. The large class enrollment of 48 to 60 pupils still permitted by the Board of Education is a condition that lessens the efhciency very materially. It is only fair to say that the present status of the Infant school is a compromise between what the best teachers believe to be right and what practical, political, and economic conditions demand. Their evolution is in the direction of the correct theory. The Elementary School. — The elementary school, proper, begins with pupils at the age of seven and carries them through seven grades, or until they reach the age of fourteen. This school is in a period of transition from old aims and standards that were narrowing in their influence, such as the system of " payment by results," of former years, to the newer ideals and methods that demand a broader curriculum and a higher regard for the social and economic needs of the individual. It is also just emerging from the influence of the theory that public education was for the lower classes, and only recently entered into the acceptance of the doctrine of a National system of education for all the people. Viewed from these 22 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient angles the English elementary school is making progress. The conservative traditions of the English people demand much freedom and great elasticity in the development of their institutions. These characteristics are very prominent in their elementary schools. The school or department, rather than the entire system, is the unit, and the head of each school is granted the greatest freedom in making the curriculum and determining the methods of instruction in his own school. The subjects in the curriculum prepared by the Board of Education are English, writing, arithmetic, geography, history, singing, moral instruction, drawing, observation, and nature study lessons, music, physical training, thrift, hygiene, domestic subjects and needlework for girls, and handwork for boys. No school is required to follow this curriculum except in an advisory sense. This gives to the head teacher of any school the privilege of adapting the course of study to the local needs. The only Hmitation placed upon this extensive freedom is the requirement that each course of study must be approved by the local and national inspec- tors. This principle of freedom is right only on condition that the head teacher who makes the curriculum is theoreti- cally trained and is rich and judicious in practical experience. This condition is not very general, however, in the EngHsh schools. In some schools, such as those in Liverpool, the system is employed of having organizing principals who are assisted by the heads of departments. This system is some- what analogous to the system of principalships in the Ameri- can schools. Doubtless the wider interest in the professional training of teachers that is now emphasized by the Board of Education, in time will improve the inner organization and supervision of the curriculum. England 23 At present the greatest improvement seems to be in the teaching of the new subjects of a vocational character, as there are no traditions in connection with these at variance with modern principles of teaching. Some of the problems pressing for solution in the elementary schools are : (i) a richer course of study for the pupils above twelve years of age, who do not plan to enter a higher school, (2) elimination of traditional and useless material from an overcrowded program, (3) a reduction of the size of the class from the 50 to 60 pupils now allowed for rating purposes, (4) a reconstruction of the methods of instruction from those designed to drill for examinations to those that will secure character, initiative, and practical knowledge and skill necessary for a joyous and efficient life, (5) a larger percentage of professionally trained teachers and supervisors, and (6) a better correlation with the Infant school below and with the secondary school above. Leaving examinations, exempting children from compul- sory school attendance, are given at the end of the fourth, fifth, or seventh grades, (i) At the end of the fourth grade, for pupils eleven years old who are to go to work in some agricultural position, this examination is based on the three fundamental subjects, reading, writing, and arithmetic. Pupils who receive this certificate are known as " half-time scholars," and are required to attend school 250 sessions (one hour and twenty minutes) a year until they are thirteen years old. (2) The examination at the end of the fifth grade is in the same subjects as the one at the end of the fourth, but for children leaving at twelve years of age. (3) The examination at the end of the seventh grade is in the same subjects and for pupils at the age of fourteen. 24 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient These exempted pupils leave school at any time during the year and without any ceremony. Special subjects, including cookery, laundering, house- wifery, domestic subjects, dairy work, handicraft, and garden- ing, are provided for by special grants. These are taught according to a special syllabus. This work is limited to pupils over eleven years of age and to schools properly equipped and supplied with competent teachers certificated or approved by the Board of Education. This work is very practical and is quite widely introduced. The following statistics for 191 2-1 3 show the elementary school enrollment and the amount of the government grants for elementary education for that year. Class Number Enrollment Provided (Council) Non-provided (Voluntary) .... English Wesleyan Roman Catholic Jewish 8,979 10,803 200 1,000 12 439 12,454 Non-sectarian 6,086,229 Amount of grants £14,322,019, or $71,610,095. This is equivalent to $11.75 P^^ pupil. The local rate, on an average, is about the same as the government grant. The two equal $23.50 public tax spent on elementary education, per pupil, not including building and equipment. This is a fair average in comparison with the amount spent by a number of the states in the United States, but it is too small to meet the pressing demands for the various reforms under way. England 25 SPECIAL SUBJECTS Grants for Special Subjects. — The government allows extra grants for the teaching of several special subjects in the elementary schools, (i) These subjects are handicrafts, gardening, domestic subjects, cookery, laundering, dairying, housewifery. The Board prescribes that these subjects shall be taught only to pupils over eleven years of age, in properly equipped buildings, by approved or specially certificated teachers, and in accord with a syllabus provided by the Board. The schools have quite generally introduced these lines of work, but they have found the expense involved in providing equipment quite a handicap. The problem of correlating these subjects with other subjects in the curriculum is one that has not been very successfully worked out in many schools. And for some of the subjects, such as handwork, many of the teachers are only artisans who emphasize the commercial phase of the work to the neglect of the educational. In this respect the tendency is to provide special training for the regular teachers and have them do this work. The courses are generally two years in length, and the aim of the instruction is both educational and practical. The courses for girls fit them for household duties, and those for boys aim to interest them in earning their living by manual labor in the arts and crafts. (2) Special emphasis is placed upon physical training. The aim of the syllabus in this sub- ject is to secure such systematic training as will produce healthy individuals and improve the physical welfare of the nation. From two to three lessons per week, amounting in all to one hour's time, is given to these subjects. Most of the elementary schools have introduced the work. The Board of Education has placed the supervision of this subject 26 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient under the direction of the medical department of the Board. The Swedish system of physical training is in use and will doubtless become the national scheme. The instruction is given by the regular class teachers, and the Board, looking to the best training possible in this work, is requiring all training colleges to teach physical training. (3) An important part of the physical training is a regular system of games, such as cricket, rounders, hockey, basket ball, and football, and in some places track athletics and swimming. The Board requires playgrounds for all schools and insists upon from ten to fifteen square feet per child for this purpose. The custom prevails of having all physical exercises, as well as games, out of doors in the open air, when the weather does not forbid. This necessitates a careful preparation and care of the grounds. (4) The Education Act of 1907 provided for the medical inspection in the elementary schools and established for that purpose a medical department in the Board of Educa- tion. The aim of this act is both social and educational ; social, in that it looks to the physical and moral improvement of the nation, and educational, in that it plans to make the methods of teaching conducive to the physical welfare of the children. The Board makes ample recommendations to the councils regarding the qualifications of medical officers, but prescribes no fixed standards. The present system pro- vides for the inspection of children once on their admission to school, between the ages of five and six, and again before they leave, between twelve and fourteen ; arrangements are also made for special cases. The Board provides a grant of over $300,000 to meet the expenses of medical inspection. The local council has the authority to compel parents, who England 27 are able to do so, to pay the actual cost of treatment when it is recommended by the medical inspector. Nearly a thousand medical officers and seven hundred nurses are employed in this medical service for the schools. In this work of physical education and medical inspection and care England is doing as much, possibly, as any other country in the conservation and protection of child life. Her theory is that the welfare of the individual and the nation, morally, intellectually, and industrially, is conditioned by the health of the body. (5) The feeding of needy children is also provided for under the Board of Education in the same spirit and for the same general social and educational purposes as are the other forms of bodily care. The local authorities associate with them the meals com- mittee and the school medical officer in the selection and feeding of the needy children. Parents who are able to pay for these meals are required to do so. Observation shows that many children who need care are not underfed, but improperly fed. (6) The education of mental defectives was provided for by the Elementary Education Act of 1899 which empowered local authorities to establish schools for such children as are certified after medical examination to be mentally defective. This act defines a mentally defective to be one who is not only backward and incapable of being properly benefited by the regular school work, but is capable of receiving benefit from special schools, under special instruction. For determining what pupils come under this head the Board of Education has prepared a schedule of medical ex- amination to be used, and has recommended in connection with this examination the use of the Binet-Simon tests. 28 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient The medical officers examine such pupils as are recom- mended to them by the elementary school teachers as retarded, or backward. Such of these pupils as are found mentally defective are sent to special schools ; those bordering on this condition are sent to the same schools as probationers, for care and observation ; and the others are retained in special classes in the ordinary schools. Such is the plan that is being worked out by the state, while many voluntary organi- zations are maintaining institutions of various kinds for the same general purpose. The law requires the attendance of mentally defectives at some school from the age of seven to sixteen. In 1910 there were in England and Wales 165 day schools for this class of pupils. Provision has been made thus far for only about 12,000 mentally defectives, while a recent estimate places the number of such children at about 27,000, or 5%, of the elementary school children. The average school for defectives has four classes, with a limited class enrollment of from twenty to twenty-five. The curriculum in these schools places emphasis upon manual subjects and the inductive concrete method of in- struction in all subjects taught. The cost of maintaining these special schools is over twice the cost per pupil in the ordinary schools. It is from $50.00 to $60.00 per capita, of which the government grants amount to about $22.00. The cost per capita in the residential schools is from two to three times as great as the average. There are eight of these schools, and all but one are supported by voluntary bodies. There are two chief problems relative to this type of chil- dren that society and the government are seriously concerned with. One is the education of the mentally defectives in some such way as not to embarrass the normal pupils, and to give England 29 them the special subjects by special methods adapted to their needs. This means a further segregation and a more ample pro\'ision of separate schools. The other problem is that of employment and moral care after they leave school. It is estimated that the country has at the present time as many as 150,000 feeble-minded people whose daily life is fraught with risk and danger to them as individuals and to society as a whole. In some localities special after-care committees are voluntarily looking after the needs of these unfortunates. Recent movements look to legislation that will create a com- mission to supervise and control defectives. (7) The education of physical defectives of elementary school age is provided by the same authority as other forms of elementary education. Open-air schools are conducted for such children who ' by reason of physical defect are in- capable of receiving proper benefit from instruction in the ordinary public elementary schools." These children are selected in the same way as are the men- tally defectives. The open-air schools are kept open during the regular school hohdays. The curriculum of these schools is of a very practical kind and consists largely of manual training and the application of the formal subjects to the industries in the vicinities of the schools. The results are generally good. Many of the students go back to the regular schools greatly improved and more capable and alert in their work. A great many cities, in particular, are actively de- veloping this system of schools for their physical defectives. (8) Vacation schools and recreation centers for the children in the regular elementary schools during school holidays have been permitted by the local councils under the Act of 1907. But so far not much use has been made of this power. Eng- 30 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient land is slow in taking up this form of social work at public expense. In several cities there are voluntary organizations, however, that are conducting many play centers for children. The movement, common in the United States, to use the school buildings and school playgrounds for social betterment work for adults and children during evenings, and holidays, has not taken root yet in England. (9) Employment for the juvenile leaving the elementary and secondary schools is being systematically arranged by the Board of Education under the Act of 19 10, which per- mits local authorities to appoint committees consisting of representatives of industrial and educational interests to direct this work. Central offices are maintained by paid executive workers whose duty it is to secure the cooperation of parents, schools, and institutions employing labor. The cooperation of these agencies will tend to place the juvenile laborers in positions to which they are best fitted and will furnish a medium through which to follow up these young people with counsel and moral protection, a condition that is greatly needed for both rural and urban children. In respect to this work, England is leading other countries. (10) Juvenile delinquents are provided for through day and residential industrial schools. The aim of these schools is to rescue and protect such children from demoralizing environment. The Act defines these industrial schools as, " schools for the industrial training of children, in which children are lodged, clothed, and fed, as well as taught." These schools must be certified by the Secretary of State and are under his direction, and not in any way under the Board of Education. The children are sent to these schools by local authorities under the order of the court. The follow- England 3 1 ing classes of children may be so committed : (i) persistent truants from school, (2) children under twelve, charged with a criminal offense, (3) those living with evil associates or criminal or neglectful parents, and (4) those found begging, or not under proper guardianship. These schools are maintained by many local authorities as well as by the Department of State. The children com- mitted to the day industrial schools are required to attend the whole day, including the hours for the three meals. The weakness of this system lies in the fact that in the evenings at home the children are exposed to the same harmful en- vironment from which the institution was designed to pro- tect them. The program of school work, however, is better adapted to their needs than is the work in the regular elemen- tary school. It consists of ordinary school work and indus- trial training. The special parliamentary grant to these schools requires that the work in them shall be on the same general level as the work in the ordinary elementary schools, but the abnormality of the pupils necessarily calls for a greatly varied program. The usual medical supervision for the regular schools is extended also to these industrial schools. Such parents as are able to do so are required to contribute towards the expenses of the school. The cost for maintaining children in these schools is estimated to be about four times the cost for maintaining children in the ordinary schools. But their value to the child in terms of character, efficiency, and joy, and to society in terms of safety and efficiency, cannot be estimated in dollars and cents. More of this type of school, properly developed, would mean fewer jails and almshouses to any country. 32 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient SECONDARY EDUCATION Its Origin. — Public secondary education, as it now ex- ists in England, had its origin in the Act of 1902. By this act local education authorities were empowered and instructed to provide education beyond the elementary grades. As a result, several types of secondary schools, technical and trade schools, evening classes, and central schools have been estab- lished. These public secondary schools have come into ac- tive rivalry with the old private endowed classical secondary schools of traditional renown. The established custom in these old schools has been to receive pupils before they were twelve years old, and this precedent fixes the present-day practice. The secondary courses of study, therefore, are for pupils from twelve to sixteen years of age, in general. Higher Elementary Schools. — The higher elementary school admits pupils at eleven to twelve years of age from the fifth grade and gives them a three-year course of study, and rarely a fourth year, when sanctioned. To be eligible to participate in the special government grants, these schools must comply with special requirements of the Board of Edu- cation, pertaining to buildings, teachers, etc. The course of study must make provisions for vocational subjects adapted to local needs, and must include the general subjects, English, elementary mathematics, history, geography, drawing, manual arts for boys, and domestic subjects for girls. The class en- rollment is limited to forty pupils, and the total enrollment in the school is not to exceed three hundred and fifty. Only about one per cent of the pupils above twelve years of age and under sixteen are in the higher elementary schools. The pupils who take this course, as a rule, attend no higher schools, so it is for them a finishing school. The annual grant to these England 33 schools is considerably larger than it is to the regular ele- mentary schools. But the restrictions and closer supervision by the Board of Education have made some localities, as London and Manchester, prefer to forfeit this larger higher elementary school grant and organize another type of school, but one that would still permit them to participate in the ordinary elementary school grant. Central Schools. — The central school is a new type of school maintained by London and Manchester to take the place of higher elementary schools and offering advanced elementary education for the purpose of equipping boys and girls for industrial, commercial, and home life. Mucli more freedom is allowed the head teacher by the local council in shaping the curriculum of these schools than is allowed by the Board of Education to the higher elementary school head. This is for the purpose of securing better adaptation to local needs. Pupils can enter at eleven or twelve years of age and remain through a four-year course or until they are fifteen or sixteen. In addition to the industrial or commercial aim of the course for those who will enter at once upon some vocation, the course prepares students to enter some special polytechnic institute for further training. Each of these central schools draws, on the average, from eighteen to twenty contributory schools. The candidates for admission to the central schools are selected by examination or by some system of accrediting by the heads of the schools concerned. The pupils so selected are expected to remain in school until the completion of the full course. Each locality has some system of aid to children of poor parents to enable them to attend. The Board of Education, for rating purposes, treats these schools as ordinary elementary schools. Separate schools 34 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient for girls are maintained so as to differentiate the curriculum for their special needs. The courses of study in all of these schools include the main subjects of the upper grades of the elementary school and the commercial and industrial subjects. Modern languages, generally French, are also taught at least four hours per week for four years. It is a much richer course than fhe elementary course and is conducted more in accord with modern pedagogy. Liverpool is meeting this same demand by organizing special classes in connection with the ordinary elementary school, beginning with the last year of that course and giving two years' work with a commercial and industrial bias. This method would seem to be the simpler one and it would not divide the upper grades. It would also make possible the enrichment of the curriculum in the upper grades for all the pupils who might desire it and could not attend a central school. There is also a tendency to organize trade schools under this same general arrangement. All of these types of semi- secondary schools are helping to increase the popularity of secondary education and to hasten the day of a complete system. Secondary Schools. — The Education Act of 1902 con- ferred upon the Board of Education the power to determine the conditions under which all secondary schools, both en- dowed and public, may share in the ParHamentary grants. Such schools are free to reject such regulations, and thereby forfeit the right to aid. The definition of a secondary school, as used by the Board, is, "■ any day or boarding school which offers to each of its scholars, up to and beyond the age of sixteen, a general education, physical, mental, and moral, England 35 given through a complete graded course of instruction of wider scope and more advanced degree than that given in elemen- tary schools." This school receives pupils at a much younger age than does the American secondary school, which accounts, in part, for many differences in the two courses. Pupils may enter as young as eight or nine years of age, and from that up to twelve or thirteen, and remain in until they are from sixteen to nineteen. The regulations regarding the teaching staff, non-sectarian character, income, fees, length of term, etc., are in harmony with those for the elementary pubhc schools. The course of study is a fair equivalent of the upper grammar grades and the first two or three years of the high school in the United States, with special provisions for games, physi- cal exercise, singing, manual instruction, and household arts and sciences for girls. The policy of the Board regarding secondary schools is to discourage early specialization by insisting upon a sound general education up to the age of sixteen. However, a large amount of liberty is allowed in constructing courses of study to meet local needs. The Board has fixed the maximum class enrollment at thirty, which is a big improvement over the similar regulation in other types of schools. It also insists that pupils shall remain in school until their fifteenth birthday or pay back the grant fee. There is considerable complaint about this centralization of authority, but the Board insists that it is judiciously endeavoring to estabhsh a complete system of schools. These schools must include two languages other than English, one of which must be Latin, unless omitted by special approval of the Board. To the secondary schools, meeting the requirements of the 36 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient Board, annual grants are paid and a system of inspection is provided. All secondary schools which desire to qualify for the government grant must provide free scholarships for se- lected pupils entering from elementary schools, on practically an equal basis for girls and boys. It is estimated that about one in twenty- two of the pupils in the elementary schools enters the secondary schools, and about half of this number receive free tuition there. These pupils must have attended an ele- mentary school two years and must pass a competitive exami- nation in the fundamental subjects of the fourth grade. It is thought that the scholarship holders, selected as they are on an intellectual basis, are more likely to make the best of their opportunity than are the general run of people who claim en- trance to the secondary schools as a right. These students, so selected, help to recruit the professional classes and tend to uplift the general social strata. Only about one fourth of the students in the secondary schools are free scholarship students. The government grant to these schools is $10.00 for each pupil between ten and twelve years of age and $25.00 for each pupil twelve to eighteen years old. These grants pay about one half of the expenses of the secondary schools ; the other half is met by fees and local rates. In 1910, in England and Wales, there were 1037 secondary schools under government inspection, with an enrollment of 172,244 pupils, of whom 53.8 % were boys and 46.2 % were girls. In many of these secondary schools provision is made for the training of elementary teachers. Each school offering this work receives an additional grant of $5.00 for each pupil twelve to eighteen years of age. This work is similar to the normal work offered in many American high schools. It is an additional step in the English school system toward the Englana 37 recognition of the principle that the secondary school should serve society in a vocational way and not merely prepare for the University. Many of these private secondary schools prepare pupils for admission, at the ages of twelve to fourteen, to the '' Great Endowed Public Schools," such as Eton, and Rugby. All of the higher order of the secondary schools are closely affiliated with the Universities for which they prepare their students. More than half of the secondary schools are on the grant list, which means that the old type of private secondary schools is being rapidly absorbed into the public system. For the higher social class, the " Great Endowed Public Schools," with their unbroken generations of traditions, will continue to provide the classical secondary education. Great Endowed Public Schools. — The type of secondary education that is more truly English than any other and that has given England a name and a fame the world over for five hundred years is that of the so-called " great public schools." Winchester from 1382, with the briUiant array of Eton, of the fifteenth century, and St. Paul's, Westminster, Rugby, and Harrow, of the sixteenth century, have been inseparably connected with the development of England's great men who have molded the civilization and traditions of this great people. These schools are not public but are richly endowed, and in addition charge large tuition and fees. They have ever been the schools of the wealthy social class. To the present day they have held aloof from public control of any form, preferring to perpetuate their time-honored traditions and freedom to accepting the proffered government grants which since 1908 they could have had. Of the forty or more of this class of schools nine stand out in great prominence. 38 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient The above-named six, with Charterhouse, Shrewsbury, and Merchant Taylors, have from a few hundred to a thousand students each, with a total of more than five thousand boys. This is a small percentage, about one fortieth of the two hundred thousand secondary school pupils in England and Wales. But the influence of this group is far out of pro- portion to their numbers, because of their social position, wealth, and traditions. Boys are prepared to enter these schools by private preparatory schools and also, in recent years, by higher grades of the public elementary schools. The age for entering the " great public schools " is thirteen or fourteen. The course covers six forms, or grades, but can be completed by the boys by their eighteenth or nineteenth year. The program is not such a crowded one as is that of the secondary schools of France, Germany, or the United States. The classical influence still predominates in these schools, though some modern subjects have crept in recently. The primary aim of these institutions is to develop leadership of the highest type, and in this respect these schools are said to surpass the secondary schools of any other country in the world. The graduates of these schools enter the Universities for the completion of their education, unlike the graduates of the finishing schools — the German Gymnasium and the French lycee. Their school life throughout is a characteristic one. They are sent from home at nine or ten years of age to spend three or four years in a preparatory boarding school, and then as many more years in the great public school, living only with boys and taught only by men. Their home life is with the family of one of the masters, and an occasional holiday visit with their parents. The course of training is England 39 a rigid one for the development of the characteristics of the typical English gentleman. A decline of these great schools would have to be interpreted in terms of the ascendency of a new and more thoroughly democratic civilization. It may come, but it is a long way off. THE TR.\INING OF TEACHERS The General Condition. — The provisions for the training of teachers in England are as chaotic as they are in the United States. Properly speaking there is no system of training, but only several methods by which teachers may enter the profession. However, the Board of Education strongly urges the adoption of a particular one of these methods, that by way of training in the secondary schools, as the future system. The report of the Board for 1911-12 shows the present con- dition relative to properly trained and certificated teachers. The percentage of the different classes of teachers was as follows : certificated, 64.66 % ; uncertificated, 26.05 % J stu- dent-teachers, 1.14%; supplementary teachers, 8.15%; out of a total of 150,184 public elementary teachers. The report showed an increase of nearly 3 % in the certificated teachers over what it was the second year previous, and a correspond- ing decrease in the three uncertified classes. The situation in the secondary field is even worse than in the elementary, though there are a few institutions that give some attention to the training of secondary teachers, but mainly for the lower grades of the secondary schools. However, the Board of Education is working vigorously on the problem in both fields. As rapidly as seems judicious and safe the uncertificated teachers are being discredited for government grants. A strong sentiment everywhere is making itself felt for higher 40 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient salaries as an inducement to better teacher- training. A careful study has been made recently of the German system of training of secondary teachers with a view to improvements in this grade of teacher-training. The teachers themselves have organized a Teachers' Registration Council through which to create an official list of the teaching profession based upon standards, one of which is professional training. The outlook is hopeful, though, as yet, it is far from Utopian. Preliminary Training. — There are three methods by which a teacher may enter the teaching profession and eventually become a certified teacher in regular service. These are as follows : — (i) The student may pass through the elementary school, then become an ordinary pupil and later a student-teacher in a secondary school, next an uncertificated teacher in serv- ice, and by his own efforts prepare for the examination for the certificate necessary for regular service. (2) The student may pass through the elementary school, then to a preparatory class, next to some pupil-teacher center, and finally through a training college to the examination for a certificate. (3) The student may pass through the elementary school to the secondary school as an ordinary student, then as a bursar or pupil-teacher in the secondary school, and, finally, through the training college or the University to the examina- tion for a certificate. As a matter of fact, these three methods are greatly com- pUcated through provisions by which the student may pass back and forth from one scheme to another. But for the general purposes these statements will give a working con- ception of the system as it is. England 41 Student-Teachers. — Class-one students leave the elemen- tary school at fourteen years of age and take up academic training in the secondary school until they are able to pass the examination to a training college. They then remain in the secondary school for further academic work, serving as student-teachers in the elementary school on some pay. This class of student-teacher is found only where secondary schools are strong and help is needed in the elementary schools. The percentage is small, only a trifle over one per cent. His preparation is fairly good, as he has had an elementary school course and several years in the secondary school academic work, with a year of practical observation and practice in elementary school work. In this respect he is stronger than the pupil-teacher in class two. He may now go on to one of the training colleges and leave this class, or remain in it and, by passing a preliminary examination, become an uncertif- icated teacher at 18 years of age. About one fourth of the teachers belong to this class. Many of these teachers, by private study, correspondence courses, or local oral classes, prepare for the Board's examination and secure the teachers' certificate. The Board regards this class as undesirable, especially those who have come up with the minimum amount of aca- demic and professional training in some recognized school. The Board is discouraging this class, as is shown in part by the fact that the fee for the examination has recently been doubled and that about 70% of the applicants fail to pass the examinations. Pupil-Teachers. — Class- two (2) students go from the elementary school to some preparatory center connected with an institution for the training of pupil-teachers or in 42 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient some local approved preparatory class. Then he is given a one- or two-year course while he is from 14 to 16 years of age. These preparatory classes and pupil-teacher centers are found only in rural districts and small towns where there are ho secondary schools and are, therefore, a makeshift for the training of rural teachers. The Board safeguards these schools as best it can. At 16 years of age the pupil enters the pupil-teacher center as a pupil-teacher, receiving instruc- tion and also employment in the local school at a small salary. This course lasts one year, at the end of which the student is supposed to be able to take the entrance examination to enter the training colleges or the Universities. Or, he may take the preliminary examinations and enter the body of uncertificated teachers as above described. A deficiency of properly trained rural teachers has caused the Board recently to revive the pupil-teacher system in rural districts. But it has done it in a way very different from the old method. It does not permit the pupil-teacher to teach more than half the day, and he does not count on the staff. For the purpose of enabling worthy students to take this course, the Board has increased the grant from twenty pounds to forty-two pounds, more than double, for pupils living out- side the range of secondary schools. These pupils are taught by head teachers, or by special teachers in the central classes. The Board strongly urges the increase of " maintenance allowances " by local authorities, so as to relieve the family of the cost of a student's living while he is in school. The Board has felt impelled to take these steps in view of the fact that the training colleges are supplying less than half of the 9000 new teachers required annually to fill vacancies. This condition seems more perplexing in consideration of England 43 the fact that the number of pupils entering upon preparation in the training colleges decreased from 11,078 in 1906-07 to 4486 in 1 9 13-14. The causes of this are doubtless the long and costly term of preparation and the low wage offered in comparison with the ready employment with fair wages in other vocations that do not call for so long and expensive a course of training. Bursars. — Class- three (3) students go from the elemen- tary school into the secondary school as ordinary students in academic work from fourteen to sixteen years of age, and then each becomes what is known as a bursar, in the sec- ondary school, for one year. For this appointment he is care- fully selected as one fit in every way to become a teacher. He makes a declaration of his intention to enter the teaching profession and in return receives a grant from the government and the local council covering his fees and a part or all of his maintenance. The bursar dififers from the pupil-teacher and the student-teacher in the fact that he continues his secondary academic training without doing any teaching in the elemen- tary school. His practice training is deferred till a later period. This method is the one preferred by the Board rather than the pupil-teacher or student-teacher methods. The bursar spends one year as such and then goes on to the training college or University, or continues another year in the second- ary school as a student-teacher. During his year as bursar he is expected to complete the examination for entrance to the training school, even though he remains in the secondary school as a student-teacher. The student who goes on from the position of bursar to the training college prepares there for the final examination for a teacher's certificate. 44 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient The Training Colleges. — The course in the teachers' train- ing college is ordinarily two years, but may be extended to three by special provision. The course in the department of education in the University leading to a degree is four years. These students receive grants for which they obligate them- selves to teach either in the elementary or secondary schools. The grant amounts to the fees and some additional on main- tenance. In this respect England is doing more to help the individual pupil-teacher than is the United States. But the training he receives is largely professional, as the theory of the Board is that the academic work should have been done in the secondary school. For this reason practice teaching is given a large place even in the first year's work in the college. Not only is the academic work minimized, but the education theory courses are relatively neglected. The American normal schools and education departments are doing far more in the scientific training of teachers than are the English training colleges. But on the art side the latter are thoroughly alive, and every member of the faculty par- ticipates in the supervision of the practice teaching of his respective subject. In 191 2-13, there were in England and Wales, 87 training colleges for teachers, with 11,126 students, of whom 70 % were women and 30 % were men. For that year the entire ex- penditure of public funds for these colleges was $1,345,824, which was two thirds of the total cost, the other third being met by fees and endowments. Of the public funds, the state grants were 92 % and the local grants only 8 %. These figures show clearly that the government is making the problem of the professional training of teachers a national afifair. Even for the building and equipment of a training college, the England 45 government gives as much as 75 % of the cost. Through this generous support by the government many localities are constructing magnificent training college plants. Of the 87 training colleges, six are of university rank with four-year courses. About one half of the entire number are vol- untary training colleges, which shows the extent to which the church continues its traditional hold upon the training of teachers. Examinations for Certificates. — There are three different types of examinations by which teachers are certificated. First, the Board itself conducts examinations for all applicants who meet the general requirements. These examinations are in English, history, geography, mathematics, principles of teaching, hygiene, and theory of music. Candidates may enter these examinations who have not gone through any training colleges. Second, a joint examining body from the Board and the faculties of the training colleges examines the graduates of the training colleges. Third, a similar body, representing the Board and the universities, examines the graduates of the universities. A fourth method applies to teachers of domestic science and other special subjects. For these the Board recognizes their diplomas in lieu of a certificate. These certificates are of two special values to teachers: (i) They give the teacher a rating in the stafT of schools for government grants, and (2) they qualify a teacher for a re- tiring allowance. Teachers' Annuities. — The present system of government pensions to teachers in England and Wales was established by the Act of 1898 and modified by the Act of 191 2, with liberal tendencies. It is the outgrowth of many attempts 46 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient by both the government and private organizations to give relief to superannuated teachers. The system is administered by the Board of Education. The schedule is not based upon the teachers' salaries, but is arbitrarily fixed. Only certifi- cated teachers share in its privileges. The main provisions for eligibility are as follows: (i) The teacher must hold a regular certificate from the Board of Education and must be employed in a school receiving government grants. (2) Every such teacher must contribute to the Deferred Annuity Fund the amount of $16.25 for men and $12 for women. These amounts are withheld annually by the Board from the grants to local councils and by them deducted from the teachers' salaries. (3) After a teacher reaches the age of 65 years, he is entitled to retire upon an- nuity, the amount of which is fixed by tables prepared by the Board of Education. (4) A physical examination is required of all applicants for recognition as certificated teachers, at the applicant's expense, by medical officers nominated by the Board of Education. For this examination the applicant pays a fee of $2.50. (5) A disablement allowance is granted, at intervals not exceeding three years, to teachers in recorded service whose disablement was no fault of their own. (6) A teacher out of service a year or longer, or women teachers who get married, are disqualified to receive an annuity unless by special pro- vision. (7) Teachers may remain in service after 65 years of age and draw both salary and pension, though they are no longer recognized by the Board for the purpose of grants, a condition that automatically reduces this number to a minimum. (8) Teachers in secondary schools and teachers' training England 47 colleges are excluded from participation in the pension system. It is to be understood that there are many modifications of the above regulations which are intended to be only a general statement of the provisions of the pension system. The annuities are very small, though they are increasing annually. In 1912, the March payroll of annuitants distributed $19,020 to 1294 men and $10,825 to 1142 women. This was a little less than $15 to men and $10 to women. This amount is determined on the basis of experience available regarding rates of interest on the annuity fund and the mortality of teachers. As an attempt at the solution of the pension problem, England has made only a beginning. Her theory of a state- wide system is correct. But the policy of establishing a fund solely on the basis of withheld salaries is without economic justification. Likewise, the exclusion of the large class of non-certificated teachers from participation in the pension system is unjustifiable on the basis of payment for service. However, the provision that certificated teachers shall receive annuities on the basis of the length of service is correct, and it should be extended to all teachers in service. If England secures stability of service and a satisfied teaching staff, she will have to reorganize her pension system on the basis of length of service, amount of salary, and payment by the gov- ernment, without contributory provisions from the teachers. Health Insurance. — Relative to the uncertificated teachers, it is interesting to note that the compulsory insurance law of 191 2 requires all teachers not on the pension list, whose salaries are less than $800, to carry a health policy. The assessments to provide this fund are from three sources : (i) the teacher pays per week 8 cents, if a man, or 6 cents, if a 48 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient woman, (2) the employer pays 6 cents, and (3) the state pays 4 cents for men and 6 cents for women. Provision is made by which the teacher may carry a poHcy in some approved society rather than with the state, thereby receiving certain commercial protection on his policy, when assessments are interrupted, as they may be in broken service. In addition to the above general provisions for pensioning or insuring teachers, there exist local systems of pensioning in London, Manchester, and a few other cities, that in some respects embody the more desirable features lacking in the government system. But, at the best, local systems can be only supplementary and transient. They confine teachers to a narrow territorial service and are not conducive to a state-wide efficient service. TECHNICAL EDUCATION In the field of trade and technical education England is manifesting great interest. Three main groups or grades of such education are being provided : (i) lower or junior technical education for pupils 14 to 18 years of age, who plan to enter at once into some trade, (2) middle technical educa- tion for pupils from 16 and above who have had some ex- perience in trades and who plan to become speciaHsts or managers in trades, (3) higher technical education for those with a thorough secondary education for pupils from 18 and above who plan to become technical experts. A great development has been made of the lower and middle grades of this work through voluntary evening technical schools. In London alone, in 191 2, there were reported 35,000 students in evening technical classes. In this city, and also in several others, day technical schools as well as England 49 evening classes are quite generously maintained. London supports 17 technical institutions and gives aid to 36 others, including the Imperial College of Science and Technology in London University and the technical classes of the University College. The Council makes scholarship grants direct to these institutions and also gives an annual maintenance grant of $40 to $60 to each pupil for a period of two years. In some cases arrangements are made between the employers and school officials for a scale of wages based upon the efh- ciency of the workmen and for a day school in which these workmen may spend a part of each week in technical training. Such provisions are looking toward compulsory continuation schools for all pupils from 14 to 18 years of age, as is being strongly advocated. The guiding aim in the development of technical classes and schools is to offer a wide range of courses so as to reach all industrial classes. In this respect England is said to be superior to Germany and France, both of which countries are more primarily in- terested in the training of expert technical leaders. The policy of England in this work, as in all other phases of education, is to let the locality take the initiative in organizing technical institutions and then wait upon the government for recognition and aid. This principle is the genius of her modern democracy. It is not a spirit of indifference, but a policy of conviction and caution. The cause of technical education is being strongly championed by the Association of Teachers in Technical Institutions — a body of more than twelve hundred members — that was organized in 1904. This organization urges the lengthening of the course in the elementary technical schools beyond two years, with a strong course, not only in science and mathematics with the tech- 50 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient nical subjects, but also in English literature, history, and the principles of citizenship. The large body of boys and girls, between 14 and 18 years of age, not in any school, is estimated by the President of the Board of Education to be more than 2,000,000. This condition he characterizes as " the greatest blot " on the EngUsh school system. For this type of technical education the government spent in 191 2-13, for elementary schools $2,772,400, and for second- ary schools $2,853,792, a total of $5,626,192. This is Uberal for the less than 5 % that are in school, but, as shown above, there are 95 %, or 2,000,000, of the age 14 to 18 not in school. They are presumably prematurely employed in the trades. They should be reached by compulsory continuation schools of various kinds, preferably technical and trade. However, it must be remembered in this connection that provision is already made for the encouragement by special grants of the teaching of vocational subjects in the regular elementary and secondary schools necessary for the govern- ment grants. The effort thus far has developed, it is conservatively estimated in the lack of definite statistics, only about fifty of the pre-apprenticeship schools and the trade schools com- bined. To these should be added the many similar schools of domestic science for girls that have been organized quite generally in towns throughout all of England and Wales. Although the Board of Education and the technical teachers are enthusiastic about this work, yet the employers have not given their full confidence to these schools as a competent substitute for the apprenticeship system which they have displaced. The girls' schools, it is claimed, have been more successful England 51 than the boys' schools in winning for their graduates the recog- nition desired. The higher technical education is provided for in the local universities, technical schools, and the department of tech- nology of the London Institute. The seventeen regional universities and colleges in England and Wales that have recently grown up in the great manufacturing centers are modern in spirit and purpose. They are quite generally well equipped for training the artisan classes in evening courses and for the advanced instruction in special technical subjects. The two great Universities of Oxford and Cambridge, and the University of London, have also introduced modern subjects of a scientific and technical character under the influ- ence of the acts of Parliament in the interest of advanced en- gineering. The Imperial College of Science of the University of London, by arrangements with the Board of Education, has become a central institution to furnish standards and methods for the teaching of science and technology throughout the country. For this purpose the Board has estabhshed in this institution special scholarships for teachers of science and technology who are qualified to enter the third or fourth year of the course at the Imperial College. THE ENGLISH UNIVERSITIES The Old Ideals. — Every scholar knows of Oxford and Cambridge, the mothers of great men and movements. Their histories are written in the fives of individuals and nations. These two institutions stand for the highest and best that there is in English fife. They are the centers of learning and culture of the purely Engfish type. They are both classical in their curricula and yet scientific in a truly modern sense. 52 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient But they seek first to make men rather than to discover truth. The German universities have stood for the latter. The American universities stand for both, but so far in a lesser degree. As a consequence of the Oxford and Cambridge method of higher education in England the EngHsh philos- opher has been individualistic and independent in thought, and the EngUsh citizen throughout the world has been demo- cratic in spirit. New Spirit and New Type. — The democracy of the Eng- land that is to be will be given shape by a modified Oxford and Cambridge and a joint influence of the great Municipal University of London with her twenty-six federated colleges and the seventeen local regional universities and colleges that have grown up in recent years in the manufacturing centers of England and Wales. These latter, though tech- nical in character, are sufiiciently cultural to train leaders in thought as well as in technical industries. England and Wales have now an array of universities that reflect the mod- ern spirit and tendencies quite as much as do the elementary and secondary schools. These newer universities and colleges are Birmingham, Bristol, Leeds, Sheffield, Newcastle, Notting- ham, Reading, Southampton, Liverpool, Manchester, and London. Universities Branch of the Board of Education. — The relation of the government to the universities is provided for by the recent estabhshment of the Universities Branch of the Board of Education. This special provision is made in recognition of the greater need of freedom on the part of universities than in elementary and secondary education. The government grants to these institutions are for the aid of technological and professional instruction. England 53 Evidence of Modern Influence. — As evidence of the broad and democratic tendency in the universities the following facts testify : (i) Women are found in these institutions practically on an equal footing with men, though Oxford and Cambridge do not confer degrees upon them. (2) In the older universities the expansion of the curriculum and the intro- duction of new degrees for graduates of modern departments has marked the recent progress. (3) Likewise, the establish- ment of a common entrance examination board by the North- ern Universities of Manchester, Liverpool, Leeds, and Sheffield is a movement towards the organization of the higher insti- tutions of learning in the recognition of their joint responsi- bihty to the Kfe of the nation. (4) The ancient Universities of Oxford and Cambridge, founded in 1140 and 1200 respec- tively, are showing a remarkable capability of response to modern demands. Beginning as early in the modern move- ments as the seventies of the nineteenth centur}^, these two institutions have established extension lectures, inaugurated a system of entrance examinations for graduates of secondary schools, made partial provisions for women students, and established research courses in public health, forestry, educa- tion, and economics. (5) These movements have been further extended since 1908 in both of these universities through the es- tablishment of tutorial classes in cooperation with the Workers' Educational Association for the improvement of the working class. These courses extend through three years, meeting once a week for twenty-four weeks, in two-hour sessions. The group is limited to thirty pupils who are obligated to attend the full three years. The tutors are selected from the university faculties and the Workers' Association. (6) At Cambridge, the Cavendish Laboratory, established in 187 1, 54 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient has become a " world center " for mathematical and physical research for both men and women. This fact is given as strong evidence of the new spirit permeating all English educational institutions. (7) The University of London, chartered in 1836 as a degree-conferring institution, was transformed into a complete university in 1898, thus federating more than thirty colleges, hitherto existing as isolated insti- tutions, into one system. These federated colleges are com- posed of fifteen teaching colleges, thirteen medical colleges, the Imperial College of Science and Technology, referred to above, and other lesser institutions of a technical character. Further developments are under way for the concentration in this university of the highest order of instruction and re- search for the guidance of education throughout the kingdom. (8) The local or regional universities named above are the outgrowth of democratic impulses and industrial needs. They have all grown up since 1880 and the most of them since 1900. The purpose of all these younger universities is to be of service in the industrial world and to improve the general welfare of mankind. Each of them is situated in a great industrial and commercial center and has shaped its course of study to meet the needs of its environment. The course of study offers classical studies, modern languages and sciences, and various branches of engineering, technology, agriculture, commerce, and education. They have kept in close touch with the new public school system, to which they are rendering a valuable service through the extensive provision for the training of teachers. These local universities and the federated colleges of Lon- don University draw their support from the public treasury as follows, — 28% for the English institutions, and 53^% England 55 for the Welsh colleges. The remainder of their expenses is met by fees, endowments, local authorities, and private parties. The total appropriations by the government, in 1909-10, for this group of institutions, was $3,123,040. The Rhodes Scholarships. — The most beautiful testi- monial of the love of an alumnus for his Alma Mater, and at the same time a patriotic expression of his abiding beUef in the eternal worth of the ideals for which his country stands, is found in the will of Cecil John Rhodes by which he perma- nently endowed the three groups of Colonial, American, and German scholarships in Oxford University. The purpose of these scholarships is to bring to Oxford promising young men from the colonies of the British Empire and train them for leadership under the ideals and influence of the institution that best represents EngUsh life, and to bring from America and Germany young men who will come to understand the purposes and ideals of English Hfe, as a result of their study in Oxford, and use for all time their in- fluence to keep the three great nations of the earth in mutual understanding and peace. Oxford was chosen in preference to other English univer- sities because she was his Alma Mater and because she is a residential institution and therefore the better prepared to give the proper care and supervision to students from abroad. The scholarships apply to any of the twenty colleges of the University of Oxford for a term of three years. The number of scholarships includes 78 for the British colonies, two for each of the states and territories of the United States, and five for Germany. The amount of the scholarship is $1500 for the colonies and the United States 56 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient and $1250 for Germany. The details in the administration of the fund were left for the trustees to handle. The qualifications for selection to these scholarships are such as are thought to safeguard the choice of none but the most promising from the standpoint of all the elements of manhood necessary to the highest type of world leadership. In addition to the entrance examinations required by Oxford of all students, each locality may have its own standard. In the United States the applicant must have completed the sophomore year in a degree-granting college. It is interesting to notice from the report of the Rhodes scholars for the year 191 2-13 that of 431 who have left Oxford 144, more than one third, have entered upon educational work, and 113, more than one fourth, have entered upon law. The real value of this endowment depends primarily upon the type of men selected, just as is true in all walks of life. It certainly does offer to the world the contribution of Oxford on the basis of a lofty motive. And, no doubt, there will be enough leaders sent from Oxford under the inspiration of English ideals to satisfy the expectations of the founder. However, the question of the advisability of sending young men to a foreign university before they are out of their teens is an open one. RURAL EDUCATION Character of Movement. — The movement in England for rural education is a broad one, looking to the improve- ment of every phase of country life for both child and adult. Continental countries have developed this type of work ahead of England, but the latter country is now moving along the lines suggested by the experience of the former countries, England 57 and in harmony with the social, industrial, and climatic con- ditions of her island home. The agencies working in coopera- tion for the improvement of rural conditions include the Board of Education, the Association of County Councils, the Central Land Association, the Central Chamber of Agriculture, and the Farmers' Club. Immediate Aims. — Recent conferences of these organiza- tions have been directed toward the following ends: (i) a better adaptation of the school curriculum to the needs of the rural districts through the introduction of nature study, elementary agriculture, gardening, and manual training, (2) the establishment of scholarships for rural boys in the secondary schools and continuation courses for the study there of specially provided courses for farmers' boys, (3) the group- ing of counties around agricultural colleges or centers for the training of adult farmers in modern methods of farming and farm industries. This movement has been made more press- ing by the " Small Holdings and Allotments Act of 1807," which is greatly improving and stimulating the economic conditions in rural life. (4) The closer correlation of the Board of Education and the Board of Agriculture and the direction of the local work through trained experts. Present Status of Activities. — Many counties have edu- cation staffs of their own engaged in this rural uplift work, some of which are assisted by experts from some center. The Board has prepared a scheme for county organization to meet the needs of the various agencies interested. Voca- tional subjects are taught in all of the elementary and higher elementary schools, and in the rural districts a special bias is given to the whole course to meet rural needs. In the training colleges special courses are given in rural sciences 58 Modem Education in Europe and the Orient for rural teachers. The importance of this appears great in view of the fact that 41% of the elementary school children are in the rural schools. During the five years ending March 3, 191 6, the govern- ment spent $4,500,000 for purposes of agricultural research and instruction from the special development fund created in 1909. A large number of agricultural colleges and depart- ments of agriculture in the regional universities are aided by government grants. All in all, the situation looks very hopeful for a better education for the English rural commu- nity. The method of dealing with the problem in England is more like that in the United States than those used in such countries as Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, though not so efficient as the latter. RELIGION AND EDUCATION Its Significance. — The religious question, because of the long period of church establishment in England, has stood stubbornly in the way of a national system of education. It is the cause of the present dual system and of many of the other complexities in all types of English schools. Since the inauguration of the elementary pubhc schools in 1870, there have been many threatened religious eruptions, but just now the conditions are so peaceful and promising that the religious subject is seldom injected into the discussions of the educational reforms. Board Regulations Regarding. — The regulations of the Board of Education permit the denominations owning the non-provided buildings to teach the religion of their faith to their own children during out-of-school hours. The second- ary schools have been opened by means of the grant pro- England 59 visions to pupils regardless of their religious faith. The training colleges have been required to throw open at least half of the vacant places to students without reference to their religion. No religious test is made by the Board of Educa- tion of the teachers for the purposes of grants, certificates, or pensions. Persistent Difficulties. — A majority of parents continue to desire religious instruction in the secular schools, which pre- vents, for some time at least, a purely secular system of public education. In single school areas, that is, where there is only a church school, the local authorities recruit the teaching staff from the adherents, to the exclusion of the non-conform- ists. In turn the latter ask exemption from the local school tax. The richly-endowed schools may waive the government grant and exclude all nonconformists. These and other conditions keep the religious question in the public conscious- ness more or less and will continue to tax the ingenuity of the Board and Parliament to keep peace and deal justly. The rapid rate at which the church schools are placing themselves under the Board of Education shows the drift of public sen- timent towards secularization. Topics for Further Study 1. Discuss the method of "payment by results" as established by the Act of 1 86 1. 2. Describe the dual system of board and voluntary schools in England and show what progress has been made through this system toward free secular education. 3. Show the merits of the present system under the Act of 1902 over the dual system which it supplanted. 4. Compare the English compulsory school law and its machinery for enforcing attendance with the compulsory attendance law in your state. 6o Modern Education in Europe and the Orient 5. Contrast the spirit of freedom in English education with the centralized control in French education. 6. Explain the Juvenile Employment Act of 1910 and discuss its social significance. 7. Show how by the method of government grants the private second- ary schools of England are being absorbed into the public system. 8. Write a brief history and description of one of the "Great Public Schools." 9. Make a drawing or pictogram showing the three methods by which a teacher may enter the teaching profession and eventually be- come a certificated teacher in regular service. 10. Describe student life in Oxford. Special Bibliography Balfour, Graham. Educational Systems of Great Britain and Ireland, 1903, Oxford, England. Egerton, H. The Maintenance of Denominational Teaching, 1905, London, England. The Education Bill of 1906 for England and Wales, Bulletin No. i, 1906, United States Bureau of Education, Washington, D.C. JuDD, Charles H. The Training of Teachers in England, Scotland, and Germany, Bulletin, 1914, No. 35, United States Bureau of Education, Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. Kandel, I. L. Elementary Education in England, Bulletin, 1913, No. 57, United States Bureau of Education, Government Printing Ofiice, Washington, D.C. Sadler, Michael E. Continuation Schools in England and Elsewhere, Manchester, England, 1907. Sharpless, Isaac. English Education, 1892, Appleton and Company, New York. SiES, Raymond W. Teachers' Pensions Systems in Great Britain, Bulletin, 1913, No. 34, United States Bureau of Education, Govern- ment Printing Office, Washington, D.C. Thwing, C. F. Universities of the World, 1911, The Macmillan Com- pany, New York. SCOTLAND CHAPTER II The Government. — In 1707, Scotland and England united as the kingdom of Great Britain. By terms of this union the Scottish Parliament was abolished and Scottish repre- sentatives were thenceforth to be elected to each house of the English Parliament, sixteen members to the House of Lords and, at that time, forty-five, but since 1885, seventy- two members to the House of Commons. All laws regarding commerce and trade, of mutual interest to the two countries, were to be uniform, but the laws of Scotland regarding local matters, such as church, school, justice, etc., were to remain in force, subject to revision by the common parliament. One member of the Cabinet is the secretary for Scotland. ADMINISTRATION OF EDUCATION Basis of Administration. — The administration of the Scottish schools is based upon the Education Act of 1872, supplemented by several subsequent acts. The Act of 1872 created the Scotch education department and established the school board system, but did not include secondary edu- cation or the universities. The administration of secondary schools was provided for by the Act of 1892, and of the uni- versities by the Act of 1889. 61 62 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient Administrative Bodies. — The administrative bodies in the Scottish education system are: (i) the Scotch education department, (2) local school boards or private owners or endowment trustees, (3) secondary education committees, (4) the Scottish university committee of the Privy Council, and (5) a provincial committee in charge of the training of teachers. The education department consists of five members ap- pointed by the crown from the Lords of the Privy Council. The Cabinet secretary for Scotland is now president of the committee and is held responsible to Parliament for the administration of the department. The department also has a permanent secretary and a staff of officers. This de- partment has full charge of education in Scotland. For convenience in administration the country is divided into four divisions and each supplied with a staff of officers and in- spectors. The school board is the local school body. It is elected by the local ratepayers for a term of three years. Its main duties are to provide every phase of school work for pupils during the compulsory school age of five to fourteen. Each board dispenses its own school fund. The voluntary and endowed schools receiving grants handle their own affairs independent of the local board, and in direct relation to the department. The secondary education committees are composed of members elected locally in each of the thirty-nine districts. The duties of these committees pertain to every phase of secondary education, including the administration of the secondary education grants. The Scottish universities committee of the Privy Council Scotland 63 is a body with but little power as it has no money to dis- pense. It serves as a unifying body in the case of a disagree- ment among the universities relative to proposed ordinances. The policy of the government is to make the universities self-governing as far as is practical. The real control of the universities in relation to the government is through the treasury department, and through the regulations of the department relative to the leaving certificate from the second- ary schools for admission to the universities. The grants for technical colleges and continuation classes are administered by the department jointly with the local boards or managers of these local schools. The administration of the system of training teachers is through four provincial committees, one for each of the four university centers. Each committee has a staff of instructors and an executive head. Education Act of 1908. — The Education Act of 1908 stimu- lated the work of the education system very materially. This act left the parish as the local unit of administration and gave to the elected school boards greatly increased powers with regard to both elementary and secondary schools. These enlarged powers of the boards relate to the general welfare of the children, the lengthening of the school attendance, and the improved facilities for secondary education. Under general welfare the most important provision was for a complete system of medical inspection. SPECL\L FEATURES OF THE OLD SCOTTISH SCHOOLS Old Types of Schools. — Before the reformation monastic and cathedral schools of the continental type existed in Scot- land. From these church schools grew up burgh or grammar 64 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient (classical) schools under the support of the town councils, but supervised largely by the church. From these schools arose the demand for higher education, which led in the fif- teenth century to the founding of the three earliest Scottish universities of St. Andrew in 141 1, Glasgow in 1450, and Aberdeen in 1494. These universities came in response to a popular demand for a broader and a more extensive edu- cation than the church schools and the burgh or grammar schools could give, just as the burgh schools were more popu- lar in their courses than the church schools. Even this early the control of education began to pass from the church to the town councils. The founding of these universities provided higher education at home for the throngs of Scottish students that hitherto had flocked to Oxford, Paris, and other foreign universities. The subjects taught in these universities were the trivium, quadrivium, canon law, civil law, medicine, and theology. Their aim was primarily ecclesiastical, rather than educational. Their support was largely from the church, but through interested individuals. Such in brief was the condition of education at the beginning of the reformation. Effect of the Reformation. — The period, 1560 to 1872, shows the results of the reformation upon education in several definite respects. The barons and nobles at the time of the reformation took the larger share of the property of the old church and left the newly-established church, the Presby- terian, with but small means for the support of education. The town or municipal councils and the church worked to- gether in the maintenance of burgh and parish schools, though for the most part, the church controlled the school even to the appointment and dismissal of the teachers. Support for schools for the poor was sought in every direction Scotland 65 to such an extent that schools were actually kept open in nearly every town in the land for more than three hundred years, prior to the beginning of the present system in 1872. Possibly in no other country was education so widely pro- vided for both rich and poor during that same period. This splendid condition was due to the deep interest of the church in education as manifested by their contributions and super- vision, to the gifts and bequests of benevolent persons for the education of the poor, and to the civic interest of burgh and town councils through public appropriations to the local schools. John Knox and the Book of Discipline. — The policy of the Reformation in Scotland toward education is set forth in the Book of Discipline framed by the reformer under the guiding intelligence and foresight of the immortal John Knox. Knox's scheme provided for an elementary school in every parish and a secondary school or college in every larger town, and a system of universities — all offering edu- cation to rich and poor alike. But this scheme was opposed by the adherents of the displaced church and also by the rich nobility of the reformed church who selfishl}- declined to give of their wealth to the support of education. Presbytery vs. Episcopacy. — During the 136 years from 1560 to 1696 life in the five universities, which were insepa- rably connected with the church, was in a continual state of change and unrest. The seven alternations between Presby- tery and Episcopacy were in many ways detrimental to edu- cational progress. Each of the two churches, when in power, claimed, and Parliament repeatedly sanctioned the control of education by the church, thus making the church respon- sible for the rise and decline of the schools and universities. 66 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient Church and Town Councils. — Beginning with 1760 there was manifested a desire in certain localities, as Perth, Dundee, Ayr, and others, for schools with a more liberal and practical curriculum than that given in the traditional Latin grammar schools. This led to the establishment of academies either by the town councils or by private parties. Toward these schools the church was antagonistic and even attempted to prevent parents from sending their children to them. How- ever, there were fifty or more of this commercial-scientific type of academies when the present system was inaugurated in 1872. During this period there was continuous controversy be- tween the church and the town councils over the appoint- ment and dismissal of teachers. The church demanded that teachers should sign the Confession or be members of the established church, and Parliament demanded of them an oath of allegiance to the crown. But the town councils and proprietors of private schools, supported by the steadily growing spirit of liberality, gradually won over the eccle- siastical influences, until at the beginning of the modern sys- tem there were but 50 members of the church of Scotland in the faculties of 113 burgh schools or academies. Educational Institute of Scotland. — The teaching body in Scotland had become so large and so influential that in 1847 they organized the Educational Institute of Scotland and secured in 185 1 a royal charter of incorporation. The purposes of this organization were to provide for the certif- ication of properly qualified teachers, looking to their improve- ment and the raising of the standard of education in general. The Institute, while acknowledging the importance of reli- gious education, resolved to certificate competent teachers Scotland 67 without making the question of their religious faith a test. This organization has continued to increase in members and influence to the present time. It now has about twelve thousand members divided into fifty-two local associations. Its newer functions pertain to the granting of aid to needy members or to their families, and to the organization and use of the political influence of the Institute. Society for Propagating Christian Knowledge in Scotland. — At the opening of the i8th century the condition of both church and school in the Highlands and islands of Scotland was very discouraging in comparison with that in other parts. This was due to the poverty and remoteness of these districts and to the prevalence there of the Gaelic language to which the people themselves were attached, but which Parliament and the church desired to abolish. To improve this condi- tion philanthropic Christian gentlemen secured a patent in 1709 organizing the " Society for Propagating Christian Knowledge in Scotland." The membership was to be Prot- estants, but consisted of both Presbyterians and Episcopa- lians. The churches gave sympathy and assistance to this movement. The capital of the society at its beginning was only $5000, but this continued to grow until the incomes during the middle of the 19th century amounted to $25,000 annually. In 1846, the Court of Sessions ruled that all teachers re- ceiving aid from this society must be members of the estab- lished church, but this decision did not decrease the effort or the expenditure of the society. During the days of its greatest activity the society had as many as 134 schools under its maintenance. Three other societies, the Gaelic Society of Edinburgh, 68 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient of Glasgow, and of Inverness, were organized in the first quarter of the 19th century with the more specific purpose of preserving the GaeHc language to the 171 parishes with a population of 416,000 Gaelic-speaking people. These three societies supported nearly two hundred schools. The schools of the four above societies were gradually reduced in num- bers as the establishment of schools by local rates was begun. After 1872 these schools were no longer needed. The direc- tors of the S. P. C. K. schools established with their funds a system of bursaries to aid students in secondary schools and Gaelic-speaking students in universities. The funds of this society amounted to $926,800 in 1885 when four fifths of it was transferred to the " Trust for Education in the Highlands and Islands of Scotland," the other fifth being retained by the society for strictly religious purposes. Grants of $300 were paid from this trust in 1905 to each of the 14 center schools. This society now has an enviable record of two hundred and seven years of educational work, through devotion to humanity, language, and religion. General Assembly and Sessional Schools. — In 1825, more than a hundred years after the organization of the S. P. C. K., the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church and the Sessional of the Free Church organized committees to establish schools in neglected districts of all Scotland. They maintained several hundred schools up to 1872 when these schools became Board schools or passed out of existence. Parish Schools. — By an Act of the Scottish ParHament in 1 61 6 there were provisions made for the establishment of a school in every parish in accord with Knox's plan. This was to be a school above the elementary work of the several types of schools described above, and for the purpose of pre- Scotland 69 paring students to enter the- universities. The scheme was far from realized, but through repeated aids from Parhament during the first half of the 19th century these parish schools increased in number to 1049, of which number 124 were on the government list. These parish schools had two distinct purposes, the religious education of the youth and the fitting of apt students for the universities. David Stowe and Training of Teachers. — For the parish and burgh schools there was no system of scientific training of teachers, except that of the conventional stereotyped method. In 1826 David Stowe, who was giving his life zealously to Mission work, organized the Glasgow Infant School Society for the instruction of children and the train- ing of teachers. Later, this model school was taken over by the Glasgow Dundas Vale Training College. The character of this training college was undenominational and national. Becoming involved in debts the college appealed to the Privy Council on Education for aid, which was granted only on condition that the college be transferred to the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland. Branches of this school in other cities were treated in the same manner, so that after the disruption in 1843 Stowe and many of his colleagues, being members of the Free Church, were forced out of the colleges which they had established. Not to be daunted they built up similar institutions under the patronage of the Free Church, aided also by the Privy Council. The Epis- copal Church also built a training college in Edinburgh, in 1850. These training colleges under church supervision supplied all that can be called scientific training of teachers until the introduction of pupil-teacher training in 1847 under the examinations of the government inspector. 70 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient THE PRESENT SCOTTISH SYSTEM OF SCHOOLS Act of 1872. — The present system of education in Scot- land was organized under the Education Act of 1872. The special provisions of that act were: (i) The Scotch educa- tion department was created and a system of local elective school boards was established, with the parish as the unit, (2) the abolition of church supervision of public educa- tion, (3) the burgh schools and such others as elected to do so, passed under the control of local school boards and were given the name of higher class public schools. The parish and other schools remained under their former managers and took the name of higher class schools. (These parish schools under the later Act of 1899 were transformed into the higher grade schools under the manage- ment of the boards.) (4) Parliamentary grants were pro- vided for elementary education. Act of 1908. — Subsequent acts have provided for the instruction and care of blind, deaf-mutes, and defective chil- dren. The Act of 1906 reclassified schools as primary, in- termediate, and secondary. But the greatest change came under the Act of 1908 which began an era of expansion in Scottish education. The powers of the education depart- ment and of the local boards are extended to secondary and higher education and to the general welfare of all children. The several education funds are consolidated under one man- agement and made available for all grades of education. Primary Education. — The compulsory school age extends from 5 to 14 years of age. The primary school, which covers this period up to twelve, is divided into three divisions: (i) the infant, from 5 to 7, (2) the junior, 7 to 10, and (3) the Scotland 71 senior, 10 to 12. The curriculum is not materially different from the elementary school curriculum in the United States. The student's qualification for the completion of the course is determined by the teacher's judgment and not by a final examination. Intermediate Schools. — At the completion of the primary course the students are divided into three sections and a different course of study given to each group in recognition of their different needs and purposes. These courses are : (i) supplementary, for those who are to leave at fourteen, (2) supplementary, for those who at fourteen are planning to enter continuation classes for preparation for the crafts and arts, and (3) intermediate or higher grade schools, for a broad general education for those planning to enter a second- ary school. The graduates of this course receive an inter- mediate certificate which admits them to the secondary school. It will be observed that this recognition of the differentiated needs of pupils at twelve years of age is a meritorious feature of the Scottish system. The special features of these several types are as follows. ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Supplementary Classes. — One of the most interesting and unique features of the Scotch system of elementary schools is what they term supplementary classes. The aim of these classes is to train the pupils from twelve to fourteen years of age who do not plan to continue in school after fourteen. When pupils are twelve their parents are counseled with regarding the plans tor them at fourteen. Such as are plan- ning to quit at that age, are placed in the supplementary classes. 72 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient Those going into higher education are placed in the second- ary schools. The third group continue through the regular elementary school. The course of study consists of thorough drill work in the fundamental subjects that are necessary for intelHgent citizenship. The boys are given a great deal of handwork in wood and iron and the girls a similar amount in domestic economy. The department gives a merit certifi- cate to every pupil that attends supplementary classes at least one year. The grants to these classes are also larger than those to the ordinary school. During the year 191 2-13 these classes had an enrollment of about fifty thousand stu- dents. This method of segregating the seventh and eighth grade pupils into three distinct groups on the basis of future aims, is one that could be copied to advantage by the United States and other countries. In the United States there are many advocates of what is known as the " Six and Six " plan of reorganization of the eight elementary and the four high school grades. Such a scheme is in recognition of the same fundamental principles that have influenced the Scotch to estabHsh the supplementary classes and the intermediate schools. Intermediate or Higher Grade Schools. — In Scotland the intermediate schools, which correspond to the higher elemen- tary schools in the EngHsh system, are chiefly articulated with the primary schools below and the secondary schools above. They receive pupils at twelve years of age and give them a three years' course. The curriculum includes the cultural subjects of history, EngHsh, mathematics, modern languages, science, drawing, and also industrial subjects. These schools resemble very closely the manual training high schools in the United States. At the completion of this course the Scotland 73 pupil receives an intermediate certificate which is eagerly sought after. The industrial bias given to the course of study is intended to turn many students toward the trades, but as a matter of fact the breadth of the course and the general good spirit of the school awakens such an interest in many of the students that they continue their education in the secondary schools. In 1913-14 there were 193 intermediate schools of all types receiving grants with an average enrollment of 23,893 scholars, and an accommodation for more than 40,000. In comparison with statistics for 1900, there were in 1 913-14 approximately seven times as many schools and nine times as many pupils in this t}TDe of schools, — a marvelous increase. Continuation Classes. — The education department is empowered to require school boards to provide instruction in continuation classes for the further instruction of persons from fourteen to seventeen years of age who are not going on into higher education. These courses must have refer- ence to the crafts and industries practiced in the districts and to such others as the department may consent to upon appUcation by the Board. All of these courses must include English language and literature and, in districts desiring it, GaeHc language and literature. These continuation classes are prospering in the larger towns, but in the rural districts they are very few and spasmodic, a condition which is gen- erally due to the indifference of the people. The length of the course is from fifteen to twenty weeks. The shorter term is more popular in the rural districts. Types of Continuation Classes. — There are four different types of continuation classes for which rates are paid. These are : (i) classes for the completion of general elementary edu- 74 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient cation, (2) classes for specialized instruction, (3) courses for specialized instruction, and (4) auxiliary classes. The work of course one is as described above. For course two the pupils must be over sixteen years of age. The course is intended to be a good preparation for entering any vocation or profession without speciaUzation. Course three is designed to fit students for the practice of particular crafts, industries, and vocations. The auxiliary classes are mainly for teachers of special subjects in the public schools. They include physical exercises, mihtary drill, vocal music, wood-carving, song, needle-work, elocution, etc. In 1913-14 there were reported 1059 continuation classes in Scotland, with 143,942 scholars. Comparison of Continuation Classes with Those of Other Countries. — In comparison with the continuation classes in Germany and France, the Scottish continuation schools are not so well equipped nor are they so well organized relative to the convenience of the pupils' hours of work. On the other hand the Scottish schools surpass the French and German schools from the standpoint of suitableness of equipment and practical character of the work, and in the aid of pupils in their search for suitable employment. SECONDARY EDUCATION Reorganization. — The reorganization and development of secondary education along modern lines began in 1885 with the reorganization in that year of the Scotch education department. The next year inspection of secondary schools was begun, and the system of leaving examinations completely revised with reference to both the secondary schools and the universities for which they prepare. Scotland 75 Leaving certificates in groups of four subjects were sub- stituted for the leaving certificates in one subject when desired. The result of this has been a great broadening in scholarship and interest. Course of Study. — The secondary schools provide a five years' course above the primary school which the pupils complete at twelve years of age. The first three years of this course have been described above as the higher grade schools. The upper two grades constitute the secondary education proper and they may offer several different courses, as the American high school does, for specialization in the languages, sciences, mathematics, and commercial subjects. The old burgh schools, parish schools, and academies are being supplanted by this newer secondary school. The grad- uates of secondary schools receive a leaving certificate upon an oral and written examination. This certificate, if the examination included the college entrance subjects, admits to the university, thus serving as an articulating Hnk between these institutions. Modern Tendencies. — The Scotch education depart- ment is encouraging the development of the secondary schools along the fines of the teaching of modern languages and the sciences. In this respect these secondary schools are much like the American high school. Types of Secondary Schools. — There are three types of secondary schools in Scotland, — private, endowed, and municipal (burgh) schools. They are managed by separate boards from those directing the elementary schools. The Board issues a leaving certificate to graduates of secondary schools who pass the department examinations. The Board also inspects such secondary schools as apply for this service. 76 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient Gradually these schools are coining under government super- vision. Supply and Distribution of Secondary Centers. — The secondary schools are so well distributed that practically every child is in reach of one, either by proximity of his resi- dence, or by the splendid system of transportation provided by the Education Act of 1908. The supply of these schools is also quite adequate to the needs of the country, there being now as many as 250 of the higher grade and secondary proper. The proportion of children in Scotland going on from the elementary school to the higher schools is i to 6.5, in com- parison with I to 22 in England — about 3^ times as great. The secondary education committees have been quite active in the use of the power given them to use funds for the trans- portation of competent pupils to efficient secondary centers. The problem of hostels (dormitory) for these pupils is an urgent one. For the year 1909-10 the committees used $424,000 for this purpose. This method of extending secondary education would be so expensive in some localities that the department has found it necessary to resort to the method of adding one or two years to the intermediate school. This, however, is only a substitute for secondary education and is not satisfactory, from the consideration of equipment or scientifically trained teachers. Of the 56 upper secondary schools receiving grants 35, or 62 % of them, are under school boards or committees. Articulation with the Universities. — The question of the readjustment of the secondary school to the university has provoked much thought and discussion recently. Prominent educators are advocating the discontinuance of the preHmi- nary examination for admission to the universities and the Scotland 77 substitution therefor of the leaving certificate. This would permit a greater breadth in preparation and would place the emphasis upon general fitness rather than upon special knowledge. The group method of arranging secondary courses is being advocated with the changing from the single type leaving examinations to a system of group examinations for leaving certificates. The same reformers are also asking that Latin be made optional in the secondary course. This request seems reasonable in view of the fact that the uni- versities grant even the Master of Arts degree without any Latin except what was required of the student when he passed the leaving examination from the intermediate school at fifteen years of age. The universities are not so favorable to the change as are the secondary teachers. This Scotch condition is simply one of the many evidences of the waning of the influence of Latin in the secondary schools of the world. School Statistics. — The report of the Scottish depart- ment of education for 191 2 gives the following statistics. Population of Scotland 4.733,700 Enrollment in public or subsidized schools Elementary Primary 818,785 Higher grade 25,030 844,715 Continuation classes 144,815 Intermediate and Secondary Boys 11,769 Girls 8,t6^ 2o.-;^2 Total 1,010,062 Teachers Men 5,357 Women 15.074 20,431 Training colleges and training centers for teachers 561 Current expenditure on primary and higher grade schools .... $1,381,320 Per capita of enrollment $16.85 78 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient These figures show an enrollment of approximately i8% of the population in the elementary schools and nearly 25% in the elementary and secondary schools combined. The corresponding percentages in England are 16% and 17%. Scotland's lead is very appreciable. GENERAL WELFARE OF CHILDREN Medical Inspection. — The law regarding medical inspec- tion of children, passed in 1908, requires school boards to rnaintain such service and authorizes the education depart- ment to enforce the law as a prerequisite to the education grant. This provision places Scotland among the leading countries in the care of the health of her children. Scotland follows the English policy and makes the county the unit for medical inspection. The department of education issues detailed instructions for the county system of work. Com- plete systems of medical inspection were established through- out all Scotland within three years from the passage of the law. Neglected Children. — The school boards are also empow- ered to provide food, clothing, and other care for the child during the compulsory school age, if the parents are not able or decline to do so. In the latter case the boards must col- lect the amount they expended from the parents through court procedure. In this respect Scotland has gone further than most other counties in delegating parental power to the school board. This, however, is a logical sequence to compulsory education. An instructive illustration of the workings of this relief provision is found in Edinburgh where there is said to be more poverty than anywhere else in Scotland, except in Glasgow. Scotland 79 This city has developed a thorough system of investigation and treatment of each case of child neglect or child relief that is full of suggestions to other cities or countries dealing with the same problem. TRAINING OF TEACHERS 1872 to 1905. — During the period from 1872 to 1905 the teacher-training in Scotland was carried on in : (i) eight train- ing colleges under the management of the education committees of the established and Free Churches and the Episcopal and Catholic Churches, (2) in one college for the training of secondary teachers, (3) in apprenticeship classes (pupil- teachers) in secondary schools, and (4) in the universities at the expense of local committees. This system was prac- tically the same as the one in England in the present day, as described elsewhere. The result was likewise the same, that is, a large percentage of poorly trained and non-certifi- cated teachers under only a partial supervision by the state. Act of 1905, Present System of Teacher-Training. — The Scottish education department took full charge of the train- ing of teachers in 1905 and inaugurated the system now in operation. It was fully expected that this new system would entirely eliminate the non-certificated teachers and the pupil-teachers by 191 5, but this has not been fully realized. The main provisions of this system are as follows : (i) Provincial committees for the training of all grades of teachers were established in connection with the four Scottish uni- versities. These committees are composed of representa- tive members from educators, school boards, churches, and inspectors. (2) These committees are empowered to receive 8o Modern Education in Europe and the Orient from the managers all existing training colleges and to oper- ate them. (3) These committees are empowered to prepare courses of study for the training of teachers and to estabUsh them at universities, colleges, and other suitable centers. (4) Students in training are divided into three classes, (a) those taking a three years' university course, {b) those taking a two years' course, other than in the university, and (c) graduates and those in service. On the basis of degree of advancement they are ranked as junior and senior students. The junior students have had the intermediate school course or its equivalent. (5) The number of students to enter upon training is regulated by the department, and the students to enter the junior courses are nominated by the secondary school committees. (6) The junior course is three years in length and is taken in some central secondary school. In 1913 there were 113 such centers. The senior course is two years in length and is taken in a university, or training col- lege, under the direction of the provincial committee of the colleges. There are four of these University centers. The course may be extended to three or four years and thereby lead to a degree. This course of training is followed by a probationary year before the certificate is validated. (7) The local authority pays the fees and in some cases a main- tenance allowance for both junior and senior students. (8) The course of study in the junior centers is a combination of high school and normal training subjects and the course in the training colleges is very similar to that of an American normal school. The training colleges are in connection with the universities which give the senior students an opportunity to carry regular university classes, which many of them do. (9) A teacher's certificate, once validated, is good until the Scotland 8i holder is 65 years of age. (10) A retiring pension is granted a teacher at the age of 65. In general this scheme is working well and must be re- garded as one of the most centralized systems of training teachers in Europe, though in practice there are many modi- fications and violations of its provisions. On the whole it is much in advance of the English system. Teachers' Pensions. — The present pension system in Scotland was enacted in 191 2. It is considered to be a more scientific and progressive scheme than that in operation in England. The main provisions of the new plan are as fol- lows : — (i) All Scottish teachers receiving pensions under the previous pension acts are continued on the pension roll on the basis that the new law provides for retirement. (2) All ordinary certificated teachers, both elementary and secondary, and teachers holding special certificates or temporary certificates, are competent to participate in the pension grants, if they are teaching in schools receiving grants under the regulations of the department. (3) The pension fund is provided by the department and the local managers retaining annually certain percentages out of the grants and the teachers' salaries. (4) The conditions for retirement are {a) ten years of serv- ice, {h) the age of 60 years, or unavoidable disabihty. (5) Forced retirement is made at 65 years of age. (6) The amount of pension is obtained by multiplying a certain per- centage of the annual salary by a certain number of years of service. The amount differs for the existing teachers and the future teachers. For the latter the pension may not exceed two thirds of the average annual salary, for the period of service in Scotland. (7) Teachers who withdraw from 82 Modern Education in Europe and tJie Orient service before the retiring age, may receive back the amount that had been withheld from his salary or may leave the amount in the fund and participate in the pension at 65 years of age. Likewise the heirs of a teacher who dies in service may have the same privilege of the two options. (8) At the end of each period of five years a new valuation and readjustment must be made of the administration of the pension fund on the basis of the more recent scientific knowledge of such matters. (9) The ultimate authority in the management of the pension system is the Scottish education department. The special merits of this system are : (i) the universal appUcation to all teachers in service and (2) the provision for returning retents to the teachers who withdraw before reaching the retiring age. The weakness of the system lies in the retention of a part of the teachers' salaries to supply the fund. But the system, even as it is, places Scotland ahead of the United States in the provision for the creation of a profession and the care of the teachers. TECHNICAL EDUCATION Origin in 1887. — Technical education had its origin in a feeble way in 1887. Prior to this time, however, many grants had been made to schools and colleges for scientific instruction as an aid to technical instruction. The use made by the local authorities of the funds granted them by the Act of 1887 for technical classes was not satis- factory to the department. Present System. — As a consequence, in 1901, the Board consolidated this work in central institutions, called Indus- Scotland 83 trial universities. In 1906 there were eleven of these receiv- ing grants from the government. These institutions furnish higher training in such technical subjects as agriculture, commerce, art, nautical subjects, domestic science, etc. There are also two greater technical institutions that deserve special mention. These are : (i) the Heriot-Watt Technical College in Edinburgh and (2) the George Street Technical College in Glasgow. The first of these institutions has between 3000 and 4000 students in day and evening classes, and the second has about 6000 students. An admirable feature of these two institutions is their close affihation with the uni- versities in those cities for the purpose of degree privileges. With the grants to evening technical classes that are nu- merous throughout the country, to the central industrial col- leges or universities, and to these greater technical colleges, Scotland stands very favorable in the matter of technical education in comparison with other countries. SCOTTISH UNIVERSITIES Their Origin. — Scotland has four national universities of historic renown, though they cannot be classed among the great world universities. The origin and purpose of the three oldest of these institutions — St. Andrews, Glasgow, and Aberdeen — was described under the topic, " Old Types of Schools." The fourth one of this group, Edinburgh Uni- versity, had its origin in the " Towns College," founded in Edinburgh in 1564. This college through a period of more than a hundred years added faculty after faculty until it became a full-fledged university by the Act of 162 1. It differed mainly from the three older universities in not having an ecclesiastical purpose in its origin, as neither a Bishop's 84 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient mandate nor a Papal Bull called it into existence. Its aim was the higher education of students in the humanities, philos- ophy, medicine, law, theology, and sciences for the munic- ipaUty of Edinburgh. Reorganization in 1858. — The curriculum and management of the older universities was largely medieval in character until their reorganization in 1858. In the three oldest uni- versities the faculty, the senate, and the comitia controlled everything, while Edinburgh was under the administration of the municipality. The Act of 1858 nationaUzed the Scot- tish universities by creating a uniform administration for them through three bodies, (i) The senate was retained with increased powers for the management of the ordinary business. This body is composed of the principals and pro- fessors in each of the institutions. (2) The university court, consisting of the rector, principal, dean, and four assessors, was created as a Court of Appeal, and with the power to appoint professors and regulate the internal affairs of the institutions. (3) The General Council, which consisted of the chancellor, university court, the professors, graduates, and others who had attended four years, was given the duties of looking after the general interests of the universities, in relation to the pubHc. This act also rearranged the curricula, established more professorships, revised the bursaries, and increased the salaries of the professors. Present Organization Act of 1889. — In the reorganization under the Act of 1889 the management of the property and the business affairs of the universities was transferred from the senate to the University Court. And in time the senate was given the direction of the teaching and the discipline Scotland 85 and the management of the libraries and museums. Each University Court was empowered to make ordinances govern- ing its own institution provided all other courts agreed to them. Tliis provision proved to be annoying and was re- moved by an Act in 1908 leaving each university autono- mous, relative to the other three. The General Council, in addition to the duties stated above, elect two members to the Parliament. One is chosen jointly by Edinburgh and St. Andrews and the other by Glasgow and Aberdeen. Another body under this statute is the Students' Representa- tive Council, which consists of representatives from the fac- ulties and students' societies. The functions of this body are to represent the students in their relation to the universities and to promote social Hfe among the students. Lastly, as a supreme tribunal in charge of the entire field of university administration, the Act of 1889 created the Universities' Committees of the Privy Council. However, the policy of the government to grant as nearly as practicable complete autonomy to each university has reduced the func- tion of this body to a minimum. Women in the Universities. — Provision for the higher education of women was made in 1868 in the founding of short lecture courses by the university professors in Glas- gow. Later this movement took the shape of an association which conducted lecture courses for women in rented halls. In 1883 the association was incorporated as Queen Margaret College and was presented with a building and an endowment of £25,000 by interested friends. This college was presented to and accepted by the University of Glasgow in 1892 to be maintained exclusively for women. Since that date women have been admitted to the four universities on an equality 86 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient with men except in the departments of law and theology. The percentage of women in the student body is small, but is gradually increasing. The total enrollment of men and women in the four universities in 1910 was 7560. Support of Universities. — The support of the Scotch uni- versities has never been munificent. At present the annual grant by Parliament is $360,000 for the four institutions. In addition to this, a special appropriation of $200,000 was recently made in response to an investigation ordered in 1909 into the financial condition of the universities. The Act of 1908 also permits the universities to participate in the gen- eral education fund for annual maintenance by application of the university courts to the secretary for Scotland. Other sources of support are students' fees and private endowments. Carnegie Trust Grants. — The largest of the private en- dowments is the Carnegie Trust, estabHshed in 1901 for the two purposes : (i) of improving and expanding the work of the universities and (2) of paying students' fees and research bursaries. The amount of the endowment was $10,000,000, and the annual income from it is about $510,000, which nets above the expenses for administration over $500,000 for dis- tribution among the four universities under the two main purposes of the foundation. The rapid developments in the fields covered by this endowment have been marvelous. It is estimated that in the field of scientific research the Carnegie grant is producing an output equal to that in the entire British Empire. The work in other phases of education covered by this trust is equally great. THE SCOTCH CHURCH State Church. — Presbyterianism was reestablished in Scotland as a State Church in 1688 under William and Mary. Scotland 87 Under the conditions of restoration it was to be supported by the state and in all essential respects controlled by the state. The doctrine was not to be interfered with by the state. A provision restored from earUer practice by an Act of Queen Anne's Parliament in 171 1, gave to certain landed proprietors, or lay-patrons, connected with parishes the right to nominate ministers to vacant parishes without regard for the wishes of the people. This undemocratic practice has been a continuous cause of disruption and a source of weak- ness to the State Church. These conditions prevent the union of the several branches of the church to-day. Secession Churches. — A cUmax in this controversy was reached in 1732 by an action of the general assembly of the State Church in favor of the policy of lay-patronage. This action together with an oath required a few years later of burgesses to support the true religion of the realm drove many leaders into secession. One branch of these secessionists organized the Secession Church and the other branch the Rehef Church. Both branches were opposed to estabhsh- ment. The United F*resbyterian Church of Scotland. — Both churches remained essentially Presbyterian, and just one hundred years later, in 1847, united in forming " The United Presbyterian Church of Scotland." This united church was very prosperous and by the close of its separate existence in 1900 had a theological college in Edinburgh and about two hundred thousand members. In its theological beliefs and practices it became much more liberal and tolerant than the State Church. Free Church. — The opening of the 19th century found the State Church, both among the ministers and the people, 88 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient in a state of lethargy and indifference, due to the influence of skeptical philosophy and the opposition to the evangelical spirit of the dissenting churches. In revolt against this condition, Chalmers, the most important churchman since Knox, stirred the evangelical party in the State Church to withdraw from the Moderates, whom they now outnumber, to organize the Free Church of Scotland. This they did in 1843. They did not oppose the establishment, but objected to lay-patronage. Like the United Presbyterian Church they organized their own theological schools. The great Chalmers was placed at the head of the theological school in Edinburgh. Other similar schools were established at Aberdeen and Glasgow. Funds were liberally contributed for all forms of church work, both at home and abroad. The number of its congregations had passed the thousand mark when in 1900 the question of uniting with the other free church became prominent in Scotch religious life. United Free Church. — The strong feeUng of Scotch racial instincts and the spirit of Presbyterianism have kept the Scotch close together in spite of the many sectarian bickerings. At heart and in the interest of humanity they are ever one. In 1900 the United Presbyterian Church of Scotland and the Free Church of Scotland united under the name " United Free Church." Furthermore the State Church has recently modified its formula of subscription to the Westminster confession of faith which is the Presbyterian standard of doctrine. The Confession as modified requires only the ac- ceptance of " the reformed faith." By these recent actions the Free Church and the State Church are tending closer together than they have been for many years. A small minority of the Free Church dechned to unite in 1900 and have continued Scotland 89 their organization. Hence there are to-day three Presby- terian churches in Scotland. The following statistics for the year 191 3 show the relative numerical strength of the three Presbyterian Churches, and the Episcopal and Catholic Churches. Several other denominations have a small mem- bership, but their numbers are quite negUgible in comparison with the five larger churches. The Church of Scotland 714,- 000 members ; The United Church 507,000 members ; the Free Church (estimated) 40,000 members ; Episcopal Church 55,000 members; CathoHc Church 520,000 members. Relation to Education. — As has been shown in tracing the development of education, the Scotch church — every branch of it — has been profoundly interested in education. The church has maintained elementary and secondary schools, teacher's training colleges, and universities. She has carried the burden alone, or has cooperated with private endowments or state aid. And, finally, she has surrendered to the state the entire control of secular education. No reUgious tests are required of the teachers, and no religious subjects are taught in the public schools. The state branch of the church has ever opposed the interference of the state with the reli- gious doctrines and the management of the church. The free branches have stood for Calvinistic democracy in church management. The Scotch Kirk has ever magnified the teach- ing of the Bible in the church and the home. Presbyterian Scotland is one of the easiest, if not the easiest, land in all Europe for the maintenance of universal education so far as the church problem is concerned. Each branch of the Presbyterian Church and also the Episcopal and Catholic Churches maintain schools for both sectarian and religious purposes. But the extent to which elementary education Qo Modern Education in Europe and the Orient has already passed under the control of the public school boards and committees is shown by the fact that in 1913-14, of the 3370 schools, 3030, or 90 % of them, were public. It is thus apparent that, so far as education is concerned, the religious situation in Scotland is far more peaceful than it is in England. Topics for Further Study 1. Discuss the several methods used by local school boards for re- taining all children in school up to the leaving age of 14. 2. Describe the system of medical inspection under the Scotch education department. (See the report of the United States Com- missioner of Education, 191 5, pages 684-686.) 3. Compare the Scotch and the English systems of teacher-training. 4. Give a full account of the Carnegie Trust Grant for the expansion of the work of the Scotch universities. 5. Show the important function of the Scotch church in the develop- ment of education during the past two hundred years. 6. Give a clear account of the work of John Knox in the estabHsh- ment of elementary and secondary education in Scotland. 7. Describe the methods by which the Scotch education department, during the past thirty years, has been gradually securing control of secondary education. 8. Describe the Scotch racial ideals and show how these are reflected in the schools. 9. Show the relation of the Scotch to the English school system. 10. Explain the three-section plan of the intermediate schools for the recognition of the different needs and purposes of the pupils after twelve years of age. Special Bibliography Carnegie Foundation for. the Advancement of Teaching, Fifth Annual Report, pp. 56-62, New York, igio. Gibson, J. Education in Scotland, A Sketch of the Past and Present, London, 191 2. Scotland 91 JUDD, Charles H. The Training of Teachers in England, Scotland, and Germany, Bulletin, 1914, No. 35, United States Bureau of Education, Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. Kerr, J. Scottish Education, Cambridge, at the University Press, 1910. Macpherson, Hector. The Intellectual Development of Scotland, Hodder and Stoughton, 191 1, New York. Morgan, A. History of Training of Primary and Secondary Teachers in Scotland, Edinburgh, 1906. SiES, Raymond W. Teachers' Pension Systems in Great Britain, Bulle- tin, 1913, No. 34, United States Bureau of Education, Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. Strong, John. Historj' of Scottish Secondary Education, University Press, Oxford, 1909. FRANCE CHAPTER III THE GOVERNMENT In order to understand the administration of education in France, it is necessary to get a general idea of the central and local government in their relation to each other. This will reveal the paterjialistic spirit of the government and make clear the machinery through which the ministry of education does its work. Present Constitution. — France is a republic under a constitution which consists merely of laws enacted by the National Assembly of 1871-75, and subsequently amended by the two houses in joint session as a National Assembly. It differs from the English Constitution in being most all written ; and from the American in consisting of several documents passed by a law-making body instead of one docu- ment prepared by a constituent assembly and adopted by the states. The provision by which all amendments are made by Parliament, as an Assembly, makes Parliament very power- ful, almost as powerful as the British Parliament. The Constitution, as it is called, prescribes only the broad prin- ciples of the government and leaves the details to legislation. Parliament. — The Chamber oj Deputies. — The Chamber of Deputies consists of 597 members, chosen by universal suffrage for a term of four years. Suffrage is extended to all men over twenty-one years of age not disqualified by some 92 France 93 technicality. No educational or property qualification is required of voters. A candidate for the Chamber must be a legal voter, twenty-five years of age and not disqualified under any of the disabling laws. The Senate. — The Senate is composed of three hundred members chosen by departments on a population basis. The law of 1875 provided that seventy-five of these members should be chosen for life, but this act was changed by a law of 1884, that distributes these seats among the departments upon the death of the life members. Thus in the course of a few more years all of the senators will be elected for the term of nine years, and by departments. They are chosen in each department by an electoral college consisting of certain officials and delegates. A senator must be forty years old and is under the same disqualifications as a member of the Chamber of Deputies. The membership of this body is regarded as a very capable and distinguished group of men. The Senate has two distinctive functions: (i) It sits as a Court of Justice to try persons accused of threatening the safety of the state. (2) It has the right of approval or disapproval of the President's attempt to disvalue the Cham- ber of Deputies. In comparison with the Chamber of Deputies, the Senate, like the House of Lords in the British Parliament, is the weaker body. The reasons are these : (i) The initiation of many bills must occur in the Chamber. (2) The Ministry is responsible to the Chamber. The Senate, with its checks and balances, however, is an influential body. The President. — The President of the French Republic is elected for a term of seven years, by the National Assembly, 94 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient or a joint session of the two houses of Parliament. Any French male citizen except members of famihes who have ruled in France is eligible to the Presidency, but as a matter of fact the National Assembly has always chosen a member of their own body, one of experience, but not too aggressive. Vacancies are filled by this same body. This method is free from the campaigning and expense, the rivalry and strife, so embarrassing in America. Which is the better method would depend upon many factors in the government concerned. The French President has no real powers, as no act of his is valid until countersigned by a Minister. In this respect, he is like the British monarch, and very unlike the American President. His greatest influence lies in his power to appoint to civil and military positions and in his influence in diplo- matic relations. The Ministry. — The Ministry consists of twelve ministers appointed by the President, generally from the Chambers. They are responsible to the Deputies and resign upon the displeasure of that house. As a Council, the Ministry is executive in its function and is presided over by the President of the Republic. As a Cabinet, the Ministry is legislative and directs the affairs of state in the Parliament. One of the twelve is the Minister of Public Instruction and is in charge of the primary, secondary, and superior schools. The Minister of Commerce has charge of commercial edu- cation, and the Minister of Agriculture directs agricultural education. France is the best illustration of a strongly centralized state school system in the world. In the United States the Commissioner of Education is merely in charge of a bureau, in the Department of the Interior, and has neither administrative nor legislative duties. France 95 Local Government. — The French Repubhc is divided into 86 departments for local administrative purposes. At the head of each department is a prefect appointed by the Presi- dent upon the nomination of the Minister of the Interior, to act in the double capacity of the local agent of the central government and the executive officer of the local depart- ment. The prefect is assisted in local affairs by a General Council, elected on the basis of manhood suffrage. Next in size, as an administrative unit, is the arrondissement, or district, of which there are 362 to-day. Each district has a sub-prefect and a district council. The district is not a corporate unit and is therefore not of much consequence in governmental affairs. The Canton is the next unit in size, but it is merely for electoral and judicial purposes and has no administrative function. The Commune is the important administrative unit in French government. This is the unit that has survived the storms of all revolutions. It is administered by a Com- munal Council, elected by universal manhood suffrage. The executive officer in the Commune is the Mayor, elected by the Council and responsible to them locally and to the Pre- fect and President above him. In Paris, the Communal Council is differently constituted and the executive authority is in the hands of the central government. The striking feature of the French system of government is the extent to which central control is maintained in every unit of government. The administration of the educational system is through the Department of Public Instruction, the departments, and the communes. The educational system in France is truly 96 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient a state system, centralized as no other system is, unless it be that of Japan. THE ADMINISTRATION OF EDUCATION Central Authorities. — The executive head of the French system of education is the Minister of Public Instruction, who is a member of the Cabinet. He is assisted by three directors, one for each of the three grades of education, the primary, the secondary, and the higher. A fourth director is in charge of the finances of the department. Each of the directors administers his work through several bureaus, one for each special function. The Minister is advised by a Superior Council of Educa- tion, some members of which are appointed by the Minister and others chosen by the professors in the departments. With the advice of this Council, the Minister drafts the educational laws, prepares the programs, makes the regula- tions, and draws up the annual budget for Parliament. The Academies. — The state is divided into seventeen divisions, called academies, for educational purposes. At the head of each academy is a rector, who ranks next in impor- tance to the Minister. The only exception to this arrange- ment is Paris, over which there is a vice-rector, the Minister, himself, being rector there. The rector, assisted by an aca- demic council, -directs the schools in the academy. Departments. — Each academic district has a number of the 90 civil departments, through which primary education is administered. Primary education is supervised by both government and local inspectors. Two normal schools are also directed by each department to train teachers for the pri- mary schools. France 97 The Commune. — Each commune is required by law to have one or more primary schools according to the needs of the school population under the compulsory school law. Lycees and Colleges. — Internally the secondary schools, the lycees and colleges, are directed by a headmaster and several assistants appointed by the Minister and assisted by a local administrative council, corresponding somewhat to a board of trustees, though without such powers. Agricultural Education. — Agricultural education is under the supervision of the Minister of Agriculture, and since 191 2 departmental and communal agricultural education has been directed by a bureau of agricultural service, in each of the seventeen departments. The directors and professors in these bureaus are under the supervision of the Minister of Agriculture. The Universities. — The universities of France are state institutions, but are located in the chief cities of the depart- ments. There are sixteen universities. The law of 1896 practically made these autonomous, except that they are dependent upon the state treasury for their maintenance and are supervised by the rectors in the departments and by the Minister. Technical Schools. — Since 1892, technical, commercial, and industrial schools have been under the direction of the Minister of Commerce and Industry. As a matter of fact, however, many of the technical schools are supported and controlled by the communes or by private parties. In Paris, for instance, there are fifteen such schools, seven for boys and eight for girls. This is the condition regarding the adminis- tration of both primary and secondary technical schools. The higher technical institutions in France are designed yS Modern Education in Europe and the Orient to prepare leaders in the technical service of the state. They are under different Ministries, corresponding to their special functions, as the Ministry of Commerce, of War, of Agri- culture, etc. Specialization vs. Centralization. — In one sense the French system is highly centralized, but in another respect it is highly specialized. As has been shown above, the three different departments. Public Instruction, Agriculture, Commerce and Industry, direct three different types of primary and secondary education. And each of the different departments for which education exists controls the higher technical edu- cation. Centralization exists only in the sense that the several Ministers through Parliament control all t3^es of education, and that the public school teachers of France are all officers of the state and receive their salary from the national treasury. Specialization within the absolute control of centralizing forces is the striking characteristic of the French System. Decentralization is nowhere known. From still another point of view, the French school system is one of cooperation be- tween state and commune and between them and the masters of industry. PRIMARY EDUCATION Universal and Free. — The law of 1881 established free education in every commune for children from six to thir- teen years of age. This law also completely secularized the course of study and substituted civic and moral instruction for religious education. The law of 1886 secularized the teaching body, and the law of 1904 suppressed the teaching congregations. The policy of neutrality on the part of the teacher, textbook, and layman is difficult to establish in a country so long under the church influence, but progress, France 99 nevertheless, is very encouraging. In this policy of seculari- zation, a national system such as that of the United States is what France is aiming to realize. The aim of France is to place teachers in the schools who are amenable only to the state and who will not offend other people because of their private religious convictions. The machinery for the enforcement of school attendance is not working efficiently. A revision of the law is under advisement that will abolish the local school attendance committee and substitute therefor the justice of the peace. Attendance at approved private schools in lieu of the state schools satisfies the law. Provision is made for furnishing poor children with books and clothing to enable them to comply with the compulsory law. Types of Primary Schools. — Separation of Sexes. — The first consideration in the discussion of the types of French schools is the fact that coeducation is not prevalent. The law provides that where there are five hundred people or more separate schools for the sexes shall be provided. In the smaller communities mixed schools exist. Ecoles Maternelles (Kindergarten). — This kindergarten is for children from two to six years of age and is for the purpose of giving to the children of this age a care and training similar to what they would get in the home. It is not compulsory, but when once organized must be kept up. They are open from seven a.m. to seven p.m. in summer and from eight A.M. to six P.M. in the winter. They are mixed schools and are taught wholly by women. The course of study consists of games, songs, and the elementary beginnings of the primary grade subjects. The work is more serious, more formal, and more advanced than that of the Froebelian kindergarten lOO Modern Education in Europe and the Orient in the United States and elsewhere. When the children leave the kindergarten at the age of six they are able to read, write, and do some work in the four fundamental processes in arithmetic. Since 1881, they have been in the category of free schools and under regular state and local supervision, with the same qualifications for teachers as for those in the primary schools. Classes Enfantines. — These infant classes are for children from four to seven years of age, and are midway between the kindergarten and the primary schools. They are found gen- erally where the Ecoles Maternelles cannot be maintained. The course of study is somewhat more advanced than that in the Ecole Maternelle. Ecoles Primaires Elementaires . (Elementary primary schools.) — The elementary primary school admits pupils from five or six years of age to thirteen and gives them free tuition. The law requires a school of this type in every commune, separate for the sexes, if the commune has more than five hundred inhabitants. In a few communes the people have been very dilatory in their compliance with this law. The state grants some aid to such communities as need help in the erection and equip- ment of the schools. The curriculum for the elementary primary school is di- vided into three departments: (i) cours elementaire, two grades for children from six to nine ; (2) cours moyen, two grades for children from nine to eleven ; (3) cours superieur, two grades for children from eleven to thirteen. The subjects taught are the elementary branches found in the American elementary schools and moral instruction ; (4) cours comple- mentaire is an extra year added to the regular primary school France loi in localities where the higher primary school cannot be main- tained. The number of students in this course is very small. The different subjects of the elementary course are taught by the spiral or concentric circle plan throughout all the grades, in imitation of the way a child learns the subjects in practical hfe. Primary School Leaving Certificate. — Pupils graduating from the primary school course, or those who have reached twelve years of age and desire to quit school, take an oral and written examination for what is known as the certificat d^ etudes elementaires . This examination is not difi&cult, as it is based on the work of the first four grades only. The certificate, however, when obtained, is valued very highly. Only about lo per cent of the pupils secure the certificate at twelve years of age for the purpose of quitting school. Pos- sibly the greatest value in this examination lies in its practical application as a means of fixing a common standard of work in these grades throughout the state. Inspection of Primary Schools. — The real life of the French primary school is determined and directed by the primary inspector, an official who corresponds somewhat in duties to the extension school superintendent or supervisor. There is one for each district, or arrondissement. These inspectors are chosen by competitive examination from the great body of primary teachers, both men and women, and nominated or appointed by the Minister. They visit the schools of their respective districts at least once a year. Their authority extends to the construction of the course of study, the criti- cism of the methods of instruction, the qualifications of the teachers, and the specific moral and hygienic conditions of the schools. They conduct cantonal teachers' conferences, and I02 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient advise with local school ofi&cials. These powers and duties extend to both public and private schools. These visits to local schools are made the bases of reports to the academy inspectors who are the heads of the departments for primary- education. Finally, over this staff of district and academy primary inspectors, there are ten state inspectors who make annual tours of inspection throughout the departments. This ma- chinery is excellent for the maintenance of a uniform system of state schools. Enrollment in Primary Schools. — The report of the depart- ment of primary education for 1911-12 shows 620,516 pupils in the infant schools (5 to 6 years of age), 5,682,352 pupils in the primary schools (6 to 13 years of age). These two together equal 14.6 per cent of the total population, which is only a little over two thirds of that in the United States. This, however, must be considered in the light of the fact that the child population is small in France. But, on the other hand, the irregularity in school attendance and the tendency to leave school at twelve years of age to go to work shows the inadequacy of the school machinery and the need of a more enlightened conception of popular education. A most efficient means towards this end would be compulsory attendance upon continuation classes for pupils from thirteen to seventeen years of age, and extensive provisions for intel- lectual, social, and industrial education of the adult popu- lation. The leaders in France are thoroughly alive to these needs and are pressing the cause in every direction with much encouragement. Weakness of Primary Education. — In recent years much solicitude has been felt regarding some striking defects in the France 103 primary schools. In the first place, the compulsory school law does not extend over a sufficiently long period of the child's life to make it socially efficient. Secondly, there is not suffi- cient provision made for continuing the education of children who must leave school at an early age to earn a living. Third, the salaries of teachers are not sufficient to meet the increas- ing cost of living. Fourth, the course of study is too formal and too slightly adapted to the industrial needs of society. SECONDARY EDUCATION General Characteristics. — Secondary education in France does not mean the same that it does in the United States where it designates a school following the elementary school and culminating in the university. In France it is a more complete education than that in the American high school. It is the education that is given in the lycees and communal colleges and private institutions of the same grade. The secondary school may receive the pupil when he enters school at six years of age or younger. The motive that would cause him to enter the secondary school rather than the primary school is social or class. The students who enter the secondary schools are looking forward to political, professional, or com- mercial leadership, while those entering the primary schools are directed towards the lower positions in the social and industrial world. The secondary school is a fee school, while the primary school is a free school. At eleven years of age the pupil enters upon secondary instruction proper. Up to this period a pupil may transfer from the primary school to the secondary, but seldom thereafter. Thus, it is seen, the secondary schools and primary schools parallel each other from the beginning of the children's school career until the I04 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient thirteenth year, the extent of the primary period. This, in other words, is a vertical stratification in French school society, the like of which does not exist in America. The lycees and colleges are usually boarding schools, though in recent years there is a tendency away from this practice. The girls' secondary schools are generally day schools, though some have boarding departments. These schools are taking on more and more the character- istics of high schools. Types of Secondary Schools. — France has two distinct types of secondary schools, (i) The lycees are established, supported, and directed by the state, with some aid from the commune in which they are located in the initial construction and equipment of the buildings. The teaching staff and officers are appointed by the Minister. (2) The colleges are communal institutions, founded and supported by local taxes and fees. They are directed by a principal. The qualification of the faculty and the grade of work in the colleges is not so high as in the lycees. For the secondary education of girls, France has made provision since 1880, in the same type of schools as for the boys. In addition to the girls' lycees and colleges there are secondary courses established by local authorities with some support from the state. These secondary courses each year are being transformed into colleges, or lycees, as all of them in time are destined to be. The Course of Study. — The course of study up to the tenth or eleventh year of the pupil's age is the same as in the pri- mary school, and needs no further description here. The secondary course lasts seven years and is divided into two cycles, one of four years and the other of two years. France 105 The .lower four-year cycle divides into two branches that differ from each other mainly in the requirement of Latin and Greek in one and, in the other, French and sciences. The next two-year cycle is divided into four branches, characterized primarily as follows: (i) Greco-Latin sec- tion, (2) Latin modern language section, (3) Latin scientific section, and (4) scientific modern language section. Above these two cycles is the seventh and last year, which is divided into two branches, a philosophical and a mathe- matical. This provision for elective courses has been made since 1893, largely as a result of the influence of the success of elec- tive courses in the American high schools and colleges. The organization of the secondary courses occurred in 1902 when the single uniform course was displaced by the elective sys- tem. The shift of emphasis away from the classical languages toward the scientific modern language section is very strong. In the secondary curriculum in the lycees religion is also included for those who desire it. Recently manual training in wood and iron has also been introduced. The course in the girls' schools is only five years in length. The striking feature in the course of study in the girls' schools is the absence of Greek and the presence of Latin only here and there as an optional subject for the very small percentage of girls who seek the baccalaureate degree. Drawing, do- mestic science and art, music, and gymnastics, are regular subjects in the girls' schools. An eighth year is often added to the boys' schools and a sixth year to the girls' schools for some special purpose. The Baccalaureate. — The bachelor's degree is the goal of the secondary student, especially the boys. The lycees io6 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient and colleges are designed to prepare for the examinations for this degree. The examinations are conducted in each of the seventeen academies by a board of secondary and university professors. The examination is in two parts, the first at the end of the sixth year, the second at the end of the seventh year. The degree granted is the same for all, only it specifies the section in which the student majored. All degrees have the same value and admit alike to any of the departments of higher learning, or into administrative positions. The girls who take the baccalaureate must make up two years of prep- aration after completing the course of study in the girls' schools. This they may do by private tutoring or other- wise. The mortality of the examinees for the baccalaureate is very high. It is estimated that from 40 to 45 per cent fail. This French bachelor's degree is different from any degree issued in America. It is about equivalent, in its requirement, to an American junior or two-year college course. Much dissatisfaction arises at times regarding the degree, but it seems to be firmly established in the French system. Girls' Diplomas. — For academic distinctions for girls who do not take the baccalaureate, there are: (i) the certifi- cate of secondary studies at the end of the third year and (2) the diploma at the end of the fifth year. The examina- tions for these two distinctions are conducted by the respective faculties of the schools and not by the state as for the bac- calaureate. Teachers in Secondary Schools. — The teaching staff in the lycees and colleges is a body of well-trained men and women of somewhat higher scholarship than is found in the secondary schools of some other countries. The general France 107 adherence to the principle of specialization and the rigid competitive examinations for the license required of the pro- fessors of the first rank account in part for this superior schol- arship. The lycees require a somewhat higher degree of efficiency in the faculty than the colleges, and the boys' schools than the girls' schools. The professors of the highest rank must have the title of agrege. The education necessary to pass the examination for this title represents five years in elementary studies, seven years in secondary studies, one year or more in preparation for the competitive examination for admission to the higher normal school, and three or four years in a professional school prepara- tory to the aggregation for the title agrege. This title repre- sents eight orders of subjects; viz. philosophy, grammar, letters, history and geography, modern language, mathe- matics, physical science, and natural science. This course of training differs from the training of a gradu- ate of an American college in the early beginning and the extent of specialization upon the major subjects, and in the drill necessary to the final competitive examination. As a sifting or selective process, it is superior to the American method of certificating teachers upon graduation from ap- proved courses. But it raises the standing questions of, " specialization versus breadth," and " scholarship versus personality." In rank below the agreges are the regular teachers who hold the master's degree, those who hold the bachelor's degree, and those who have only the primary teach- er's certificate. The salaries paid secondary teachers range from $580 to $1200, which, added to the certain tenure of office and the coming pension, is good. io8 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient Cost of Secondary Education. — The cost to the state of secondary education in France is a Httle over one tenth of the entire budget of the education department. This is consumed in meeting the cost of the day pupils above the fees they pay, which is nearly half of their cost, and an addi- tional five per cent of the cost of the boarding students, in aid of salaries for general expenses, and for scholarships. The total thus spent by the state amounts to about $7,000,000 annually on secondary education. Yet, secondary education is not free, nor is it the pohcy of France to make it free. The fees paid by the students are arranged in a graduated scale from the lowest to the highest form. For day pupils they run from 90 francs to 320 francs per annum, and for boarding pupils 900 francs to 1650 francs. Low Percentage of Enrollment in Secondary Schools. — While these fees are not high, yet they are sufficient to de- prive a large percentage of the opportunity of a secondary education. This fact is shown by the small enrollment in all colleges and lycees in 1909. There were 131,830 students, which is approximately .4 per cent of the total population, or 4 persons out of a thousand population in secondary schools. It must be remembered in this connection that many of these pupils are really in the elementary grades as shown above. This reduces the percentage far below that of the secondary school enrollment in any other first-class country. Yet, France would not have it dififerent. She considers that finan- cial ability to pay for a training for leadership is coincident with the possession of the ability to profit by such training. Reorganization of Secondary Education for Girls. — Since 1909 there has been much agitation of the question of reor- ganization of secondary education for girls. As shown above. France ' 109 the girls' secondary schools have not attempted to duplicate the curriculum in the boys' schools, but have had as their aim the distinctive needs of the girls. This scheme has not provided for the ever-increasing numbers of women who desire to enter the universities to prepare for teaching and other professional careers. This deficiency is now being met in the reorganized secondary school for girls. TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION Ideals Aimed At. — In trade and technical education France aims at industrial excellence by training skilled experts and competent foremen and workmen. In comparison with Germany, France neglects the middle and lower grade arts and craftsmen upon whose work the stability of society in the last analysis must depend. France has not yet recog- nized, by ample provision, the need of evening continuation trade schools for that great middle class that cannot continue their education beyond the day elementary schools. In this respect she is behind England where so many voluntary organizations are paving the way, as is the custom in that country, for the government to subsidize continuation schools for middle trade and technical education. AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION Organization. — Agricultural education in France is or- ganized under the law of 1882. This law provides for the teaching of agriculture in the elementary, secondary, and normal schools, and special schools of agriculture. The system is very complete in organization, equipment, and method. The system was reorganized in 191 2 by establishing in no Modern Education in Europe and the Orient each department a bureau of agricultural service. This bureau has charge of every phase of agricultural interests except the work of the veterinary and forestry service in the agricultural stations. Agriculture for Women. — In 19 13 the first horticultural school for women was opened at Brie-Comte-Robert near Paris. This school is under the direction of the Women's Union for the Agricultural Education for Women. The Minister of Agriculture also requires the agricultural bureaus in the departments to organize and direct women's clubs in the different communities for the promotion of edu- cation in home economics and agriculture. This club work is supplementary to the three-month courses operating throughout France in home economics. These various clubs are to be organized into a national federation of farm wom- en's clubs under the direction of a central committee in the office of the National University of Agriculture. Agriculture in Elementary Schools. — The rapid drift of the population from the rural districts to the cities has spurred France to improve the agricultural conditions so as to turn back the tide as much as possible. The work thus far, how- ever, has been too formal and technical to meet this purpose as desired. Agriculture in Secondary Schools. — France has about fifty schools of secondary grade for the theoretical and prac- tical training in agriculture. These schools, the Ecoles pratiques, had their origin in 1875 and are maintained for the training of the sons of the peasant farmers. They offer a two-year course. In the higher primary schools, which roughly compare with the two-year American high schools, the agricultural course is very popular in the farming com- France in munities. Pupils enter these schools at thirteen years of age, and prepare definitely for two or three years for the vocation of agriculture. Agriculture in Normal Schools. — For the training of teachers in the subject of agriculture, the normal schools, since 1887, have been required to give courses in the theory and practice of agriculture. This work is combined with manual training throughout the entire three years, in the boys' Normal course, while, in the girls' normals, the agri- culture is displaced by kitchen gardening and domestic science. The examination^ for both the elementary and higher teachers' certificates include the subject of agriculture. THE PRACTICAL SCHOOLS OF COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY Their Social Character. — The practical schools of com- merce and industry represent a characteristic feature in the French school system. They are designed to serve in part the purpose of actual apprenticeship in the arts and crafts. The age at which these schools receive pupils is from twelve to fifteen. They draw their students from the same social class and at this early period begin to break down the social sympathies and common aims so necessary for social solidarity. This condition, by many, is regarded as undesirable. Compared with High Primary Schools. — These practical schools receive pupils at the same age as the higher primary schools. The striking difference between the two types of schools is the vocation aim of one and the general culture aim of the other. Many French educators maintain that the course of study in the higher primary school, at this early age of the pupils, is conducive to a higher degree of efficiency both for general citizenship and for technical purposes. One 112 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient trained in the general school, after a short period of actual practice, will far outstrip the unfortunate apprentice in a vocational career. The policy of the Ministry, therefore, should be to give these higher primary schools a fair degree of vocational bias, determined everywhere by the local condi- tions, and extend this type of education rather than the prac- tical schools. On the other hand, higher officials in the Minis- try of Commerce and Industry, that conducts these practical schools, claim a degree of efficiency for them that would justify their extension. This Ministry has, in addition to the practical schools, five state institutions of wider range, the national professional schools. These schools rival somewhat the technical courses in the secondary schools under the Min- istry of Public Instruction. It seems quite probable that this divided authority in the administration of education will eventually lead to the reorganization and unification of the French school system. The relative commercial value of these two types of schools, the practical and the higher primary, in 1907-08, was 60 prac- tical schools with an enrollment of 11,506 pupils and 221 higher primary schools with 26,920 pupils. HIGHER EDUCATION Higher education in France under the Ministry of Public Instruction includes the state universities, special schools, and the scientific bureaus of the government. The special schools in this list are, the College of France, the Museum of National History, the Practical School of High Studies, the School of Archives, the School of Oriental Languages, the French School of Archeology at Rome, the French School at Athens, and the National School of Fine France 113 Arts. To these schools the government appropriates over $500,000 per year. THE UNIVERSITIES Number and Distribution. — The French universities are organized under the law of 1896, which provides for a uni- versity in the capital city of each of the academies and one in Algiers. The group now includes sixteen institutions with several additional schools of medicine. While these are all state universities, yet they are in a sense municipal or provincial institutions drawing their support from the municipality as well as from the state. Prominence Given to University of Paris. — The poHcy of the government has been to develop the University of Paris into the leading one of the group. The result has been that this university is now one of the most richly endowed and has the largest enrollment of all the universities in Europe. Her enrollment is 40 per cent of the entire enrollment in the universities of France. In 1910 her numbers passed 17,500. From her endowments and from the state, she has more than $1,500,000 annually at her disposal. Differences among Universities. — The provincial uni- versities differ among themselves very markedly as to enroll- ment, wealth, faculties, scientific attainments, and local adaptation. The policy has been to keep each of these insti- tutions broad in its functions, though some educators advo- cate a policy of specialization in each of them, making one a center for history, another for science, etc. This latter policy, however, is not looked upon with favor, as it ignores the real significance of a university. Even now the local universities are losing many students to the Central University at Paris, 114 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient which has aheady become too large for the highest type of scholastic efficiency. To check this tendency to centralization, due to the wealth and prominence of the University of Paris, the wealthy indi- viduals in the municipal university areas are beginning to endow special laboratories and departments of interest to local professions and industries. Other steps are being taken to awaken an interest and pride in these regional univer- sities. The University Faculties. — The professors in the universi- ties are appointed by the Minister of Pubhc Instruction, from a list of two for each position, nominated by the council of the faculty and the council of the university. There are several classes of faculty members in the French universities just as there are in other universities. The head professors must hold the doctorate. The salaries range from $1200 to $2400 in the provincial universities and from $2400 to $3000 in the University of Paris. The professors are retired at seventy years of age, on a small pension. University Control. — In most respects the universities are quite autonomous, though the state retains the ultimate con- trol. Each university possesses a civil personahty, thus enabUng it to own property and to profit by the HberaHty of municipal and individual philanthropy. They are adminis- tered internally by a general university council composed of the rector, the deans, and elected delegates of each faculty. There is also a faculty council presided over by the dean for the management of the affairs of the individual faculty. Appeals are made from the faculty council to the university council and from there to the superior council of pubHc in- struction and thence to the Minister. France 115 University Degrees and Diplomas. — The state reserves the right to grant all university degrees, but the faculties grant the degrees of bachelor Ucentiate, and special diplomas for various branches of study. These latter, however, do not rank as state degrees. The doctorate of the university was estabhshed in 1897 to rival the German doctorate of philosophy and is held in high esteem. Since 1880 no private institution has been permitted to assume the name of university, though freedom of teaching is permitted to private faculties. Such an institution must maintain a course of study and a faculty in harmony with the standard set for the state institutions. Likewise, their students must pass the same examinations before the state professors. This restricted privilege has not been used to any extent, except by the Catholic Church, which has established twelve or more free faculties in theology, law, medicine, and science. Comparison with German Universities. — In the adminis- tration of her universities, France has pursued a pohcy of centralization, as shown in the superior development of the University of Paris, while Germany has pursued the opposite policy which has resulted in several universities equally great in essential respects, such as Berlin, Munich, Leipsic, Jena, Heidelberg. The French faculty is more careful in the awarding of degrees than the German faculty, though the German uni- versities have the reputation of maintaining the better method of university work. The French university makes a strong bid for American students, but owing to her different racial and national char- ii6 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient acteristics, she has not won them as has the German uni- versities with their closer Teutonic ties. In this respect, the French university will never have the world-wide influ- ence again that it had in the medieval period of its history. Coeducation in the French universities is more general and is regarded with a more universal approval than in the German universities. The women go about their work in the French universities just as men do and with but little distraction from this mingling of the sexes. Scientific Influence of Universities. — France regards her scientific research work in the universities as a great source of wealth to her nation. The influence of this scientific work reaches out through every avenue of life to the meadows and brooks of the humblest peasant. It gives discipline and method to the mind in its discernment of the true from the false in moral life. It converts the resources of the nation into machines and power for the economic advancement of man. And in the scientific training of teachers, the French universities are directing the educational methods in the de- velopment of all the children of France. Likewise, in medi- cine, law, theology, letters, philosophy, and technical professions, the universities and colleges of France are vitaHz- ing the thought and practice of the nation. Not alone for French students, but for an increasing number of foreign students is France offering university study. This foreign influence of French science and method is farther extended by a system of exchange of professors with the universities of America and other countries. THE NORMAL SCHOOLS Their Distribution. — The normal school law of 1879 pro- vided for a normal school for each sex in each department, France 117 but for economic reasons two adjacent departments may unite for one school. The present system is in accord with the law of 1887. The number now is 85 for men and 84 for women, or 169 normal schools for the training of teachers for the 68,728 common schools. This is not a heavy task to impose upon these schools, but their annual graduating class, which is about 3000, is not sufficient by one third to recruit the teaching staff. Their Organization. — The non-academic interests of the school are directed by an administrative board, composed of the academy inspector and two representatives of the academy general council, and four appointed by the rector of the academy. The duties of this board are similar to the duties of the board of normal trustees in America, though less extensive. The internal, or academic, interests of the normal are directed by the rector of the academy, the head or director, or directress of the school, and a committee of the faculty. The faculty consists of from three to five regular professors and special teachers for the modern languages, music, drawing, gymnastics, and agriculture. The normals are inspected by the academy and the general inspectors. The Normal Professors. — The faculty in the men's nor- mals are men and in the women's normals are most all women. All professors are appointed by the Minister of PubUc In- struction from a Ust who have passed a competitive examina- tion. To this examination are admitted only those who have the higher certificate and have taught two years. The prep- aration for this examination is made at the two higher normal schools, one for men, at St. Cloud, and one for women, at Fontenay aux Roses. These students in the higher normals ii8 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient are also selected by competitive examination. Certainly, if there is virtue in competitive examinations, the faculties in the French normals are first class. Normal Practice Schools. — Each normal school has an ecole annexe, or practice school, or an ecole d* application, an ordinary school in the community, for the use of the teachers in the third year of their training. To the girls' school there is also an ecole maternelle attached. The amount of time given to observation and practice teaching in the lower normals is not great, amounting possibly to about sixty lessons. In the two higher normals, it is even less. However, it must be remembered in this connection that two years of teaching experience is required for admission to each of these normals. For admission to the third and last year of the course in the lower normals, an examination for the higher diploma and certificate is required. Then after two years of teaching the final examination is taken for the certificat d'aptitude pe- dagogique. This frees the teacher from further examina- tions and qualifies him for a permanent appointment which is made by the rector of the department. He then becomes an official of the state. The Curriculum. — The course of study is the same for all the lower primary normal schools, and has undergone but few changes since 1887. There are two courses, the liter- ary and the scientific, with three years of work in each. The subjects are the ones to be taught in the primary and higher primary schools, with additional work in the modern languages, English and German. The curriculum in the two higher normals includes fewer subjects, but these are taught more intensively. This course France 119 also is three years and leads to the special certificate for teach- ing in the normal schools. The instruction is largely cultural, though it has a pro- fessional bias in the presence of psychology, morale, pedagogy, and practice teaching. A striking characteristic, in compari- son with the instruction in American schools, is the shght use of textbooks and the dominance of the lecture method. In the modern language work, the direct method is used, though the results obtained do not seem to justify this method over the translation method in use in America and elsewhere. Slight modifications are made in some subjects, such as mathematics, in the girls' schools, and some domestic sub- jects are introduced in their curriculum. In general, the normal school course is strong in the liter- ary and scientific training which it gives, but it is weak in the development of initiative, personaHty, and power. State Support. — The lower normals are equipped by the departments and maintained by the state, while the two higher normals are supported entirely by the state. The state also pays the living expenses of the pupils while at the school. This method of support by the state enables the teacher to take the full course of training, regardless of his own financial conditions. It is justified by the fact that the teacher be- comes an officer of the state under an agreement to remain in service at least ten years. This same requirement is made of the students in training in the two higher normal schools. Pensions. — At the age of sixty, after thirty years of active service, a teacher may retire upon a pension not exceeding half pay or falHng below six hundred francs for a man, or five hundred francs for a woman. This fund is provided by a five per cent tax on all regular teachers' salaries. In other I20 Modern Education in Europe a)id the Orient words, the teacher pays his own pension and the state acts as trustee of the fund. No other state is so paternalistic as France in the training of her teachers, in the guaranty of their positions, and in their care through old age. Critical Conditions Regarding Primary Teachers. — The question of salaries is one of the most critical problems at the present time. The salaries of teachers are lower than the salaries in other branches of the government and have not been readjusted since 1905. The changing economic conditions, with the attendant increase in the cost of living, therefore, have not been provided for in the case of the teach- ers. Furthermore, the slowness of the state system in the promotion of teachers to higher salaries is discouraging to the more capable and ambitious ones, the effect of which is to drive them out of the profession and to keep others of the same type from entering the profession. This attitude has been stimulated by the wide introduc- tion of vocational subjects into the elementary and secondary schools and the development of commercial, industrial, and technical schools. These new positions in the world of business are luring teachers and prospective teachers away from the profession. Especially is this true of men, as shown in the steady decrease in recent years, in the enrollment in the men's normal schools. There is also a decrease in the enrollment in the women's schools, but it is only about one half as great as that in the men's schools. This drift of men away from the teaching profession into the business positions will evidently leave the elementary schools of France in charge of women, just as is the case in the United States. At present the men and women are France 121 about equal in number, but the proportion is gradually chang- ing, in obedience, as shown above, to universal economic laws. To meet this situation in part, the Minister recommended a five-year program for increase of salaries in 191 2 which called for an increase of from S40 to $60 per year. To meet this and other increases in the educational budget for the year 1914 over the year 1913, $7,000,000 were required. Next to the financial teacher problem is that of the social status of the craft. This problem has caused much unrest in recent years. The teachers complain of local tyranny and clerical criticism. The government is endeavoring to bring relief but the teachers are also active. The method pursued by the teachers has been that of the organization of local and federal unions. The government, by an act of 1905, recognized such action as legal, but recently the Minister has ordered the federations to dissolve. This situation is a splendid illustration of the difference in the degree of free- dom allowed teachers in two sister republics ; in one, democ- racy is a name, in the other, it is a reality. RELIGIOUS EDUCATION The Status of the Church. — For 104 years, under the Concordat estabhshed by Napoleon I, in 1801, the church and the state were united and the state assumed the support of public worship. This bond, however, was broken in 1905, so that now all the churches are separated from the state and none of them receive any grant from the government. To each and all of the churches the government guarantees free and public exercise of their reUgious rites so long as the same does not interfere with the rights of society. 122 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient The Place of Religious Instruction. — This privilege car- ries with it the right of reUgious education in their own schools. It likewise excludes all rehgious instruction from the public schools. As a result, only moral education remains in the public school curriculum. The public school teachers are forbidden to give any form of religious instruction or to make any criticism of a religious faith. Likewise the textbooks are required to be wholly secular. Lay and Clerical Schools. — The result of the disestablish- ment of the church has been to stimulate the activity of the Catholic Church beyond expectation in both the church and the clerical schools. The statistics for 1913-14 show the following situation in the primary schools : 70,646 public primary schools with an enrollment of 4,973,179 and 14,464 private schools, with an enrollment of 1,148,704. The private schools are practically all Roman Catholics, as the Protestants and Jews are relatively negligible. The proportion of schools between public and private is approximately 5 to i and of the pupils 4 to I. In secondary and higher education also the church is equally active. In this plan of separation of church and state and the com- plete secularization of the schools, France is following the example of the United States. The ramifications of the problem in the two countries are vastly different and the methods of treatment are equally different, but, in the course of time, the results are destined to be the same, as human nature and religion, with allowances for racial and certain other chance distinctions, function in accord with the same universal formula. The pendulum seems ever destined to swing back and forth between secular and religious con- trol. France 123 EDUCATION IX THE FRENCH COLONIES Extent of Colonial Possessions. — The colonial possessions of France include an area of 3,820,000 square miles with a population of 49,000,000. These colonies are included in three important groups, the South American, Asiatic, and African. This area does not include Algeria, for this colony is administered as an integral part of France and has the school provisions of a regular department ; nor does it in- clude Tunis which is administered by the department of foreign affairs. Plan of Administration. — The government of the colonies is through a separate Ministry for colonial affairs. The French plan of coordination of local and central government is appHed to the colonies. This principle applies in the administra- tion of education. The support of the public schools comes from the state treasury as well as from the local colonial, communal, and provincial treasuries. Two types of schools are maintained, one for the Europeans, and one for the na- tives. The government has been wise in utihzing the na- tive schools and modernizing them, and in the recognition of the missionary schools among the natives. The poUcy of secularization, however, already in operation in France, is being appHed in the colonies as rapidly as condi- tions will permit. The work of the teaching congregations of the churches has been of great help to France and will doubtless continue active work under state approval but without secular support. The Mohammedan problem in some of the African colonies complicates the educational work very much. And every- where the government is taxed to the uttermost to adapt the French system of education to the local needs of so varied 124 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient a population. Everywhere primary, secondary, and normal schools are being maintained. As yet the attendance upon the schools is very small in many colonies, but an ever widen- ing interest, backed by a compulsory school law, is already improving the conditions. Many difficulties confront the government, among which the language problem is one of the most perplexing. The people need the language of the dominant people who govern them, but its acquisition is retarded by the inertia of the native tongue. The Leading Colonies. — The leading American colonies are Guadeloupe, Martinique, French Guiana, and St. Pierre. The African colonies are Senegal, Reunion, and Madagascar. The Asiatic colonies are Pondichery, Indo-China, and Kwang- chau-Wan. For public education in all of the colonies the government grants amount to more than a million dollars annually. PRESENT TENDENCIES IN FRENCH EDUCATION 1. Among the teachers, the salary question is of most importance in all of their discussions. The unrest is general in both elementary and secondary ranks. In the National Federation of Professors, in recent years, a persistent appeal has been made for an increase in salaries. So far, the gov- ernment has responded only by a decree providing for the more rapid promotion of teachers to the higher positions with larger salaries. The heavy strain upon the nation's finances, due to the war, will defer a general increase in sal- aries for some time. 2. A second important tendency is toward the reorganiza- tion of the girls' secondary schools. The prevailing opinion in France is that the course in the girls' Ivcees should be France 125 extended two more years, making it equal to that in the boys' lycees, so as to prepare the girls for entrance to the university and for the higher diploma. 3. The gradual approach of the primary and secondary systems so that parents may send their children to free schools until they are twelve and then transfer them to the secondary schools is meeting with great favor. The social value of this movement is very significant. It means that in time the social distinction in elementary education will be eliminated from the system. This modification will give the secondary school a clear field as it has in America. 4. Since the entire suppression of the teaching orders in 1 9 14 the schools have become wholly secular and are develop- ing an elaborate system of moral instruction to take the place of the religious education. This is the culmination of the struggle between the state and the church for the con- trol of education. 5. The government is fostering all kinds of agencies for improving the intellectual, industrial, and social welfare of the women beyond the primary school. Local and federated societies are engaged in various forms of social betterment work for the laboring classes. The Republic itself is court- ing the support of these agencies by offering to them every possible service of the public schools. Among these many agencies is the Musee Pedagogique which is a creator of unify- ing and stimulating influences for the various lines of edu- cational extension work. It has a large library and an exten- sive supply of lantern slides and other materials for the aid of those doing public lecture work. This agency is especially active in rural districts. 6. There has been a strong tendency in recent years on the 126 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient part of the teachers to protest against the centrahzing con- trol of the state. This democratic movement has driven the government to define more closely, though liberally, the status of civil servants. The controversy has centered around the teachers' unions and their federation into a national union. The teachers seem destined to win the essential claim in the controversy. 7. The reorganization going on in the secondary schools is emphasizing more and more the advantages of the group system of subjects as a means of adapting the course of study to the various needs of the pupils. A recent effort has been made to save Latin and Greek by making them centers of subject groups for the sake of their literary and cultural value. In this reorganization of the secondary curriculum the scientific studies have won a place of equal importance and prominence with the humanistic subjects. 8. In the medical studies, a reorganization is as active as is found anywhere. The demand is for a liberal extension of both the theoretical and practical studies, with greater emphasis upon specialization. More ample provisions are desired for hospital service with compulsory hospital courses backed by a place in the final examinations. The require- ments for entrance to the medical course is the bachelor's degree, and the course is five years of nine months each. 9. The universities are showing a marked tendency toward leadership in the training necessary for all forms of social development in their respective localities. This is shown in the development of laboratories for the training of experts in local industries. 10. The association of women teachers is working persist- France 127 ently for the spread of coeducation through the wider estab- lishment of mixed schools. They also ask for a more general appointment of women in the higher grades and in the in- spectors' service. Topics for Further Study 1. Show the merits in the centralized control of education in the French system. 2. Account for the prevalence of the separation of the sexes in the French schools. 3. Show the superiority of the French over the German provisions for the education of children under six years of age. 4. Compare the French lycee with the American classical high school, both as to likeness and difference. 5. Show the difference between the French and the American bache- lors' degrees. 6. Compare the provisions for agricultural education in France with that in the United States. 7. Show the superior merits of the French system of training elemen- tary teachers over that in England. 8. Compare religious education in France with that in Holland. 9. What provisions are made in France for the recognition of private initiative in education ? 10. In what directions are improvements being sought and secured for French women ? Special Bibliography Baker, E. H. France of the French, 1910, Charles Scribner's Sons, New York. CoMPAYRE, G. Contemporary Educational Thought in France, Edu- cational Review, Vol. XXVII, 1904, pp. 19-35, New York. Re- form in Secondary Education in France, Educational Review, Vol. XXV, 1903, pp. 130-145- Education in France, Monroe's Encyclopedia of Education, Vol. II, 191 1, The Macmillans, New York. 128 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient Farrington, F. E. French Secondary Schools, 1910, Longmans, Green and Company, New York. The Public Primary School System of France, 1906, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York. Klemm, p. R. European Schools, 1891, New York. PoiNCARE, Raymond, President of France, How France is Governed, McBride, Nash and Company, New York. Sadler, M. E. The Unrest in Secondary Education in Germany and Elsewhere, English Board of Education, Special Reports, Vol. IX, pp. 1-191, London. Smith, Anna Tolman. Education in the Colonies of France, Monroe's Encyclopedia of Education, Vol. II, 191 1, The Macmillans, New York. The United States Bureau of Education. Report of the Commissioner of Education. All phases of French Education, in Volumes I for each year from 1909-15. Thwing, C. F. Universities of the World, 191 1, The Macmillan Com- pany, New York. Ware, Fabian. Educational Foundations of Trade and Industry, 1901, Appleton and Company, New York. GERMANY CHAPTER IV THE GOVERNMENT The Empire. — The German Empire, as it is to-day, had its origin in the period of Napoleonic ascendancy. But its unification was not completed until January i8, 187 1, when William I was proclaimed German Emperor. From the foundation of the Confederation in 181 5, through the revolu- tion of 1848, and the organization of the North German Bund of 1867, the poHtical movements advanced steadily towards the establishment of a Constitutional Empire under a sover- eign to be known as the Deutscher Kaiser. The commercial treaties among the states and the war with France in 1870-71 resulted in the long hoped for union. William, King of Prussia, was proclaimed Emperor of Germany. The Empire consists of twenty-six states, including Alsace- Lorraine, which was elevated to the position of equality with the other states in 191 1. The total area of the Empire is 208,780 square miles, and her population is 64,903,423. Prussia, the largest of the states, has an area of 134,616 square miles, and a population of 40,163,333. The Emperor. — Under the constitution, the King of Prus- sia is also the German Emperor. The functions given him K 129 130 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient make him next to absolute. He is commander-in-chief of the navy and army, with power, under certain conditions, to declare war and conclude peace and to represent the Empire among nations. Likewise in legislation and justice he has in reality, though not technically, the initiative and veto. This tremendous power is further enhanced by his right to appoint and dismiss subordinate officials. Practically the Emperor stands alone at the head of the government, there being no Ministry or Cabinet as is the case in other countries, such as France and the United States. This function is discharged by a single official, the Reichs- kanzler, or Chancellor. He is appointed by the Emperor and, in fact, is responsible solely to him. His position gives him great power so long as he is in harmony with the Emperor. Bundesrath. — The most unique and characteristic factor in the German scheme of government is the federal council, or Bundesrath. This body is, in fact, the controlling institution of the Empire, with functions pertaining to every department of government. Its membership consists of sixty-one delegates from the twenty-six states. The delegates from each state vote as a unit. Prussia has twenty-one votes, hence her great power in this body, which is never broken except by a combination of the smaller states against her, which seldom happens. This body has, in practice, the initiative and ref- erendum in legislation, supplementary administrative powers in the execution of Imperial Laws, and sits as a supreme court on questions appealed from state courts or on questions pertaining to the constitutionahty of laws and acts. The presiding officer of this body is the Chancellor, who represents its proceedings on the floor of the Reichstag. Germany 131 As President of the Bundesrath and its sponsor on the floor of the Reichstag, the Chancellor represents the policy of the government. The federal control of education such as exists is under his administration. Reichstag. — The Reichstag represents the people of the whole empire, not by states, but by popular electors, through a secret ballot on the same day throughout the Empire. The electoral districts originally had 100,000 inhabitants each, but these districts now are very unequal in population, though the number of representatives has not changed, the total being 397. The franchise is extended to every male citizen twenty-five years of age, without respect to state boundary lines. Any such citizen is eligible to election to the Reichstag. The powers of this popular house are very small in comparison with those of the popular houses in the United States, France, and England. It has but little right of initiative, though its consent is necessary to all legislation. However, if it becomes an obstructionist, the Emperor and the Bundesrath have the power to dissolve it, which has been done on several occasions. Justice. — Under the imperial constitution the Empire has " general legislation as to the whole domain of civic and criminal law, and of judicial procedure." By virtue of this authority the Empire has adopted legal codes that have placed all state courts in the federal systems. The officials are appointed by local governments but controlled in their actions by federal law. Above all of these state courts stands the Reichsgericht, which is the only real imperial court. The ninety-two members of the court are nominated by the Bundesrath and appointed by the Emperor. The court sits in Leipsic. 132 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient State Governments. — Each of the twenty-six German states has its own government, which is essentially complete within itself though limited by imperial control. Three of these, Bremen, Hamburg, and Liibeck, are aristocratic re- publics ; the others are monarchies. Prussia, the largest of these states, has approximately two thirds of the population of the entire Empire, and is, therefore, the controlling state in the Empire. In all of the states the principles of autocracy control in the organization and methods of the government. Each government is strongly centralized, but has in certain respects large provision for local control. Education is a matter of state support and control under certain imperial regulations. ADMINISTRATION OF EDUCATION General Plan. — Each German state has its own school system which is strongly centralized, but which in recent years is tending more to the recognition of the spirit of freedom in the individual schools. While France is retaining the hold by the central department upon every detail in the system, and while America is moving toward a more centralized control, Germany is JSinding herself under a force of social democracy that calls for more local control. But Germany moves slowly and is in no danger of an educational revolu- tion. In some respects the Prussian system is typical of the other state systems, but each has its own striking characteristics just as one kind of school in a system is different from all other kinds. Each system has elementary schools for the lower classes, middle schools for the middle classes, and gymnasia and modi- Germany 133 fied gymnasia for the upper classes, that are preparing for. the, universities and through them for professional life. Relation of Federal Government. — The imperial or federal government has but little control over the state school systems. This control is vested in the Imperial Chancellor, who is as- sisted by the Imperial School Commission, which consists of seven members, representing the twenty-live different states. This Commission holds but one meeting a year to discharge its function, which is of but slight educational consequence. This duty is confined to fixing the require- ments for the privilege of the one year of military service and bestowing upon the individual schools the right to grant these certificates. It is thus apparent that the central government in Germany has no control in education that is at all comparable with that in the French or British systems. In Germany, however, the Imperial Child Labor Law of 1903 has a direct bearing upon education in every state and serves thereby as a unifying and controlling factor in educa- tion throughout the Empire. Likewise, the agreement among the majority of the states to recognize the examinations for admission to the universities is a unifying factor in higher education. State Control of Education. — The several states regulate their school systems through constitutional provisions, laws, and ordinances. These acts generally deal with the lower and higher systems separately. The direction of the educa- tional work is through some one of the Ministries, though this Ministry is not given exclusively to educational work. The Minister has a staff of assistants to supervise the field work. For the crystallization of public sentiment on some important 134 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient educational reform, the Minister resorts to a state conference with representatives from all classes of society. This method of state control is true only in general, as each state formulates its own plan of administration. Local Control of Education. — In the larger states, between the Ministry and the local schools stands an intermediate board, the members of which are generally appointed by the Ministry. Some of these boards have professors in their membership while others are composed entirely of laymen. These boards have general charge of the schools in their territory and are, in most cases, responsible to the central authorities. In some states, Prussia, for instance, the county is the next smaller school unit, with a school board for the direction of the internal affairs of the schools. Finally, the local communes and districts have school boards whose duties pertain to the external administration of the schools. The variations in administration are so numerous that a description in detail of any one system would be of but little value. The main fact is that the system, as to essential features, is under central control and that an appreciable amount of local control is permitted. COMPULSORY EDUCATION One of the most noteworthy characteristics of the German system is the successful working of the compulsory school law, as it is reenforced by the child-labor law. For nearly two centuries, since 1717, Prussia has had some form of com- pulsory school law ; and for the past half century, since 1869, the imperial child-labor law has forbidden the employment of children under twelve years of age. Added to these two laws are the provisions (i) for a thorough system of inspec- Germany 135 tion by civil, church, and school officials, and (2) a complete system of registration of pupils. This machinery for the enforcement of school attendance is backed by generations of culture and military obedience to the regulations of a strongly centralized government. School attendance has become a habit in the realization of a national ideal, in which cooperation of all institutions of society, church, and state is the keynote. So perfectly is this law enforced, that, as early as 1901, out of 5,754,728 children of school age, only 548 evaded at- tendance. This is fewer than one out of every ten thousand. Another test of the efficiency of this compulsory law is found in the illiteracy statistics for the German Empire in 19 10, which shows only 3 in 10,000 illiterates. But Germany is not satisfied with the attendance of children only up to the fourteenth year. She is making rapid progress in extending the compulsory period to include attendance upon continua- tion schools for from one to three years. Already five of the states have passed such laws either for direct enforcement or by making state aid contingent upon compulsory attend- ance. In evaluating the German school system from this point of view several significant features are to be taken into con- sideration ; such as, density of population, homogeneity of people, even distribution of wealth, military centralized system of government, union of church and state, long lineage of educated parentage. KINDERGARTEN AND BEWAHRANSTALTEN It seems strange to an American that the kindergarten is not a part of the German school system, but such is true. It 136 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient was Jena, however, and her idealistic philosophy that gave to Froebel the suggestions and the inspiration that led to the development of the kindergarten. And his distinguished pupil, also a German, the Baroness von Biilow, further de- veloped the institution and introduced it into all of the leading countries. In many of them it is a part of the state or city system of schools. But in others, as in the United States, its recognition has been cordial and its influence upon primary education has been great, yet its incorporation into state and city systems until recently has been by professional approval rather than by legislation. In Germany, but few centers of kindergarten interest exist. These are Hamburg, Dresden, Berlin, and a few other cities. Where found, the kindergartens are supported by municipal grants. In recent years the influence of the kindergartens has been spreading. An older institution for the care of children, younger than six years of age, is the Bewahranstalten, which divided the field with the kindergarten. Of the two institutions com- bined, there are in Germany about one thousand. Notwith- standing the German origin of the kindergarten, it has had a greater influence upon American elementary education than it has had upon the German. In 1910, there were in the United States 7557 kindergartens with an enrollment of 353,546 children between the ages of 4 and 6. This, however, is only 9 per cent of the children of kindergarten age. The increasing public interest in this institution, in America, is further shown by the fact that in the decade from 1902 to 191 2 the number of kindergartens increased 133 per cent and the enrollment 72 per cent, while 87 per cent of these numbers were publicly supported. Germany .137 THE VOLKSSCHULE Its Place in the System. — The Volksschule is the common people's school and is patronized by the children of the laborers and the small business people. It compares very closely with the American elementary school in that it is free and that it includes the elementary branches necessary to all education. Attendance upon it is compulsory from six to fourteen years of age. In the rural districts and small villages it is a one- class school for both boys and girls, but in the cities it consists of separate schools for the sexes. This school is supplemented by the Hilfsschule, or auxiliary school, for backward pupils. The Ministry of Education directs these two types of schools in the minutest details. Paralleled by the Mittelschule. — The Volksschule is par- alleled by the Mittelschule, or higher elementary school, for the middle class of people. The course of study differs from that of the Volksschule in that it includes one or more lan- guages, generally French and English, and elementary science and has one or two more years' work. Only about 2^ per cent of the elementary pupils are in the middle schools. The enrollment in these two types of schools is increasing some- what faster than the population of the entire country. It is also interesting to note that over one half of the people's schools are one-class schools. And taking the population and the common school enrollment in Prussia as the basis, over 16 per cent of the population is in the people's schools. Evidently, with all of Germany's class distinction, the over- whelming numbers of her population are just common folk. Problem of Overcrowded Classes. — This school for the common people presents a problem, or situation, not generally 138 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient considered in evaluating the supposed superior merits of the German school system. Approximately one fifth of the 6^ million pupils in the common schools of Prussia are in greatly overcrowded classes, ranging from 54.7 to 57.8 pupils to the teacher. In the Empire, as a whole, the condition is worse. This is in keeping with the German theory, or policy, of dealing with the masses without proper regard to the individual. This condition is destined to become a vital factor in the great social unrest now already prevalent in Germany. Partial remedies are being tried in the form of the auxiliary classes, referred to above, and in a device known as the " Mannheim system," which consists in dividing the pupils into three classes on the basis of ability and providing them with appro- priate courses of study and specially trained teachers. These devices, however, leave the root of the trouble untouched. Germany needs more schools for her common people. THE MITTELSCHULE The Mittelschule, or middle school, as stated above, par- allels in some respects the work of the Volksschule, but differs from it in providing for language and science work and in having a longer course. In 19 10, a new course was provided for the middle schools in Prussia, with nine years of work, so arranged as to articulate with the higher schools, or to pre- pare for special needs. In the southern states, especially in Baden, this type of school is well developed and has prac- tically supplanted the old burgher school. More freedom is granted this school than is allowed the elementary school. Although this is a fee school, yet a number of free scholarships are maintained in it. Germany 139 The Curriculum. — The electjve principle is also a new feature in this school. In Baden, for instance, even Latin and Greek, as well as French and Enghsh, are per- mitted as electives in the middle school. These electives are begun in the sixth class (4th grade). To the girls' middle or high schools in Prussia, a tenth year has recently been added to help prepare them for the university, or for admission to the girls' teachers seminaries that are attached to the girls' high schools. In 191 1, out of a total of 426 girls' high schools, 92 had training seminaries for teachers. It is thus apparent that the middle school is coming to be a distinct secondary school, especially for girls, though many exist for boys, and still others for mixed classes. The Prussian Type. — A summary of the special provisions of the Prussian law of 1910, governing these middle schools, is as follows : (i) the ninth year is added to the compulsory period; (2) the first three to five years may parallel the ele- mentary school, or may be omitted entirely; (3) the Real- schule, a secondary school without Latin, may be changed to a middle school; (4) fees may be charged in these schools; (5) separate schools for the sexes shall be maintained where the numbers are sufficient ; (6) middle schools may change into classical high schools. Special Adaptation. — This school meets distinct needs not met by other types of schools in many towns and cities, but it is not adapted to rural districts. It regards, however, the German principle of the segregation of the social classes and makes a special appeal to the middle classes, who desire more than the elementary course but need specialized instruc- tion for service in the arts and crafts. Such subjects as com- mercial courses, drafting and manual training, for boys, and 140 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient domestic subjects, for girls, are offered. The fees are not so large as those in the high schools. This school compares very favorably with the two- or three-year high school in America. It marks a distinct tendency in German education. SECONDARY SCHOOLS Place in the System. — The secondary schools of Germany form a system, or type of schools, only partially connected with the elementary and intermediate schools. In a sense, they form a system by themselves. They are the traditional conventional school for the upper classes and for those enter- ing the universities. It is this school that has preserved the humanistic subjects and culture of the middle ages. Its prototype, in essential respects, is found in the lycees of France, the " Great Public Schools " of England, and the classical high schools of America. This comparison, however, is far from adequate to make clear the real place and signifi- cance of the German Gymnasium. Group of Differentiated Schools. — The secondary schools consist of a group of differentiated high schools evolved from the classical Gymnasium by the introduction of modern sub- jects in the place of a part or all of the classical languages. The modification is further made by a shortening of the course, from nine to six years, in some schools, for those not going to the university. In general the schools of this group run as follows : — (a) I. Gymnasium, nine years, classical. 2. Realschule, nine years, with Latin. 3. Oberrealschule, nine years, without Latin. Oermmy 14(1 Since 1900, these three schools have had equal legal recog- nition, but, socially, the Gymnasium still has the prestige. {h) I. The Progymnasium, six years, classical. 2. Realprogymnasium, six years, with Latin. 3. Realschule, six years, without Latin. These six-year schools are found in cities that cannot sup- port the full nine-year course, but the work is so arranged that the graduates can enter the nine-year schools and finish in three years. Many of them, however, drop out of the school at this point and go into the world of business. The privilege of serving but one year in the army, granted to the graduates of this group of schools, has made the six- year course very popular. However, in Prussia, by way of illustration, there are fully twice as many nine-year schools as six-year schools. And of the students in the nine-year schools, nearly half are in the Gymnasia. The subjects common to all of the nine-year and the six-year schools, are religion, mathematics, history, and German, and minor subjects, such as singing, gymnastics, and drawing. Through the recent application of the principle of electives, the curricula of these several types of secondary schools are coming to serve as many different purposes, within their social range, as are the versatile American high schools. The Vorschule. — Attached to many of these secondary schools is a Vorschule, with a three-year preparatory course. The completion of this school, or the first three grades of the Volksschule, or the middle school, admits to the first year of the secondary school. The normal student is nine years of age at this transition period. The Vorschule is the popular route 142 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient into the secondary school, both for the social reason and be- cause of the better preparation for the special type of work ahead of the student. Girls' Secondary Schools. — Only in certain places, such as Baden, Hesse, Wiirttemberg, and smaller towns, are the girls admitted to secondary schools with boys. This condition is gradually spreading, but the prevailing German policy is to provide separate schools of modified curriculum, for the girls, and in Prussia, in particular, by the regulations of 1908, the girls are not permitted to attend the boys' schools. In the main, the girls' school has a ten-year course, from the sixth to the sixteenth year, or a seven-year course with the lower three years otherwise provided for, as in the case of the boys' schools. The Lyzeum. — Above the ten-year course is: (i) a two- year course, the Frauenschule, offering a combination house- wifery and kindergarten training to prepare girls for life in the home, and (2) a four-year course, the Higher Training School, that prepares for teaching in the two-year Lyzeum, the girls' elementary and middle schools. The completion of these Lyzeum courses grants no special privileges. Studienanstalt. — For the girls who desire a higher edu- cation or who desire to prepare for the university, another type of school exists. This school begins with the eighth or ninth year of the ten-year school and offers practically the same courses as the upper six years or five years of the boys' nine-year secondary schools. They include some needle work, less Latin, and more of the modern languages. Thus the girls require one more year than the boys in preparing for the university. Of all the girls' higher schools, only Germany 143 about one tenth admit to the university. This percentage, however, is appreciably increasing in recent years. The Reifepriifung. — In the German system of secondary and higher education, great value is attached to the final examination, Reifepriifung, at the end of the preparatory courses. For boys, the examination comes at the end of the three nine-year courses, and for the girls it comes at the end of the Studienanstalt, and the third year of the Lyzeum. The minimum age of the boys is eighteen, and of the girls nine- teen, the girls' preparation being one year longer than that of the boys. The distinctions attached to this examination are social, military, and academic. Socially, it sets a standard up to which thousands of young citizens are thereby stimulated to rise for their own personal and social good. From a military standpoint, it opens to the young men the privilege of service as officers in the army and navy of their country. As an academic distinction, it admits to the universities and the higher technical schools. In the American system of education there is no state or na- tional leaving examination from any type of educational in- stitution that is at all comparable with this particular function in the German system. It is conducted by a Priifungs Kommission (examination commission) which is composed of the commissioner of the school board, the director of the gymnasium, and the teacher of the particular subject, who prepares the questions. Its Merits and Demerits. — The merits of the system are apparent, as are its demerits. It sets a common standard for the school of the state. It raises to the highest degree the possible school attendance throughout the course, for the 144 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient purpose of reaching a fixed goal. It guarantees academic fitness in the higher social and professional walks of life. But as the sine qua non of higher preferment, there is the pos- sibiHty of its keeping many boys and girls in school who ought not to be there and in denying recognition to those who might ascend by other ladders. The success of those taking the examinations is illustrated by the percentages passing in Prussia, for the year 1908. Of the 1856 students in the three types of nine-year schools for boys, 96.5 per cent passed. It is interesting also to notice that of all those that passed 77.5 per cent went on to the uni- versities and technical higher schools. This percentage is much higher than that of the graduates of American high schools who enter higher institutions of learning. In making such comparison the great differences indigenous to the two systems would have to be taken into consideration. The fact remains, however, that the German preparatory schools are highly efficient from the point of view for which they are designed. Americans need also to observe that Germany, with all of her conservatism, is now admitting boys to the university from the Oberrealschule and girls from the Lyzeum and Studienanstalt, with neither Greek nor Latin. But the German preparatory schools are fee schools, about $37.50 per year, while the American high school is free and is not maintained to foster a social caste. Each system is doing its work well. The German system is rooted in formal phi- losophy, while the American system is the product of the spirit of individual initiative. THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS A Double System. — The two parallel vertical systems of elementary and secondary schools of Germany necessitate Germany .145 two distinct systems of teacher-training. The teachers in the elementary schools have not the training to qualify them for service in the secondary schools, and on the other hand the teacher in the secondary schools is not adapted by training to teach in the elementary school. The segregation of the sexes in both types of schools, also, necessitates parallel systems of training for the men and women teachers. Elementary Teachers. — Teachers for the Volksschule are prepared in Lehrerseminare, or normal schools, distinct for men and women. To each of these schools is attached a practice school. The course is three years in length. For admission to the Lehrerseminar is required the eight-year course, or its equivalent, in a preparatory school which is generally attached to the seminar, though not maintained by the state. These Lehrerseminare are located in small towns, or oc- casionally in rural districts. They are small institutions with fewer than a hundred students and with six or seven instruc- tors. Source of Students. — Practically all of the students that enter the Tehrerseminare come by the way of the Volksschule though a few enter by way of examinations from preparation in the middle and Realschule, and the Lyzeum. In other words, the teachers in the Volksschule come from the lower social strata. The Lehrerseminar, being the only free school above the Volksschule, is crowded with applicants for this examination for admission. As a result the examination is very rigid and the percentage of failure is large. The Lehrerseminar-pre- parator}^ schools are both state and private institutions, in the proportion of 34 to 66 respectively ; as to students, 32 to 68 ; and as to Protestants and Catholics, 66 to 34, on the basis 146 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient of enrollment. This illustration is from the Prussian system and applies only in a general way to other states. It seems to make emphatic the extent to which the churches are funda- mentally connected with the training of teachers for the people's lower schools. Another fact to be observed in this connec- tion is that the preparatory school is a fee school, which should be regarded as a weakness in the German system, in comparison with some other systems. Teachers' Examinations. — After the completion of the Lehrerseminar course, the teachers are required to pass three examinations before receiving a certificate for permanent appointment. The first examination comes at the end of the Lehrerseminar course and is conducted by a commissioner of the government. This certificate entitles the teacher to a position on probation. The second examination comes after two to five years and consists of tests on professional phases of edu- cation. This second certificate entitles the holder to a per- manent position as a government official and to a pension after sixty-five years of age. For teachers who wish to go higher in the profession, two other examinations are necessary. The first of these secures a certificate to teach in the middle schools and the second a certificate to hold the principalship of elementary schools. These provisions apply in a general way to women teachers as well as men. The training schools for women teacjiers, however, are the higher Training Seminars in the girls' Lyzeums. Reciprocity among the states as to certificate privileges does not exist to any great extent, owing to the diversity in the methods of granting them. For this reason and others there is but little migration of teachers from one state to another. Germany 147 Course of Study. — The course of study in the Lehrer- seminare includes religion, pedagogy, practice- teaching, and all the subjects of the Volksschule curriculum. The work is thorough and is designed to train the teacher to teach with but little use of textbooks, a characteristic feature of the German method of instruction. The teacher is also trained to teach every subject in the curriculum. The course of study and methods are outlined and directed by the central state authorities in minute detail, which gives a uniformity not always conducive to progress or to local adaptation. Lehrerseminar Faculty. — The faculty in the Lehrer- seminar consists usually of a director and six assistants. These are generally taken from the rank of rectors or prin- cipals of the elementary schools, though some of them come from the clergy, owing to the close relationship between the church and the school. As a consequence of this course of selection of the faculty, but Uttle influence of the universities is felt in the Lehrerseminar or in the Volksschule. This, however, in the course of time, will be remedied, as provision is being slowly made for the recognition of the elementary teachers' certificate for admission to special courses in the universities. The problem, however, is a big lump for a little leaven. Free Tuition. — As stated above, the preparatory school to the Lehrerseminar is a fee school, though in some places this fee is remitted. In the Lehrerseminar, however, the tuition is free and in some cases the state pays the living ex- penses of the student. The state also pays for the buildings and grounds and for their maintenance. But in comparison with France, Germany is not so paternalistic in the prepara- tion of her teachers for the lower schools. 148 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient Proportion of Women and Men. — To an American who is accustomed to seeing so large a percentage of women teachers in all of the elementary grades, the opposite condition in Germany is striking. The prevailing policy is to employ no women in the boys' schools except in the lower grades, and, even there, men are also employed. Men are also employed in the girls' schools. For the year 191 1, in the elementary schools 78 per cent of the teachers were men and 22 per cent women. In the middle schools 68 per cent were men. This comparison indicates a vast difference between German and American social and economic conditions. Its explanation is deep-rooted in German society. For Vocational Schools. — The regulations in the German system require special training for the teachers of vocational subjects. These subjects, in Prussia, are under the admin- istration of the Ministry of Commerce and Industry, except in the case of the technical high schools, which are under the Ministry of Education. In this kingdom, the teachers of vocational subjects have been placed on the same basis, practically, as other teachers, as regards salaries, pensions, rank, etc. This has resulted in recent years in drawing a high class of persons into this phase of school work. For Girls' Schools. — Since 1907 the government has pro- vided quite liberally for the training of women teachers of vocational subjects in the elementary, middle, and higher schools, and the special continuation schools. The subjects included in this training are women's handiwork, household arts, industrial arts. Three state schools are maintained for this purpose, which require for admission the completion of a girls' middle or high school course. The course consists of two years of theoretical training in technical subjects, Germany 149 pedagogy, German,- civics, gymnastics, and singing. This is followed by half of a year in practical work and one year of probational teaching before the certificate is issued. This Prussian plan is followed quite generally throughout Germany ; Much of the training, however, is being done in private schools, not only so, but a large percentage of the teachers in the vocational schools are taken from other ranks with but little special training. In this respect, the German situation par- allels that in the United States. For Trade Schools. — And for the schools for the building trades and mechanical engineering, Germany has made but little special provision for the training of teachers. Most of these teachers come from the higher technical institutes with no professional training except what they get themselves by special arrangements. Excellent systems for the training of trade teachers are found in three important cities, Munich, Wiirttemberg, and Karlsruhe in Baden. The school at Karls- ruhe is said to be the best in all Germany. This course covers three and one-half years of work. The student body come from the ranks of regular academic teachers who have already had pedagogical training and from the tradesmen who have had academic but no pedagogical instruction. Many of these students are on leave of absence from their positions and are in training for special work back in their home schools. The standards set by these special schools are high, but the in- creasing demands throughout the Empire for trained expert service is calUng for more schools of this type. These posi- tions are all entered through a state examination by a com- mittee of the National Industrial Commission. In many re- spects the provision for vocational training in Germany is as incomplete as it is in France, England, and the United States. 150 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient Secondary Teachers. — No separate schools exist for the training of secondary teachers as is the case for the training of elementary teachers. This work is done in the universities, technical institutions, and higher school Seminars. Ever since 1737, certain German universities have had pedagogi- cal Seminars for the training of secondary teachers. The following universities are famous for this work at the present time, — ^Jena, Halle, Gottingen, Konigsberg, Berlin, Leipsic. Such names as Wolf and Franke at Halle, Herbart at Konigs- berg, Rein at Jena, Ziller at Leipsic, are household words in German pedagogical circles. The training of a secondary teacher consists of graduation from a secondary nine-year school, at least three years in a university, or a technical institution and a university com- bined, the passing of a rigid examination by special commis- sioners, and, finally, two years on probation — a seminar year and a trial year — both in a secondary school under the direc- tion of the rector or headmaster. The above is an outline of the minimum preparation of a secondary teacher, but many of them complete the work for the doctor's degree before they take the teachers' examination. On the basis of time spent, the German secondary teacher receives no more training than the teacher in standard Ameri- can high schools, where one or two years of graduate study are required. The main difference lies in the extent of speciali- zation and in the methods of instruction. The examination of all applicants is in the general subjects — philosophy, pedagogy, and German literature — and in a special group consisting of a major and two minor sub- jects. The importance attached to this examination is very great, Germany 151 but its value may be variously -estimated. There is quite a diversity of opinion among the universities themselves as to the value of the study of education as a university subject. This is shown by the fact that a number of the universities have thus far declined to establish a separate department, or a special chair, for such work. Such courses as are given are decided by the department of philosophy. These courses consist of psychology, ethics, and pedagogy. The pedagogy is mainly history of education, methods, and systems, with but very little experimental work. Jena is the only univer- sity that has a practice school of its own. This is largely due to the influence of Professor Rein. Leipsic uses the city Gymnasium for practice work. Hence, the professional train- ing in the universities throughout the Empire is largely theo- retical. Gymnasial Seminars. — For the practical training, the teachers are assigned, after the state examination, to gym- nasial Seminars, geographically distributed throughout the provinces that are in need of teachers. The group in each Seminar usually consists of from six to ten teachers. Some of the states have but very few such institutions for practical work, and a few have none, but depend upon other states for this work. The work in the Seminar consists of the theory and practice of pedagogy under normal conditions and under efhcient instructors. The general opinion of those who have had experience with the Seminar is that the work is good. Prussia is well supplied with gymnasium Seminars, there being forty-nine in this state, in 1909. The work in all of these institutions is well standardized throughout the states, by the central government, for the purpose of granting the military privilege. Because of this 152 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient standardization the certificates issued by one state are quite generally recognized by other states. This certificate gives the teacher the rank of an Oberlehrer, or teacher in the higher schools. The Oberlehrer. — Equipped with this certificate the Ober- lehrer may receive an appointment at once, or he may have to wait for several years, and in the meantime engage in whatever employment he may find that is not beneath the dignity of his profession. Once in a position his social, pro- fessional, and civil standing is fixed for life. The teachers belong to the culture caste. Their salaries are paid by the state. The state pension system grants them a pension after forty years of service, or at the age of sixty-five. This pension amounts to 75 per cent of the last year's salary, provided it does not exceed six thousand marks. The training of women teachers for the girls' secondary schools is not so well provided for as is that for men teachers. Since 1908 the universities have been open to women, and, since 19 13, women teachers for girls' higher schools have been required to be university graduates. But as yet the Seminarjahr and Probejahr have not been provided for them. The uniformity in the training of German secondary teachers is in striking contrast to the condition in American secondary education. America, how- ever, is working toward the same end, but is doing it through voluntary systems of standardization. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION The System. — The industrial schools of Germany cover many phases of work. Some of the schools are state insti- tutions, some municipal, and others are guild schools. As to their aim or purpose they may be classified as follows ; Germany 153 (i) general trade schools, .(2) special trade schools, and (3) engineering and scientific schools. All of these schools except those of higher or university rank are under the Ministry of Commerce and Industry for the purpose of giving them a commercial and industrial bias, rather than an academic nature. Pupils pass into these schools at fourteen years of age, when they complete the Volks- schule. Continuation Schools. — The general trade or continua- tion schools are supplementary to the practical work in shops, stores, and factories in which the boys and girls begin work after leaving school. Instruction. — The course of instruction given them is both technical and academic and is designed to make them effi- cient in the ordinary arts and crafts and also efficient as mem- bers of society. The work is done either in day, evening, or Sunday classes. The course consists of three or four hours per week and runs through a period of three years. The closest cooperation possible is maintained between the school and the shop. Schools of this type are conducted for girls as well as for boys. In many of the states attendance is compul- sory. Importance. — It is estimated that in such a city as Magde- burg, a city of nearly 300,000 inhabitants, only 8 per cent of the boys continue in school after their fourteenth year. This illustrates the importance of continuation schools. The other 92 per cent of the boys, as well as an equal percentage of the girls, need further help of a kind that is immediately usable and that will develop them for general citizenship. It is in this line of school work that Germany, France, England, and the United States are so actively engaged to-day. The 154 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient keyword in Germany, to all this work, is cooperation of state, city, guild, and shop. Special Trade Schools. — The continuation schools, de- scribed above, are for the unskilled workman and do not take the place of apprenticeship. But in some trades, such as textile industry, metal trades, pottery, etc., special schools are considered necessary for the training of skilled work- men. It is to the graduates of these schools that Germany owes so much in recent years for the foremost place she has been able to take among the exporting nations of the world. Engineering and Scientific Schools. — A very extensive system of schools for the training of foremen of shops and constructing and supervising engineers is established through- out the larger cities of Prussia and other states. The higher schools of this group are under state control. A government commission conducts the final examinations and awards diplomas. Above these schools stand the technical colleges (Hoch- schulen) which compare with the great technical colleges in the American universities. The scientific research work in these institutions is not surpassed anywhere in the world. What this splendid system of industrial schools of all grades is doing for Germany is well illustrated by the fact that in the past fifteen years 9000 more people annually have migrated to Germany than have emigrated. Such a con- dition is a great object lesson to other countries. This brief sketch, at best, is only an introduction to the economic evolution that is going on in Germany as a result of her industrial schools. Qermany 155 GERMAN UNIVERSITIES Position in the System. — All of the German universities are state institutions somewhat in the same sense that some of the public universities in the United States are state institutions. They are under the Minister of Educa- tion, and are supported largely by the state appropriations, though some of them have small incomes from endowments. The primary function of these institutions, as a part of the state S3'stem of education, is to prepare students for the state examinations that stand at the gateway to positions in the church, the judiciary, medicine, law, and government administrative service. Internal Control. — The professors are appointed by the state, and one professor from each university sits in the Upper House of the legislature. The internal affairs of the univer- sity are directed by the rector, who is chosen from the faculty, and a senate, which is composed of faculty members. The greatest freedom is granted the members of the faculty in the discharge of their duties, there being no regulations from the Minister as in the case of the lower grades of schools. The work is directed under the four historic departments, law, medicine, philosophy, and theology. Academic Freedom and the Church. — The church and the universities are both state institutions, neither one subordi- nate to the other. Neither the Protestant nor the Catholic church is pleased with the absolute academic freedom granted the professors in the university and particularly in the theo- logical departments. This condition is the cause of much controversy but apparently results in no modification of the spirit of control by the state, except in a slight willingness 156 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient to permit the churches to have a greater voice in the selection of ministers, and priests, all of whom must be appointed by the state. Practically all of the state universities have Prot- estant theological departments, but not more than a third have Catholic theological departments. The Catholic clergy, for the most part, receive their training at institutions under episcopal control, though under the regulations of the Min- ister of Education which require standards equivalent to those in the universities. The German universities accept the guidance of reason only. This was the gift of the Protestant Reformation. Lehrfreiheit is their pride. They decHne to surrender it. The Culture Caste. — No longer does birth or wealth con- stitute the basis of higher German society. The German university of the 19th century has placed the academic scholar at the top of the social strata. The University takes the boys and girls from every walk of life and trains them scientifically to render service to the community as leaders in the administrative, industrial, commercial, and profes- sional pursuits. In society these university graduates con- stitute a culture stratum separate and distinct from all other social strata. In no other country is this academic distinc- tion so marked. Acquisition of academic citizenship means equality, without distinction of birth or wealth, in the higher German society. The Student and His Life. — The student in the German university is a unique individual in the educational world. Attention has been turned to him for generations, and he and his life have been analyzed and evaluated by many critics of other educational systems. He is both like and unlike the student elsewhere. The similarities are rooted in human Germany 157 nature ; the dissimilarities are the fruitage of the ideals and the philosophic conceptions of the German people. The students' preparation for admission to the university is graduation from the nine-year Gymnasium, Realgymnasium, or Oberrealschule at the age of eighteen to twenty. Others are also admitted on certain professional certificates. This standard applies also to women and foreigners. The course of study, as prescribed by law, varies from three to four and a half years in the different faculties. The students are granted very wide freedom in the selection and pursuit of their studies. Lernfreiheit is granted the student just as Lehrfreiheit is granted the professor. The only real limitation placed upon him is the examination for which he is preparing at the close of his university career. Students' societies form a very characteristic part of the university life. The older or " color-wearing " societies are quite exclusive in their membership and they claim as their right, as the elite of the student body, the privilege of repre- senting the institution on public occasions. These societies have their organizations throughout all the universities just as the Greek letter societies have in the American universities. There are also less exclusive societies, Vereine or clubs, that have for their aim the establishment of a community life or the directing of some practical activity. The examinations represent the consummation of the students' efforts and aim. There are two of these. The academic examinations are conducted by the faculties for the awarding of degrees. The state examinations are conducted by government examiners for the admission of applicants to the practice of a profession. This method of selecting state officials in the various professions is a safeguard against 158 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient incompetency otherwise resulting from political preferment. But it results in a certain disregard of the scientific pedagog- ical principles that should govern in instruction and also in driving the students to the cramming method necessary to such an extensive examination by a body of examiners who with but few exceptions are not their instructors. This examination system, as the sine qua non to state preferment, is Germany's restriction upon freedom of instruction. New University at Frankfort. — A new university was opened in 19 14 at Frankfort on the Main with an initial endowment of $2,000,000 and a promise of Hberal annual appropriations from the city. The plan and purpose of the founders is to make this university one of the greatest centers of scientific research work, especially in medical subjects, in the world, and a rival in every respect of the universities of the ancient type. One interesting local condition affecting the poHcy of the institution is the large percentage of finan- cial control held by the Jews in the city of Frankfort. The support of the university by this element is largely contingent upon their recognition in the faculties of the university. Recognition of American Bachelor Degree. — Since 1905 some of the German universities, beginning with Berlin, and in cooperation with the association of American universities, have evolved a scheme for the recognition of the bachelor's degree, awarded by standard American universities and col- leges. American students holding this degree from any of the institutions in the approved list are allowed to matriculate at these German universities on an equality with the holders of the German Maturitats-zeugnis. The Kst includes 119 colleges and universities comprising the three following groups : (i) the members of the association of .American universities, (2) Germany 159 the accepted list of the Carnegie foundation, and (3) other institutions of the Carnegie standard but not accepted be- cause of sectarian affihations. In 1913 there were 287 American students attending the German universities out of a total of 4841 foreign students in those institutions. About one third of these foreign stu- dents go to Berlin. Exchange professorships between Berlin and Harvard and Columbia in recent years, account in part for this selection of Berlin. Women Jn the_ Umversities. — Since 1908 young women have been admitteato' matriculation in the Prussian uni- versities, thus opening all of the leading universities of the Empire to women, as the institutions in the southern states had been open to women for many years. The enrollment of women at the end of five years, or in 191 3, was 3400^ which was an increase of more than ten fold in that short period of time. At present, about 5 per cent of the entire student body are women. The women students are distributed among the four faculties, but more than two thirds of them are in the faculty of philosophy to which they are attracted in large numbers for Uterature, languages, pedagogy, and other subjects that fit them for teaching in the secondary schools. This invasion of the universities by the women is one of the most significant movements in German education. The traditional prejudice of the professor has been hard to overcome. Distribution and Prominence. — In all Germany there are twenty-one universities with an enrollment of over 60,000 students. Nine of these are in the kingdom of Prussia. The most famous of this group are Berlin, Munich, Leipsic, Halle, and Jena. These are the great centers of learning to which foreign students have been attracted in great numbers. These i6o Modern Education in Europe and the Orient institutions have been world leaders in philosophy and science and have served as models in organization and spirit for the development of universities in other lands. America has learned much from these great institutional teachers. And many of America's greatest scholars have become such through the tutelage of Germany's philosophers and scientists. But an institution of the type of the German university is too far removed from the interests of the masses to prosper in the atmosphere of American democracy. However, as a dis- coverer of scientific truth for world use, the German univer- sity has no equal. The German university centers her work in the faculty of philosophy to a far greater extent than does the American university. This gives a unity of organiza- tion to all faculties and to the whole student body not found in American universities, or in those of France and England. RELIGIOUS AND MORAL INSTRUCTION In the Protestant schools of the Empire religious and moral instruction is given, based on the Bible, both the Old and the New Testament. Cathohc and Jewish children are permitted to withdraw from the class instruction and receive their train- ing from the priest or the rabbi instead. In the first two grades the instruction consists of moral and religious stories and songs taken mainly from the Bible. In the third and higher grades, books of the Bible stories are read by the pupils, and the catechism is taught. General use is also made of large BibHcal pictures. The religious instruction is under clerical supervision, and the teachers are required to take an oath to teach reHgion according to the accepted faith, or forfeit their positions. Both Germany i6i of these features — clerical supervision and the oath — are objectionable to the teachers and are the subjects of attempted remedial legislation. In Wiirttemberg, for instance, the new school law for 1909 provided professional supervision for the cities but left rural supervision under the clergy. The same spirit of unrest and dissatisfaction is found in the field of religious education as permeates other phases of school work. It is a struggle for readjustment of old ideals^ and methods to the newer conceptions of education and of the social rights of the individual. It is the younger genera- tion putting the older generation to school. It is liberalism versus conservatism. Denominationalism. — The extent to which the schools are denominational is a striking feature of the German school situation. The non-sectarian schools, Simultanschulen, figure but slightly in the situation so far as numbers are concerned, though their presence in the system is a nucleus around which hberal sentiment continues to grow. The children are separated into schools representing the religious faith of their parents. Religion is a constant sub- ject in the weekly program of all schools except the con- tinuation schools. A fair illustration of the church and state problem in the Empire is furnished by the facts from Prussia. In that Kingdom, of the 6,572,000 school children, 3,875,000 are in Protestant schools, 2,383,000 in Roman Catholic schools, and only 368,565 in the non-sectarian schools. In other words, 58 per cent of the schools are Protestant, 36 per cent Roman Catholic, and 6 per cent non-sectarian. The political parties in control of legislation differ among themselves as to the pohcy of church or state control of edu- cation all the way between the extreme poles of the possible. 1 62 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient Any radical change from the present situation is a long way in the future. The training of teachers for reUgious instruction is thorough. In the upper classes they are expected to be able to read the scriptures in the original and to be acquainted with Bible and church history as well as with the tenets of their own denominational faith. This is made possible by the con- tinuous Bible study through all their training in the elementary and normal schools. CRITICAL CONDITIONS IN GERMAN EDUCATION In the Volksschule. — The same social tendency in elemen- tary education is found in Germany as in France. The dual vertical-parallel system for the social classes in certain sec- tions is breaking down and the people's school is being crowded with all social classes and sectarian creeds. The rapid growth of the social democratic party is largely responsible for this condition. This movement toward a common elementary school, Einheitschule, for all classes from ages 6 to 12 if ex- tended would be an important step toward the solution of many serious evils of the present system. Especially would it help to correct the evils of the rigid social distinctions. Where the people's school is thus popularized, the classes are crowded, with the resultant large percentage of retardation and mortality in the upper grades. Even in the best organized schools of the largest cities of Prussia it is estimated that only 45 per cent of the elementary pupils ever reach the eighth grade. To help to remedy this condition numerous auxiliary classes (Hilfsklassen) are organized to aid the back- ward pupils. Likewise various types of continuation and trade schools are picking up many of these pupils and giving Germany 163 them further training. These agencies all tend to draw pupils and teachers away from the cultural schools in the ele- mentary grades. Regarding Teachers. — Another of the many movements destined to break down social distinctions in Germany is the effort of the elementary teachers to secure the recognition of their course of training as equal in disciplinary value to the Gymnasium course which non-teachers take in preparation for admission to the universities. Notwithstanding the fact that their course of five or six years of training and two years of experience on probation with extensive professional reading parallels in time and degree of work the Gymnasium course the universities have not admitted them until recently even to special courses for teachers. This is a social discrimination which prevents many teachers from taking university courses for degrees. The teachers hope in time to break down this social barrier. The Science of Pedagogy. — The problem of the social recognition of the teacher is largely one involving the question of pedagogy as a science. At present the German univer- sities as a whole do not so recognize it and do not, therefore, provide a chair of pedagogy. This attitude seems paradoxical in a country so widely famed for its schools and for its science of everything else. The German Teachers' Associations and leaders in the profession are using their influence to secure this coveted recognition by the universities. In this respect Germany has long been outstripped by America, where practically every university and college has a chair, de- partment, or school of education. It is remembered of course that Jena and Leipsic have long been celebrated for their pedagogical seminaries, and in recent years Halle and Berlin 164 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient have established similar courses in pedagogics. But none of these have assumed the proportions of an American school of education. In the Secondary Schools. — In recent years the position of the ancient and modern languages in the secondary schools and the general crowded condition of the program have caused much criticism. The result in the language situation has taken shape in " reform schools " in which the amount of language work has been reduced without depriving the grad- uate of any privilege granted to graduates of the normal types of secondary schools. So far the percentage of the reform schools is very small, but the leaven is working. In 191 1 there were 184 reform schools out of a total of 1687 secondary institutions, which was 11.5 per cent. This is enough to show a drift of the current away from the classics. A similar situation is found in the French lycees. In Girls' Secondary Schools. — Since 1908, when the uni- versities were opened to women, the problem of the course of study in the secondary schools for girls has eUcited much thought and discussion. In some of the states girls have been admitted to the boys' secondary schools, but in others, including Prussia, this is not true. In these latter states, the demand made by the reformers, especially by the associations of the women, is for a reorganized course of study in the girls' secondary schools that will prepare the girls for admission to the universities without discrimination. Germany breaks away from traditions, slowly, where women are involved. WAR AND EDUCATION In elementary education during the war Germany has been able to maintain a fair degree of equilibrium, but in secondary Cernmny 165 and higher education the system has been sorely torn. The attendance everywhere has been reduced by the withdrawal of large numbers of the children for service in various fields of labor. It is estimated that 80 per cent of the male students in the technical high schools and 70 per cent of those in the universities have entered upon military service. The two main features of this situation occasioned by war are empha- sized here as in harmony with the purpose of this sketch of German education. They are, first, the devotion of the German nation to her schools as shown in the substantial increase of her educational budget in times of such financial stress, and second, the loyalty of her adult students to Father- land, in their readiness to render mihtary service. These two striking national characteristics are at the same time both cause and result of Germany's pecuHar educational system. It is a tragic demonstration of Kant's " two worlds," the world of science and the world of morals. It seems now that Kant's philosophy was in part a prophecy of the develop- ment and culmination of the pohtical world of Germany to-day. GERMAN INFLUENCE ON AMERICAN EDUCATION There is no other country to which America owes so much as to Germany in every grade of educational work, both as to organization and pedagogical theory. Yet America has not imitated Germany. She has adapted German educational philosophy and practice to American conditions. From the kindergarten to the university, and through the industrial and technical schools, this German influence is found. For nearly a hundred years, American students have been study- ing in the German universities and bringing back to this coun- try the best thought of those institutions. 1 66 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient There is possibly not a college or university in America to-day, but what has one or more professors who have studied abroad under some famous German instructor. The prin- ciples of philosophy and pedagogy that have largely controlled in shaping the methods in the American normal schools and departments of education have had their origin in German thought and practice. The pedagogical Hterature of the array of brilHant educational writers, — Mann^ Parker, Barnard, Harris, De Garmo, McMurrys, Russell, and others, — has been a perennial source of inspiration and guidance to the teacher in training and to the technical expert in the administration of education. In the field of the university, Germany has shown America the true purpose of research for scientific truth that should characterize this institution. She has likewise made emphatic the idea that the centrum of a university must ever be the college of philosophy and pure science. In the training of teachers she has said to her students of pedagogy from abroad, that an extensive specialized training under a uniform standard is the only efficient one. As to church and state, Germany has stood for the union of the two with the thought that religion is an essential part of the education for citizenship. In the control of education, Germany has demonstrated her theory that only leaders, trained in the philosophy of the state, have the right of initiative in directing the education of the masses. Her theory of universal militarism, applied in recent years to the training for and the development of the economic and industrial life of every community, has brought American students back again to her schools and shops. Out of all of these and many other activities in the scientific and educational institutions of Germany, America has learned Germany 167 and still is learning much. But the genius of the American people and the initiative of her scientific scholars and teachers have prevented the transplanting of German types of educa- tional institutions as such. For example, the German social caste system of elementary and secondary schools has found no place in American democracy. Likewise, the maintenance of separate schools for boys and girls and the unequal pro- vision for the education of girls have met with no favor in the American school system. Nor has the teaching of reHgion in the public schools, by the German plan, been deemed neces- sary to the maintenance of a Christian republic. However, in respect to the tenure of the teachers' posi- tion and their pensioning in old age, and in the complete co- operation of society and state in the educational work, America yet has much to learn from the Germans. And, in turn, Germany would profit greatly by incorporating into her system of administration of education somewhat of the spirit of individual initiative and freedom characteristic of the American system. Topics for Further Study 1. Compare the German and French school systems on the basis of central control. 2. Make a drawing showing the vertical parallel systems for the provisions of the social castes from six to eighteen years of age. 3. Compare compulsory attendance regulations in Germany with those in the United States. 4. Show the respects in which the German elementary teacher is superior to the elementary teacher in England. 5. Show how certain American ideals are antagonistic to certain German methods in education. 6. Compare the method of study in the German university with that in Oxford. 1 68 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient 7. Regarding vocational education what lessons can the United States learn from Germany ? 8. Make a list of the modern tendencies in German education during the past fifteen years. 9. Show that specialization, beginning at nine years of age as it does in Germany, is too early. 10. Account for the tardy provision for the higher education of women in Germany. Special Bibliography Bolton, Frederick E. The Secondary School System of Germany, igoo, Appleton and Company, New York. Brown, John Franklin. The Training of Teachers for Secondary Schools in Germany and the United States, 191 1, The MacmiUan Company, New York. Dewey, John. German Philosophy and Politics, 191 5, Henry Holt and Company, New York. Farrington, Frederick E. European Systems of Secondary Schools, in Monroe's Principles of Secondary Education, 1914. The Mac- miUan Company, New York. Faust, Albert Bernhardt. The German Element in the United States, Two Volumes, 1909, Houghton Mifflin Company, New York. JuDD, Charles H. The Training of Teachers in England, Scotland, and Germany. Bulletui No. 35, 1914, U. S. Bureau of Education, Washington, D. C. Kerschensteiner, Geo. A Comparison of Public Education in Ger- many and in the United States, 1913, Bulletin No. 24, U. S. Bureau of Education, Washington, D. C. Klemm, L. R. European Schools, 1897, Appleton and Company, N. Y. Paulsen, Frederick. The German Universities, 1895, The MacmUlan Company, New York. Russell, James E. German Higher Schools, 1899, Longmans, Green and Companj', New York. Schiele, F. M. Education in Germany, 1914. In Monroe's Cyclopedia of Education, Vol. Ill, The MacmiUan Company, New York. Shaw, A. B. Teaching Rehgion in the Schools of Saxony, 1910, Bulletin No. I, U. S. Bureau of Education, Washington, D. C. SWITZERLAND CHAPTER V HISTORY Early Roman and Teutonic Rule. — The historic era of Switzerland began with the overthrow of the western Hel- vetii, by Caesar, in the year 55 B.C. For the following four hundred years she was under Roman rule, with a rapidly vacillating policy of union and separation of various districts. During the migrations of the German tribes, about 443 a.d., Switzerland began to pass under the control of the Teutons, and for a century and a half her Roman civilization merged into the Germanic. At a later date, Switzerland became a part of the great empire of Charlemagne, and, during the next four centuries was tossed back and forth between German and French rule. Original Swiss League. — Finally, in 1231, the German emperor, Henry, granted the people of Uri a charter, by which the freedom of the early League of Switzerland was established. Nine years later, Schwyz revived a similar charter. In 1291, or a Kttle later, these two districts, with Unterwalden, formed the original Swiss league, to secure their rights and privileges against German oppression. During the next one hundred years this League had grown to eight members, in their fight for freedom and independence. Still another hundred years of turmoil increased the membership to thirteen. And 169 lyo Modem Education in Europe and the Orient a century and a half later, in the Peace of Westphalia, 1648, Switzerland was politically separated from Germany. The next century and a half was given over to expansion and in- ternal strife. League changed to Confederation under French Protec- torate. — Then followed the French Revolution, in 1789, and the occupancy of the territories of the League by French troops. The opposition of the Swiss League was crushed by the French army, and this was followed, in February, 1803, by Napoleon's Act of Mediation, which changed Switzerland into a Confederation of nineteen cantons, under the protec- tion of France, and annexed three districts of the league to France. But the Congress of Vienna, in 181 5, and the second treaty of Paris, restored this territory to the League and Switz- erland, thereby, became a confederation of twenty- two cantons united in complete equality. From 181 5 to 1848, inter- cantonal disputes, concerning the constitution, and contests of rivalry between Protestants and Catholics, culminated in the civil war, known as the War of the Sonderbund. This war, which lasted only three weeks in November, 1847, ended in the defeat and impairment of the Catholic cantons, the expulsion of the Jesuits, the suppression of about fifty mon- asteries and religious foundations, and the complete victory of Liberalism. Thus, in September, 1848, the new constitu- tion of Switzerland, as a Confederation, was proclaimed and put in force. THE GOVERNMENT Federal and State Constitutions. — The Constitution, proclaimed September 12, 1848, transformed Switzerland into a Confederation similar to the United States. The individual cantons, twenty-five in number, retained their SwUzerhmd 171 constitutions and their sovereignty, limited only by the fed- eration. A revision of the Constitution was made in 1874 and a few minor changes have been made since. The con- stitution rests upon the principles of centralization regarding the army, the judiciary, civil and criminal law, and govern- ment ownership of public utilities. The constitutions of the Swiss cantons are in all cases democratic, though each has its own individualistic type of legislation and administration. Each canton has complete control of its school system, just as each state has in the United States. Government by the People. — Government by the people is more perfectly provided for in Switzerland than in any other country in the world. This is done by the Initiative and Referendum, which makes the people superior to Par- liament. PLAN OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION Area and Density of Population. — Although one of the smallest states in the world, Switzerland has been able to hold an enviable position in every essential national respect, because of the complete provision for education, of both the cultural and practical types. Her area is only 15,976 square miles in comparison with 207,107 square miles in France, or 56,025 square miles in Iowa, one of the United States. Her total population is 3,741,971, which is about five times as dense as that of Iowa. Federal Constitutional Provisions for Education. — There is no central school system in Switzerland, but the federal government has stimulated education in the cantons very materially, by such means as: (i) requiring recruit examina- tions in the subjects of the elementary school for military 172 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient service, under the law of 1875, (2) granting federal aid (a) to commercial and agricultural education, (b) for promotion of arts and industrial training, (3) by making all subsidies condi- tioned upon at least an equal appropriation by the cantons and districts. For administrative purposes, Switzerland is divided into twenty-five cantons, the largest of which is Berne, with a population of 642,744. Each of these cantons is autono- mous, in the administration of her schools, just as is each of the United States. The only central control is found in the Constitution adopted in 1874, which requires every canton to provide elementary education free to all children, without prejudice to " freedom of faith and conscience." The same common aim is evident in all of the cantons to provide every type of education for every individual for the various walks of life under the Republic. An amendment to the constitu- tion in 1902 inaugurated federal aid to primary education, though under cantonal control, thus fixing deeper in the minds of her people the educational ideal of the republic in the interests of a common enlightened citizenship. The pro- vision for federal aid fixes a uniform rate of 60 centimes (12 cents) per capita of the population for each canton with an additional 20 centimes (4 cents) for nine cantons that have special difficulties in providing adequate facilities for primary education. The total appropriation for this purpose in 19 10 was something over $450,000. This appropriation was used for all the various school purposes. Each of the 25 cantons formulates and adapts its system to its own local needs. The Swiss republic has three official languages, German, French, and Italian; hence, influences from France, Germany, and Italy are noticeable in different cantons, but everywhere under the mold of Swiss ideals. Switzerland 173 School Supervision. — In some cantons there is a chief director of education, appointed by the cantonal legislature. In other cantons, there is a board of education appointed by the cantonal legislature, which directs the schools through an executive head. District (Bezirke) and communal school boards (Gemeindepflege) have charge of local affairs. In nearly all of the cantons there are professional inspectors in charge of the supervisory work of the schools. This plan will doubtless soon be adopted in the remaining cantons, as the spirit of centralization is active in Switzerland, just as it is in other countries of the world. The idea of scientific professional supervision, however, does not prevail to any great extent in Switzerland. Often- times, even in cities with a score or more of teachers, the head of the school is chosen yearly, by the teachers themselves, to serve only as presiding officer. This is characteristic of the spirit of democracy found everywhere in Switzerland. NATION.\L IDEALS INFLUENCING EDUCATION Ideal of Cooperation. — No other modern nation is more definitely characterized in her national ideals than Switzer- land. Her educational system is distinctly for the conserva- tion and development of these ideals. Her government is a system of cooperation, for the common good of the people, as the chief asset of the nation. The government owns the railroads, operates the telegraph lines, the telephone system, and the express business, in application of the principle that the national revenues belong to all the people and must be developed and utilized for the general welfare. The cantons have a system of mortgage banks by which a farmer may secure funds at four per cent, payable in forty annual install- 174 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient ments, through which system ninety per cent of the Swiss farmers have become landowners. Ideal of Education and Responsibility. — The principle of the referendum is operative in both the federal and the cantonal legislation, thus emphasizing the right and the worth of the individual judgment and will, and also making a uni- versal school system necessary for the safeguarding of this privilege. Such an ideal, worked out as it is in Switzerland, recognizes the peculiar ability of each individual, and the various local needs of each community and provides for them through every needed phase of education. Provision is amply made for the poor, the defective, the orphans, the mediocre, the precocious, the genius, on the theory that a high general average is the basis of a true democracy. Ideal of Wealth as a Trust. — The ideal long established as just and right that the wealthy should pay a higher rate of taxation than the less wealthy, makes it easier for Switzer- land to obey the fiscal laws and to provide for all the people what some other countries would rebel against as socialistic. For 350 years the rich have ruled Switzerland, through a spirit of philanthropic interest in the masses. The last fifty years of this period have been under voluntary, constitutional, and legislative burden bearing, by the wealthy for the poor. The world can look to Switzerland for guidance in the solution of the problem of adjustment of riches and poverty. In Switzer- land, it is democracy, in the true sense, that controls her ruling people. Ideal of the Worth of Every Individual. — The Swiss school system provides the kind of education that seems best adapted to the ability and needs of every individual, whether he be the least or the most capable. This principle is applied even Switzerland 175 though the education given the individual sends him from Switzerland into other countries of the world for employment. EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS For 1910 the statistics were as follows : — Population 3,741,971. Enrollment in elementary schools, 538,286, or 14.38 per cent of the population. Teachers in elementary schools, men 7401, women 4781, total 12,182. Percentage of men teachers, 60; of women teachers, 40. Expenditures, $11,174,700 or $20.75 P^^ capita of enroll- ment and $2.98 per capita of population. The relatively high expenditures made by Switzerland for education is shown by comparing her $2.98 per capita of population with that of Germany, $2.56, and of France, $1.09 for the same year. In 191 1, the total expenditure for public education was 89,400,000 francs, or $17,880,000, distributed as to sources as follows : cantons, 44.1 per cent; communes, 48.2 per cent; and federal government, 7.7 per cent. These statistics from the Zurich report for 191 2 indicate the extent to which the schools of Switzerland are being pro- vided with different types of schools, and the response that the individuals are making to the opportunities offered them by the republic. In addition to the numbers given in the following table there are about 10,000 young men receiving instruction in classes maintained for army recruits. This liberal financial response is in harmony with the ideals governing the nation in her educational work. This is further shown in the large enrollment in the various types of schools. 176 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient SCHOOLS AND ENROLLMENT Type of Schools Kindergarten Primary Schools Higher Primary Continuation Schools (general and vocational) Normal Schools Seminaries for girls Vocational Schools (Berufschulen) . . . . Secondary Schools (Mittel) Federal Polytechnic Institute Universities Total enrollment Number Enrollment 1,159 51,597 4,704 538,286 652 56,103 3,417 101,947 3,645 1,901 13,067 41 9,615 I 2,436 7 8,671 787,268 The statistics show that 21.3 per cent, or more than one- fifth of the population, in Switzerland, are in school. ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS Infant and Kindergarten Schools. — Infant and Kinder- garten schools are provided for children from four to seven years of age. These schools are conducted mainly in accord with the Froebelian principles. The course of study is not uniform in the different cantons. In the French-Switzerland districts, formal work in reading, writing, arithmetic, and other subjects is found to a greater extent than in German-Switzer- land districts. The latter are more like the American kinder- garten. The function of both types of these schools is to prepare for the primary school. Primary Schools. — The primary or elementary schools, for the compulsory school age range from a six-year to a nine- year course in the different cantons. The age for admission to the primary school is 6, 6^, or 7 years. The idea of free Switzerland 177 instruction is carried in some of the cantons to the extent of free suppKes of all kinds needed for school work. The course of study does not differ materially from that found in the elementary schools of the United States. Continuation Schools. — Continuation schools begin after a rest period of one to two years, following the primary schools. These courses serve both as a review and as a means of emphasizing certain phases of study that have a practical bearing upon the industrial or business life, that the pupil is planning to enter. The term is usually held in the winter, with three to six hours per week, but there are some schools that run the year round. The schools differentiate for boys and girls. For the girls, in the rural districts, short courses in household arts are given. Compulsory Attendance. — The federal constitution re- quires all cantons to provide free elementary education for all children. This obligation is met in all of the cantons by a compulsory school law. The period covered by the com- pulsory school law ranges in the different cantons from six to nine years. The school year also ranges from 38 to 44 weeks. In seventeen of the cantons attendance upon all of these types of schools is compulsory. Thus, about 19 per cent of the total population of the state is under the compulsory school attend- ance. It is this that has reduced illiteracy to practically nothing in Switzerland. For more than eighty years Switzer- land has had some form of compulsory school law and the law is almost universally enforced. The School Day and Year. — The school day in Switzer- land is not so strenuous as it is in America. In the winter, the morning hours are eight to twelve, and the afternoon hours, from two to four. In the summer, the hours are seven 178 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient to eleven and two to four, with a three-hour noon intermission. Both teachers and pupils are free from restraint during the long noon intermission. The week is further broken by two afternoon rest periods, Wednesdays and Saturdays. The school year begins in April or May, just after a Spring vaca- tion of three weeks. In July there is a summer vacation of four weeks, and in September there is another two weeks' rest, and this is followed by the Christmas vacation. In addition, there are many afternoons off in June and August, whenever the temperature runs so high as eighty degrees at noon. Interesting Features in the Course of Study. — The school system of Switzerland is of particular interest to an American student because of its striking similarity to that in the United States, and because Switzerland was the home and field of labor of Pestalozzi who has been so highly honored in America. Some features of the Swiss school system are interesting in comparison with the conditions in the American system. For instance, in Switzerland, Latin, Greek, and algebra are found only in the boys' secondary schools. These subjects are not considered of value to girls and are therefore displaced in the girls' schools by sewing, mending, knitting, darning, em- broidery, etc. But, to both boys and girls, the living languages are taught, especially French, English, and German, in the primary as well as in the secondary school. This course in modern languages in the secondary schools for the girls of the wealthier class, is supplemented with a year or more in some boarding school. SECONDARY SCHOOLS Place in the System. — In Switzerland, the secondary school is based on the first four grades of the primary school Switzerland 179 and maintains a course of study that prepares for the uni- versity. But, unlike France and Germany, Switzerland recognizes no social distinctions in her primary and secondary schools. Instead of having two parallel systems for two distinct social classes, as those two countries have, Switzer- land arranges the program of studies so that pupils may trans- fer from the primary schools to the secondary schools at the age of 10 or 12 years, without confusion in their work. Types of Secondary Schools. — The secondary schools are of two types, (i) the lower, or sekundarschule, and the higher, or mittel und herufsschulen (higher middle and technical schools). The first of these, the sekundarschule, parallels the four or five higher grades of the primary school, and often adds one or more years to the course. The curriculum includes the subjects of the primary school and algebra, sciences, and one or two modern languages. The teachers in these schools are better trained than in the primary school, the work is departmentalized, and the equipment is more elaborate. The students in these schools seldom plan to enter the university but generally enter commercial hfe, govern- ment service, or the cantonal technical schools, or, in the case of the girls, they enter teachers' seminaries, which are at- tached to the secondary schools. In some of the cities there are separate secondary schools for the boys and girls. The middle schools consist of various types, such as the gymnasium, realschule, college, teacher-training schools, high schools for girls, lycees, and technical and commercial schools. In general, the middle school is an institution that begins at the fourth year of the primary school, and offers four years of preparatory work and then bifurcates into three courses, (i) a four-and-a-half -year scientific course, (2) a four- i8o Modern Education in Europe and the Orient year commercial course, and (3) a four-and-a-half -year literary course. The completion of these courses and the passing of a state examination admits the students to the universities or to the federal polytechnical school. In addition to the cultural subjects in these higher middle schools several of the courses place stress upon the vocational subjects. Recognition of Degrees of Ability. — The special merit of this coordination and overlapping of the upper grades of the primary school and the lower and higher types of secondary schools lies in the provision for the different grades of abiUty in the pupils and for their different needs. The transition from the primary school to each of the secondary schools occurs when the pupil is from ten to twelve years of age. Thus, at this age, the student has three distinct courses open to him for the continuance of his education. And later on in the courses other bifurcations occur that lead the students through specialized courses of training for all the different walks of Ufe. There are no social distinctions and the small fees that are generally charged are not sufficient to deprive the ambitious of the privileges of the school. Enrollment in Secondary Schools. — In 1910, there were 41 secondary schools (mittel) with an enrollment of 9615 students. This type of school includes gymnasia, lycees, and higher schools for girls, drawing their students largely from the professional and higher official circles. The second- ary technical schools prepare students for foremen and leaders in industries. The enrollment in these technical secondary courses was 13,067. There were also a number of seminaries for girls with an enrollment of 1901 secondary students. This shows a total enrollment of 24,583 students, or an equiva- Switzerland i8i lent of one to every one hundred and fifty-two inhabitants pursuing studies of a secondary rank. Purpose of Continuation Schools. — The continuation schools of secondary grade number 3417 with an enrollment of 101,947. There are two purposes for which these schools are maintained ; one type completes the elementary subjects of the primary school, the other gives vocational training. The course of instruction is these schools is generally arranged for two years, during the winter, with six periods per week. It is through the splendid work of these types of schools that Switzerland has been enabled to compete successfully with her neighbors in the industrial world. Most of these schools give instruction in but one trade, though some have a poly- technic character. Although they are local, in character and support, yet their national importance is recognized by federal grants, conditioned upon the local contributions and used to prevent the multipHcation of feeble schools. The Swiss technical schools are considered preeminent to the schools of Austria and Germany in respect to the local adaptation and the correlation of civic, ethical, and technical training. Great stress is being placed in recent years upon civic education, as an imperative obligation for every class of schools. COMMERCIAL EDUCATION For Training Teachers and Commercial Leaders. — At the head of a complete system of commercial education, stand six superior commercial schools, as departments in the Universities of Freiburg, Neuenburg, and Zurich, and the commercial high schools of St. Gall, Berne, and Lausanne. These schools are subsidized by the federal government, i82 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient receiving from that source $16,055, i^ 191 2, out of a total expenditure of $55,095. Students are trained in these schools for positions as teachers and commercial leaders. In 191 2, there were 413 students of which 397 were male and 16 female. The contributions of the federal government may amount to one half as much as the local authorities appropriate, pro- vided it does not result in a diminution of the sums paid locally. A second type of commercial schools, those of secondary rank, number 35 (1912) with 2737 male, and 1670 female students, for which the government grant was $105,438. Training Federal Employees and Tradesmen. — There are four " administration commercial schools " that prepare young men and women for the federal posts, telegraph, tele- phone, and customs service. These schools had 329 male and 5 female students in 191 2, and received $9987 in govern- ment grants. Finally, there are mercantile secondary schools, of which 80 are under the " Swiss Commercial Union," and 40 under associations or districts. These schools are chiefly for the purpose of educating young tradesmen. They are distributed throughout all the cities and towns of Switzer- land. Students enter these schools, usually, at the age of fourteen. The course of study is from one to four years. The longer course includes several modern languages as well as the commercial subjects. In 1909 the laws giving federal aid to commercial schools were revised so that not only schools having three-year courses but those with one- or two- year courses would be entitled to such aid. And, since 191 2, the Department of Commerce has been issuing a federal di- ploma to graduates of commercial high schools maintaining a certain prescribed course of study. Switzerland 183 AGRICULTUR.\L EDUCATION Federal Policy Regarding Agricultural Education. — It is the policy of Switzerland to provide as carefully for agricul- tural education as she does for other industrial types. It is estimated that 41.3 per cent of the total population are en- gaged in agriculture. In eastern Switzerland, alone, there are nine agricultural schools in successful operation. Four cantons have agricultural schools with theoretical and prac- tical courses for the training of young people to enter agri- cultural pursuits. There are also a large number of courses offered during the winter months, and, in addition, many traveling lecture courses for adults who are employed in farming. These schools are for men only, although the policy of ad- mitting women has been seriously considered. There are two school terms per year, the winter term, from November I to March 31, with thirty-five hours per week, and the summer term, covering the remainder of the year, broken only by the usual vacations. The course of instruction is very comprehensive. It includes German, mathematics, surveying, planimetry, drawing, zoology, physics, chemistry, geography, civics, and agricultural sciences, both theoretical and practical. The practical side of the work is emphasized by sending the students on visiting and inspecting tours to farms and dairies, or to assist and advise farmers and dairy owners, regarding improvement of the soil, planting and rotation of crops, improvement in the care and culture of animals. Scientific Training of Teachers of Agriculture. — The federal government maintains an agricultural department 184 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient in the Polytechnic school at Zurich for the training of experts in principles of agriculture and the kindred sciences. This institution is one of the best in the world for technical train- ing. Many of these graduates are employed to teach in the cantonal agricultural schools, and in the secondary schools throughout the kingdom. The influence of the scientific work in agriculture in these schools is felt even in the primary schools, especially in the rural districts, where elementary agriculture is quite generally taught. TRAINING OF TEACHERS Standard for Admission to the Profession. — In 1909, there were 34 public normal schools and normal departments with 2716 students, 13 private normals with 849 students, preparing teachers for the elementary and secondary schools. The apphcant for a teacher's certificate must be 18 years old, of good character, and must pass an official examination. This is the standard in every canton. These teachers are generally graduates of training schools, but, as in other countries, school boards are obliged to employ many teachers below the approved standard. There is no fixed standard for the qualification of the teachers in the secondary schools, though many of them are university graduates, as a result of tradition and of the high standard set for the graduation examinations for secondary students. In this particular, Switzerland is behind France and Germany, but there is promise that she will correct this defect at an early day. Spirit and Influence of the Teacher. — Everywhere, the Swiss teacher, in the elementary school, is under the benign influence of Father Pestalozzi whose picture hangs on the Switzerland 185 wall of every schoolroom. His ideal of love for children is the first qualification of the Swiss teacher. The practice of promoting the teacher with her class, for two or three years, and then returning her to the lower grade to come up with another class, is common in Switzerland, in recognition of the thought that a teacher, in that way, can educate the child and not merely instruct him. The teacher does her work largely through oral instruction and with but little or no assignment for home work, thus making the day at school complete in itself, and causing no " mental estrange- ment between teacher and pupil." Term of Office and Salary. — The tenure of office is long, in some cantons, for life, thus enabling the teacher to become an intimate and vital member of the community. The salaries range from $150 and a home and garden to an average of $650 and from that to $750, with the provision in many cantons for a sick fund and a pension. The pension is provided jointly by the general government, the canton, and the teacher. The canton bears the larger part of the pension burden. Three-fourths of the teachers are men and these have engaged in the profession as a life work in contrast to the stepping-stone policy, so common in the United States. Teacher Seminary Course. — Teachers for the primary schools must be graduates of a teachers' seminary or must have completed a gymnasium course and two or more semes- ters at the university with special work in pedagogy and practice teaching. The teachers' seminary course is about the equivalent of the junior and senior years of a high school course combined with two years of a normal college course, 1 86 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient in the United States, with one fourteenth of the time given to history of education, psychology, and general and special methods. The following is a typical seminary course : pedagogy and method, lo hours ; German, French, or Italian, 34 hours; history and geography, 17 hours; mathematics, 20 hours ; natural science, 18 hours ; singing and violin or piano, 18 hours; penmanship, 3 hours; draw- ing, 12 hours; gymnasium, 8 hours; religion, 4 hours; total, 144 hours. The Swiss teacher is especially trained in music and does excellent work as a teacher of this subject in school. Church Seminary and Training of Teachers. — The Church Seminary is also an important factor in the training of teachers for the elementary schools of Switzerland. There are many institutions of this type, and their graduates are sought after, especially for the rural districts. The religious influence of these schools in the training of teachers is highly appreciated. This feature in Swiss education is very similar to that found in the United States, where, in some states, such as Iowa, at least one- third of all the teachers are trained in the education departments of the private denominational schools. These seminaries have an enrollment of only about 100 students in each. The practice teaching in these seminaries is con- ducted in attached practice schools. Pedagogical Departments in the Girls' High Schools. — For the training of women teachers, there are pedagogical departments in connection with girls' secondary schools, or recently in separate buildings, and also various forms of special continuation schools for women. This provision is much like the senior year of normal work in the American high school. Switzerland 187 Teachers in Secondary Schools. — In the secondary schools and the gymnasia, there is no fixed standard of quahfication for teachers. The teacher in the secondary school usually has had two or more semesters in the university and has passed a special examination. The teachers in the gymnasia and other types of middle schools, such as girls' high schools and teachers' seminaries, are usually university graduates with some pedagogical training. Election of Teachers. — After securing a certificate a teacher usually serves a year or so as a substitute before securing a regular position. Election of teachers by popular vote is a unique feature in Swiss educational practice. The local board may appoint the teacher for one year, then, upon nomination by the board, the voters elect, for a period that ranges from three years to life. The practice varies in the different cantons. This is another illustration of the exercise of the spirit of democ- racy in Switzerland. UNIVERSITIES AND POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE The educational system of Switzerland culminates in the work of seven cantonal universities and a federal poly- technic institute. The universities are located at Basel, Ziirich, Berne, Geneva, Lausanne, Freiburg, Neuchatel, and the polytechnic institute at Zurich. The largest of these institutions is the university at Zurich with 1740 students and an annual budget of 1,125,644 francs or $225,128. Polytechnic Institute. — The polytechnic institute, in 1910, had 133 1 students, including both men and women, in all types of higher technical courses. This institution is the only higher scholastic institution under the direct supervision i88 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient of the federal authorities. It is controlled by the " Swiss School Board," of seven members and a secretary, elected for a term of five years. This board fixes the course of study, employs the faculty, and grants diplomas and degrees through the various departmental faculties. This institution has the reputation of being one of the greatest technical schools in the world. The Universities. — Each university, excepting Freiburg and Neuchatel, which have no medical faculty, has the four faculties of theology, law, medicine, and philosophy. They are organized after the German plan. The universities are attended by about 10,000 students of whom about 4000 are from foreign countries. About one tenth of the enrollment are women. It is very apparent that ten universities are too many for a state so small as Switzerland. She has a univer- sity for every 375,000 people. This situation makes it next to impossible to establish a national university, as was Con- templated in the constitution. The small cantonal univer- sity is free, however, from the criticism usually made upon the very large universities found in other countries. COMPULSORY EDUCATION FOR APPRENTICES Double System. — Switzerland has a decidedly character- istic system of training apprentices for the various trades. Some features of this system are suggestive to countries, like America, that do not have an apprenticeship system. The system in Switzerland is a double one. One branch is maintained by the cooperation of the Swiss Union of Arts and Trades, the National Department of Industries, and the cantonal and communal labor organizations. The other branch is maintained by the cities themselves, independent Switzerland 189 financially of the guilds. But, for both types, federal aid is granted very hberally. Plan of Work. — The relationship between the apprentice and the master-workman is regulated, in most of the cantons, by cantonal laws. These laws define the contract and specify the hours of work in the shop, the quality and extent of the technical training, and the hours to be spent in the trade continuation schools. The work is supervised by the officials of the canton, commune, and the guilds. The course is from one to four years and is completed by passing an examination under a special committee. The teaching staff in the shops consists of the masterwork- men, and, in the continuation schools, of the regular elemen- tary teachers and the technical teachers for vocational instruc- tion. Under the second branch of the system, the city owns the shops. The pupils desiring to learn a trade make a contract with the city, instead of with a masterworkman. These shops are better equipped than most of the guild shops. In the large cities, such as Berne and Zurich, this method of training apprentices has become the prevailing one. Ziirich, for instance, is training for more than forty trades, at a cost of more than $150,000 yearly. In this canton of Zurich, the law imposes compulsory attendance for all industrial and commercial apprentices, both boys and girls. The applicant for admission must possess an elementary education and must be fourteen or fifteen years of age. This standard is quite general throughout the cantons. The merits of this system of training for the trades, in which such a large percentage of citizens earn their living and upon the products of which the nation subsists, are too apparent igo Modern Education in Europe and the Orient to need discussion. The schools of the future will provide this type of training as well as training for leadership in the professions. RELIGIOUS EDUCATION Religious Instruction in the Schools. — In every type of school, in the regular system, religion is taught from one hour to three hours per week. The work consists of stories from the Bible, for the lower grades, and a carefully graded course of Bible study from both the Old and the New Testaments, for the primary schools, the secondary schools, the gymnasia, the teachers' seminaries, and the extension courses. And in each of the universities there is a faculty of theology for the training of religious leaders. The church schools, as has been emphasized elsewhere, train a large percentage of the teachers under their rehgious influences. Church Distribution of Population. — Of the 3,765,000 inhabitants of Switzerland in 1910, 2,108,590 were Protestants, 1,590,792 were Catholics, 19,023 Jews, and 46,597 belonged to other confessions or to none. Owing to the fact that the countries adjacent to Switzerland are all Catholic, the migration from those countries is helping to increase the per- centage of Catholic communicants in Switzerland. In some of the cantons, the population are practically all Roman CathoHc, and in others almost wholly Protestant. With the exception of the Moravians and two Lutheran parishes in Geneva, all the Protestants of Switzerland belong to the Evangelical Reform Church. The great majority of these belong to the " National Churches," of which there are fifteen, that are organized according to the various cantonal regula- tions. In Geneva, in 1907, the National Protestant Church was disestablished by an amendment to the Constitution which Switzerland 191 went into effect January i, 1909. In its reorganization it retained the title of National, though separated officially from the state. The doctrine of the new church confines itself to the acknowledgment of " Jesus Christ, the Savior of Men," and makes its creed broad enough to admit all Protestants to membership, though retaining its fellowship with the Reformed Protestant Churches. Cantonal Support of Church. — Although there is in Switz- erland complete Hberty of conscience and creed, no bishopric can be created on Swiss territory, without the approval of the Confederation, nor can the order of Jesuits be received in any part of Switzerland. Each canton has its own district church organization and receives grants from the cantonal treasury, the larger part going to CathoHcs in cantons where they predominate or to Protestants where they are in majority. No one is compelled to pay a tax to a church to which he does not belong. Separation of Church and State Probable. — But the idea of separation of church and state has been prominent in Geneva for many years, as various Protestant sects and the branch of the Roman Catholic Church from which the National Catholic Church split on account of the doctrine of infallibility, have maintained independent churches without state aid. Sentiment and support come from all branches of both Prot- estants and CathoHcs as well as from non-church people for the disestablishment. All adherents of the new regime beUeve that separation will permit the church to increase its activity and usefulness and at the same time remain national, Christian, and devoted to the highest welfare of the nation. This problem still remains unsolved in other countries as well as in Switzerland. 192 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient Topics for Further Study 1. Write a thesis on the relation of education to popular government. 2. Summarize the similarities between the Swiss school system and the school system in the United States. 3. Write a thesis on the influence of Pestalozzi upon education. 4. Compare the school enrollment and the cost of education in Switz- erland with that in your own state. 5. Summarize the special provisions for the education of girls in Switzerland. 6. Write on the economic and social advantages of cooperation in education, as operative in Switzerland. 7. Account for the high development of the spirit of democracy in Switzerland. 8. Point out German and French influences in Swiss education. 9. What features of the Swiss system of compulsory education for apprentices could be applied in American education ? 10. Write on the merits of the Swiss system of secondary schools. Special Bibliography Church and State in Geneva, Outlook, November, 1907. DoDD. Modern Constitutions, 1908, Vol. I, Switzerland, University of Chicago Press. Education in Switzerland, Special Phases, United States Commissioner of Education Reports from 1890 to 191 5, Washington, D.C. New National Protestant Church in Geneva, Outlook, Vol. 94. Smith, Annie Toli^ian. Education in Switzerland, Monroe's Cyclo- pedia of Education, Vol. V, 1913, Macmillan, N. Y. Swiss and their Politics, American Journal of Sociology, Vol. II. Swiss as Teachers of Democracy, Review of Reviews, Vol. 47. Switzerland. Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. XIV. Tate, William Knox. Suggestive Features of the Swiss School System. United States Bulletin, 1913, No. 56, Washington, D.C. Wetter, A. A. School System of Switzerland, Education 28, 1908, Boston. Women and Democracy in Switzerland, Atlantic, Vol. no. HOLLAND CHAPTER VI THE GOVERNMENT Separate Nation. — In the European revolutions of 1830 Belgium withdrew from the Kingdom of the Netherlands and left Holland a separate kingdom. The constitution adopted by the joint kingdom in 181 5, after the Congress of Vienna, was retained as the fundamental law of Holland with several modifications until it reached its present form in 1887. The present government is a constitutional, hereditary mon- archy. The Crown and Ministry. — The sovereign ruler, either king or queen, is assisted by a Council of State and a Council of Ministers. The sovereign must advise with the Council of State on all administrative matters. The Council of Min- isters, which is composed of the heads of the nine departments of the government, is responsible for the royal acts. Both bodies are appointed by the sovereign and are therefore amenable to the crown. The sovereign has unusual pow- ers, but the integrity of the nation is safeguarded by law. The States-General or Legislative Power. — The States- General, or Legislature, has two chambers. The upper house is chosen by the provincial assemblies from the heaviest payers of direct national taxes or from the holders, past or present, of principal public offices. The lower house is o 193 194 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient chosen by popular vote from citizens above thirty years of age who possess property. Suffrage is extended to male citizens over twenty-five years of age on a combined property, wage, education basis, with a strong tendency in recent years towards woman suffrage. The lower house practically controls all legislation, the upper house having so little power that it is regarded as the weakest, constitutionally, in all Europe. The Judiciary. — The Constitution provides for a high court (supreme court) and the laws have created certain minor courts. The crown appoints all judicial officers. No provision is made in Holland for trial by jury, as is guaran- teed to every American citizen. Local Government. — Loca,l government in Holland is administered through eleven provinces and 1123 communes. Each of these units has its own legislative and executive departments, the members of which are chosen locally, though ultimately responsible to the crown. Geography and Population. — The area of continental Holland is about 13,000 square miles and the area of her colonial possessions is approximately 785,000 square miles. The density of her colonial population is 466 to the square mile, the total population being 5,898,429. The density is very great in comparison with that of such a country as France, which is 191 to the square mile. The colonial pos- sessions have a population of 40,000,000, which is one third of the total population of the United States, and just about equal to the population of the colonial possessions of France. The colonial possessions comprise two main groups of islands, the East and West Indies. Her colonial population is one of the least illiterate in the Holland 195 world, though surpassed by her neighbors, the Scandinavian countries. In 191 2, the illiteracy in Holland was .8 per cent in comparison with .5 per cent in Denmark and Sweden. Of the total continental population 59.5 per cent is rural, and this percentage is on the increase. ADMINISTRATION OF EDUCATION Elementary Education. — The school law of 1857 placed the administration of elementary education under the Minis- ter of the Interior, giving him the assistance of supervisory inspectors in the provinces and communes. The several modifications that have been made in this law up to the present time have been for the purpose of strengthening this system of administration. There are at present three gen- eral inspectors, twenty-five district, and ninety-four sub-dis- trict inspectors, and about three hundred communal com- mittees, all of whom are appointed by the sovereign and receive their pay from the state. In addition, each commune, or two or more communes in consolidation, has a school board that is in charge of the local schools, but is responsible directly to the burgomaster (mayor) and council of the commune who is charged with the main- tenance of the school. It is thus apparent that the administration of elementary education is strongly centralized, much more so than in any single state system in the United States. Secondary Schools. — For the administration of secondary education of all types, including general, vocational, and technical, the Minister of the Interior has the assistance of three general inspectors. The local control of secondary education is through committees appointed by the communal 196 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient councils. The principle of local initiative under state con- trol is applied everywhere. One merit of this system of con- trol lies in the ability it gives the state to fix the number and location of the secondary schools in accord with local needs and state economy. Higher Education. — The Minister of the Interior has supervisory control of all institutions of higher learning, both public and private. Under the head of public institu- tions are included the gymnasia, Latin Schools, three state universities, and the communal University of Amsterdam. These public institutions are maintained either by the com- munes or the state, or by the two jointly. The private institutions are the denominational seminaries and other proprietary or endowed institutions. All private institu- tions are subordinate to the state universities in the sense that the universities grant all the degrees. An observer of this system of centralization of control in higher education will readily infer that there is no pro- mulgation of ideas in the universities of Holland at variance with the ideals of the government. In America these matters are left to the control of local boards of trustees and often result in embarrassing complications upon the removal of objectionable propagandists. However, the prin- ciple of academic freedom can be respected or abused by either local or state control. Nevertheless too much state uniform- ity means too little individual initiative. Even the professors in the universities are appointed by the crown subject to dismissal by the Minister of the Interior. It must be admitted, however, that Holland has a system that works quite smoothly and that gives an education that is fairly well adapted to every type of ability and social need. H^olland^ 197 The Normal Schools. — Ever since 1857, the state has maintained two normal schools, and subsequent laws have provided for normal schools and classes by the communes and private corporations, by a system of state aid under state supervision and prescribed entrance and graduation examinations. Control of Religious Education. — The state controls all religious education so far as it relates to the public schools and the teachers in those schools. The regular teachers are forbidden to teach religion, but the school buildings are open to the preachers and special religious teachers. The main function of the state in this regard is to see that religious toleration is enforced. Only non-sectarian religion is allowed in the schools even by the religious teachers. This prin- ciple is doubtless violated in districts where practically all people belong to one faith. In other localities the law is strictly enforced. Students in normal schools are required to attend religious classes and the church of their choice. But no further reli- gious test is made of them. Private schools are free to direct their own religious in- struction. Support of Education. — In general terms, education in the public schools of Holland is paid for by state subsidies, students' fees, local tax, and endowments. The state pays 30 per cent for instruction, and 25 per cent for the school buildings. Only the state, not the commune, makes appro- priations to private schools. All schools receiving state aid are regarded as public schools. During the compulsory school age, all fees must be remitted for pupils not able to pay them. The communes are required to charge a fee of all who are 198 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient able to pay so as not to place private schools at a disadvantage. This was a compromise for the purpose of keeping peace between the church and the state. State subsidies are dis- tributed on the basis of the number of teachers and pupils in the schools, and the teaching of the prescribed subjects. This provision makes compulsory education possible and practicable. Holland has a most simple method of distributing state aid, and it works smoothly. It is free from such complica- tions as were found in England in the days of " payment by results." The system has eliminated religious strife far more than has the English system. It also attaches a much higher value to private initiative in education than does the system in the United States. However, the question of state toleration versus state encouragement of non-sectarian education is an open one in America as it is in other countries and will have to be dealt with in the generations immediately ahead of us. Regarding the fees, the commune must charge not less than 20 cents per month and may charge as much as the school- ing costs if parents are able to pay as much. This flexible fee within a single school is a unique feature, but is adminis- tered with equity. Private schools receiving the 30 per cent of expenses for maintaining school instruction do not receive aid for the erec- tion and equipment of buildings. Private schools run for pecuniary profit receive no state aid. In 1899, approximately 69 per cent of the school attendance was in public schools and 31 per cent in private schools. In 1910 these percentages had changed to 62 and 38 for the ele- mentary schools, showing thus a slight increase in private Holland 199 schools. This is due to the fact that parents can send their children to the school of their choice without difference in ex- pense under the equitable plan of distribution of grants be- tween state and church schools. HOLLAND'S COLONML POLICY Education in Netherlands-India. — Holland has attracted much favorable attention in recent years by her new policy of education in colonial possessions, Netherlands-India. In this new policy is a marked change from the ancient policy of commercial exploitation to one of political and intellectual advancement of the native peoples themselves. In this regard there are many elements of similarity be- tween Holland's colonial educational work and that of the United States in the Philippines, Alaska, and Porto Rico. The Holland colonial empire of 40,000,000 dependent peoples is one of the greatest of the kind in the world. Three fourths or 30,000,000 of these people are on the single island of Java, the richest of all islands. Plan of Government. — The administration of this popu- lous empire is by a Governor-General appointed by the crown. He appoints Dutch ofhcials over all native rulers who are also appointed by him. This scheme of government is one of the most strongly centralized forms possible, but it is di- rected toward the better welfare of the people who seem to appreciate its purpose to such an extent that few rebellions occur. Non-Native Colonists. — Java is a beautiful and attractive place to live. The result is that many people from Europe and Asia make their homes there and amass fortunes in commercial enterprises. 2QO Modern Education in Europe and tlie Orient Large numbers of Dutch, Arabs, and Chinese are found there. The Arabs with their Mohammedan faith have created a troublesome rehgious problem, and the Chinese by inter-marriage with Malay women are producing a social problem for the future to solve. These are illustrations of the complexity of the civilization that Holland must educate her colonial peoples to live in and serve. It would seem that nothing but the true spirit of Christian altruism would keep a nation strong and persistent at this work. The Malayan peoples themselves represent a multiplicity of branches, each with its language and customs with degrees of culture ranging from barbarism to the highest Christian civilization. The language of practically all of this array of peoples is Malay, but each distinct people also has its own dialect. Education of Dutch Officials. — For service in the adminis- tration department in the colonies, Holland requires the most thorough training for her officials, just as England and France require for theirs. The applicants for the " Great Functionary's Examinations," which constitute the gateway of passage to colonial service, must be graduates of a Dutch gymnasium, or higher burgher school, with special technical training for this particular examination. These special subjects are, Malay and Javanese languages, Indian geog- raphy, anthropology, the colonial resources, industries, laws, administrative systems, economic conditions, penal courts, and customs of Netherlands-India. To guard against officials who would yield to corrupting influences, Holland fixes the standards for the civil service examinations high, pays the employes well, and provides for them wholesome associations that tend to preserve their moral character. The govern- Holland 2or ment endeavors to inspire these officials with a spirit of devo- tion to the interests of the natives and to spend their Hves in this service as a profession. In this particular, Holland has become a teacher of nations. Paternal Policy. — It has been more than three hundred years since Dutch administration was begun in Netherlands- India. These three centuries have been checkered ones, from exploitation to paternal care. Since 1870 the present policy has been developing. During these forty-five years Holland has turned back all economic profits to the further development of the resources and the general welfare of the natives. The pride of the Dutch official is to make the home of the native Javanese a home of plenty, contentment, and health, and the land an attractive one for the native and foreigner. Christianity Ruling Mohammedanism. — The religious education situation in Netherlands-India is a most interest- ing one. Fewer than six million Christian Dutch through a small retinue of colonial officials are ruling forty million Malay subjects, nearly all of whom are devout followers of Mohammed. Christianity has put Mohammedanism to school. The result is a great unrest as the followers of the Arabian prophet see the superiority of Christian civilization. Will further enlightenment of this people perpetuate the rule of the Christian overlord or will the Mohammedans finally rule? Dutch Weapon Is Education. — The sympathetic spirit of the enlightened Dutch rule is manifested in schools of all kinds for native officials, teachers, directors, judges, and artisans. Holland has organized a complete system of lower and higher schools in rural villages and larger cities, somewhat 202 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient after the plan of education in the Philippines by the United States government. Two kinds of public schools are necessary, one similar to the Dutch system, for European colonists and Dutch ofificials, the other for natives. Both schools are open to the natives. The schools of the European type keep the children of these settlers at home during the period of their education, a much better policy than that of the British government in their colonial possessions. A perplexing phase of the education problem is that of the 700,000 Chinese and mixed Chinese population. The Dutch law forbids these people becoming native citizens as do the Chinese born in the Philippines under the laws of the United States. The Dutch are beginning to see that their policy is an unwise one. Hence, since 1908, the govern- ment has assumed the responsibility for the education of the Chinese through the same system of schools maintained for the natives and European residents. In all of these schools the Dutch language is required in accord with the same policy pursued by other governments with their colonial schools. For the rural population, who dwell in about 30,000 small villages, a system of schools offering a three- or four-year course is being developed as rapidly as conditions will permit to give an elementary education to every one. For the training of teachers for these schools, the govern- ment maintains six normal schools, with a six-year course above a six-year elementary course required for admission. In addition, the government has brought from Holland more than a thousand teachers and is adding two hundred and fifty to this number annually. The government aids private as well as public schools. Since 1900 the government has Holland 203 permitted freedom of religious instruction in subsidized schools which has led to a rapid increase of Protestant and Catholic schools. About 80,000 out of 190,000 pupils in the lower native schools are in these private institutions. The amount spent by the government on colonial education now approaches two millions of dollars. Provision for industrial education for the natives has not yet been made. In this respect Holland is behind some other countries. TYPES OF DUTCH SCHOOLS Infant Schools. — The infant school is not a part of the state system and receives therefore no part of the state aid to education. The only exception to this is in the care of the college for the training of kindergarten teachers at Leyden to which the state gives 35,000 florins ($14,070) annually. The government does not even grant a certificate to teachers in the infant schools. These schools, where found, are supported by private societies and municipal authorities. In the larger cities, such as Leyden, Amsterdam, and Utrecht, the infant schools are quite well developed. The plan and method of work is of the Froebelian kindergarten type. Special em- phasis is placed upon school gardens and nature study. In localities having no schools of this type the children enter the regular primary school at five years of age in the country and at six years of age in the cities. The tendency is towards the recognition of the infant school as a part of the primary school system. The factor that stands in the way is the compulsory school age, seven to thirteen. When this mini- mum age is lowered, as it doubtless will be soon, the infant school will become a part of the regular system as it is in other countries. 204 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient In 1911-12, of the 170,185 pupils in infant schools, 18 per cent were in public (state aided) and 82 per cent in private institutions. The same general situation pertains in the United States where the compulsory school age begins at six, and the kindergarten is not included in the public school system. Primary Schools. — The primary school is provided for the child from the beginning of the seventh year to the begin- ning of the thirteenth year of its age. This gives every child six years of schooling. Provision is made for a child to with- draw from school to work after the tenth year if the reasons for such action are substantial. This apparently is not abused as the average attendance is above 95 per cent. The course of study as fixed by the law of 1889 is still in effect, with some recent modifications. The subjects are classed as obligatory and optional. The required subjects are the same as required elsewhere for an elementary educa- tion. There are ten of these subjects. The noticeable feature is " needlework for girls," required by Holland so many years ahead of some other countries. Of the nine op- tional subjects, French, English, German, and general his- tory give the primary curriculum a high-school tone quite questionable. But each commune is required to provide these subjects where a sufficient number of pupils desire them as special training for entrance to higher schools. Communes that have intermediate schools do not offer these optional subjects in the training schools. The law requires the local school officials to maintain pri- mary schools for all children of school age not provided for by private societies. In 1911-12, 60 per cent of the enroll- Holland 205 ment in the primary schools was in public and 40 per cent in private institutions. It is interesting to note that the law requires the primary school to be kept open the whole year, except hohdays. The holidays, however, amount to ten weeks and may be, in fact quite generally are, grouped in the summer months. There are many advocates of this all-year policy in the United States. A better method would seem to be special classes during the summer months for those interested, or a three- or four-term session per year with vacations inter- vening. All-the-year-round school attendance is very try- ing on teacher, pupil, and home. The private schools re- ceiving state aid are closely regulated by the government as to qualifications of teachers, course of study, and equip- ment. No private school is allowed to receive aid from the commune. This provision doubtless prevents local rivalry among religious denominations to control the local funds. The church opposition to compulsory attendance since' the passage of the law in 1900 has practically ceased, owing to the provision in the law recognizing attendance at church schools as satisfying the conditions of the law. Both public and private primary schools are under the inspection of the staff inspectors of the Minister of the In- terior, and also of the local commissions approved by the communal councils. Each of the twenty-five district in- spectors resides in his own district, convenient to his work, at the least expense to the government. The twenty-five districts are divided into ninety-six arrondissements in which ninety-four local inspectors supervise the schools. Regarding the district inspectors, the larger states, in the United States, might get suggestions for the improvement 2o6 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient of their state inspection service. Where the entire inspection staff resides at the capital too much time and money is spent in covering the state and the inspectors are too slightly acquainted with many locaHties. The scheme in Holland is free from this objection. The completion of the primary school at the end of the twelfth year, two years earlier than the completion of the American elementary school, is in harmony with the modern ideas for the reorganization of elementary and secondary edu- cation in America. Continuation Schools. — Evening and continuation classes are also maintained for elementary pupils. The evening pupils are also day-school pupils and so for this reason these schools are gradually being eliminated from the system. The continuation schools are for those pupils who have completed the primary school and are not attending a higher school. The law of 1900 requires this school to be open 96 hours in the year. The school is generally open six months in the winter for pupils twelve to sixteen years of age. Here again is offered the suggestion to the states having many localities without high schools, to give to the boys and girls who cannot leave home to attend a neighboring high school, further education at home, in short, continuation schools. The curriculum in the Dutch continuation schools may continue some of the subjects of the primary curriculum and may introduce other general or vocational subjects. This is an excellent type of school for rural districts and it may be extended in its scope to include adults. In 1 910 there were over forty-six thousand students en- rolled in these schools. It is noticeable that 86 per cent of Holland ' 207 these students were in public schools. The reason for this is very apparent. The state, with its taxing power, is much more free to meet newly recognized social needs than is the church. Intermediate Schools. Burgher Schools. — Burgher schools were organized under the law of 1863 which applied to all communes of 10,000 population or over. These schools were designed for the training of artisans and laborers. Both day and evening classes were to be maintained. The law is still in force, but the day schools have practically disappeared, as the communes prefer to establish higher burgher schools with a longer course of study than the two or three years provided for the lower burgher schools. The evening schools, however, continue in many communes. They correspond somewhat to the continuation classes in the rural districts described above in so far as they are for children from twelve to fourteen years of age. Both of these types of schools exist in recognition of the gap that yawns between the pri- mary and the secondary schools. This period of the life of the boys and the girls seems to be the most difficult one for all the nations to provide for satisfactorily. In this regard Holland is simply having experience that is universal. Higher Burgher Schools. — The same law that established burgher schools provided for three-year and five-year higher burgher schools at the option of communes of 10,000 popula- tion or over. A subsequent provision demands not fewer than twelve such schools in Holland, five of which must have five-year courses. As a matter of fact there are more than eighty of these schools, about one third of which are state, two thirds communal, and a small remnant private institu- tions, with a total of something like 15,000 students. About 2o8 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient one fifth of this enrollment are girls, and in addition to this, there are fifteen or more girls' secondary schools with enough more students to raise the total to approximately four thou- sand girls in secondary education. The course of study follows the six-year primary school and differs in no material respect from the curriculum in the American high school, except that it offers no Latin. The graduates receive a diploma which has great value, as it is required as a qualification for engineers, architects, and tech- nologists, who seek appointment to state service, and for those who desire to enter certain other departments of civil service. This diploma also admits to the universities, though with a special examination in Latin and Greek for those who desire to study theology, law, or literary courses. The leaving examinations are uniform and are under direc- tion of the inspectors. This school is thought to lack the strong central character that the German gymnasium has and to resemble more nearly the Realschule, and it is more practical than the English high school. From the American point of view it is a greatly overcrowded curriculum with a congestion of modern languages and mathematics. It is an interesting fact that the state does not concern itself with the establishment of separate schools for girls. These schools are provided by the communes and private societies. The boys' schools are open to girls by special per- mit from the Minister. The lack of state aid to girls' schools is not due to prejudice on the part of the state but to the generosity of the communes in the pride that they manifest in recent years in all phases of secondary education for their girls. With the exception of needlework this type of school furnishes no vocational work for the girls. Holland 209 Elementary and Secondary School Statistics. — The Minis- ter of Education reported for the year 1911-12 the following statistics for the elementary and secondary schools : — Infant Schools Public 31,416 Private 138,769 Elementary Schools Public 566,867 Private 365,887 Middle Schools I5>i53 Industrial Schools 36,803 Navigation Schools 913 Secondary, Classical 471 Totals 1,156,279 This enrollment is approximately 20 per cent of the total population, which is about the same as in other leading coun- tries that have compulsory school systems. The government spends annually about $14,250,000 and the communes $8,000,000 for education. This is about $3.50 per capita of population. The fees and endowments increase this about 50 per cent. It is interesting to note that in 191 1 over 38 per cent of the pupils were enrolled in denominational schools. Higher Education. Meaning of the Term. — By the law of 1876 higher education in Holland is defined to be that given in the public and private gymnasia, the Athenaeum at Amsterdam, and the three universities, Leiden, Utrecht, and Groningen. The Athenaeum in 1877 was converted into the Municipal University of Amsterdam, as it is now known. Several modifications have been made to this law, but the original purpose and policy remains the same. 2IO Modern Education in Europe and the Orient The broad principle of liberty in higher education permits both private and denominational as well as communal and state higher institutions of learning. The state reserves the right to supervise all higher institutions and to recognize no degree granting power except by the state universities. This last feature might be a wise poHcy for individual states in other countries where too much freedom now exists in the granting of degrees that are everywhere discounted by stand- ard institutions. The Gymnasia. — The Dutch gymnasia, in terms of American standards, is not a higher institution but merely a college preparatory school, paralleling the higher burgher schools described above. They admit pupils at twelve years of age to a six years' course, preparatory to the universities. The only vital difference between this course and the course in the higher burgher school is the presence of Greek and Latin and the additional sixth year. Many people think these two characteristics are not sufficient to justify the con- tinuance of the two as separate institutions. The gymnasia, however, preserves to Dutch civiUzation the customs and ideals of the old Latin preparatory school which the classical few still think worth while. The law requires every town with a population of 20,000 to provide a gymnasium and permits smaller towns to do so. In 1910, there were thirty public and thirty-one private gym- nasia for both men and women. The state paid in that year 28 per cent of the expenses of the pubHc institutions. In several of the richer cities all of the expenses are paid by the communes. The course of study is the same for all in the first four years and then bifurcates in the fifth and sixth years into two Holland 211 divisions, one leading to the university in theology, law, and philosophy, the other to medicine, mathematics, physics. The private gymnasia have a more flexible curriculum and some of them include religious courses. Some other private gymnasia are " boarding schools " and very much resemble the " English public schools." As a type, however, in their curricula, they are more like the Prussian gymnasia and the American classical high school. The emphasis placed upon Latin and Greek gives to the gymnasia what the Dutch term a definite '* centrum " of study that makes it a stronger course than that of the higher burgher schools. But in recent years this " centrum " has been somewhat weakened by the demand in the Netherlands that a well-educated per- son shall be proficient in the modern languages, French, German, and English. The Dutch Universities. — The universities of Holland are national institutions indeed, sufficient in every respect for her sons and daughters. Dutch students do not frequent other world centers of learning, nor do students from other countries go in numbers to the Dutch universities. The Dutch language is not a world language, which accounts for the inappreciable mingHng of the world scholars with the Dutch. Nevertheless, these institutions have made an enviable contribution to world knowledge. In philosophy, language, and science, and in the promulgation of the Protes- tant faith, Leiden, alone, gives the Dutch universities rank among the great continental universities. Americans will ever appreciate Leiden as the home for eleven years of the Pilgrims before they came to America. Lovers of freedom and enlightenment, the Dutch citizens of Leiden, over three hundred and fifty years ago, chose a university in preference 212 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient to freedom from taxes, when offered their choice by William of Orange. It is the sons and daughters of such people that fill the four universities of Holland to-day to train for leader- ship in the greatest nation of its size in the world. Holland has three state universities and a municipal university at Amsterdam. Each of the three state uni- versities, Leiden, Utrecht, and Groningen, has faculties of law, medicine, theology, science, and mathematics, and philosophy and literature. The control of these institutions is by a college of curators appointed by the crown. The crown also appoints the professors. But great freedom is extended to the universities in their academic work. The departments of medicine, law, and theology are the most prominent ones in student enrollment, as these lead to the controlHng positions in society and government. The curric- ulum in the university is an overcrowded one just as that is in the preparatory gymnasia. The result is the Dutch university student studies more than he thinks. A much larger percentage of them remain through college to gradua- tion than is true of the American college students. The per- centages are 80 to 50 in favor of the Dutch, The Municipal University at Amsterdam is under the joint control of the crown and the Municipal Council who together appoint the curators and the professors. An interesting feature in the Dutch universities is the freedom given to the different religious denominations. In Leiden the Dutch Reformed Church and the Remonstrant Fraternity each supports a department of theology ; in Am- sterdam the Calvinists, Lutherans, Baptists, and Catholics, each has its chair of rehgion. From these departments of theology in the state universities and from denominational Holland 213 seminaries, colleges, and universities, the clergy of the vari- ous faiths are drawn. At the age of seventy the professors in all of these state universities are retired upon a pension amounting to one half of their salary provided that this amount does not exceed $1 206 per annum. They may retire at sixty-five. This is a further evidence of the fact that the little Kingdom of Holland honors education second to no other country of the world. The sal- ary and pension are small. The reward of the teacher for the development of citizens is everywhere destined to be spiritual rather than financial. Enrollment in Universities. — For the year 191 2-13 the enrollment in the universities of Holland was as follows : — Leiden, 1211 students; Utrecht, 1096; Groningen, 579; the Municipal University at Amsterdam, 1215 students. The total, 4101 students, with those enrolled in the private in- stitutions of semi-university rank, is very creditable to the nation. University of Commerce at Rotterdam. — In 1913 there was opened at Rotterdam a University of Commerce under private ownership and endowment and with government approval. This was the first institution of the kind to be opened in Holland, and it is therefore regarded as marking a new era in the training of commercial leaders. The plan is to make the work of full university rank, leading in time to a doctorate in commercial science from the government. The initial enrollment was 55 students. TECHNICAL EDUCATION Origin. — Technical schools of many different types exist in Holland. The higher burgher schools described above 214 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient as a part of the state secondary school system, have a techni- cal bias in many localities, especially in their evening classes. All other forms of technical institutions owe their origin to local and private initiative, though they are supervised by a special inspector and in some cases aided by the govern- ment. Trade Schools (Ausfachts-Scholen). — The earliest of the technical institutions now prominent in Dutch education were the trade schools, founded first at Amsterdam in 1861. The government recognized these schools by granting aid to them in 1891 and by placing them under a special inspector in 1899. They immediately became very popular and now exert more influence in securing state aid than do the regular secondary schools. The trade school naturally incurred some opposition from the artisans who saw it displacing the apprenticeship system to which they were so long accustomed, just as has been true in other countries. But now the grad- uates of these schools are eagerly sought after by the em- ployers in arts and crafts. Graduation from the primary school is required for admis- sion to the technical schools. The course covers three years and is devoted to technical subjects with a view to particular industries. Prominent types of these trade schools are found at Amsterdam, Arnhem, and the Hague. This specialized training for the boys from twelve to fifteen years of age as is given in Holland, has not been provided for American boys except slightly in the many-purpose high school, and the occasional technical high school. In this respect Holland has a lesson for some other coun- tries. An esprit de corps for any vocation cannot be best developed in an atmosphere foreign to its main purpose. Hollatid 215 Specialization in service means specialization in training. The immediate value of this kind of education always makes it easy to secure assistance in its maintenance by straight gifts or increased taxation from the masters of industries. Industrial Schools for Girls (Industrie Scholen voor Meia- jes). — The industrial schools for girls have practically the same origin as those for boys and the same relation also to the general system of education. The standards are about the same for admission and graduation. The purpose of the curric- ulum is to give the girls a practical training for homework and the care of the home as a housewife. One aim is to pre- vent the girls from becoming prejudiced against household duties, as is so generally true of the girls educated in the con- ventional secondary schools. One of the results of these schools is the absence of the domestic problem in the Dutch home that is so embarrassing in the American home. America is crowding her department stores and offices with girls many of whom disdain the work of the home. Special training schools for the preparation of teachers for the girls' industrial schools are located at Amsterdam, the Hague, and other cities. A very high type of housewifery school or school of domes- tic science is located at Amsterdam. It is under government supervision but is maintained by private endowment and fees. Standard courses in all household arts and sciences are offered for the training of teachers and leaders in schools, hos- pitals, homes, and army and navy service, and commercial pursuits. Many other schools of this kind and for the training of women for social work exist throughout the state. Holland has cause to be proud of the training she is giving her young women for the vocations that belong properly to their sex. 2i6 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient Schools of Commerce (Handelsscholen). — Schools corre- sponding to the many private business colleges scattered throughout the United States are not found in Holland. In Holland the communes and commercial associations con- duct schools for this purpose, and special classes are often added also to the higher burgher schools, just as commercial training is given in many American high schools. The chief industrial school in Netherlands in which commercial train- ing of a high order is given is maintained by the municipality of Enschede. Here advanced courses are given for the train- ing of commercial leaders in the manufacturing and govern- ment service. The most recent and most advanced step in commercial training in Holland was the establishment in 1 9 13 of the University of Commerce at Rotterdam as de- scribed above in the treatment of universities. The schools and colleges of commerce in the American universities parallel this kind of work being done in the higher technical schools of Holland. Polytechnic Schools (Polytechnische Scholen). — At the head of all technical education in civil, mechanical, and mining engineering, architectural and naval construction, stands the institution at Delft. This school, unlike the other technical institutions, is supported and controlled wholly by the state. Graduation from the higher burgher school, or the equiva- lent, is required for admission. The course is four years and leads to a degree. Both men and women are admitted. The graduates readily secure positions of prominence in technical leadership. The enrollment runs over a thousand annually. The graduates, desiring positions in the East Indies, take two or three years more training in the Scho-^^l for Officials at Leiden. Holland 217 The faculty is appointed by the crown and the examina- tions for degrees are conducted by the Minister of the Interior. This thorough training for leadership under government direction is a striking characteristic of Holland's educational system. Agricultural Education (Landbouw Onderwijs). — The agri- cultural education is administered by one of the departments of the Ministry of the Interior, assisted by a special council of agriculture, composed of members elected by the various agricultural societies throughout the kingdom. In each of the eleven provinces there is a state professor of agriculture whose duties are to inspect and direct the five state experi- ment stations and to prepare courses for the training of pri- mary teachers who must have agricultural certificates. Several of the provinces have agricultural schools and some have agronomic stations. At the head of the system of agricultural education is the widely known College at W ageningen . This school is or- ganized in four departments, (i) A higher burgher school, offering a four years' course to boys from twelve to eighteen years of age. The main subjects in the course are the sciences that underlie a special agricultural education, such as botany, physics, biology, chemistry. The graduates of this course enter the higher agricultural schools. (2) An intermediate agricultural school with a two years' course for pupils above seventeen. Some of these students plan to go to the Dutch Indies, and these are required to take an additional year's work in special colonial agriculture. (3) The horticultural school with a two-year and a four-year course for practical and scientific gardeners. (4) The higher school of agriculture and forestry for both home and colonial service. This is 2i8 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient * one of the best agricultural colleges in the world and has given Holland a wide reputation in such education. For local work among farmers and gardeners Holland has a system of Winter Schools of Agriculture and Horticulture. These schools are open from October to March, the season of the year when the farmers are freest to attend. The course lasts two years. They are open to boys and men who have finished the primary school and have some knowledge of practical farming. Stationed at each of the agricultural schools is a professor of physics, of chemistry, and of veterinary surgery for service in the locality. The instruction in the courses is both theoretical and practical. The classes meet from two to six p.m., five days per week, for the five winter months. This work is vastly superior to short courses of three days or a week at collegiate centers or at some poorly-equipped county center with an itinerant faculty, as is common in some other countries. The work in Holland, however, lacks the broad national purpose of the people's high schools in rural Denmark. Itinerary Classes for Rural Industrial Education. — Fol- lowing the example of Ireland and Germany regarding rural education, Holland has recently established itinerary classes in industrial education for women in rural districts. The subjects include the elementary sciences of botany, zoology, and household and home duties that devolve upon women. Special emphasis is placed upon the relation of these subjects to rural life with a view to making women more efficient and more contented. The thoroughness and completeness of Holland's system of agricultural education has its prototype in the splendid Holland 219 agricultural colleges and experiment stations in the United States. The latter is necessarily on the larger scale, but it has not yet reached the degree of local efficiency and economic administration as has the Dutch system. RELIGIOUS EDUCATION Holland has always been comparatively peaceful in regard to her religious education problem. It is true, however, that the problem is ever present, for the Dutch are religious and have their Dissenters, or Calvinists, and their Liberals, just as England and Scotland have always had. The Liberals have stood for a neutral state school and the Calvinists, aided in recent years by the Catholics, have as assiduously fought for a free denominational state-aided school. Liberalism, with Catholic aid, won at first and the neutral state school was assigned the task of " teaching Christian virtues without hurting the feelings of the Jews." Then the common ties between Calvinists and Catholics proved stronger than the differences, and thus united they reversed the program of the Liberals and extended state aid to public and denominational schools, under state supervision, per- mitting the denominational schools to teach the religion of their faith. The distribution of state aid on the basis of the number of pupils enrolled and without any discrimina- tion whatever, as to standards and state supervision, permits every parent to send his child to the church school if he so prefers. The further requirement, won by the church people, that every state school must charge a fee of at least twenty cents per month for each pupil, to balance the fees that church schools must charge, prevents parents from choosing free education without religious instruction, in preference to 220 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient education in their church schools. In other words, Holland's school law does not offer free education in state schools to turn her children away from denominationalism and reli- gious education. On the other hand, she has a compulsory- school law and enforces it alike in both state and private schools. Education is free only to those who need it so. About 25 per cent are educated free in the elementary schools. This Dutch policy in religious education is one of the fairest, if not the most fair, and the most efficient on the European continent. It guarantees education to all, it permits re- ligious instruction in one's own faith, it gives state aid on an equal basis, it makes education free where needed, it stimulates church activity instead of deadening it. In Hol- land it works well. What it would do in other countries is a question. The broad spirit of the government is further shown by the fact that the state, through communal rates, pays in part the salaries and grants pensions to the clergy of all denominations alike. This is a constitutional provision and is practically a settled policy. A wise provision forbids the wearing of any church garb outside of a church. Another demands a civil marriage before the church service. These are simply checks and balances by which the present religious education system has become established. This policy leaves an individual as free to choose his religion as to choose his vocation and with the same aid from the state. If some country could develop a system of education in which reh- gious education could be fostered by the state, with the same freedom as vocational and professional education is fostered, other countries would be glad to adopt it. Holland is moving in this direction. Holland 221 Church Census. — (i) The old state church, prior to 1795, is represented now by the Reformed Church, which passes as the orthodox or Calvinistic Church. It has more members than all other Protestant churches combined. (2) The Modern Church, or the Netherlands Protestant League, is essentially a city church. It had its origin in 1850, in the attempt to harmonize the old religious tenets with modern science. In doctrine they are Unitarians. (3) The Independent Church is the aggressive branch of the Moderns, embracing both politics and religion in their program. They uphold the Bible as an unalterable canon. They have a membership of about 500,000, with a center of influence in the University of Amsterdam. (4) The Lutherans are represented by two branches, {a) the Evangelical and {h) the Moderns, with about 100,000 followers. (5) The Menonites are known as Baptists, or Quakers. They have about 65,000 followers. (6) The Remonstrants, or social reformers, have about 28,000 members. (7) The Walloon Church, or the French Reformed Protes- tant Church, has 10,000 members. These seven Protestant sects all dwell together without much strife, but possibly with too much religious lethargy to suit critics of more impulsive peoples. (8) The Catholic Church, divided into two branches, has about two fifths of the population in her membership, over 2,000,000. (9) The Jews, divided like the Protestants and Catholics into several sects, have a total of over 100,000 members. (10) The self-confessed atheists number about 300,000. 222 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient The summary of the church census is as follows : — Protestants 3,334,48? Catholics 2,053,021 Jews 100,000 Atheists 300,000 Total 5,787,508 For all churches the communes, as stated above, levy a local rate for the payment, in part, of salaries and pensions of the clergy and for the support of the churches. Whether or not Holland's religious education program would work in other countries, it seems true that in no other European country is one so free to choose his own religion and his own educational institution as in Holland, so far as state toleration and aid is concerned. The religious instruction in the schools is not by the regu- lar teachers, but by the ministers and special religious teach- ers. Nothing offensive to any sect is allowed and no other subject is interfered with by the religious lessons. THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS Types of Training Schools. — The school law of 1857 ^^^ subsequent laws have established normal schools and classes by the state, the commune, and by private parties, under the same general plan of cooperation that prevails in other departments of education. State control of the normal schools and classes is through the appointment by the crown of all head directors and teachers, the approval of the courses of study, and by other regulations necessary to state aid. The 64 normal schools in 19 10 were distributed as follows : — Holland 223 State and Communal . Schools 10 : Students 870 Denominational Schools 49 : Students 2,762 Others Schools 5: Students 2,308 Total Schools 64 : Students 5,940 The large percentage being trained in denominational schools is very noticeable. It fairly well represents the policy of cooperation in the Dutch system of education. Separate schools exist in some instances for the sexes, day schools for men and boarding schools for women. Of the 219 normal classes, 90 were state and communal, and 129 private and denominational. They had 6642 stu- dents, divided in the ratio of about 55 to 48 between public and private institutions. Course of Study. — Students are admitted to the normal schools at the ages of 14 or 15, and in no case over 20. An entrance examination in the subjects of the primary school and a medical examination are required of all applicants. The course of study is four years in length and includes all of the subjects of the primary school, the theory and practice of teaching, and special instruction in violin, piano, and voice. Efficiency in the modern languages, French, German and Eng- lish, is required. Attendance upon religious instruction and the church of one's choice is also required. This is distinctly a specialized program for the training of elementary school teachers. Such subjects as agriculture, horticulture, gar- dening, woodwork, and sewing, give the course a note of the vocation tone. The practice school attached to each normal school provides well for the practical training of the teacher. This practice school is a full grade six-year primary school and is maintained entirely by the state. Aid to the Students. — The state supplies free books, 224 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient free tuition, and in some cases grants a subsidy to pay a part of the room and board for students whose parents do not live near the school. Teachers' Examinations. — Teachers in both private and public schools have to be examined for certificates. Pro- motion from one grade to another necessitates a new exam- ination. This rigid system of examinations of both teach- ers and pupils is one of the characteristics of Holland's system of education. Even foreigners expected to teach the modern languages are examined by a Dutch board in the language they are to teach. Head teachers have to pass a more difficult examination than do the ordinary teachers. And special teachers have examinations in their special subjects. One gets the impres- sion from a study of the Dutch system that efficiency means ability to pass an examination. Secondary Teachers. — Teachers in the middle, or second- ary schools are required to hold either a diploma from a university or a certificate from a state examining board. All secondary teachers must receive their commission from the Minister of the Interior before they can be appointed by the local officials. Salaries and Pensions. — The salaries of the Dutch teach- ers are small. They range from $200 to $300 for ordinary teachers and run as high as $500 for head teachers, in the primary schools. The head teacher is generally provided also with a free house and a garden. The director of a higher burgher school may receive as much as $1500. All teachers, both the elementary and the secondary, receive a pension upon retiring at sixty-five, or sooner, through ill- health. The fund is provided by the retention of 2 per cent of Holland 225 the teacher's salary by the state. The pensions range from two fifths to two thirds of the salaries. The method of pro- viding the fund makes the teacher pay himself the pension, and the amount is small, but it is a wise provision and is in the direction of something better. It is an application of the spirit of cooperation that is everywhere apparent in the Dutch system of education. Topics for Further Study 1. Compare the position of private schools in relation to the state system in Holland with that of private schools in the United States. 2. Compare the Gary, Indiana, plan of religious instruction with the plan of religious instruction in Holland. 3. Take the low degree of illiteracy in continental Holland as a basis and compare it with that in France, Germany, England, and the United States, and account for the showing of each country. 4. What lessons might the United States learn from Holland's colonial education policy ? 5. Discuss the provision for rural adult education. 6. Take the pension system of Holland as a basis and compare it with that of France and England. 7. Compare the University of Leiden with Copenhagen. 8. Show why the Hague is chosen as the center of so many inter- national interests. 9. What important Dutch influences are recognizable in American education ? 10. Compare the Dutch gymnasia with the German gymnasia. Special Bibliography Balfour, R. Primary Education in the Netherlands, in English Board of Education Special Reports, Vol. VH, 1902, London. Barrows, D. P. Education in the NetherlandsTndia : Secretary^ of Public Instruction, Philippines. Ninth Annual Report, Washing- ton, 1912. Q 226 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient Baulger, D. C. Holland of the Dutch, Scribners, 1913, New York. Medd, John C. A Short Account of Education in the Netherlands, in English Board of Education, Special Reports, Vol. VIII, Supple- ment, 1902, London. Smith, Anna T. Education in Netherlands-India: Commissioner of Education, Vol. I, 191 1, Washington. DENMARK CHAPTER VII INTRODUCTION Geography and Population. — Denmark consists of the northern portion of the Cimbrian peninsula and a group of islands lying between the North and the Baltic seas. Its main divisions are Jutland, Zealand, the island of Bornholm, and the Faroe islands. The colonies belonging to Denmark are Iceland, Greenland, and the West Indian islands of St. Croix, St. Thomas, and St. John. The area of Denmark proper is about 15,582 square miles. Her population in 191 1 was approximately 2,800,000, making a density of 180 to the square mile. These figures are interesting in comparison with similar ones for Minnesota, one of the United States. Her population is 2,213,319, area 84,682 square miles, density of population 25 to the square mile. The climate is very mild, the mean temperature being about 60 degrees in the summer and 32 degrees in the winter. History and Government. — PHny, in the first century, A.D., gives the earliest account of Denmark, though the Sagas give myths and traditions of much earlier ages. The Danish kings of the fifth century a.d. may be regarded as historical, but not until the beginning of the ninth century can Danish history be considered authentic. At this time we 227 228 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient find a united Danish kingdom. Then followed nine and a half centuries of struggle, with wars without and revolutions within, from which she emerged in the wars of 1864 with her present boundaries, and her present constitution, as revised July 28, 1866, from the first draft of June 5, 1849. Her government is a constitutional, hereditary monarchy. The king is the chief executive, and he acts through a council of nine Ministers, one of whom is the Minister of Church and Education. This places the Danish Minister of Education on an equality with the heads of other departments. The long struggle to hold the duchies of Schleswig-Holstein, and the final loss of that territory, through the aggression of Austria-Prussia, was a significant turning point in the national consciousness of the Danish people. The peace of Vienna, October 30, 1864, freed Denmark to develop a national spirit and her own internal resources. Her great accomplish- ments in these fifty years are proof of the value of independ- ence to a nation of moral and intellectual ideals. She has carried her democracy to the extent of equal suffrage to women, which was granted them by the New Constitution, June 5, 1914- She has turned to her schools, as the means by which the national development was to be accomplished. Industries. — About three fourths of the land area is produc- tive to agricultural pursuits and about 40 per cent of the people are engaged in agricultural work. This is a high percentage, and even this is increasing as a result of the kind of education Denmark is giving her rural people. The manufacturing industries are concerned chiefly with furniture, foods, clothing, and metals. The Land Law compels the parceling out of the large estates into small ones, and the highly developed system Denmark 229 of cooperation gives from the state and the farmers' associa- tions all needed assistance to the small owners. It is esti- mated that 61 per cent of the population is rural and that about 93 per cent of the Danish farmers own their land. During the last few years, as a result of the improvement of rural life, the hitherto drift of the rural population to the cities has been turned back to the country. This is a problem for which other countries, such as the United States, are seeking a solution. The Danish People. — The Danes are a Teutonic race, with the characteristic blue eyes, yellow hair, and middle stature, showing evidences of kinship to the Scandinavians of the North. They are intensely national in spirit, and are controlled by a wholesome patriotism. These are partial rewards for her long years of struggle for independent national existence. The language represents one of the three divisions of the Norse tongue, the Danish dialect. This dialect, after the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, became organized and developed into the hterary language of the present Danish people. It has been much modified by the German, especially by the Low German speech, through the commercial and industrial relations with these people. The eighteenth and nineteenth centuries have been marked with the development of a Danish national literature, expressive of their new national consciousness. Holberg (1684-1754), distinguished in history, science, and philosophy, was the creator of a purely national drama that gave him place among the world's great satirical humorists; Oehlenslager (i 779-1850) opened a new era with his "Aladdin," that gave him place as Denmark's greatest romantic poet ; 230 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient then Hans Andersen (1805-78) gave the world his " Tales," which, translated into all languages, is read and loved by adult and child aUke ; and in our day have appeared Georg Brandes, the well-known critic, Johannes Jorgensen, the poet and novehst, and Julius Henrik Lange, the artist and art critic. These are only a few of the array of briUiant men who for two centuries have spoken to the world through the Danish tongue. The means by which the Danes have made them- selves great in their own national Ufe and through which they are now offering to the other countries of the world concrete suggestions for the improvement of national and social con- ditions within their borders are revealed, in part, through the study of their schools. GENER.\L PLAN OF SCHOOL ORGANIZATIONS Initial Decree and Law. — Public education in Denmark is based on the decree of July 24, 1814, and a subsequent act of March 29, 1904. The laws of 1814 estabUshed schools in such rural communities as could support them and required the communes to bear the expense of these schools and also, thus early, made attendance compulsory from the ages of seven to fourteen. Purpose of Education. — The purpose of education, ac- cording to a Danish official statement, " is to make its pupils good and righteous citizens, in conformity with the Evangel- ical Christian religion (of the Lutheran state church), and to give them a certain amount of instruction and experience, so that they may eventually become useful citizens." Joint Control of Schools. — The free schools of Denmark are under the triple joint control of the government, church, Denmark 231 and local commune. The Minister of Ecclesiastical and Educational Affairs interprets and executes the school laws, makes rules and regulations, and determines the course of study and methods for both city and rural free schools. He is assisted by an educational specialist (Konsulent) and national in- spectors of the special subjects, music, drawing, and gym- nastics. The church, through the bishops, deans, and min- ister, supervises locally the special phases of the work that pertain directly to moral and rehgious education. The most important supervision by the church is through the deanery, of which there are seventy- three in Denmark, each with its general board of education. Each dean is the official super- visor in his deanery. Locally, the rural committee, with one or two school dis- tricts, is the smallest unit of civil administration. The parish council, with the district committee, composed of members of the council and the local pastor, controls the district school. Each of the eighteen counties has a Skoleraad, or School Council, in charge of the finances of the school. Each district in the county has a Skole-Direction, or School Board, whose duty it is to select teachers, choose textbooks, and arrange the course of study. And each commune has its Skole-Kom- mission that cares for the local interests of the school. The privately owned schools that receive state aid or pre- pare for state examinations are supervised by the Minister of Ecclesiastical and Educational Affairs, through a system of rules and regulations and a number of inspectors who fix standards for accrediting. The university and professional schools, likewise, are under the general supervision of the Minister of Ecclesiastical Affairs 232 Modern Edtication in Europe and the Orient and Public Instruction, as are the schools for the education of the defective classes. In general the plan of administration in Denmark provides quite well for both central and local control. COORDINATION OF PARTS OF THE SYSTEM Types of Schools. — The Danish school laws of 1903 co- ordinated the elementary schools, the secondary schools, the university and the institute of technology into one state system. The Primary School (Folkeskole) , has six or seven grades, extending from the sixth to the twelfth years. The Middle School (Mellemskole), estabhshed in 1903, has four grades, extending from the twelfth to the sixteenth years. Above the middle school are several types of secondary schools : (i) a one-year course called Realklasse ; (2) a three-year gymnasium course ; (3) continuation courses ; (4) lower and middle (industrial, commercial, technical) professional courses ; (5) the high schools, agricultural schools, and home economic schools, for adults. And above the gymnasium is the uni- versity and the institute of technology. To these must be added the several state schools for the education of the de- fective classes. The Primary or Elementary Schools. — The primary system comprises from six to eight grades, and provides for the children through the compulsory period, from seven to fourteen years of age. The grades are divided into three groups corresponding to the primary, intermediate, and grammar grades in the American schools. The subjects taught are : rehgion, 2 to 3 hours ; Danish with writing, 8 to 9 hours ; arithmetic, 3 hours ; history, object lessons, Denmark 233 Ag. Horn H.S. Econ Folkehoj Skole Work 3-5 Years e ^- u u 0) o University and School of Technology Class-i Mod- ical I em iScien- I tific Gymnasium 18-19 17-18 Realklasse MELLEMSKOLE 16-17 o 15-16 14-15 13-14 12-13 11-12 10-11 FOLKESKOLE 9-10 8-9 7-8 6-7 PiCTOGRAM OF THE DANISH ScHOOL SYSTEM, I914 234 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient geography, natural science, 3 hours ; singing, i hour ; making a total of 18 hours per week. This does not include the required work in gymnastics and sloyd for boys, and domestic science for girls, which are generally taught in the elementary schools. Enrollment and Child Labor. — The enrollment of 538,731 in the public and private primary schools in 1910-11, 19.5 per cent of the entire population, shows very conclusively that the Danish children go to school. This is not quite so good, however, as the enrollment for the same year in the United States, where it was 20.2 per cent. Pupils pass from the primary schools, some into various types of elementary continuation schools, others into the middle schools. In 1910-11 there were 404,326 students in 4055 city and rural continuation schools of the various elementary types. This was 75 per cent as large as the enrollment in the regular elementary grades, which is certainly a valuable supplement to that work. The high percentage of enrollment in the elementary schools is very interesting in connection with the child labor statistics compiled in 1913. From an investigation recently made in Denmark, as reported by the United States Bureau of Educa- tion, for the purpose of showing the extent to which school children are obliged to work for a living, " it appears that of 370,000 children, 45,000 performed such work in their homes and 65,000 for strangers. In the country it was found that 5 per cent of the children of great farmers, 26 per cent of the children of small farmers, and 41 per cent of the children of country laborers worked for strangers." " Some children began such work at 6 years of age, and nearly 14,000 were only 10 years of age, or less. One half Denmark 235 of the children had a working day of ten hours or more. The day's work began in certain cases at 4 A.M., and for 2500 children it began at 5 to 5 : 30 a.m., and seldom ended before 10 p.m. The day's wage for 4000 children was ten cents each, together with food, and many received only ten cents without food." Doubtless the rapidly developing economic welfare of Denmark will soon materially improve this labor condition relative to her young children. The elementary continua- tion schools provide some instruction for many of these children whose working hours deprive them of the regular elementary school. SECONDARY SCHOOLS Historic Development. — During the ninth, tenth, eleventh, and twelfth centuries, in Denmark, Christian schools were es- tablished under the Benedictines, Dominicans, Cathedrals, and Convents. Latin schools also were established in the twelfth century, and modified during the sixteenth century, through the influence of the Reformation, and thereby brought under the supervision of the Lutheran clergy. These, in turn, were variously modified during the seventeenth and eighteenth cen- turies, through the prevailing influences of those periods, com- mon alike to other European countries. The disastrous effects upon Denmark of the wars of 1848 and 1864 with Germany, awakened in her people a desire for more practical instruction which resulted in 1850 in the change of the Latin schools into the Realskole and the gym- nasium. The newer schools, with gradual improvements, developed into the secondary schools of to-day. By a law of 1903 these secondary schools with the elementary schools 236 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient and the university were coordinated into one complete sys- tem. The gymnasia prepare for the university and the Real- skoler prepare for the middle professional schools or for business. These two types of schools are often conducted in the same building and by the same faculty, just as the several courses in an American high school are conducted. Pupils are admitted to the middle school at the age of twelve. The course covers four years, with a fifth year, the Realklasse, to prepare for the Realexamen. The course in the gymnasia covers three years and prepares for the uni- versity. In 1913, these schools numbered as follows : — Mellemskole : State 71, Private 104, Total 175 Gymnasia : State 13, Private 30, Total Total 43 218 These 218 with other private secondary schools had in 1913 a total attendance of 54,152 students. Middle Schools. — Since the coordination of the school system in 1903, the middle school follows the six-year ele- mentary course in the elementary school and admits pupils at twelve years of age. The course covers four years and is followed by a fifth year known as the Realklasse, for such students as desire to prepare for the Realexamen. The real schools that do this work successfully receive formal recognition from the state and usually some form of state aid. The subject matter of the middle school curriculum covers a range of more than a dozen subjects, but includes only those necessary for a general education for those who would extend the work of the six-year elementary school. The subjects are : religion, 2 hours per week ; Danish, 4 Denmark 237 to 5 hours per week ; English, 3 to 6 hours ; German, 4 to 5 hours ; history, 2 to 3 hours ; geography, 2 hours ; biology, 2 hours ; natural science, 2 hours ; mathematics, 4 to 7 hours ; writing, i to 2 hours ; drawing, i to 2 hours ; gymnasium, 4 hours ; singing, i to 2 hours ; total, 36 hours per week. The fifth year (Rcalklasse) consists of a total of 30 hours, including 12 hours of language work in Danish and two foreign languages ; 8 hours of history and science ; 4 hours of commercial subjects, for boys; and the remaining hours of electives. Occupying the midway position in the system, as the middle school does, makes it a very important and popular school. A tuition of 1 20 Kroner a year is charged in the middle school proper and 144 Kroner in the Realklasse. This fee, though small, doubtless keeps many from attend- ing, as the enrollment is only about 10 per cent of that in the regular primary schools, when it should be about 15 per cent to compare favorably with that in the best systems. In Copenhagen, the girls' middle schools that prepare for the final examinations must have six years of work in- stead of five as in the boys' schools, so as to lighten the pro- gram for the girls. This idea of favoring the girls is quite generally provided for. The recitation period is quite uni- formly fifty minutes, and thirty-six of these are required for a week's work. This makes the Danish weekly program somewhat heavier than that of the corresponding grades in the American schools, though the work in writing, drawing, gymnastics, and singing, which covers ten of these hours, is not fatiguing, but rather invigorating. The place given to English and German in this lower middle school of Denmark is especially noticeable, though 238 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient the reasons are sufficiently obvious. The early mastery of these languages by the Danish students is of great social, political, and commercial value to them. Pupils may pass from the third year of this course to the lower professional schools and to various types of continua- tion schools. This provision is a good one for those who must enter remunerative employment rather than the higher schools. This tendency everywhere in the Danish system to adapt the school work to the needs of the different types of people is very characteristic. From the four-year course they pass into the gymnasium, and from the Realklasse into the middle professional schools. These students will have had eleven or twelve years of school- ing and will be sixteen or seventeen years of age. They would correspond fairly well to the graduates of a three-year American high school, offering but few elective privileges. Gymnasium. — The gymnasium offers three parallel courses, each three years in length. They are classical, modern, scientific. In addition to the subjects continued from the middle school, the following subjects appear in the gymnasium curriculum : Latin, Greek, French, and archeology. French appears throughout all three courses ; Latin, through the classical and modern language group ; Greek, six hours per week, in the classical group only ; and German in the modern language group. The scientific group is characterized by one third of the time, twelve hours per week, being given to science and mathematics. As in the middle school, the weekly program of thirty-six hours in the gymnasium seems heavy, from an American point of view. This three-course gymnasium tends to supplant the Real- Denmark 239 skoler which was organized in 1850, for more practical pur- poses. However, many such schools continue as private institutions, receiving state grants. An annual tuition fee of 144 Kroner is charged in the gymnasia. Relation to Higher Schools. — The entrance examination, taken at the end of the three-year gymnasium course, admits to the university or to the institute of technology. Thus, the students entering these higher institutions of learning have had seven years of secondary training above a six years' elementary course. This is about one year higher than the American standard for admission to college. The university offers to these students work in five different departments : theology, law and political science, medicine, philosophy, mathematics and natural science. A great many scholar- ships are offered to students passing through the Danish sec- ondary school. There are about 1200 students enrolled in the university, of whom only approximately 5 per cent are women. Fully half as many gymnasium graduates enter the insti- tute of technology as enter the university. The university, just as other parts of the educational system, is under the general direction of the Department of Education and Ecclesiastical Affairs ; but its internal ad- ministration is conducted by a council composed of members from each of the faculties. In all classes of secondary schools the enrollment was 54,152, or approximately 2 per cent of the population, which added to the 19.5 per cent in the public and private elementary schools shows Denmark to rank among the best countries in the world in the education of her children, so far as enroll- ment is concerned. 240 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient THE PEOPLE'S HIGH SCHOOL (FOLKEHOJSKOLER) Origin. — The folk high school is the most original and the most unique part of the Danish school system. This school is the chief factor in the rehabilitation of Danish rural society. It had its origin in the business and social depression of the wars with Germany in 1844 and 1864. Bishop Grundtvig (1783-187 2) was the inspiration and the guiding spirit in the establishment of this school. The founders broke away from educational traditions and based their school system upon the economic, social, and moral needs of their people. The first people's high school was established at Rodding in 1845, i^^ Schleswig, which was then Danish territory. During the following twenty years other schools of this type were established but none became per- manent. The war with Germany in 1864 further weakened these schools and humbled the Danish people. Then the people turned with a new vision to the folk high school as the means of regenerating their people. The school at Rodding was transferred to Askov, in 1864. There are now seventy- nine of these schools distributed throughout the small towns and rural districts of Denmark with an annual enrollment of about eight thousand men and women. It is estimated that fully T^T) per cent of the rural population spend some time in the folk high school. These schools are exclusively for men and women over eighteen years of age, who have had an ele- mentary education and from three to five years' experience in some vocation. A five months' term is conducted in the winter, for men, and three months in the spring, for women. Private Ownership. — The schools are privately owned but they receive aid from the state. If not fewer than 20 students Denmark 241 attend three successive terms, the state grants a sub- sidy. Each accredited school receives 3000 Kroner ($810), and each aided student receives 25 Kroner ($6.75) per month. The cost of board, room, and tuition, per student, per month, ranges from 32 Kroner ($8.64) in the summer to 35 Kroner ($9.45) in the winter. Course of Study. — The course of study consists of history, literature, music, a review of the elementary branches, chem- istry, physics, biology, bookkeeping, drawing, land measuring, and in some schools a little agriculture. The method of teach- ing is largely by lectures, followed by free discussions. Of the forty to fifty hours of work per week, about two thirds is given to history, literature, and music. In many rural communities night schools are maintained for pupils who are graduates of the elementary schools and cannot afford to go to the regular rural continuation schools. Rural children not intending to continue on the farm enter the middle schools of the towns, after completing the rural elementary schools, and thus prepare either for the university or technical or trade schools. Ideals of the People. — The people's high school is the outgrowth of the life and ideals of the great Bishop Grundtvig, who saw in the Danish-German conflict of the middle of the nineteenth century a stagnation and decay of the Danish peo- ple, unless a great intellectual and spiritual awakening could be aroused through a very different type of education, having as its heart the history and song of the nation itself. The greatest need and the greatest hope of the nation, he thought, lay in the education of the adult people. This education, he maintained, should begin at the eighteenth year, the age at which ideals can best be formulated to con- 242 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient trol every phase of life. To meet this end, it was planned to give them a school a few months in the year that would take them away from their industrial and commercial pursuits. The course of study and the methods of instruction were so planned as to awaken the imagination and broaden the spiritual horizon, which in turn would strengthen the people in their ordinary vocations. Methods of Instruction. — The course of study in these schools, following this theory and plan of Grundtvig, is both cultural and practical. The leading subjects are : (i) Danish history, language, and literature; (2) singing of national songs; (3) physical culture; (4) science; and (5) vocational subjects. About two thirds of the time is given to the history and literature group, the instruction being given largely by the lecture method, in subject matter drawn mainly from the lives of the great characters in Danish history and letters. These two subjects are the character-forming studies. The place given to song is unique in the annals of education. Cooley says : ''In these schools, singing is more than a sub- ject or an art ; it has become an atmosphere, a feeling, an interest that embraces everything else in the high school teaching and is inseparable from it. The pupils sing one or two songs before each lecture and very often afterwards." About one third of these high schools combine vocational and industrial courses, such as agriculture and domestic science, with the cultural ; but most of them continue as schools of liberal education, in accord with Grundtvig's ideal. They are Danish through and through, with no tendency towards the cosmopolitan tone. The school session for men lasts from November to May. Denmark 243 a time when they can best be spared from farm life; the summer months are given to the women, the same school plant being used for both sexes, and, for the most part, the same faculty being kept in service. The course of study for the two sexes varies slightly to meet the special needs of each. Cooperative Spirit. — Nearly 1000 students, largely from the rural districts, attend these schools yearly. They board and lodge in the schools at a cost per month of from $8.64 in the summer to $9.45 in the winter, including board, room, and tuition. The spirit of cooperation is very highly de- veloped among the Danes and is found in every phase of their industrial and commercial life to a more marked extent than among any other people of the world. Danish Agricultural Schools. — After a winter in the people's high school, many students spend a term in a Danish agricultural school. Of these schools there are twenty- nine accredited by the government. The course in these schools extends from three to nine months, giving instruction in every phase of rural and agricultural life of value to the farmer, and in technical subjects necessary to the country mechanic. Household Economics. — The rural school of household economics, of which there are about one dozen throughout the country, offers a six months' course in scientific training for farmers' wives or prospective brides. The school runs the year around, thus accommodating two successive en- rollments each year. Contribution to Danish Civilization. — The main contri- butions of these high schools to Danish civilization consist in the awakening of a new spirit in the Danish farmer, which 244 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient spirit they seek to sustain by means of high school associa- tions, high school homes, lecture associations, auditorium halls, and gymnasiums in the surrounding parish. The people's high schools have demonstrated the value of liberal education as a factor in the development of the voca- tional life of a country. In Denmark, alone of all the countries of the civilized world, the city is not gaining on the country. This is largely the triumph of the people's high schools. The Danes have come to know and to appreciate their own destiny and history and have developed a love of their native tongue and fatherland. With this they have acquired a degree of wholesome culture and have risen to a joyous conception of Christianity. Danish Schools in America. — This practical and up- lifting influence of the Danish high schools has been extended to several other countries through modified forms of schools for rural adult people. The Danes in America have estab- lished thirteen people's high schools, in Nebraska, Minnesota, Iowa, Wisconsin, Illinois, Michigan, after the plan of the Danish type. Certain authorities, like Mr. Foght, writing in bulletins for the United States Commissioner of Education, advocate the introduction of this type of school in the region known as the South Atlantic Highland, including contiguous parts of West Virginia, Virginia, North Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Tennessee, and Kentucky. The similarity, they say, between rural civilization in Denmark and in these mountainous parts of the United States suggests the possi- bility of making this Danish school, with certain modifica- tions, transform rural life and enrich the appreciation of spiritual standards. Also this type of school would aid greatly in eliminating illiteracy among adults. Denmark ■ 245 SPECIAL FEATURES The School Year. — The Ordinance of 1904 fixed the school year at 41 weeks of six days each, or 246 days. The mini- mum amount of work per week is the determining factor, which must be from 18 hours in rural districts to 21 hours in town schools, not including gymnastics, sloyd, drawing, handwork, or household economics. The general plan is such that, during the winter, the older children attend four whole days and two half days, each week ; and, during the summer, three whole days and three half days ; while, as to season, the plan is reversed for younger children. While the year of 41 weeks is longer than the average school year in the United States, yet the Danish program is much more flexible and thereby meets to better advantage the home needs and the conditions of weather and distance from school. Compulsory Attendance. — The compulsory school law re- quires attendance in the elementary school from the ages of 7 to 14, though many children really enter at the age of 6. The attendance laws are enforced so rigidly that practically all children of school age attend. According to the official statistics of January i, 191 1, there were only 370 children of school age, out of a total elementary school population of 377,066, who did not attend school during the year, only -f of I per cent. In the rural communities the non-attendance is estimated to be about i per cent of the school population. The compulsory attendance law is aided from within the school itself, where the teachers are well-trained, mature men and women on long tenure of office. Because of this, the teachers are community leaders and 246 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient organizers. Eighty-two per cent of the elementary school teachers are men. These conditions are favorable to school attendance. This is one of the best school attendance records in the world. Prominence Given to Music. — A unique feature in the Danish school curriculum is the prominence given to music. Every teacher, whether or not he sings, must teach music. Some instrument, almost universally the violin, is used by every teacher to accompany the music. All kinds of songs, — religious, nature, folk, patriotic, — are sung with intense enthusiasm. Every teacher in the training schools must study singing, violin, and organ. A special book of songs has been compiled for use in the folk high schools, many of which were written by the revered Bishop Grundtvig. The work of the school day begins with a song, the hours of the day are interspersed with songs, and the hour of retiring is made sacred by songs of patriotism and religion. Physical Education. — Physical education, or gymnastics, is compulsory in the elementary schools and is voluntarily continued in the higher schools. Even in the country, al- most every community has a gymnasium in which both youth and adult take regular systematic exercises under trained leaders. The system of gymnastics in use is the Swedish, which is based on the underlying principles of the Ling system. Every teacher in the elementary schools must be trained to teach gymnastics. To meet this requirement the normal schools give systematic work in the subject. Since 1906 the state pays one half of the cost of a school gymnasium in rural districts, and this has resulted in a rapid multiplication of them in the small village and rural districts. Demnark 247 Practically all of the elementary and secondary schools in the towns and cities have good gymnasiums. Emphasis is placed upon this subject for the twofold purpose of physical development and well-being, and also for the moral influence. Training for teachers of gymnastics is offered both in the normals and in special gymnastic schools. It is the custom in such schools as those of Copenhagen to require from two to three lessons per week in the elementary schools, each lasting from twenty-five to forty minutes per week ; and in the secondary schools and private schools, four to six lessons per week. So far as is possible, the lessons are given between ten a.m. and noon, as it is the general opinion of the teachers that this period of the day is pref- erable for physical training. Careful medical inspection is also provided once a year or oftener as a safeguard to proper physical training. The exercises used are intended to be both " nutritive " and " corrective." Quite generally some part of the physical training hour is given to games, which are of such a character as to permit a large number of children to take active part in them. THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS Normal Schools for Elementary Teachers. — For the edu- cation of teachers in the elementary schools there are four public and fifteen private normal schools with a three-year course, and one public and three private with a one-year course. The one-year normals prepare for the first three grades. The four public three-year normals are for men ; several are coeducational. The prevailing sentiment favors separate schools for sexes. 248 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient The entrance requirements for these normals is not high. The student must be eighteen years of age and must have taught one year, which service is usually in some private school. A small annual tuition fee of 40 Kroner is charged in the public normals and about 150 Kroner in the private normals. The course of study includes the subjects to be taught in the elementary schools. The characteristic features of the pro- gram, to an American observer, is instruction in singing, violin, organ, gymnastics, manual training, and religion. Above the three-year normal course there is a teachers' high school, offering to teachers of both sexes a one-year course for specialization in a wide range of electives. To secure a permanent position, a teacher must hold a certificate, must be a member of the Lutheran Church, must be twenty-five years of age, and must have had four years of successful experience. This qualification gives the teacher a permanent position and a free residence. The standard of work in the normal schools is not high, but the quality of the work and the professional spirit is good. The Training of Secondary Teachers. — Teachers for secondary schools must take a university course consisting of three phases of training. First, they complete the aca- demic work and take the examinations for the certificate. Second, they take the professional training. Third, they do practice teaching in some approved secondary school. Any teacher, to secure a permanent position, must take the prescribed course of training, pass the state examinations, profess the doctrine of the Lutheran Church, and must have taught four years. He then becomes an employee of the state, may have a free residence, and becomes eligible in time for a pension. Denmark 249 Teachers' Pensions. — Both men and women teachers, if they have met the requirements for definite appointment, are eligible to receive pensions after ten years of service, following the thirtieth year of their Ufe. This pension equals two thirds of the average salary received during the last five years. A special provision is made by which a secondary teacher may retire after two years of service with an amount equal to one tenth of the salary. Teachers 70 years old may retire on two thirds of their last year's salary. The state appropriates annually a sufficient amount to meet the calls upon the pension fund. THE PROBLEM OF COEDUCATION In the Elementary Schools. — In the rural and village schools, coeducation has always been the custom and is regarded by many as a great moral advantage, as well as an economic necessity. But separate schools for boys and girls are provided in the elementary departments of the town and city schools where enough pupils of each sex exist to main- tain a separate school. Coeducation is thus a problem of the number of pupils in a settlement, so far as the elementary schools are concerned. In Secondary Schools. — In secondary education, however, the influence of the middle ages, as to principles and prac- tices in the education of women, has continued as a factor. As a result, but few schools were provided for the girls until recently, and these were not aided by the state. A great impetus was given to the education of girls in the estabUsh- ment of a training school for women teachers as early as 1851. In the larger cities, good schools for girls have existed for 250 Modern Education in Europe and tJie Orient many years, some of which prepare girls for the same examina- tions as are prescribed for graduates of the Gymnasia and Real Schools. The Education Act of 1903 opened the secondary schools to girls, thus establishing coeducation in secondary education and admitting girls to schools hitherto attended only by boys. In 1905, the proportion of girls to boys in the secondary schools was as follows: boys, 16,272 ; girls, 11,228. For many years prominent Danish educators, some of them principals of. important coeducational institutions, have ad- vocated coeducation in secondary schools as a means of a better moral adjustment, which they consider to be a funda- mental issue. They beheve that the best results come when the two sexes associate quite freely in the classroom and in recreation. They believe that coeducation carried on with interest and care raises the standard of morality. Their theory is that coeducation in the secondary school necessi- tates it in the elementary schools that prepare for the higher schools. It also necessitates a coeducational faculty, with women in charge of the problems of special interest to girls. A teachers' pubhc high school, open to both sexes, has been established, but the four pubhc normal schools are for men, only. Several of the fifteen private public normal schools are likewise coeducational, but the others are about evenly divided between the sexes. In the People's High School. — In the people's high schools, as is shown elsewhere, the sexes are separated by being instructed at different times of the year, but the course of study is practically the same for both. Thus it appears that Denmark is yielding to the same world tendency operat- ing in other countries to place women on an equal plane with Denmark 251 men in educational advantages. The following comparison of the enrollment of the two sexes in the University of Copen- hagen for the year 1906-07 throws some Ught upon the present situation: men, 1106; women, 59. Coeducation at the top of the system has just begun. In the National Capital. — In Copenhagen, the capital, private schools for girls are preferred, though coeducation is permitted and is in successful operation in several public high schools. In some cases the course of study is extended so as to lighten the work for girls, and a special finishing exan-ination, also, has been instituted for them. Such schools, for girls, since 1907, must have six grades, and the girls must be seventeen years old in order to be admitted to the examinations. RELIGION AND RELIGIOUS INSTRUCTION Religious Toleration — The state church is the Evangelical Lutheran Church, to which the king must belong ; other- wise there is complete rehgious toleration with representa- tives within the kingdom of practically all of the important denominations. For centuries the church had control of education when there were no free public schools, but grad- ually secularization has reduced the control of the church to a mere nominal one. However, the harmonious relation- ship between church and state has preserved for rehgious instruction an important place in the course of study, in all types of the Danish schools. Even the discussions in recent years, looking to the separation of the church and state, have been so mild and democratic that religious instruction in the schools has not been disturbed. The church population according to creeds is as follows : 252 Modern Education in Europe and tlie Orient Lutherans 2,436,084 Catholics (Roman) 5,373 Catholics (Greek) 106 Jews 3,473, with small numbers of Baptists, Methodists, Mormons, and others. Church Supervision of Schools. — The bishops and other clergy of the state church are appointed by the king, and upon them rest the duty of inspection of both churches and schools. The minister is also a school commissioner, which provision gives the church direct supervision over education in the pubHc as well as in the parochial schools. Of the latter type, including all non-state denominations, there are nearly 3000 in Denmark. Luther's Smaller Catechism, or some authorized version of the same, constitutes the basis of the religious instruction in the communal schools. Theology in the University. — The culmination of church influence in education is found in the University of Copen- hagen, which has a theological department with a faculty of five ordinary professors. Here the Danish clergy receive their education. Hence, the theology of this department in the university becomes the controlling rehgious influence in the churches and schools of the nation. In the year 1906-07 there were thirty-four students in the department of theology. The state further encourages theological students by granting several stipends for this purpose. There is no other country in which religious control is so completely centralized in the National University as in Denmark. Religious Education Abroad. — Active religious missions exist for work both at home and abroad. Of the latter, one of special interest is the society for Danish-Americaji missions. Denmark 253 which supplies the Danish churches of North America with preachers, and offers further aid in this country. Religion in the Course of Study. — The textbook for re- ligious instruction in the primary schools must be approved by the minister. This subject receives from two to three hours per week, out of a total of eighteen hours of instruction throughout the grades of the primary or elementary school system. Religion is also a constant subject in all the grades for the middle school and the gymnasium. Likewise, the course of study for normal schools includes religious instruc- tion. And one of the requirements of a teacher who would secure a permanent position is to profess the doctrines of the Lutheran Church. Even in the people's high schools reUgion is given a prominent place as one of the lecture subjects, for its spiritual and inspirational value. Regarding religion in this type of school, Mr. Friend says: " The religious influence of the folk high schools is of a most positive character, though no attempt is made to teach dogmatic religion. Separate lessons in religion are not given, and the church exercises no control whatever over the teaching of the high schools. Through the work of the school, however, particularly through history and literature, there is constant emphasis upon the underlying principles of reUgion. In the words of one of the high school principals : ' In the study of history in the high schools the hand of God is shown all through the evolu- tion of the Ages.' The teachers are all religious men and women, and through their example also the spirit of rehgion is inculcated in the Hves of their pupils." This compulsory religious instruction in all schools gives rise to much controversy in Denmark. With 98 per cent of the population belonging to the Lutheran Church it is com- 254 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient paratively easy, however, to enforce such a law. The 2 per cent of non-conformists are exempt from the religious in- struction of the school provided they are taught the religion of their parents. The church confirms almost all of the Danish children, at the age of fourteen or fifteen, in the state church, thus empha- sizing somewhat more the importance of religious instruction. In the course of the religious instruction, moral instruction is interwoven more or less as the individual teacher may see fit. But much of the moral instruction grows out of the courses in history and literature, rather than out of the re- ligious courses. Even the songs used in the schools are chiefly religious. Many teachers feel that Christianity, as it meets the students in the historical lecture, in the personal lives of the teachers, and in the tone of the school, has its strongest influence on them. Whether or not this method of religious and moral instruction is better than the method of separation of school and reHgion as used in the United States is an open question. PROVISION FOR THE DEFECTIVE Government Paternalistic. — Denmark is paternalistic in the care of her defective children, an attitude that reveals the heart of a people and adds the strength of the fortunate to the weakness of the victim of heredity and chance environ- ment. The schools for this class, as are those for normals, are under the supervision of the Minister of Public Instruction and Ecclesiastical Affairs. Since 1807, Denmark has shown her interest in this work, establishing in that year the first school for the deaf and making instruction therein compulsory for children so affected. Denmark 255 Private and Public Schools. — There are now four such schools, two public and two private, with an enrollment of four hundred students. Likewise, the state has two prepara- tory schools for the bhnd children up to the age of ten. At the age of ten these children enter the higher school, which was established in 181 1 and which now has a faculty of ten instructors and one hundred students. Schools for the feeble-minded have been maintained since 1855, both by private endowment and by taxation, some for children, others for adults. Several hundred inmates are found in these schools and asylums. Care of Defectives in the Capital. — The city of Copen- hagen makes special provision for her own subnormals in the elementary schools. These classes are estabHshed for those children who either for lack of capacity or because of de- fective speech and defective organs of senses are unable after two years in the first grade, to meet the requirements for promotion. Admission of pupils to these classes occurs at the age of eight or nine years. These children leave school at the age of fourteen, as the other children do under the provisions of the compulsory school attendance law. The theory that pertains in the direction of these auxiliary classes and schools is that they should pay the greatest regard to the physical condition of the poor children, that they should be under special medical observation, their sickness should be medi- cally treated, starved children should be fed. Further- more, the appHances and premises of the schools should be adapted in the best way to the needs of the children, the school day and the lessons should be short, and the leisure hours should be frequent and long, in order to avoid fatiguing 256 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient the pupils. The realization of all these conditions is considered necessary to secure satisfactory results of the teaching in the auxiUary classes. POLYTECHNIC AND PROFESSIONAL SCHOOLS The institute of technology is a very superior institution, with a faculty of twenty-four professors and fourteen instruc- tors, and with a student body of nine hundred, as reported in the year 1913-14. The budget of that year was 425,000 Kroner. This school has been in operation since 1829 and has supplied the world, for nearly a century, with scientifically trained technologists for both professional and practical pur- suits. Very much of the recent development of technical industries in Denmark has been under the scientific direction of the graduates of the institute of technology. The professional schools cover the range of dentistry, phar- macy, agriculture, gardening, veterinary surgery, navigation, commerce, music, fine arts, etc., with several thousand students in preparation. In addition to these scientific schools, various societies of national and honorable standing exist to further the interests and application of modern scientific theories and discoveries. The various departments in the university also conduct free public lecture courses throughout the kingdom, for the further spread of scientific knowledge. THE UNIVERSITY OF COPENHAGEN Origin. — The educational institution of highest rank in Denmark is the University of Copenhagen, founded in 1475 by King Christian I, and reorganized in 1539 under the in- Denmark 257 fluence of Lutheranism. During the long period of its history it has suffered two disasters, one in 1792, in which it was de- stroyed by fire, the other in 1807, when the buildings were destroyed by bombardment of the city. The erection of the present buildings, in 1831-36, since the last disaster, makes them of comparatively recent origin. Administration. — The administration of the university, as stated elsewhere, is under the general supervision of the Minister of Ecclesiastical Affairs and Public Instruction, but on the other hand it enjoys a large measure of self-control. The inner affairs of the university are conducted by a uni- versity council, composed of sixteen members, a part of whom are representatives of the several faculties. There are five faculties, each with from five to fifteen members. They are, theology, law, medicine, philosophy, mathematics, and natural science. The professors of the university are nominated by the Minister of Education after counsel with a university com- mittee, and then formally appointed by the king. This method of administration is very strongly centralized in comparison with the administration of a state university in America under an appointive board of trustees. The method serves the purpose, however, for which it is intended, that is, to keep the university in harmony with the national government. Patronage. — Although intended primarily for graduates of the Danish secondary schools, yet the university is open to all who can meet the entrance requirements. It is attended by both sexes, though there are but few women enrolled, possibly less than i of i per cent of more than 2000 students. Support. — A part of the maintenance is met by the state, 258 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient the remainder by endowments. In 191 2-13, the expenses were 1,187,053 Kroner, of which the state appropriations met 811,434 Kroner, or about 69 per cent. The university has a hbrary of 400,000 volumes, a museum, an academy of surgery, an observatory, a medical laboratory, and botanical and zoolog- ical gardens. Scholarships. — The Danish method of encouraging gradu- ates of secondary schools to attend the university is the one so common elsewhere, that of granting scholarships by the state, of which there are in Denmark one hundred open annually. Renown. — Many famous men have been connected with this historic institution, such as Oersted and Lorenz in physics, Hoffding in philosophy, Thomsen in chemistry, Brandes in literature, and Meyer in medicine. The university is a great center of scientific research and ranks among the best, though not the largest, in the world. The standard for admission is high, it being thirteen years of thorough training in the elementary school, middle school, and gymnasium, with a final entrance examination. The course in the university is from five to six years and in the case of medicine, seven years. The degrees from this in- stitution are highly honored. Topics for Further Study 1. Give a brief history of the relation of the church to education in Denmark. 2. Compare the elementary schools of Denmark with the elementary schools of Norway and Sweden. 3. Compare the Child Labor Laws of Denmark with those in the United States in their bearing upon school attendance. 4. Discuss the Danish middle school, showing its merits in compari- son with the American grade and high schools covering the same years. Denmark 259 5. Compare the preparation for entrance to the Danish university with that in England for entrance to Oxford or Cambridge. 6. Discuss the adaptation of the Danish rural high school to Amer- ican needs. 7. Compare the place given to music in the Danish schools with that given the same subject in the German schools. 8. Taking the population of Denmark and of your state as a basis for comparison, show which of the two makes the most ample provision for the training of teachers. 9. Compare coeducation in the three Scandinavian countries. 10. Write a thesis on the prominence and influence of the Danes in America. Special Bibliography CoOLEY, C. G. Bishop Grundtvig, Educational Review, December, 1914, New York. FoGHT, H. W. The Danish Folk High School, Bulletin No. 22, 1914, United States Bureau of Education, Washington, D.C. The Danish Rural Schools. The Macmillans, 191 5, New York. Franch. Education System of Denmark, United States Commission of Education, 1889-90. Pages 519-48. Friend, T. L. The Folk High Schools of Denmark, Bulletin No. 5, 1914, United States Bureau of Education, Washington, D.C. Hertz, Paul, M.D. School Hygiene in Copenhagen, Second Interna- tional Congress in School Hygiene, London, 1907. Sadley, M. E. Moral Instruction and Training in Schools, Vol. II, London. Schoeslieb, M. D. Physical Training in Stockholm and Copenhagen, The Nineteenth Century, Vol. LX, 1906. Pages 986-87. NORWAY CHAPTER VIII HISTORY Early Finns. — The aboriginal people in Norway were doubt- less of the Finnish race, who, as fishers and hunters, dwelt there as early as 6000 B.C. Such, at least, is the conclusion of the archeologists who claim that the instruments found in Norway and representing the stone age were made by the earlier inhabitants, the Finns, and not by the Teutons, who did not enter Norway until about 1700 B.C., near the end of the later stone age. But the Teutons either absorbed the Finns or drove them into border lands, where they doubtless continued to exist for centuries, as shown by such historic sources as the "Beowulf" and the ancient laws of Norway. Teutonic Contributions. — The Teutons made two per- manent contributions of great worth ; they established the Teutonic language as the parent of the present-day Nor- wegian, and they established the independent ownership of land, which characterizes farm life in modern Norway. Historical Period. — The historic period of Norway begins in the ninth century, with the struggles of Harold Fairhair to unite the petty kingdoms under his rule. This he suc- ceeded in doing in 872, thus establishing a united kingdom, but at the expense of free independent land-ownership, for which he substituted a most slavish feudal system. For nearly four and a half centuries, until 13 19, with but three 260 Norway 261 short breaks, Norway was ruled by descendants of Harold Fairhair. Struggle for Independence. — At this time, 13 19, Norway and Sweden united under one king, thus ending Norway's independence as a separate nation for nearly six centuries, until 1905. These centuries have been stormy ones for Nor- way; now united with Sweden (1319-1397), now with all Scandinavia (1397-1523), now with Denmark (1523-1814), now with Sweden (1814-1905), finally an independent nation (1905-). The history of Norway's struggle for independ- ence is simply one of the many versions of the struggle of the human soul upward from primitive conditions to the place of independent manhood. Introduction of Christianity. — Christianity was intro- duced into Norway by Haakon the Good and firmly estab- lished by Olaf, who in his short reign, 995 to 1000, brought bishops and priests from England and organized the church on the English basis, which accounts to some extent for the present Norwegian system of church administration. The darkest period in all the history of Norway was the period of the Reformation. Norway was merely a province of Den- mark in those days and her people largely adherents of the Catholic faith. Christian III of Denmark, through the Danish ecclesiastical law, called the Ordinance, introduced the Lutheran faith into Norway by confiscating the church lands and plundering the churches and monasteries and sup- planting Catholic bishops with Lutheran pastors, as fast as the objectionable type of them could be spared from Denmark. This abuse was finally corrected by the conservation and laborious efforts of Gijeble Pederson, the first Lutheran bishop in Bergen, who began the work of educating a native Protes- 262 Modern Education in Europe atid tlie Orient tant clergy. To-day the Evangelical Lutheran is the state re- ligion, to which the king, his council, other officials and the school teachers of the nation must conform. Every religion, however, is tolerated. Character of Government. — The Norwegian government, since 1905, has been the most democratic in Europe. Though in name a hereditary monarchy, it is, in fact, a republic, for the king has no real power, " he is to them what their flag is — a symbol of national unity. Both are saluted with respect, but neither one nor the other is vested with power." The Norwegian woman is the equal of man, in law as well as in reality, and still remains feminine and the mother of the home : this is one of the striking characteristics of the politi- cal and social Hfe of the wonderful little country of Norway, — a country of equal suffrage, of peasant land owners, of public schools, of religious toleration, with the very atmosphere surcharged for centuries with the spirit of democracy. Is it any wonder that the 500,000 Norwegian emigrants in the United States make good citizens of a free republic? But Norway still has her problems — land for the increasing peasant population, readjustment of education for all classes, temperance, divorce, illegitimacy, social readjustment, foreign relations, moral and religious reconstruction, and a national language. HER GOVERNMENT Constitutional Monarchy. — Norway terminated her union with Sweden in 1905 and became an independent monarchy, a condition of individuality that she had not enjoyed since she surrendered her independence in the Union of Calmar with Sweden and Denmark in 1397. Her new king took the Norway 263 title of Haakon VII to emphasize the essential continuity of the new Norwegian monarchy with that of the old. The constitution and laws of to-day are based fundamentally on the Norwegian constitution of 1814, which was the outgrowth of the French Revolution, with all reference to Swedish affilia- tion omitted. The government, in form, is a constitutional, hereditary monarchy, with more popular elements than are found in the governments of either Denmark or Sweden. The king must be a member of the Lutheran Church, as also must be the eight or more members of the King's Council of State, who are appointed by the crown. The executive powers are really in the hands of the king and council combined. Equal Suffrage. — Norway led the European countries until recently in extending electoral privileges to women. Since May, 1 9 10, women have exercised the same electoral privileges in municipal elections as men. But as yet the parliamen- tary franchise has been extended only to such unmarried women, twenty-five years of age, as pay taxes on an annual income of not less than 300 Kroner, and upon married women of the same age whose husbands pay taxes on the same amount of income. Thus, women may not only vote for members of, but sit in the Norwegian Storthing, the most democratic national legislative body in Europe. The Storthing is elected as one body and then divides into two. A bill passed by the Storthing becomes a law with the approval of the king, or with his disapproval, by being passed by three successive Storthings, an event that seldom occurs. Justice. — Civil justice in Norway is administered through district courts, of which there are eighty rural and twenty-five urban, three higher tribunals, and a Supreme Court, whose decision may be neither appealed nor reviewed. 264 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient For criminal prosecutions there are two types of courts, (i) with a jury, (2) without a jury. There is also a court of impeachment for the trial of charges of misconduct in ofi&ce. Local Government. — Local government is through twenty counties, of which Christiania is one and Bergen another. The head of each county is appointed by the crown. The commune, of which there are more than seven hundred, is the smallest local unit. This unit is governed by a council of from twelve to forty-eight members, chosen by universal suffrage. The local control of the schools is through county and communal school boards. THE PEOPLE AND THEIR LANGUAGE Geography and Population. — Norway, with an area of 124,495 square miles and a population of about 2,500,000, is one of the most sparsely populated countries of Europe. Three fourths of her population is rural and one fourth urban. The capital city, Christiania, has a population of approximately 250,000. The cause of this slight density of population is found mainly in the extreme ruggedness of the country, the result of which is that about two thirds of the population dwell by the coast and fjords, and one third in the low- lands and uplands. This characteristic condition of the country and population makes the problem of education for Norway a unique one, and will account for some of the special features of her system, such as local control, ambulatory schools, etc. Social Problems. — Social problems, touching her popu- lation, are (i) high rate of mortahty of males, due to the dan- gers of seafaring life; (2) preponderance of females over males ; (3) high percentage of longevity ; (4) high percentage Norway 265 of illegitimacy (now on the decline and less than that in Denmark and Sweden) ; (5) the high birth rate and the low death rate ; and (6) high percentage of emigration to other countries, mainly to the United States of America. Racial Traits. — Combined with these social problems are the overstrong national feeling and the conservation of ancient customs and practices that make the Norwegians a stable race of yeomen without an aristocracy or nobility. They are large of stature and vigorous in body and mind. In political consciousness they are democratic and thus are striving to give to their children the type of education that will perpetuate Norway as a government for the people. They are not impulsive, but, nevertheless, are open minded and ready to investigate the experiences and accomplishments of other nations, and then quick to adopt from such studies what can be made to fit into their national needs. Dano-Norwegian in Language. — From a linguistic sense, the Norwegians are not purely such, but are Dano-Norwegian and have been so since the end of the fourteenth century, when the Danish influence became paramount. This move- ment reached its climax by the opening of the Reformation, in the disappearance of Norwegian from the language of literature and documentary writings. Thus, the native Norwegians have had three centuries of linguistic as well as political and social struggles to endure and to surmount. Ivar Aaseh, who in 1848 began a movement to rehabilitate the Norwegian tongue and to form a national language, is revered in this connection. For the past half century this work has been moving forward through the incorporation into literary speech of many idioms and words from the Norwegian dialects. The relationship of the present-day Norwegian language to 266 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient the literary Dano-Norwegian is similar to that of the Ameri- can literature to the English. The Landsmaal. — An important crisis in this linguistic struggle came in 1899, when the proposition to adopt the lands- maal, or composite dialect of the peasants, in place of the rigs- maal, or Dano-Norwegian, was warmly controverted by the two opposing parties. The great obstacle to such a change seems to be the existence of practically all the classics of Norway in the Dano-Norwegian, their being but one striking exception, that of Arne Garborg, the novelist of peasant birth and dialect. In the Dano-Norwegian array stood all the philologists and writers, with the master of letters, Bjornson, at their head, backed by Ibsen's scoff at the project, in " Peer Gynt." In recent years, however, the government has repeatedly shown an inclination to make a knowledge of the landsmaal obligatory in academic examinations and otherwise, to such an extent that many fear that Norway will be burdened with two languages — one of the people and one of literature. For more than forty years, since 1874, the date of the introduction of the first language bill, the legislature has been concerned with the language problem, and many primary and secondary schools, by permission, have taught the landsmaal. In 1899 a professorship of the landsmaal and the Norwegian dialects was established at the University of Christiania. In the church also, progress has been made in the spread of the landsmaal through the printing of the ritual and a hymn- book and the use of the landsmaal by a few preachers. But, as yet, the districts that have adopted the language for use in their schools amount to only about one eighth of the entire population. Norway 267 It is very questionable from a practical standpoint whether or not national prejudice, the real root of the matter, will ever be able to overshadow the literary language, now five centuries old. The centennial celebration, that met May, 1914, revived again this question from the extreme national viewpoint. PLAN OF SCHOOL CONTROL" State Department of Education. — The entire Norwegian school system is under the control of the Department of Edu- cation and Ecclesiastical Affairs and is administered directly by a member of the king's cabinet. One of the two divisions of the department is concerned with the education work and this is divided into two bureaus, one in charge of primary education, the other of secondary education, each caring mainly for the clerical work pertaining to its own type of schools. Diocesan School Directors. — Subordinate to this state department, there are six dioceses of the kingdom, each having a school director, — and the most northern, because of its size, two, — who is responsible for primary education in his diocese. The directors are appointed by the king's cabinet, paid by the state, and are responsible to the state for the work in their respective territories. The secondary schools are in- spected, supervised, and examined by a state educational com- mission, consisting of seven men, appointed by the king's cabinet, from leading school men of the nation, some of whom are rectors of secondary schools. Local School Boards. — Each county has a school board, consisting of three members, appointed by the county council, to look after the general and financial interests of the county. Each local commune (town or division of the county) has its 268 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient own school board, whose chief duties pertain to the appoint- ment of committees and teachers, the preparation of a course of study, and the school budget. Tliis board is composed of the local priest, a member of the council, one or two teachers and other male and female members, appointed by the council. One fourth of this board must be parents of children in school. The school board does its supervisory work mainly through two committees, one, the committee of inspection and the other, the school committee. The membership of the first committee consists of a board member and parents; and of the second, teachers selected by the staff. The duties of the inspection committee are largely concerned with the physical and moral welfare of the schools, while those of the school committee are primarily pedagogical. The city system of schools is supervised by a superintend- ent, and each separate school by a head master. The duties of these officials are very much the same as those of the similar officials in an American city school. This plan of school control is one of the most democratic in the world, as it brings together the parents, teachers, min- isters, and communal councils in the direct management of the schools. Control of Secondary Schools. — The state secondary schools are controlled locally by a board of five members, while the municipal secondary schools are controlled by a municipal or private board. The principal and permanent teachers in the state secondary schools are appointed by the king and are government officials. The teachers in the municipal secondary schools are appointed by the Depart- ment of Education. These latter schools are further con- trolled by the government through a system of state aid. Norway 269 Control of Normal Schools and University. — The state normal schools, of which there is one in each diocese, and the state university are all under state control, and in the latter institution even the professors are appointed by the king. This centralization of authority in normal and higher edu- cation in Norway is a characteristic feature of her school system. It is in marked contrast to the system of individual state control in the United States. THE PRIMARY SCHOOLS General Plan. — The primary schools, for both rural and city districts, consist of seven grades, for children between the ages of seven and fourteen. In the rural districts these seven grades are grouped into two divisions, the lower of which includes three grades, and is known as the Infant School. The law requires these schools to be in operation at least twelve weeks in the year, while, as a fact, as a result of the general interest in education, most of the city schools and many of the rural schools have an annual session of forty weeks, six days per week. In the rural school, when a shorter term is held, the number of hours per week may be greater. Course of Study. — The course of study for the primary school is quite uniform for both rural and city districts, being fixed by the Normal Plan, which is prepared by the Depart- ment of Education and Ecclesiastical Affairs. For the city schools, however, the course of study is quite generally en- riched by the addition of optional subjects, such as modern languages, domestic science for girls, and, in the northern districts the native language for the Finns and Laps, who are found there. The hst of subjects in the Normal Plan is, — rehgion, Norwegian, arithmetic and geometry, geography, 270 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient history, science, singing, writing, gymnastics, manual work, drawing. Religion only is fixed by statute. Special Provisions for Rural Districts. — Special provisions for the rural districts are made as follows : — (i) Ambulatory schools, for districts where the population is sparse and where there are fewer than twenty pupils, are held in homes for a few weeks at the time, and then teachers, with equipment, move on to the next similar district. Such schools are rapidly disappearing, there being but i per cent of the country chil- dren attending such schools now, in comparison with 92 per cent in 1837. (2) Owing to distance, many districts are divided into several infant school districts with a school in each district for chil- dren seven to ten years of age. (3) The number of pupils must not exceed 35 per class, except temporarily, for urgent economic reasons, it may run up to 45, these numbers being 10 fewer than those for the city. (4) The standard set for the completion of the course of study is somewhat lower, for obvious reasons. (5) The teachers in the rural infant school may hold the lower grade certificate. (6) The rural teachers are suppHed with homes consisting of house, garden, and pasturage for two or three cows. This home is comfortable in every respect and it helps to make the teacher an abiding citizen in that community. Over one half of the 6000 rural teachers live in such free homes. It is an interesting fact, in this connection, that 75 percent of the rural teachers are men. May there not be a valuable suggestion here for the United States, where the reverse pro- portion of men and women teachers exists? Norway 271 Ratio of Rural and City School Enrollment. — The Nor- wegian school problem is further revealed through the fact that three fourths of her children are in rural schools, as shown by the last available statistics — 280,121 in the rural schools and only 96,602 in the city schools. This fact, however, should be studied in relation to the enrollment in private schools, which abound in city districts, as discussed elsewhere. The total enrollment in the primary schools of Norway is about i5i per cent of the entire population, which is high in comparison with that in other countries. Cost of Primary Schools. — The state spends upon these schools, per capita of population, $1.57 ; per capita of enroll- ment, $10.06. These figures must also be viewed in relation to the private school attendance, and to the further fact that the local districts and communes pay about 65 per cent of the expenses of the primary schools, and the state the other 35 per cent. THE MIDDLE SCHOOLS (MIDDELSKOLE) Relation to Primary School. — Pupils pass from the fifth grade of the primary schools into the middle school for a four- year course. Some students, who complete the seven-year course in the primary school and decide to take the work of the middle school, enter and complete the course in three years. This school was organized in 1896, to serve as a connecting link between the primary school and the gymnasium, and to give a more extensive and a broader general education for the mass of the people. The definition and aim of this school, as given by the law, is, " The middle school is a school for chil- dren, which, in union with the primary school, gives its pupils 272 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient a complete, thorough general education adapted to the re- ceptivity of childhood." The course of study may vary from one to four years and is made uniform by a Plan furnished by the Department of Education and Ecclesiastical Affairs, and by a uniform examination (middelskole examen), taken on the same day throughout the nation. Course of Study. — The subjects taught in the middle schools are those of the primary schools, with the addition jf German in all the grades and English in the three upper grades. In some of the shorter courses only one modern language is taught. The reasons for the selection of these two particular languages, to be taught thus early, are apparent and significant. Norway is intimately related to Germany and England politically, commercially, and industrially. Cost of Secondary Education. — Instruction in the middle schools is not free ; the state pays about one third of the teachers' salaries and some scholarship funds, the remainder being paid by municipal grants and tuitions. However, the tendency is toward free instruction in these schools and in some communes such provisions have already been made. Coeducation. — These schools are coeducational, though in certain classes and often on the playgrounds, the sexes are separated. There exist many private boys' and girls' schools of this type without the examination privileges, but with freer arrangement, especially for the education of the girls. Doubtless the number of these private middle schools will diminish as the state extends free tuition to the state middle schools, and through the exercise of their genius makes the course of study meet the individual and group needs which are now met only by private initiative. Norway 273 In the accredited middle schools in 1910-11 there were approximately 10,000 students enrolled. The teachers in the middle schools are required to be uni- versity graduates, with pedagogical training at the seminary. THE GYMNASIUM Relation to the Middle School. — The gymnasium, in accord with the legislative act of 1896, follows in regular succession the middle school. The course extends through three years and in the first year is uniform for all students, while- in the second and third years, by a system of electives, it divides into three groups, — (i) real, with emphasis upon mathe- matics and science; (2) language-history, with emphasis upon these two subjects; and (3) language-history, with Latin in the second and third years only. The Course of Study. — The course of study is fixed by the state and is otherwise made uniform through a system of inspection and a finishing examination for admission to the university. The subjects taught are, — religion, Nor- wegian, German, French, English, Latin, history, geography, mathematics (algebra, geometry, trigonometry, stereometry, analytic geometry, and higher mathematical series), natural history, drawing, gymnastics, and singing. It is worthy of notice that the classical languages, — Hebrew, Greek, and Latin, — that for centuries constituted the major part of the old middle schools' curriculum, have all disappeared, as required subjects, under the law of 1896. Only Latin re- mains as an elective in the upper two years. Otherwise these languages are found only in private schools and the univer- sity. The aim has been to free these schools from needless subjects and to put in their place modern and more practical 274 Modern Education in Europe and tlw Orient ones. These schools are coeducational. The teachers are university graduates with special training in the pedagogical seminary. There are a large number of private gymnasiums both approved and non-approved. Students and Cost. — In 1909 there were 1725 (one fourth girls) students in the accredited state gymnasia. In 1910-1 1 in all the state and private secondary schools combined there were 22,476 students, of which 11,620, or a little over one half, were in fully accredited schools. Toward the expense of these schools the state and commune paid 51 per cent, the other 49 per cent being met by tuition, fees, and endowments. State Policy regarding Coeducation. — It is the policy of the state to favor coeducational gymnasia for state aid, rather than the separate girls' schools. This attitude of the state tends to close up the smaller and weaker of the girls' schools, and to consolidate them into larger schools, with sufhcient strength to continue as separate girls' schools, without state aid. There are still ten or more large secondary schools for girls, and many small ones. This tendency toward coeduca- tion is a good illustration of economic necessity overcoming historic tradition. The requirements of a final examination for admission to the university went into operation in 1903. Since then much discussion and discontent have existed regarding the standards, methods, training of secondary teachers, and other subjects incident to the change. These problems and the particular ones regarding the relation of the gymnasium to the middle school and to the primary school will keep the question of secondary education uppermost for years, and until another reorganization of the school system is made by the Storthing. It must come soon. Norway 275 THE UNIVERSITY Organization. — Norway has only one university, the Royal Friedrich University, which was founded in 181 1. This in- stitution is located in Christiania, the national capital. The work of the university is organized under five distinct departments: theology, law, medicine, history-philology- philosophy, and mathematics-science. Each faculty elects a dean, and the five deans constitute the University Board of Management. The professors are appointed by the king. By a special provision a foreigner may be appointed to a professorship. Admission to the University. — The leaving examination from the gymnasium admits to the university. The prepar- atory course consists of five years in the primary school, four years in the gymnasium, a total of twelve years. The extent of this preparation for admission to the university is the same as is required in the schools of the United States, but, in Nor- way, it is broken into three distinct periods, five in the pri- mary, four in the middle school, and three in the gymnasium. In this latter respect the Norwegian system has some merits not possessed by the American system. The enrollment in the university is about 1500 students. Maintenance. — The instruction in the university is free, which is a noticeable contrast with the condition in the second- ary schools, where fees are universally charged. The uni- versity has a fixed income of 114,796 Kroner, and a state sub- sidy of 1,214,345 Kroner. The university library, which is the seat of the national library, has 350,000 volumes. Degrees. — All students, before entering for the examina- tion for any degree, must pass the examen philosophicum, the preparation for which usually requires two or three years 276 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient of university work. The average time required for the various degrees is : theology, 9 years ; law, 8 ; medicine, 14 ; philol- ogy, 10; real students, 10. To an American student these terms doubtless seem very long. They are even longer than the combined terms of four years required for the bachelor's degree and the three or four years required for the doctorate. Training of Teachers and Ministers. — The university pro- vides for the professional training of teachers and ministers. A pedagogical seminary for the training of teachers is attached to the university. For the training of ministerial students the university maintains a department of theology. Through these two departments the Norwegian university exerts a great influence over the thought and ideals of the people of the nation. The university professors rank with the best in other countries, and their graduates pass into the highest scientific, professional, and business positions in the nation. THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS Primary Teachers. — For the training of teachers in the primary schools there are ten colleges, six of which are public and four private. The six public colleges are situated, one in each diocese. Instruction in the public colleges is free. In the private colleges, by aid of government grants, a number of free scholarships are established. The institutions are coeducational. The course has recently been extended from two years to three years. It consists of training, from a ped- agogical standpoint, in the subjects required in the normal plan for the primary schools, with a range somewhat parallel to that of the secondary schools. The aim is both cultural and pro- fessional. The observation and practice work of these courses is done in connection with the state primary and secondary Norway 277 schools in the vicinity of the colleges, which provision, at best, is meager. Entrance Requirements. — To be admitted to these colleges, the applicants must be in their eighteenth year, of good moral character, must pass an examination in the work of the seven years' primary school course, and must also be a member of the Lutheran Church. Many of these applicants, at eighteen years of age, have had four or five years' more schooling than is required in the standard set by the examination. Leaving Examination. — Graduates of the teachers' colleges pass a leaving examination, which gives them a certificate to teach permanently in the primary schools of the towns and in the second division of the rural primary schools. These leaving examinations are prepared and conducted by an ex- amination committee of three members, whose additional function it is to superintend the instruction in the teachers' colleges. Teachers for Infant Grades. — For the training of teachers in the lower, or infant grades of the primary schools, there is a one-year course in special primary subjects, attached to the teachers' colleges. Those who complete this course are pre- pared to pass the entrance examination to the colleges, or the lower teachers' examination for appointment to the infant school in the country. For this same purpose the government grants aid to private preparatory courses, of which there are a score or more throughout the kingdom. In this connection it is noticeable that fully one third of the teaching positions are filled with temporary appointments without ayiy examination. This, of course, lessens the burdens on the teachers' colleges in which there are enrolled, in both private and public institutions, only about one thousand 278 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient students. Norway is like other nations in this respect, — she needs more trained teachers. Training of Special Teachers. — For the training of teachers of special subjects, such as sewing, cooking, gymnastics, drawing, singing, writing, a short course of from five to six weeks is held in each of the dioceses. For the past twenty years, summer courses of twelve days or more have been held at the state university and at Bergen museum, the latter especially for primary teachers in natural science. To these provisions for the training of teachers, the government and many municipalities also make annual appropriations for traveling scholarships for primary school teachers. Training of Secondary Teachers. — The standard set for the highest grade of teachers in the secondary schools is fully eight years of training above that required for teachers in the primary schools. In order to be appointed to a permanent position in the secondary schools, the applicant is generally required to pass a theoretical teacher's examination, either in the language-history group, or the mathematical-science group of the university course. To aid students in prepara- tion for these positions, the government has made large an- nual appropriations. To further develop this training of secondary teachers, the Storthing, in 1907, established in con- nection with the university at Christiania a pedagogical seminary, which gives a course of six months for graduates of the university who choose the teaching profession. The instruction in this seminary course includes school hygiene, psychology, history of education, observation, and practice teaching. The purpose of those in charge of this pedagogical work is to apply modern theories and principles of education Norway 279 to the improvement of the teachers and the schools as rapidly as conditions will allow. This movement in Norway is the same in kind, though not yet so extensive as the university training of secondary teachers in America. AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION Not an Agricultural Country. — Norway is noted for the provision she has made for educating her citizens in the native industries characteristic of her country, particularly in metals and wood and embroidery and lace work. But not until recently has she taken steps to develop agricultural edu- cation. This has been due, doubtless, to the fact that Norway is not distinctively an agricultural country, there being only about 25 per cent of her soil productive to agricultural pur- suits, and only about 4 per cent of that under full cultivation. The very great interest taken in the adaptation of her schools to local conditions, and the example of such work being done in other countries, as reported by educational commissions, has resulted in the last decade in a wide extension of agricul- tural education in Norway. Early Interest in Agriculture. — It is true that for nearly a hundred years, since 1825, Norway has had a system of local agricultural schools which has grown in numbers to include one or more in each of seventeen of the twenty counties. But these, by a recent investigation, have been shown to be in a very unsatisfactory condition. The movement for reorgani- zation is in the direction of larger appropriations, closer state supervision, and a more thorough appHcation of modern scientific knowledge to farm work. Present System of Agriculture. — The present system of agricultural education consists of a central institution, the 28o Modern Education in Europe and the Orient State Agricultural Academy at Aas, established in 1897, and the seventeen or more local county schools. The State Agricultural Academy has a one-year general course in the scientific subjects underlying agriculture, and, in addition, courses in the main departments, such as agri- culture, gardening, dairying, silviculture, etc. The local county schools are conducted under the depart- ment of agriculture. These local schools offer a course of study, covering from one to two years, in the elementary science and practice of farming, adapted to their respective districts. Movable Agricultural Schools. — Since 191 1, "movable agricultural schools," for small farmers, have been extensively developed, in which are offered two three-months' courses in different farming sections. The department of agriculture has prepared a special plan for these schools, emphasizing the following provisions: (i) the work is to be for small farmers; (2) the teachers are to be specially trained and well equipped with necessary demonstration material ; (3) the schools are to be conducted from three to four hours a day, for one or two weeks, in the schoolhouses throughout the farming communities ; (4) the course of study must be prac- tical, interesting, flexible, and methodical ; (5) the instruction must be free, the expense being met by the state, county, and community. This scheme went into operation during the year 19 13, with 43 courses offered and with a good attendance, reaching in some places 200. The work has awakened much enthu- siasm among the farmers and has been very satisfactory to the traveling teachers. The department is further recommending the reorganization Norway 281 of the course of study at the State Agricultural Academy, with special reference to the incorporation of a course of study for the training of teachers for the local county schools. The department is also urging the establishment of special schools to train " traveling teachers," looking soon to the building of permanent schools for the farmers to take the place of the " movable schools." RURAL EDUCATION FOR ADULTS Folk High Schools. — One of the recent improvements that has come to Norway is the transplantation on her soil of the Danish rural high school for adults, that hitherto neglected fourth of her population, who for generations have wrested a scanty living from " stony or water-logged pastures," living a life, dull and hopeless, without the culture of books or the inspiration of new and better methods of work, cheered only by a simple religious faith, and that often too weak to resist the allurements of a life that is too largely physical. Writing of the Norwegian peasant, past and present, one writer says, " with the emancipation of this country, in 1905, a new spirit appears to have entered the frost-bound old heart ; and I have almost come to the conclusion that he is about to seize the opportunity and rise to the level of the occasion. His sons are more eager to enter the schools of agriculture, and are forming themselves into associations that will keep them away from the seductions of itinerant and lawless hawkers, the too frequent open-air dance, and that general tendency to moral drift which marked him in the hooligan days of his youth." A kind of education that will place the rural population more nearly on the intellectual level with the urban people, and yet not turn them away from the country, is the solvent 282 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient that society, everywhere, is searching for these days. The Scandinavian countries are making worthy contributions to this cause. Ole Vig stirred the Norwegian people as Grundtvig roused the Danes. As a result, Norwegian educators went to Den- mark and studied the Danish rural high school, and, returning, estabhshed the first school of this type in 1864, the Vairheim folk high school founded by Christopher Brunn. At first these schools were not received favorably by the conservative advocates of the existing county continuation schools, but now the prejudice is rapidly turning into enthusiastic support. Though privately owned, the schools are receiving liberal aid from the state. The aim of these schools in not to train the young men and women for any particular vocation but to influence person- ality and to inspire love of country, vernacular, and rural life. These schools are decidedly democratic and cooperative in their management ; the students Hve together at the school, as a family, under the care of the manager and his wife. The school term for men is from six to seven months, during the season when they can best be spared from the farm ; for women, it is three months in the summer. There are only about fifteen such schools in Norway and these are attended by fewer than a thousand students. But the folk spirit everywhere is influencing education in Norway, as in other countries, and, as a result, this number of folk high schools will doubtless be increased. Workingmen's Colleges. — Adult men and women of the working class, in city as well as in the country, are being pro- vided with higher schools for instruction in elementary sub- jects of social Hfe and commercial thought as well as of general Norway ' 283 culture. Since the establishment of the first workingman's college at Christiania in 1885, the movement has spread rapidly. At present there are several score of these schools in existence, about one fourth of which are in the country. These colleges receive from the state one half as much as is given by the municipalities, or other sources, supporting them. The method of instruction is mainly by lectures, freely interspersed with discussions. The lecturers are well-trained men, drawn from the professions and trades in which the stu- dents of the colleges are interested. National Aim. — The several types of schools for adults are a vital factor in the great nationahzation movement in Norway. They are helping to make the returns from lands and other economic sources commensurate with the needs of the people, a condition very necessary for an abiding love of father- land. Schools for the people and improved means of commu- nication, one with another, will tend to thrift and happiness. Norway is said to be better suppUed with telephones than any other country in the world. Practically every private house has its telephone, marking the progress of civilization, not- withstanding the fact that homes are often widely separated by the miles of uninhabitable broken country. TECHNICAL EDUCATION Interest in Arts and Crafts. — Norway is noted for the ample provision she makes for various kinds of industrial, profes- sional, and technical training in the arts and crafts, charac- teristic of her nation. In the main she has two types of such schools : (i) lower technical schools, following the primary school, and (2) higher technical schools, following the middle school. These schools have courses, varying from one to 284 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient four years for both men and women, in all kinds of rural and city industries and professions. The leading schools of these types are located at Christiania, Bergen, Trondhjem, Skions- fjorden, Kongsberg, and Stavanger. Many of these schools have grown up in the response to local needs to train men and women already engaged in the vocations and who cannot afford to give up their employment to go elsewhere for train- ing. They bless the individual, the trade, and society. Higher Technical Education. — There are three main schools of this class designed for the special purpose of giving theoretical and technical training to those who choose a technical or professional career: (i) The Royal Art and Industrial School in Christiania, (2) A School of Mechanics Arts and Chemistry at Bergen, (3) The Engineering College and Institute of Technology at Trondhjem. These schools are all municipal, but under the direction of the Department of Education and Ecclesiastical Affairs, and are supported jointly by the students' fees and communal and state appropriations. CONTINUATION SCHOOLS OF SECONDARY RANK Types of Continuation Schools. — There are four inde- pendent types of continuation schools for pupils of secondary age. I. Continuation Schools. — For young people who have completed the primary school and who have been out of school for a year or so and desire to review, there is a continuation school with a one-year or two-year course. There are between 150 and 200 of these schools, with an enrollment of about 3000 students, both male and female. The age of these children is from fourteen to eighteen. The term is from one to six months. Norway 285 The aim of the school is to extend the pupils' vision by further work in the subjects of the parish school. These subjects are : Norwegian, arithmetic, history, etc. About 65 per cent of the expenses of these schools is met from public funds. II. Evening schools, for students seventeen to nineteen years of age, offer various lines of instruction, for fifty hours during the year. There are as many as half a thousand of these schools with an enrollment of about 9000 students. The state pays about 88 per cent of the expenses. III. County schools, maintained at public expense, em- phasize subjects of practical or technical value ; for men, drawing and sloyd ; for women, domestic art and science. There are about forty of these schools with an enrollment of between 1500 and 2000 students. The course of study is that of the primary school, extended and varied for prac- tical purposes. It covers a period of two years. Both co- educational and separate schools of this type exist. The boys' courses last six or seven months, and the girls' courses three or four months. Many of these schools, in past years, were ambulatory, remaining in a place only one or two years, then moving elsewhere. But in recent years they are be- coming fixed. The general character of these schools has gradually changed from the aristocratic, scholastic, prepara- tory type to that of a more practical nature, under the in- fluence of the spirit that has built up beside them the people's high schools. THE PROBLEM OF COEDUCATION Relation to Social Life. — The problem of coeducation, in the reconstruction of educational and social life, has been a 286 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient real live one in Norway ever since 1877, when the Depart- ment of Education was first petitioned to permit girls to take the middle school examination. The department then thought that such an action would place the education of girls out- side the woman's sphere. An act of the Storthing in 1884 es- tabHshed a middle school of a coeducational character, under state aid, and, thereby, gave a lasting impetus to coeduca- tion in secondary schools. Following this action, the state Department of Education, in 1890, requested a report from schools that had tried coeducation, as a means of determining the merits or demerits of the system. The reports were unanimous in the claim that the plan was sound from the stand- point of both economy and pedagogy. A royal commission appointed in 1890 to revise regulations governing the higher schools considered that experience justified coeducation, but the commission was divided on the subject of separate pro- grams of study for boys and girls in coeducation schools. Prevalence of Coeducation. — An extensive report on the coeducation movement was presented in 1895 by Hulda Hansen to the Department of Education and Ecclesiastical Affairs, in which it is shown that : (i) many of the middle schools had become coeducational ; (2) many reforms had been made in the separate girls' schools ; (3) examination privileges had been extended to the girls of the middle schools ; (4) practi- cally the same course of study is pursued by both boys and girls. The situation at present, 191 6, shows that the struggle for coeducation has won a complete victory. Both the middle school and the gymnasium are coeducational, with few ex- ceptions, and women are admitted to the university and teachers' colleges with the men. Norway 287 MORAL AND RELIGIOUS EDUCATION Legal Requirement. — The subject of religion is the only one in the curriculum in which the standard of instruction is fixed by law. In this subject, the aim set up is a thorough knowledge of the main substance of Bible history, church history, and the catechism, according to the Evangelical Lutheran creed. In the primary schools, religion receives from 7 to 3 hours per week, decreasing from the lower to the highest class ; in the middle school and the Gymnasium, i to 2 hours ; and proportionally in the teachers' colleges and other schools. Provision is made in the law by which parents who do not belong to the state church may have their children excused from the religious instruction. The teachers must belong to the state church and the schools are supervised by the church. This, in short, is the situation in Norway and has been since the days of the Lutheran reformation. Ninety-seven per cent of the people are Lutherans and are all accustomed to the state system of religious instruction. It is both a success and a failure, just as every system of religious instruction is, though from different angles. Results. — In the lower grades where the children are most impressionable and are alive with instructive curiosity, and where the type of teacher is of a more adaptable and impres- sive nature, and where the instruction is personal and con- crete in method, there the results are unquestionably good. But, in the higher grades, these favorable conditions change, more or less, and the work becomes formal and the teacher lifeless and indifferent, making the effect upon the pupil, at least questionable if not positively harmful, by creating a spirit of indifference, if not a disUke, to things religious. It 288 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient might be compared to being compelled to eat when one is not hungry, or when the food is not well served. So far as the teacher is concerned, the state requirement makes religion, for her, a part of her vocational training, rather than a part of her inner life. Then, too, religious instruction by a forced system loses that zest, that newness and freshness, that in- terest and force which characterize the voluntary method in which the selected instructors use all possible initiative in device and method to impress a willing hstener. That is, in proportion as religious instruction becomes formal, to that extent it loses its moral value. MoraUty and reHgion are life, not precept. The subject matter and method of reli- gious instruction needs to be continuously readjusted to the ever varying social conditions of a people. This, Norway has been slow to make, until within the last few years. But, nevertheless, the Norwegians have remained Lutherans. The religious aims of their school laws are correct. It is only toward the results and the methods of producing them that criticisms could be justly directed. Moral Training through Social Relations. — For the strictly ethical or moral training, the Norwegian system places much stress upon the use of the mother language and history, in which they find much to deepen and ennoble the soul Hfe of the young and to inspire in them a lofty spirit of patriotism and filial reverence. In recent years, for various reasons, the home is coming closer to the school and the two are help- ing each other. Coeducation in secondary schools and equal suffrage for men and women are enabhng the sexes to better understand and sympathize with each other. Education for the adult classes is broadening their lives and enriching them with radiant hope. The church, under the impulse of a new Norway 289 religious consciousness, is reconstructing its organization and methods. The closer touch with the thought and culture of other countries of the world is quickening the social, moral, and religious intelligence of Norwegian leaders in church and state. All of these influences, working simultaneously, har- moniously, and continuously, will save to the nation the Nor- wegian boys and girls for the highest type of citizenship. But no country with an independent church can turn to Norway with much assurance of finding there a panacea for moral and religious decline. Relations of the Church to Religious Education. — The characteristic feature of church administration in Norway is its close connection with other national affairs, and especially to the schools. The Storthing legislates for the church, and the church administration is through the Department of Ecclesiastical Affairs, which also administers education. The king appoints the clergy and determines the service and the Hturgy of the church. Such a state church naturally tends to conservatism, and to an indifferent and unsympa- thetic relation between the mass of the people and the higher officials of the state church, who are inevitably withdrawn from the people by the burden of administrative affairs. Out of this condition has grown up in Norway a long-time per- sistent attempt to reorganize the church so as to give more initiative to the local congregations and to the schools. The pietistic revivalistic movement of the middle of the 19th century favored this plan of reorganization, but unfortu- nately the intellectual tendency of this movement was towards national isolation from the religious thought and culture of foreign countries. This had a tendency to drive the more intellectual classes into the camps of the free thinkers from 290 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient England and France, resulting in a new non-christian culture — the effect of which has been to put the church thinking and to searching for remedies, some of which she is finding in sug- gestions from foreign religious systems, such as those of Ger- many and England, others, she is finding in the utilization of the new social conditions growing up within her own nation. For instance, she has made use of the complete democratiza- tion of her government in recent years, as a means of bringing together the Conservatives and the Progressives in the church in a movement towards reorganization in church control with the following special features: (i) local ecclesiastical autonomy for church congregations, (2) a local church council to take the place of the county board that is too much con- cerned with secular matters, (3) the church and the state to continue united, (4) recognition of private theological facul- ties on the same basis as the theological faculty of the uni- versity. The concession of these two elements, local control and pri- vate initiative, by the conservatives, will doubtless save the church as a state institution, through the possibiHty that such a change would bring for the introduction into Norwegian religious thought the contemporaneous religious thought and culture, from other countries of the world. Recognition of Non-State Theological Education. — A recent step in this movement was the recognition by the gov- ernment in 1 91 3 of the private theological faculty, established by popular subscription in 1907. This recognition grants to their clerical candidates the right of examination on the same basis as those from the theological department of the state university. An illustration of outside influences help- ing to reshape thought and attitude in the Norwegian church, Norway 291 is the work of the " World's Student Christian Federation," which for twenty years has been doing a service of great ad- vantage, as conceded by even the conservatives, who are in- telHgently looking to Anglo-Saxon Christendom for inspira- tion and help. Educational Influence of the University Chair of Theology. — In recent years, the problem of religious education has been complicated by the controversy over the filling of the chair of systematic theology in the University in Christiania. This position is so important that practically every minister in the land has to sit at the feet of its incumbent, and to a great extent the religious education in the schools is directed by this ecclesiastical position. The honor attached to the position is indicated by the fact that it is filled by competitive examination. In two suc- cessive examinations, the first open to the ministers of the realm, the second open to ministers of all Scandinavia, the renowned scholar, Dr. Ording, won. He, being a liberal in theology, was bitterly opposed by the conservatives, but as warmly endorsed by the liberals, including such a man as Bjornson. He was then temporarily appointed, but his appointment was immediately followed by the resignation of the Minister of Education and Ecclesiastical Affairs and by Dr. Odlund, a member of the university faculty, who led the conservatives in their fight against Dr. Ording. This was the situation in 1906, since when the controversy has continued with more or less warmth. Lutheran Influence in America. — An illustration of the strength of the Norwegian Lutheran Church in America, to which country more than 500,000 Norwegians have emigrated, is found in Iowa. In this state, in 191 5, there were ninety- 292 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient one pastors and one hundred and eighty-six congregations, with a membership of 47,426, and also three institutions of learning and two institutions of mercy. The Danish Lutherans have in this same state a member- ship of 9079 and the Swedish Lutherans 20,000, which, with the Norwegian Lutherans, makes a total of 76,505 Scandi- navian Lutherans in this one American state. The independence and the prosperity of these large numbers of the Lutheran faith, in the American republic, doubtless has its reflex influence upon the parent church in Norway, as a factor in their educational problem. Modifying Influences in Religious Education. — In Norway, other denominations than the Lutheran are represented as follows : Methodists, 10,986 ; Baptists, 7659 ; Catholics, 2046; Mormons, 714; Quakers, 143 ; making a total of only 21,548 dissenters, or 9 per cent in the whole population of 2,391,782. Evidently the spirit of unrest and Hberalism in the Norwegian Lutheran Church is not due to the numbers of dissenters in her realm, but rather to the flood of religious sentiment from her world environment and to the native Norwegian mind that is delicately sensitive to a democratic suggestion. The modifications and improvements in all phases of secular education in the schools of the kingdom and the closer social relations with the peoples and thought of other nations is having its effect upon the rehgious education in church, school, and home. PRIVATE INITIATIVE IN NORWEGIAN EDUCATION School Law Recognizes Private Institutions. — A striking feature in Norwegian education is the prevalence of private institutions, either with or without state recognition or aid. Norway 293 This condition seems to be due to the genius of the people, who cherish and foster the rights of individual initiative. The compulsory school law does not apply to the state schools only, but permits attendance upon private schools, in lieu thereof, under proper inspection. The free tuition in state schools would seem to put the private schools at a disad- vantage, but they meet this by superior location, better equipment, choice of faculty, freedom of adjustment, etc., encouraged by state recognition in the form of examination privileges and state grants or private endowment, and also, by the patronage of the well-to-do classes. Ratio of Private and Public Schools. — An illustration of the extent to which private schools divide the field with the state is shown by the following statistics, for the year 1910, the last available : secondary schools, 89 (public, 65 ; private, 24) ; normal schools, 10 (public, 6, private, 4). In Christiania alone there were 89 private schools of the unrecognized class, with an enrollment of 3550 students. In this city, in 1900, there were 5006 pupils in the recogiiized private schools. It is impossible to obtain statistics for a clear and accurate comparison of the work of the private and public schools in Norway. The private schools, because of their greater freedom and flexibility, have been important factors in bringing about the modifications in the pubHc schools, in harmony with modern ideas. Another important influence of the private school is to keep the public tax down, and this must be borne in mind in comparing the annual state appropriations per capita for school expenses in Norway with that of other countries. Private Initiative Safeguards Highest Social Interests. — Should the state withdraw its aid from all private schools, 294 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient they would, as a consequence, be seriously crippled and many of them would have to close up, or consolidate. But Norway is having troubles with the exclusive control of the church as a state institution, and her people, naturally conservative, are not much inclined toward an exclusive state system of schools. Even in religious training, as is emphasized else- where, the state is recognizing private initiative, as shown in her approval in 1913 of a private theological faculty for the training of ministers. The general attitude of mind relative to private initiative in Norwegian education, is well expressed by Rektor D. F. Knudsen, " I must in one word maintain that the intelligent interests that the higher school stands for are best safeguarded through a system of state, communal, and private schools ; each has its advantages and defects ; cooperation can best secure that the special advantage of each shall exercise its full effect and that the corresponding defects shall be neutralized. So far as I know, there is no nation that has been willing or able to dispense with private initiative, which is like a free man as compared with one bound hand and feet, like a creature that moves by the side of one fast chained to the ground." Topics foe Further Study 1. Write a thesis on the phases of education in the present Norwe- gian system due to the influence of the sixteenth century reformation. 2. Make a study of the development of the Landsmaal movement. 3. Make a pictogram of the school system in your state and compare it with the pictogram of the Norwegian school system. 4. Compare the special provisions for rural education in your state with those in Norway. 5. How could the American elementary and secondary schools be Norway 295 reorganized so as to provide the advantages offered by the Norwegian middle school ? 6. On the basis of population, compare the enrollment in the one Norwegian university with the average enrollment in all of the uni- versities in the United States, using the Carnegie list. 7. Account for the fact that 75 per cent of the rural teachers in Nor- way are men, and compare the situation with that in your own state. 8. To what extent do international relationships influence a nation's school system ? Illustrate from Norway. 9. Write a thesis on the advantages and disadvantages of religious education in state schools, using the conditions in the three Scandinavian countries as illustrations. 10. Make a comparison between the extent to which the educational work in your state is done by private institutions and the similar facts in Norway. Special Bibliography Anderson, D. A. The School System of Norway, 1913, Richard G. Badger, The Gorham Press, Boston. Anderson, Otto. Moral Instruction and Training in Norway, in papers edited by W. E. Sadler, Vol. II. Education in Norway, in English Board of Education Reports, 1902, London. Heiberg, J. V. Education in Norway in 1900. MiCHELET, S., D. D. The Present Theological Crisis in the Church of Norway. Norwegian Education, Special Phases, United States Commissioner of Education, Reports from 1889 to 191 5, Washington, D. C. Ogg, F. a. The Governments of Europe, Norway, 1914, The Macmil- lans, New York. Smith, Anna Tolman. Education in Norway, 1913, Monroe's Cyclo- pedia of Education, Vol. IV, 19, The Macmillans, New York. Thorton, J. S. The State Leaving Examination in Norway. SWEDEN CHAPTER IX GEOGRAPHY AND INDUSTRIES Geography. — Sweden is the eastern and larger section of the Scandinavian Peninsula and comprises an area of about 172,000 square miles, occupied by a population of about five and one half millions of people. The surface of Sweden is divided by nature into four main physical divi- sions — the northern highlands, which is the largest dis- trict and includes the finest scenery ; the central lowlands, consisting of level, fertile plains of clay, covered with woods and dotted with lakes, the largest of which are the four great lakes, Vener, Vetter, Maloe, and Hjelman — all with beauti- ful scenery, especially in the case of Maloe, which Ues in the environs of the city of Stockholm ; the southern highlands (Smaland Highland) in the south and southeast, which are characterized by forest-clad undulations, small lakes, and peat mosses with a general elevation of from 300 feet to 600 feet ; and fourth, the plains of Skane, which comprise the southward projection of the peninsula and consist of rich, level plains of meadows and cultivated lands, broken here and there by beech wood and sHght ridges with occasional elevations of about 700 feet. Of the total area of Sweden, about one twelfth, or 14,000 square miles, are under water, there being no country, other than Finland, so full of lakes. These lakes are drained to the 296 Sweden 297 seas by many rivers, some of which are of considerable com- mercial and industrial consequence. Almost the entire coast of Sweden, which is broken here and there with deep fjords, is sheltered from the open sea by a fringe of islands which has a width of forty-five miles where it skirts the city of Stockholm, making a famous beautiful approach to the nation's capital. Industries. — The main industries are agriculture, forestry, fisheries, manufactures, mining, and commerce. More than one half of the entire population are engaged in agriculture and animal breeding, although only about 12 per cent of the total land area is arable. Under a system of legal parceling, introduced in 1827 and slowly carried out during the nine- teenth century, the average size of a farm is 25 acres or less. It is estimated that only about 15 per cent of the farms are operated by tenants. Since 1900 a department of agriculture, and a system of schools and societies, have existed for the further development of this industry. Forestry is quite well developed and protected by conserv- ative legislation and by instruction for forestry service in schools of forestry and in the Institute of Forestry at Stock- holm. Approximately one half of the area of Sweden is under forests, of which one third are pubHc and two thirds private. The pubKc forests are administered through the ofhce of the national forest service, and the private forests, protected by the legislation of 1903, administered by local forest con- servation boards. The sea and river fisheries are a considerable source of wealth but are carried on mainly by private enterprises under the inspection of a member of the board of agriculture. The mining industry is of very high importance and in- 298 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient eludes iron, copper, gold, lead, and coal. The mining ad- ministration is directed by a special bureau of the board of trade and is encouraged and developed through special mining education in government and private schools of min- ing. The most important manufacturing industries, in the order of output are : iron industries, saw-milling, cloth mills and factories, flour mills, sugar works, which, with the minor industries, turn out about £72,000,000 of goods annually. In commerce, Sweden exports about £30,000,000 and imports about £40,000,000 annually, in her relations mainly with England, Germany, France, Norway, and Denmark, the leading enlightened nations of Europe, whose educational and industrial enterprises stimulate Sweden to a modern and scientific development of her internal resources and possi- bilities. HISTORIC SKETCH The earliest historical information concerning Sweden is given by Tacitus, in the " Germania," published at the close of the first century a.d. Tacitus says that they were gov- erned by a king whose power was absolute. And in the sixteenth century, the Gothic historian Jordanes tells of the warlike and trading characteristics of these people. Likewise, the Anglo-Saxon power, "Beowulf," in the same period gives valuable information of Swedish affairs. The establishment of Christianity, begun in 830 by Bishop Ausgar, was fully accomplished in 1008, when the king him- self was baptized into this faith by Sigfrid. Seven hundred years later, during the reign of Adolphus I (1523-60), came the breach with Rome and the establishment of the Lutheran Sweden 299 Church in 1544. This religious reformation was largely the work of the great and strong man, Gustavus, who acting contrary to the religious instincts of the majority of Swedish people, broke with the ecclesiastical traditions for political and economical reasons. The council of Trent, which de- clared the Bible and tradition to be equally authoritative sources of Christian doctrine, and later the action of the Swed- ish Riksdag, in 1604, which excluded CathoUcs from the suc- cession to the throne, ended the struggle with Lutheranism firmly estabUshed in Sweden. For two and a half centuries following, the struggle shifted from rehgion to that between monarchy and democracy — a social revolution and evolution with all the characteristics of similar movements in other European countries. THE GOVERNMENT General Character. — The present government of Sweden is based on the law of 1809, variously modified and extended to meet the demands of the universal ideas of government in the nineteenth century. The constitution of Sweden is said to be one of the most elaborate of its kind in existence. The form of government is that of a hereditary constitutional monarchy, the head of which is a king, who is required to belong to the Lutheran Church. With him alone rests the right of ultimate decision in governmental affairs. Suffrage. — In 1907 universal manhood suffrage was introduced and this was followed in 191 2 by the passage of a bill in whose terms every Swede, both men and women, over twenty-four years of age and free from legal disabilities, may vote for members of the lower chambers. Local Government. — For the purpose of local govern- 300 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient merit, Sweden is divided into twenty-five provinces, or coun- ties, one of which is the city of Stockholm. The central and local governments are combined through a local assem- bly elected by the people and presided over by a member appointed by the crown. Likewise, each rural parish and each town is a self-govern- ing commune, having its own assembly, which is composed of all taxpayers. Primary education and church affairs are directed by the parish assemblies, presided over by the pastor of the parish, thus maintaining an intimate relation between the church and education. ORGANIZATION OF EDUCATION Early in the nineteenth century the Swedish people became deeply interested in the benefit of education to the mass of the people and began a wide movement for the erection of schools to meet this need. In the year 1842, a school statute made elementary education compulsory and required each parish to maintain at least one elementary school. This law was modified in 1872 and took its present shape in the enactment of 1897, the law now in force. Elementary Schools. — The elementary schools consist of : (i) the infant schools for children six to eight years of age, and (2) the elementary school proper for children eight to twelve years of age. Above the elementary school is a new type of school instituted in 1909, the mellanskolor, or the inter- mediate school, which is supported by the community with some aid from the state. The course of study in the inter- mediate school covers four years and is designed to meet the needs in a practical way of the towns and villages that have Sweden 301 grown up recently and did not have, therefore, a secondary- school of the old type. Secondary Schools. — An earlier law, that of 1904, reor- ganized secondary education by establishing two kinds of public secondary schools : (i) a realskolor, or modern school, coeducational, following the first three years of the elementary school with a six-year course, and (2) a gymnasium, following the fifth year of the realskolor with a four-year course, for boys only. From the gymnasium pupils pass into the uni- versity and technical schools. Continuation Schools. — Continuation schools of various forms and different degrees of advancement exist for stu- dents who cannot continue in the conventional courses. At the end of the six-year elementary school a continuation course, consisting of 180 hours, is given on certain evenings of the week for students who desire to enter some trade. There are also higher classes in the elementary schools in both city and country in which students, dropping out for vocational purposes, may continue their schooling. Like- wise there are continuation courses following the middle school and in the modern school. Private Schools. — In addition to this general plan of state schools there are many private schools of secondary rank that receive state aid and are under state supervision. Of this type there are four for boys, six coeducational, and about eighty for girls. All such schools are under state supervision. Teachers' Training Schools. — Training colleges for teach- ers are based on a thorough elementary course and they cover four years of work. A recent statute of 1913 has raised the standard of admission to these schools. For the training 302 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient of women teachers there are the State Secondary Normal School for girls, the Higher Training College for Women Teachers — both state institutions — • and five private train- ing colleges for women. To these must be added the rural high schools for adults, which offer a one-year or two-year course for teachers. Finally the system is rounded out by schools for the defec- tives — the bhnd, the deaf, and idiots. ADMINISTRATION OF EDUCATION The Elementary Schools. — The unit of school adminis- tration in Sweden is the parish, which constitutes a school district and is under the legislative authority of the church assembly. This intimate relation of church and school is the modified continuation of the absolute ecclesiastical con- trol of education in the middle ages, before the state had begun to assume the responsibility for the education of the people. The school board consists of four members, either male or female, chosen by the church assembly, and presided over by the parish rector, who is ex officio a member of the board. The duties of the board pertain mainly to the busi- ness and executive work of the school. Each district must conduct at least one elementary school and in some districts there are what are known as minor common schools, with a smaller teaching staff, and a more restricted course, for chil- dren who cannot, for geographical reasons, attend the regular school. There are also continuation schools for those who have completed the elementary schools and have entered some trade. Once a year, at least, the teaching staff is called together for a conference, by the president of the board, with whom they consider the problems of interest to the schools of the district. Sweden 303 The school board is also charged with the local inspection of the schools, and for this purpose, by permission of the church assembly, may elect a requisite number of head teach- ers and a communal school inspector for the district. Above these district boards are diocesan boards who also superintend within their respective district the institutions designed for popular instruction. Finally, the state conducts its own inspection through a stafif of elementary school inspectors, appointed by the government, for six years. There are at present forty-seven such inspectors. Their chief duties consist in : (i) ascertain- ing the needs of the schools and reporting these to the district boards, or, if necessary, to the diocesan boards ; (2) to investigate the petition of school boards for state grants ; and (3) at the close of their six years' term to make to the Ecclesiastical and Education Department a full report for publication and distribution to all school officials for their future guidance. A recent statute of 1913 established a new supervisory board for the elementary schools, with power to centralize the administration of elementary education, but this statute practically left unmodified the diocesan and local boards, and the inspectorship. But as to the inspectorship, the reform movement looks in the early future to freeing the inspectors from all duties except the inspection of schools. Secondary Education. — All public schools and the private secondary schools, receiving state recognition, are under the supervision of a state board, consisting of five members, as inaugurated by the reform school law of 1904. The duty of this board is to visit and inspect the secondary schools of the county. 304 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient The work of this supervisory board comes under the central supervision of the Ecclesiastical Department, just as do all other divisions of education. Each pubHc secondary school is presided over by a rektor, or principal, who receives his appointment by the govern- ment upon the nomination of the supervisory board. All statutes subsequent to that of 1904, that pertain to secondary education, have left the administration of the schools under this supervisory board. However, in recent years there has been much discussion relative to the reorgani- zation of the plan of administration of both elementary and secondary schools looking to the coordination of the two. A royal committee, appointed in 1906, recommended in 191 2 the establishment of one supervisory board for all kinds of schools. On the basis of this recommendation the government laid before the Riksdag of 19 13 a bill, proposing a supervisory board for elementary schools and other institu- tions pertaining to popular education, which with the pre- viously existing supervisory board for the secondary schools should form two different divisions of one body under the direction of one chief. But the conservatives, fearful that such a union might result in the development of the secondary schools along hues of which they did not approve, secured a compromise, permitting the board for secondary schools to remain as it had been since its organization in 1904. Notwithstanding this compromise, the general tendency in the administration of education in Sweden is towards centralization. All such movements are for the purpose of securing greater efficiency through a more general equalization of educational advantages to all social classes. Sweden 305 People's High Schools (Folkhogskolor) . — The people's high schools, though not owned by the state, are controlled in part by the system of state subsidies. The state, in grant- ing such subsidies, has reserved to itself the right of inspec- tion and has also prescribed that the school shall be controlled by a board, which, in most cases, is composed of representa- tives of the individuals and organizations providing the funds for the maintenance of the school. The school is under the immediate director, or a head master, who is usually a mem- ber of the board, and who by state requirement must be a university graduate. The state is very generous in grants and scholarships to these schools. Teachers' Training Schools. — The state also maintains a system of training schools for teachers, of which there are nine for men and six for women. These she controls by a system of rules and regulations regarding entr5,nce require- ments, course of study, faculty standard, and finishing exami^ nations. The system of administration of these training schools, in vogue for the past fifty years, was thoroughly reorganized by a statute of 191 3, the main purpose of which was to modernize the course of study and the methods of instruction to conform to the cultural, social, and economic needs of the present day. To meet these reforms, the Rigs- dag, in 1913, increased the yearly appropriations very ma- terially for the libraries, laboratories, and other materials of instruction. It is also the pohcy of the administration, as soon as it can be done, to increase the salaries of the instruc- tors and professors in the training schools so as to retain and continue to secure the most capable educators available in the Swedish school system. The Higher Training College for Women Teachers and 3o6 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient the attached State Normal School for Girls, located at Stockholm, are governed by a board nominated by the government. The Higher Institutions. — The administration of the six institutions of university rank, above the system of higher secondary schools or gymnasia, Hke that of the other state schools, belongs to the Ecclesiastical Department. The supervision is either direct, as in the case of the state institu- tions — (i) Upsala, (2) Lund, (3) Caroline Institute, and (4) the Technical School — or through a system of subvention, as applies to the two private high schools of university rank, one at Stockholm and the other at Gothenberg. The statute of 1877, amended in 1891, provides for the universities and the Caroline Institute a chancellor, ap- pointed by the king upon the nomination of a board of elec- tors from the three institutions. The chancellor serves without salary, but with the assist- ance of a salaried secretary, and his duties pertain to the busi- ness of the university as it needs to be submitted to the state government. Likewise he is assisted by a vice-chancellor, whose duties pertain to the local academic authorities. The direct supervision of the academic work of the university is through a rector who is chosen, not by the state, but by the professors in the faculties. The supervision of the two private universities of Stock- holm and Gothenberg is confined to a special board of directors for each school, under the management of the chancellor of the state universities. The presidents of these two boards are appointed by the government, and the other members by the organizations concerned with their support. In each of these institutions as in the state universities, the academic Sweden 307 work is directed by a rector, who is ex officio a member of the board of directors. The technical high school, established by royal letter in 1825 and now under the statute of 1901, is supervised by a board, the president of which is appointed by the govern- ment, the other four members being chosen by the council of teachers at the school. The professors of this institution, one of whom is designated as director, are nominated by the board and appointed by the government. Schools for Abnormals. — In Sweden the education of the abnormals is as much a pubhc concern as is that of the nor- mals and in this phase of education is found the same double system of state and local control. The education of deaf-mutes, by the statute of 1889, is supervised through seven districts, each with its own board and at least one school. And for the blind, the statute of 1899 makes their education obligatory and provides a thor- ough course of study in sufficient state institutions to supple- ment private benefactions in the care of this class of unfor- tunates. The state supervision of schools for idiots is through aid to a system of some thirty-six institutions, like homes or asy- lums, supported by local organizations. For the training of teachers, for each type of schools for abnormals, the state maintains at its own expense a training college. Popular Education (Folkskolor) . — The movement in Sweden for popular education took shape in the middle of the nineteenth century in a statute of 1842 embodying the principles which have guided the people to the present day in the elaboration of their school system. The Swedish people 3o8 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient hold in grateful memory the names of Count T. Rudenschold and F. F. Carlson, each of whom, in his day, through deep interest and zealous labors, the latter as ecclesiastical minister, carried through the Riksdag a comprehensive measure for the further development of compulsory common schools. The theories and plans of these early educators have been preserved in every essential particular in the final shaping of the present statutes of 1897 under which the elementary schools are operated. The elementary school consists, in full development, of (i) the two-year infant school, and (2) the four-year elementary school proper. Compulsory Age. — All parents are bound by law to send their children through these six grades, or to give them an equivalent education in some approved private school. The compulsory school age is counted from the seventh to the fourteenth birthdays, or the years in which those days occur. However, many parents start their children to school at six years of age. The instruction is free, as the district and the state jointly bear all the expenses. The result of the work in the elementary school is so efficient that Sweden, from the standpoint of Hteracy, ranks among the leading countries of the world. Course of Study. — The course of study in the elementary school is made uniform througn the guidance of a *' normal plan," issued by the Ecclesiastical Department, or Ministry of Education, though modified by the local board as condi- tions may demand. The school statute, however, presents certain obligatory subjects ; these are : religion, Swedish, arithmetic, geometry, geography, history, natural science, drawing, singing, gymnastics, gardening. Sweden 309 The optional subjects taught somewhere in the course of study are : sloyd, domestic economy, bookkeeping, hygiene, and some foreign language, — either English or German. The school year, according to the " normal plan," extends over eight months, or thirty-four and one half weeks, with not to exceed thirty-six hours of work per week. In some districts, however, economic conditions are such at present that a division is made into wards and an " ambulatory school " made to serve the different wards, so that in such districts the pupils receive only about half of the prescribed maximum amount of schooling, a condition that is being rapidly eUminated. Continuation Schools. — Pupils who are prevented by poverty from remaining in school through the entire com- pulsory course are permitted to withdraw after meeting the prescribed " minimum " requirement. Such students are then urged to attend some continuation school. For students who have completed the elementary school course and do not plan to enter some higher school, provision is made in many places for a year of 180 hours of work in some form of free continuation schools. Since 1906, a vigorous effort has been under way by the Swedish educators to reorganize the elementary schools, especially through the reorganization of the training colleges for elementary school teachers. F^roposed Reorganization of Elementary Education. — The royal committee on elementary education, appointed in 1906, made its final report in 1914, deahng specially with needed reforms in the people's schools and its extension by means of the continuation schools. Their recommenda- tions, briefly summarized, are as follows: (i) the schools of 3IO Modern Education in Europe and the Orient the rural districts, in which about 40 per cent of the children of the kingdom receive their entire education, should be im- proved by special state appropriations for the increase of salaries, and better school plans and equipment ; (2) that the " normal plan of study " be reorganized for a course of seven years and that every child be required to remain in school until the end of the thirteenth year of age ; (3) that the method of instruction require less memorizing from books, that a better correlation of subjects be secured, and that the work of the first years be based upon the knowledge of one's own surroundings ; (4) that larger place be given to hygiene so as to secure for the child at an earlier age the formation of health- ful habits, and that special emphasis be placed upon the evil effects of the use of liquor and other narcotics ; and (5) that the course in religious instruction be so modified as to make the Bible itself the basis of instruction in the lower grades, the teaching of the catechism being deferred to the upper two years of the school course. Such modifications, it is believed, would bring the ele- mentary schools more nearly up to the place where they could meet the social and economic conditions of the day. For the continuation schools this same committee recom- mends a two-year course in heu of the present one-year course and this to be not a trade school, but a school which adopts the trade point of view in its instruction. GENESIS OF THE SECONDARY SCHOOLS Early Origin. — The secondary schools of Sweden, as in other European countries, had their beginning in the cathe- dral schools, monastery schools, and the town schools, long before the state undertook the problem of secondary educa- Swede f I 3 1 1 tion. This situation has been a social inheritance, more or less perplexing in recent years. The spirit of the Reformation closed the monastery schools and began the evolution of the cathedral and town schools, which has gradually continued under the modifying influence of each reshaping age in the development of European civiH- zation. The Gymnasium. — The first of these schools, the gym- nasium, was established in 1623 during the reign of Gustavus Adolphus II, and during the middle of the same century was clearly differentiated from the newly organized lower schools for children. This was the result of the first special school code of 1649, which was enacted in accord with the recom- mendations of the famous Comenius, who at that time was invited to Sweden as an educational adviser. Thus the gymnasium remained distinct from elementary education for nearly two hundred years and was conducted almost exclu- sively for the education of clergymen and civil officers. Gymnasium Modernized. — The opening of the nineteenth century was marked by the introduction of modern languages and natural sciences into the gymnasium curriculum, and the second quarter of the century, 1828, saw the estabhshment of a state experimental school for the purpose of working out some reforms in secondary education, as recommended by the great educational committee of 1825-28, of which the crown-prince himself was chairman. Another important advance occurred in 1849, when the classical gymnasiums were merged with the apologists' schools, which had sprung up in 1820 to meet the demands for a more popular institu- tion. In this consolidated school, later known as Allmdnna laroverket, grew up two parallel courses of study, one with- 312 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient out Latin but with mathematics and natural sciences, the other with the classical languages. The many reforms during the last half of the nineteenth cen- tury have pertained mainly to the problems of (i) adjustment of the course of study to social needs, (2) or to the stages of adolescent development, (3) a broadening of the privilege of electives, and (4) a more complete appropriation of what is nationally and particularly Swedish. The purpose of secondary education, as it is legally ex- pressed in the school act of 1878, which is still in force, is, *' to give a civic education beyond that imparted by the com- mon schools, and also to impart that scientific knowledge which is to be further developed at the university or the higher special schools." Girls' Secondary Schools. — The secondary schools for girls are of more recent origin than those for boys, all having come into existence during the last half of the nineteenth century, except Wallin School in Stockholm and the Kjellberg School in Gothenberg, both of which were founded in the thirties. As a natural consequence, the Swedish secondary schools, having evolved from so many different origins, are incongru- ous in their inner work and outward organization. The secondary schools for boys are public in the sense that they receive aid from the state and communities and are under state regulations. The very recent reforms in secondary education were made by the acts of 1904 and 1909, the chief features of which are given in the following description of these schools as they now exist. Sweden 313 BOYS' SECONDARY SCHOOLS Types. — There are four types of secondary schools for boys: — (i) The realskola, or modern school, is a sLx-year course following a three-year elementary course in the pubUc school. The students who complete this course take the realskolexamen, which entitles them to certain privileges, such as positions in state ofhces, or students in special schools. This is the type of school in most of the small towns and about half of them have coeducation, for boys and girls, as pro- vided by the school reform statute of 1905. There are some private schools of this type though not many, owing to the low fees in the state schools. (2) The higher-grade school, or gymnasium, starts at the end of the fourth year of the modern school, and gives a course of four years. Thus, a student, taking this course, passes through three elementary grades, four modern school grades, and four higher grades, making a total of eleven grades. There are two types of these higher-grade schools, (a) the yealgymnasium and {b) the Latin gymnasium. Most generally both types are found in the same school. This is the type of school most common in the larger cities. Latin is taught only in the four years of the Latin gymnasium. Cer- tain elective privileges are allowed students in the last two years of the gymnasium, and the present tendency is to extend the elective privilege with a view to several future purposes. At the end of the gymnasium course a final examination, student-examen, is given, which admits the student to the university, or to some higher special school, or to other privileges. (3) A third type of secondary school was organized under the statute of 1909. It is called the mellanskolor , or the 314 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient intermediate school. This school is the outgrowth of modern conditions and practical demands in communities and vil- lages that did not have the older type of secondary schools. It is based upon the elementary school which consists of the two years' infant school and the four years' elementary school, or a six-year course. The intermediate school has four grades and it prepares for the realskolexamen. These schools are generally coeducational. The two types of schools prepar- ing for this examination are (i) the modern school, with a nine-year course, and (2) the intermediate school, with a ten- year course, each including the elementary course upon which it is based. The first has six years of specialization upon secondary subjects and the second has only four years. This condition raises certain questions of both practical and theo- retical value in connection with the realexamen. It will doubtless lead to reorganization of both schools on a com- mon plan. (4) A fourth type of secondary school work is the two- or three-year continuation school following the six-year elemen- tary school. The aim and purpose of this school is to train the young people during the transition or adolescent period in the practical affairs of life, and to develop in them integrity, efficiency, and patriotism. These four types of secondary schools are at the present time demanding a reorganization of the training of secondary teachers. Teachers in Secondary Schools. — The quaUfication of teachers for the two types of intermediate schools varies, thus making an additional problem relative to the realskol- examen. The teacher in the modern school is evidently superior at Sweden 315 present to the teacher in the intermediate school. In the modern school the professor in the upper classes, and the assistant professors in the lower classes, are required to be university graduates, the first with a doctor's degree, the second with a master's degree, the specification for professors being somewhat higher, both with an additional probationary year at some secondary school, either Stockholm, Upsala, or Lund, taking courses in the theory and practice of teach- ing. The women teachers, of which there are three in every state coeducational school, must have the same qualifications as the assistant professor or be graduates of the regular course of the State Higher Training College for Women Teach- ers. This is also the common standard for women teachers in girls' secondary schools. In the intermediate school the teachers are required to have the same quahfications as the assistant professors and as the women in the modern school. But the government, by special privilege, may grant a certificate of competency to teachers in elementary schools who show special abiUty to teach certain subjects in intermediate schools. This special provision may make the teaching staff in the inter- mediate school of somewhat lower standard than that of the modern school. All secondary teachers in state schools are appointed by the government upon the nomination of the supervisory board of the secondary state schools. The Higher Training College for Women Teachers, located in Stockholm, oflfers a three-year course with an optional fourth year intended particularly for the training of spe- cialists. The standard for admission to the college is an examina- 3i6 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient tion showing that the applicant, who must be i8 years of age, has the equivalent of a complete course at an eight-year secondary school for girls. The appHcant chooses her own course and specializes in the secondary subject she is pre- paring to teach. Practice work is done in the State Secondary Normal School for Girls attached to the College. The women who have taken university degrees are allowed to do this probationary year of practice work at the secondary schools where such courses are arranged for men. Since the opening of the twentieth century, five private training colleges for women have been opened, three at Stockholm, one at Lund, and one at Gothenberg, each after a plan and organization of its own. There is a strong tendency recently to modify the course in the Higher Training College for Women, so as to make the first two years obhgatory, with a course of study designed for a broader education, this to be followed by another two years of elective specialization. Such a plan would greatly improve the training. Tuition in the college is free to all, and in addition many poor and deserving students receive small scholarships from the state. There is an enrollment of about twenty-five in each year of the course. HIGHER EDUCATION Number and Character of Institutions. — There are six institutions of university rank above the higher secondary school, or gymnasium. These are : (i) state universities, Upsala, Lund, and Caroline Institute at Stockholm, (2) two private high schools of university rank, one at Stockholm and the other at Gothenberg, and (3) the State Technical School at Stockholm. Sweden 317 The most important of these institutions are Upsala and Lund, each with four faculties, law, medicine, phi- losophy, and theology. The CaroHne Institute is a medi- cal college. The high school at Stockholm has a faculty of law, mathematics, and natural and political sciences. The high school at Gothenberg centers its work around the humanities The technical school at Stockholm stands at the head of a state and private system of technical education. If the higher secondary schools, the gymnasia, be regarded as junior colleges, all work at the universities is of post- graduate rank. The Swedish universities are considered of unexcelled thoroughness and completeness. Upsala. — • Upsala is the Swedish university of greatest historical renown. It was founded in 1477 by Lord Sten and the ecclesiastics, with the sanction of the Pope. It received another great impetus in the first half of the seven- teenth century from Gustavus Adolphus, who donated to it 300 of his hereditary estates. At the present time, the state spends more than a quarter of a million dollars annually in her support to care for the annual enrollment of about twenty-four hundred students. The University of Upsala, as are the other Swedish uni- versities, is essentially a Swedish institution. Her students are largely the sons and daughters of Swedish parents. The primary purpose of this university is to make men and women of culture, fully imbued with national patriotism. In her faculties have been found some of the world's greatest schol- ars. Linnaeus, the father of systematic botany, filled a chair at Upsala for thirty-seven years ; Eric Gustaf Geijer, author of " History of the Swedish People," made a contri- 3i8 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient bution not only to the Swedish nation but to all people; Bergman was one of the world's greatest chemists. Degrees. — The degrees conferred by the faculties are those of candidate, licentiate, and doctor, the degree of doctor of divinity being conferred without examination by the government. The courses of study leading to the several degrees at the Swedish universities are longer than those in the universities of other countries. Students are admitted by examination after completing the gymnasium course. Then, on an average, they are required to study from 6 to 8 years for the degree of licentiate of philosophy, 7 years for the degree in law, 9 years in theology, and as much as 1 1 years in medi- cine. In recent years various attempts have been made to work out a plan for the reorganization of the academical examina- tions so as to simplify and shorten the courses. Faculty and Students. — The faculty is always selected with great care, a formality having to be gone through with that weeds out undesirable or incompetent applicants before an appointment is made. Many able men occupy chairs in the present faculties of the several higher institutions. In the universities every student must belong to one of the nation societies (landskap), in accord with the older custom, for mutual aid and for the promotion of industry and morality. At Upsala these societies, thirteen in number, most all own their own houses, corresponding very much to the fraternity houses in American universities ; while in Lund, the twelve nations occupy a building in common, called the academical societies' building. Each nation is made up of the students from some particular section of the Sweden 319 country and is supervised by some one of the professors chosen by that nation. A vital part of the university and national spirit centers in these student societies. TECHNICAL EDUCATION Widespread Interest. — In Sweden, interest in technical education is very widespread and comprises every phase of technical training, both elementary and advanced. The technical schools and courses of secondary rank are very numerous and varied. Some of these schools admit students from the elementary schools, others from the realskolor, and others from the mellanskolor. Some local cities run evening classes, or Sunday classes, or other forms of continua- tion work. There are both private and state schools of all types. State aid to this form of education is very liberal. Technical High School. — Standing at the head of this entire system of technical training is the Technical High School in Stockholm, with special courses in (i) machine design and mechanical technology, (2) chemical technology, (3) electrotechnics, (4) mining, (5) architecture, and (6) civil engineering. Chalmers' Polytechnical College, in Gothenberg, has a higher division in which are given courses of the same char- acter as those in the Technical High School in Stockholm, and also a lower division of a more elementary grade of work. Since 1896, an institution for the testing of various build- ing materials for the government and the public has been added to this college. The five technical colleges offer three-year courses, both theoretical and practical, in the elementary branches of techni- cal knowledge, to those who are planning to enter the indus- 320 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient trial vocations. Students may enter these schools from the fifth class of a state secondary school. These colleges are situated in five prominent cities. The Technical School at Eskilstuna has Sunday and eve- ning technical classes and a professional school for cutlery and metal industries. The Technical School in Stockholm is one of the largest and most vital in the system, having more than two thou- sand students annually. Its work comprises five departments, as follows: (i) technical evening and Sunday school, (2) technical school for females, (3) higher industrial art school, (4) professional building school, and (5) the professional school of mechanics. In addition, there are other courses, such as a training college for teachers of drawing, penman- ship, and modeling. Finally, there are the lower technical schools, of which there are forty-one distributed in accord with the branches of industry in different localities. They are supported largely by their respective communities, but they receive liberal state grants. In these schools are enrolled about seven thou- sand students, of whom approximately one fifth are women. SPECIAL TYPES OF SCHOOL WORK For Crippled Children. — Sweden sets an example for the world in the education of her crippled children. As early as 1885, such schools were established at Gothenberg and Karls- krona and, a little later, at Helsingborg and Stockholm. An illustration of this work is found in Stockholm, where, though the regular schools are not open to crippled children, special public school teachers are detailed to teach them in their homes after school hours. In this same city are two Sweden 321 famous industrial schools for this type of unfortunates, one for adults, the other for both adults and children. The latter is the Eugenia Hemmet's, said to be one of the most ideal schools in the matter of situation and equipment in Europe. The rooms are most artistically decorated. Plants are everywhere in bloom, birds sing in cages, and beautiful pic- tures adorn the walls. Instruction in this school is free and even the dinner is served without cost to the poorest pupils. The school has an enrollment of about two hundred and is divided into families, each family under the care of two or three nurses. The aim of instruction in these schools is to give the pupils a good general education, the children being given special training in the elementary branches. Even children with no legs or no arms are taught to do things through which to earn a living as well as to be employed and happy. In the other school, the Society in Aid of the Deformed and Infirm, pupils are admitted, ranging in age from 9 to 57. An apprenticeship in this school gives to many a cripple a dexterity in some form of work that enables him to earn as much as many normal workers. What a credit to Stockholm that there are no cripples on her street ! And what a blessing to the unfortunates ! Workshops for Children. — These workshops for children are, in a way, a kind of day school where poor children are given an opportunity during their leisure hours to learn prac- tical work and trades. In more than seventy Swedish towns and villages such workshops are found. Each of them is aided at the beginning by a grant of 700 to 1000 Kroner, from the Institution Lors Hiertas Memorial Fund, an institution that has been furthering this work since 1886. The current 322 Modern EdiLcation in Europe and the Orient expenses for the management of the shops are met by appro- priations from the city councils, from parish grants, and from the sale of the children's work. The aim of the work in these shops, briefly stated, is " manual skill and practical use- fulness." The results of the greater part of a century's experience with these schools have been very gratifying ; the children are given a refuge from the moral and physical dangers of the streets ; they enjoy motherly care and receive efficient educa- tion ; they are prevented from becoming vagrants and crim- inals ; they are saved to their homes and parents and are not put in orphanages and reformatory schools. More than two thousand such children in Stockholm alone have taken work in these schools, for which the city appro- priates annually 38,000 Kroner. The theory back of this work seems to be that the child naturally would more readily be good and useful than bad and harmful and will become so if properly aided by society. School Gardens. — The school statutes provide for a school garden in connection with every public elementary school and every modern school, if possible to that community. Sweden doubtless leads the world in this work. Statistics show that there are as many as two thousand and five hundred such schools, though only about one hundred are fully de- veloped in accord with the normal plan of instruction issued for the development of these gardens. This plan recommends an area of 1000 square meters, to be divided into sections : (i) a kitchen-plant section, for growing edible plants; (2) a nursery section, for grafted fruit trees, etc. ; and (3) a bo- tanical section, for all kinds of plants. The work in these gardens is all done by the school chil- Sweden 323 dren under the supervision of specialists, and in many cases each child has its own plot to cultivate and care for. They are found alike in country and town. Swedish Gymnastics. — Swedish gymnastics have attracted wide attention for one hundred years, for it was in 1813 that Henrick Ling established his Central Gymnastic Institute, in Lund, from which the gymnastic idea has spread through- out the world. Associated with his name are coupled two others, that of Gabriel Branting, who, applying Ling's prin- ciples, developed medical gymnastics to a high degree ; and Hjalmar Ling, his son, who developed the special subject of pedagogical gymnastics. The Swedish system of exercises is selected on the basis of the requirements of the body itself, likewise are the principal instruments used for the performance of these exercises. This theory was worked out carefully by the elder Ling in his book entitled " General Principles of Gymnastics," in which he treated four distinct branches of gymnastics: (i) the pedagogic, (2) the military, (3) the medical, and (4) the aesthetic, showing in each branch how gymnastics should be built upon a science of the human organism and its needs. This theory has been held to throughout by his successors. The Central Institute in Lund has become a most valuable training school for teachers of gymnastics, both men and women, for the schools throughout the kingdom. Various courses are offered to meet the different demands of the state. The enrollment at the Institute is about one hundred and fifty, of whom about forty per cent are women. Many of these graduates are employed in state secondary schools of the kingdom, where all students are required by statute to practice gymnastics a half hour daily. And in 324 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient all the training colleges for elementary teachers special gymnasts train the students to become teachers of gymnastics in the elementary schools, where it is a compulsory subject. Likewise in the People's High Schools, through the means of private gymnasiums, and in the towns, in well-equipped gym- nastic halls, gymnastics are taught and used as a means of physical and moral health. Also the same attention is given to gymnastics in the army and navy schools. On May 5, 191 5, occurred the centennial celebration of Swedish gymnastics. Throughout the whole country the schools, colleges, and university observed the day with appro- priate exercises, the chief celebration being held in the sta- dium, at Stockholm, and participated in by 1 500 young athletes. Sloyd. — The educational theory underlying sloyd work in the Swedish schools is that " systematically arranged manual work is an important element of national education." As early as 1877 the state made its first grant of 15,000 Kroner for the promotion of sloyd work for boys, chiefly in the ele- mentary schools. This appropriation has increased about three hundredfold, until now there are as many as five thou- sand sloyd-groups receiving aid from the state in both ele- mentary and secondary schools. Sloyd is neither a compul- sory subject nor is it required to be a single system. However, the system worked out at the Naas Sloyd Training College is the one most widely used. Principles and Aims. — The principles of the system, briefly stated, are : its aim is educational not commercial ; moral, intellectual, and physical development are secured by orderliness, attention, eye-training, and hand-training, in the work ; accuracy, and not quantity of work ; the order of work determined by the difficulty of ej^ercises ; articles made Sweden 325 are to be aesthetic and useful not luxurious ; the develop- ment of the pupil and not the production -of commercial articles. The sloyd instruction is under the supervision of the govern- ment inspectors of the elementary schools. Such cities as Stockholm and Gothenberg have special sloyd inspectors. The Nads Sloyd Training College. — The center of interest in sloyd is at the Naas Sloyd Training College, founded by August Abrahamson. At his death in 1898, this institution was willed to the state, under conditions providing for its perpetuation, as " The August Abrahamson Foundation." By the provisions of the will, Otto Solomon was the sole director of the foundation until his death, which occurred in 1907. Since then the superintendence of the college has been intrusted to a board. Seven or eight thousand students from about forty difTerent countries have studied in this insti- tution and have gone out into the schools in their countries as exponents of the Swedish sloyd. Girls^ Sloyd. — Girls' sloyd is differently organized, but for the same pedagogical purpose. The method generally in use is the Stockholm method, planned by Miss Hulda Lundin as a modification of the German Schallenfeldt method. The content of this work for girls is knitting, plain needle- work, darning, mending, tracing and making pattern designs, cutting out and making underclothing and other garments. Six or seven thousand sloyd groups receive state aid for this work in girls' schools, both elementary and secondary. The subject is compulsory in the lower and middle classes of girls' secondary schools, but optional in the coeducation schools. The training colleges for women teachers ofifer instruc- 326 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient tion in sloyd and, in addition, many hundreds of teachers have been trained at Miss Hulda Lundin's Course of Sloyd. The state has aided in this work for girls since 1897, and the last eighteen years have seen the subject introduced into the curriculum of many schools throughout the kingdom. Domestic Economy. — The introduction of domestic econ- omy into the Swedish schools was begun more than a quarter of a century ago by private parties. Subsequently the work has been furthered by investigations, by private endowment, and state grants of the work being done in this subject in England, Scotland, Belgium, and Germany. The subject has been introduced, so far, mainly in the elementary schools of the larger towns, though, since 1901, many forms of extension courses have been given in the rural districts by peripatetic lecturers, maintained by private endowments or by county societies. Special courses for the training of teachers of this subject are found in the Higher Training College for Women Teachers at Stockholm ; and Atheneum, a secondary girls' school in Stockholm ; and the Upsala Training School of Domestic Economy. Each of these schools receives a special yearly grant for this particular work. The Swedish Domestic Econ- omy Teachers' Association, organized in 1906, exists for the purpose of furthering the development of this special phase of work for girls. Vacation Colonies. — The extent to which Sweden is car- ing for the health of her children and extending assistance to the poor in this regard is very exemplary. It has become a custom in many of the larger towns, such as Stockholm and Gothenberg, to send poor children who are in feeble health to vacation colonies for the summer. These colonies are sta- Sweden 327 tioned near woods and water, or in some cases, for special health purposes, in mountain districts. Stockholm, alone, in 1908, maintained fifty-seven such colonies with about seventeen hundred children, at a cost of 82,000 Kroner. Both physical and moral results are good. For Ill-Principled and Neglected Children. — A further evidence that Swedish legislation is being directed by sound sociological principles toward a humane treatment and de- velopment of her children, is found in the law of 1902, rela- tive to ill-principled and neglected children. This law pro- vides that such children, under the age of fifteen, shall be taken care of by the educational authorities and not by the courts, and further provides that in every school district in the kingdom there shall be a board to take charge of them, either a special board or the regular school board. For the care of these children, a requisite number of protective homes shall be erected by the county councils and supported jointly by the county and the state. This method of dealing with such children changes the attitude of the state toward them from that of police court and criminal judge to that of pa- rental protector and educator — a change full of suggestion to the world. Temperance Education. — The agitation for temperance instruction in the Swedish schools has been vigorous for more than a quarter of a century, having its effective origin in " Words of Warning," a pamphlet issued by Director General Wagnus Huss, in 1887, to a royal commission in charge of the publication of temperance papers. Follow- ing this, in 1 89 1, the Swedish Riksdag petitioned the king for action, which resulted a year later in a royal ordinance on the basis of which many of the elementary and secondary 328 Modern Ediication in Europe and the Orient school and training colleges have arranged temperance instruction. In the natural science lessons, and also in connection with the religious education, instruction is given on the nature and effects of intoxicating substances. Much good has resulted and various temperance organizations are pushing the matter for educational prohibition legislation. A central association for instruction in the principles of temperance was organized in 1901, and through its activities a few years later a government grant of 25,000 Kroner was secured for two months' summer courses for teachers. These courses were given in training colleges and public elementary and secondary schools for both men and women teachers. In addition to this, many popular scientific courses are given annually in different parts of the country. The government is also appropriating liberally to other forms of temperance work, and, likewise, the county and commercial governments are making a similar contribution to the great cause of tem- perance. People's High Schools. — The establishment of the people's high schools in Sweden was an immediate outgrowth of the democratic evolution in the civil government of the realm, when, in 1866, Charles XV dissolved the last diet of estates, the remnant of the middle ages, and opened the two cham- bers with an elective franchise without social class distinction. This called for a higher and broader education of the lower classes and especially of the adult rural peasant classes for their exercise of the newly acquired rights of citizenship. Danish Influence. — The Swedish educators readily turned to Denmark where a type of adult schools, somewhat earlier, had been built up for civic, moral, and national purposes to strengthen the Danish nation after the conflict with Ger- Sweden 329 many. The results of the Danish influence were the adoption of the name, folkhogskolor, and the embodiment of the broad civic and rehgious principles into their course of study, methods, and management. Three schools of this type were opened almost simultaneously in 1868 and now there are forty-four folk high schools recognized by the Swedish gov- ernment, to which she appropriated in 191 2-13, 338,200 crowns. The student enrollment for that year was 11 00 men and 1080 women. As special aid to the needy students the government granted 80,000 crowns. Private Ownership. — The schools are all privately owned and most all have good buildings and equipment with resi- dences for the teachers. The spirit of cooperation every- where prevails. The school is under the direction of a board, appointed by the societies supporting the school, and is di- rectly administered by a manager who is generally a uni- versity graduate. Foght points out an important respect in which the Swedish policy is at variance with the Danish. He says, " Since the Swedish government began offering liberal support for the establishment of agricultural schools, the folk high schools have gone through a partial reorganization. Two schools are usually found on the same campus, under one adminis- trative head, although the schools continue to have separate principals and are housed in their own buildings. Their relation is much the same as is that of the several schools in an American university, each with its own dean, subject to one administrative head." Courses for Women. — The people's high school courses for women had their beginning in 1873 at Hvilan in Skane, where the first school of the kind was opened for men. These 330 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient courses are usually open from May to July, the months when the men are at home. As a rule they are directed by the manager of the men's school, assisted by his wife and other female teachers. The courses of study for the two sexes are largely the same so far as general culture is concerned, but widely different in other respects, each sex specializing in the subjects adapted to its needs. Age and Advancement of Students. — The men attending these schools range in age from twenty to twenty-two years and the women from eighteen to twenty. Upon applying for entrance, the students must furnish evidence of having completed the elementary school and must, also, present a certificate of good conduct. Course oj Study. — The course of study covers a wide range of subjects, but is centered around the Swedish language, literature, and history, and the sciences and arts that are of greatest significance to rural peasant life. The Swedish rural high school has done much to elevate the rural people and to make them contented, intellectually, morally, and economically. RELIGIOUS EDUCATION Relation of Church and School. — The close relation be- tween church and state in Sweden makes the subject of reli- gious instruction in that country one of peculiar interest to foreigners. The relation is so close that both the church and school are under the same department — the Ecclesias- tical Department. Furthermore, the supervision of the schools in each diocese is under the diocesan board, with the consent of the church assembly. The training college course for elementary teachers includes religion as one of the Sweden 33 1 obligatory subjects and calls for 13.2 per cent of the time for this subject in the four-year course. The applicant for a teachers' certificate must have obtained a certificate in reli- gion along with other subjects from the state training col- leges. The election of a teacher in ordinary for each common school is by the church assembly, upon nomination of three candidates by the school board. Statutory Provisions. — The common school statute pre- scribes religion as one of the subjects to be taught. The normal plan, issued by the Ecclesiastical Department, fixes the range of instruction in religion as follows : stories from the Old and New Testament, Luther's Brief Catechism with its accepted exposition, select hymnal verses, and perusal of certain books of the New Testament. For continuation schools, the plan prescribes the reading of an entire book of the Bible, or a portion of such, and the study of Luther's Brief Catechism. The minimum requirement for students who, by reason of poverty, must drop out of school before completing the entire course, is fixed by the plan as, — Bible, history and catechism, as far as necessary for partaking in the parochial instruction preparatory for the first communion. In all types of secondary schools, religion is a constant sub- ject throughout all the years of the curriculum. In the Higher Training College for Women Teachers and in the Normal School attached to it the same relative amount of instruction in religion is given as is found in other types of schools. Theology in the University. — Above all this religious in- struction in the various grades of the common, secondary, and the teachers' training schools stand the faculties of theology in the two state universities, from which the high- est degree in religious education, the doctor of divinity, is 332 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient issued by the government itself, without examination. And finally the king himself, by constitutional requirements, must be a member of the state church, the Evangelical Lutheran. However, full liberty of conscience is allowed and there exist vigorous branches of Cathohcs, Methodists, Baptists, and other religious organizations. Parents are allowed to withdraw their children from the religious classes of the established church provided they give them instruction in their own religion. Decree of Efficiency. — To what extent such a state sys- tem of religion is efhcient in maintaining the moral and reli- gious consciousness of the rising generations is variously estimated by different students of religious systems of edu- cation. The Bishop of Salisbury in his book on the " National Church of Sweden" says, " Sweden has at this moment an established church which has a better theoretical and in some ways practical relation to the state than any except perhaps the established church of Scotland, and which surpasses that church by its greater hold upon primitive order and certain elements of worship." He also says that the " close connection of the church with the universities has kept the professors of theology closer to the tradition of the faith than has been the case in the continental universities, and has also secured a high standard of intellectual attainment, which may be compared with that of the church of England, of the estabHshed church of Scotland, and our own sister church of Ireland." The bishops, almost without exception, have been leaders in educational activities, so far as their excessive duties would Sweden 333 permit. They have, it is thought, by reason of their official diocesan duties become so far removed from the people that mental sympathy between them and the young people of their parishes has seriously waned. Religious Consciousness. — Conflicting judgments exist as to the stability of the church adherents among the younger people. Catholic critics, in particular, see an alarming drift- ing of young people away from the orthodoxy of the church into atheism, socialism, and civic immorality. Even the Lutheran bishops themselves present discouraging pictures of the religious situation in some of their dioceses. Says one of them : — " The general result described is that the church is unpopu- lar in many parts of the great diocese which he is called to administer ; that the attendance at its regular services is more often poor than good, or even fair ; that the number of persons confirmed is declining ; that there is a great decay of faith and a growth of socialism and infidelity ; — that the relation between employees and employed are often uncom- fortable, and that there is a lamentable laxity of morals among the young people." Doubtless such a picture could be drawn, with slight modifications, of the religious condi- tions in other countries of the world, both with and without a state church. It would only serve to show that human nature, even the religious instinct and consciousness, the world over, responds pretty much the same way to the same conditions. Sweden is not an exception. The fact is, the world is in a state of social and religious evolution. The Swedish system of religious education in the public schools will have to respond to modern conceptions just as her secular education is responding. 334 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient Topics for Further Study 1. Compare the density of population in Sweden with that in your state and country. 2. Write an account of the influence of Comenius upon Swedish education. 3. Describe the school hfe of a Swedish boy from his entrance into school at six or seven years of age until he graduates from the university with the degree of licentiate of philosophy. 4. Make a study of the school garden work in Sweden and compare this with the school garden work in your state. 5. Make a study of the Naas Sloyd Training College and its in- fluence in the Swedish sloyd work. 6. What special provisions are made for the education of Swedish girls and women ? 7. Describe the relation of the Swedish government to temperance education. 8. What prominent educational institutions in America are main- tained by Swedish organizations ? 9. Account for the advanced position taken by the Scandinavian countries in regard to equal suffrage for women. 10. To what extent is Swedish gymnastics in use in American schools ? Special Bibliography Education in Sweden, for Alaska-Yukon-Pacific Exposition, Seattle, 1909, Stockholm. FoGHT, H. W. Danish High Schools, U. S. Bulletin, 1914, No. 22. Callander, Otto. The Secondary Schools of Sweden, English Board of Education, Special Reports, Vol. Ill, London, 1888. JONSON, J. V. The Folkhogskolor in Sweden. Lagerstedt, N. G. W. The Education System of Sweden. LiNDSTROM, P. E. Swedish School System, in Monroe's Cyclopedia of Education, Vol. IV. Nilson, Victor. Sweden. Solomon, Otto. The August Abraham Foundation, The U. S. Com. of Education, 1904, Vol. I, pp. 676-797. Sweden 335 Special Types of Swedish Education, U. S. Com. of Education Reports, 1907, Vol. I ; 1913, Vol. I ; 1914, Vol. I ; 1915, Vol. I. SuNDBORG, GusTAv. Sweden, Its Peoples and Its Industries, 1904, Naesled and Sons, Stockholm, Sweden. Thwing. Universities of the World, Upsala, 191 1, The Macmillan Com- pany, New York. Wordsworth, John, D.D., Bishop of Salisbury. National Church of Sweden, 191 1, Young, Churchman and Co., Milwaukee, Wis- consin. JAPAN CHAPTER X HER HISTORY • Establishment of Feudalism. — Historic Japan from 660 B.C., as accounted for in Japan's oldest book, the Kojiki. At this date, invaders took possession of the country that was already settled by many tribes. A system of feudalism was established, with the original inhabitants tilUng the soil and the invaders controlling the government. The several peoples intermarried and developed a civilization to which the Japan of to-day owes its origin. Introduction of Buddhism. — Civilization from Korea and China gradually drifted in till, in 552 a.d., Buddhist mission- aries from Korea flooded Japan with their culture and religion. Anedist, issued in 621 a.d., made Buddhism the state religion. Monarchy and Militarism. — Japan copied from China. In 603 she changed from feudalism to monarchy, after the Chinese plan. As a result of this centralized system of govern- ment, a military class grew up, parallel with the agricultural class. This cleavage in Japanese society has continued to the present time. The empire was extended through aggres- sive military rule, but, at the same time, a strong class of civil rulers grew up about the capital to rival the military power. The struggles between thfese two forces culminated in 1 192, when the leader of the military party had himself 33(> Japan 337 appointed Shogun, or Military Chief. Being already the real ruler of the country, he likewise assumed control of the purse, and, thereby, left the court, in honor and poverty, dependent upon him. Just two centuries later, the ruHng Shogun became emperor, in fact, and next succession to the throne was made hereditary in the family of the Shogun. Civilization reached a high stage of development during the nearly two centuries of Shogun rule. But, through the period, the religious power of the Buddhists, by means of their wealth and organization, was a constant menace to the mili- tary class. Christianity Introduced. — In the latter half of the sixteenth century, Christianity was introduced into Japan and outside countries also began to enter with a system of commerce and industrialism similar to that in feudal Europe. Japan's Ports Opened to the World. — Japan, following the Chinese policy, began the exclusion of foreigners and the inclusion of her own people within her own boundaries. Rescue from this poHcy of isolation and decline came in 1854, when Commodore Perry entered Japan's ports and secured with her treaties with the United States. Contact with the west and the influence of western learning and culture drove the Shogun power from the field in 1867, and placed the government in the charge of men with new ideas and new motives, sworn to rule in deference to public opinion. Modern Constitutional Government. — Under the influence of such a rule, the Emperor voluntarily promulgated the new constitution in 1889, guaranteeing representative govern- ment. There organization of society and government was made in accord«with advisers from foreign countries, invited 338 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient into Japan for this purpose. The United States furnished the plan for education ; France, for the army ; the British, for the navy ; and the Dutch, for internal improvement. The subsequent years have been given to internal readjustment and development of commercial and international relation- ships. Her recent wars with China, Korea, and Russia were largely of territorial significance. Japan ranks to-day as the greatest of the far eastern powers. Her own vision, fifty years ago, placed a modern educational system at the pivotal point in the rise of her nation, and this she has been rapidly and efficiently developing to the present time. GEOGRAPHY AND INDUSTRIES Geography. — The Empire of Great Japan (Dai Nippon) is composed of about 4000 islands, of which only about 500 are inhabited. The total area is 260,738 square miles. Japan proper consists of the five main islands and their adjacent small islands, with a total area of 87,426 square miles. Its greatest breadth is less than 200 miles. The land can be described as consisting of high mountains, deep valleys, and many small plains, covered, for the most part, with a luxuriant vegetation, but breaking here and there, throughout, with barren peaks and extinct or active vol- canoes. The climatic conditions are widely varying, as the land stretches from south to north through nearly 30 degrees of latitude. Industries. — Agriculture is a prominent industry, although only 1 7 per cent of the land is devoted to this purpose. The main agricultural products, in the order of their output, are rice, barley, rye, wheat, tobacco, tea, cotton, silk, and vege- tables. About three fifths of the arable land is cultivated by Japan 339 peasant owners and the other two fifths by tenants. The average holding is about one acre. Animal husbandry and dairying have been recently introduced, under government management, with skilled foreign superintendents, and are becoming quite successful. The stock, in the order of their numbers, are horses, cattle, hogs, goats, and sheep. The mineral resources of Japan are only moderate, but they are being well developed. In 191 1 there were 226,308 employees engaged in mining industries. The leading mining products, in the order of their values, are copper, iron, lead, silver, gold, and coal. The fisheries and allied industries engage about 1,500,000 employees. The manufactures of Japan, as a whole, are fairly well de- veloped, and, in the manufacture of lacquer work, they lead the world. Her other main manufactured products are cotton goods, paper products, earthenware, matting, silk. In 1913 Japan had 87 government factories and 15,119 private fac- tories with 863,447 employees. Her imports, in 1914, amounted to $297,872,535 and her exports to $255,552,090. In 1914 her population was 53,696,858; her total debt, on which she is paying 4 to 5 per cent interest, was 2,545,070 yen; her expenses, 559,759,598 yen; and her revenue 654,282,173 yen. The yen equals 49.8 cents, or approxi- mately fifty cents in gold. Education received, in the year 1914, 79,692,983 yen from all sources. Only 1.7 per cent of the federal expenditures was for education, in comparison with 6.4 per cent in France, for the same year. 340 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient HER GOVERNMENT Constitutional Monarchy. — The government of Japan is a constitutional monarchy, under which the Emperor (Mikado or Tenno) combines in himself the rights of sovereignty. In the discharge of the executive functions of the government, the Emperor has the advice and assistance of the Cabinet Ministers, who are appointed by him and responsible solely to him. The powers of the Emperor are very great. He can de- clare war, make peace, conclude treaties, legislate (with permission of the Diet), convoke and prorogue the Diet, sanction or veto laws. The reigning Emperor is Yoshihito. He came to the throne July 30, 191 2, and was coronated in November, 1915. The succession to the throne is fixed upon his male descendants. The constitution on which this government rests was granted voluntarily by the Emperor, in 1889, in keeping of his oath made in 1878, to give the people a representative government. The central government, in addition to the Emperor and his Imperial Cabinet, consists of the Privy Council and nine Ministers of Departments. Legislative Department. — The Imperial Diet (Legislative Department) consists of two houses: (i) the House of Peers, consisting of 369 members, elected from {a) hereditary castes, (])) classes distinguished for meritorious service, and (c) the fifteen male inhabitants in fu or ken, paying the highest state tax on land, industry, or trade. (2) The House of Representatives, having at present 379 members, elected on a population basis by male suffrage, ex- tended on a qualification consisting of age, residence, and Japan 341 property provisions. The Japanese type of franchise and representation is more like the German than that of the United States. Justice is administered through a Ministry of Justice and a system of four classes of courts, founded on the principles of modern jurisprudence. Local Government. — Local government is through pre- fectures, which are divided into municipalities, towns, and villages, as the units of local government. Each of these units has its legislative assembly, or council, and executive officers. The governor and sheriff of each prefecture, and the mayor of each municipality, are appointed by the Emperor. Other officials are elected. Citizenship and election franchise are extended to male citizens, over 25 years of age, and with certain residence and property qualifications. The present tendency in Japan is towards democracy, and the avenues of approach to it are (i) party government, and (2) a ministry responsible to the Diet, and not to the Emperor. Administration of Education. — Education is administered through a department, established in 187 1, largely in accord with the United States model, but subsequently modified through German influences, as it exists to-day. The Ministry of Education is one of the most important in the government. /. Education under the Early Feudal Regime (660 B.C.-603 A.D.) THE ANCIENT SYSTEM OF EDUCATION Amalgamation of Invading and Aboriginal Tribes. — Edu- cation during this earliest period was largely concerned with the amalgamation of the invading and conquering race with 342 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient the aboriginal tribes. These invading people were Malays, Mongolians, Tartars, and Koreans. Out of the amalgamation we have the Japanese and the Ainu (the former aborigines) of to-day. These people intermarried, and acquired each other's customs, habits, language, and religious rites. They organized society by establishing the rank and honor of the ruling chieftains and assigning the conquered tribes to the tilling of the soil. The struggles and conflicts of this crude civilization were towards the estabhshment of a common language, common customs, and common ideas. Other than this, their education pertained to the manufacture of the crude implements of warfare, their meager clothing, and the pro- duction of the necessary articles of food. Chinese Classics and Confucianism Introduced. — The latter part of this period was marked with the introduction of influences from Korea and China. At this time, about 405 A.D., a famous Korean scholar, Ajiki, came to Japan and presented to the Emperor copies of several of the Chinese classics. As a result of the interest he aroused, he was em- ployed as tutor to one of the princes. In this way began the literary form of education in Japan and, with it, the spread of Confucianism. Other Korean and Chinese scholars came to Japan and were naturalized and employed as teachers. Civil education, also, was begun at this time, through the appoint- ment of recording officers in the different provinces, to make records of the proceedings of the local governments. Likewise, beginnings in moral education were made through the teachings and practice of the virtues taught in the Chinese classics, as loyalty, filial piety, and justice. These events record the real beginnings of education in Japan. And it must be remembered that the literary part Japan 343 of this education was only for the children of the nobility and that the children of the industrial classes received only such education as belonged to their class in feudal civilization. Japanese Students Study in China. — The study of the Chinese literature, even in those early days, was regarded by the nobility as an important medium for diplomatic relations with Korea and China. During the early part of the seventh century A.D., the practice was begun of sending Japanese students to China to be educated there. These students returned bringing with them an ebb of Chinese civilization. The firm establishment of Chinese literature and arts in Japan was guaranteed through the founding of Japan's first educa- tional institution, in the year 667 a.d. However, it must be kept in mind, that, during those twelve centuries of early Japanese history, many forces, other than the dominant one of the period, were shaping themselves for subsequent control. II. Education under Buddhist Domination (552 A.D.-II92 A.D.) Buddhism Supplants Confucianism. — The second era in ancient Japanese education had its origin in the arrival, in 552 A.D., of Buddhist missionaries from Korea. These brought with them their religious books and teachings and also writing, calendar-making, and methods of keeping time. The Buddhist priests soon won high favor at the Imperial Court, and in the society of the nobility. The priests studied in China. They showed great adaptability in coalescing with Confucianism their Buddhist doctrines, while at the same time retaining the controlling position for their faith. As early as 621 a.d., Buddhism had become so popular with 344 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient both nobility and common people, by edict, in that year, it was made the established religion of the land. The amalgamation of Buddhist and Chinese literature marked one of the most prosperous educational epochs in ancient Japanese history. State Educational Institution Established, 701 a.d. — In the Code of Laws, promulgated by the Emperor in 701 a.d. special regulations were made for the establishment of educa- tional institutions, the first under state control in Japan, A university was organized, at the capital, with courses of study in history, classics, laws, and mathematics, all open' as electives to students. Likewise a school was established in each province, with courses in classics, mathematics, and penmanship. The principle of state support was established through the endowment of education with extensive tracts of public lands, the revenue from which was to be used in the support of the schools. Many private schools were established during this period, by the rich nobles, for the education of their own children in the arts and sciences. Purpose and Effect of Caste Education. — But all organized education was Kmited to the children of the ruling classes and the families of the nobility. And the chief aim of this educa- tion was to train these children for political preferment in state official positions. The political and social result of this education, upon the state and the masses of the people, was the change of the government from feudalism to monarchy, with the Chino- Japanese educated nobility in charge of the government. The maintaining of this centralized form of gov- ernment called for the development of a miHtary force which gradually drew attention away from education. Decline set in and education became the possession of a few privileged families who transmitted it to their posterity as a heredi- Japan 345 tary right. The Emperor, overshadowed by the military rule, sought retirement in religious and literary pursuits, and the government passed into the hands of the military class. III. Education under Military Control (1192 A.D.-1867 A.D.) Government Becomes a Military Feudalism. — The third period of ancient Japanese education is well fixed by the culmi- nation of the struggles of the monarchy in the appointment of the mihtary chief, as Shogun, or military ruler, in 1192 a.d. During this period, the attention of the ruHng mihtary party was given to the organization of society and state as a complete mihtary feudahsm. EducatiT)n was preserved only by the few great scholars, by educational institutions main- tained by famihes of the nobihty, and by the Buddhist priests and their temples. The only form of education for the people, during this period, seems to have been furnished by the Buddhists, in simple neighborhood schoolhouses. Jesuits Establish Schools in Japan. — Other influences from without entered Japan, during the sixteenth century of this period, and left their effect upon education and the social and religious consciousness of the people. The Por- tuguese, in 1542, opened up commercial relations with Japan and suppHed them with firearms and a trade that enriched many of the Japanese princes. About the same time, 1549, Zavier and other Jesuit priests, together with Spanish mis- sionaries from the Philippines, representing other orders of CathoUc Christians, came to Japan and began their work of rehgious conquest. The Shogun of the day persecuted and subdued the Buddhists, but, on the other hand, offered en- 346 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient couragement to the Jesuits. For half a century this mis- sionary work flourished, until there were several thousand native Christians in Japan. The Jesuits built schools as well as churches. They established a college at Nagasaki and several seminaries at other places, both for the education of priests and for general education. But the different Christian orders became unfriendly and antagonistic to one another and some began to interfere with poHtical affairs, the result of which was the displeasure of the government and a long- time prejudice against everything Christian. This condition in Japan was very similar to what these same organizations had created in other countries during the same period. Foreigners Excluded and Non-Christian Education Re- newed. — The pohcy adopted by the government was ex- clusion of all foreigners and the inclusion of all natives within the territory of Japan. This was accomplished in 1624. Of the work of these missionaries no lasting intellectual, moral, or artistic effect was left, except to drive Japan back into Confucianism. The expulsion of all these foreign factors left the government of the miHtary Shogunate complete. For 250 years they remained so. Confucianism, Buddhism, and Shintoism, the native reUgion of the Japanese, were all revived. Schools both for the common people and for the higher classes were developed to quite a high degree. A Confucian college was organized in 1691 that became the highest educational institution down to the modern period. The state endowed schools with land grants, and feudal lords built schools for their vassals. Course of Study and Methods. — The subject matter in these schools was the Chinese and Japanese, as the Japanese at this time organized their own Hterature. By the close Japan 347 of the period the schools were very well developed into three grades, the primary, the middle, and the college. Of the colleges, the one at Yedo was the center of the highest Con- fucian learning, and the one at Kyota, the highest Buddhist and pure Japanese learning. The content of the primary curriculum was writing, Chinese classics, simple things in environment and government, arith- metic, and etiquette. The method was by imitation and memory, as in the Chinese schools. The pupil entered at six or seven years of age and spent five years. In the middle school, the content was Hterary and miUtary. The military part was feudal, as was fwund in the schools of other feudal countries of that day. It consisted of fencing, wrestling, archery, swimming, horsemanship, and the use of the spear. The course covered about three years, above the primary school. The literary part consisted of history of China and Japan, rhetoric, strategy, geography of Japan, writing, and arithmetic. In the colleges, the subjects of the middle schools were con- tinued with the addition of historical classics and algebra and Chinese and Japanese philosophy. The main ends of all this education were moral character and .the physique of an athlete and warrior. Instruction was free in all of these schools. The teacher was regarded as " father of the mind " and highly honored, though, from a modern point of view, his education would not merit for him such renown. Says one writer, '* His chief duty was to stuff and cram the minds of his pupils." Education of Girls. — The education of girls was not so extensive as that of the boys. Many of the schools for the 348 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient ordinary people were attended by girls as well as boys. For the girls, special subjects, like needlework and weaving, were taught. There were some schools for the girls of the military class, in which the girls were taught hunting and fencing. But for the girls in the upper social classes, private instructors were generally employed to teach in the homes. Here they were given instruction in music, poetry, writing, fencing, etiquette, and (as to the boys) how to kill themselves properly, in case of need. Closely adhering to the teaching of Confucius, the Japanese gave their girls but Httle Uterary training. TRANSITION TO MODERN EDUCATION (1854-1J Liberalism Destroys Militarism. — The Shogunate, or military government, that had maintained peace in Japan for 250 years, came to an end in 1867, and the Emperor was brought out of seclusion at Kyota and restored to power. The aristocracy of the Shogunate, in forbidding Christian religion and all independent thought in rehgious and pohtical philosophy, was the fundamental cause of this change in govern- ment. The very schools which the Shogunate government built up fostered the scholars, who, in their antagonism to the spirit of repression, formulated the Uberal ideas that spread the spirit of dissatisfaction with the military government. The virtue of loyalty, taught in the religions, allied the people to their Emperor and to their own nation. This loyalty took shape in the preference of Japanese literature to Chinese, Shinto to Con- fucianism and Buddhism, and the Emperor to the Shogun. Western Learning Enters Japan. — This spirit of a new nationalism received another impetus from Dutch learning, Japan 349 which had been admitted in 1720, in the form of books, deal- ing with all subjects of western knowledge, with the exception of reUgious ones. The Dutch were followed by the British, the French, Russians, and Americans, who stole into the Japanese waters and forts, spreading their learning and com- merce. The learned and progressive Japanese courted this relationship. Both these and the foreigners demanded a strong central government to protect them against the oppo- sition of the Shogunate. Thus, the liberalism of the nations and the pressure of western learning opened Japan again to the world. The consummation of this movement was the Perry treaty in 1854, the overthrow of_ the Shogunate, and the restoration of the Emperor to the throne of a united Japanese Empire, in 1868. The treaties with foreign countries proved to be the means of bringing to Japan the ideas, in- ventions, and the systems of thought necessary to make of her a New Japan. Feudalism Destroyed, 1871. — To these events must be added the abolishment of the feudal system, in 1871, to make the transition to modern education complete. With the passing of this feudal system, the autocrats were recognized as ordinary people and the military castes were leveled to the plane of other classes. Feudal castes were either de- stroyed or converted into schools for the masses. With the nation thus united, the government was reorganized in accord with western models. Since then, the striking characteristics of the Japanese people — imitation and absorption — have been concentrated upon building a New Empire with a modern educational system at its core. 35° Modern Education in Europe and the Orient MODERN EDUCATION (1868-19 I 6) Japan's Educational Policy. — The modern period of edu- cation in Japan can be conveniently designated as beginning with the edict of the Emperor, April, 1868, in which he swore that intellect and learning should he sought after in all quarters of the world, as one of the five great principles on which he should establish his throne. By this, he meant to broaden the sources of knowledge for Japan to include the entire universe wherever knowledge could be found. And he meant to send the students and scholars of Japan into all the world and to invite and welcome scholars and books from every enlightened country. This has been the policy of Japan to the present day. Feudal Lords Establish Schools. — Verbeck, a Dutch- American missionar}', who for some years had been engaged in religious education in Nagasaki, was invited, in 1869, to come to the capital, Tokyo, and found a university and to become a general counselor to the Japanese. This university, in reality, was mainly a school of foreign languages for the priv- ileged class. The enrollment reached as much as a thousand, including students of every age and from every part of the kingdom, attending English, French, and German depart- ments. They came with belt and sword and other insignia of their feudal-military civilization. Prejudice was so in- tense, among the general populace, against foreigners, that the government kept fifty armed men at the university to protect the foreign teachers. This school, at Tokyo, was a fair type of the many schools established in feudal provinces by the former feudal lords. Japan 351 These schools, following in the wake of the edict of 187 1, which retired the feudal (Daimyos) into private life meant not only the civil but the social abohtion of feudalism in Japan. With that system broken, Japan merged into the modern world of learning. Reorganization of education followed rapidly. The imperial decree of 1869, regulating universities, middle schools, and elementary schools, and the establishment of the Department of Education, 187 1, were followed in 1872 by the promulgation of the Code of Education, and the Imperial Rescript, showing the course to be pursued in general. With these acts, the present educational system in Japan was put into operation. * Provisions of the Code of 1872. — The code shows in- fluence from both American and French sources, but the later development of the system has been in the direction of German models. The essential provisions were as follows: (i) The country was to be divided into 8 grand school districts, each with a university and a bureau of school inspection. (2) Each grand school district was to be divided into 32 middle school districts, each to have 8 middle schools. (3) Each of the middle school districts was to be divided into 210 primary school districts, each to have 8 primary schools. This scheme provided for 8 universities, 256 middle schools, and 53,760 primary schools. The code made no provision for technical schools, though many such schools had already been or- ganized. Realization of This Scheme. — It is interesting to notice at this point how fully this scheme as to the number of schools of the different grades has been reaHzed. The last available statistics are for the year 191 2-13. They show 25,750 elementary schools, 314 middle schools, and 4 imperial 352 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient universities. The elementary schools and the universities have reached just about half the number planned for, and the middle schools have passed the mark by 23 per cent. IMany other types of schools have entered the system since the pro- mulgation of the first code. Purpose and Scope of Education. — The purpose and scope of education were clearly set forth in the Educational Rescript of 1872. The main principles were these: (i) The acquisi- tion of knowledge is necessary for every walk of life, con- sequently the fullest provisions were to be made for the educa- tion of all classes of people, both men and women, to such an extent that there shall not be an ignorant member in any family in the land. (2) Each individual should acquire knowledge by his own exertions, and not depend upon the government for support, as, hitherto, had been the practice. Naturally the introduction of a code so radical into the schools of a nation would be followed by many revisions of that code to secure harmonious adjustment to the people. Many such changes have been made in the Japanese code, by which there have been provided technical schools, normal schools for girls, compulsory education, pensions for teachers, a system of moral instruction, the extension of free education, the pro- vision of a system of state textbooks for the primary schools, and industrial courses in the primary and middle schools for both boys and girls. Essential Features of the School System. — The general outline and the essential features of the present school system of Japan are as follows. The movement of modern education in Japan is one of internal origin, and is considered one of the most notable achievements of the past half century. Although stimulated and aided, at the beginning, by experts Japan 353 from western countries, the work of modernizing the Japan school system quickly passed into the hands of natives. Hence, the change has occurred without any loss of the spirit of patriotism and paternal regard for the best features of the ancient regime. And, inasmuch as the modern movement is strictly scientific, the evolution of the school system has been , without conflict with the conventional, ethical, and religious teachings of the Japanese people. The system of public education is as completely unified as that of any country in Europe, as all types of schools, both cultural, industrial, and technical, are closely correlated and are under the direction of the Ministry of Public Instruction. THE ADMINISTRATION OF EDUCATION Units and Officials of Administration. — For the adminis- tration of education, Japan is divided into 46 prefectures, of which 43 are called Ken and 3, Fu. The 3 Fu are Tokyo, Kyoto, and Osaka. The prefectures are subdivided into rural and urban districts, cities, towns, and villages. The rural district is called Gun, and is about the same as an American county. Each of these units of administration, the prefecture, district, city, town, or village, has its headman, or mayor, who is assisted by a council and assembly of some kind. The central government retains its power over all of these local units, either by appointment or approval of the headman. Otherwise, there is a fair degree of self-govern- ment. These local officials are responsible for education in their respective territories. Government Control and Inspection of Education. — The control and inspection of education are by the Department of Education, the head of which is a cabinet minister. He is 354 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient assisted by a vice-minister, legal advisers, three chiefs of the bureaus of (i) general, (2) special, and technical schools, five inspectors of schools, and a higher council of education which meets annually. And for local inspection, the prefec- ture has one chief inspector with two assistant inspectors, and each rural district has one inspector. The private schools are controlled mainly by three methods : (i) the state retains the right to inspect them; (2) pupils from unrecognized private schools are required to pass a rigid examination, for which they pay a fee, for admission to the higher institutions; and (3) the state permits students in recognized schools to delay military service until they are through school, and then to shorten the term of such service from one year to three. For these reasons, private schools generally strive to comply with the regulations of the govern- ment, as a means of holding many of their students, who, otherwise, would leave them for state schools. Compulsory School Law and its Enforcement. — The com- pulsory school law requires the attendance of children from six to fourteen years of age, through the ordinary primary school course of six years. This law is administered by the local school authority. Its enforcement is so complete that the enrollment in the elementary schools, as shown by the sta- tistics of 1911-12, is 98 per cent of all children of school age, and this, with an average attendance of 92.6 per cent of the enrollment. It is conservatively estimated that 94 per cent of the schools of Japan are directly controlled by public authorities, either national or local, and that the other 6 per cent of the private schools are most all indirectly controlled by the state through the three different methods of supervision above described. Japan 355 Education Regulated by Imperial Ordinance. — It is es- pecially noticeable that the regulation of education in Japan is not so much through legislation as through imperial or- dinances. Important education matters are first submitted by the Minister of Education to the privy council, then to the high educational council, which is composed of the presidents of the imperial universities and heads of certain other colleges and educational institutions, and finally to the cabinet, from which it is promulgated as an ordinance by the Emperor. These ordinances regulate all kinds of schools. In the Min- istry of Education all educational functions are grouped and directed through three distinct bureaus, (i) general or common education, (2) special education, such as the uni- versities, etc., and (3) technical education. The educational matters, regulated by law, are such as pertain to the formation of schools, districts, appointment of school officials, the financing of education, the pensioning of teachers, etc. THE KINDERGARTEN Unsettled Status of the Kindergarten. — The kindergarten does not form a part of the national educational system in Japan. As an institution, it is still in the balance, with the Japanese educators, as to its value in the education of children. All seem to be agreed that in the kindergarten there should be no systematic teaching of formal subjects, that play and song, with gifts and games, should constitute their work. They are also careful to call the rooms, in which the kinder- gartens do their work, by the name of " nursery rooms," and the teacher by the name of " nurse-mother " (Hobo). The fault is found with many of the kindergartens that they 356 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient are too much like elementary schools. The kindergarten is for children, both boys and girls, from three to six years of age. It is interesting to an American student to note that the first kindergarten in Japan was organized, at the invitation of the government, by an American, in connection with the Tokyo Female Normal School, where it still exists as a part of the practice school of that institution. Moral Instruction in the Kindergarten. — To avoid the criticism made upon the Japanese kindergartens, that they were not religious, as required by the fundamental principle of Froebel's system, the government prescribes the " five relations " of Confucianism as the basis of moral instruction in the Chinese kindergarten. These schools are quite numer- ous, there being one government kindergarten and about two hundred public institutions, and half as many private ones. Notwithstanding this large number, it is estimated that not more than six in a thousand of the pupils entering the ele- mentary schools come from the kindergarten. Purpose. — The training in the Japanese kindergarten is very similar to that given in the European and American kindergartens. The purpose is primarily to develop ini- tiative in the child and to direct its play toward desirable moral and industrial habits. Fee. — The average annual fee charged in the kindergar- tens is about $1.50, but even this small fee prevents many from attending. The fees cover about one half of the ex- pense of the kindergartens, the remainder being met by as- sociations and by the prefectures. Teachers. — The teachers, or nurse-mothers, are required to hold a special license, or the certificate of an elementary Japan 2>S1 teacher. In status and pay, the kindergarten teachers rank below the primary teachers. ELEMENTARY EDUCATION (Ordinary Primary) Definition. — Elementary education, as defined by ordinance, means that schooHng which gives to children the rudiments of moral education and of civil education of the kind that makes the child a good subject of the Emperor and a useful citizen, together with such knowledge and skill and body development as are necessary for life. Course of Study. — The course covers, in general, six years, but it may be varied as local conditions demand. Pupils enter at six years of age and remain through the compulsory age period (6 to 14), or until they complete the course. The subjects taught are : morals, Japanese language, arithmetic, gymnastics, drawing, singing, manual work, and sewing for girls. In the upper grades, these subjects are continued with the additional ones, Japanese history, geography, science. Agriculture and commerce and the English language may be added. The industrial subjects are optional. A wide range of privilege is granted to the local authorities in the modifica- tion of the course of study to meet local conditions, the modi- fications being subject always to the approval of the prefect. A great weakness in the elementary schools, from the point of view of all critics, is the large class enrollment of 60 to 70 (10 more under special conditions) allowed. The two reasons given for this are : (i) inabiUty to provide the finances for schools and equipment, and (2) the lack of properly certif- icated teachers. 3S8 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient Separation of Sexes. — The separation of the sexes in the elementary schools is provided for in the ordinances, but in practice in this regard, as in most all others in Japan, it is left to the localities to adjust. The principle is that the in- struction given to the pupils must have regard to the different characteristics of the sexes and to the difference in their future life. The scheme is to segregate the girls in each year of the course, if there are enough for separate classes. As a par- tial means of providing for the overcrowded condition of the schools, or for remote and poor rural districts, a system of " half-day " schools has been in operation in some locahties, since 1903, with more or less satisfaction. A most encour- aging feature in the elementary schools of Japan is the high percentage of girls enrolled, which is almost equal to that of the boys, the per cents being 44 for girls and 66 for boys. It is very apparent, from these figures, that the mind of the Japanese has experienced a marvelous transformation in its attitude towards women in the last generation. Enrollment and Results. — The elementary school statis- tics for 191 2 are, number of schools, 25,750 ; teachers, 157,536 ; pupils, 7,021,661 ; percentage of enrollment was over 98 per cent of the total school population. These figures, on the basis of enrollment, are good, but in consideration of the over- crowded classroom and the consequent quality of work, the results are not so encouraging. Supplementary Courses and Local Industries. — Supple- mentary courses are provided for children who, for various good reasons, cannot continue in the regular elementary school, beyond the first four grades. These courses are two years in length and are devoted primarily to subjects that have a bearing on the local industries. They are under the Japan 359 control of the local school authorities, subject to the approval of the prefect. These schools are most numerous in remote rural districts, in villages with limited resources, and in the districts where there are many poor families where children need to work to aid the home. The school hours for sup- plementary courses are arranged so as to interfere the least possible with the vocational work in which the children are engaged. Recent statistics show that the number of students enrolled in the ordinary elementary supplementary courses, in comparison with the number in tlie corresponding two years of the upper primary course, are as i to 40. The ratio of boys to girls in these two parallel two-year courses is also interesting. In the regular course there were 69 per cent boys and 31 per cent girls, while in the supplementary course there were 56 per cent boys and 44 per cent girls. That is, a larger percentage of boys than girls remain in the regular course, which is the opposite to what would be expected, as one would be inclined to think that more boys than girls at this age would be compelled to quit school to enter remunera- tive employment. The explanation is doubtless due (i) to the traditional lack of appreciation of the value of education for women and (2) to the greater need of the girls' service in the Japanese home. Private Elementary Schools. — The number of private schools, doing elementary work, is very small. This is doubt- less due to the fact that to be a substitute for the regular elementary school, under the compulsory school law, a private school must be approved, or must secure a special permit from the mayor for each child attending it, and in addition must have its pupils, at graduation, take an examination for admission into the higher state schools. The enrollment in 360 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient the private elementary school is, therefore, very small, being less than one per cent of the total elementary school enroll- ment. Furthermore, about two thirds of the private schools are in Tokyo, alone, where the class distinction is becoming more noticeable than elsewhere in Japan. Special Features of Elementary School Work. — (i) Voca- tional subjects, such as manual training, sewing, commerce, agriculture, and fisheries are taught in schools whenever they can be of local value. (2) School hygiene and medical inspection are specially provided for, and have been so since 1898. An ordinance empowers all schools that can afford it to employ properly licensed medical officers, whose duty it becomes to visit the schools at least once a month, and oftener in case of need, to inspect and advise concerning all things that pertain to the health of the children. He does not treat for diseases, but recommends such treatment. The statistics for 1911-12 show that 61 per cent of all elementary schools engage school physicians. The health of the elementary school children is further cared for by the requirement of physical culture, or gymnastics, in all of the schools, from three to six hours per week. This work was begun in 1878 with the German method, but was changed in 1904 to the Swedish. Teachers are well trained for this work. (3) The course of study is controlled through a rigid system of copyrighting, or approving, the texts and charts by the Department of Education. Only from this list may the local authorities select their text. (4) Parents^ Meetings, for conference with teachers and officers, are becoming quite common in the Japanese schools. The importance of these, in a society where the public school Japan 361 is a new institution and in which so many ideas are non- conventional, is very great, as a means of giving to the parents an understanding of their function in relation to the school. (5) Western music is taught in the Japanese schools be- cause of the unfitness of native music for school purposes. Japanese educators realize the importance of music in the education of children, as they have studied the effect of this subject in schools of other countries. The purpose of this instruction in music, as set forth by* the ordinance, is " to enable children to sing simple tunes, and at the same time to cultivate the sense of the beautiful, and to foster the moral susceptibilities of children." To meet this need, a well- selected list has been made of western melodies and Japanese words proper for children have been set to those tunes. THE MIDDLE SCHOOL (Chu Gakko) For Boys Only. — The middle schools are for boys only. They are established by the prefecture, or by a smaller unit, if needed. In every case, either for the establishment of a public or a private middle school, permission must be ob- tained from the Ministry of Education. Branch schools may be established for the convenience of boys who hve too far from the main school to attend it. The course in the mid- dle schools is five years, but in the branch schools, only three years. The maintenance of middle schools is the duty of the prefecture and of the subunits or individuals that organize them. They are all controlled by government regulations, to which many exceptions, everywhere, are made in practice. Course of Study. — The course oj study includes morals. 362 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient Japanese language, Chinese literature, foreign language, history and geography, mathematics, natural sciences, physics and chemistry, law and economics, drawing, singing, and gymnastics. A total of 28 to 30 hours per week is the amount of work required. About one fourth of the time is given to the Japanese and Chinese languages and hterature. The problem of a unitied course such as now exists versus two parallel courses to accommodate two types of students — one that is going on to higher schools, the other that is not — is receiving careful attention in Japan. Its solution is being found, in part at least, in the establishment of middle technical schools. Uniformity in the course of study and the methods of teach- ing in middle schools, so far as such may be said to exist, is secured by means of a syllabus, issued by the INIinister of Education. The thought uppermost in those regulations is that, " in the middle schools, instruction and culture must go together." The aim throughout seems to be to make the work practicable. The standard is not very high, in com- parison with the work in the German g}'mnasium or in the American high school. This low standard necessitates still another type of school, the three-year high school, to give further preparation for entrance to the imperial universities. Size of School Fixed by Ordinance. — The size of the middle school is fixed by ordinance at 400, and of the branch schools at 300. The purpose of this regulation is to guard against laxity of morals and inefficient instruction, thought to charac- terize a school of greater numbers. The suggestion is a good one for other countries, especially America, where in many of the large cities the high schools are reaching such over- grown proportions. Japan 363 Distribution of the Graduates. — Graduates of the middle schools are distributed in several directions, (i) Many are appointed to official positions under heads of depart- ments, (2) A large percentage of them pass into the army and navy for military service, from which they had been excused while in school. (3) About half of them pass on to higher schools. (4) The others find employment in vari- ous vocations. Value of Middle School Diploma. — The diploma from the middle school has great value. Ih addition to its value in admitting the student to the higher schools, it is required of candidates for higher civil service examinations, barrister examinations, for doctor's examinations, and other high- grade ofiicial and professional positions. Demand for More Middle Schools. — The number of middle schools, in 191 2, was 314, with a teaching staff of 6092, and an enrollment of 125,304. The average age of the students from the middle school is over 19. About one fourth of the enrollment in middle schools is in private institutions, the greater number of which are in Tokyo, as in the case of the elementary private schools, and for the same reasons. One of the many pressing problems in Japan to-day is the provision of enough middle schools to supply the demand. Many more students are eligible for admission to these schools than can be accommodated. This is the more striking in view of the fact that the middle school is a tuition school, charging 75 cents to $1.50 per month. The Japanese youth are certainly dem- onstrating the fact that they desire and can take a secondary education. No other part of the educational work in Japan is doing more to uplift the nation than the middle schools with the adolescent boys. 364 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient HIGHER SCHOOLS (Koto Gakko) Place in the System. — The higher schools follow the middle schools, with a three-year course. They are for boys only. There are three parallel courses, one preparing for law, one for medicine, and one for science. The three courses are also combined as a complete one for students not going to college. There are at present eight higher schools, numbered and located as follows : (i) Tokyo, (2) Sendai, (3) Kyoto, (4) Konasawa, (5) Kumamoto, (6) Okayama, (7) Yagoshima, (8) Nagoya. These eight institutions furnish accommodations for only about one fourth of the appHcations. Their enrollment is about 5000. They admit about 1500 pupils a year, selected by competitive examinations from about 5000 applicants. Course of Study. — The course of study in the higher school is about the equivalent of an American two-year college course. At least two foreign languages, EngHsh, German, or French, must be thoroughly studied to meet the require- ments of the universities. Latin may be taken by those preparing to enter law. These foreign languages offer a special difficulty to the Japanese students because of the great unlikeness to the linguistic structure of their vernacular. But a great deal of importance is attached to proficiency in foreign languages, to such an extent, that eight or nine hours per week are required in these subjects, and -fifteen hours per week in German, for students preparing for medicine. All students are expected, by the university faculties, to be well grounded in at least two foreign languages. These languages are quite generally taught by foreigners. Japan 365 This school, as a type, may be compared to the French lycee or the German gymnasium. Maintenance and Fees. — All higher schools are main- tained by the central government. The special purpose for which they exist, as preparatory schools to the university, and the heavy expense involved in the support, make it urtadvisable and impracticable for local units, or individuals, to try to maintain them. A general fee of 30 yen ($15) is required of all students, annually, for laboratory equipment. Otherwise the school is free. All of the higher schools are provided with dormitories, as a means of caring better for the moral tone, and esprit- de-corps, which is very strong in all the higher schools. Privileges Awarded High School Graduates. — Special priv- ileges awarded the graduates of higher schools are : (i) ad- mission to the universities, (2) a Ucense, without examination, to teach in the normal or secondary schools, (3) further postponement of miHtary service for those entering the uni- versities. It is estimated that 99 per cent of the graduates of the higher schools enter, at once, upon their university studies. THE IMPERIAL UNIVERSITIES Location and Purpose. — The imperial universities of Japan, of which there are now two — and two more provided for— have for their purpose, " the teaching of such arts and sciences as are required for the purposes of the state, and the prosecution of original research in such arts and sciences." The two universities, now running, are at Tokyo and Kyoto. Of the other two to be estabHshed, one is to be at Fukuoka, where already a medical college exists, and the other 366 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient is to be in the northeast at Tohoka, where an agricultural college is now located. The Imperial University of Tokyo consists of a graduate hall and six colleges — law, medicine, engineering, literature, science, and agriculture. That of Kyoto has the same de- partments, excepting agriculture. Character of the Faculty and Student Body. — Tokyo has over 372 faculty members of the various ranks, 15 of whom are foreigners, and Kyoto has about 158, of whom 5 are foreigners. Tokyo has over 500 students, and Kyoto, more than 1200. These universities were at first organized after the German model of BerUn and Leipsic. They were also largely manned by foreign professors, but now almost the entire faculties are Japanese, who have studied abroad and are considered to be among the world's leading scholars. The student who enters the university has had fourteen years of training, and has come up through a long process of selection by competitive examinations. He is the equivalent of a graduate of an American two-year college. College Courses and Degrees. — The college course is three years in length, and leads to the title (not degree) of Gakushi, in whatever subject the student may have pursued. The graduate can then enter upon his work in University Hall (Daigakuin) for the doctorate (hakushi), which requires five years of work. This degree corresponds to the Doctor of Philosophy in western universities. All degrees are conferred by the ^Minister of Education, and not by the university. Degrees open the way to appoint- ment to important civil service and governmental positions, and are therefore in great demand. The Hokushi, or assembly of graduates with the doctor's Japan 367 degree, recommend candidates for the degrees, and also have the power to revoke degrees for anything which involves gross immorality. These institutions are rapidly becoming educational centers, not only for Japan, but for the world of scholars studying abroad. Financial Support. — The universities are generally sup- ported by the state, which support is supplemented by fees, donations, and endowments. The annual budget is equal to that of the leading universities of other countries. German Model with Chinese Classics and Philosophy. — The Japanese have adopted the German model of Berlin and Leipsic for her university, as to equipment, course of study, admission requirements, lecture methods of instruc- tion, faculty qualifications, etc. The absence of Greek and Latin from the university courses and the presence of the Chinese Hterature are striking features, as is also the absence of all religious instruction. Able scholars maintain that this substitution of Chinese classics and the ethical philosophy of Confucius for the Latin and Greek literature and philos- ophy is a great loss to the Japanese mind. The Japanese mind as a result, they say, is rather a knowing than a thinking mind. Social Life. — The moral and social life of the universities is not as carefully supervised as would be possible in the dor- mitory system common in America. However, private dor- mitories are being built for this purpose, by individuals and by Y. M. C. A.'s. Their hostels usually accommodate about 30 students. Civic and Social Rank of Faculty and Graduate. — The presidents of the universities are appointed by the Emperor upon the recommendation of the cabinet. The professors 368 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient in the university are chosen from a certain order, represent a high social rank, and hold an honored position in the realm. In addition to their salary, they receive a pension, after 15 years of service. They are loyal subjects of the Emperor, and seek to do his will and to teach others to do so. The graduates of the imperial universities enjoy the highest privileges open to their respective professions. Quite recently women, who are considered competent, are permitted to enter certain classes as silent listeners, but are denied the privilege of matriculating as regular students. GIRLS' HIGH SCHOOLS Ordinance on Girls' High Schools. — As has been stated elsewhere, coeducation in Japan is discontinued at the end of the six-year elementary school, and there are no middle schools for girls. The imperial ordinance on girls' high schools, now in force, was issued in 1899 and subsequently revised several times. The main difference between the regulations cover- ing these girls' schools and those for the boys' middle schools is the discouragement, amounting almost to prohibition, of examinations for grade promotions. The reason is that girls are thought to be too emotional and too easily excited, and thereby harmed morally and physically by examina- tions. The object of girls' high schools, as officially stated, is "to give higher general education necessary for women, that is for those who are to be of middle or higher social standing." Course of Study. — The course of study is quite uniformly four years, but may be lengthened or shortened by special courses. The subjects taught are : morals, Japanese Ian- Japan 369 guage, English or French, history, geography, mathematics, science, drawing, household arts, sewing, music, and gymnas- tics. This course is variously modified by omissions and substitutions, by local authorities, who are allowed great freedom in this regard by the Minister of Education. The subjects that are obligatory in these schools are morals, lan- guage, and gymnastics. The syllabus, provided by the Depart- ment of Education, for the girls' high schools is practically the same as that for the boys' middle schools, only that the standards are not so high, and such subjects as physical education and household matters are shaped for the particu- lar needs of women. Education for Motherhood. — A course in Education is given to girls in these schools, which merits special notice. The purpose of this course is to give the girls general ideas on education as it pertains to the home and the functions of motherhood. The course includes the elements of psychology, child-study, child nurture, kindergarten methods, instruc- tion and training in home and state. Such a course as this would be excellent for girls in American high schools — in fact all girls. Popularity of Girls' High Schools. — In 191 2 there were 250 high schools for girls, with an enrollment of 64,809 stu- dents. About one half of these schools are public and the other half private. The enrollment in girls' high schools is only about one half of the enrollment in the corresponding middle schools for boys. This unfavorable comparison is due to the ancient prejudice against the education of girls. The schools are exceedingly popular and the government is ex- periencing continuous difficulty in providing for the ever- increasing number of appHcants for admission to these girls' 37© Modern Education in Europe and the Orient high schools. The day is not far distant when the number of girls in these schools will equal the number of boys in the middle schools. Special Privileges Granted Graduates of Girls' High Schools. — The only special privileges granted to graduates of the girls' high schools are : (i) a license, without examina- tion, to teach and (2) admission to the higher female normal schools. The inspection of these high schools is under the regular inspectors of the boys' schools. It is apparent that there should be women inspectors to look after the school matters that are distinctively feminine. The public sentiment towards the education of girls is shown by the rate at which these schools have increased in number, in the six years, from 1906 to 1912 ; schools, 113 to 250; students, 35,646 to 64,809. THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS State System. — As early as 1872, Japan began estabhsh- ing normal schools as a part of her modern educational system. In the development of these normal schools, Japan has found it necessary to make many and frequent modifications of her original plan, just as she has had to do in all other phases of her school work. Since 1907, the date of the last important changes in her system of normal schools, the scheme has been as here given. /. Elementary Teachers For the training of elementary teachers, each prefecture is required to maintain at least one normal school for each of the sexes, and is encouraged to maintain more, when possible. There are now eighty normal schools of this type. Japan 371 Types of Normal School Courses. — There are two distinct normal school courses for the training of elementary teachers, and many short courses. (i) The first regular course admits graduates of a six-year elementary school, who are fourteen years of age or over. This course is four years in length and is practically the same for both sexes. Attached to many of these normals is a one- year preparatory course, for students coming from localities that do not have the full term elementary schools. (2) The second regular course admits graduates of the boys' middle schools and the girls' five-year high schools to a one- year course, and the graduates of the girls' four-year high schools to a two-year course. (3) Short courses are also opened, when needed, in dif- ferent prefectures for an additional supply of elementary or kindergarten teachers. (4) An important requirement is that a complete six-year elementary school must be attached to every normal school, for observation and practice purposes. Many of these schools also have a kindergarten. Courses of Study. — The subjects in the first regular course include the following, in general : morals, pedagogy, Japanese language, Chinese literature, history, geography, mathematics, natural science, physics, chemistry, law and economics (male), writing, drawing, manual work, music (female), gymnastics, English, household matters (female), sewing (female), agri- culture, and commerce (male). The subjects in the second regular course include those of the first regular course not taken by these students in the high school or middle school from which they are admitted to the normal. 372 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient The standard of work in these schools is about the same as that in the girls' high schools and the boys' middle schools. The main difference lies in the point of view from which the work in the normal school is conducted. The special work in the normals, of course, is in pedagogy or education. These subjects are psychology, logic, theory of education, methods, history of modern education, educa- tional laws and regulations, school management, and school hygiene. The time given to education, including the practice work, is from two to fifteen hours per week, out of a total of thirty- four hours. Ideals Fixed by Imperial Ordinance. — The imperial or- dinance on normal schools emphasizes the importance of (i) the spirit of loyalty and patriotism, (2) the discipline of the mind, (3) the cultivation of virtues, (4) the habit of strict obedience, (5) the adaptation of methods of instruc- tion to the teachers' function, and (6) the development of individual initiative. These are thought to be the main features that characterize the training of teachers. The normal school occupies a position of great importance in the national scheme of education. The director of a normal school is a government official, appointed by the Emperor, upon the nomination of the Minister of Education. He is under the joint control of the prefect and the minister. His duties are not only in the management of the normal, but he is also required to inspect the elementary schools of the pre- fecture, to see that the work in them is in harmony with the training given in the normal. All normal schools are required to be provided with dor- Japan 373 mitories, as a means of better education and control of the student-teachers. State Support of Normals. — Tuition is free in the normals and, in addition, an allowance is made to cover the cost of board and clothing and other incidental expenses. The regula- tions governing admission to the normals are so stringent that only about 25 per cent of the candidates are received. As a partial remedy of this, prefects are allowed to admit a certain number of students who receive no stipend, but pay their own expenses. Privileges and Obligations of Normal Graduates. — Several special privileges are extended to graduates of normal schools, (i) They receive prefectural certificates, as regular teachers in the prefectures; (2) the men are entitled to one year's volunteer miUtary service, instead of nine years' compulsory service; and (3) they are quaHfied to be appointed as civil ofhcials under heads of departments. The obligations placed upon normal school graduates bind them to teach immediately after their graduation ; first, for a period of two or three years, in schools designated by their prefect, and second, for periods of one to four years, in schools of their own choice, but approved by the prefect and the minister. This term of obligatory service is in recognition of the free instruction given in the normals. It also assures the schools a definite number of teachers. Teachers' Certificates and Standards. — There are several different grades of teachers' certificates, corresponding to the positions to be filled. These certificates may be secured not only by graduates from the normal schools, but from certain other approved schools and by passing examinations. For 374 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient the purpose of certificating these last two classes, a Teachers^ Certificate Committee is appointed in each prefecture. The subjects and standards for certificates by examination are about the same as those for graduation from the normal schools. The appointment, dismissal, and control of teachers are made by the prefect upon the nomination of the mayor. To secure the continuous growth of teachers, several methods are in operation, one of which is to increase salaries on the basis of profession advancement. A pension fund, for elementary school teachers, is estab- lished in each prefecture to which both the prefect and the state contribute. //. Secondary Teachers State Normals for Both Sexes. — Secondary teachers, as used in this discussion, means teachers in the elementary normal schools, the boys' middle schools, and the girls' high schools. The ordinance relative to higher normal schools defines them as institutions for the training of secondary teachers, with the meaning as above stated. There are two higher normal schools for each sex. The two for men are at Tokyo and Hiroshima ; the two for women are at Tokyo and Nara. These four higher normal schools are maintained by the government and are under the direction of the Minister of Education. In all essential respects the four schools are alike. For the women, the standards are somewhat lower, and there are fewer elective courses offered. The tendencies, however, are in the same direction for both. Special Features of the Higher Normal Schools. — The main features of these higher normal schools are: (i) The admission requirements are graduation from the middle Japan 375 schools, the girls' high schools, or the lower normal schools, or an equivalent examination. (2) The courses are : (a) one-year preparatory, {h) three- year regular course, divided into several sections for the purpose of specialization, (c) a postgraduate course of one or two years, and {d) special short courses. (3) Elementary and middle schools, or girls' high schools, are attached to the normal schools for observation and prac- tice work. (4) The teaching staff are all government officials, and are appointed by the Emperor. (5) The tuition and support of the student- teachers are free, so far as the present appropriations will meet them. Stipends for this purpose range from full support down to nothing, there being some students who pay their own expenses, their desire for admission being so great. (6) All graduates are under obligations to teach for a term of years, varying on the basis of the former stipend. (7) The graduates may defer their term of teaching service to take the postgraduate course, or to attend the imperial university. (8) There are from 800 to 1000 students in the four normal schools proper, and these are about equally divided between the two sexes. (9) Many graduates of these schools are sent abroad, by the government, for special study. (10) For the women, the two female higher normal schools offer the highest educational opportunities provided for them by the government of Japan. For them, there are no govern- ment colleges and they are not admitted to the government universities as regular students. 376 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient Certificates of Secondary Teachers. — For the certification of secondary teachers, there is a committee on teachers' certifi- cates, appointed by the cabinet, upon the recommendation of the minister. This committee recommends the competent apphcants to the minister, who issues the certificate. Those ehgible are the graduates of the higher normals of several provincial training institutions, and of the normal courses in the fine arts and musical academies, and others recom- mended as competent. Each certificate specifies the type of work for which it is issued. But, owing to the great demand for teachers, there are many in service, who hold no certif- icates, though this number is decreasing. Several private institutions, by approval, have certificate privileges for their graduates. Likewise, graduates of foreign universities, upon their individual merits, may receive certif- icates. More state normal schools seem to be imperative. TECHNICAL EDUCATION Early Technical Education. — The first technical institu- tion in Japan was started by a British staff in 187 1. About the same time a department of technology was also opened. These two institutions combined in 1886 to constitute what is now the Engineering College in the Imperial University at Tokyo. During the same period agricultural colleges and commercial schools were opened at different places. How- ever, no great emphasis was placed upon technical education until 1903, though for the previous decade a number of special grants had been made by the Diet to encourage local govern- ments to develop such schools. Present System of Technical Schools. — Technical educa- tion, as the term is used in Japan, applies to all grades in Japan 377 (i) agriculture, (2) engineering, (3) technology, (4) com- merce, and (5) navigation, etc. The technical schools, as they are now maintained, may be classified as follows: (i) colleges of engineering and agriculture in the imperial universities; (2) technical special colleges requiring graduation from boys' middle schools, and girls' higher schools for admission; (3) technical schools with three- or four-year courses admitting graduates of the six-year elementary course; (4) technical schools with three-year courses admitting pupils twelve years of age who have completed four years of the elementary school ; (5) tech- nical supplementary schools of various lengths. The technical special colleges are governmental institutions, and the technical schools are prefectural and local. The government regulations for the technical schools are about the same as those for the general schools. (i) Of the technical colleges, nine are provided for, and, in fact, seven or eight of them are already in operation. These colleges are at Tokyo, Osaka, Nagoya, Kumamoto, Sendai, Yonezawa, Akita, Kyoto, and Fukuoka. Each of these colleges emphasizes the subject matter and methods most valuable to its locality. So intense is the interest in this kind of work, the number of applications for admission to these institutions is far in excess of their capacity. The graduates quickly find posi- tions in the factories and workshops. The enrollment in several of these colleges runs over five hundred in each. (2) Of the middle technical schools, there are about forty, and of the elementary technical schools, there are about sixty. They are about equally divided between the sexes. 378 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient (3) For agricultural education, in addition to the depart- ments in the imperial universities, there are several agricul- tural colleges and about one hundred elementary agricultural schools. (4) For commercial education, there are five government and several private colleges and about seventy-five lower grade commercial schools. (5) For fisheries and marine education, there are a govern- ment college and a dozen lower grade schools. (6) There are also a navigation college and several lower navigation schools for the imperial navy. (7) Finally, for education in the lower class industries and trades, there are several thousand supplementary schools with short courses. These are immensely popular. A large percentage of these short courses is agricultural. Problems of Teachers for Technical Schools. — With the rapid development of these technical schools one of the great difficulties experienced by the government has been to get teachers. To meet this need she has devoted a part of the money appropriated by the Diet to training technical teachers in training institutions attached to several of the colleges and universities. Importance of Technical Schools for Women. — The following figures will serve to illustrate the fact that these technical schools are of as great interest to women as to men in Japan. In 1910, of the 814,419 factory workers, in Japan, 477,874, or 58 per cent, were women. Of these, over four per cent were girls, under fourteen years of age. Recent laws, to be enforced within the next ten years, forbid the employment of children under twelve years of age. Japan 379 SPECIAL FEATURES IN JAPANESE EDUCATION Position of Japanese Women. — The position of women, in Japanese society, is distinctly Japanese, but no more so than woman's position in any country is peculiar to that country. In Japan she is expected to be a " good wife and a wise mother." For this purpose, therefore, is the educa- tion which Japan provides for her women. The problem of the selection of subject matter and the organization of a course of study and methods of teaching to harmonize with the ideals of this Japanese home has not been a simple one. The spirit of self-sacrifice has been the dominant one in the moral training of women, not only throughout the feudal period, but up to the present day as well. The Japanese conception of the house, or home, has always given the woman a place of obedience to the father, to the husband, and to the eldest son, and not a place of equality or independence. Shall these conditions be preserved in her new education? The new legal status places women upon an equality with men and makes no distinction between the two sexes in the exercise of private rights, so long as the woman remains single. But, after marriage, she continues under some of the former limitations of the house member theory of the home, but with a modern interpretation of them, looking in time, doubtless, to a full recognition of the equahty of husband and wife, both socially and legally. Likewise, the marriage relation of husband and wife is one that presents a vital educational problem. The introduction of the western ideas and standards of one wife and a sacred marriage relation between husband and wife will make a vital transformation in the Japanese home. The presence of mistresses in the Japanese families, even for the purpose of 380 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient preserving the continuity of ancestral lineage, will be elimi- nated in the course of years. But social reorganization cannot come as fast as laws can be placed upon the statute books. The inner family life in Japan has not changed much. Not even a separate home for the young married couple is a present custom. The present divorce law, by which a wife may secure a divorce through the courts, an act formerly granted to her only by the will of her husband, is having its effect on the home. As to public rights, she has but few. Under rigid Hmitations she can vote for the members of local assemblies. In many of the professions women are already admitted on an equality with men. Especially is this true in teaching and medicine. And recently a few women have been ap- pointed to civil positions, under heads of departments, in postal and railway service. The elevation of Japanese women is just as certain as was the opening of the commercial ports of Japan, in the clash and battle of Occidental and Oriental ideals. Stimulating and lifting her beyond the plane granted her at present, in the laws and the schools of Japan, are the missionary schools and societies from the Christian countries. For the higher education of women, the government has only the higher normal schools. It should be added, however, that just recently the imperial universities have permitted women of special qualifications to enter certain departments as silent observers, but not as matriculated students. Just so have they been tolerated in the universities of other countries, where they now rival the men in full equaHty of privileges and accomplishments. In the meantime, such private schools as the Woman's Japan 381 University, founded at Tokyo in 1901, and Miss Tsuda's English Institute at Tokyo, will be training leaders for the government in its subsequent work for women. University of Waseda and Private Initiative. — A type of private initiative in Japanese education is found in the Uni- versity of Waseda, founded in 1882 by Count Okuma, one of Japan's greatest statesmen. There are two main reasons for the rapid development of such private universities in Japan. First, the ideal of educa- tion insisted upon in these state institutions was much too nar- row and stiff for a rapidly developing people, like the Japanese. Second, the imperial universities cannot accommodate the rapidly increasing number of graduates from the higher schools who desire a college course. The very idea of a private university was antagonistic to Japanese officialdom, but Count Okuma stood for freedom of learning. He had been a member of the imperial cabinet, and at one time a minister of the foreign affairs, which posi- tions had given him a prominence in the nation. For twenty years, he struggled against oppositions, but gradually gained favors, until at last, the Emperor himself visited Waseda, and thus stamped the approval of the realm upon the institu- tion. To-day Waseda has nearly two hundred professors and more than seven thousand students, doing work in all of the departments of a modern university, whose sole pur- pose is to turn out men. Dr. Sanal Tokata is the able presi- dent of Waseda. There are other similar private colleges in Japan, but of less strength and prominence. Moral Education. — For centuries the main purpose in Japanese education has been distinctly moral. It was so throughout the seven centuries of feudal education in which 382 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient the higher classes were taught their responsibiUty as members of the ruling class. The first school code declared that pri- mary education was for the purpose of moral and civic educa- tion. Two hours a week are given in primary schools to definite concrete instruction in morals, in accord with the Imperial Rescript of 1890. In the middle schools one hour per week is given, and in girls' high schools two hours, and in other schools, at least one hour per week, everywhere keeping in view the particular purpose the members of each group of students may have ahead of them. The Department of Education compiles special tests in moral instruction for use in all grades of schools. In the Christian schools, of course, the system of Christian ethics is taught and through the instrumentality of such ideals, women, especially, are being Ufted up to a higher moral sphere. The Imperial Rescript on Moral Education. — The principle of moral education in Japan is set forth in an Imperial Rescript issued in 1890, by His Majesty, the Emperor. The necessity for this action lay in the confusion and un- rest regarding religious education, since the passage of the law of 1872, establishing the new system of education. The educational institutions of Europe and America had been thor- oughly studied for every suggestion that would be beneficial in shaping the different types of school for the highest service to the Japanese nation. The radical advocates of the for- eign ideas, theories, and methods favored the elimination of the old and conventional Japanese notions, customs, and practices ; but the conservative element clung to the old. Some desired a system of moral instruction based on pure ethics, others desired Confucianism, Buddhism, or Christianity. Thus, for eighteen years there was no recognized standard Japan 383 or system of ethical instruction. So, in October, 1890, the Emperor issued the Rescript which from that time on has been the controlling principle in moral education. It has no connection with any system of religion. For the benefit of foreigners who desire to know the facts regarding moral education in Japan, the Minister of Education caused a transla- tion of the Rescript to be made by a commission of eminent scholars, in 1907, for distribution. The translation is as follows : — '' Our Imperial Ancestors have founded our Empire on a basis broad and everlasting and have deeply and firmly im- planted virtue ; Our subjects ever united in loyalty and filial piety have from generation to generation illustrated the beauty thereof. This is the glory of the fundamental char- acter of Our Empire, and herein also Hes the source of Our Education. Ye, Our Subjects, be filial to your parents, affectionate to your brothers and sisters ; as husbands and wives be harmonious, as friends, true ; bear yourselves in modesty and moderation ; extend your benevolence to all ; pursue learning and cultivate arts ; and thereby develop intellectual faculties and perfect moral powers ; furthermore, advance public good and promote common interests ; always respect the Constitution and observe the laws ; should emer- gency arise, offer yourselves courageously to the State ; and thus guard and maintain the prosperity of our Imperial Throne, coeval with heaven and earth. So shall ye not only be our good and faithful subjects, but render illustrious the best traditions of your forefathers. '' The Way here set forth is indeed the teaching bequeathed by Our Imperial Ancestors, to be observed ahke by Their Descendants and the subjects, infallible for all ages and true 384 Modern Education in\ Europe and the Orient t in all places. It is Our wish to. lay it to heart in all reverence, in common with you, Oijr subjects, that we may all thus attain to the same virtue.'*^—- The Rescript is read in all the schools four times a year. The manner of reading, the silence, breathless with reverence, in which it is received by the students, young and old, is a profound testimony to the sacredness of the Emperor's de- sires for his people, says a recent observer. RELIGIOUS EDUCATION Religious Liberty for the Individual. — Strictly speaking, Japanese education in the schools has nothing to do with religion. Her school education is concerned wholly with this world and this life, in a materialistic sense. Religion, in Japan, is taught in the homes and the temples, and not in the schools. In 1888, Japan by special Edict of the Emperor, committed herself to the principle of religious Hberty for the individual. The Imperial Rescript of 1890, on moral educa- tion, draws the distinction as closely as it can be drawn be- tween religious and moral education. This act places Japan in the class with France and the United States on the subject of reUgion and education. Limitations of Japan's Religions. — In comparison with these countries, Japan is at a great disadvantage, because each of her religions, Shintoism, her indigenous faith, and Buddhism, her adopted faith, is lacking in characteristics necessary to the rehgious faith of a people who aspire to be world citizens. Shintoism is purely local, it has no universal elements and, consequently, outside of Japan, dies. Bud- dhism is lacking in the ideals of social order and is of no value except as grafted into the social order of the people whom she Japan 385 invades. Buddhism is dead in her own native land. As an enlightened world nation, Japan will have to give her people a positive religion that fulfills the conditions of the social organism and at the same time meets the sanctions of an endless and infinite life of consciousness. Virtues of these Religions. — Shintoism develops an in- tense love of country and reverence of Emperor and ances- tors. Loyalty and filial piety are her virtues. Buddhism brought to this native social order, (i) visible objects of worship, which she claimed to be the Shinto deities in new form; (2) intellectual individuaHsm, for which she founded schools and temples ; and (3) her doctrine of final individual annihilation or absorption, her paradoxical denial of the individual's worth, which she had fostered. All of this she grafted into the social order of Shintoism. Confucianism brought to this a moral code which seemed to strengthen the virtues of Shintoism. This fusion of these three systems of thought and practice is the Japanese religion of to-day. Its very base and foundation, its very heart and core, is Shintoism. Statistics for 191 1 show 74,141 Shinto priests, 53,042 Buddhist priests, and 2142 Christian ministers. Confucianism passed away in 1868, with the] Shogunate, which it had created. Buddhist domination had closed with the twelfth century. Shintoism revived in 1868, when Japan began her struggle for national ascendancy. For 2500 years Shintoism preserved the Japanese social order, with the nation in seclusion. Can Shintoism continue to do this for Japan, with her nation a world people? It is doubtful. Ethics Substituted for Religion in Schools. — In the place of rehgiDn in her schools, Japan is teaching ethics, and she is doing this with force and vigor. Her system of instruction 386 Modern Education in. Europe and the Orient is thorough. No other nation is doing more of this kind of education. The essential pomts in Japan's moral program are : obligations (i) to self, (2) to family, (3) to society, (4) to state, (5) to humanity, and (6) to nation. The positive religious missionary education in Japan is being conducted by the Christian church, schools, and associations, and by returned Japanese students from Christian schools in foreign lands. Ethics in the schools will help to make the children, as future citizens, honest and trustworthy — what Japan needs and appreciates in her relations with other people. A new social organization and a new intellectual and reHgious environment will in a long term of years have an appreciable effect upon Japan's religious consciousness. The Caste System. — Practically all children in Japan attend the public primary schools, without any social dis- tinction. However, in Tokyo, especially, there is an unrest among the upper social classes, which is resulting in the es- tablishment of private schools for the rich. To attend any other school than that of the public school system, provisions must be obtained from the mayor, or the headman of the prefect. This has been true since the promulgation of the education code of 1872. Prior to that date, for several cen- turies, the military and feudal caste systems had prevailed. During that period, education was chiefly for the samurai, the military class. Only the simplest elements of reading, writing, and arithmetic were taught to the other castes, the farmers, the artisans, and merchants. Socially, there exist in Japan to-day three distinct classes : (i) the nobihty, of which there are four or five thousand; (2) the gentry (shigoku or samurai) with over two millions; and (3) the commoners (heimin) with more than 44 millions. Japan 387 But, in the eye of the law, the-class distinctions passed away with the feudal system. The new social order in Japan is industrial and commercial. The representatives of the former samurai, or military class, are engaged in some form of pro- ductive business. With this new social order has come a new standard of honor and integrity. The social restlessness, re- ferred to above, is of the smaller group and not of the general social order. The public school system of Japan is the certain death knell of her former social caste system. Textbook Regulations. — When the new education regime went into effect, the old books in use in the feudalistic schools were of no further general use. The state tried several dif- ferent methods of providing texts, during the first thirty- five years of this period, but each of them developed some objectionable feature. The present method, provided by the Ordinance of 1903, is essentially as follows : — (i) All books to be used in the elementary schools must be copyrighted by the Department of Education, so that no private persons may have an interest in them from a business point of view. This rule apphes to the following subjects without exception : morals, Japanese history, geography, and readers, because of their civic and moral significance. Texts in other subjects may be copyrighted by others than the de- partment but must be approved by the minister. (2) The prefect of each prefecture chooses the text from the approved lists. (3) The printing of texts is by private contracts, under rigid specifications. (4) The quality of the books has been greatly improved and the cost reduced more than one half, by this latest method. 388 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient (5) Since 1908, the texts were revised under a system of reformed spelling. Medical Education. — Japan has two government medical colleges, one in the Imperial University at Tokyo, the other in the Imperial University at Kyoto. Each has two sections, one of medicine, the other of pharmacy. The one at Tokyo is the most prominent. The course is four years in medicine and three in pharmacy. At Tokyo there is a hospital with over 600 beds, divided into wards for the different diseases. There are two examinations, one at the end of the second year, the other at the end of the fourth year. In 1907, in Tokyo, there were over 700 students in medicine and phar- macy. In her medical education Japan has followed the German model, and many of the professors in medical schools were trained in Germany. Surgery is in common practice in Japan and all of her other instruction is modern. The Chinese system of medicine, once prevalent in Japan, is now entirely rejected. In addition to the two state medical colleges, there are in Japan three prefectural medical colleges, very similar to the government college in standards and instruction. These are located at Kyoto, Osaka, and Nagoya. There are also two private medical colleges of approved stand- ards, one at Tokyo, the other at Kumamoto. In each of these five medical colleges there are from 500 to 600 students. For medical practice, a license is necessary from the state department. There are quite a number of women physicians practicing medicine in Japan, as in this profession she is legally on the same basis as men. But the government has not provided for her medical education. Recent statistics show about two hundred and fifty women physicians in actual practice Japan 389 and there are many others serving as nurses. They get their medical education in private medical colleges in Japan and in foreign medical colleges. The Woman's Medical College at Ushigome, Tokyo, had 300 students in 1914, and had already graduated 170 women physicians. The government grants these graduates licenses without examinations. Topics for Further Study 1. Write a thesis on Japan's control of education in Korea. 2. What features of Japan's present educational system are due to the influence of (a) Buddhism, {b) Militarism, (c) Confucianism, {d) Feudalism, (e) Christianity? 3. Account for the nature of the Japanese kindergarten. 4. Why are the Japanese more responsive to western educational ideas than are the Chinese? 5. Compare the educational status of Japanese women with that of the Chinese women. 6. Write a thesis on Christian missionary educational work in Japan. 7. Compare the medical education in Japan with that in China. 8. Trace American influences in Japanese education. 9. What do you consider the special merits and special demerits of the Japanese school system ? 10. Compare the Japanese universities with your state university, as to (a) organization, {b) faculty, (c) courses, {d) student body, (e) degrees, (/) special privileges of graduates. Special Bibliography America to Japan, Linsay Russell, 1Q15, G. P. Putnam's Sons, New York. Bain, H. Foster. The Imperial Universities of Japan, Popular Scien- tific Monthly, March, 19x2. Burton, E. Margaret. The Education of Women in Japan, 1914, Fleming H. Revell Company, Chicago. 390 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient Education in Japan, Special Topics, United States Commissioner of Education Reports, 1898 to 1915. Good, J. P. Fundamental Principles of Japanese Education, School Review, Vol. XVIII. Griffis, William E. Education in Korea, in Monroe's Cyclopedia of Education, 191 2, The Macmillans, New York. GuLiCK, Sidney L. Education of the Japanese, 1905, Fleming H. ReveU Company, Chicago. Japan to America, 191 5, The Japan Society of America, G. P. Putnam's Sons, New York. KiKUCHi, Baron. Japanese Education, 1909, John Murray, London. Lewis, Robert E. The Educational Conquest of the Far East, 1903, Fleming H. Revell, Chicago. Longford, J. H. The Story of Korea, 191 1, New York. NiSHiYAMA, S. Japanese Elementary Schools, Education, Vol. XXX ; Japanese Secondary Education, Vol. XXXI. Sharp, W. H. The Educational System of Japan, 1906, Government Central Press, Bombay, India. Thwing, Charles F. Education in the Far East, 1909, Houghton Mifflin Company, New York. CHINA CHAPTER XI HER HISTORY Legendary Traditions. — The Chinese claim, as the cradle of their race, the valley of the Wei River, where their fore- fathers, some thirty centuries B.C., made their home. The legendary traditions of the Chinese literature tell of their first Emperor, Fuhi (2852 B.C.) who organized the Chinese social life out of a state of chaos, characterized by the absence of family life. Then, the traditions say, the Chinese were hunters and fishermen, but a century later became agri- culturists. Other like claims are made to their early national existence. Early Historical Period and Feudalism. — The strictly historical period of China had its beginning with the Chou dynasty, 11 22 B.C. It was then that the feudal system arose and literature and the fine arts were developed. During this period nomadic life disappeared, agriculture became the universal industry, and public works flourished. This is the classical period, which, pictured in ancient poetry, affects so vividly the imagination of the Chinese people. It was near the close of this period when Confucius was born (551 B.C.). The closing years of this period were marked with political disturbances and social decay. Permanent Empire Established. — The succeeding Em- 391 392 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient peror Tsin (255-206 B.C.) restored order, abolished feudalism, destroyed literature, began the Great Wall, extended and united the empire. The work of this emperor established the real foundation of the political China of to-day. During the next ten centuries China began opening up foreign trade with Rome and other countries, the Jews, Buddhists, and Christians entered China, the Confucian texts were edited and annotated, the system of competitive examinations es- tablished, the act of printing introduced, large libraries built up, and great scholars produced literature. The Modern Manchu Dynasty. — The Modern Era in Chinese history began with the Tatsing, or " Great Pure," dynasty in 1644, when a Manchu prince from the north es- tablished himself as emperor. The Manchus were assimilated to the manners and customs of the Chinese but they became a distinct military and official caste. The Manchu dynasty remained continuously on the throne for 267 years, or until their overthrow, in 191 1, by the establishment of the republic. The Struggle from Non-Intercourse to World Commerce. — The most significant events in these two and three quarters centuries of China's modern history have grown out of her attempts at mingling with other nations, whose peoples and civilizations were so radically different from her own. This led to her policy of non-intercourse, a narrow and exclusive pohcy, intended to protect China from the aggressions of the foreigners. This struggle reached a climax in China's trade relations with British India, in which the opium traffic was deeply involved. At this time, 1842, China signed her first commercial treaty with England, and this was followed, in 1844, by treaties with the United States and France, all look- ing to an increased trade with China. Then followed the China 393 treaty of Tientsin, 1858, which extended the diplomatic relations of these countries to the Chinese court and guar- anteed the toleration of Christianity in China. The last fifty years of China's history can be written around her com- mercial treaties with foreign countries. During this period the attitude of the United States has been the most amicable of all the nations. Her Reed-Burlingame treaties, 1858 to 1868, by which America guaranteed that no American vessel should engage in contraband trade with China, did much toward bringing about friendly relations between China and the Christian powers. The final breaking down of Chinese isolation came in 1873, when the imperial ruler admitted to his audience envoys from other countries, thereby recog- nizing the Great Powers of Europe and America as the equals of China. China's Present Problem — Resistance and Reconstruc- tion. — The war of 1894-95 with Japan, which resulted in the independence of Korea, a loss to China, and an indemnity of 200,000,000 taels to Japan, with a greatly modified com- mercial treaty with her, showed a weakness in Chinese gov- ernment that surprised the world and alarmed China. The financial stress, brought upon China by this Chino-Japanese war and other international complications, drove China into the loan markets of the world, through which the great money powers have gotten a strong hold on her securities and in- dustries. The political result of this series of embarrassing events has been the division of China's leaders into two rival factions, upon the subject and method of resistance and re- construction. The Boxer outrages of 1900-01, and other similar movements, were expressions of this political rupture in China. They resulted in further humiliation and financial 394 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient embarrassment to China, at the hands of the invading com- bined powers. The next ten years of internal strife and pohtical and commercial aggressions from without brought the downfall of the monarchy and the inauguration of a re- public, February, 191 2. The three years of this republican era were stormy ones, and, in December, 191 5, took shape in a plebiscite which resulted in the return to a monarchy. HER INDUSTRIES Agricultural Industries. — The main industries in China are agriculture, fisheries, manufacture, mining, and commerce. The leading industry is agriculture, which consists mainly in growing all kinds of cereals, grains, cotton, fruits, tea, silk, and poppy for opium manufacture. The land in China is held by families on the payment of an annual tax. The saga bean, tea, and silk are possibly the products grown in greatest quantities for exports. The growth of the poppy, for opium use, is rapidly declin- ing, and, under the joint action of the Chinese and the British Indian governments, will be discontinued in 191 7. Already both the growth of the poppy and the importation of opium from India are forbidden in 14 of the 22 provinces. China produces about 27 per cent of the world's silk supply, and she exports annually about seven and a half millions of dollars' worth of tea. Manufacturing Industries. — The manufacturing indus- tries are mainly cotton and woolen mills, of which there are 45 in China. Flour and rice mills and iron works also abound. But most all of these manufacturing plants are very crude. The mining industries are very important, especially in China 395 coal, as China is one of the leading coal countries of the world, there being coal in most all of her 22 provinces. Iron ores are also abundant, and in certain sections copper, tin, gold, and silver are found. And in the Upper Yangsti and in Shensi province, petroleum is being worked. For the development of these mining industries, foreign capital is greatly needed, and, to this end, propositions are under way, by the new government, to change the mining laws in such a way as to encourage and protect foreign capitalists in this work. Commerce. — China's foreign commerce is guaranteed to the leading countries, by most favorable treaties, through which her ports are thrown open to them. Her net imports in 19 13 amounted to approximately $500,000,000 and her exports to $350,000,000. THE RECENT REPUBLIC President and Congress. — China became a republic on February 12, 191 2. This ended, for a brief period, the Ta Chi'ing Ch'ao (Great Pure dynasty), or Manchu dynasty, that dated from 1644 a.d. The following sketch of the republican government is given in the present tense, although a majority of the provinces voted in December, 19 15, to re- turn to a monarchical form of government. The government is composed of a president, vice-presi- dent, senate of 274 members, and a house of representatives of 596 members. The method of election is similar to that in the United States : the members of the upper house are chosen by the provincial assembly, and those of the lower house by popular election on the population basis. The president is assisted by a council of state, which is composed of from 50 to 70 members, appointed by the presi- 396 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient dent. The executive authority is vested in the president, through a secretary of state, who is assisted by the nine heads of departments. There is no cabinet. The administration is carried on through ten departments, such as exist in other governments. The seat of the govern- ment is in Peking. The republic has adopted a new flag in which the old yellow dragon has been replaced by five stripes — crimson, yellow, white, blue, and black, to denote the five races comprised in the Chinese people, Mongol, Chinese, Manchu, Turki, and Tibetan. The presidential term is five years. A president may suc- ceed himself once only. The election occurs three months prior to the expiration of a term. The first president was elected October 6, 1913, and was inaugurated October 10, 1913. His name is Yuan Shih K'ai. The new constitution was promulgated by the president of the republic, May i, 1914. It gives the president more than ordinary power in a republican form of government. Suffrage. — Suffrage is extended to male citizens twenty-one years of age, or older, who (i) pay a direct tax equal to $2 per annum, or over, or (2) possess immovable property, equal to $500, or over, or (3) are graduates of an elementary or higher school, or have equivalent education, and (4) who do not smoke opium. Local Government. — Local government is conducted through the province, prefecture, district, and town and villages, each with its official governing body. There are twenty-two provinces. There are no local legislative bodies and no native can be a civil official in his own province. The civil governor of the province is appointed by the president of the republic. China 397 Control of Schools. — The local control of the primary and lower grade industrial schools is with the district officials, assisted by the city, town, or village officials. The middle, normal, and higher industrial schools are controlled by the provincial officials. The central control of all schools, in- cluding the technical and the universities and the affiliated private and mission schools, is through the Minister of Educa- tion. The present incumbent in this office is Tsai Yuan Pei. Laws Not Enforced and Government Unstable. — The above plan of government was a partial embodiment of the ideals of the reformers who were in touch with the western governments. But its enforcement, except in the most limited way, was impossible with the masses of the Chinese people. As a result, the laws have been widely disregarded. The reactionary factions have prevented much progress from being made. The return to a monarchy will not vitally change the plan of government. THE OLD EDUCATION Education as a Function of the State. — Education in China, with some claims to organization, can be traced back to the middle of the twenty-fourth century B.C., though with but little authentic data with which to establish any definite theory of its principles and practices. This must be inferred from the outcome shown in subsequent periods more reliable and established in history. But it appears that, in this early period, the state even then recognized education as a function of the state, to be cared for by the educational officers of the state. The examination system, for the purpose of providing officers for the state, in use in recent days, apparently had its origin with one of these early emperors, who examined his 398 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient officers periodically for retention or promotion. And it seems reasonably certain that colleges for the education of princes and sons of nobles and officials, and other promising youths existed, together with schools for the common people. Aim, Individual and National. — The content of the educa- tion in these early institutions was largely moral, religious, and military, and the methods of instruction were necessarily concrete and personal, growing out of the relation of man to man. The aim of this education was doubtless individual and national, both looking to the welfare and stability of so- ciety and the state. Such a scheme and practice of education as this must have been, could not have done more than trans- mit from one generation to the next the customs, beliefs, and practices of the past, as the nature of Chinese education is found to be throughout the subsequent historic periods of Chinese life. Education by Recapitulation, Twelfth Century B.C. — The highest efficiency of the Chinese ancient educational system, according to their own critics, existed during the period from the latter part of the twelfth century to the middle of the third century B.C. Then education was quite general through- out the capital cities and the feudal states of the empire. The content of this education seems to have been merely the ele- ments of physical, moral, and intellectual education, necessary to daily Hfe, in a stable society that was already, at that time, over two thousand years old. The main point to observe is that, in the early dawn of history, the Chinese were doing an educational work not surpassed by any other people of those days and that this education was of the unchanging type of " education by recapitulation," as so aptly characterized by Monroe. The content of the curriculum is fully and minutely China 399 described in the " Book of Rites," one of the present-day Chinese classics. It consisted of the six virtues, the six praiseworthy actions, and the six arts, all of which were designed to prepare for daily life. The training of both boys and girls was care- fully outlined, by years, from childhood to manhood and womanhood and old age, separating the boys and girls in this training as early as seven years of age. At ten years of age, by this scheme, the girl was assigned to the home, where she was to remain, with an education not intellectual but domestic. Thus early, long before the Christian era, was established by the code of feminine virtues and moral conduct, as well as the social position of the Chinese woman, for the long subse- quent period of more than two thousand years. There are evidences in the " Book of Rites " and the "Aphorisms of Con- fucius " that the memoriter method, characteristic of later days, was not practiced so exclusively one in these earHer times. Great emphasis was placed by these ancients upon the moral character of the teachers, as, through imitation, as they correctly claimed, the child would reproduce the Ufe and acts of the teacher. Origin of Examination System. — An examination system for graduation and promotion from one school to another, all along the Hne, from the lowest to the highest, was evidently in existence during the early part of this period, possibly five hundred years before the birth of Confucius. This system was for the purpose, it appears, of training, by a sifting and selecting method, a body of men for official positions in prov- ince and state. These examinations for state officers were held every three years, in the departments and in the state capital. Kuo summarizes the significance of this system, in substance, as follows : (i) it shows that the system was 400 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient democratic, as it was open to all who possessed the necessary qualifications ; (2) it shows that the educational system, like the system of the government, had a high degree of centrali- zation ; (3) it indicates clearly that the tests to which the can- didate was put were based on real ability and moral character, and not merely literary skill, as in the system of later genera- lions; and, finally (4) it reveals the fact that all officers were chosen from the colleges, thus giving the school system a prominent place in the life of the nation. Confucian Philosophy and Education. — The philosophical period in Chinese ancient education, extending from the middle of the sixth century to the third century B.C., is in- separably centered in Confucius (557 B.C.) and his disciple, Mencius (372 B.C.). This, the most significant period in Chinese education, as to far-reaching social, intellectual, and moral effects, was preceded and accompanied by a decay of the state system of education of the earlier period and the substitution therefor of private schools. This change was largely the result of wars between the feudal provinces and the emperors, and the consequent disintegration of political, industrial, and social life. Into this ruptured condition of society and state, Confucius was born, as it turned out, to become the intellectual and moral organizer of the education of the Chinese for centuries to come. Confucius collected and edited the teachings and customs of the ancient Chinese people in four books, (i) the "Book of Odes," (2) the " Book of History," (3) the "Book of Changes," and (4) the " Book of Rites," which with two others written by him, (5) the " Book of Filial Piety" and (6) the "Book of Spring and Autumn Annals," became in time the foundation of the education system of China. He and his disciple, China 401 Mencius, two centuries later, urged the reestablishment of the state system of education, but to Httle or no avail. Purpose of Confucianism. — However, the writings of Con- fucius, as a religious and ethical philosophy, became the foun- dation and content of Chinese education to this day. His supreme purpose, in his writings, was to revive, preserve, transmit, and perpetuate the ideals and teachings of the ancient Chinese. This he has done nobly well, for China of to-day, in her social and moral consciousness, is not vitally different from what she was in the days of her greatest sage. In fact, she is more deeply Confucian in recent centuries than she was in the Hfetime of Confucius. Other schools of Chinese philosophy existed at that time, lessening the influence of his work. The reigning emperor in 213 B.C. suppressed the teaching of Confucius, because of the lack of harmony between his edicts and the principles of Confucianism. But, in the year 191 a.d., the Confucian classics were restored to the people, by special edict, and the scholars of the day expounded them for the revival and guidance of the moral and intellectual life of the Chinese people. This system of interpretations of the classics was finally set aside, in the twelfth century, for a new system, which became the controlHng one down to the present time, for the literati, state, and people. Effect of Confucian Education. — Wherever the content of these great classics has been kept uppermost in the educa- tion of the people, great moral good has been the result, but their formal study, quite generally prevalent, has had a dead- ening effect upon the Chinese mind. The formal study came to be the method, as a result of the rigid competitive examina- tion system which was based on the Chinese classics. Edu- cation existed as a means to poHtical preferment and not as 402 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient an end in character development. Popular education was at a low ebb and was quite generally left to private enterprise and public charity ; and even this pertained to the most elementary training for the affairs of daily life. The schools in the capital cities were primarily for the education of the nobles and the other privileged classes. Special Features of the Old Chinese System. — The Old Chinese System, as it has come down to modern days, may be summarized as follows : — (i) The elementary schools were largely private and vol- untary and were quite generally distributed throughout the realm. The state exercised no control over them and the teachers were those who had been unsuccessful candidates for degrees. Consequently the schools were poor and not well attended. (2) A system of competitive examinations by the state was the controlHng factor in all grades of education, and seemed to be only an avenue to official positions, and not a need of society, as is the tharacteristic feature of modern school systems. (3) The subject matter taught in the elementary school to children up to the tenth year consisted of six books of characters, proverbs, axioms, and ethical precepts, to be memorized in the most formal and deadening way. In the next stage, from the tenth to the fifteenth years of the child's age, the subject matter was the nine sacred books, the Four Books and the Five Classics, which were literally memorized, " to get the words at the tongue's end and the characters at the pencil's point." This was a marvelous feat of memory but wholly void of the information and training needed in earning a living. The subject matter in the higher schools for prep- China 403 aration of students for the competitive examination was a study of the thought of the classics, already memorized, and a rigid practice in writing essays on this material, looking always to the examinations and not to any human needs. (4) The Chinese method of teaching was purely a method of memory and imitation, of the kind that kills originality and creative power. In learning to write, the character, because of its peculiar form, had to be exactly imitated ; in reciting the classics, the wording was unalterable ; in essay writing the form in the sacred Hterature was the model. This method gave the set to the Chinese mind that necessarily belonged to the spirit of ancestry worship. All in all, the system, subject matter, and method did for China what was in- tended, and, in this respect, was an unquestioned success. It made society stable and in conformity with the past. But its weakness lay in making no attempt to reveal the individual unto himself and to make of himself a creative force for the improvement of his own condition and for the betterment of the world. TRANSITION TO MODERN EDUCATION (1842-1905) Open Ports Force Reorganization of Education. — The Day-Dawn of modern education in China came with the opening of Chinese ports to foreign trade and commerce in 1842, which event brought to China the flood of Christian missionaries and their schools with modern knowledge and a new motive. Communication with the world of commerce and affairs created at once a demand for modern linguists, scientists, diplomats, and officers, for the training of which China was compelled to build a new type of school. Within 404 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient fifty years she encouraged and developed colleges of language, agriculture, military science, mining, engineering, and me- chanics, under the instruction of professors from the leading foreign countries. The reaction of these modern educational innovations was a radical change in the examination system. In 1887, by an imperial edict, mathematics and science were placed on a par with the classics. This was the entering wedge that finally burst asunder the wall of Chinese conserva- tism and cleared the path of progress. As a part of the price for her years of selfish seclusion and conservative nationalism, she has had to play the role of an unwelcome guest in the school of the nations, as she has sought to send her students among them. Especially was this true in the closing quarter of the last century, but the reception in recent years has been more cordial, even encouraging. Reverses in War Turn China to Western Science. — The war with Japan in 1894-95 that resulted in such a humiliating defeat to China was an ill wind that blew back a blessing in its turn. China came to realize that without important reforms in her educational system she could never hope to regain her position as the leading nation in the east. Her literati, including the Emperor himself, turned to western learning, through every available source, and the schools where western science was taught were rapidly crowded with Chinese students, young and old. Hundreds of reform clubs sprung up all over China. The Emperor was reading every modern book he could lay hold of to quahfy himseh for the crisis, and hundreds of thousands of young scholars were keeping him a close second in their study for the emergencies that they saw confronting their nation. Then came the Emperor's decrees in 1898, inaugurating the sweeping educa- China 405 tion reform, based on principles that have since been put into operation. The sudden reactionary movement, however, placed the Emperor in prison and repealed his edicts, thus returning the schools to the old regime. This reaction was to be expected from a leadership that was too positive, and too aggressive. The normal mind can grasp new things only so fast as it can make them a part of the individual's experiences. The Emperor and his advisers had moved too rapidly, not only for the masses, but for the intelhgent conservatives among the upper classes. So will it always be with reforms that are forced too quickly. The Empress Became an Educational Reformer. — But it seems that a mighty constructive purpose underlies the movements to control modern China. Out of the Boxer troubles and the consequent backset to education, the Empress Dowager, herself, emerged as a reformer and reenacted the educational edicts which she had previously annulled. Thereby she started anew the school reforms. Again was China startled by the superiority shown by Japan in her war with Russia — a superiority generally con- ceded to be due to western science in Japanese schools. Many Chinese students went to Japan and after several years of training, brought back to China a new spirit and power with which to push the reform movements. This work was ac- companied by edicts of the Empress, some to modernize the schools, and still others to send older students abroad to America, France, Germany, and England to study institutions and systems of education. Educational Commission Plan National School System. — These movements all culminated, in 1903, in the appointment of a special commission to draw up a plan for a national 4o6 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient public school system. The recommendations of this com- mittee were approved and their plan became the authorized program for educational changes throughout the empire. To make way for this new plan of reforms, the Emperor, in 1905, issued the famous edict that aboUshed the ancient system of examinations and made China modern, in theoretical possibility. THE FIRST PERIOD OF MODERN EDUCATION (1905-1912) Old Chinese Education Abolished for Modern School System. — The new era in Chinese education began in 1905, with the edict, abolishing the ancient system of examinations, to make way for the modern educational scheme for a national public school system. This scheme had been drawn up by a special commission, appointed in 1903, and consisting of Sun Chia Nan, Chang Pai Hsi, and Chan Chi Tung. This one stroke of the " vermilion pencil " put an end to the edu- cational system that had ramified every nook and corner of an empire of over 325,000,000 people, since its inauguration in 631 A.D., by Emperor Tai Chung of the Tang Dynasty. That this act was not the outgrowth of a day, and that it was not accompanied with heroic struggles, sincere opposi- tions, and serious misgivings, cannot be questioned. It was the demise of one of the most deadening, and, at the same time, most revered education institutions the world has ever known. What of the new system, for a nation of such longevity and such unchanging ideals and customs ? The Throne Creates a Ministry of Education. — In Decem- ber, 1905, the throne created a Ministry of Education, as one of the eleven executive departments of the state, to take China 407 charge of the new educational system and to develop its work: throughout the empire. The essential features of the Min- istry of Education, as organized by the act of the throne in 1906, were as follows: (i) separate departments to deal with different phases of the work ; (2) provincial boards of educa- tion, appointed by the Minister of Education ; (3) government inspectors of schools in these provinces ; (4) a commissioner of education in each province ; (5) all board? and of]&cers di- rectly responsible to the ministry ; (6) a bureau for the prep- aration and pubhcation of textbooks ; and (7) a set of officers to take charge of the duties formerly belonging to the National University but now amalgamated with the Ministry of Education. This plan of administration placed all of the educational affairs of the Empire under the Ministry of Education, except special phases of education that seemed to belong more prop- erly to other central departments of the government, or to the individual boards, such as the schools in the capital, mihtary schools, certain commercial, and agricultural schools. Types of Schools Provided For. — The different types of schools provided for were as follows : Kindergarten ; lower primary ; higher primary ; middle schools ; provincial col- leges ; normal schools ; technical schools ; provincial univer- sities, and the Imperial University at Peking. The coordi- nation of these schools into one system is easily accom- plished. Emperor's Edicts Progressive. — During the period, Decem- ber, 1905, to January, 191 2, several edicts were issued from the throne, a number of sets of regulations were drafted by the ministry, and an important central educational conference was held ; all of these acts resulted in modifications of the 4o8 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient school system in the direction of a more popular form of gov- ernment. The changes pertained directly to a wider exten- sion of educational privileges, the curtailment of the over- loaded course of study, and the enrichment of the program through local adaptation. Ancient Aim of Education Overshadows Modern Purpose. — To an unbiased student of political and educational philos- ophy, the failure of this brave and heroic attempt at a new education system was apparent from the very aim of the movement, as stated in the Emperor's decrees. It was a clear- cut statement of the ancient Chinese philosophy of the state — the individual exists for the state. This aim is stated by Kuo as follows : " Loyalty to the Emperor, reverence for Confucius, devotion to public welfare, admiration for the martial spirit, and respect for industrial pursuits." The same decree declares that the " first virtue is needed for the develop- ment of patriotism, the second to uphold moraHty, the third to foster a cooperative spirit, the fourth to make possible a strong nation, capable of maintaining her own existence and freeing herself from foreign aggression, and the fifth to make possible the full realization of China's national resources for the benefit of the country as well as the fife of the people." This motive is worked out in the course of study by the re- tention there of a controlHng amount of the classical learning of the old hterature, apparently for the purpose of preserving ancient values and at the same time preventing too great an effect of the new ideas contained in the modern part of the program. But it was a marvelous beginning, for thousands of schools were estabHshed, a vigorous educational staff was organized, important surveys were made, and the people were generally stirred with enthusiasm for the system. This China 409 wide educational awakening was thought by many to be one of the prominent causes in the overthrow of the monarchy and the establishment of the repubHc. Special Features of the Modern Curriculum. — Special features of the modern curriculum are worthy of notice, to show the relation of the Chinese school plan to those of other countries of the world. (i) The kindergarten, for children from two to six years of age, was provided for, to be built up largely through pri- vate and benevolent agencies with the state direction. The Chinese doubtless can and will develop the kindergarten along the same hnes as the Japanese have already done, (2) The lower primary schools, separate for the sexes, are open to boys at six years of age, and to girls at seven years of age. The course is five years and includes nine subjects, as follows : ethics, Chinese Uterature, Chinese classics, mathematics, science, Chinese history, geography, drawing, physical drill, with sewing for girls, in all 26 hours of work per week. The striking feature is that 22 hours of the total are given to ethics and Chinese literature and classics, making this subject the controlling part of the program. In 1909, the length of the course was reduced to four years and the number of hours per week to 24, because the work was found to be too heavy. (3) To aid in extending primary education to the masses, the government, in 19 10, took steps to connect with her the many primary schools of various kinds, by preparing for their adoption a special course of study. The scheme worked well, and as a result many such schools came under state super- vision. (4) The higher primary school follows the lower, with a 4IO Modern Education in Europe and the Orient four-year course of 36 hours per week. All of the subjects of the lower primary are continued, with the addition of music and Mandarin, the most widely spoken Chinese language. The same emphasis upon the Chinese classics exists here as in the lower primary. These schools may be established in the villages, towns, and cities, and, as in the case of the lower primary education, the private and mission schools may be approved and utilized by the state. The graduates of these schools, for promotion to the middle schools, are examined in the presence of the commissioner of education. (5) The middle school is established in the Fu, or county, at county expense, though provision is made for the organiza- tion of such schools by the smaller units, if prescribed stand- ards can be met. The revised course consists of 36 hours per week, through five years, and is divided into two parallel courses — one, industrial, the other, hterary, after the plan of the German schools. In the industrial division the major subjects are a foreign language, mathematics, and sciences; in the literary, the major subject is the Chinese classics and literature, with one of the leading foreign languages. (6) The students pay tuition. The teachers in these schools are required to be graduates of the Chinese normal colleges or of foreign normal schools of equivalent rank. The exami- nation, of the graduate of the middle school, for promotion to the provincial college, is conducted by the governor of the province and the president of the board of education. Great difhculty, as would be expected, has been experienced in housing and equipping these schools, and in finding a de- sirable teaching staff, one not wholly tied to the past. (7) A provincial college, one in the capital of each province, is provided for, to be maintained at the expense of the China 4 1 1 province. The course is three years of 36 hours per week, and is divided into three parallel sections — (i) one prepares for admission to the college of Chinese classics, political law, literature, and commerce, in the Imperial University ; (2) one prepares for the colleges of science, agriculture, and engineer- ing ; (3) the third prepares for the college of medicine. The Chinese classics, Hterature, and ethics hold their own in these colleges, with 6 to 8 hours per week, for the full three years. The modern languages, German, French, and English, re- ceive from 16 to 18 hours, which is sufficient, with the 8 hours in the middle schools, to prepare students to read foreign books with ease. Quite a large range of electives is allowed to students who have decided to enter upon some definite line of specialization. Latin is the only one of the classics of the western world that appears in the curriculum, and it is offered only as an elective in the third year, to those students specializing in zoology, botany, agriculture, and veterinary science. The prototype of this Chinese provincial college is found in the French lycee, and the German gymnasium. The professors and instructors in these colleges are required to be graduates of the Imperial University or of a standard foreign university. (8) The normal schools are of three grades, lower, higher, and industrial. These schools are distributed throughout the different prefectures and in the provincial capitals. The industrial training schools are of three kinds, agricultural, commercial, and mechanical. These schools may exist as separate institutions or may be attached to the higher primary or to the middle school. The course in these latter schools varies from one to three 412 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient years. In the lower normals the course varies from one to five years. The course in the higher normal is constituted as follows : (i) a one-year general course for all students, (2) four special three-year courses, and (3) a one-year graduate course. These courses, as described, have been variously modified from time to time to better adapt them to the im- mediate needs. In 1907, the normal schools for girls were established, with a four-year course, requiring at least two years of the higher primary school for admission. Tuition in both boys' and girls' normal schools is free. A national normal college was built in Peking, in 191 1, to become the model of all Chinese normals. (9) The Chinese educational system, according to the paper plan, culminates in the Imperial University at Peking, with eight distinct departments, and a graduate school at this same location. There may be also subordinate universities, of not more than three departments, in different provinces, under the direction of the Imperial University. Of this latter type there are now only two, the Tientsin and the Shansi. The different courses in the colleges of the university cover from three to five years, and in the graduate college, five years. Tuition is charged. Graduates of provincial colleges are admitted. This, in brief, is a description of the Chinese system which stretches out, in general, over twenty-five years of training, above the sixth year of a child's age. The course is all of six years longer than that required in America. It would take a student until he is somewhere in the thirties to finish the graduate college, under the most favorable conditions. But, as will be shown, this long term of years in the educational scheme has been shortened under the administration of the China 413 republic. Other changes have also been made, some of which are progressive, others reactionary. The student of Chinese education must bear in mind that no reorganization of education, so radical as this one would be for China, could be realized, only by very slow degrees. At best the present scheme is not reaching more than one in sixty of the school population. THE PRESENT SCHOOL SYSTEM (1912-1916) The Chinese modern educational system, established by imperial decree, had been in existence only seven years, when the revolution brought forth the republic of China, in Feb- ruary, 191 2. The republic adopted the existing system, and, with several modifications, has continued it to this day. Naturally the revolution interfered with and temporarily retarded education, by turning into other channels the re- sources which otherwise would have been used for the schools. But educational activities were resumed immediately upon the organization of the new government, and, by the fall of 191 2, through several decrees, issued by the Minister of Edu- cation in accord with the new education ordinance passed by the National Assembly, the transformations were made and put into operation. Changes in Education under the Republic. — The changes that have been made under the new republic are along six important lines: (i) the plan of administration has been simplified and somewhat decentralized ; (2) the Chinese classics have been almost entirely eliminated from the course of study ; (3) several new subjects of a social and industrial 414 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient significance have been introduced ; (4) the overcrowded pro- gram has been relieved by the shortening of courses and elimi- nation of subjects ; (5) the lower schools have been made co- educational ; and (6) the aim of education has been modified. The new government is directing education under quite a different aim from that of the preceding monarchy, which new motive accounts for most of the changes that have been made. This new aim makes education a means of cultivating virtuous or moral character (tao teh), which is defined by the Minister of Education to be that which instills into the minds of the people the right knowledge of liberty, equality, and fraternity. This moral and ethical training is to be combined with military and industrial education for the purpose of securing adaptation to environment and of fitting the people for citizenship in a democracy. Briefly stated, the changes have left the system about as follows : — (i) The Ministry has as its head a Minister of Education who directs the work through one general council and three bureaus, (i) general education, (2) technical education, and (3) social education. The bureau of social education is a new departure and has for its function the wide advancement of education through all forms of extension methods, such as lecturing, the press, etc., a type of work now so common in many modern systems. (2) National inspection of education is now conducted through eight inspectorial divisions, instead of twelve as formerly, with one inspector for general and one for social education in each division. The duties of these officers, though they represent the central government, are not authoritative but simply advisory. China 415 The directions pertaining to technical schools are of special interest because of the importance of this type of schools in the modern transformation of China. (3) Under a decree, issued October 22, 191 2, by the Minister of Education, the technical schools are classified as follows : law schools, medical schools, schools of pharmacy, agricul- tural schools, commercial schools, industrial schools, schools of music, mercantile schools, and schools of languages. The edict also provides for the founding of technical schools either by the central government, the locality, or a private person or association. All such schools must meet the standard set by the central government or be prohibited from the use of the name " technical school." The standard set for entrance to a technical school is graduation from a middle school, or passing an examination showing an equivalent standard. (4) Girls' trade schools, of the same general character as those for the boys, may be established wherever local condi- tions warrant. Tuition in all industrial schools may be free, if the locality can afford it. (5) Compulsory education is established in the four years of the lower primary school. The primary schools now have four years in the lower division and three years in the higher division. The duty of maintaining the primary schools is assigned directly to the cities, towns, and villages. These schools must be free, if possible. Several districts may con- sohdate for the estabhshment of either the lower or the higher primary school. Private primary schools and kindergartens are placed under the same management as the public schools. The classics are dropped out of the course of study and hand- work is made compulsory. Agriculture is added for boys and sewing for girls. 41 6 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient (6) Continuation schools with a two-year course are provided for students from the lower and also from the higher primary schools, who cannot continue in the regular school. (7) The middle school course is changed from five to four years, and such schools are provided for girls on the same basis as for boys. The classics have been dropped out of these schools, also, and handwork has been added, with house- hold arts for girls and agriculture for boys. These schools are established by provinces or by private individuals or corporations, under the government supervision. The tui- tion is fixed by the school concerned, under a scale prepared by the Minister of Education. A reactionary policy combined the two departments of the middle school into one, preserving only features of the industrial department. There are now about 450 middle schools in China. (8) From the university the faculty of classics has been dropped, which action seems to show a determination on the part of the government to face the future rather than the past. A preparatory school with a four-year course, consisting of three groups of studies, has been attached to the university. The postgraduate course is left indefinite in length. (9) The lower normal schools, for both boys and girls, fol- low the primary schools and have a one-year preparatory course and four years in regular normal work. They also have a one-year course. The classics are also omitted from the normal schools and handwork added, with agriculture for boys and household arts for girls. The higher normal schools follow the middle school with a one-year preparatory course, three years of regular norftial work, and one or two years of research work. China 417 (10) Textbooks are now prepared by private individuals, subject to the approval of the Minister of Education, and are adopted by provincial textbook commissions. No books are considered eligible for use that contain sentiments at variance with the republican form of government or the prin- ciples for which it stands. The correlation of mission schools with government schools is receiving careful attention. In this connection a study was made of Japan's method of dealing with the same problem. The demand for various forms of extension courses for the adult population who are inclined to study is also a pressing problem. (11) The subject of religious instruction in the schools has also caused much discussion, resulting in the defeat of the advocates of the teaching of Confucianism in the schools. The new educational ordinance regarding rites and ceremonies to be used in the schools forbids any worshiping or religious ceremony. This action is thought to be in harmony with the trend of the leading republican nations, in excluding religion from national education and priests from interfering therein. (12) The financial stress has prevented the ministry from prosecuting all of its plans. An economic policy has been inaugurated at every turn; institutions that have outlived their usefulness have been abolished, such as the Harlan Academy, that was once the center of learning under the monarchy. But the Peking University and many colleges have been reopened. The provincial and local officials, who are under less financial strain than the central government, are reviving the educational work very rapidly. Various provinces are sending scores of students abroad to study in the universities and to inspect foreign school systems, for the purpose of recalling them as experts in education. 4i8 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient (13) The central bureau oj social education, aided by many local associations, is doing a great deal 'through quasi-educa- tional institutions, such as the press, art galleries, theaters, museums, libraries, etc., to popularize education. THE UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES Provisions for Higher Education. — The educational code of China, as modified by the republic, provides for the Peking Government University of seven departments, at Peking ; and for three new universities as they may be needed, one in Nanking, one in Wuchang, and one in Canton. The seven departments in the Imperial University are: (i) arts, (2) science, (3) law, (4) medicine, (5) applied science, (6) agriculture, (7) commerce. Under the republic the department of Chinese classics has been eliminated. There is also a graduate school to be located at Peking. All college courses are three years in length, except law and medicine, which are four years. The course in the graduate college is indefinite in length. A three-year preparatory school with three parallel courses has been attached to the university. Small University Enrollment. — For several reasons the enrollment in the university, so far, is not large. The prepar- atory schools have not yet graduated many students ; many advanced students have gone abroad for study ; many middle school graduates accept government positions rather than enter the university. The enrollment is about one thousand students, and the faculty consists of ninety professors and instructors. Faculties and Standards of Work. — The president of the Peking University is under the direction of the Ministry of Education and has therefore only general charge of the iini- China 419 versity. Each college is directed by a dean. A unique feature is a director of studies, who superintends instruction in the college. All of the professors are to be graduates of the government university or of some foreign university. A large number of the professors are foreigners, but there is a tendency to replace foreign professors by Chinese, educated in Europe, x\merica, and Japan. The native professors are more popular, and China is also endeavoring to make her university distinctly national. The work in the various departments, except in so far as it is distinctly Chinese, is necessarily very elementary, judged by the standard in American universities. But the govern- ment is making liberal appropriations for the development of all the work of the university in the direction of the general world university standards. Pel Yang University. — The Pei Yang t/wmm/3; at Tientsin was organized just after the Chino- Japanese war. A pre- paratory department is attached to the university. The faculty consists of twelve foreign and seven Chinese professors. The institution, when founded, was financed from funds from the telegraph, navigation, and customs departments. During the Boxer troubles the university was completely destroyed, but has been rebuilt. Courses are offered in law, civil en- gineering, and mining. The standard of work in this in- stitution is thought to be as high as can be found anywhere in China. Shansi University. — The Shansi University had its origin in the Boxer trouble. At the close of that war the powers demanded indemnity for the property and hves of mission- aries destroyed. A compromise resulted in 50,000 taele*', annually, for ten years, being paid by China for the estab- 420 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient lishment of a university at Shansi. Already a provincial college had been started there. Now, the two united to establish one great university with two departments — a western, in which western subjects are taught, and a Chinese department, to have charge of all the Chinese subjects. By agreement, after ten years, the institution was to return to the status of a government university. The work of the western department has been of high rank. Courses are offered in law, medicine, science, literature, and engineering. In 1908 there were 200 students in this department. THE TSING HUA COLLEGE Established with Boxer Indemnity Funds. — Special in- terest attaches to the Tsing Hua College, established in 191 1, which is the outcome of the Boxer indemnity fund, returned to the Chinese government by the United States, amounting to $10,785,286. In consequence of the action of Congress to this effect the government of China had decided to send yearly a considerable number of students to the United States for their education. The reports show that there were 250 of these students in the United States in 1914, maintained from this fund. Purpose of the College. — As a means of preparing students to profit by the opportunity for advanced study in America, thus offered, the Tsing Hua College was organized and began its work in the spring of 191 2. The institution, though called a college, is only of high school rank. The college is under an administrative board, of which the president is Mr. Tsur Yetsung, an A.B. of Yale University, and M.A. of the University of Wisconsin. The college is organized into de- partments ; namely, the Chinese department and the western China 421 department. The president of the board of administration is dean of both departments. The Faculty and Students. — The professors in the Chinese department are all natives of China. The professors in the western department are, with few exceptions, Americans, and all are graduates of leading institutions of this country. In 191 1, there were 18 American teachers, of whom 9 were women. There are also assistant instructors, who are grad- uates of either Peking University or of mission institutions of high grade in China. The college has two divisions, (i) a middle school with a four-year course, and (2) a high school with a four-year course. The students come from the different provinces. The number of graduates in 1914 was 34. These were eligible to be sent to the United States to study. The effect of this institution tends toward an amicable feeling between the Chinese and the Americans. THE CANTON CHRISTIAN COLLEGE In a Strategic Center. — The Canton Christian College is a non-denominational Christian college, located at Canton, the capital city of the Province of Kuangtung. This city has a population of more than a million, and the province, as a whole, has more than thirty millions. The people of this province are among the most progressive in all China, and are radical leaders in government, industries, and education. A more favorable location does not exist in China for a college through which to reach the Chinese people with western learning. The college is under the general management of trustees, incorporated in the state of New York. It is sup- ported by voluntary subscriptions, which, for the 15 years of its existence, have amounted to about $200,000. Of this 422 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient amount the Chinese have contributed about $23,000 for the erection of dormitories. Special interest of note is being taken in the development of important education departments by such American institutions as Teachers College of Colum- bia, Vassar College, the University of Pennsylvania, and the University of Pittsburgh. Departments and Faculty. — The Canton College comprises a college of arts and sciences, middle schools for boys and girls, an elementary school, a medical college and hospitals, and chairs of agriculture and education. The total enrollment in all departments is between four and five hundred students, though only a small percentage of these are of full college rank. The faculty is composed of able men and women who have received their education in many of the best colleges and universities in the western countries. As an illustration, the newly appointed Teachers College Professor of Education is Mr. K. M. Wong, a Master of Arts from Columbia University. Mr. Chung, the dean of Canton College, also, was a graduate student in Teachers College. The Board of Trustees includes such an eminent educator as Dr. Samuel T. Button, who, since his retirement from the Columbia University faculty, has given much time and interest to the work of Canton Col- lege. Special Function. — The attitude of the Chinese govern- ment is most friendly toward the Canton College, which she recognizes as being true to the best interests of Chinese citizen- ship. Many of her graduates go abroad for further study, though most of the students, upon graduation from the middle school, go directly into prominent political, educational, and industrial positions, throughout all China. Thus, this in- stitution is destined to exert a wide influence in China, through China 423 the work of these young leaders, who are being trained under Christian ideals and in accord with western scientific methods. AGRICULTURAL AND 0THP:R TECHNICAL COLLEGES Government's Wide Interest in Technical Education. — The government is making special efforts to establish all kinds of technical and trade schools of both lower and higher grades, for the purpose of encouraging the people to engage in, or to improve their work in agriculture, commerce, en- gineering, architecture, and other industries. In this work she has experienced two serious difficulties, lack of funds, and lack of properly qualified teachers. To overcome the difficulties, the government has sent students abroad to study, and she has solicited the wealthy to contribute for the es- tablishment of such funds. A large number of schools of more or less strength exist. The Polytechnic Institute of Shanghai offers courses in civil, mechanical, electrical, and marine engineering. An Engineering and Mining College is Iqcated at Tangshan in the Chili Province. In the Peking University strong departments in the technical professions of law, medicine, agriculture, commerce, and various applied sciences exist to train leaders in these lines. And one of the departments in the Ministry of Education is a bureau of techni- cal or professional education. The middle and lower technical schools, required to be built up in all the provinces, will extend this training to the masses in every part of the country, just as fast as the funds and the teachers can be secured to equip and direct the schools. Special Provision for Agricultural Education. — Agricul- tural education is receiving the greatest attention. In the primary, middle, and normal schools, agriculture is being 424 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient offered to the boys (also the girls, though they are permitted to substitute sewing). Agricultural schools and colleges were among the first to be estabhshed, and for a number of years, nearly all the provinces and larger towns have had their agricultural schools. Teachers' agricultural training schools have been established. These schools cover twenty- three different courses of study. Provincial boards of agriculture have been quite generally organized to push the elementary training in agriculture for practical purposes. Finally at the head of all of these agricultural schools stands the Department of Agriculture in the university at Peking. MEDICAL EDUCATION China's Health Problem. — The health of a nation, as well as the health of an individual, conditions its efficiency. In this respect, as in so many others, China has much to do for her people. Her death rate from diseases that could be remedied or controlled is probably the highest of all the known countries of the world. The most destructive and widespread diseases of China are tuberculosis, hookworm, and syphilis. Other diseases that are also prevalent are leprosy, cholera, typhus, bubonic plague, and smallpox. The Chinese native medicine is not adequate, and the superstitious element of their religious faith has forbidden the dissection of the human body, thereby lessening their knowledge necessary for diag- nosis and preventing the surgical operations so often needed. Their method of diagnosis is mainly based on the pulse, and their remedies consist in puncturing the body with a needle or in the use of recipes handed down through the tradi- tions of families in which the practice of medicine has become hereditary. Modern medicine and methods are slowly find- China 425 ing their way against the prejudices of long centuries of Chi- nese conservatism. Government's Plan for Medical Schools. — The central government and several provincial governments have made beginnings in both preventive and curative medical educa- tion. The new school plan under the repubhc provides for a medical department in the government university at Peking, with a four-year course in medicine and pharmacology. It also provides for special medical colleges and schools of pharmacy in provinces and cities. Government Medical Schools. — The government at present maintains two medical schools as follows : (i) The Peking Medical Special College has been in operation three years. Students are admitted from the middle schools and are given a four-year course. Provisions are made for as many as one hundred students. The faculty consists of ten professors, Chinese, Japanese, and foreigners. Hos- pital and laboratory faciUties are very meager. But little dissecting is done, though the government has legalized this work. (2) Peiyang MiHtary Medical College is located at Tientsin. This institution is about twelve years old and was founded for the preparation of doctors and surgeons for the army and navy. The enrollment is about three hundred, including sixty or more students in the department of phar- macy which is attached to the college. The equipment, and hospital facilities are inadequate. There are twenty-three professors. Provincial Medical Schools. — Two provincial govern- ments have medical schools of special merit, (i) The Pei- yang Medical School at Tientsin is thought by competent inspectors to be the best medical school of all the government 426 Modem Education in Europe and the Orient institutions. It is supported by the government of the Prov- ince of Chili. It was organized before the establishment of the republic. A striking feature of the work of this college is that all the instruction is done in English. The standards for admission are graduation from the middle, or higher schools. The graduates of this institution are sought for services by the government, the army, railways, etc., because of the high grade of instruction given by the faculty. (2) The Kiangsu Medical Special College at Soochow is three years old and has a faculty of five Chinese professors and a student body of sixty or seventy students, of whom one half are in the one-year preparatory course, required of all stu- dents before entering upon the medical course proper. For its support the province appropriates an amount equal to about $23,000 annually. This college, as are all special medical colleges, is required to conform to the government regulations. Private Medical Colleges. — Private medical colleges, in considerable numbers, and of varying degrees of efficiency, exist in different cities, particularly in Canton. These schools, with but one or two exceptions, are said to be almost exclusively under Japanese influence, either with Japanese professors, or Chinese professors trained in Japan. As yet, the interest in modern medicine is not sufficient to sustain many medical schools of high rank. And, furthermore, the government is not financially able to subsidize the private schools sufficiently to develop many of them into efficient colleges. It seems that in the interest of the people, whose health is to be conserved, the government should select a few of the more promising of these schools, for government aid, and standardize the others out of existence. China 427 Missionary Medical Colleges. — Missionary medical col- leges, of varying degrees of efficiency, exist quite generally throughout all the provinces of China, for the purpose of training Chinese young men, under Christian influence, for the practice of modern medicine. The heavy expense in- volved in building such schools, together with certain ethical and political considerations, has led the missionary organi- zations to unite under what is known as the Medical Mission- ary Association of China, for the purpose of Umiting, con- trolling, and developing the necessary missionary medical colleges. This association has designated a list of nine institutions to be fostered. These schools are located at Moukden, Peking, Tsinaufu, Chengtu, Hankow, Nanking, Hangchow, Foochow, and Canton. The entrance require- ment recommended is graduation from the middle school, looking to the requirement of two additional years of college preparation. For the education of women physicians, there are three special schools of some merit, located at Canton, Peking, and Soochow. In addition to these schools, women are admitted to a few of the men's private medical colleges. Non-Missionary Medical Schools. — Non-missionary medi- cal schools, under foreign control, exist in several important centers. These schools are quite generally representative of distinct nations. Only their names and locations will be mentioned here, although the work of several of these schools is worthy of special comment. The list is as follows : (i) the Japanese Medical School in Moukden, (2) the German Medical School in Tsingtau, (3) the German Medi- cal School at Shanghai, (4) the French Medical School in Canton, and (5) the British Medical School in Hongkong. 428 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient Chinese Medical Board of the Rockefeller Foundation. — The Chinese Medical Board of the Rockefeller Foundation of New York City has been recently organized to aid in the development of medical education in China. Their work at present will be confined largely to cooperation with mis- sionary institutions, which have already developed medical schools of some promise, in strategic centers for such work. A commission, sent to China in 1914 by this Foundation, to study and report on conditions of pubHc health and medi- cine in China, made a valuable report on this subject, with recommendations which the Foundation has formulated plans to carry out. They have organized the Chinese Medical Board of the Rockefeller Foundation, have made certain appropriations, and have sent their secretary there to per- fect arrangements with the missionary organizations and with the government for the inauguration of their work. The com- mission recommended certain most promising centers for the concentration of the work of the Foundation. These are : (i) the Union Medical College at Peking, (2) a new in- stitution to be known as the Shanghai Medical College, (3) the Canton Christian College, and (4) the Yale Mission at Changsha. In addition, the commission recommended the establish- ment, by the Foundation, of fellowships, scholarships, and other stipends for the aid of students and professors in pros- ecuting their studies in medicine at home and abroad. CHINA'S EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS The reconstruction of China in the light of the world's modern thought brings her face to face with problems of great weight which call for the exercise of the highest intelli- China 429 gence, the broadest sympathy, the keenest insight into values, the purest patriotism, and, at the same time, the most politic manipulation on the part of her great leaders. A few of these problems stand out in glaring reUef, and press for im- mediate attention, on the part of the government and her educational and political advisers. I. Financing Education. — In the last analysis, a nation's ability to educate its children has to be estimated in dollars and cents. Changing suddenly as China has done, from a private to a state system of schools, with an attempt at com- pulsory education for the masses, presents to her a staggering financial problem. And China's financial situation is not flattering. In 191 2, her total foreign debt, including the Boxer Indemnity, was, in round numbers, 1,000,000,000 taels, or approximately 1,500,000,000 dollars, on which she is paying from 4 per cent to 7 per cent interest. A recent estimate placed her expenditures at 576,000,000 taels and her revenue at 297,000,000 taels annually, which would mean absolute bankruptcy to the nation if continued long. This financial situation is one of the causes of the great restlessness in China to-day. The inability of the Manchu Dynasty to command credit was one of the immediate occa- sions of the change of China's government to a republic. The new government shouldered a debt greater than that of the United States, with an income of only about one fourth that of the United States. The educational work is only one of the many social de- mands made upon a country's finances. And, in China, this one demand has suddenly increased from merely enough to support the old competitive examination system and pro- vide education facilities for a few, to the immense amount 430 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient necessary to build and equip schools and supply teachers for all of her millions of school population, a work that would require the services of a million and a half of teachers. So far, China has made only the smallest beginnings, but she has done well, in the light of facts. She is appropriating the old schools, temples, theaters, monasteries, and homes for school purposes. She is utiUzing private and mission schools and endowments and is welcoming the founding of schools and colleges by foreign institutions. To these aids, she is uniting the students' fees and local, provincial, and state school funds, as rapidly as they can be obtained by her present system of taxation, which, at best, is woefully inade- quate. But China is not using all of her sources of revenue. She has not learned how. This is the lesson she must learn before she can finance her schools. A system of taxing in- comes, private and corporate, would help her immensely. But her financial strength must find root farther down than simply an improved system of taxation and disbursement. She must make her land, mines, forests, streams, and manufactories produce more wealth. It is here that China needs the western knowledge for which she is already so hungry. At present, China needs the aid of foreign capital, with which to develop her industries, as a source of more revenue. II. The Need of Modern Teachers. — Hopeful indeed is the shifting of the emphasis in China from the training of govern- ment officials to the training of teachers. These she needs by the thousands — teachers with the new vision, trained in modern thought and methods. It will cost the nation milHons. Already she has made a beginning and, in 1910, there were 415 government normal and teachers' training China 431 schools in China, with 28,572 students, exclusive of the mis- sionary and private schools. The policy of the government is to develop these training schools rapidly enough to keep pace with the increased facilities for public education with the growth of the school revenue. Thus far China has availed herself of every possible source of good, bad, and indif- ferent teachers. For her the making of a new nation involves the creation of a new teaching staff, to a greater extent than has ever before been attempted by one nation. She realizes this, and has undertaken the task. Her financial ability must come from the increased resources of a more highly and practically educated people, for now she does not have it. The different sources from which she draws her teachers are the missionary schools, the old regime literati, foreign teachers, and returned Chinese students. The qualifications of these teachers are very varied. The government is trying to regulate them. For instance, in 1908 the Minister of Educa- tion issued a set of rules requiring the employment of all for- eign teachers in the modern schools of China to be approved by the Minister of Education. In the same year, the require- ment was placed upon all returned Chinese students, that had been sent out by the Minister of Education, to teach at least five years, upon their return to China. Thus, it seems that China sees the need of training her own teachers. In the reorganization of the normal schools, under the republic, short courses of one and two years' work have been added to help meet the immediate demand for teachers. Special institutions for the training of country teachers have also been authorized. For the certification of teachers, the Minister of Educa- tion has formulated a system, which, thus far, has been only 432 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient partially enforced. It provides for an examination committee, in each of the provinces, to issue certificates to properly qualified teachers, in both the elementary and the normal schools. These movements are all modern and are in har- mony with what other countries, such as the United States, are doing. But the goal is a long way off. On the basis of percentage of school population in the United States, which is about one sixth of the entire population, China would have over 55,000,000 school children. For these, on the basis of 35 pupils to the teacher, she would need 1,500,000 teachers. She has fewer than 100,000. She needs 1,400,000 more teachers. III. The Language Problem. — The problem of a common language is a most difficult one for China, with her 18 dif- ferent provinces and 7 dependencies containing an area of 4,277,170 square miles and a population of 325,000,000. She has no common language, and the one that is spoken by the largest percentage of her people is not the written language. Even the printed language has no alphabet and is in no sense phonetic, but is made up of thousands of different characters, possibly as many as 260,000. Even the printing of the ordi- nary Chinese newspaper requires a font of movable type consisting of from six to eight thousand different characters. As a partial remedy to this condition, various methods have been proposed. In 1913, the Minister of Education called together an assembly of prominent scholars and educators from the different provinces and dependencies and the So- ciety of Chinese Resident Abroad for the purpose of devising ways and means of making uniform the spoken language. The assembly gave careful consideration to the following program : — China 433 1. Out of the various forms of pronunciation, to fix upon one as the national pronunciation. 2. For every sound in the national pronunciation, so fixed, to determine the most convenient and best. 3. To select a root character for each sound and to classify all sounds according to the roots. So far, no satisfactory system has been devised. In the meantime Mandarin is the popular, standardized, spoken language and is being most widely used. In 1910, Mandarin was added to the curriculum of the higher primary school, with a view to unifying the language. There is, under the direction of the bureau of technical education, a society for the unification of the mother tongue. This language situa- tion, relative to the printing of textbooks and other Htera- ture, for popular education, is one that will require long years for its solution. The written language, now used throughout the country, is the " Wen Li." IV. New Content and New Methods in Education. — The educational reform in China is the very heart of her national progress, just as the old Chinese education was the cause of her centuries of stagnation. The outlook is hopeful, because Chinese educators are searching the world through for remedies for her backward conditions, political, industrial, social. She sees that an education, purely literary and philosophical, is not sufficient to preserve the moral integrity and national prominence of a people. And her theory, main- tained for centuries, that the only honorable position for a scholar was in government political service, is slowly giving way to the proper conception, that in the industries, the trades, commerce, schools, and homes, the service of the scholar is equally honorable and equally essential to the re- 2F 434 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient building of a nation, through a happy and efficient citizen- ship of both men and women. These lessons she has learned through a comparative study of her own conditions with those of her sister nations, that have so far outstripped her in modern progress. A government that recognizes the bi- polar power and right of the local citizen and of the central government is the one that is destined to win. This is what China is trying to do in the organization of her new educa- tional system, in which she provides (i) that the central government shall be responsible for higher education, (2) the local government for all forms of primary education, (3) the provincial government for secondary education. An intelligent recognition of this principle of local initiative, directed by a wise and sympathetic central authority, is what China is feeling her way towards. New ideals, new subject matter, new methods, and new motives are necessary to educate and train a people for life and service in a new republic, such as these reformations are destined to develop out of old China. These new factors China is beginning to provide. Without giving up the essentials of the old education she is fusing with them the essentials of the modern culture of the western world. She is lessening the amount of memory studies and substituting therefor scientific studies and manual and technical training. She has opened her doors to the Christian religion, and to others, and is seeking for them not only toleration but a harmonious relationship with her own system of ethics. This means a mighty present progress and the ultimate control of her national conscious- ness by the lofty principles of the Great Teacher whose assur- ance to the peoples of the world was, " I came not to destroy, but to fulfill." Through this opportunity, now open to China 435 China, one fourth of all the people of the globe are to be brought under the influence of this world-wide mission, now already nearly two thousand years old. To meet these new conditions, China is gradually showing herself ready for a new method of attack, which must be the substitution of observation, experimentation, science, and trade laboratories, in the place of authority and books. This changed content and method, in the course of time, will greatly lessen the difference between the mind of the oriental and the mind of the western world. V. An Emancipated Womanhood. — One of the most en- couraging aspects of the present outlook in China is the pro- gressive and hberal attitude of the government in recent years towards the education of women. Her past education was moral and domestic — for a life of seclusion and drudgery. Now, the nation is throwing open to her the primary, second- ary, and normal schools and colleges, both public and private, and already the Chinese woman is beginning to think of partici- pating in public life as her sisters in other nations are doing. An influential factor in this work is the training that so many Chinese women are receiving in the mission schools in China and in the schools and colleges of foreign lands. An eman- cipated woman will bless the Chinese just as she has blessed other peoples. One of the most vital changes in China, in recent years, is found in the new education of Chinese girls and women. The work of the mission schools paved the way to govern- ment schools until now the same pride is being felt in edu- cational facihties for women as for men. This movement is a part of the widespread national awakening sustained by the fact that Chinese women have proven themselves 436 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient capable of receiving and using an education. The government lias already provided for girls in the primary and middle schools and in the normals and will doubtless at an early day provide colleges for the women. Many Chinese women are studying abroad and making good records as students and scholars. The effect upon the home, of this new type of wife and mother, will be uplifting and transforming. It is the result of an already transformed attitude of the mind of the men who are now willing to pay for the education of their daughters. The Chinese woman is rapidly being prepared to take her place beside the men in the new order that is com- ing out of this present social transition. Naturally, one of the difficult problems in this social readjustment will be that of .the relation between men and women, for the women are being brought out of seclusion, and both sexes are claiming the right and privilege of making their own choice of wife or husband. A new moral consciousness is needed and this will require time and trying experiences for its development. The industrial world, into which the emancipated woman seeks to enter, sets up other demands in the form of indus- trial and technical education, for which China must provide. Already a beginning has been made in the primary and middle normal schools where sewing, handwork, and gardening are taught to the girls. The law also provides for trade schools for girls on the same plan as for the boys. The training of women for teachers in the schools is of even greater conse- quence just now than their training for the new industrial order, for it is through the primary schools of a country that the masses can be reached quickest and most effectively. A new Chinese home will be the crowning result of the edu- cated woman, a home in which the husband and wife meet on China 437 a common plane of intelligence and sympathy, giving the child a more wholesome atmosphere in which to live. VI. The Problem of a New Philosophy. — For more than tw^o thousand years the Chinese mind has been shaped and controlled by the philosophy of Confucius, which is a material- istic, superstitious theory of ethics based on the paternalistic conception of society and the state. The Chinese philosophers have interpreted the classics always in terms of the principles of the ancients and have done but little, if any, new thinking. The speculations of the Buddhist and the Taoist writers have had but little effect upon the Chinese mind. The inter- pretations of the teachings of Confucius by Chin Hsi, the great philosopher of the Sung Dynasty (a.d. 960-1290), have been quite universally accepted to the present time. Exception might be made of the teachings of individualism, and the investigation and experimentation of the Chinese pragmatist, Wang Yang Ming, in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, whose influence upon the subsequent education of children was somewhat modern. But the Chinese mind has received a philosophical set from the formal study and accep- tation of the principles of the Confucian classics, a set more binding, but comparable to that of " Ciceronianism " in western education. This is the inevitable result of the teach- ing of one school of thought to the exclusion of all others. China needs to be shaken up mentally, with a new psychol- ogy, to free her mind of the unreasoning superstitions ; a new philosophy, to turn her mind away from sages to the throne of reason and into the literature of modern thought. She has already estabhshed a chair of western philosophy in the Imperial University to begin this work. In fact, the begin- nings may be found among the foreign scholars in her schools 438 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient and missions. The hundreds of bright young men and women who study abroad and return to China are dispelHng the binding effects of Confucianism and harmonizing the best of his teachings with the superior doctrines of western philos- ophy. When China learns to think in terms of the best philosophy of the world, then she will lift the masses of her people — the 325,000,000 of human souls — to the higher planes of civilization. Her resources for this work lie buried in her soil awaiting the awakening touch of modern thought. VII. Moral and Religious Education. — The Chinese have had a system of moral and religious education, during the past centuries, which was based on the Confucian classics. This system is one of ethics, more than of religion. Under the recent republic the classics were eliminated from the school curriculum. This left the moral training of the child to the home and to the moral influence of the personality and conduct of the teacher, together with the moral effect of the child's general environment. This condition, so at variance with the traditions of the masses of the people, did not seem very promising. In fact, a deep conviction exists on the part of many of the more thoughtful Chinese, that the unsettled condition of Chinese society to-day is largely due to the lack of moral and religious life under the guidance of a positive religion, reinforced by a system of instruction in the schools. Without some such check they fear that the people will drift into extreme individualism and la'xity df morals. To meet this end, the progressive Confucianists, durii^ the past three years, conducted a vigorous movement to mak. Confucianism the state religion and to restore the classics to the schools. The president of the republic agrees with China 439 these leaders that the Chinese people need a deeper religious life, and he himself is a Confucianist. But the formal peti- tion to the government to make Confucianism a state religion was denied by the president and council of state. The reasons for this attitude of the government pertained not only to education and religion, but to the political situation as well. For it is apparent that the establishment of Con- fucianism as the state religion would alienate the different sections of the country in which other influential sects abound, in particular, the Buddhists, Mohammedans, and Taoists. Likewise, such an action would doubtless lead to compli- cations with foreign countries with which China has treaty agreements to maintain freedom of religious worship. Thus far, the only constructive action on the subject has been a series of mandates issued by the president. In these he has urged the teaching of the classics in the schools, has assured the people that certain rites in honor of Confucius would be resumed under his ministration, as Pontifex Maximus, and he has tried to make it clear to the people that the teaching and practice of Confucianism, which is thought by many to be only a system of religion, would not interfere in the least with any of the systems of religion. With these mandates, for some time, the matter rested. Meanwhile, all religious organizations and native private schools were left free to prosecute their respective moral and religious education. Later, on the eve of the return of the government to a mon- archy, in December of 191 5, the president encouraged the x-eturn to the teaching of the Confucian classics. There is, everywhere, in the leading cities of the provinces, a remarkable openness of mind on the part of the Chinese students and official classes toward Christian teaching. A 440 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient deep moral and national consciousness is evident among them. This great thinking student body needs guidance as never before in Chinese life. What system of thought is to guide them? Doubtless it will be a Christianized-Confucianism, brought within the understanding of the Chinese conscious- ness and not antagonistic to the best and purest of their ancient faith. Evidences of the tolerant spirit of the government toward the Christian religion are found in many directions. The president of the Government Normal School in Peking, which is under the Ministry of Education, is an officer in one of the Methodist churches. Sunday is now observed as a rest day. The Young Men's Christian Association, organized in China a few years ago, now has a staff of nearly a hundred foreign and about two hundred native, paid workers, doing an effective work among the young men in college centers and leading cities. More than two millions of Protestant and CathoHc Christians are numbered among the Chinese. Twice, recently. President Yuan Shi Kai has called upon the Chris- tian churches in China for special prayers, for China, and for those suffering in Europe, that peace might come to the earth. A wise step in moral and religious education has been taken recently by the various Protestant Christian organizations, doing work in China, through an interdenominational or- ganization of their missions and schools. This example of a united Christian faith and work will eventually have its influence upon the Chinese in their efforts to find a solu- tion to their national, moral, and religious problems. What could point the way more clearly than the words of the presi- dent of the repubhc to the president of the Peking University, — "I am not a Christian, I am a Confucianist, but only China 441 Christian ethics can save China, our morahty is not sufficient for the crisis." THE GOVERNMENT'S PROGR.\M The immediate aims and plans of the new repubhc were clearly stated in the words of the president. " First, I will endeavor to straighten the foundations of the republic, and establish an efifective government, so that the central and provincial governments will act in unison and thus be able to develop China into a well-organized state. ''Secondly, I propose to encourage public education, so that the people may learn to know their responsibilities as citizens, respect the laws, value their liberty, and exercise their rights. "Thirdly, I propose to develop our internal trade and in- dustries, so that every person may have a proper means of livelihood. An old adage tells us that a man must have plenty of food and clothing before he can cherish the sense of honor and shame. To improve the economic life of the people is an important phase of my policy. Furthermore, China is rich in natural resources, the development of which will enrich the nation and its citizens." This program is in accord with the fundamental principle of evolution, namely, that permanent improvement is the result of steady progress, and not of hasty changes. What changes in the educational system will be made, as a result of the return to a monarchy, cannot be safely predicted. It is not probable, however, that any vital reaction will be made inasmuch as China is awake to her educational needs, if she would win for herself a place among the world powers. 442 Modern Education in Europe and the Orient Topics for Further Study 1. Discuss the Chinese Policy of "Non-Intercourse," in its influence upon education. 2. Show how a nation's ethical and religious ideals condition the development of her civilization. 3. Describe Chinese education under the domination of Confucian- ism. 4. Compare China and Japan as to racial characteristics which account for the superiority of the Japanese educational system. 5. Compare the old Chinese system of examinations with the system of examinations to which you have been accustomed in your educational system. 6. Discuss the influence of world commerce upon education, using China's experience as one of several illustrations. 7. Trace the influence upon the present Chinese school system of each of the countries, Japan, Germany, France, England, and America. 8. Write a thesis upon the necessity for the union of missionary organizations operating in China, from the standpoint of the principles of educational psychology. 9. What would be the effect upon American civiHzation of the ad- mission of the Chinese and Japanese to the full right of American citi- zenship ? 10. What special merits of the American school system would you recommend to Chinese officials for adoption as an improvement to their present school plan? Special Bibliography Brown. New Forces in Old China, New York, 1904. Education in China, Special Phases, United States Commissioner of Education, Reports, 1905 to 191 5. Headland, Isaac T. Education in China, and Confucius, Monroe's Cyclopedia of Education, The MacmiUans, New York. Ho, Yen Sun. Chinese Education from the Western Viewpoint, 1913, Rand McNally and Company, Chicago. Kemp, E. G. The Face of China, London, 1909. China 443 EliNG, Harry Edwin. The Educational System of China as Recently Reconstructed, 191 1, Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., Bulletin, No. 15, United States Bureau of Education. Kuo, Ping Wen. The Chinese System of Public Education, 191 5, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City. Lewis, R. E. Educational Conquest of the Far East, New York, 1909. Monroe, Paul. Education as Recapitulation : China as a Type, 1905, Textbook in the History of Education, The Macmillan Com- pany, New York. Reinsch, Paul S. The New Education in China, Atlantic Monthly, Vol. cm, p. 575. INDEX Administration of Education : China, 387, 405 fi., 413. England, 10 £f. France, 96 ff. Germany, 132. Holland, 195. Japan, 344. Scotland, 23, 61. Switzerland, 171. Agricultural education, 97, 109 fif., 183. Agriculture : Danish Schools of, 243. French Schools of, no ff. Middle Schools, China, 416. Prominence of, Japan, 338. Schools for men, Switzerland, 183. Schools of, in Holland, 217. American education : Compared with Danish school year, 245. Compared with Dutch, 208, 216. German influence, 165 ff. Lutheran influence, 291. Appropriation for schools : Denmark, 241, 257. England, 8, 9, 17. France, 108, 113. Germany, 144, 147. Japan, 365. Norway, 271, 274. Scotland, school statistics, 77. Sweden, 329. Switzerland, 175. Binet-Simon tests, 27, 28. Boards of Education : Denmark, 231. England, 4, 10 ff., 34ff. Germany, 134. Holland, 195. Norway, 267. Scotland, 62, 66, 96. Switzerland, 173. Caste system : Culture, 156. Extent, Japan, 386. Purpose and effect, Japan, 344. CentraHzation vs. specialization, 98. Child welfare : Denmark, 234 ff. England, 7. Germany, 134. Scotland, 78. China : History of, 391. Industries of, 394. Recent republic, 395. Chinese education : Agricultural and other technical colleges, 423- Educational problems, 428. First period of modern, 406. Government program, 441. Medical, 424. Old form, 397. Present school system, 413. Transition to modern, 403. Universities and colleges, 418. Christian education : Attitude toward, Japan, 346. Denmark, 230. Introduction in Norway, 261. Scotland, 67. Switzerland, 186. Church in relation to education : France, 121 ff. Germany, 155. Holland, 221—222. Scotland, 86 ff. Sweden, 330. Switzerland, 190 ff. Coeducation : Danish schools, 249 ff. Elementary schools, Sweden, 314. France, 99. 445 446 Index Coeducation — continued : French universities, ii6. Germany, 142. Middle schools, Norway, 272. Problem of, Norway, 285. Secondary schools, Sweden, 314. State policy, Norway, 274. Colleges : For working men, Norway, 282. Colonial education : Dutch, 200. French, 123 ff. Commerce and industry : Schools of. III, 181, 213. Compulsory school attendance : China, 415. Denmark, 230, 245. England, 16. France, 99. Germany, 134. Holland, 203. Law, enforcement, Japan, 354. Of defectives, Denmark, 255. Private schools, Norway, 293. Scotland, 62. Sweden, 308. Switzerland, 177. Confucian education : Effect of, in Chinese education, 401 . Philosophy of, 400. Purpose of, 401 . Continuation classes, 73, 74, 232. Continuation schools, 153, 177, 181, 206, 233- China, 416. Sweden, 301, 309. County schools: Norway, 285. Curriculum : Denmark, 232, 237, 238, 241. England, 22. France, 99, 104, 118. Germany, 139, 141, 142. Holland, 204, 206, 208, 210. Japan, 346, 357, 360, 361, 364, 366, 368, 371. Modern, Chinese school, 409. Music, 186, 242, 246, 361. Old Chinese system, 404. People's high school, Sweden, 330. Curriculum — continued : Scotland, 72. Sweden, 308. Switzerland, 178, 179, 183, 185, 189. Danish education : Administration and organization of, 230 flf. Care of defectives, 255. Preparation of teachers, 247 ff. Relation to the church, 251 £f. Schools, 236 ff., 255. Subject matter, 232, 237-238, 241 ff. Danish schools in America, 244. Defectives, 27, 29, 137, 232, 254, 320. Denmark : Church, 251 ff. Education, 230 fif. Government, 227. Paternalistic care, 254. Domestic economy : Household economics, 243, 326. Dutch education : Administration and organization, 195 ff. Preparation of teachers, 197, 203, 222 ff. Schools, 197, 203 ff. Subject matter, 204, 206, 208, 210, 213. Education : Ancient system of, Japan, 341. Confucianism, contents in Chinese educa- tion, 401. Literary form of, Japan, 342. Of girls, Japan, 347. Popular, Sweden, 307. Special features, Japan, 360. Elementary education : Chinese method, 403. Denmark, 232 ff. England, 14, 15, 18 ff. France, 98 ff. Germany, 135 ff. Holland, 195, 203 ff. Old Chinese system, 402. Proposed reorganization of, Sweden, 309. Scotland, 71 ff. Sweden, 300, 302. Switzerland, 176 ff. Workshops for children in, Sweden, 321. Engineering, schools of, 154. Index 447 England : Education of, s ff. Government of, 1-5. English education : Administration and organization, 6 ff. Preparation of teachers, 12 and 39 flf. Schools, 9, 14 ff. Subject matter, 25, 48 5. Enrollment in schools, 102, 108, 175, 176, 180, 234. Denmark, 235, 239. England, 24, 28, 36. France, 102, 108. Germany, 135, 136. Holland, 209, 213. Japan, elementary schools, 358. Japan, girls' high schools, 369. Japan, higher schools, 364. Japan, medical students, 388. Japan, normal school, 375. Norway, middle schools, 273. Norway, rural and city schools, 271. Norway, secondary schools, 275. Scotland, 73, 77. Sweden, elementary education, 309. Sweden, people's high school, 329. Switzerland, 175, 180. Examinations : Competitive in old Chinese, 402. Denmark, 239. England, 23, 45. France, 117. Germany, 143. Holland, 200, 208, 224. Old Chinese system of, 397, 399. Realexamen, Sweden, 314. Realskolexamen, Sweden, 313. Factory children : Education of, 7. Fee schools : France, 103 fi. Germany, 138, 147. Holland, 198. Japan, 356, 363, 365, 367. Student fees, Norway, 284. Feudalism : Japanese, 345. Japan, destroyed in, 349. Folk high school, 240, 241. Norway, 281. Sweden, Folkhogskolor, 305. France : Education, 96 ff. Government, 92-95. French education : Administration and organization, 96 ff. Colonial, 123 ff. Preparation of teachers, 106-107. Schools, 98 ff. Subject matter, 97-99. Froebel, 136. German education : Administration and organization, 132. Preparation of teachers, 142, 144 ff., 163. Schools, 13s ff. Subject matter, 141, 142, 147. Germany : Education, 132 ff., 162 ff. Government, 129. Government aid : England, 8, 9, 24. France, 108, 113, 119. Germany, 148. Holland, 197, 214. Switzerland, 171, 172, 182. Gymnasium : Denmark, 235, 238. Germany, 140 ff. Holland, 210, 211. Modernized, Sweden, 311. Norway, 273. Religious education, Norway, 287. Sweden, 311. Gymnastics, Swedish, 323. Higher education : Agricultural and technical colleges, China, 423. Denmark, 239 ff. England, technical schools and univer- sities, 48 and 51. France, 112. Germany, universities, 155. Higher education, Sweden, 316. Higher institutions, Sweden, 206. Higher schools, Japan, 364. Higher technical, Norway, 284. 448 Index Higher education — contirmed : Holland, 196, 209 ff. Imperial universities, Japan, 365. Polytechnic and professional schools, Denmark, 256. Scotland, technical universities, 82, 83. Switzerland, universities and poly- technic institutes, 187. Technical, Japan, 376. Technical, Norway, 283. Technical, Sweden, 319. Universities, China, 418. University of Copenhagen, 356. University of Norway, 275. Holland : Colonial government, 199 £E. Education, 195, 203 £f. Government, 193 ff. Ideals : Of the Danish people, 241. Swiss education, 173 ff. Technical education, 109. Industrial and trade education : Germany, 152-153- Holland, 214 ff. Industrial handwork, China, 416. Industries, Norway, 279. Schools for, and commerce, in, 216. Sweden, 310. Switzerland, 188 ff. Industrial universities, 82-83. Rural, 218. Infant schools, 20, 176, 203. Inspection and supervision ; China, 414. Denmark, 254. Elementary schools, Sweden, 303. England, 8 ff., 13. France, 95 fi., loi. Germany, 133, 134. Holland, 195, 196, 204, 205, 207. Japan, 354. Scotland, 70, 78. Special sloyd inspectors, Sweden, 325- Sweden, 303. Switzerland, 172-173. University of Copenhagen, 257. University of Sweden, 306. Insurance, teachers : England, 47. Japan : Educational policy of, 350. Geography of, 338. Government of, 340. History of, 236. Industries of, 338. Japanese education : Administration, 341, 353. Elementary, 357. Girls' high schools, 368. Higher schools, 364. Imperial universities, 365. Kindergarten in, 355. Medical, 388. Middle school, 361. Modern, 350. Moral instruction in, 356, 381. Religious, 384. Special features, 379. Students in China, 343. Technical, 376. Training of teachers, 370 ff. Transition of modern, 348. Under Buddhist domination, 343. Under early feudal regime, 341. Under military control, 345. Kindergarten : England, 20. France, 99. Germany, 135, 136. Holland, 203. Japan, 355. Switzerland, 176. Legislation, educational : Denmark, 230 ff. England, 8, 10, 11, 14, 26, 27. France, 98, 109, 116. Germany, 134. Scotland, 61, 63, 68, 70. Moral training : China, 438. Japan, 342. Norwegian education, 288. University, Japan, 381. Index 449 Motherhood : Education for, Japan, 369. Naas Sloyd : Training College, Sweden, 325. Netherlands-India, igg ff. Normal Practice Schools, 118. Japan, 371- Norway, 276, 278. Sweden, 302, 306. Normal schools : Denmark, 247 ff. France, in, 116 fif. Holland, 197, 223. Norway : Government, 262. History of, 260. People and language, 264. Problems, 263. Social problems, 264. Norwegian education : Administration, 267. Agricultural education, 279. Coeducation, 285. Continuation schools, 284. Gymnasium, 273. Middle schools, 271. Moral education, 269. Primary schools, 269. Private institutions, 292. Religious education, 287. Rural education (for adults), 281. Technical education, 283. Training of teachers, 266 ff. University, 275, 291. Norwegian language : Linguistic struggle, 266. Relation to Dano-Norwegian, 265. Pensions for teachers : Denmark, 249. Elementary school teachers, Japan, 374. England, 45 ff. France, 119. Holland, 224. Scotland, 81-82. Switzerland, 185. Physical training in schools, 12. Danish schools, 246-247. Swedish system of, 25. 2Q Pictogram of elementary schools in Eng- land, 19. Primary education : China, 407, 409. Denmark, 232 ff. France, 98 ff. Holland, 204 ff. Japan, 357. Norway, 269. Scotland, 70-71. Sweden, 300. Switzerland, 176. Teachers of, Norway, 277. Private schools : Elementary, Japan, 359. Norwegian institutions, 292. Sweden, 301. Problems and education : England, 23, 25. France, 99, 102 ff., 120. Germany, 137-138, 162 ff. Religious education : China, 417, 438. Church in Norway, 289. Denmark, 351 ff. Ethics substituted for, Japan, 385. France, 121. Germany, 160. Holland, 190 ff. Limitations of, Japan, 384. Norway, Gymnasium, 287. Prescribed, Sweden, 331. Virtues of, Japan, 385. Reorganization of secondary education: For girls, 108, 109. Scotland, 74, 75. Scottish universities, 84, 85. Sweden, 309. Rural education : Denmark, 240-243. England, 56. Holland, 218. Provision for rural districts, Norway, 270. School gardens : Sweden, 322. School hygiene : Health of elementary school children, Japan, 360. 45° Index School hygiene — continued : Teaching of, Sweden, 310. Training of secondary teachers in, Nor- way, 278. Scotland : Church in, 88. Education, 61. Government, 61. Scottish education : Administration and organization, 61 ff., 7ofi. Old system of schools, 63-69. Preparation of teachers, 66, 79, 80. Present system of schools, 70. Subject matter, 71 ff. Secondary education : Continuation classes, secondary rank, Norway, 284. Course of, Norway, 272. Denmark, 235 ff. England, 32 ff. Folk high school, Norway, 281. France, 103 ff. Germany, 140. Holland, 195, 209. Mellenskoler, Sweden, 313. Norwegian control of secondary schools, 268. Realgymnasium, Sweden, 313. Realskole, Sweden, 313. Scotland, 63, 74 ff. Secondary schools, Sweden, 301, 303. Switzerland, 178 ff. Type of boys, Sweden, 313. Sloyd : Theory underlying, Sweden, 324. Social problems : Norway, 264. Suffrage : Emancipated womanhood, China, 435. Equal, Norway, 263. Male, in China, 396. Universal, male and female, Sweden, 299. Sweden : Geography of, 296. Government, 299. Historic sketch of, 298. Industries of, 297. Swedish education : Abnormals, education of, 307. Swedish education — continued: Administration of, 302. Higher education, 316. Neglected children, care of, 327. Organization of, 300. People's high schools, 328. Religious education in, 330. Secondary schools, genesis of, 310. .Special tj'pe of school work, 320. Technical education, 319. Swiss education : Administration and organization, 171 ff. Preparation of teachers, 181, 183, 185, 189. Schools, 176 ff. Subject matter, 178, 179, 183, 185. Switzerland : Church, 190. Education, 171 ff. Government, 167-171. Teachers : Classification and preparation of, Denmark, 247 ff. England, 12, 39 ff. For abnormals, Sweden, 307. For domestic economy, Sweden, 314. France, 106-107. Germany, 145 ff. Holland, 197, 203. Kindergarten, Japan, 356. Rural teachers, homes, Norway, 270. Scotland, 66, 79, 80. Switzerland, 181. Training of, China, 411, 430. Training of, Japan, 370. Training of, Norway, 276, 278. Training schools, Sweden, 301, 305. Technical education : China, 423. Denmark, 239, 256. Early, Japan, 376. England, 48 ff. France, 97-98, 109. Holland, 213 ff. Interest in, Sweden, 319. Middle schools, Japan, 362. Modern education, Japan, 352. Index 451 Technical education — continued : Norway, 2S3. Present system, Japan, 376. Scotland, 82-83. Switzerland, 181. Teachers for, Japan, 378. Technical schools : Agricultural and other, China, 423. China, 415. Higher, Norway, 2S4. State, Sweden, 316. Technical high school, Sweden, 307, 319. Textbooks : Preparation of, China, 417. Regulations, Japan, 387. Trade education, 109, 182. Schools, Dutch, 214. Schools, German, 49. Schools, Swiss, 182. Training schools : China, 411. Course of study, Japan, 371. For secondary teachers, Japan, 374- For teachers, Japan, 371. For teachers, Sweden, 305. Lower and higher, in China, 416. Special course, domestic economy, Swe den, 326. Universities : Changes in, China, 416. Universities — continued : China, 41S. Copenhagen, 256 S. Degrees, Norwegian, 275. Degrees, Swedish universities, 318. England, 51 li. France, 97, 113 ff. Germany, 15s ff. Gothenburg, Sweden, 306. Holland, 209, 211-213. Institutions of, rank, Sweden, 316. Norwegian control of, 269. Royal Friedrich university, Christi- ania, 275. Scotland, 64, 7S, 83-84. Stockholm, Sweden, 306. Switzerland, 1S7-188. Univer.-ity of Upsala, 317. Vacation col mies : Sweden, 326. War and education : France, 124. Germany, 164 ff. Women, education of : Denmark, 237. France, 104-106, 109. Germany, 142, 148, 159. Holland, 21^. Scottish universities, 85. 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