= %.# *jf >.o^^ < < ^ r; ^ X ■* A : J^ ■ ,-0' \ , 7 "^, I : %c^' : '^r'o DOMESTIC SCIENCE Principles and Application A TEXTBOOK FOR PUBLIC SCHOOLS By PEARL L. BAILEY Supervisor of Domestic Science and Domestic Art IN the Saint Paul Public Schools V i'' COPYRIGHT. 1914 BY WEBB PUBLISHING COMPANY JUL II 1914 ©aA376G45 PREFACE DOMESTIC SCIENCE in public schools, to be of greatest value, must give the pupils a practical knowledge of foods and the principles which un- derlie their preparation for the table, and at the same time train the pupils to apply the principles intelligently. This textbook is arranged to meet the needs of schools having a two-year course in Domestic Science, and an effort has been made to present the fundamental principles, together with their application, in a simple, natural sequence that is adapted to the needs of the large majority of public and private schools. A text of this kind does away with the keeping of elaborate notebooks on the part of the pupils, saves for more important things the time used in dictating notes, and makes the work more permanent and uniform through- out. The arrangement of the subject matter by lessons does not necessarily limit the course to 64 lessons. If the students are old enough, additional reading may be used to supplement the subject matter, and several recipes are given under each application to afford plenty of practical work for classes having more than one lesson each week. The usual length of the class period is 13^ hours, and one recipe is all that can be done well in that time. The course begins with a preliminary lesson for organ- ization and for acquainting the pupils with the kitchen, utensils, and the general instructions for working and care of equipment. It is not intended that all the instructions (V) vi PREFACE contained in this lesson be given at one time, but may be referred to from time to time. The appHcation exercises under this lesson should be given. Owing to the length of the cooking period, it is necessary in most cases to start the cooking process before consider- ing the principles. Definite assignment of work and pro- portionment of materials, with explanation sufficient for beginning the work, should precede each exercise, and the main discussion or recitation must accompany or follow the application. Students are most interested in the per- formance of an experiment or a cooking process, and when the practice precedes the recitation they learn to think and do for themselves, and therefore get a better under- standing of the theory. The food principles form the basis for the lessons, which are arranged to deal first with the simpler food materials, and the progression to the more complex food combinations is gradual and practical. The recipes included in this text have been gathered from various sources and adapted to the course in school cookery as here outlined, and have been found to be both economical and reliable. Portions for an average family are given in each recipe, and for convenience in class-room work the basis for two girls working together is also stated. The average cost per capita of the lessons as here given, according to the present-day prices, approximates 2 to 3 cents a lesson. The working out, by the pupils, of the accurate amounts for the small rules on the basis for two affords good practice and drill and tends to fix the table of measures more firmly in mind. It is a great mistake for teachers to make the computations for the class. The aim is to train pupils to think for themselves and do for themselves. Better PREFACE vii Spoil a dish in the making than deprive the pupils of the experience of doing the actual work themselves. It is not necessary for pupils to memorize recipes: only general proportions and methods are essential. It is well to introduce the lesson on digestion early in the course, whenever time permits. Knowledge of the meaning of digestion and absorption is necessary for a full understanding of the food values given with each subject, and should be referred to often. No demonstration lessons are outlined, but demonstra- tion, by the teacher, of various steps involved in a lesson is frequently necessary. When given it should immediately precede the work by the class. This is especially true of the omelet lesson, as well as in the lessons involving the manipulation (kneading, shaping) of dough, rolling out of pastry, cookies, doughnuts, etc. Marketing trips are of great value to a class, and the inspection of flour mills, dairies, canning factories, etc., arouses interest and adds greatly to the value of the work. Several such excursions should be made, if possible. The waitress lessons, following as they do the cooking practice of nearly two years, round out the work and afford practical application of the knowledge acquired during the entire course. By this work relative food values and the cost of foods are established more firmly in mind, and the school and home are brought into closer relation. The lesson on emergencies and "first aid" places in- formation in the hands of the student that is valuable to both boys and girls, and can be given at any time that opportunity affords. Invalid cookery and diet is often made a separate course and, combined with home nursing, makes a very practical and interesting one. Diets and dishes suitable for all viii PREFACE occasions are given in this text, together with a few invalid recipes not classified under other subjects. Girls should be able to prepare most invalid rules after a two-year course of training as here outlined. The tables of food composition, food requirements, etc., quoted throughout this book are taken from bulletins of the United States Department of Agriculture. The special features included in Domestic Science Principles and Application are, the suggestions to teachers on the manner of conducting bread and roll lessons in a regular period, suggestions on school lunches of various kinds and the working plans in use in schools, and the complete list of equipment necessary for the teaching of a two-year course in Domestic Science in public schools. I desire to express my thanks to the friends who have in many ways given encouragement and assistance in the preparation of this book, and particularly to the editor for his careful verification of the text. PEARL L. BAILEY. Saint Paul, Minnesota, April, 1914 CONTENTS FIRST YEAR Page Preliminary Lesson. Cooking Uniform. Housekeepers' Directions 1 Description of uniform. Housekeepers' duties. Cleansing agents. Care of equipment. Lesson 1. Life Essentials. Further Working Directions 15 Air. Water. Food — definition, classification, and functions. Tables of abbreviations and measures. Rules for working. Lesson 2. Heat. Combustion. Fuel 27 Study of fire. Fuel. Stoves and ranges and their care. Electric appliances. Fireless cookers. Application. Lesson 3. Cooking. Carbohydrates — Potatoes . . 37 Methods of cooking. Study of starch. Study of the potato. Application — cooking potatoes. Lesson 4. Carbohydrates — Vegetables .... 44 Vegetables — classes, composition, food value, rules for cook- ing. White sauces. Application — cooking vegetables; medium white sauce. Lesson 5. Carbohydrates — Cereals. Rice .... 52 Cereals — kinds, composition, structure, food value, time for cooking. Rice — cultivation, food value. Application — cooking cereals: boiling, steaming. Lesson 6. Carbohydrates — Cereals. Wheat ... 58 Wheat — production, kinds, structure, composition, food value. Macaroni. Application — cooking macaroni; buttered crumbs; tomato sauce. Digestion and its Relation to Cookery .... 63 Purpose of digestion. How food is dissolved. Relation of cookery to digestion. Outline table. Lesson 7. Carbohydrates — Fruit 67 Fruit, fresh ^nd dried — composition, food value, cooking. Application — cooking apples, cranberries, prunes; fruit cock- tails. (ix) X CONTENTS Page Lesson 8. Soups 72 Soups with and without stock — general proportions and directions, food value. White sauce. Application — cream soups; croutons. Lesson 9. Protein — Eggs 75 Eggs — structure, composition, food value, testing, care, pre- servation. Effect of heat on albumen. Application — cooking eggs. Lesson 10. Protein — Eggs (continued) .... 81 How to break eggs. Combining mixtures — stirring, beating, folding. Application — omelets: demonstration and class work. Lesson 11. Protein — Milk 86 Milk — composition, food value, purchase and care, souring, pasteurizing. Condensed milk. Application — custards, boiled and baked. Lesson 12. Milk Products 92 Cream, skim milk, butter, butter substitutes, cheese — kinds, composition, food value. Application — cheese dishes: souffle; cottage cheese; Welsh rarebit. Lesson 13. Beverages 101 Tea, coffee, chocolate, cocoa — sources, composition, food value, preparation for market and table. Application — tea; coffee (demonstration) ; chocolate. Lesson 14. Quick Breads — Thin Batters .... 108 Batters and doughs. Leavening agents. Mixing and baking quick breads. Application — (air and steam as leavening agents) thin batters: pop-overs; griddle cakes. Lesson 15. Quick Breads — Baking Powder . . . . 113 Baking powder — composition and action, kinds, proportion with flour. Application — rich batters: muffins. Lesson 16. Quick Breads — Thick Batters . . . . 117 Corn — kinds, composition, corn products, food value. Appli- cation — (soda and acid as leavening agents) corn bread; corn- meal muffins. Lesson 17. Quick Breads — Soda 121 Action of soda, proportions. Application — gingerbread. Lesson 18. Quick Breads — Soft Dough .... 123 Flour — kinds, manufacture, composition, testing. Applica- tion — baking powder biscuit. Lesson 19. Varieties of Baking Powder Biscuit Dough . 127 Varieties for desserts. Application — fruit shortcakes. CONTENTS xi Page Lesson 20. Varieties of Baking Powder Biscuit Dough (con.) 129 Application — apple dumplings. Lesson 2L Bread — Yeast 131 Yeast — source, growth, kinds, action. Steamed mixtures. Application — Boston brown bread; suet pudding. Lesson 22. Bread 135 Bread — ingredients, methods of making, baking. Sugges- tions to teachers. Application — quick-process bread. Lesson 23. Bread — Rolls 141 Objects of . kneading and baking. Kinds of rolls. Sugges- tions to teachers. Application — rolls; German cofifeecake. Lesson 24. Protein — Meat 144 Meat — structure, composition, food value, object of cooking. Soups — kinds, food value, cuts used for, proportions. Applica- tion — brown soup stock; bouillon; vegetable soup. Lesson 25. Protein — Beef 151 Cuts of beef, cost, appearance, care, retaining juices, broil- ing, roasting. Application — broiling (oven demonstration). Lesson 26. Protein — Beef (continued) .... 157 Food value of beef. What to serve with beef. Application — pan broiling steak. Lesson 27. Protein — Beef (continued) . . . . 159 Cooking tough meats and left-overs — stewing. Application — beef stew; dumplings; hash. Lesson 28, Protein — Veal and Mutton .... 164 Veal — appearance, cuts, food value, cost. Lamb, Mutton — cuts, cost, food value. What to serve with them. Applica- tion — lamb chops; breaded veal. Lesson 29. Protein — Pork 170 Pork — cuts, food value, time for cooking, cost, what to serve with. Application — cooking pork; liver and bacon. Lesson 30. Protein — Poultry 175 Chicken — selection, dressing, cutting, food value, what to serve with. Application — roast chicken with stuffing. Lesson 31. Protein— Gelatin 180 Gelatin — source, commercial forms, effects of hot and cold water on, food value, directions for use. Application — gelatin jellies; desserts. Lesson 32. Left-overs 184 Ways of using left-overs of vegetables, bread, fish, and meat. Application — souffles; scalloped dishes. xii CONTENTS SECOND YEAR Page Lesson 1. Preservation of Food — Canning Fruit . 189 Bacteria. Reasons and methods for preserving food. Can- ning — principles, jars, directions. Application — canning peaches and pears. Lesson 2. Preservation of Food — Canning Vegetables . 198 Selection and preparation of vegetables. Methods of can- ning — intermittent heating, long boiling. Application — canned tomatoes, asparagus, beans. Lesson 3. Preservation of Food — Jellies, etc. . . 202 Jelly making — fruit, utensils, methods. Preserves, jams, and marmalades. Application — currant jelly; apple jelly. Lesson 4. Preservation of Food — Pickling . . . 210 Condiments and spices. Materials, directions, proportions, etc., for pickling. Application — peach, green tomato, and cu- cumber pickles. Lesson 5. Doughs — Cookies 215 Proportions of ingredients. Variations in cookie mixtures. Application — sugar cookies. Lesson 6. Drop Batters — Cookies 218 Application — drop cookies, chocolate cookies, rocks. Lesson 7. Fats and Oils. Frying Uncooked Mixtures . 220 Fats and oils — source, food value. Trying out fat; clarify- ing; tests for frying. Application — doughnuts; fritters. Lesson 8. Frying Cooked Mixtures 226 Croquettes — general proportions, thick white sauce, egging, crumbing. Application — croquettes: potato, rice, meat. Lesson 9. Pastry 229 Essentials, proportions, methods, two-crust pies, time for bak- ing. Application — two-crust pies: apple. Lesson 10. Pastry (continued) 235 Food value of pastry. One-crust pies. Tins. Application — lemon pie; custard pie. Lesson 11. Carbohydrates — Sugar, Candy .... 238 Sugar — sources, kinds, manufacture, forms, food value, effects of heat on. Application — candy. Lesson 12. Protein — Fish 243 Fish — composition, kinds, structure, food value, appearance, cleaning, skinning, boning, cooking. Application — baked fish (demonstration); fish sauces. CONTENTS xiii Page Lesson 13. Protein — Fish (continued) 249 Application — frying, sauteing, broiling fish. Lesson 14. Protein — Fish (continued) 252 Preservation and cost of fish. Left-overs. Application — creamed codfish; fish croquettes; fish balls. Lesson 15. Protein — Shellfish 254 Oysters — source, season, growth, food value, to open, to clean, blue points. Clams, lobsters, shrimps. Application — cooking oysters: stews> fried. Lesson 16. Salads 259 Essentials of a salad, points in favor, garnishing, salad dress- ings, what to serve with salads. Application — salad dressings; salads. Lesson 17. Cakes without Butter 264 Cake — classes, rules for making, utensils, oven tests. Applica- tion — sponge cake and angel food. Lesson 18. Cakes with Butter ...... 268 Method of mixing, oven tests, pans, frosting, proportions of materials, variations. Application — plain cake; cup cakes. Lesson 19. Layer Cakes 271 Points of a good cake, time for baking. Application — choco- late and white cakes; frostings. Lesson 20. Loaf Cakes 273 Time for baking loaf cakes. Application — gold, caramel, and nut cakes. Lesson 21. Hot Desserts — Puddings 276 Methods of cooking, preparation of materials. Application — suet and bread puddings; pudding sauces. Lesson 22. Cold Desserts 280 Application — floating island; chocolate cream pudding; prune whip. Lesson 23. Sandwiches 282 Materials, shapes, preparation, serving. 24 suggestions for sandwiches. Application — egg and meat sandwiches. Lesson 24. Frozen Mixtures — Ices 286 Classes of frozen mixtures. Ices — classes. The freezing mix- ture. Methods of freezing and packing. Application — ices and sherbets. xiv CONTENTS Page Lesson 25. Frozen Mixtures — Ice Cream .... 290 Classes of ice cream and other frozen desserts. Cream; custards. Molding fancy shapes. Application — ice cream with custard foundation. Lesson 26. Frozen Mixtures (continued) .... 295 Whipping cream. Charlottes. Application — charlotte russe; mousse. Lesson 27. Waitress Work 298 Furnishing of the dining room. Table appointments. Table setting. Serving — styles and rules. Application. Lesson 28. Dietaries — Planning Menus .... 304 Selection of food. Food requirements and nutritive ratios. Tables of food values. Breakfasts, luncheons, and dinners. Application. Lesson 29. School Luncheons 312 Marketing guide of materials. Plan of school luncheons — arrangements and menus. Application. Lesson 30. School Luncheons (continued) . . . . 317 Student's memorandum page. Lesson 31. Home Management. Household Accounts . 318 The home; importance of good management. Accounts. Application. Lesson 32. Invalid Cookery 322 Classification of dietaries. Rules for serving the sick. Appli- cation — dishes for the sick. appendix- Emergencies AND First Aid 327 Equipment for Teaching Domestic Science . . .331 Suggestions for School Lunches 337 Score Cards for Judging 343 BOOKS AND BULLETINS FOR REFERENCE AND SUPPLEMENTARY READING General Reference Books Bacteria, Yeasts, and Molds in the Home. Conn. (Ginn.) Bacteriology, Household. Buchanan. (Macmillan.) Cookery, Elements of the Theory and Practice of. Williams and Fisher. (Macmillan.) Cost of Living. Richards. (Wiley.) Dietetics, Practical. Thompson. (Appleton.) Food. Church. (Chapman and Hall, London) Food, Cost of. Richards. (Wiley.) Food and Dietetics. Hutchison. (McClurg.) Food and Dietetics. Norton. (American School of Home Economics.) Food and its Functions. Knight. (Scribner.) Home Economics. Parloa. (Century.) Cook Books Boston Cooking School Cook Book. Farmer. (Little.) Boston Cook Book. Lincoln. (Little.) Century Cook Book. Arnold. (Century.) Food and Cookery for the Sick and Convalescent. Farmer. (Little.) Home Science Cook Book. Lincoln and Barrows. (Whitcomb.) New Cook Book and Marketing Guide. Parloa. (Estes.) Bulletins The following is a list of desirable bulletins relating to Domestic Science, which may be obtained free by addressing the U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture or, in some cases, the state experiment station. Beans, Peas, and other Legumes as Food Farmers' Bulletin 121 Bread and Bread Making F. B. 389 Butter Making on the Farm F. B. 541 Cereal Breakfast Foods F. B. 249 Cheese and its Economical Use in the Diet F. B. 487 Eggs and their Uses as Food F. B. 128 Fish as Food F. B. 85 Food, Care of in the Home F. B. 249 Food Customs and Diet in American Homes. Bui., Ofifice of Exp. Stations. Food, Functions and Use Bui., Office of Experiment Stations. (XV) xvi BEFERENCES Food, Principles of Nutrition and Nutritive Value of F. B. 142 Fruit, Uses of as F*ood F. B. 293 Habit-Forming Agents F. B. 393 Jelly Making, Principles of Bui., Univ. of 111. Meat, Economic Use of in the Home F. B. 391 Meat, Market Classes and Grades of 111. Bui, 147 Meat — Relative Economy, Composition and Nutritive Value of the Various Cuts of Beef 111. Bui. 158 Milk, Care and Use of in the Home F. B. 413 Milk, Use of as Food F. B. 363 Mutton and its Value in the Diet F. B. 526 Nuts and their Uses as Food F. B. 332 Potatoes and other Root Crops as Food F. B. 295 Poultry as Food F. B. 182 Sugar as Food F. B. 93 Tea, Cultivation and Manufacture in U. S F. B. 234 Vegetables, Canning of F. B. 259 Vegetables, Preparation of for the Table F. B. 256 Domestic Science Principles and Application FIRST YEAR PRELIMINARY LESSON THE COOKING UNIFORM. HOUSEKEEPERS* DIRECTIONS Each girl must be provided with a complete uniform. This consists of a white apron, white cap, hand towel, bag, and holder. MAKING THE UNIFORM The cooking apron is made of white India linen or lawn. The amount for each apron depends on the size of the girl. Measure the length of the dress and add 14 inches for the hem and for growth ; take twice the length for the skirt and allow one yard more for the straps and bib. Divide one of the lengths for the skirt lengthwise through the center. Sew a half width to each side of the whole width with selvages together. Hem sides with 34-inch hem, and the bottom with a 3-inch hem. Gather apron for belt. The hib is a square piece 8 by 8 inches or 9 by 9 length- wise of cloth, lengthwise of the apron. Turn 134 inches of hem along top; hemstitch. -1 (1) 2 DOMESTIC SCIENCE The straps are 4 inches wide and long enough to reach from the belt in front across to the belt in back; set in bib to the straps in front, and over-hand straps shut. The belt is made of two pieces 2 inches wide and the length of the waist measure plus 13^ inches for the lap. Sew the belt to the bib portion first and then to the skirt. The pocket is 5 by 4 inches and is backstitched to the right side of the apron convenient to the hand. The cooking cap is made of the same material as the apron. Cut a circle of material 18 inches in diameter. Cut a band 4 inches wide and the length of the size of the head straight around the forehead. Allow 1 inch for shrinkage. Gather the top in quarters, and sew band together at the ends; quarter band, and sew band to the cap. Hem down on the inside. The seam of the band is the center of the back. The hand towel is made of ^ yard of white huck towel- ing, or blue and white glass toweling. Turn J^-inch hems at both ends; hem with damask hem. Set in 3^-inch tape, 4 inches long, in the hem at one end, with which to button the towel to the belt. The holder is made of two pieces of white cotton cloth 6 by 6 inches. For padding, use two thicknesses of white cotton flannel 5 by 5 inches. Pin and sew pieces together, overhand the outer cover over the lining. Inset a tape 30 inches long at one corner; make a loop at one end of tape, to button the holder to the belt. The bag is made of % yard of blue percale. Use full width of the material. Make a 2-inch hem in the top, with a 1-inch casing. Make two white tape draw-strings each one yard. Mark each piece plainly. DUTIES OF HOUSEKEEPERS DUTIES OF HOUSEKEEPERS Two members of the class may be assigned at the beginning of each lesson to perform the housekeeping duties. These girls may be called Housekeeper No. 1 and Housekeeper No. 2, each serving a section of the class. The students on the immediate right of the girls appointed make double portions in cooking, for the benefit of the house- keepers. Housekeeper No. 1, Section I, performs the following duties: — 1. Bring out the supplies for Section I. 2. Pass dish cloths and towels. 3. If ovens are to be used, get ovens for Section I. 4. Wash out half the towels that are soaked. House- keeper in afternoon classes put day's towels to soak. 5. Straighten the shelves in the pantry. 6. Wipe off the oilcloth with a damp cloth. 7. See that each desk in Section I is supplied with soap, flour, salt, and matches. 8. Fill the pitchers of Section I with cold water. 9. Collect garbage from utility pans at the close of lesson. 10. Put away supplies at the close of lesson. 11. Sweep floor around Section I. 12. Clean the sink, soap dish and sink strainer at sink No. 1 when the class is through. 13. Arrange the curtains evenly at the close of the les- son. 14. Set the garbage can out for the janitor. See that the can is scalded each week and set in the sun and air. 4 DOWESTIC SCTENCK Housekeeper No. 2, Section II, performs the following* duties: — 1. Bring out the supplies. 2. Pass dish cloths and towels. 3. Place gas ovens, if a baking lesson. 4. Rinse towels washed by Housekeeper No. 1. 5. Hang towels on a clothes rack to dry. 6. Wipe off and polish the gas range. 7. Clean the ice box; empty any dishes that may need attention. (Note. — Keep milk and butter in the lower part of the box.) 8. Clean all ovens and tea kettles. 9. On Friday, scald out the ice box and wipe off the shelves. See that the trap is clean. 10. See that each desk is supplied with soap, flour, salt, and matches. 11. Pass drinking water to Section II. 12. Collect the garbage from utility pans. 13. Put away all supplies. 14. Sweep floor around Section H. 15. Clean sink, soap dish, and strainer of sink No. 2. 16. Dust the moldings of the room, all ledges, and furni- ture. 17. Afternoon class close and lock the windows. INSTRUCTIONS TO HOUSEKEEPERS Dust and Its Dangers. — There are two kinds of dust, living and lifeless. For the most part the dust we find in our homes or schools is made up largely of earth or other matter in such small particles that it can be carried by the wind. It is present everywhere. Carried in this lifeless dust we find a living, invisible dust, called germs or microbes. These germs are the smallest living plants, and are so small INSTRUCTIONS TO HOUSEKEEPERS 5 that it takes a powerful microscope, enlarging them at least fifty times, to make them visible. There are three classes of these little microscopic plants; namely, molds , yeasts, and bacteria. Some of these, as you already know, are very useful to us, such as the yeast plant, in making bread. Others produce dangerous poisons that cause disease of all kinds. What Hastens Germ Growth. — Things necessary for the growth of most molds and bacteria are dark, damp, unclean places, and food and warmth. Can you name some such places? For this reason it is always necessary to try to keep our houses and ourselves as clean as possible in order to destroy or to prevent the growth of these germs. What Stops Germ Growth. — Anything that destroys these living plants, or micro-organisms, is called a disinfect- ant. There are two kinds of disinfectants: — 1. Physical, or natural, disinfectants; as, sunshine and heat. 2. Chemical disinfectants, or those that act chemically upon the bacteria; as, carbolic acid, formaldehyde, strong acids and alkalies. Some substances prevent the growth of germs, and are called antiseptics and preservatives. Some of these are borax, salt, peroxide, sirups, and many others. We shall learn more about some of these later. Dust and dirt, then, is not only objectionable to look upon when it is about the floor, the furniture, and persons, but one never can tell what germs it may contain that may do us harm if they enter our bodies. Certain kinds of bac- teria in the body produce diseases, such as diphtheria, typhoid fever, and tuberculosis. 6 DOME Si TIC SCIENCE At all times let us each observe the rules of cleanliness, and avoid any habits that hinder the having of clean, wholesome food, a clean house and school to live in, and a healthy mind and body. CLEANSING AGENIS (a) Water is the most important cleansing agent, for it dissolves more substances than any other liquid. Water is hard or soft. The hardness depends upon the amount of calcium (lime) or other salts it contains. Soft water is best for cleansing, since neither soap nor dirt dis- solves readily in hard water. To soften water, certain softening agents are added, such as borax, sal soda, ammonia, potash or lye. Temporary hard water can be softened by boiling. (b) Cleaning powders are of two kinds, — those that are mechanical and those that are chemical in their action. The mechanical powders contain minerals that assist in cleaning by producing friction. Among these are : — (1) White sand, for scouring iron and wood. (2) Bath brick, for scouring steel knives. (3) Rotten stone, for copper, brass, and tin. (4) Whiting, for silver, aluminum, and brass. (5) Commercial preparations on the market, which are very good for cleaning and come in very convenient form ready for use. The chemical cleaning agents are chiefly alkalies, which are most important in the removal of grease. Any alkali unites with grease to form a compound soluble in water, like soap. The chemical substances used for cleaning are : — (1) Sal soda, which is very strong, but is best for general use. It is cheap and is the basis of most washing powders, which cost many times their value. To use sal INSTRUCTIONS TO HOUSEKEEPERS 7 soda, dissolve one pound in a quart of water over the fire; then cook, bottle, and label. Use a little when needed. (2) Ammonia, which is not as strong as sal soda, and is used chiefly in laundry work, but is very good for general cleaning. (3) Kerosene. This is useful for cleaning polished woods, which alkalies would injure, and may be used in many other ways. (c) ioap is a combination of an alkali (soda or potash) with a fat. Describe the old-fashioned way of making soap. There are hard and soft soaps: hard soap is made with soda. The harder the fat used, the harder the soap. Soft soap is made with potash instead of soda. Action of Soap. — When used with water, soap dissolves and unites with any grease it touches, and loosens and washes away the dust and dirt. CARE OF EQUIPMENT Care of Dishcloths and Towels. — Have two enamel- covered pails in which to soak the towels. Use enough warm water to cover them well, and add two tablespoons of cleansall or soap solution. Cover, and let stand over night. To Wash Towels. — Use warm water, good soap, and a wash board. Rub each towel well until all the stains are removed. Put the towels in clean, hot suds on the stove to scald; bring slowly to a boil and boil 10 minutes; remove from the fire, rinse the towels in plenty of clean water wring well, shake out, and hang evenly on the rack to dry Place in the sun and air, if possible. To Remove Stains. — Iron rust is easily removed by dipping the spot into a solution of oxalic acid and then rinsing at once with clear water. Dissolve one teaspoon of 8 DOMESTIC SCIENCE oxalic crystals in }/8 cup of boiling water for the acid solu- tion. Apply lemon juice and salt to the spot in the direct rays of the sun until rust disappears. This takes longer. Ink. — Use a solution of oxalic acid for ink, the same as for iron rust. The crystals dissolve more quickly in boiling water, and the stain disappears more quickly. Rinse thor- oughly in clear water after application of acid, or the texture of the material will be injured. Sweet or sour milk will often remove ink stains. Let spot soak in milk several hours, apply more milk, until spot disappears. Rinse the material. Blood is best removed by soaking the stain in tepid or lukewarm water; later rub with soap, and wash out. Cocoa stains. — First wash in cold water and then pour boiling water through them. Coffee stains are removed by placing at once over a basin and pouring on boiling water while the stains are fresh. The force of the water aids in loosening the stain. Fruit stains require the same treatment as coffee stains. Alcohol softens and dissolves fruit stains, and does not injure the material. Grass stains are dissolved by alcohol or camphor and may then be washed out with clear water. Mildew is a plant mold that grows on the fiber of mate- rials. It develops on clothes when they are damp for some time in warm weather. If mildew stains are old, they will not come out. Strong lemon juice and salt put on the spot and exposed to the sun for several days will remove light spots of mildew. A bleaching agent, as chloride of lime, may be used, but is very hard on the fiber of the material. Or, wet the spots INSTRUCTIONS TO HOUSEKEEPERS with strong soap- suds and powdered chalk and put in the sun for many hours. Plumbing. Traps — All fixtures, like sinks, wash basins, closets, tubs, etc., are connected with a system of pipes with the house drain, which carries off all waste matter to the sewer in the street. Figure 1 shows an approved system of house plumbing. No- tice the size of pipes used and their rela- tion to one another and to the fixtures. A trap is a bend in a pipe sufficient to retain enough water to prevent the passage of poisonous gases back through the pipe into the room. Each fixture must have a trap lo- cated in the waste pipe close to the fix- ture, and the house i/c'nriitrtrior* To ~Sevvx=/- Fig. 1. A plumbing system for a house, show- ing arrangement of fixtures, traps, and pipes. (Mo. Eng. Exp. Sta. Bui.) 10 DOMESTIC SCIENCE sewer pipe must be provided with a trap near the street sewer. Of the many kinds of traps the most commonly used are the S trap and the bottle or pot trap. The S trap (See illustrations) is perhaps the most satisfactory for most purposes, for it does not contain much water, flushes readily, and does not easily get out of order. Some causes of failures — of traps to be effective are: 1. It may not have a deep enough bend to retain suf- Fig. 2. A trap. The enclosed water firicnt water tO form SL COm- prevents poisonous sewer gas from entering ^^'-^^^^^ vvciLCi tu luiin a i^uiii the room. plctC SCal. 2. It may be clogged by foreign matter, like lint, hair, grease, etc. This will break the seal. 3. The water may be evaporated from the trap. This occurs when the fixture is not used for some time. To prevent it, pour sufficient oil in the pipe to cover the top of the water. When houses are to be closed for a time, this precaution is necessary. Inspection. — All plumbing should be inspected fre- quently, and should be so constructed as to make this easy. All joints should be air-tight, and all traps should be sup- plied with means for cleaning. Faulty plumbing is too often the cause of serious illness. Note. — Carefully inspect the plumbing in your home and school. Notice where the traps are located. Care of the Ice Box. — Keep the ice box perfectly clean. See that the drain from the ice is properly carried off. It should drain into an open end of a trapped drain-pipe. See IN,^TRUCTI0N8 TO HOUSEKEEPERS 11 that the trap is open and works correctly. Keep a brush for cleaning out the trap. Scald out the ice box and trap once each week with hot soda or borax water. Wipe the ice box dry, and always wipe off the shelves as soon as anything is spilled over them. Do not put hot food into the ice box; never put food with strong odors into the ice box. Keep milk bottles covered and keep the milk and butter in the lower part of the box, for they absorb odors readily. Do not put unnecessary dishes into the ice box. Set the food away in clean dishes, and in as small dishes as possible. Do not put anything on the top of the ice box; it clutters up a room and makes it harder to keep things neat and clean. Care of the Sink. — Sinks with open plumbing are best; but even the best need constant care. In selecting sinks, avoid those with wood around them. Good porcelain sinks, with rim and drain board of the same, are the best and the easiest to keep clean. Iron sinks are very hard to care for. To remove the rust from iron sinks, at night rub all over with mutton fat and in the morning rinse well with hot suds. Keep a sink strainer in the sink and pour all waste liquids through it. Do not put garbage into the sink strainer; put it into the garbage can. Sink strainers are for liquids only. When through work, empty the strainer, wash in hot soapsuds, wipe dry, and hang up. Once each week pour a strong solution of sal soda (about 3^2 cup soda to two quarts water) down the pipes. Flush the sinks frequently with plenty of hot soapsuds and boiling water. When through work always leave the sinks per- fectly clean. Wash them with hot water, using Dutch cleanser or sapolio to remove any stains or grease. Rinse well and wipe dry. Kerosene cuts any grease readily. Rinse well after using. 12 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Never hang utensils or dishcloths around the sink. Only the soap dish and sink strainer need be kept there. Never hang anything under the sinks. Wash and rinse all sink cloths and hang in the air to dry. Care of the Garbage Can. — Each day place a clean news- paper in the can. This is easily removed and all the con- tents burned, buried, or carried away. Put only solid materials in the can. Liquids must first be drained off. The can must be kept perfectly fresh. Scald and scrub out the can thoroughly each week, and set in the sun and open air. Keep can covered when garbage is in it. Care of the Pantry. — Closed cupboards are much better than open shelves, but are not always available. Cover the pantry shelves with oilcloth. Tack it down firmly over the edges of the shelves. Oilcloth is easily wiped off, and is durable material. Plain white paper may be used if oilcloth is too expensive. Renew the paper frequently. Put like dishes together. Keep all spices and staple things together. Keep food supplies in covered jars properly labeled. Do not leave supplies in sacks. Never arrange supplies in more than two rows. This saves time and prevents confusion. When the last of anything is used, report the fact at once to the instructor, or make a note of it. Prepare bread crumbs from all dry pieces of bread ; roll and sift and keep in covered jars ready for use. Watch canned goods and jellies and report any that appear to be spoiling. Care of the Table. — When the dishes are all washed, clean the table by scrubbing with a brush dipped in hot water and then in Dutch cleanser or in scouring soap. nrsTRWTIONS TO H0VSEKEBPER8 13' Use little water; scrub thoroughly with the grain of the wood. Rinse well and wipe dry as possible with a cloth wrung out of clear water. See that the edges of the table are kept clean and dry. Clean under the stoves thoroughly. Ammonia or borax will remove grease spots. Spread on the spots and let stand for a few minutes; then rinse with cold water. Hot water dissolves grease and drives it into the wood. Care of Floors and Woodwork. Hardwood Floors. — A long-handled soft brush is best for sweeping polished floors. A broom with a soft cover made of cotton flannel sewed into a bag to fit the broom and tied on with tapes, is a good sub- stitute for the brush. Use little or no water on hardwood floors. Brush dry. Sweep from the outside of the room towards the center; be sure corners and baseboards are well dusted. Use short strokes of brush or broom, and keep it close to the floor to prevent raising a dust. Gather dust into a small spot and take up with brush and dustpan; burn, if possible, at once. A little oil on the brush or broom bag collects the dust together better. Sweeping Ordinary Floors. — Sweep dry in the same way as with hardwood floors, using an ordinary broom. Scrubbing. — Use plenty of hot soapsuds and a stiff brush. Do not wet a large surface at a time. Scrub with the grain of the wood ; then rinse thoroughly and wipe dry with a cloth wrung out of clear water. Avoid wetting baseboards, furniture, and doors. Grease spots on unfinished wood may be removed by covering with borax, letting stand over night, and then rinsing off with clear water. 14 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Carpets. — To sweep, tear old newspapers into small pieces, dampen them, and sprinkle over the carpet. Use a stiff broom and sweep as in method for hardwood floors, taking short strokes to avoid raising dust. A carpet sweeper may be used in the center of the room after sides are brushed. To brighten the carpet, put a few drops of ammonia into a little warm water, dip a cloth into it, wring out, and rub over the carpet after it has been swept. Woodwork. — After sweeping and when the dust has settled, wipe off the woodwork carefully, using a soft cotton cloth. Hemmed cheesecloth dusters are preferable. Gather the dust into the folds of the duster, not stirring the dust up in the room, and shake duster out of doors. Dust higher objects and woodwork first. Chemically-prepared dustcloths are for sale and are good for most woodwork, but must not be used on mahog- any furniture. Care of Brooms, Brushes, and Dust Cloths. — Brooms. — In using a broom alternate first one side and then the other, so that it wears evenly. Clean broom off after sweeping, making it ready for use again. Always hang broom up; do not allow it to rest on the bristles. The broom should be washed in good warm suds every week to keep it in good condition. Brushes. — Brushes should be cleaned well after each using. Later they may be washed in cold water, but great care must be taken not to wet the glue which fastens the back of the brush. Dry thoroughly. Dust cloths. — Wash dust cloths frequently in hot soap- suds, scald, rinse in clear water, and dry in the sun and air. Explain why this precaution is always necessary. LESSON 1 LIFE ESSENTIALS— AIR, WATER, FOOD. FURTHER WORKING DIRECTIONS Three things are essential to life: (1) air, (2) water, and (3) food. In addition, most forms of life need sunlight and a favorable temperature. AIR Air is the most immediate need of the body, since we can live but a few minutes without it. Composition of Air. — Pure air is composed mainly of two gases, oxygen and nitrogen, in the proportion of 1 part of oxygen to about four parts of nitrogen. A certain amount of water vapor in the air makes it easier to breathe. Impure air may contain, in addition to nitrogen and oxygen, harmful gases, dust, and other impurities. In dwellings the harmful gas is usually carbon dioxide, which is noticeable when the room is poorly ventilated. Sources of Carbon Dioxide Gas. — Carbon dioxide gas is formed by the union of carbon and oxygen in a process called oxidation. This takes place in — (1) All burning of carbon material. (2) Decaying vegetable and animal life. (3) The process of respiration. In the latter process the oxygen in the air passes through the thin walls of the lungs into the blood, which carries it to all parts of the body. The union of this oxygen with the carbon in the cell tissues forms carbon dioxide as a waste product, which in "turn is carried back by the blood to the lungs and given off. (15) 16 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Ventilation. — How may pure air be brought into a room and the impure air sent out? How is your home venti- lated? How is your school ventilated? The natural means of ventilation are doors, windows, cracks, and chimneys. Special ventilating systems, flues, etc., may be spoken of as the artificial means of ventilation. WATER Water ranks next to air as a supporter of life. Pure water is a liquid, clear, odorless, colorless, and almost taste- less. Composition. — Chemically pure water is composed of 1 part oxygen to 2 parts of hydrogen. The flavor of drink- ing water is due to the mineral salts and carbon dioxide gas dissolved in it. Sources. — (1) Rain. (2) Surface water, as from rivers, brooks, lakes, ponds. (3) Ground water, as from wells, open and artesian, and some springs. Uses. — ^Water has many uses. It enters into all plant and animal life. It constitutes about three-fourths of the weight of the body. (a) Uses in the body : — 1. It quenches thirst. 2. It aids in regulating the body temperature. 3. It aids digestion, since it forms a part of all the digestive secretions of the body, and acts as a solvent; that is, dissolves most substances and reduces them to a condi- tion to be of use to the body. 4. It acts as a carrier. It enters into the formation of blood, which carries food to the various parts of the body. It also carries off waste materials, ESSENTIALS TO LIFE ' 17 (b) Uses out of the body: — 1. In power production. 4. In cooking. 2. In transportation. 5. For plant growth. 3. In cleaning. 6. Other uses. Kinds. — (1) Soft water, as already explained. (2) Hard water, temporary and permanent. (3) Mineral water, which is water containing a com- paratively large percentage of certain minerals, such as soda, sulphur, and iron, and is valuable for medicinal purposes. Daily Requirement. — An average person requires about two quarts of water a day. This is supplied l^y vegetables, meat, and other food, as well as by beverages. Temperatures. — Water freezes at 32° Fahrenheit (which is zero on the Centigrade scale). Water simmers at 185° F. Water boils at 212° F., or 100° C. Impure water cannot always be detected by color, taste, or smell. One should always know the source of water before using it. Water is contaminated in many ways, but the most common are — 1. In open wells, by surface water and foreign sub- stances. 2. By having w^ater supply too close to outbuildings or sewage disposals. Water is purified more or less by filtering through the earth, but this does not necessarily remove harmful bacteria, especially when the filtering distance is short. 3. By carelessness in diseases. To Purify Water. — Water from springs and artesian and bored wells is usually pure. 1. Boiling will purify most water, but this destroys —3 18 • DOMESTIC SCIENCE the flavor as well as the bacteria. Pouring boiled water from one jar to another partially restores its flavor. 2. Filtering water through stone filters is quite effec- tive. The filters must be thoroughly cleaned frequently or they will be worse than none. In city systems water is often filtered through large sand beds to purify it. Small cloth filters fastened on the faucets do not purify the water. Cautions in the Use of Water. — 1. Do not use water left standing Jn open vessels. 2. Draw off the first water from pipes before using any. Water takes up the lead of the pipes when allowed to stand in them for any time. 3. Do not drink water in the dark. 4. Use freshly boiled water for cooking purposes, never that from the hot-water faucet. vS. Keep all pitchers and water jars washed clean and free from the lime deposits that accumulate on the bottom and sides. FOOD Food is anything which taken into the body builds and repairs the tissues or furnishes heat and energy. Foods contain many elements, but the most important are those which enter into the composition of the body; as, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon, calcium, phos- phorus, and others. Where have you found these elements before? Some of them are more abundant in certain foods than in others, and therefore foods perform different functions in the body. For this reason we have foods classified according to their composition and function. Classification of food. — (A) Organic foods, of animal and vegetable origin, include — 1. Proteifis which, include — a. Albumin, as in the white of egg. ESSENTIALS TO LIFE 19 b. Casein; as, milk curd. c. Fibrin; as, lean meat. d. Gelatin, as found in sinews and bones. e. Extractives, as in the juices of meats. /. Gluten, as contained in wheat. g. Legumin, as contained in peas and beans. 2. Carbohydrates, which inctude^ a. Starch, as contained in potatoes and cereals. b. Sugar; as, cane, beet, and fruit sugars. c. Cellulose, the fruit and vegetable fiber. 3. Fats, including — a. Animal fats; as, butter, lard, fat meat. b. Vegetable oils; as, olive oil, cottonseed oil. (B) Inorganic foods, or those not having animal or vegetable origin, include — 4. Mineral matter, as found in the ash of foods. 5. PFa/^r.— Water is usually not thought of as a food ; it is used in tissue building, but it does not give heat or energy. Composition and Functions of the Food Classes. — Proteins contain nitrogen, carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, sul- phur, and often phosphorus. Because they contain nitrogen, proteins build and repair tissues, and are called nitrogenous or tissue-build- ing foods. The protein of the body, as contained in the muscles, blood, and other tissues, can be built up only from the protein of food. Proteins may also be used in the body to produce heat and energy. But carbohydrates and fats, especially the former, are much cheaper as a source of heat and energy, and are much more easily used for this purpose in the body. If less pro>tein is eaten than is re- quired, the protein of the body itself will be consumed. If more protein is eaten than is needed for tissue building, the excess is thrown off as waste, the process forming 20 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Fig. 3. Food chart of comparative composition and fuel value of food materials. (U. S. D. A. Bui.) ES8ENTIAL8 TO LIFE 21 harmful products in the body and enforcing greater work on the excretory organs. Excessive consumption of pro- tein food is harmful. Carbohydrate is the general name for a large class of familiar food materials that do not contain nitrogen. In order to maintain its temperature and to do work, the body must obtain energy, and this is supplied very largely by the carbohydrates. Starches and sugars are produced in plants on a very generous scale for our use. When eaten in excess, carbohydrates are stored in the body as fatty tissue. Fats and oils are composed of the same elements as car- bohydrates; namely, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, and are used in the body for the same purpose. The propor- tion of carbon is much greater than in carbohydrates, for which reason they give about twice as much heat and energy. The fats, however, are harder to digest. They also add to the fatty tissue. Mineral matter, consisting of compounds of sodium, lime, iron, potash, sulphur, phosphorus, etc., are found principally in cereals, milk, meat, fish, and fruits. Min- eral substances enter into the composition of all tissues of the body, especially bone and blood, and are very neces- sary to young and growing persons. Water. (Composition and function given on page 16.) Table of Abbreviations For the sake of convenience in cookery, a few abbre- viations are used. Those used throughout this text are: tsp. for teaspoon oz. for ounce tbsp. for tablespoon f. g. for few grains ssp. for salt spoon r. for rounded c. for cup hp. for heaping pt. for pint sc. for scant qt. for quart min. for minute lb. for pound hr. for hour 22 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Table of Measures 3 tsp. are equivalent to 1 tbsp. 12 tbsp. are equivalent to 1 cup wet material 16 tbsp. are equivalent to 1 cup dry material 2 c. are equivalent to 1 pt. 2 pt. are equivalent to 1 qt. 4 qts. are equivalent to 1 gal. 8 qt. are equivalent to 1 peck, (dry) 4 c. (about) flour equal 1 lb. 2 c. sugar (gran.) equal 1 lb. 2 c. butter packed solid equal 1 lb. 2 c. chopped meat equal 1 lb. 2 tbsp. butter equal 1 oz. 1 tbsp. sugar equals 1 oz. 1 tbsp. liquid equals 3^ oz. 9 or 10 eggs, depending on size, equal 1 lb. The juice of 1 lemon equals 3 tbsp. All measurements used in this book are level. Great care must be taken to measure accurately. Directions for Measuring. — 1. For a spoonful, dip the spoon into the material, lift it, and level off true with a spatula. 2. For a cupful, fill the cup with the aid of a spoon, and level off with a spatula. 3. For a half spoonful, level off a spoonful and then divide lengthwise through the middle. The spoon is larger at the back than at the point, and a more accurate measure may be obtained in this way. 4. For one-fourth spoonful, divide the half-spoonful cross-wise, dividing a little back of the middle. 5. For one-eighth spoonful, divide a fourth-spoonful diagonally across from center of spoon to outer rim. 6. In measuring dry material, as flour, baking powder, soda, powdered sugar, spices, sift or shake up lightly before measuring, and do not dip cup into the material, which packs it, but fill with a spoon. 7. To measure butter or lard, pack solidly into cup with a spoon. RULES FOR WORKING 23 8. A heaping teaspoon or cup means all it will hold. 9. A scant teaspoon or cup is a little less than level measure. Fig. 4. Measuring: J^ c. liquid, 1 c. dry, J^ tbsp. dry, H tsp. dry, tbsp. butter. 24 DOMESTIC SCIENCE RULES FOR WORKING 1. Wash your hands with soap and water and scrub and clean your nails. If you handle anything not clean, wash your hands again. 2. Have your hair neatly fastened back. 3. Wear no jewelry. 4. Wear a wash dress, if available. 5. Never dry dishes with a hand towel or an apron. 6. Never taste with the mixing spoon. 7. See that gas or oven will be ready for use at the time it is needed. 8. In beginning work collect all necessary material and utensils, also provide a utility plate on which to lay sticky knives, etc. 9. Save dishes by measuring dry material first, then liquid, and lastly fats. 10. Break eggs separately in a cup or saucer, to be sure they are fresh. 11. Save a little milk to rinse the bowl in which the eggs are beaten. 12. Tin dishes and iron spoons will discolor batters; so use earthen dishes and wooden spoons. 13. Do not let vinegar or lemon juice stand in a tin cup or dish. 14. Clean up your work and put egg and batter dishes to soak as soon as empty. 15. Stand egg beaters in cold water, but take care not to wet the cogs. 16. Stir and beat with a tablespoon or mixing spoon, never with a teaspoon. 17. Hang a piece of paper on the oven door when the oven is in use, to remind you of the baking. RULES FOR WORKING 25 RULES FOR WASHING DISHES AND FOR CARE OF UTENSILS Preparations. — 1. Collect all dishes to be washed; scrape, clean, and pile like dishes together. 2. Soak dishes that have contained dough, batter, eggs, or starch in cold water; those soiled by sugar, in hot water. 3. Prepare two pans of good hot water. Use one for rinsing and one for washing dishes. 4. Wipe out all greasy pans with paper and put paper in the garbage can or stove. 5. Remove the hot-plate board from the table and place on the stove, providing a clean, dry place clear for clean dishes. 6. Serviceable towels for drying dishes are made by hemming flour sacks. Glass toweling or linen crash absorbs moisture readily. A good dishcloth should not be too large and should be sweet and clean. Have one for china and one for kitchen dishes. Instructions for Washing. — 1. Put glasses into hot water sidewise to prevent uneven expansion of glass, which breaks them. 2. Glass and silver ware are brighter if wiped directly from clean, hot suds. Do not rinse. 3. Wash cut glass in warm water and dry carefully. A sudden change of temperature breaks cut glass. . 4. Rinse all dishes, except glasses, in clean, hot water, and wipe quickly with a clean, dry towel. 5. Do not put bone or wooden knife or fork handles in water. Wipe with a wet cloth and then dry them. 6. Scour kitchen knives and forks with bath brick or sapolio and then wash and rinse well. 7. Scrape rolling pin and molding board and wipe off with a wet cloth. Do not use much water on either. 26 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 8. Do not wet the cogs of egg beaters. 9. Wash the teapot and the coffeepot clean with hot water, wipe dry, clean spout carefully, and leave with covers open. 10. Get clean water several times during the washing process. 11. Wash the dish pan thoroughly, rinse, and wipe dry. 12. Rinse out the dishcloth and towels and hang in the air and sun to dry. APPLICATION 1. Practice measuring, both liquids and dry materials. 2. Learn to know sections on measuring cup. 3. Wash dishes. 4. Do general housekeeping work,— sweeping, caring for sink, stoves, pantry, etc. LESSON 2 HEAT, COMBUSTION, FUEL Carbon. — All vegetable and animal matter contains carbon. This can be easily shown by simple experiments : — 1. Heat a little sugar in a test tube over a gas flame. What does the heat do? What is left? 2. Heat a little starch in a test tube over a gas flame. 3. Heat a tiny piece of meat in a test tube over a gas flame. 4. Hold a cold plate for a moment over the red part of the gas flame, over a lighted lamp, or in the red flame of a coal or wood fire. In like manner, any organic substance may be heated to a black char, which is mostly carbon. How is charcoal made? Animals get the carbon of their bodies from plants, which in turn get it from the air. Animals breathe in the pure air and give ofi^ impure air containing carbon dioxide gas. The plants take up this gas through their leaves and stems, and by the aid of water and the energy from the sun the carbon is manufactured into sugar, starch, and cellu- lose in the plant fiber. When carbon burns, it again liber- ates the sun's energy. Heat is natural or artificial. Sunlight gives natural heat; fire, artificial heat. The sun is the source of all energy. Experiments Illustrating Burning. — 1. Light a short candle, place it on the table, and watch it burn. 28 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 2. Turn a tumbler over it and see what happens. 3. Turn a chimney over the Ugh ted candle, raising the chimney a little from the table. Then cover the top of the chimney and see if there is any change. 4. Light a small piece of paper, and uncovering the top of the chimney quickly drop in the lighted paper. What happens? What do these experiments indicate? What element in air is necessary to a burning candle? 5. Clean two half-pint milk bottles. Insert a lighted paper into one of the bottles and then cover. Pour a little clear lime water into the bottle. Is there any change in the clearness of the lime water? 6. Breathe into fresh lime water in the second bottle, through a straw. Is the result similar to that of Exp. 5? Clear lime water turns milky when carbon dioxide gas mixes with it. Is any of this gas present in Exneriments 5 and 6? If so, explain where it came from. Things Essential for a Fire. — Three things are essen- tial for fire (1) air (oxygen), (2) fuel, and (3) a means of raising- the temperature to the kindling point. Oxidation (Combustion). — Oxygen unites readily with many other elements, and the process is called oxidation. When this takes place so rapidly that heat and light are produced as in fire, we call it combustion. It may also go on very slowly, yet the results are the same. Food is oxidized slowly in every living cell of the body, giving heat and the energy to do work. The Kindling Point. — By the kindling point of a sub- stance we mean the lowest temperature at which it burns, or unites with oxygen. Fuels differ as to this temperature, some having a much lower kindling point than others. For this reason, matches, paper, and wood burn more HEAT, COMBUS^TION, FUEL 29 readily than coal. The phosphorus of the match is ignited by the friction of striking, and burns. This in turn is used to ignite larger pieces of wood which have a higher kindling point. In the making of a coal fire, wood is used to raise the temperature high enough to ignite the coal. Products of Combustion. — The most common products of combustion are steam, carbon dioxide gas, smoke, soot, and ashes. In incomplete combustion a gas is formed, called carbon monoxide, which is very harmful to breathe. The carbon that is not burned passes off as smoke and soot. Soot contains some oily substances and sticks to cooking utensils and to the chimney and should be removed often. When allowed to accumulate in the chimney, soot is apt to cause fires. FUELS The most common fuels are wood, coal, kerosene, and gas. Being of vegetable origin, they all contain carbon. Wood is either hard or soft. Soft wood kindles quickly and produces a quick fire but which is of short duration. Pine and birch are soft wood. Hard wood burns more slowly, but a fire of hard wood keeps longer than one of soft wood. Oak and maple are examples of hard wood. Coal is of many kinds and is all formed from ancient vegetation which has been buried deep in the earth for a long time and subjected to a high degree of heat and pres- sure. Coal has a higher kindling point than wood, burns with a strong, steady heat for a long time, and holds fire much longer than the hardest wood. Kerosene, or coal oil, is prepared from petroleum and is used in stoves made especially for it. It is a cheap fuel and is safe if a good grade is used and care taken to keep the stove clean and in good condition. 30 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Gas is either natural or manufactured. Both are ex- cellent for fuel. Natural gas is cheap and can best be used only in localities where it is found. Manufactured gas is made from coal, petroleum, oil, wood, or peat, and is a clean fuel. In most cities where such gas is used it is cheaper than wood or coal. Gasoline is very inflammable and not safe to use in homes and schools. THE COAL RANGE Fire is used by all people as a means of preparing food. Many forms of cooking arrangements have been adopted, from the primitive camp fire, the grate fire and stove, to the coal range and the gas and electric appliances of modern times. Stoves differ widely in construction, yet all have the same essential parts, and in all the same principles apply. Study the stoves at school and at home and compare them. Parts of coal range to be studied are : — Fire box, which contains the fuel. Grate, or floor of the fire box. It is made in two parts, and may be opened. Dampers, which are (1) creative and (2) check, to con- trol the draft, (3) chimney and (4) oven, to direct the hot air currents. Ovens, used for baking food. Top, with covers of various sizes for surface cooking. Ash pan, for ashes and clinkers. Stovepipe, to carry off smoke and other products of combustion, and to afford a draft. To lay a fire: 1. Have fire box free of ashes. 2. Remove covers from the covers over the fire box. 3. Place pieces of twisted paper or shavings crosswise in fire box. HEAT, COMBUSTION, FUEL 31 4. Place a few pieces of soft wood and a couple of pieces of hard wood on top. 5. Put on a shovelful of coal. 6. Close top of stove before applying match. To start a fire: 1. Open lower and chimney dampers. 2. Apply lighted match underneath to twisted papers. 3. When the fire has a good start, add more fuel. 4. Never fill the box more than two-thirds full. Fig. 5. A ransie, showing how the oven is heated. The purpose of dampers is to control the air currents, — to direct them and to make them liotter or not so hot. (Court33y Kalamazoo .Stove Company.) To regulate a fire: For a hot fire, open the creative and chimney dampers. Close oven damper. As soon as coal burns red on top, add more coal. When coal is red under- neath and black on top, close dampers. To heat the oven, open oven and chimney dampers and close others. This forces the hot air current around the oven and out the back of the range to the chimney. 32 DOMESTIC SCIENCE If the oven bakes too hard on bottom, open the slide in front of and below the grate. If the oven bakes too hard on top, lift a cover slightly from the top of the fire box. To hold afire, fill fire box with coal, close all dampers, open check half way. The check is in front of and above the fire box, and causes a current of air to pass over the fire instead of through it, thereby checking oxidation. General Care of the Coal Range. — 1. Clean oven flue once a month when in constant use. The accumulation of fine ashes prevents free circulation of hot air, besides absorbing heat. 2. Clinkers, egg shells, etc., should be avoided in the fire box. Put shells in only when the fire is burning freely. 3. Do not allow coal to reach the top of box. It reddens the covers and causes them to warp. 4. Empty the ash pan regularly and do not let it over- flow. An overflowing ash pan hinders the draft of air as well as makes extra work. 5. Keep the stove clean. Brush off at once anything that is spilled over it or in the oven. 6. A cloth with a few drops of kerosene on it rubbed over the stove when cold will keep it from rusting and is sufficient to keep the stove in good condition. 7. If a polish is preferred, select one of good quality, moisten a small quantity with water, and apply sparingly with a brush, just as the stove is warming up. A study of fuels, — wood and coal, with varieties of each, cost, and suitability, — may be taken up in this connection. THE GAS RANGE Gas ranges differ in construction as widely as coal ranges, but all are built on practically the same general plan. Study gas ranges at home and at school and compare. . HEAT, COMBUSTION, FUEL 33 The parts of a gas range that should receive attention are: The main pipe, which leads the gas into the range. It has a shut off. Locate it. The oven, for baking. This is regulated by gas stop- cocks. It is sometimes controlled by a pilot light, some- times by direct action. Explain. The broiling oven and toaster. The gas flow for these is controlled by gas cocks. Top burners, for surface cooking. Each has a separate cock. Locate the cock for each burner. The simmering burner, a small burner on top. The stove pipe, a connection of range to chimney to carry off smoke and gas. To light the gas burners: See that the main stopcock is open. This may be left open from day to day, but should be closed when gas is not used, as in vacations or when mak- ing repairs. Light the match, open the cock of the burner you wish to light, and apply match to burner. If it "fires back," close gascock, and open again to permit the flow of gas through the cock for a moment to drive out the air. Close again and then relight as before. Each burner has an air regulator, which should be adjusted to the air pressure in the city where it is used. The flame should burn blue; if the flame is yellow, adjust air flow at once. Caution: In discontinuing use, always see that all stop- cocks are shut off tight. To light the gas oven: Open the oven doors. If a pilot-light, turn on the pilot and apply lighted match through hole for that purpose in the side of the oven. When lighted, turn on first one gas cock in the oven and then the other. — s 34 DOMESTIC SCIENCE See that the entire coil burns with a blue flame. If a direct action, apply lighted match directly to the coil as cock is turned on, always with oven doors open. Bad explosions often occur if one fails to observe these directions. To regulate the fire and save gas : As soon as a kettle boils, turn down the gas enough to just keep contents boiling. If the gas is turned too high, the yellow flame will blacken the kettle. A blue flame is clean. Use sim- merer instead of a large burner, when long, slow cooking is needed or to hold warmth. In heating the oven, light gas a few minutes before the dish is ready to go in, to insure heat; then reduce the flame to hold the heat. Turn off the gas entirely a few minutes before removing baking from oven, since the oven retains enough heat to finish the cooking, and the extra gas would be a waste. Care of the Gas Range. — 1. Keep air holes clean. 2. Wipe off sheet iron under top burners clean when through cooking each day. 3. If anything is spilled on the stove, wipe off imme- diately. 4. Rub daily with cloth containing a few drops of kero- sene, to keep black and clean and free from rust. THE ELECTRIC STOVE Electric stoves are not very commonly used, but are cleaner and more convenient than the gas stove. They are more expensive to operate, however, on account of the high rate of the electricity consumed. Electric stoves vary in size and construction. HEAT, COMBISTTON, FUEL 35 The parts of an electric stove are : — Electric coils, placed under the covers and around the oven. These become red hot when the current is turned on. The oven, for baking. Electric attachment, where the stove is connected with current. A switch button is used as with electric lights. Electric Appliances. — There are various appliances for cooking food by means of electricity; as, toasters, chafing dishes, percolators, and combination cookers. These may be attached to any light connection in a minute's time, are very convenient, moderate in first cost, but comparatively expensive of use. OIL STOVES Kerosene is used to a large extent in country homes and summer residences where gas is not available. Good, vaporized blue-flame kerosene stoves give satisfaction and are quite safe when placed where there is no draft. The parts of oil stove to be studied are : — The tank, for oil. Several lamps, each consisting of a chamber for oil and wicks, which need daily care, and cylinders, which carry the heat to the burner above. Care of oil stoves: — 1. Clean wicks and cylinders every day. See that the tank for oil is refilled and never allowed to run dry. 2. Wipe off surface of stove and keep perfectly clean. FIRELESS COOKERS Fireless cookers are made from a variety of materials, but all have the same underlying principle of operation. Construction, — Fireless cookers consist of a covered box lined with tin or zinc; packing, usually felt or excelsior, or any material that is a non-conductor of heat; food chambers. 30 DOMESTIC SCIENCE for cooking; and radiators, consisting of iron or stone discs, which are heated and placed under and over the dish con- taining the food to be cooked. The efficiency of the cooker depends largely upon how nearly the packing is a non-con- ductor of heat. Care of fireless cookers: 1. Keep all parts clean and dry. 2. Keep cooker tightly fastened when in use. 3. Air out frequently to keep sweet and clean. APPLICATION 1. Practice laying a fire in the range. 2. Practice lighting gas burners, gas ovens, and the water heater. 3. Baked Potatoes Method. — Select smooth, medium-sized potatoes. Wash well with a small vegetable brush kept for the purpose. Bake in a hot oven about 45 minutes or until done. This may be determined by testing with a fork. Break the skins to let the steam escape, and serve at once. If baked potatoes stand they become soggy. 4. Stuffed Potatoes 6 medium-sized potatoes, baked 4 tbsp. hot milk 2 tbsp. butter 2 egg whites l^ tsp. salt Pepper Method. — Cut the end from each baked potato, or cut in half lengthwise, scrape out the inside with a fork, and mash the center with a fork. Season it with the salt, pepper, butter and milk. Add the beaten white, reserving part of it for the top. Fill the skins with the mixture, brush over the top with the egg and return to the oven until browned. Grated cheese may be sprinkled on the top for a change. Minced meat may be added to the potato. Ham or chicken would be good. (Basis for 2 girls, 1 potato.) LESSON 3 COOKING. CARBOHYDRATES— POTATOES Cooking is the application of heat to food to prepare it for eating. Reasons for Cooking. — Food is cooked for any or all of the following reasons: — 1. To make it more easily chewed and digested. 2. To improve its flavor and appearance. 3. To kill any germs and parasites it may contain. Methods of Cooking. — The method to be used in cook- ing a food depends, among other things, upon (a) the nature of the food and (b) whether it is desired to extract, partially extract, or retain the juices. The heat is applied in a variety of ways: by (1) radiation, (2) hot water or steam, (3) hot fat, (4) hot metal, and by combinations of these. 1. Boiling is cooking in boiling water. In this case the cooking water is usually drained off and not used. 2. Stewing is long, slow cooking in water below the boiling point. The pot is tightly covered, and the enclosed steam assists in the cooking. The liquids are usually served with the dish as gravy or are made into soup. 3. Steaming is cooking by either moist steam, as in a steamer over boiling water, or by dry steam, as in a double boiler. 4. Roasting\ In the olden days meats, especially, 5. Broiling /were commonly cooked in the direct heat of a glowing fire or over a bed of coals. Small pieces were broiled and larger ones roasted, a tin reflector being used for the latter. (37) 38 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 6. Pan broiling is cooking in a hot frying pan. It is used when it is not convenient to broil directly over the fire. 7. Baking is cooking in an oven. It is quite the same as roasting and broiling, which it has superseded. Batters, doughs, and vegetables are usually spoken of as baked in an oven, and meats as roasted. 8. Pan baking is cooking on a hot griddle, as pancakes are cooked. 9. Frying is cooking by dipping or immersing in hot fat. Fat, unlike water, will heat to a temperature of 500° or greater. Doughnuts, fish, and potatoes are foods com- monly fried. 10. Santeing is cooking in a small amount of hot fat. Omelets and hashed browned potatoes are sauted. 11. Braising is cooking in a small amount of water or stock in a covered dish in an oven. It is a combination of stewing and baking. 12. Fricasseeing is a combination of frying and stewing. STARCH Starch, in prepared form, is a fine white powder, con- sisting of tiny starch grains. It is a carbohydrate. Source. — It is found in the vegetable world and is most abundant in the cereals, tapioca, potatoes, and other vegetable products. Starch is not formed in the animal body. Food Value. — Starch gives heat and energy to the body but does not build or repair tissues, and when used alone it cannot sustain life; it must be used with tissue-forming foods. Starch must be changed to sugar by digestion before it can be used in the body. Test for Starch. — Iodine turns starch a deep blue. (Demonstrate.) CARBOHYDRA TE^—PO TA TOES 39 Use. — Starch in the prepared form is used to thicken liquids and sauces. Starch Experiments. — 1. Put a tsp. of starch in a glass containing 3^ c. of water. Watch it. What happens? 2. Mix 1 tsp. of starch with 3^ c. cold water to form a paste. Add 3^ c. boiling water. See what happens. 3. Pour }/2 c. boiling water over 1 tsp. of starch, with- out first mixing cold water. What happens? Break one of the lumps. 4. Mix starch grains with melted butter; add boiling water. 5 . Mix starch with granulated sugar ; add boiling water. Compare results of experiments and draw conclusions. Fig. 6. Effect of cooking on starch: a, cells of a raw potato, showing starch grains and framework; b, cells of a partially cooked potato; c, cells of a thor- oughly boiled potato. (Hutchison.) The Cooking of Starch. — Heat and moisture are needed to soften starch. Starch grains must be separated in some way before boiling water is added. Starch needs long, thorough cooking and a high tem- perature to make it easier to digest. 40 DOMESTIC SCIENCE POTATOES (Irish, or White) A potato is an enlargement of an underground stem. It is a storehouse of starch, which furnishes food for the young plants. Composition. — Potatoes contain — Water, about ^ their weight. For this reason they may be baked, since they contain enough water to soften the starch. Starch, about 1/5 their weight. Protein, about 2.5 per cent. Cellulose, which forms the walls of the cells. Mineral matter, which is mainly potash salts. What food principle is wholly lacking? Which is defi- cient in amount? Structure. — The potato is made up of cells with thin walls of fiber, and these cells contain starch grains and water. Surrounding the mass of starch cells and just beneath the skin is a layer of nutritious mineral matter and protein material. This is wasted if the potato is peeled too thickly. Manner of Growth. — Potatoes are grown from cuttings, each cutting planted producing several tubers beneath the soil. They are best when fully matured; those immature are soggy when cooked. Large potatoes are likely to be hollow at the center. Care in Storage. — Potatoes should be kept in a cool, dark, dry place. Do not let potatoes sprout. The sprouts use moisture and starch from the potato, and thus decrease its value for the table. Food Value. — Owing to their large content of starch, potatoes are excellent as heat and energy producers. Pota- toes are healthful and are easily and thoroughly digested. They furnish 12.5 per cent of the average American diet. CARBOHYDRATE^^— POTATOES 41 Rules for Paring Potatoes. — 1. Always pare potatoes thinly. 2. Remove sprouts and eyes with the point of a knife. 3. Drop potatoes in cold water as soon as they are peeled, but allow them to soak as little as possible. Explain why. 4. Soak old potatoes in cold water an hour before cooking, to restore part of their freshness. Points on Cooking Potatoes. — 1. Drop potatoes into boiling water to cook, not into cold water. Why? 2. Too vigorous boiling tears the outside of the pota- toes before the inside is cooked. 3. Pour off all the water when the potatoes are tender and let them stand uncovered. Why? 4. Baking potatoes and boiling them with the skins on are the most economical methods of cooking them. There is less loss of nutrients and flavor than with any other method. The Sweet Potato. — The sweet potato, which is an enlarged root, is a warm-climate plant and is grown in the United States as far north as New Jersey. It is about as common an article of food in the South as the white potato is in the North. While the sweet potato is somewhat higher in food value than the white, it may be regarded and treated similarly. It contains about 26 per cent of starch and sugar, of which 10 per cent is sugar. It also has about 69 per cent water and 1.3 per cent cellulose, requiring a longer time for cook- ing. Yams are the tropical substitute for the potato. These roots are larger, similar in structure, but coarser and less palatable, than either the white or the sweet potato. 42 DOMESTIC SCIENCE APPLICATION 1. Test the potato for starch with iodine. 2. Test for simmering point and boiling point of water. Is the temperature increased by more rapid boiHng? 3. Boiled Potatoes Method. — Select potatoes that are smooth and of uni- form size. Wash and pare them. Cook them in boiling salted water until soft. Test with a fork; if it withdraws easily, the potatoes are done. Allow one tablespoonful of salt to every seven potatoes and enough water to cover. Drain off the water and let stand uncovered in a warm place until served. Serve hot. Potatoes may also be scrubbed well and boiled with the skins on. {Basis for 2 girls, 1 potato.) 4. Riced Potatoes Method. — Put boiled potatoes through a hot potato ricer and serve at once. Do not pack or mash in putting into the serving dish. 5. Mashed Potatoes 2 tbsp. butter 4 tbsp. hot milk 6 boiled potatoes 3^2 tsp. salt Pepper Method. — Mash the boiled potatoes with a potato masher or a fork until soft, add the butter, salt, pepper, and the milk, and beat all until light and foamy. Serve piled lightly in a hot serving-dish. 6. Sweet Potatoes Method. — Cook sweet potatoes with the skins on. They may also be mashed, riced, or baked. 7. Potato Cakes Method. — Press cold mashed potatoes into small round cakes about 3^ inch thick. Brush over with milk, and saute them in butter until a rich brown on both sides. CARBOHYDRATES— POTATOES 43 8. Creamed Potatoes 1 c. cooked potatoes 3^ c. medium white sauce 1 tbsp. finely chopped parsley Method. — Cut the boiled potatoes in half-inch cubes. Make a medium white sauce according to first method in Lesson 4, and combine with the potatoes while hot. Add the finely cut parsley and serve. 9. Au Gratin Potatoes 1 c. boiled potatoes J^ c. buttered crumbs 3^2 c. medium white sauce Method. — Cut the boiled potatoes in half-inch cubes; put a layer of potatoes in a buttered baking dish, and cover with half of the white sauce ; then add the rest of the pota- toes, the rest of the white sauce, and lastly the buttered crumbs. Allow 1 tbsp. of butter to each 34 c. of crumbs. Bake in the oven until the top is nicely browned. 10. Delmonico Potatoes Add a layer of grated cheese to the top of Au Gratin Potatoes before adding the crumbs, and bake the same as Au Gratin. 11. Glazed Sweet Potatoes Method. — Wash and pare 6 medium-sized sweet potatoes. Cook in boiling salted water 10 minutes. Drain, cut in halves, lengthwise, and put into a buttered baking dish. Make a sirup by boiling 3^ c. sugar with 4 tbsp. of water 3 min., then add 1 tbsp. of butter. Brush the potatoes with the sirup, and bake 10 to 15 minutes until tender. Baste the potatoes with the sirup once or twice while baking. 12. Baked Sweet Potatoes Prepare and bake the same as white potatoes. LESSON 4 CARBOHYDRATES— VEGETABLES Vegetables include most of the plants used for food with the exception of grains and fruits. Classes of Vegetables. — Different parts of vegetable plants are used for food, and these may be arranged in classes as follows: — Tubers, or the enlargements of underground stems; ex- amples, white potato, artichoke. Roots; examples, sweet potato, beet, carrot, radish, parsnip, turnip, oyster plant. Bulbs; examples, onion, garlic. Stems; examples, asparagus, celery, chives. Leaves; examples, lettuce, spinach, water cress, cab- bage, and greens. Flowers; example, cauliflower. Fruits; examples, corn,* pea, bean, tomato, squash, cucumber, and eggplant. Composition. — The edible portion of most vegetables is a storehouse of nutriment that the plant has laid up either for its own later use or for the benefit of the seedling, or young plant. Thus the radish uses the food in the enlarged root to produce a seed stalk, and the young bean and grain plants use the nutriment in the seed to get a growing start in the soil. Legumes are a class of plants that have the power to take nitrogen from the air and make it into a form that is available to man. They include peas, beans, lentils, and *The term "fruit" here includes seeds. (44) CARBOHYDRA TE.^— VEGETABLES 45 peanuts. Legumes contain from 18 to 25 per cent protein, mostly in the form of legumin. In European countries, they are used to a great extent in place of meat, which is there very expensive'. The Composition of Vegetables Food material (as pur- chased) Refuse Water Pro- tein Fats Car- bohy- drates Ash, Fuel value per lb. Vegetables : Beans, dried Beans, Lima, shelled . . . . Beans, string Beets Cabbage Celery Corn, green (sweet), edi- ble portion Cucumbers Lettuce Mushrooms Onions Parsnips Peas, dried Peas, shelled Cowpeas, dried Potatoes Rhubarb Sweet potatoes Spinach Squash . Tomatoes Turnips Vegetables, canned Baked beans Peas, green Corn, green Succotash Tomatoes 7.0 20.0 15.0 20.0 15.0 15.0 10.0 20.0 20.0 40.0 20.0 50.0 30.0 % 12.6 68.5 83.0 70.0 77.7 75.6 75.4 81.1 80.5 88.1 78.9 66.4 9.5 74.6 13.0 62.6 56.6 55.2 92.3 44.2 94.3 62.7 68.9 85.3 76.1 75.9 94.0 % 22.5 7.1 2.1 1.3 1.4 .9 3.1 .7 1.0 3.5 1.4 1.3 24.6 7.0 21.4 1.8 .4 1.4 2.1 .7 .9 .9 6.9 3.6 2.8 3.6 1.2 % 1.8 .7 .3 .1 .2 .1 1.1 .2 .2 .4 .3 .4 1.0 0.5 1.4 .1 .4 .6 .3 .2 .4 .1 2.5 .2 1.2 1.0 .2 % 59.6 22.0 6.9 7.7 4.8 2.6 19.7 2.6 2.5 6.8 8.9 10.8 62.0 16.9 60.8 14.7 2.2 21.9 3.2 4.5 3.9 5.7 19.6 9.8 19.0 18.6 4.0 % 3.5 1.7 .7 .9 .9 .7 .4 .8 1.2 .5 1.1 2.9 1.0 3.4 .8 .4 .9 2.1 .4 .5 .6 2.1 1.1 .9 .9 .6 calories 1,520 540 170 160 115 65 440 65 65 185 190 230 1,565 440 1,505 295 60 440 95 100 100 120 555 235 430 425 95 The leaves of plants are the means by which the plant breathes in carbon dioxide and gives out oxygen, and they contain very little nourishment. It is here that sugar and 46 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Starch are largely manufactured, to be then carried to other parts of the plant for growth or for storage. Greens, which are chiefly the leaves and stems of plants, consist largely of water, with much cellulose, considerable mineral salts, and comparatively small amounts of protein, starch and sugar. Food Value. — All vegetables are of value in the diet for their mineral salts, some furnish considerable carbohydrates, and a few furnish, in addition, protein. All contain a large amount of water and indigestible material. For this reason they are suitable to eat with concentrated foods, such as meat and eggs. The cellulose, a fibrous, woody, indigestible substance, is important because it gives bulk to our food. This bulk is necessary to stimulate the flow of digestive juices and to promote the movement of food along the digestive tract. Many greens should be eaten raw, since mineral salts are lost in the water in cooking, and the cellulose is best eaten crisp. The legumes have a high food value and are classed with meat and cheese as a tissue-building food, since they contain such a large percentage of protein. The digesti- bility of food is an important factor in determining food value, for unless a food is available to the body it cannot serve the full purpose of food. Vegetables with hard cellulose fiber require long, slow cooking to soften the cellu- lose walls and to cook sufficiently the starch and protein. Some, like cabbage, are more digestible eaten raw. Vegetable protein, being surrounded by cellulose walls, is not so completely digested as animal protein, and can not be counted on to build as much tissue as the same amount of animal protein. Dried beans and peas are usually sold at a comparatively low price, and are among the most eco- nomical sources of both protein and energy. CARBOHYDRATES— VEGETABLES 47 Selection of Vegetables. — Select vegetables in season — they are less expensive then, and of better quality. Select medium -sized vegetables, for large ones are likely to be old and tough, requiring longer cooking. See that they are fresh ; green vegetables are crisp. Care of Vegetables. — Keep winter vegetables in a cool, dark, dry place, and exclude air if possible. Why is this necessary? Keep green vegetables on ice until ready to use. Cook summer vegetables as soon after they are gath- ered as possible, in order to preserve the flavor. Rules for Preparing Vegetables. — 1. Wash all vege- tables in cold water. It is a good plan to keep a small brush for this purpose. 2. Let wilted vegetables soak in cold water to freshen them. 3. Soak dried vegetables in cold water. 4. Empty all canned vegetables from the can as soon as opened. Drain off the liquor and rinse peas and beans. Rules for Cooking Vegetables. — 1. Cook vegetables whole when practical, using enough water to cover. 2. Use vegetable water for flavoring purposes, since it contains some nutritive substances. 3. Keep the water boiling. 4. Cook green vegetables uncovered , to retain their color. 5. Cook vegetables with strong odors, such as cabbage, onions, and turnips, uncovered. 6. Change the water several times during the cooking. 7. Allow 2 tbsp. of salt to 1 qt. of water. 8. The time for cooking vegetables depends on the kind, size, and age of the vegetables, and one must use judg- ment rather than depend on a time table to tell when the vegetables are done. 48 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 9. Vegetables are served with butter, salt and pepper, or with a medium white sauce. Time Table Guide for Cooking Asparagus 30 to 45 min. Beans, (string) 1 to 2 hr. Beans, (lima) 1 to 13^ hr. Beets 1 hr. Cabbage 3^ hr. Cauhflower 3^ hr. Carrots 30 to 40 min. Corn (green) 15 to 20 min. Onions 40 to 60 min. Parsnips 1 to 2 hr. Potatoes 20 to 40 min. Peas 30 to 40 min. Spinach 20 to 30 min. Squash (summer) 30 to 45 min. Turnips 40 to 60 min. white sauces 1. Thin White Sauce 2 tbsp. butter 1 tbsp. flour to 1 c. milk }4 tsp. salt Dash pepper This is used for cream soups and scalloped dishes. 2. Medium White Sauce 2 tbsp. butter 2 tbsp. flour to 1 c. milk 14 tsp. salt, dash of pepper This is used for creamed vegetables, fish, meat, and cream toast. 3. Thick White Sauce 2 tbsp. butter 4 tbsp. flour to 1 c. milk 34 tsp. salt; dash of pepper This is used for binding materials in croquettes. Three Methods of Making White Sauce.— 1. Melt the butter but do not brown, add the flour and seasoning, and stir until smooth. Add the milk slowly, stirring con- stantly until all is added and is perfectly smooth. Let it boil up once to thoroughly cook the starch in the flour. 2. Mix the flour with an equal quantity of cold water or milk until smooth, and then add enough more milk to CARBOHYDRATES— VEGETABLES 49 make it pour easily. Heat the remainder of the milk in a double boiler, and when hot add the flour mixture gradually, stirring all the time until the mixture thickens. Add the butter and seasoning. This method takes longer (15 min.). 3. Cream the butter, add the flour and seasonings and stir until all is well mixed. Scald the milk and pour slowly over the butter and flour, stirring all the time. APPLICATION 1. Boiled Carrots Method. — Wash, scrape, and cut carrots in half-inch cubes or slices. Cook in boiling water until soft. Drain and season with salt and pepper. Serve with a medium white sauce. Method No. 1. (Basis for two, 14 ^- "white sauce.) 2. Boiled and creamed turnips, onions, or potatoes are prepared in the same manner as boiled carrots. 3. Boiled Beets Method. — Select small young beets. Wash, and cook them in boiling salted water without peeling, until tender, — about one hour. When done, put in cold water and rub off the skins. Slice them and serve with salt, pepper, but- ter, and vinegar. 4. Corn on the Cob Method. — Remove the husks and silk from the ears. Cook the corn in salted boiling water for 10 minutes. Drain well. Serve hot. 5. Cauliflower and Tomatoes Method. — Soak the cauliflower in cold water, head down, for 3^ hour. Cook in boiling salted water for 3^ hour. Drain, and place the head on a hot serving dish. Serve with Tomato Sauce. 50 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Tomato Sauce 2 tbsp. butter }/2 tsp. salt 2 tbsp. flour I c. strained tomato Pepper Method. — Make according to white sauce using the strained tomato in place of milk. Or use half tomato and half milk, and add a speck of soda to keep it from curdling. 6. Creole Green Corn 6 ears corn 2 ripe tomatoes 1 tbsp. olive oil H tsp. salt 1 small onion Dash red pepper 2 sweet peppers 1 tsp. of sugar Method. — Cut corn from the cob, and put into a frying pan with olive oil. Cook for 10 or 12 minutes, add the chopped sweet pepper and the onion, then the chopped ripe tomatoes, salt, sugar, and dash of red pepper. Cook a few minutes and then serve. 7. Corn and Pimentos 1 can corn 2 tsp. butter 3 chopped pimentos Salt and pepper Method. — Put corn and chopped pimentos in frying pan with butter and cook a long time until very thick. Green peppers can also be used. 8. Baked Beans 1 qt. beans 1 tsp. soda 1 hp. tsp. salt 1 tsp. mustard 1 tsp. ginger 2 tbsp. N. O. molasses }/2 lb. sliced bacon Method. — Soak beans over night. In morning scald in hot soda water, drain, add fresh water, and cook 15 minutes. Pour off the water, add the other ingredients, cover with fresh water, and bake in covered jar 4 or 5 hours. Remove the cover the last half hour. 9. Stuffed Tomatoes 6 medium-sized tomatoes 2 tbsp. melted butter 1 c. soft bread crumbs 1 tsp. salt 1-16 tsp. pepper CARBOHYDRATES— VEGETABLES 51 Method. — Wash tomatoes. Cut a thin sUce from the stem end of each. Take out seeds and pulp and drain off most of the Hquid. Mix the crumbs, butter, and seasoning and add to the tomato pulp. Sprinkle the inside of the tomato with salt and pepper. Refill the tomatoes with the mixture ; replace the tops. Place in a buttered pan. Sprin- kle with buttered crumbs, bake 20 minutes in a hot oven. Chopped meat, oysters, green peppers, sweet corn, mushrooms, or celery may be added to the stuffing. (Basis for 2 girls, ^ rule.) 10. Fresh Peas Method. — Shell peas just before using, look them over carefully and put in a kettle containing enough boiling water to cover. Boil slowly until tender. Add butter, salt and pepper, and serve hot. 11. Canned Peas Method. — Canned peas should be opened at least one hour before using. The air helps to restore to them their natural flavor. Turn out of the can as soon as opened, drain off the liquid, and add fresh water. Cook in a sauce- pan, with 1 tbsp. of butter and salt and pepper to taste, for 5 minutes, when, if of good quality, they will be done. Peas and carrots make a nice combination. 12. Eggplant Method. — Two hours before time for cooking, peel and slice the eggplant quite thin, sprinkle each slice with salt, lay slices together and place a plate on top. The salt draws out the disagreeable flavor. Before cooking wipe each piece dry, dip in beaten egg, then in finely sifted cracker or bread crumbs, and fry in plenty of hot fat. Drain on a piece of brown wrapping paper to absorb the fat, and keep in a warm place until ready to serve. Serve on a hot plat- ter, the slices overlapping one another. LESSON 5 CARBOHYDRATES— CEREALS. RICE Cereals, or grains, are grasses the seeds of which are used for food. They are the most important of vegetable foods. Kinds. — There are many kinds, but the most com- monly used are wheat, rice, rye, oats, Indian corn, and barley. From these are prepared the various breakfast foods found on the market. Name some. Composition. — Cereals for the most part contain all the food principles, but not in the right proportions. All contain much starch, considerable protein, and some woody fiber, with very little water; so they require long cooking. Composition of Cereals Oatmeal Corn meal Wheat flour (spring) . Wheat flour (winter) Entire wheat flour. . Graham flour Pearl barley Rye meal Rice Buckwheat flour Macaroni Protein Fat Starch Mineral matter 15.6 7.3 68.0 1.9 8.9 2.2 75.1 0.9 11.8 1.1 75.0 0.5 10.4 1.0 75.6 0.5 14.2 1.9 70.6 1.2 13.7 2.2 70.3 2.0 9.3 1.0 77.6 1.3 7.1 0.9 78.5 0.8 7.8 0.4 79.4 0.4 6.1 1.0 77.2 1.4 11.7 1.6 72.9 3.0 Water 7.2 12.9 11.6 12.5 12.1 11.8 10.8 12.7 12.4 14.3 10.8 Structure. — Most grains are covered with an outer husk of hard, indigestible fiber. This is removed either in the threshing process or in milling. Underneath this coat are (52) CARBOHYDRATES— CEREALS. RICE 53 the bran coats, which are rich in mineral matter and are sometimes removed with the husk. The rest of the kernel consists of the germ, which is the vital or living part of the grain, surrounded by a large food supply of starch and pro- tein. The germ is rich in fat and other nutrients. Food Value. — Cereals, containing much starch, are val- uable as heat and energy producers, and at the same time most cereals build and repair tissues, since they contain nitrogen. The great amount of carbohydrates in all cereals indicates that they should not be eaten alone, but along with other foods richer in fat and protein. On the whole, cereals are well absorbed in the body, ranking in that respect next to, and in some cases even above, the animal foods. This fact, combined with their compactness and richness in nutrients and their abundance and cheapness, places them in the front rank of human food. Wheat breakfast foods are quite similar to graham and whole-wheat flours in composition, and are about equal to them in nutritive value. Oats are sold principally as oatmeal or rolled oats. Oat- meal is richer in food material than some other cereal foods, but, on account of its fiber, is not completely digested. It should be very thoroughly cooked. It is best adapted to strong, hard-working people. Of all cereal foods cornmeal furnishes the largest amount of energy for a given cost. It is less digestible than wheat flour, owing to its coarse nature. Breakfast foods prepared from corn are, at reasonable prices, economical materials. Rice is almost pure starch and, being notably deficient in protein and fat, as compared with wheat and oats, needs to be eaten with cream or butter. Buckwheat and rye are similar to cornmeal as sources of protein and energy, but are more expensive. 54 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Table for Cooking of Cereals Kind Oatmeal Rice Rice Hominy Wheat mixtures Amount 1 C. 1 C. 1 C. 1 C. 1 C. Water Twice as much 4 or 5 times as much 4 or 5 times as much 4 times as much 4 times as much Salt Method 1 tsp. Steam 2 or 3 tsp. Steam 2 or 3 tsp. Boil 1 tsp. Steam 1 tsp. Steam Time 4 to 5 hrs. 2 to 3 hrs. 1 hr. 4 to 5 hrs. 1 to 3 hrs. The prepared breakfast foods give directions and time for cooking on the package, but in most cases longer cook- ing is necessary. How To Cook Cereals. — Cereals are either boiled or steamed. To boil cereals, allow about one tsp. of salt to each cup of cereal, and plenty of water to properly swell the starch grains. Put the water in a saucepan, and when it is boiling stir in the cereal gradually. Keep the water boiling and stir the cereal frequently to prevent the grains from sticking to the bottom. Cereals must be thoroughly cooked; it takes a long time to soften cellulose. Steaming cereals in a double boiler is a better method than boiling, for it insures a more even cooking and re- quires long slow heat. A double boiler consists of two parts: (1) Lower part, which is for the water, and must be about half full, and the water kept boiling. Never let the boiler boil dry. (2) Upper part, in which the food is cooked. Put the cereal, with water and salt, into the upper part, and place in the lower part. Cover all and place over a fire. Steam until properly cooked, adding more water below, also more to the cereal when needed. CARBOHYDRATES— CERE AL8. RICE 55 RICE Rice is a cereal, a native of southeastern Asia, and now- grown in large quantities in China, Japan, Central America, and our Southern states. Cultivation. — Marshy places are necessary for rice cul- tivation, and a system of irrigation or flooding is used. The water is drawn off when the planting is done. When the rice has a good start the water is allo\ved to flood the field to a depth sufficient to keep the top of the rice above the water. The water is drawn off to harvest the rice. Rice is prepared for market much the same as w^heat. It is shocked, stacked, thrashed, and then sent to a hulling mill. Here the coat is separated from the white grain, which is polished. This polishing removes a coat rich in mineral matter; so the finished product is not as rich in minerals or protein. Rice is best when six months old. In China they prefer it three years old. Food Value. — Rice is the lowest in food value of all cereals, for it is almost pure starch. It must therefore be eaten with other forms of food rich in protein and fat in order to supply all the needs of the body. Starch grains are easily digested. Rice is the principal food of one-third of the people of the world. The people in the countries where it grows use it to supply their starchy food as we use the Irish potato. It is in season the year round. Ways of Cooking. — 1. Boiling — like any cereal. 2. Steaming — in milk or w^ater. 3. Boiled rice may be combined with tomatoes or cheese and baked. 4. Rice is used in soups. 5. Rice with eggs makes a good pudding. 56 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Fruit with rice or other cereal adds sugar and flavoring to the dish, and is a pleasant change. Use dates or raisins. To Wash Rice — Put in a strainer and place in cold water. Rub thoroughly, changing the water several times until the rice is clean. APPLICATION 1. Boiled Rice 1 c. rice 2 tsp. salt 2 qt. water Method. — Pick over and wash the rice. When the water boils rapidly drop in the rice slowly, so as not to stop the boiling. Stir occasionally to keep the grains from settling to the bottom. Boil rapidly, uncovered, 20 to 30 min., or until the grains crush easily between the fingers. Add the saltwhen nearly done. Pour into a strainer to drain rinsewith hotwatertoremovetheloosestarch. Setthestrain- er in the oven or put the rice in the serving dish and set in the hot oven a few minutes to dry the rice. Good boiled rice is white and soft and each grain is separate. (Basis for 2 girls, 2 thsp. rice.) 2. Steamed Rice Method. — Prepare rice as for boiling, and cook with water or milk and salt, in the double boiler. Cover and cook one hour, or until tender and all the liquid is absorbed. Milk is best to use for steamed rice. Raisins may be used and the rice served with milk or cream as a pudding or dessert. 3. Cream of Wheat 1 c. cream of wheat 4 c. boiling water }/2 tsp. salt Method. — Mix the cream of wheat and salt, add slowly to the boiling water in the upper part of the double boiler, stirring constantly. Cover and steam until done, about 45 to 50 minutes. Serve with sugar and cream. CARBOHYDRATES— CEREALS. RICE 57 4. Oatmeal Mush 1 c. oatmeal ^hz c. boiling water 13^ tsp. salt Method. — Put the boiling water in the upper part of the double boiler and gradually add the oatmeal and the salt. Cook over the fire without the lower part for 5 or 10 min- utes; then set in the lower part of the boiler and steam for 5 or 6 hours. Stir it once in a while. Oatmeal is best cooked one day and served the next morning, to insure its being well cooked. Note. — Berries, sliced peaches, bananas, apple sauce, and dates or figs cut in pieces are good additions to cereals. 5. Cornmeal Mush 1 c. cornmeal 1 c. cold milk 1 tbsp. flour 2 c. boiling water 13^ tsp. salt Method. — Mix the meal, flour, and salt together thor- oughly. Put in the upper part of a double boiler, add the cold milk and stir until smooth. Add the boiling water slowly and cook all directly over the fire for 10 minutes, stirring constantly. Put in double boiler over boiling water ; cover and cook 5 hours. Serve hot with cream and sugar. 6. Fried Cornmeal Mush Method. — Use cornmeal mush prepared as above, and pack in a wet mold or bread pan. Set away to cool, for several hours. When cold cut in thin slices and saute in hot butter or drippings in a hot frying pan, until well browned on both sides. Serve plain or with butter or maple sirup. 7. Left-overs of Cereals Method. — ^The cold cooked cereals may be cut in slices 34 inch thick and sauted until a nice brown and served as Rule 6. Or, grated cheese may be added and the cereal made into croquettes and fried in deep fat. LESSON 6 CARBOHYDRATES— CEREALS. WHEAT Wheat has been called the king of cereals, since it is the best for bread making and is cultivated in a greater variety of soils and climates than an^^ other cereal. Source. — Wheat is grown chiefly in Europe, the United States, (in Kansas, Minnesota, the Dakotas, Nebraska, Ohio) and Canada, India, The Argentine, and Australia. Russia and the United States produce about one-third of the wheat used. History. — ^Wheat was first used in the eastern countries, in the earliest times. Mummies of old Egypt have been found with wheat wrapped in them. It was carried across to the western continents by the earliest explorers. Kinds. — ^Wheat is known as (1) spring wheat and (2) winter wheat. Spring wheat is sown in the spring and matures the same season. This is a hard wheat rich in gluten and is the wheat from which most bread flour is made. Winter wheat is sown in the fall and harvested the following summer. It is softer and contains less gluten than spring wheat. Pastry flour is made from winter wheat. Structure. — L Bran coats, — there are three coats, or layers, of bran, which contain most of the mineral matter, and all are removed in white bread flour. Graham flour includes the entire kernel; whole-wheat flour, all but the coarser bran. 2. The body of the grain, or endosperm, composed of cells filled with the starch and protein. This nearly. sur- rounds the vital part of the grain, or the germ. (58) CARBOHYDRATES— CEREALS. WHEAT 59 3. Germ, the tiny plant that holds the life of the seed. This is removed more or Jess, in the process of milling, because it makes the flour yellow and injures its keeping qualities. Composition of Wheat. — Wheat contains all the food principles, and is rich in protein and starch. See page 52 and compare with other cereals. Food Value. — Wheat is high in food value. It builds and repairs tissues and gives heat and energy. It is so nutri- tious, so widely and cheaply grown, and its cooking and baking qualities are so favorable, that it has become the basic food of the people of the civilized world. Wheat bread is in reality the ''staff of life." Macaroni, spaghetti, vermicelli, and Italian pastes are made from a hard- wheat flour that contains a large amount of gluten. The Italians place macaroni in the same position in their diet as we Americans do our bread. Manufacture of Macaroni. — The flour is mixed with hot water to form a stiff paste. This is placed in a steam- heated iron cylinder, the bottom of which is filled with holes. The paste is forced through these holes by a press, and comes out in the form of rods or threads, according to the shape of the opening. These rods are then cut into lengths suitable to handle and are hung up to dry for four or five days. In Italy, macaroni is hung in the open air on racks and is not as clean as that manufactured in our own country, where it is dried on racks in large, clean drying rooms for the purpose. Spaghetti is in the form of rods and is solid and smaller. Fig. 7. Diagram- matic section of a wheat kernel: a, bran coats; b, aleurone laver; c, germ; d, body. (U. S. D. A. Bui.) GO DOMESTIC SCIENCE Vermicelli is solid, thread-like, and smaller still than spaghetti. Appearance. — Good macaroni is rough, yellowish in color, and breaks clean without splitting. When cooked it swells and is elastic and firm. Food Value. — Macaroni is rich in gluten and starch, and is both a tissue-building and an energy-giving food. Combined with protein foods, like milk, eggs, or cheese, it makes an inexpensive dish that is a good substitute for meat. Cooking Macaroni. — Owing to the starch, macaroni absorbs about three times its w^eight of water and must therefore be cooked in plenty of water. Wash macaroni thoroughly when tender to remove out- side starch, preventing it from sticking together. To Butter Crumbs. — Sift crumbs in a strainer first to make them fine. Add 3^ c. melted butter to 1 c. of dry breadcrumbs, mix thoroughly before using. To Grate Cheese. — Use a dry cheese that will grate, but do not pack in measuring it. Grate on a common grater. APPLICATION 1. Boiled Macaroni Method. — Break the macaroni into inch pieces. Drop into boiling salted water, allowing 1 tbsp. of salt to 1 qt. of water. Cook until tender, 20 to 25 minutes, or until it can be easily pierced with a fork. Keep plenty of water on to cover while cooking. When tender, pour into a colander and wash thoroughly in cold water to remove the starch that causes the pieces to stick together. Season, and serve with thin white sauce or with Tomato Sauce. 2. Baked Macaroni with Cheese 13^ c. macaroni 1 c. thin white sauce }/2, c. grated cheese 13^ c. buttered crumbs CARBOHYDRATES— CEREALS. WHEAT 61 Method. — Prepare the macaroni as for boiled macaroni. Butter a baking dish, put in a layer of boiled macaroni ; then cover with one-half of the grated cheese and one-half the buttered crumbs. Put the remainder of the macaroni on next, the rest of the cheese, and then the rest of the crumbs. Bake in a moderate oven until the crumbs are nicely browned and the sauce boils up around the sides. {Each two use 4 sticks macaroni, 2 tsp. cheese, and 3^ c. white sauce.) 3. Baked Macaroni and Tomato Method. — Use 13^^ c. of stewed tomatoes in place of the white sauce, and arrange the macaroni in layers with the tomato and crumbs in place of the white sauce and the cheese. 4. Tomato Sauce 2 tbsp. butter 1 c. strained tomato 2 tbsp. flour yz tsp. salt Pepper Method. — Make according to White Sauce, using the strained tomato in place of milk. Or use half tomato and half milk, and add a speck of soda to keep it from curdling. DIGESTION AND ITS RELATION TO COOKERY Purpose of Digestion. — The food that we eat, as we have learned, nourishes the body. Every Uving cell that composes the tissues must have food particles brought to it by the blood in order to grow or produce energy. This means that the food as eaten must be reduced to a very fine state to enable it to pass into the blood and be used in the body. This process of dissolving the usable portions of food is called digestion. The parts of the body that have this work to do are called the digestive organs, and the organs that form the path through which the food passes form the alimentary canal. How Food Is Dissolved. — The greatest changes that food undergoes in digestion are brought about by sub- stances called enzyms, or ferments, which are contained in the different digestive juices. These ferments have the power to reduce foods to simpler substances that dissolve in liquids and pass readily into the blood. In some way they bring about great changes and are not themselves affected. There are many of these ferments, each acting on a different class of food. In the Mouth. — In order to make it easy for the digestive juices to act, the food is first ground fine in the mouth by the teeth. The saliva softens the food and makes it easy to swallow. At the same time the ptyalin in it begins to act on starch, changing it to sugar. In the Stomach. — In the stomach the food is mixed with the gastric juice secreted from the walls of the stomach. This juice contains the ferment rennin, which curdles milk, and pepsin, which partially dissolves proteins. The stom- (62) DIGESTION AND ITS RELATION TO COOKERY 63 ach by muscular movement churns the food and makes it like moderately thick soup, and gradually passes it into the small intestine. In the Intestines. — In the small intestine digestion goes on most extensively. Here the bile from the liver, the pancreatic juice from the pancreas, and the intestinal juice from the walls of the intestine pour in and are mixed with the food. Starch is changed to simple sugars, proteins are changed to simpler substances, and fats are emulsified. Here also by far the largest part of the food is absorbed into the blood and lymphatics. In the large intestine the processes of digestion and absorption continue at a slower rate, until all digestible food substances are absorbed. The indigestible matter is finally eliminated from the body. Relation of Cookery to Digestion. — In the proper diges- tion and nutrition of the body, one thing depends upon another. Food cannot be digested without the aid of gen- erous quantities of the digestive juice; and when there is no flow of the digestive juices, there is no appetite. Some things which influence appetite and digestion are: — 1. Foods vary greatly in ease of digestion, due to dif- ferences in composition and structure. It is important to know these differences. 2. Foods differ also in their effects on the body. Some kinds are needed for their tonic effects, some for their laxa- tive properties, and so on. It is essential to have variety and balance in the diet. 3. The method of cooking may be favorable or un- favorable to digestion. Some foods should not be cooked ; others, only in certain ways. It is important to know the effects of cooking on food. G4 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 1 1 > "1 II .a t. c D, a < II 5^ 1 c 4) c U 1 -rj 1 CO CO •Sill -s-ils^^ -^1 iipiUiii .11 1 1 'I 1 c« Is CTj - 2 a rt c 03 B 1 > "2 c 4- Pi 1 (2i .S • '. 1 c .5 s b S < H c/2 -4 fvi r/^ 'cS'm c o 1 1 1 'oJ' 13 6 11! rt S.£f ~ 3 1 i 1 1 5 ^ 1 o CO *§ t: > "1 CO n 1 1 11^ 1 .C li E.5§ to 1 "3 DIGESTION AND ITS RELATION TO COOKERY 65 i > S Second to small intestine in amount of ab- sorption Undigested matter eliminated Some cellulose dissolved Protein putre- fied Carbohydrates decomposed Splitting and dissolving pro- cesses continue Bacterial action continues if g'SS All that remains undigested !1 11 Ferments from small intestine continue to act Bacteria (in upper part) a c OjO si rt ^E CO JS ■ *; CJ ..■^03 2 5:2 "^ >.i2 5^^GES-a O O o -k-> o S •» (u 4) a; a; flj o a I ^ 66 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 4. Pleasing flavors stimulate the flow of gastric juice and create appetite. Knowledge of the use of soups, extractives, and seasonings, and how to retain natural flavors is useful. 5. Even the sight of food may influence the appetite for it. It is of value to know how to serve food properly. 6. Thorough mastication and mixing of the food with saliva in eating is a very helpful aid to digestion. 7. Moderation, — not over-eating or eating at all hours, — is necessary in order not to exhaust the stomach or cause indigestion or other disorders of the body. 8. A pleasant frame of mind when eating, induced by pleasing surroundings, agreeable company and conversa- tion, and absence of worry, — all favor good appetite and good digestion. To have all things contribute to cheer- fulness at mealtime, is a supreme test of good housekeeping. It will be seen that those who control the selection and preparation of food have far-reaching influence on the health and, therefore, on the happiness of those whom they serve. It is the purpose of domestic science studies to teach the principles of foods and their preparation and use, and the application of those principles. LESSON 7 CARBOHYDRATES— FRUIT Definition. — Fruits, in the popular sense, are the seed vessels of plants. Composition of Fruit Fruit Protein per cent Carbohy- drate per cent Fat per cent Cellulose (crude fiber) per cent Mineral matter per cent Water per cent Apples Apricots .4 1.1 1.3 1.3 1. .4 1.5 1.3 .8 .7 1. .4 1. 1.7 1. 1. 1.6 4.7 2.4 2.1 4.3 2.8 2.1 2.6 13 13.4 21. 8.4 16.5 8.4 12.8 14.9 11.6 5.8 15.7 9.3 20.1 12.6 9.7 6. 62. 62.5 71.2 74.6 68. 66. 71.2 73.6 .5 .6 1. .8 .6 1.6 .2 .1 .5 .3 1. .6 2.2 1. 1.7 2.8 .3 5.4 3.3 1 2 1. 25 .2 1.4 43 3.6 1.5 .4 2.9 1.4 6.1 3. 3.8 6.2 6.9 2.1 2.5 3 5 8 5 6 1 5 .7 5 .5 .4 :! .5 .6 .6 .6 2.0 2.4 4.5 1.3 2.4 2.4 2.3 3.4 846 85. Bananas 753 Blackberries Cherries 86 3 80.9 Cranberries Currants 88.9 85. Grapes 77.4 Oranges 86.9 Peaches 89.4 Pears 80.9 Pineapples Plums 89.3 78.3 Black raspberries. . Red raspberries Strawberries DRIED FRUITS Apples Apricots Currants 84.1 85.8 90.4 26.1 29.4 17.2 Dates 15.4 Fics . . 18.8 Pears 16.6 Prunes Raisins 22.3 14.6 Composition. — Fresh fruits contain water (75 to 90 per cent), sugar, cellulose, acids, and salts, with very little, if any, protein or fat. When ripe, fruits contain no starch, (67) 68 DOMESTIC SCIE^-CE for the ripening process changes the starch to sugar and gums. One of the gum-Uke substances is pectin, a sub- stance in plants similar to gelatin in meat. Kinds. — There are many kinds of fruit. The most com- mon fresh fruits are apples, peaches, pears, cherries, plums, grapes, bananas, pineapples, and berries. Food Value. — Most fresh fruits are low in food value; but they refresh and cool the system and furnish us with mineral salts, of sodium, calcium, phosphorus, etc., which purify the blood. The large amount of cellulose aids digestion, as it supplies bulk to the food and excites the flow of the digestive juices. The acids which fruits contain stimulate the appetite for other food. Dried fruits have for their chief food value a high percentage of sugar. The common dried fruits are prunes (dried plums), raisins (dried grapes), figs, dates, apricots, and apples. Rules for Eating Fruit. — 1. Use only sound, ripe fruit. Unripe fruit is not digestible, unless cooked, and overripe fruit is of inferior flavor and is apt to interfere with diges- tion. 2. Fruit from street venders should not be used, as it is nearly always too ripe and unclean. 3. Do not eat acid foods with milk or cream. Why? 4. Cook overripe fruit to make it safe for use. 5. Use sweet fruits, as dates and figs, with cereals, since they supply the necessary sugar. 6. Do not swallow the tough skins of fruits or the seeds of such fruit as the grape and apple. 7. Serve fruits cold. 8. Serve fruits in season. They are more economical. Care of Fruit. — 1. Fruit should be kept covered and cool. CARBOHYDRATES— FRUITS 69 2. Wash or wipe off all fruit when it comes from the market. Rinse off berries quickly and drain. 3. Do not soak fruit, as it loses its flavor. 4. Cook fruit in dishes other than tin, as the acid acts on tin and forms a poison dangerous to the body. 5. Pare peaches just before serving, for they discolor quickly. Cooking Fruit. — Fruit is usually either baked or stewed. Baking is used with large, watery, whole fruit; as, peach- es, apples, or pears. Stewing. — Cut large fruit in pieces. Leave small fruit and berries whole. Put into a saucepan w4th one-half as much water as fruit, and allow M to 3^^ c. of sugar to each pint of fruit. The juice must cover the fruit. If it does not, add more water. Cook fruit until soft, but not mushy. If more sugar is needed, add it when nearly done. If the sirup is too thin, remove the fruit and boil down the sirup; then pour it back over the fruit. Hard fruits, like quince, should be cooked until tender before adding the sugar. Cook cranberries and strawberries without sugar; add it just at the last. The berries are a brighter red and the jelly clearer than when cooked with the sugar, besides less sugar will be required. Why? Dried fruit. — Wash fruit well in several waters. Soak the fruit in fresh water several hours or over night. Cook until tender; then sweeten to taste and cook a few minutes longer. APPLICATION 1. Baked Apples Method. — Pare and core good, uniform apples. Put into a baking pan, fill the center of each apple with sugar, and add a bit of butter on the top. Add enough water to cover the bottom of the pan. Cinnamon or nutmeg may 70 DOMESTIC SCIENCE be sprinkled on top if desired. Bake in a hot oven until soft; baste with the juice in the pan. 2. Apple Sauce 6 tart apples Small piece of lemon rind 3^ c. water 6 whole cloves (if desired) }/2 c. sugar Method. — Wipe, core, peel, and quarter the apples. Some apples may be cooked with the peel. Put the water, sugar, and lemon rind into a saucepan and cook 4 or 5 minutes; then add the apples. Cook until tender, being careful not to mash the apples much ; remove the lemon peel and cloves and serve cold. If apples are quite soft and cook up much, mash them or put through a vegetable press. (Each two use 1 apple.) 3. Cranberry Sauce 1 pt. cranberries 1 c. sugar 2 c. water Method. — Pick over and wash the cranberries. Put into the saucepan with the water and cook about 10 minutes; then add the sugar the last few minutes of cooking. Cran- berries cooked without the sugar, and uncovered, retain their color and make a clearer sauce. {Each two use 34 rule.) 4. Stewed Prunes 1 lb. prunes }4 c sugar 1 qt. water 2 or 3 slices of lemon Method. — Wash the prunes thoroughly; put in clean water and let soak over night. Next morning put the prunes on to cook in the same water they soaked in ; cook slowly, covered, till the skins are soft. Add the sugar and the lemon juice when nearly done. Apricots are cooked in the same way. {Basis for 2 girls, }/s rule.) CARBOHYDRA TES— FRUITS 71 5. Fruit Cocktails These are served as an appetizer at the beginning of a dinner, and may be made from a variety of fruits. Serve them in dainty tall glasses, or in baskets made from half oranges or grapefruits. Orange and Grapefruit. — Mix equal parts of diced orange and grapefruit pulp. Sprinkle with sugar and a Httle lemon juice. Place on ice until chilled. Fill the chilled glasses just before serving, garnish with wedges of fresh or pre- served pineapple and a candied or Maraschino cherry. Strawberry and pine- apple make a nice com- bination, as do also grape- fruit and strawberries. Watermelon. — Cut with a vegetable cutter into little one-inch balls. Chill and serve in a tall glass with chipped ice. Garnish with mint. Fig. 8. a fruit cocktail. LESSON 8 SOUPS Kinds. — There are two kinds of soup: (1) soups with stock and (2) soups without stock. Soups with stock have as a basis the juices of meats, and are divided into several classes, which we shall study in connection with the meat lessons. Soups without stock have as a basis milk or cream, together with the pulp of vegetables. There are three divisions of soups without stock: — {a) Cream soup, made of vegetables or fish together with milk, cream, and seasoning or with a thin white sauce. {b) Purees are made of boiled vegetables or fish put through a strainer, together with a thin white sauce. These contain more vegetables than the cream soups and are therefore thicker. {c) Bisques are made of shellfish or vegetables with thin white sauce, and are served with fish dice. Soups without stock, when allowed to stand, separate; that is, the vegetables separate from the milk or cream, unless bound together. Materials that bind or keep the solid part from settling to the bottom are called binding materials, examples of which are flour and cornstarch. The best way of binding materials is by using a thin white sauce. Left-over vegetables or those too old to serve whole are good for use in cream soups. They make an economical dish, as well as a very nourishing one. Removing the hard cellulose fiber by forcing the pulp through a strainer makes cream soups very easily digested. 72) SOUPS 73 General proportions for cream soups or soups without stock are: About one half as much vegetable pulp as white sauce, plus the seasoning — salt and pepper. Proportions for white sauce: — 2 tbsp. butter Salt and pepper 1 tbsp. flour to 1 c. of milk If the vegetables contain a large amount of starch, use less flour. If lacking in starch, use from 1 to 3 tbsp. of flour. Name an example where less flour is necessary. Name an example where more flour is necessary. General Directions for Soups without Stock. — 1. Cook the vegetables in water until very soft; then press them through a vegetable press or strainer. Add the water in which the vegetables were cooked. 2. Make the white sauce in a double boiler, using Method 2, Lesson 4. 3. To make the soup richer, use part cream instead of all milk, or add beaten egg or a couple of spoonfuls of whipped cream to the soup just before serving. 4. Combine vegetable pulp and white sauce and serve. Do not let soup stand long, as it is likely to become too thick. 5. Serve soups very hot. 6. Serve crisp crackers or toasted bread in sticks or cubes with soup. Vegetables best suited for soups are: potatoes, peas, beans, celery, tomatoes, asparagus, carrots, and turnips. Onionsare used foradditional flavoring in any soup, if desired. Food Value. — Soups without stock have a higher food value than soups with stock. The milk or cream of the white sauce furnishes the protein to build and repair tissue and the vegetables contain starch and mineral substances. Soups are easily digested, are nourishing, and are appetizers for the courses that follow. 74 DOMESTIC SCIENCE APPLICATION 1. Cream of Pea Soup 1 pt. can of peas 1 tsp. sugar 1 pt. cold water 1 qt. thin white sauce Method. — Boil the peas in the water until soft. Rub them through a coarse strainer or vegetable press, and to the pulp add the water the peas were cooked in. Make a thin white sauce and combine with the peas. {Each 2 use % c. white sauce and J.-^ pt. peas.) 2. Cream of Corn Soup 1 pt. can of corn 1 sHce onion 1 pt. cold water 1 qt. thin white sauce Method. — The method is the same as in Cream of Pea Soup. 3. Cream of Potato and Cream of Celery Soup Method. — These are both made with the same propor- tions and in the same way as Cream of Corn Soup, {Each 2 use same basis as in 1.) 4. Cream of Tomato Soup 1 c. tomatoes 1 pt. milk 14 tsp. soda 2 tbsp. butter 2 tbsp. flour 1 tsp. salt Pepper Method. — Cook the tomatoes for 10 minutes. Remove from the fire, strain, and add the soda. Return to the fire and keep hot until ready to serve. Make a thin white sauce of the rest of the ingredients, using Method 1, Lesson 4. Keep sauce hot until ready to serve. Immediately before serving pour the tomato into the white sauce. This soup will curdle if combined too long. {Basis for 2 girls, Yi c. white sauce, ^ c. tomatoes.) 5. Croutons Method. — Cut slices of bread }/2 inch thick; then cut into cubes. Put in the oven and toast to a delicate brown. Serve with soup. {Housekeepers prepare croutons for class.) LESSON 9 PROTEIN— EGGS The eggs most commonly used in cooking are hens' eggs, although eggs from other domestic fowls and wild birds are used where available. Structure. — A hen's egg consists of the following parts : — 1. The shell. 2. Two tough membranes just inside the shell. 3. The white, a clear, jelly-like substance. 4. The yolk, which is surrounded by a thin membrane and held in place by — 5. Two twisted cords. 6. The embryo, in the yolk. This embryo is the living part of the egg, from which the chick grows, much as the wheat grows from the germ in the grain. The contents of the egg furnish the embryo food, just as the starch does the germ of the grain. 7. Air space, found at the large end of the egg between the two membranes. Composition. — The shell is composed of mineral matter, chiefly lime. The white, or albumen, is nearly pure albumin and water. Albumin is a sticky substance, and is a protein. The yolk contains much fat or oil, some albumin, mineral matter, and water. The mineral matter consists of phos- phorus, calcium, iron, lime, and sulphur. What food principle is lacking in eggs? • CoMPOSiTiOxV OF Eggs Protein Fat Mineral matter Water 14.9% 10.6% 1% 73.5% (75) 76 DOMESTIC SCIEKCf^ Food Value. — Owing to the large amount of protein in eggs, they are valuable as a tissue-building food, and may- be used as a meat substitute. One pound of eggs, usually about nine, contains as much nutriment as one pound of meat. Raw eggs and those properly cooked are very easily digested and assimilated in the body. Trace protein through the process of digestion. Tests for Fresh Eggs. — 1. Fresh eggs have slightly rough shells. 2. Fresh eggs sink to the bottom in a pan of cold water. Stale eggs float. What is the reason for this? 3. Fresh eggs are clear when placed between the eye and a bright light in a dark room. Stale eggs are cloudy. This method of testing is used extensively in egg markets and is called "candling." Care of Eggs. — 1. As soon as eggs come from the mar- ket wipe them off with a damp cloth, and put only clean, fresh eggs in the ice box. 2. Keep eggs in a cool, dry place. 3. Do not keep in a place containing food with strong odors, which eggs readily absorb. 4. Egg yolks will keep fresh for some time if covered with clean, cold water and kept in a cool place. Uses for Eggs. — Eggs are used very extensively in the dietary and in cooking. Name as many uses as you can and state why they are so used. Preservation of Eggs. — Preserve only fresh, clean eggs in the spring and early summer, when they are plentiful and cheap. Any method which excludes the air helps to keep eggs fresh. The packing or preserving material for eggs must be absolutely clean, since eggs are easily tainted in flavor. Eggs may be preserved in the following ways: — PROTEIN— EGGS 77 1. Pack dry in sawdust, salt, bran, oats, or sand, with the small end down. 2. Put in jars containing salt brine, limewater, or water glass enough to cover the eggs. 3. Coat with paraffin, lard, or oil. 4. Put in cold storage. What is the object of preserving eggs? What causes eggs to spoil? The Water-glass Method. — The water-glass method is the most satisfactory home means of preserving eggs, and is very easily applied. For every quart of water glass (silicate of soda) solution use 9 quarts of boiled water that has been cooled. Mix the ingredients thoroughly and put into a clean stone jar. Place the eggs in the solution and see that all are covered by several inches of the liquid. Keep the jars in a cool place and well covered to prevent evaporation. Eggs preserved in this manner are as good as fresh eggs for all cooking purposes. The Cold Storage Method. — Eggs are produced in great- est abundance in the spring and summer months. For- merly they were very plentiful and very cheap during those months, and very scarce and expensive in the winter. Now, the cold storage system and refrigerator cars have changed this. Both the time of marketing and the market area of eggs have been extended, and as a result egg prices have become more uniform throughout the year. When properly handled and kept at a temperature just above freezing, 32° to 40°F., cold storage eggs are whole- some. They are usually kept not over eight or nine months. EFFECT OF HEAT ON ALBUMEN Experiments. — 1. Put some egg white into a tumbler of cold water and shake or beat well. Notice any results. 78 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 2. Put some egg white in boiling water. What hap- pens? 3. Put an egg into boiUng water, remove from the fire and let stand ten minutes. Notice the consistency of the white. 4. Put an egg into boihng water and boil ten minutes; remove from the fire and compare with the result of Experi- ment 3. 5. Put an egg into cold water and bring to the boiling point. Remove from the fire and compare with Experi- ments3 and 4. From the experiments what do you find is the correct temperature for cooking albumen? Why? Compare with the temperature for cooking starch. Cooking of Eggs. — Eggs and egg mixtures must be cooked at a moderate temperature, of from 160° to 185° Fahrenheit. How to Break an Egg. — 1 . Hold the egg in the left hand and strike it with a knife blade. Press the thumbs into the crack and pull the shell apart. 2. Or strike the egg against the side of a mixing bowl and then open with the thumbs. To Separate White from Yolk. — Crack egg, hold yolk in one half of the shell and let the white run on a plate. Then slip the yolk to the other half of the shell, holding the edges of the shell together, and drain off all the white. Put yolk into a bowl. Note. — ^Always break eggs separately into a dish to make sure they are fresh before adding to other eggs or to a mixture. APPLICATION 1. Soft-Cooked Eggs Method. — (a) Allow about one pint of water, or enough to cover two eggs. Place eggs in cold water in a saucepan. PROTEIN— EGG8 79 Bring water to boiling point slowly. Remove eggs and serve in hot cups. (b) Place eggs in a saucepan containing enough boiling water to cover. Let stand on back of the stove from 8 to 10 minutes. 2. Hard-Cooked Eggs Method. — Place eggs in a saucepan containing enough boiling water to cover. Let stand where water will keep hot, but not boil, for 40 or 45 minutes; or boil slowly for 8 minutes. 3. Poached Eggs Method. — Prepare a slice of buttered toast for each egg. Cut with a round cutter or muffin ring. Keep warm. Have ready a shallow pan containing enough salted water to cover the eggs (let the water boil and then remove pan to back of stove). Break each egg separately into a saucer and slip it gently into the water, being careful that water does not reach the boiling point. Cook until the white is firm and a film forms over the top of the yolk. Remove the egg from the water with a skimmer or a griddle-cake turner. Drain, and place the eggs on toast. Garnish with parsley, if you like. An egg poacher may be used. {Basis for 2 girls, 1 egg.) 4. Eggs a la Suisse 4 eggs Salt }/2 c. cream White pepper 1 tbsp. butter Cayenne 2 tbsp. grated cheese Method. — Melt butter in a small omelet pan; add cream. Break eggs separately into a saucer and slip gently into the pan, one at a time; sprinkle with salt, pepper, and a few grains of cayenne. When whites are nearly firm, sprinkle with cheese. Finish cooking, and serve on buttered toast. Strain cream over the toast. 80 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 5. Baked Eggs Method. — Butter a ramekin or muffin tin. Line with fine cracker crumbs. Break egg into a cup and slip into ramekin; season, and cover with buttered crumbs. Bake in a moderate oven until crumbs are brown. 6. Baked Egg in Potato Method. — Remove inside of each baked potato, mash and season. Refill shell, leaving room for an egg. Break the egg into the potato, bake until firm. Eggs may also be baked in small tomatoes. Cut a slice from stem end of tomato. Scoop out pulp and slip in an egg. Season, cover with buttered crumbs, and bake. 7. Stuffed Eggs 1 tsp. vinegar 1 tbsp. melted butter 3^ tsp. mustard Salt and pepper Hard-boiled eggs Method. — Put eggs into cold water, bring slowly to boil- ing point, and boil 3 to 5 minutes. Drop into cold water. Remove shell, cut egg in half lengthwise, take out the yolk, mash, mix with mixture, and refill whites. LESSON 10 PROTEIN— EGGS (Continued) Beating Eggs. — Eggs are beaten in order to introduce air into a mixture. The elasticity of the albumen of the egg makes it possible to enfold air into the egg. Is it pos- sible to introduce air into materials like sirup, flour, paste, etc.? Why not? Ways of Beating. — 1. Beat yolks in a bowl with a Dover beater. 2. Beat whites on a platter or in a large bowl with a wire whisk or a fork. Consistency when Beaten. — Yolks when well beaten are thick and lighter colored than before beating. Whites are beaten stiff when the whisk comes out clean. Whites are beaten dry when the gloss is gone and the beaten mixture comes off the beater easily. Methods of Combining Mixtures. — (1) Stirring, (2) beating, (3) folding, and (4) cutting. Stirring is used in combining when air is not neces- sary to the ingredients. Use circular motion, round and round until all is mixed. Beating is used to introduce air into a mixture, and is done by lifting the mixture up and over on a spoon with a rapid movement. Continue until the mixture is full of bubbles. Folding is used (a) to add a beaten mixture to another; as, in adding beaten whites to a batter; or (b) to add ingre- dients, as baking powder, for example, to a batter having beaten eggs in it, without breaking the air bubbles already contained in the mixture. —6 (81) 82 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Folding is done by carefully turning the mixture over and over and drawing it constantly from the bottom of the bowl to the surface. Cutting is mixing by means of knives, .as is done with shortening. APPLICATION 1. Puffy Omelet 3 eggs }4 tsp. salt 3 tbsp. water White pepper 1 tbsp. butter Method. — Separate yolks from whites of eggs. Beat yolks until thick; add water and salt. Fold in beaten whites of egg. Melt butter in an omelet-pan , turn in egg mixture, spread evenly, cook slowly, occasionally turning the pan so that the omelet may brown evenly. Then when it is well puffed up and delicately browned underneath place pan in not oven to finish cooking the top. The omelet is cooked if it is firm to the touch when pressed with the finger. Fold, and turn on a hot platter. Serve at once. {Basis for 2 girls, 1 egg.) To Fold an Omelet. — Hold the omelet pan by the handle with the left hand. Crease the omelet slightly across the center at right angles to the handle of the pan. Slip the spatula under the edge of the omelet farthest from the handle of the pan and, tipping the pan up, fold the omelet over half way towards the handle. With the right hand invert a hot plate over the pan, and with a quick movement turn the omelet out of the pan upon the plate. Garnish with parsley and serve immediately. The success of an omelet of this kind depends upon the amount of air en- closed in the egg and the expansion of the air in cooking. 2. Fancy Omelets A fancy omelet may be made by the addition of grated cheese, minced ham, or other meat sprinkled over the top PROTEIN— EGGS 83 Fi;;. 9. Folding an omelet. 84 DOMESTIC SCIENCE just before folding. Parsley, oysters, or vegetables finely cut may also be used. A sweet omelet is made by spreading soft jelly or pre- serves and powdered sugar over the top. 3. French Omelet 3 eggs }/2 tsp. salt 1 tbsp. hot water or milk 1 tbsp. butter Pepper Method. — Beat eggs slightly, add water and seasoning. Heat the omelet pan, melt the butter and let it run over the bottom and sides of the pan. Turn in the mixture, and cook slowly. When thick at one side, roll the mixture over to the other side, like a jelly roll. When all is evenly cooked, roll out upon a hot plate. Garnish and serve. One egg is allowed to each person for any omelet. 4. Scrambled Eggs 5 eggs ^ 3^ tsp. salt }/2 c. milk 3^ tsp. pepper 2 tbsp. butter Method. — Beat eggs slightly, add salt, pepper and milk. Melt butter in an omelet pan, turn in egg mixture and cook slowly, scraping from the bottom and sides of the pan when the mixture first sets. Cook until creamy. Turn it upon a hot dish and serve at once. 5. Scrambled Eggs with Tomato Sauce 6 eggs 2 tsp. sugar 1^ c. tomato sauce 1 slice onion 4 tbsp. butter 3^ tsp. salt Pepper Method. — Simmer tomatoes and sugar. Fry onion in butter 3 minutes, and add eggs which have been slightly beaten and added to tomato sauce. Add a speck of soda to the tomato sauce. Stir slowly until eggs are cooked and jelly-like. PROTEIN— EGGS 85 6. Eggs a la Goldenrod 3 hard-boiled eggs 14 tsp. salt 2 tbsp. butter 3^ tsp. pepper 2 tbsp. flour 5 slices toast 1 c. milk Parsley Method. — Mix flour and butter together until smooth; add the milk slowly, stirring constantly; cook until smooth. Add salt and pepper. Separate yolks from whites of eggs. Chop whites fine and add them to the sauce. Cut 4 slices of toast in halves lengthwise, arrange on platter, and pour the sauce over them. Force the yolks through a strainer and sprinkle over the top. Garnish with parsley. LESSON 11 PROTEIN— MILK Milk is such a common and important food and is so closely connected with the public health that it deserves careful study. Good milk is a yellowish-white liquid with a faint odor and a sweet taste. When allowed to stand, a thick cream rises to the top, and there is no sediment. Rich cream clings to the sides of the glass; poor milk has a bluish-white color and forms little cream. Composition. — Different samples of milk may vary greatly in composition, especially in the amount of fat. An average composition is as follows: — Water Protein Carbohydrates Fat Mineral matt?r 87% 3.3% 5% 4% .7% The protein in milk is casein and albumin, in the pro- portion of about six to one. The casein is precipitated by the presence of acid, as when lactic acid is formed in the souring of milk. The ferment rennin, found in the stomach of milk-drinking animals, also causes coagulation of the casein. The albumin is coagulated by heat. The carbohydrates of milk are in solution in the form of lactose, or milk sugar. A part of this is changed to lactic acid by the action of the bacteria that cause milk to sour. The fat in milk is held in suspension in the form of minute globules, so finely divided that as many as ten billion may be contained in a single drop. These gradually rise to the surface, forming cream. The mineral salts include all those found in the animal body, such as lime, phosphates, potash, and others. (86) PROTEIN— 311 L[<: 87 Food Value. — Milk is a complete food, since it contains all the food principles, and therefore builds and repairs tissues and gives heat and energy. It serves much the same purpose to the young of animals as the egg does to the unhatched chick. The large amount of water in milk is useful for the young in building and filling out the tissues. For an older person, however, milk contains too much water and not enough carbohydrates; about five quarts a day would have to be consumed to supply the body needs. Yet milk is really a concentrated food, since fully a third of the solid portion is protein and another third is fat. These nutrients are in such finely divided form as to be very easily digested. This is especially true when milk is taken along with other foods. Milk should be sipped slowly, and the greatest benefit is derived when taken at regular inter- vals or at night before retiring. Souring of Milk. — As has been explained, milk is soured by lactic acid produced by bacteria. When milk is warm the bacteria increase very rapidly, thus hastening souring. The acid separates the protein (casein) from the water and forms the curd (the thick part) , leaving the whey (the liquid part). The whey contains, besides water, nearly all of the milk sugar, which gives to it its chief food value. Clean fresh milk carefully handled to exclude dirt, should keep sweet for several days. Adulteration of Milk. — The fat is so valuable for cream or butter that sometimes much of it is removed before the milk is sold. The commonest method of adulteration is to add w^ater, and, unless a great deal is added, is hard to detect. What is worse, chemical preservatives are sometimes added to kill bacteria or retard their growth, in order to keep the milk sweet and carry it great distances. The chemicals used are boric acid, formalin, and salicylic acid. S8 DOMESTIC SCIENCE These are very harmful, especially to infants, and conceal unclean methods of handling milk. Such milk can be detected when it does not sour easily or becomes thick and develops a bitter taste. State and national pure-food laws and city ordinances are gradually doing away with these abuses. Purchase and Care of Milk. — No other food so quickly absorbs odors and impurities and requires more careful handling than milk. It is often a common way of spread- ing certain diseases, such as diphtheria, typhoid, and scarlet fever. The secret of clean milk is, production under clean surroundings, prompt cooling, and keeping it cool and pro- tected from dust and dirt until it is used in the home. Some rules to follow are: — 1 . Buy milk from sources you know to be clean and pure. 2. Buy milk in covered bottles rather than in bulk. 3. Keep milk in scalded glass or earthen dishes, or in the original bottles. 4. Keep milk cold, for then germs develop much less rapidly. 5. Keep milk from flies, dust, and odors by keeping covered. Pasteurization. — In times of disease epidemics or when there is a suspicion that the milk is not pure, it is pasteur- ized to kill dangerous germs. Pasteurization consists in heating the milk to a temperature of from 150° to 180" F. for 20 minutes or more and then rapidly cooling it to 50° F. or lower. Pasteurized milk is not necessarily clean milk, — in fact sometimes farmers and dealers rely too much on this system and are not so careful to maintain a pure product. Pasteurization can easily be done in the home. Sterilization consists in heating milk to the boiling point for 15 or 20 minutes. The process may be repeated PROTEIN— MILK 89 after an interval to make the result doubly certain. This destroys practically all bacteria in it, but it has the disad- vantage that the taste is spoiled for many persons and also that the milk is probably made less digestible. Scalding Milk. — Heat milk in a double boiler until bubbles appear around the edge of the milk. This occurs at about 160° F. and this heating makes milk safer for use, as it kills many forms of germs. Boiling milk or scalding it too long makes it less digestible. What substance in milk should be cooked below the boiling point? Condensed Milk. — This is milk that is evaporated in vacuum pans to one-third or one-fourth its original bulk and then sealed in air-tight cans, in which it will keep indef- initely. Sometimes cane sugar is added to increase its keeping qualities. Condensed milk enables milk to be carried and kept in many places, such as on board ship and in the tropics, where fresh milk is not obtainable. When it is to be used, increase its volume two or three times by adding water. It may then be used the same as fresh milk. APPLICATION 1. Baked Custard 4 sc. c. scalded milk 3^ c. sugar 4 eggs or 6 yolks 1 tsp. vanilla Few gratings of nutmeg Pinch of salt Method. — Beat the egg slightly, add the sugar, and then the scalded milk slowly. Add the flavoring and stir until the sugar is dissolved. Pour into cups or into one large baking dish, grate a little nutmeg on top, set the cups in a pan of hot water and bake in a moderate oven until a knife piercing it will come out clean. Do not allow the wa- ter in the pan to boil. Serve cold. This serves 7 people. {Basis for 2 girls, )^ rule.) 90 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 2. Soft Custard Method. — Same recipe as for Baked Custard. Combine ingredients by same method, but cook in a double boiler. Stir constantly until the mixture forms a coating on the spoon. Remove instantly from the hot water; flavor, and cool. {Basis for 2 girls, Y^ tide.) 3. Caramel Custard 4 c. scalded milk 1 tsp. vanilla 4 eggs or 6 yolks 1 c. sugar Method. — Melt the sugar to a light brown sirup in a saucepan over a hot fire. Add the scalded milk very gradually and cook until free from lumps. Pour this gradually into the slightly-beaten eggs. Add the flavor- ing and bake as in Baked Custard. {Basis for 2 girls, yi rule.) 4. Chocolate Custard 2 c. milk 3^ sq. Baker's chocolate 3 eggs 2 tbsp. water 3^^ c. sugar ^ 3^ tsp. vanilla Pinch of salt Method. — Scald the milk. Melt the chocolate, add half the sugar and the water, and cook until smooth. Pour the scalded milk into the chocolate mixture and stir until it is smooth. Add the eggs slightly beaten, the remainder of the sugar, and the salt. Strain into buttered molds and bake the same as Baked Custard. Whipped cream or a meringue is nice added to the top. 5. Custard Souffle 2 tbsp. butter 1 c. milk 2 tbsp. flour 4 eggs 2 tbsp. sugar Fresh or preserved fruit (Peaches or apricots are best) Method. — Scald the milk in a double boiler. Stir the flour and the butter together, add the scalded milk grad- PROTEIN- MILK 91 ually, and cook 5 minutes, stirring constantly. Beat the egg yolks and add the sugar ; then add to the milk. Set the mixture away to cool. When cool add the stiffly beaten whites of eggs, pour into a buttered baking dish, and bake 30 minutes. Serve at once. Fresh or preserved fruit is very good with this, and is added in a layer at the bottom of the dish and the custard souffle poured over it. LESSON 12 MILK PRODUCTS The chief products derived from milk are cream, butter, and cheese. CREAM Separation of Cream. — Formerly milk was allowed to stand in pans or cans and the cream skimmed off by hand. Now the cream separator is used everywhere to separate cream from milk. In this machine the fresh milk is made to revolve very rapidly, causing the heavier parts to be thrown outward and the cream to be crowded to the center. The skim milk passes off through one spout and the cream through another. Standard Cream. — Cream is required by law to contain at least 18 per cent butter fat. The amount of fat may vary from 10 to 40 per cent or more. The value of cream, of course, is directly in proportion to the amount of fat it contains, other factors, like cleanliness, being the same. Whipping cream is best when it contains 25 per cent or more of fat and is from 12 to 24 hours old. Pasteurized cream and separator cream will whip readily if it is at first kept cold, down to about 30° F., for about two hours. Skim Milk. — After the cream is removed from milk, what remains is skim milk. It contains about 4 per cent of protein and nearly 5 per cent milk sugar, which makes it a cheap, nutritious food. It should sell for about half the price of whole milk. Where whole milk is purchased, the cream may be removed for separate use and the skim milk used in cooking, since fat in some other form is usually added to a cooked (92) MILK PRODUCTS 93 dish. This decreases the cost of milk and does not affect the flavor of the dish; and cream is quite an expensive food. Skim milk may be used for cream soups, white sauces, cakes, etc., in place of whole milk. BUTTER Manufacture of Butter. — Butter is made from the fat of milk by the process of churning, which causes the fat globules to collect into granular masses. It is then washed to remove protein matter, which decomposes easily, and is salted to preserve it and give it flavor. It is then made into prints or packed into tubs for the market. Butter may be made from either sweet or sour (ripened) cream. Sweet-cream butter has a very delicate flavor and does not possess good keeping qualities because it is not usually salted. The ripening of the cream and the added salt give to butter a stronger flavor which is preferred by most people and makes it better suited for marketing purposes. Nearly all the butter made in the United States is produced in well-regulated creameries. Composition of Butter. — The law requires that standard butter should contain not less than 82.5 per cent of milk fat, for the butter-maker can make butter with little or much water as he chooses. One authority gives the fol- lowing as an average composition : — Fat Casein Salt Water 85% 1% 3% 11% The quality of butter depends on the breed of cow, the kind of feed given, but principally on the care with which the milk and cream are handled. Butter has the best color and flavor in the spring and summer when the cows are on fresh grass. The flavor is influenced greatly by 94 DOMESTIC SCIENCE the kind of bacteria that develops in the milk and cream. The cattle of the Guernsey breed produce butter of a natural- ly rich, yellow color. Food Value. — Butter is one of the most easily digested fats, and is very appetizing and healthful. With what foods should it be eaten, and why? Buttermilk is the part of the milk or cream that remains when the butter has been removed. It has very much the same composition and food value as skim milk, being a cheap and wholesome tissue-building food. The nutri- ents are very easily digested, and the acid is believed to exert a healthful influence in the body and is especially recommended to those suffering from stomach disturbances. Butter Substitutes. — Oleomargarine and butterine are often used in place of butter. These are made from puri- fied beef fat, lard, and cotton-seed or other vegetable oil churned with milk and sometimes colored to resemble butter. When properly prepared they are clean and nutritious, and are much better than the butter from small dairies where the standards and sanitary conditions are not of the best. They may be substituted for butter in cooking, and are more economical. The odors from old and rancid butter are often removed by melting the butter and blowing air through it, after which the material is churned in milk and then resold as renovated butter. To distinguish butter substitutes from butter, dis- solve a small quantity in a saucepan and bring to a boil. Beef fats boil noisily and make little foam; butter makes very little noise and much foam. CHEESE Cheese is the casein and fat of milk, drained, salted, and pressed. It is an important means of putting milk, a bulky and perishable food, into concentrated form, ena- MILK PRODUCTS ^ 95 bling it to be stored for future use and transported to dis- tant markets. Manufacture of Cheese. — Sweet cow's milk is most used in cheese making, but milk from the goat and ewe are are also used to some extent. Most of the cheese produced in this country is made from whole milk, but cream, par- tially-skimmed milk, and skim milk are also used, depend- ing on the kind of cheese and the desires of the manufac- turers. The main steps in the making of cheese are nearly the same in all varieties. The casein and fat are precipitated by means of rennet. The curd is then finely divided and the whole mass is heated to a temperature from 96° to 108° F., resulting in the complete separation of the curd from the whey, which is drawn off. The curd is then salted and pressed and set away to cure, or ripen, for the market. The curing process, which may last from a few days to a year or longer, depending on the kind, results largely in the development of flavors in cheese. This is brought about by the action of various kinds of bacteria and molds. By varying the fat content and the manner of handling the milk and curd, and by regulating the kind of bacteria or mold in the ripening process, many varieties of cheese are made. Kinds of Cheese. — It is hard to classify the hundreds of kinds of cheeses being manufactured. In general, they may be divided as hard and soft cheeses, depending largely on the amount of water they contain. They are also sold as cream, whole-milk, and skim milk cheeses, depending upon whether fat has been added to or taken from the milk. More than 300 million pounds of cheese are made yearly in the United States, and three-fourths of it is known as 96 DOMESTIC SCIENCE factory or American cheese, which is a variety of the kind known as cheddar. "Full cream" American cheese is made from whole milk; "cream" cheese, from cream; and "skim milk" cheese, from milk with all or much of the fat removed. Many of the foreign varieties are made and used in America and much foreign cheese is imported. Hard Cheese. — Among the more common varieties of hard cheese are the following : — Cheddar. — This is a mild-flavored cheese most common in this country. The American variety usually contains more water; whereas that made for export is firmer, contains less water, and is of better flavor. We need to learn to appreciate and demand the better make. When fresh it is rather soft, but when well matured is hard and grates readily. It is made in various forms, much in large cakes 15 or more inches in diameter and 5 or 6 inches thick. Pineapple is in smaller and more convenient form, being pressed firm and solid in the shape of a pineapple. Sage cheese is made with the addition of sage for flavor. Swiss cheese is readily distinguished by its sweetish, mild flavor and by its large holes or eyes. Much of it is made in this country. Edam cheese is made in Holland, and is round in form and stained red. Parmesan is a very hard Italian, skim-milk cheese, often sold grated. It keeps well in any climate, but is rather high in price. ^oft Cheese. — Soft cheese is made for immediate use. Most varieties are relished for their high flavor; others, such as cream and cottage cheese, are not cured but are ready for use almost as soon as made. Some varieties are : — Neufchdtel is made from whole or skim milk, is pressed into ^mall rolls or blpckg, and then set away for about four MILK PRODUCTS 97 weeks to be cured by a special mold which penetrates through every part. It comes wrapped in tinfoil. Camemhert has a pasty consistency, with a decided odor and flavor, which is produced by a reddish-brown mold. It is marketed in small, round, wooden boxes. Limburger is made from either whole or skim milk, and has a reddish-yellow rind. Its odor is distasteful to most persons. Roquefort is a soft or semi-soft cheese and contains a blue mold. It is made in France from sheep's milk and is cured in caves that have just the right, uniform tem- perature. Cream cheese, true to name, is made from sweet cream, and is sold under various brands. Dutch, or cottage, cheese is made from sour skim milk. Composition of Cheese. — The composition of cheeses varies. In general, they may be regarded as composed of about one-third protein, one- third fat, and one- third water. The following table gives the composition of a number of common varieties, as reported by various authorities: — The Composition of Cheese Kind Cheddar (green) Swiss Cream Full cream Skim milk Limburger Water Protein Fat Sugar Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent 36.80 23.75 33.75 0.00 36.10 28.00 29.50 3.30 36.33 18.84 40.71 1.02 38.00 25.35 30.25 1.43 46.00 34.06 11.65 3.42 35.70 34.20 24.20 3.00 Mineral matter Per cent 5.70 3.10 3.10 4.97 4.87 2.90 Food Value.^Cheese has a high food value. Nearly all of the protein and fat of a gallon of milk is contained in —7 98 DOMESTIC SCIENCE the pound of cheese made from it; it is therefore a very concentrated food. In general, it may be said that a pound of ordinary cheese is equal in food value to about two pounds of ordinary meat, a dozen or more eggs, and a pint of dried peas or beans. It may therefore be used as a substitute for meat, and is so used in many European countries. The latest experimental evidence goes to show that while cheese may remain in the stomach a little longer than some other foods, due to the fact that the fat is so closely bound up with the protein, yet it is completely and easily digested in quantity without harmful results. In selecting cheese, it must be remembered that the stronger flavored varieties are much higher in price and are to be regarded as luxuries. The mild varieties have an equally high food value, are comparatively cheap, and could well be used more extensively in place of meat in American homes. Cheese should be eaten along with bread, rice, macaroni, or similar food, to balance the carbohydrates and to furnish more bulk. When used at the close of a full meal, instead of as a part of it, cheese is likely to overtax the system with much protein and fat, unless proper care is taken in plan- ning the meal. Cooking Cheese. — Cheese may be served in a great variety of ways. It is used with eggs and milk to make fondu, souffles, or rarebit; and is added to macaroni, pota- toes, omelet, or creamed vegetables to form a substitute for meat. It is served with salads or on toasted crackers and in cheese straws. Cheese does not require long cooking, which toughens it, but is sufficiently cooked when melted. There is nothing to show that properly cooked cheese is any harder to digest than that uncooked. MILK PRODUCTS 99 APPLICATION 1. Cheese Souffle 2 tbsp. butter H c. grated cheese 3 tbsp. flour 3 egg yolks 3^ c. scalded milk 3 egg whites }/2 tsp. salt Cayenne Method. — Melt the butter, add the flour, and, when well mixed, add the scalded milk gradually. Cook until it thickens, and then remove from the fire. Add the salt, cayenne, cheese, and the well-beaten yolks. Cool the mix- ture and add the well-beaten whites by cutting and folding. Pour into a buttered baking dish and bake 20 minutes in a slow oven. Serve at once. This serves 6 or 8 persons. (Basis for two, 3^ rule.) 2. Cottage Cheese Method. — Place thick, freshly-soured milk or butter- milk over a pan of hot water, not boiling. When the milk is warm and the curd separate from the whey, drain in a cheesecloth and dry. Put the curd into a bowl and add salt, pepper, and cream to taste. 3. Cheese Straws (a)* Method. — Roll pastry 34 inch thick, and sprinkle one- half with grated cheese. Fold, press edges firmly together, fold again, pat and roll out 34 inch thick. Sprinkle with cheese and fold and roll out a second time. Cut into strips 5 inches long and 34 inch wide. Bake 8 minutes in a hot oven. Serve with salad. Cheese straws are good made out of left-over pie dough, and may be kept and freshened in the oven. 4. Cheese Straws (b) 14 lb. grated cheese 3^ lb. butter }/2 lb. flour Method. — Cream the butter and stir into the flour, add the cheese and mix it in well. Add enough milk to soften 100 DOMESTIC SCIE1\^CE it for kneading. Knead it, and roll thin — about f/s inch thick. Cut in even sticks, as in rule (a) and bake until a light brown. Serve with salads. This rule makes 75 to 100. 5. Cheese Balls* 2 eggs 1 c. grated cheese A few fine bread crumbs Method. — Beat the whites of eggs to a stiff froth, add the cheese and the bread crumbs, and roll into small balls about 1 inch in diameter. Roll the balls in the yolks of the eggs, then in the fine crumbs, and fry in deep fat until a light brown color. Serve with salads. 6. Welsh Rarebit 1 lb. American cheese, grated 4 eggs 1 tsp. butter A few grains cayenne 1 c. cream or milk 1 tsp. mustard 1 tsp. salt }4: tsp. soda Squares of toast or crackers Method. — Break the cheese *in small pieces, or if hard grate it. Put it in a double boiler or chafing dish over a pan of hot water. Have the toast prepared and hot. Beat the egg well and add the mustard, salt, and pepper to th^^ egg. When the cheese is melted, stir in the egg mixture and the butter and cook 2 minutes or until it thickens a little. Serve on the hot toast or crisp crackers. If the cooking is not quite long enough the cheese is tough and stringy, and if cooked too long there is danger of curdling. Many use ale instead of cream. This serves 6 or 8 persons. Recipes 3 and 5 may not be applied until later. LESSON 13 BEVERAGES A beverage is anything that we drink, either to quench thirst or for its refreshing and stimulating effects. Water is the best and most commonly used beverage. Other com- mon ones for the table are tea, coffee, cocoa, chocolate, and the juices of fruits. Source. — Tea is made from the leaves of a shrub grown extensively in Japan, China, India, and Ceylon. Different qualities of strength and flavor in tea are due chiefly to the age of the leaves when picked and to the method of curing them. The young and tender leaves and buds yield teas of the highest quality. Kinds and Manufacture. — There are two kinds of tea, green and black, with many varieties or brands of each. Black tea is made by first allowing the leaves to wilt rather slowly, after which they are rolled, allowed to ferment and turn black, and then dried in an oven. Ex- amples of black tea are Pekoe, Oolong and English Breakfast. Green tea is made in a similar way to black tea, except that the curing process is done more rapidly and the leaves are first wilted at a tempera- (101) Fig. 10. Tea plant, showing parts to be plucked for the better grades of tea. (U. S. D. A. Bui.) 102 DOMESTIC SCIENCE ture high enough to kill the fermenting agents, thus pre- serving the green color. Hyson and Gunpowder are two common commercial varieties of green tea. Composition. — The most important substances in tea are theine, a stimulant; tannin, a harmful astringent; and a small amount of volatile oils, which give flavor and aroma. Black tea is milder than green tea. The theine is what we desire to extract from the leaves, and just a few minutes* steeping in water that has been brought to the boiling point is sufficient to dissolve out nearly all of it. Boiling or too long steeping draws out much of the tannin, which is undesirable. Food Value.— Tea itself has no food value. It is used for its mild stimulat- ing effect upon the ner- vous system and because it removes the sense of fatigue. Poor tea or tea taken in excess produces a hindering effect on diges- tion and, with many per- sons, causes irritation and sleeplessness. Children require no stimulants, and their health is best promoted without tea. Adulterations. — Cheap grades of tea are likely to be adulterated with tea dust, etc., and injurious substances are sometimes used to imitate the color of green tea. COFFEE Source. — Coffee is made from the berries of a tropical evergreen grown principally in Brazil, Arabia, Java, Ceylon, Fig. 11. A irviceable teakettle, with alcohol lamp. BEVERAGES 103 and East India. About three-fourths of the world's coffee comes from Brazil. Each berry has two seeds. Kinds. — Coffee grown in Arabia (Mocha coffee) is of fine quality, and is a small, dark-yellow, round berry. Java and East India coffees are pale yellow before roasting. Cey- lon and Brazilian coffees are a green gray. A combination of Mocha and Java makes an excellent coffee. Adulteration. — Coffee is frequently adulterated with roasted chicory, acorns, and parsnip roots. Good coffee does not sink in cold water, and does not quickly discolor cold water. Composition. — Coffee contains a stimulating substance called caffeine, which is the same thing as theine in tea. It also contains some essential oils and tannin. So much more of the injurious tannin in coffee is extracted by long boiling, and so little more of the good element, that coffee should not be allowed to boil longer than a few minutes. Food Value. — Coffee itself has no food value. It stimu- lates the nerves, brain, and heart, and the tannin has a hindering effect on digestion. Because it is usually made stronger, it has a greater stimulating effect than tea. For most persons, good coffee taken moderately at the close of a meal has a beneficial effect. Children should avoid coffee, as well as tea; they need no stimulants. Care of Coffee. — 1. Buy good, freshly roasted coffee, unground, and grind it as it is needed. 2. Keep it in an air-tight jar. 3. Never let coffee stand in the coffeepot between meals. 4. Use a clean, enamel coffeepot, and scald out after using. 5. Do not use soap in washing out the coffeepot. 104 DOMESTIC SCIENCE COCOA AND CHOCOLATE Source. — Cocoa and chocolate are products from the seeds of the cacao plant, which is grown chiefly in the trop- ical countries of America. Manufacture. — The cacao bean-pod is from 7 to 10 inches long and 3 or 4 inches in diameter. Each pod con- tains twenty to forty seeds. They are fermented in heaps on the ground for several days, to develop their flavor; then the beans are dried and roasted, the covering is removed, and they are sold as "cocoa nibs." Some of the fat is extracted from the cocoa nibs, and the rest of the bean is pulverized and mixed with sugar and a little starch. This is sold as cocoa. Chocolate has not as much of the fat removed. Some is sweetened and flavored, and some is sold as bitter chocolate. The fat obtained from the cocoa bean is sold as cocoa butter, and is used for medicinal and other purposes. Composition. — The cocoa bean contains nearly 50 per cent fat and 10 to 15 per cent starch, with a little protein. It contains a substance called theobromine, which is similar to caffeine, but is much milder. Food Value. — The fat and protein in cocoa and choco- late combined with the milk used in the preparations make them both nutritious foods. Chocolate is richer in fat and is harder to digest than cocoa. Cocoa makes a nourishing drink for children and invalids. Both have a slightly stim- ulating effect on the body. APPLICATION 1. Tea 3 tsp. tea 2 c. water Method. — Put the tea into a scalded earthen or china teapot and pour the freshly boiled water over it. Moder- BEVERAGES 105 ately hard water is best. Cover and allow to steep 3 to 5 minutes. Serve w^ith sugar and cream if desired, or with sugar, a dove, and a thin slice of lemon. Avoid all second brews, which contain more of the harmful tannin. Tea should always be freshly made and should never be boiled. For iced tea, make tea, strain, and set on ice 3 or 4 hours. Serve with broken ice and a slice of lemon in each glass. 2. Coffee (a) 3^ c. ground coffee /2 c. cold water 2 eggshells (crumbled) or 3-^ 33^ c. boiling water egg white Method. — Mix cofTee, egg white or shells, and 3^ cup of cold water thoroughly. Add boiling water. Boil coffee 3 minutes and move coffeepot to back of the stove. Pour a little of the coffee into a cup to free spout from grounds; pour it back into the coffeepot and add }4 cup cold water. Let it stand for 10 minutes where it will keep hot but not boil. Serve with sugar and cream, if preferred, which are put into the hot cup before the coffee is poured in. Cofifee {b) Y2 c. ground coffee 4 c. cold water 2 eggshells (crumbled) or 3^ egg Method. — Mix coffee, egg, and cold water. Allow it to come to a boil and boil for 1 minute. Pour a little cold water into the spout to settle coffee. Allow it to stand in a warm place for 10 minutes. Strain and serve in usual way. 3. Filtered Coffee Y2 c. coffee 4 c. boiling water Method. — Put finely ground coffee into upper part or strainer in the top of a coffeepot, and pour the boiling water slowly upon it. Allow the water to filter slowly through, then pour it out, and let filter through again. The coffeepot must be kept hot while coffee is being made, but 106 DOMESTIC SCIENCE filtered coffee must never be boiled. This produces a clear, bright coffee and requires about 5 minutes for making. Serve at once, or the bright flavor will be lost. (Makes 4 cups of coffee.) 4. Percolated Coffee Method. — Use same proportion of coffee as for Filtered Coffee. Place the coffee in the strainer in the upper part of the pot and let the water boil up through the tube, percolat- ing through the coffee into the lower part, where it is sent boiling to the tube again. The glass top renders it easy to see when the coffee is strong enough. The flame can be turned low so as to keep the coffee hot but not boiling. 5. After-Dinner Cofifee Method. — Allow 2 tablespoons finely ground coffee to each large coffee cup of freshly boiled water. Filter accord- ing to directions given. 6. Chocolate 1 sq. Baker's chocolate Pinch of salt 2 tbsp. sugar 1 qt. hot milk 2 tbsp. hot water Method. — Put chocolate, sugar, salt, and 2 tablespoon- fuls of hot water in a pan. Boil until smooth, stirring constantly, add gradually the hot milk. Boil for several minutes. Serve with whipped cream or a marshmallow on the top of each cup. (Basis for 2 girls, 3^ rule.) 7. Cocoa 1 pt. scalded milk 2 tbsp. cocoa 1 pt. boiling water 2 to 4 tbsp. sugar Method. — Mix cocoa and sugar in a saucepan, stir in the water gradually, and boil 5 minutes. Add the milk, and cook 5 minutes longer or until smooth. Note. — If this is to stand, beat well to prevent the albu- minous skin from forming. BEVERAGES 107 8. Lemonade 1 lemon (juice) 2 tbsp. sugar 1 c. boiling water 1 thin slice lemon Method, — Wash the lemon, cut a thin slice from the cen- ter, and remove the seeds. Squeeze the juice into a bowl, add the sugar and the boiling water, cover, and set on ice to cool. Strain into a glass and put the slice of lemon on top. Add ice if liked. Note. — Variations of this lemonade may be made by adding fruit juices or mineral water. LESSON 14 QUICK BREADS— THIN BATTERS Quick breads are mixtures of flour and liquid, together with some sugar, salt, shortening, and a leavening agent. They are so named to distinguish them from the yeast breads, which require a longer time in making. Quick-bread mixtures are either batters or doughs, depending upon the amount of liquid used. Batters are mixtures that are beaten. There are two kinds: — 1. Pour hatters, which are in the proportion of 1 meas- ure of liquid to 1 of flour. 2. Drop batters, which are in the proportion of 1 measure of liquid to 2 of flour. Dough Is a mixture that is kneaded. There are two kinds: — 1. Soft dough, in the proportion of 1 measure of liquid to 3 of flour. 2. Stiff dough, in the proportion of 1 measure of liquid to 4 or more of flour. The proportions vary to some extent according to the flour used. Materials for Quick Breads. — The liquids used are milk, water, or molasses. Eggs are regarded as so much liquid. The fats used are butter, lard, suet, or beef drippings. This fat is spoken of as shortening, as it makes the mixtures more tender. The flour used is wheat flour or meal (corn, rye, or graham). Leavening Agents. — Flour mixtures when baked would be very hard and indigestible If no leavening agent were (108) QUICK BREADS— THIN BATTERS 109 used. Air, steam, and carbon dioxide gas are the agents used for this purpose. Air is introduced into flour mixtures (1) by adding eggs and then beating the mixture, or (2) by beating the eggs first and adding to the mixture. Can you name a case where air was used to make a mixture Hght? Steam. — The liquid in a heated mixture is converted into steam and is expanded many times. This puffs up the mixture. The heat of the oven hardens the mixture and holds the steam in. Mixtures without flour fall when cool, as steam changes back to water when cold. Carbon dioxide gas is produced in mixtures to lighten them, by the addition of — 1. Soda and an acid (cream of tartar, sour milk, or molasses). Soda and cream of tartar make baking powder. 2. Yeast, as in bread making. Directions for Mixing Quick Breads. — 1. Sift and mix the dry materials. 2. Add the wet materials to the dry. 3. Beat eggs separately and add to the mixture, and beat thoroughly. 4. Rub or cut shortening in cold; or melt and add to the mixture. 5. Use a large mixing spoon. 6. Mix quickly and put into the oven to bake quickly. Baking. — Quick breads should be baked as soon as mixed, in order to hold all the leavening material (air, steam, and gas) in the mixture. This is especially neces- sary w^ith thin batters, also those raised by air or those raised by soda and liquid acids (sour milk and molasses). The gas in the latter case is produced more readily in the presence of moisture. 110 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Temperature of Oven. — Different mixtures require differ- ent temperatures, and most recipes designate the tempera- ture of the oven. In order to ascertain the temperature, some simple tests similar to the following are used: — 1. A moderate oven turns a piece of white paper golden brown in 5 minutes. 2. A hot oven turns a piece of white paper dark brown in 5 minutes. Pans. — Grease pans thoroughly. Use a small brush or a piece of paper for greasing. The time for baking is divided into quarters, as follows: — 1. Mixture rises. 2. Mixture continues to rise, and browns slightly. 3. Mixture finishes rising and browns all over. 4. Mixture finishes baking and shrinks from the pan. Time Guide for Baking Quick Breads (with gas). — Pop-overs 30 min. Biscuits (baking powder) 10 to 20 min. Corn bread (thin) 15 to 20 min. Corn bread (thick) 30 to 40 min. Muffins (baking powder) 20 to 25 min. Gingerbread 30 to 45 min. APPLICATION 1. Pop-overs (thin batter) 1 c. flour 3^ tsp. salt 1 c. milk 2 eggs Method. — Put the flour in a bowl, make a well in the center, and drop in the salt. Add the milk gradually, and stir well. When smooth add the unbeaten eggs and beat hard until light. Bake in buttered muffin pans in a hot oven 30 minutes. Serve hot. (Makes 8 pop-overs.) {Basis for 2 girls, yi rule.) QUICK BREADS— THIN BATTERS 111 2. Sour Milk Griddle Cakes 2 c. flour 1 egg 1 tsp. soda 3^ tsp. salt 2 c. sour milk Method. — Mix and sift the dry ingredients; add the sour milk and egg well beaten. Bake by spoonfuls on a hot, greased griddle. (Beat the batter well before pouring a fresh batch of cakes on the griddle.) When puffed full of bubbles and cooked on the edges, turn and cook on the other side. Grease pan, and repeat. If large bubbles form at once on the top of the cakes, the griddle is too hot. If the top of the cake stiffens before the under side is cooked, the griddle is not hot enough. {Basis for 2 girls, % ride.) 3. Griddle Cakes (baking powder, sweet milk) 3 c. flour M c. sugar IJ^ tbsp. baking powder 2 c. milk 1 tsp. salt 1 egg 2 tbsp. melted butter Method. — Mix and sift the dry ingredients; beat egg, add milk, and then add the wet mixture to the dry. Beat thoroughly and add the butter. Cook the same as Sour Milk Griddle Cakes. Begin cooking cakes at once or more baking powder will be required. {Basis for 2 girls, \i rule.) 4. Bread Griddle Cakes 13^^ c. fine stale bread crumbs 2 tbsp. butter 13^ c. scalded milk 4 tsp. baking powder 3 eggs ^2 c. flour }/^ tsp. salt Method. — Add the milk and butter to the crumbs, and soak until crumbs are soft; add eggs well beaten, then the flour, salt, and baking powder mixed and sifted Cook the same as other griddle cakes. 112 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 5. Waffles 1 c. milk M c. melted butter 2 eggs 2 sc. tsp. baking powder Pinch of salt Flour to make soft batter (about 23^ c.) Method. — Beat flour and milk, add butter, and beat. Add the well-beaten yolks and beat again; then add baking powder and a little salt and beat very hard for a few minutes. Fold in the well-beaten whites lightly. Have iron very hot; bake, and serve at once. LESSON 15 QUICK BREADS— BAKING POWDER Composition. — Baking powder is made up of substances that react and form carbon dioxide gas in the presence of heat and moisture. It contains one part of baking soda (saleratus) and two parts of an acid (cream of tartar, phos- phate, or alum) with a Httle starch to keep it dry. Cream of tartar is an acid substance obtained from the argols or crystals formed on the inside of wine casks. Soda is an alkaline product made from common salt and contains a carbonate. Experiments to show the action of soda and an acid : — 1. Mix 34 tsp. of soda and Y2 tsp. of cream of tartar. What happens? 2. Add 34 cup of cold water to the mixture. What happens? 3. Add 34 cup of boiling water to a similar mixture of soda and cream of tartar. Compare the results with Experiments 1 and 2. Action of Baking Powder. — Carbon dioxide gas is pro- duced rapidly by the action of baking powder in the pres- ence of a liquid and heat. As the bubbles of gas are formed and expand they lift up the mixture and make it light. Baking must be accomplished while the bubbles are forming if best results are to be obtained. If too hot an oven is used, a crust is formed before all the gas is liber- ated and as a result the bread is heavy. Quick breads baked in too hot an oven often crack open on the top. If too cool an oven is used the gas forms and passes off before enough heat is present to produce a crust. — S (113) 114 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Mixtures containing eggs do not require as hot an oven since albumin is coagulated at a moderate temperature. Kinds of Baking Powder.— Baking powders are classed according to the acid used; as (1) cream of tartar, (2) tartaric acid, (3) phosphate, and (4) alum, baking powders. Fig. 12. Muffins. The first three named are regarded as more healthful than alum powders, since they leave no harmful residues in the bread, which is the objection to baking powders containing alum. The proportion of baking powder to use with flour is 2 teaspoons baking pow^der to 1 cup of flour. If eggs are used in a mixture, use less baking powder. Why? APPLICATION 1. Muffins (plain egg) 2 c. flour ^2 tsp. salt 3 tsp. baking powder 1 egg 4 tbsp. sugar 4 tbsp. melted butter % c. milk QUICK BREADS— BAILING POWDER 11.- Method. — Mix and sift the dry ingredients, separate the egg, beat the yolk sHghtly and the white to a stiff froth. Add the milk, beaten yolk, and melted butter to the dry ingredients. Fold in the stifidy-beaten whites. Bake in buttered muffin pans 25 minutes. (Basis for 2 girls, }4 rule.) 2. Blueberry Muffins Add to the preceding plain-egg recipe: — 1 c. blueberries 3-3 c. sugar Method. — Mix the same as the plain-egg muffins. For blueberry muffins use a little less milk. (Basis for 2 girls, J^ rule.) 3. Rice Muffins 234 c. flour 1 c. milk % c. hot cooked rice 1 egg 5 tsp. baking powder 2 tbsp. melted butter 3 tbsp. sugar 3^ tsp. salt Method. — Mix and sift the dry ingredients; add }/2 the milk and the well-beaten egg. Mix the remainder of the milk with the rice and add to the first mixture, beating thoroughly. Then add the melted butter and bake in buttered muffin tins. (Basis for 2 girls, 34 ride.) 4. Invalid Muffins 1 c. flour 3^ c. milk 1 tsp. baking powder 2 eggs (whites) }/2 tsp. salt 2 tbsp. melted butter Method. — Mix and sift the dry ingredients, add the milk gradually, the eggs well beaten, and lastly the melted butter. Bake in a moderate oven in buttered gem pans. After baking, let stand in the oven, with door open, until the crust is dry and crisp. Serve hot or cold. 116 ■ DOMESTIC SCIENCE 5. Date Muffins }/i c. butter ^ c. milk }4: c. sugar 2 c. flour }4: tsp. salt K lb. dates 1 egg 4 tsp. baking powder Method. — Cream the butter, add the sugar gradually and the dates chopped fine. Cream all together, add the beaten egg, then half of the milk, and half of the flour. Beat thoroughly. Add the remainder of the milk and the flour, beating hard. Sift the baking powder over the top and carefully fold it into the mixture. Bake in hot greased muffin pans for 20 minutes. LESSON 16 QUICK BREADS— THICK BATTERS Review leavening agents (Lesson 14). CORN Source. — Corn is a native of America, and ranks first in importance of all crops raised in this country. Kinds. — There are three kinds of corn of interest in cook- ery: (1) dent (field) corn, (2) sweet corn, and (3) pop corn. Dent corn is large and coarse and is used for making cornmeal, cornstarch, corn sirup, and hominy. Name other uses. Sweet corn is finer grained and contains sugar. It is used as a table vegetable and is served both on the ear and off the ear. The Golden Bantam variety of sweet corn has very yellow ears, and is sweeter and more tender than any other variety. Pop corn has small, sharp, hard kernels. This corn when exposed to the heat bursts open, and the inside of the kernel, which is composed mainly of starch, swells into a mass of fluffy white. It is served hot and fresh with salt and butter, or with a sirup and made in the form of balls. It may also be used as a garnish around red apples filled with apple salad. Composition. — Corn is similar in structure and com- position to wheat, with the exception of the protein. Corn contains more fat than wheat and the protein has not the tenacious, elastic properties that gluten of wheat has. It cannot be baked into a light, porous loaf. Cornmeal is very heavy when used alone, and most recipes call for (117) 118 DOMESTIC SCIENCE the addition of white flour, as the gluten In the flour helps to hold the air In the mixture. Corn contains a small quantity of cellulose compared with other grains. Composition of Corn Foods Corn (whole) Hulled corn. . Hominy Pop corn . . . . Cornmeal . . . Protein Fat Carbohy- drates Minerals 10.5 5.4 71.7 1.5 2.3 .9 22.2 .5 8.6 .6 79.6 .3 10.7 5.0 78.7 1.3 8.9 2.2 75.1 .9 Water 10.9 74.1 10.9 4.3 12.9 CORN PRODUCTS Hominy is the corn kernel with the skin removed and may be either whole or cracked into coarse pieces. The skin was formerly removed by soaking in strong lye, but this Is now done by machinery. Cornmeal is made in two grades. A rather coarse meal is made by grinding the whole kernel and removing only the coarsest bran. This meal Is darker in color than the fine grade and does not keep well In summer, owing to the large amount of fat In the germ. A fancy grade Is made by removing both the skin and the germ from the kernel and grinding the remainder quite fine. Cornstarch Is the pure starch of the corn grain, made by washing the flour. Potd.toes are now coming to be used more for this purpose. Glucose, or corn sirup, is made by boiling corn starch with dilute acid. It Is about three-fifths as sweet as cane sugar, and is wholesome for table use and for candles. Food Value of Corn. — Corn, being rich In fat and starch, furnishes much heat and energy to the body. It Is deficient in protein and salts, which necessitates its being used with foods containing tissue-building materials. QUICK BREADS— THICK BATTERS 119 Cornmeal cooked in the form of mush, hoe-cake, johnny- cake, and brown bread is a very popular dish in the South and in some European countries. Such food is easily masticated and digested, may be quickly prepared, is cheap, nutritious, and may well be used more extensively every- where. APPLICATION 1. Cornmeal Muffins 1^ c. cornmeal 1 tbsp. melted butter . 1 c. flour yi tsp. salt 3 tsp. baking powder M c. milk 1 tbsp. sugar 1 egg Method. — Mix and sift dry ingredients, add the milk gradually, then the egg well beaten, and the melted butter. Bake in a hot oven in buttered gem pans for 25 minutes. {Basis for 2 girls, Yi 'rule.) 2. Graham Muffins 1 c. graham flour 1 c. milk M c. flour 1 egg ^ c. sugar 1 tbsp. melted butter 1 tsp. salt 4 tsp. baking powder Method. — Same as for Corn Meal Muffins. 3. Corn Bread ^/i c. cornmeal 3^ tsp. salt 1 c. flour 1 c. milk ^ c. sugar 1 egg 3 tsp. baking powder 2 tbsp. melted butter Method.— Mix and sift the dry ingredients, add the milk, then the well-beaten egg, and lastly the melted butter. Beat thoroughly. Bake for 25 minutes in a shallow buttered pan in a hot oven. {Basis for 2 girls, 3^ rule.) 4. Muffins (without eggs) 1 c. buttermilk 1 tbsp. sour cream M tsp. soda 2 c. flour 120 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Method. — Dissolve the soda in the buttermilk. Sift the flour, add the salt, and gradually add wet mixture to dry. Beat hard and bake in hot muffin tins in a hot oven 20 min- utes. 5. Southern Spoon Bread 2 c. milk H tsp. salt 1 c. cornmeal 4 eggs Method. — Scald the milk, and slowly stir in the corn- meal, add the salt and let boil 2 or 3 minutes. Remove from the fire, add the beaten egg yolks, beat well, then care- fully fold in the stiffly beaten whites of eggs. Pour into a buttered baking dish and bake in a moderate oven }/^ hour. Serve hot from the baking dish at the table with a large spoon. LESSON 17 QUICK BREADS— SODA Quick breads are often made light by the use of soda with material containing acid, like sour milk or molasses. The acid and soda form carbon dioxide gas throughout the mixture, which causes it to rise. The acid material being liquid, the action is quicker than when baking powder is used, and mixtures raised in this way must be prepared quickly and put in a hot oven at once. Experiments to produce carbon dioxide gas with soda and a liquid acid: — 1. Put }/i tsp. of soda in }/2 c. of sour milk. 2. Heat the mixture. Watch it. The action in the case of soda gives the same results as baking powder, and makes mixtures light. Proportion of soda with acid material : — ■ To 1 c. thick sour milk use }/2 tsp. of soda. To 1 c. of molasses use 1 tsp. of soda. APPLICATION 1. Soft Molasses Gingerbread 1 c. molasses 2 hp. c. flour M c. melted butter 2 tsp. ginger \% tsp. soda }/i, tsp. salt 1 c. sour milk Few drops of vanilla Method. — Put the soda into the sour milk, then add to the molasses. Sift dry materials together and add the wet to the dry; beat vigorously. Bake 15 minutes in buttered muffin pans, having pans % filled with the mixture. {Basis for 2 girls, }/i rule.) Note. — A few floured raisins might be added to this recipe. (121) 122 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 2. Hot Water Gingerbread 1 c. molasses 13^ tsp. ginger 1/2 c. boiling water 1 tsp. soda 2M c. flour }/2 tsp. salt 4 tbsp. melted butter Method. — Add the boiling water to the molasses. Mix and sift the dry ingredients and add the wet mixture to the dry; then add the melted butter; beat hard. Pour in buttered pan or muffin tins, and bake in a moderate oven for 25 minutes. 34 cup of floured raisins may be added to make a variety. 3. Brown Nut Bread 2 c. graham flour }4 c molasses 1 c. white flour J^ c. sugar 2 c. sour milk 3^ c. raisins 2 tsp. soda H c. nuts 1 tsp. salt Method. — Mix the dry materials together; cut and flour the raisins and the nuts or add them to the dry materials. Add the sour milk to the molasses, and then add the wet materials to the dry. Grease one-pound baking powder cans thoroughly and pour in the mixture, cover, and let stand an hour; then bake 45 minutes in a hot oven. This makes 3 loaves. Fill cans only % full, for the mixture rises before baking. LESSON 18 QUICK BREADS— SOFT DOUGH Flour is made from wheat, which undergoes many processes before it comes to us as flour. Kinds of Flour. — (1) Graham flour, (2) whole-wheat flour, (3) bread flour, (4) pastry flour. Turn to Lesson 6, on wheat. Notice the structure of wheat, also note the differ- ence between spring and winter wheats. Graham flour is made by grinding the entire grain of spring wheat, including the outer bran coverings. Whole-wheat flour is made by grinding the whole grains of spring wheat, with the exception of the two outer and coarser bran coats. Bread flour is made by grinding the remainder of the grain of spring wheat after the bran coats and much of the germ are removed. Pastry flour is made from the starchy part of the grain of winter wheat. The outer bran coats and the germ are not used. Manufacture of Flour. — Wheat is taken into the mill and carefully washed to remove all dust. It is soaked to soften it some, then passed between either millstones or rollers, which grind the grain. There are two chief methods of breaking or grinding the grain, but that used in the best mills for high-grade flour is called roller milling. The wheat may pass through as many as eight different sets of rollers, each crushing or grinding finer than the preceding. After each grinding, the fine flour is sifted, or bolted, through silk cloth of different degrees of fineness. Many by-products; (123) 124 DOMESTIC SCIENCE as, bran, middlings, shorts, etc., areproduced. Graham and whole-wheat flour are usually ground between millstones, in one operation. The flour is finally packed into barrels and sacks, ready for the market. A barrel of flour weighs 196 pounds, and sacks containing 10, 20, 50, and 100 pounds are filled. Grades of Flour. — There are many grades of flour made in every mill. The grade depends upon the quality of the wheat and upon the sorting in the milling process. Inferior flour is sometimes sold as best flour, and we pay the price of the best. We must be able to detect poor flour and to demand a grade of flour w^orth the price we pay. Composition of a bread flour is as follows: — Protein Carbohydrates Fat Mineral matter Water 11.3% 74.6% 1-1% -5% 12.5% How to Tell Good Flour.— 1. In color it is white with a yellowish tinge. 2. It has a gritty feeling, not being too smooth and powdery. 3. It absorbs water readily. 4. It falls loosely apart after being squeezed in the hand, indicating that it does not contain too much moisture. 5. Good bread flour makes an elastic dough. Experiments to determine the presence of starch and gluten: — 1. Test flour with iodine for starch. 2. Make a cup of flour into a stift' dough with a little cold water. Knead in a strainer set in a bowl of water for a few minutes. What washes away? What is the nature of the substance that is left? 3. Compare bread flour and pastry flour. QUICK BREADS— SOFT DOUGH 125 APPLICATION Demonstrate Baking Powder Biscuit: — (a) Methcd of cutting in shortening, (b) Method of handling doug^h en a board. 1. Baking Powder Biscuit 2 c. flour 4 tsp. baking powder 2 tbsp. shortening 1 tsp. salt ^4 c. milk Method. — Mix and sift the fiour, baking powder, and salt. Cut in the shortening, using two knives, or rub in with the Fig. 13. Baking powder bi?cuits. tips of the fingers. Add the milk gradually, mixing with a knife, to make a soft dough. Transfer to a well-floured board, and pat or roll out to one inch thickness. Handle as lightly and quickly as possible. Cut with a biscuit cutter, first dipped in flour. Place close together on a greased pan, and bake in a hot oven 10 to 15 minutes. {Basis for 2 girls, 14 fule.) 2. Emergency Biscuit 2 c. flour 4 tbsp. bufter % c. milk 4 tsp. baking powder ^ tsp. salt 126 DOME f^ TIC f;CIENCE Method. — Mix and sift dry ingredients; chop in butter with knives; then add the milk, and do not stir more than necessary. Bake in buttered gem pans. {Basis for 2 girls, ]/i rule.) 3. Nut Bread 4 c. flour 1 c. chopped nuts 1 tsp. salt 2 c. milk 4 hp. tsp. baking powder }/2 c. sugar 1 egg Method. — Mix and sift dry ingredients and nuts. Beat the egg, add the milk, and stir wet mixture into dry. Put in well-greased bread tins. Let stand about 20 minutes to rise. Bake }/2 hour in a moderate oven. This makes 2 loaves. LESSON 19 VARIETIES OF BAKING POWDER BISCUIT DOUGH Baking powder biscuit dough is made richer and sweeter when used for desserts — shortcakes and dumpUngs — but the method of preparation is very much the same as for biscuits. APPLICATION 1. Shortcake, Peach 2 c. flour 4 tsp. baking powder 4 tbsp. shortening (butter or ^ tsp. salt lard) % c. milk 1 tsp. sugar Method. — Mix and sift the dry ingredients, cut in the shortening as for baking powder biscuit. Add enough milk Fig. 14. Individual peach siiortcakes gradually until the mass adheres together. Turn out on a slightly floured board and pat out to }/z inch in thickness. Cut in size to fit tins and put one piece on top of the other, with butter between. (Individual shortcakes may be made by cutting with a cutter and placing one piece on top of the (127) ]28 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Other.) Bake in a hot oven for 20 minutes; then spht open ready for fruit. To prepare peaches, peel them, cut in small slices, and sprinkle with sugar. Have the fruit warm, place some on the lower half, put other half of cake on top, and put fruit over the whole. Serve with cream or whipped cream. (Basis for 2 girls, }4 rule.) 2. Berry Shortcake Method, — Make shortcake same as for peach shortcake. Sweeten berries to taste, and warm. Crush slightly and put between and on top of the shortcake. LESSON 20 VARIETIES OF BAKING POWDER BISCUIT DOUGH (Continued) Review batters and doughs. Review baking powder. APPLICATION 1. Apple Dumplings 1 c. flour 2 tbsp. shortening 2 tsp. baking powder 14 c water or milk 14: tsp. salt 4 apples H c. sugar Method. — Mix and sift flour, baking powder, and salt. Cut in the shortening with knives, add the Hquid, mixing to a soft dough. Roll on a well-floured board to 34 inch thickness. Wipe, pare, and cut apples in halves. Cut dough in 4- or 5-inch squares. Place half an apple in center of square, and sprinkle with sugar and cinnamon. Moisten edge of dough; bring the four corners together around the apple. Pierce with a fork to allow steam to escape. Bake on a greased tin in a moderate oven until soft, — about 25 minutes. Serve warm with cream or any pudding sauce. {Basis for 2 girls, 3^ rule.) 2. Dutch Apple Cake 2 c. flour 1 egg }/2 tsp. salt % c. milk 3 tsp. baking powder 2 sour apples % c. butter ^ 2 tbsp. sugar ]4: tsp. cinnamon Method. — Mix and sift the dry ingredients except sugar and cinnamon, . cut or rub in the butter, add the milk and beaten egg. Spread 3^ inch thick on a shallow pan. —9 - - ^^^^^ 130 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Pare and cut the apples in sections lengthwise and set in rows on the dough with the sharp edges pressed lightly into the dough. Sprinkle the top with sugar and cinnamon. Bake in a hot oven 25 or 30 minutes. Serve hot with lemon or hard sauce. 3. Vanilla Sauce 3^ sc. c. of sugar 1 c. boiling water 1 tbsp. corn starch or 2 of flour 1 tsp. vanilla 1 tbsp. butter Method. — Mix sugar and corn starch in a sauce pan. Pour on the boiling water, stirring rapidly. Boil and stir until clear, add butter and vanilla. Serve hot or cold. 4. Lemon Sauce }/2 c. sugar 2 tbsp. butter 1 c. boiling water 13^2 tbsp. lemon juice 1 tbsp. corn starch Few gratings nutmeg Pinch of salt Method. — Mix the sugar and corn starch, add the water gradually, stir constantly. Boil 5 minutes, remove from fire, add the butter, lemon juice, and nutmeg. Serve hot. (Housekeepers make full rule.) 5. Hard Sauce }/i c. butter 3^ tsp. lemon juice 1 c. powdered sugar % tsp. vanilla Method. — Cream the butter, add the sugar gradually and the flavoring. Set away to get cold. Serve cold. LESSON 21 BREAD— YEAST Yeast is a mass of very tiny plants, each plant consisting of a single cell. Source. — Wild yeast is present in the air and on the skins of grapes. Desirable varieties are cultivated. Growth. — Yeast plants grow by budding, each bud breaks away from the parent cell and in turn forms new buds. Under favorable conditions the growth is so rapid that'often many buds are formed on one cell at one time, and these in turn are budded before they separate from the parent cell. Under certain conditions yeast forms spores, which grow when they lodge in a favorable place. Conditions favorable to growth are: (1) Warmth (77° to 95° F. is best). (2) Moisture. (3) Food (starch and sugar) . Freezing (32° F.) checks the growth. Hot water, or a temperature above 130° F., kills yeast. Forms. — (1) Liquid, (2) dry, (3) compressed. Liquid yeast is not as much used now as in earlier times. It is made from potatoes, hops, sugar, and water. A few yeast plants are added, which feed upon the mixture and multiply very rapidly until the mixture is alive with them. A small amount of this mixture added to dough produces the necessary leaven. Dry yeast is a market form of yeast. The yeast plants are skimmed from vats of wort, a dilute sugar solution, and are washed, dried, and mixed with starch to keep dry. Then the mass is pressed into sheets which are cut into small squares and put in packages for the market. Dry (131) 132 DOMESTIC 8CIE2CCE yeast will keep for a long time and will start to grow only when proper food, heat, and moisture are present again. This form of yeast is convenient for any one living a long distance from market. Compressed yeast is prepared in the same manner as dry yeast, with the exception that not enough starch is used to keep the yeast dry. The life of the yeast in this case is not entirely sus- pended , and so compress- ed yeast cakes must be strictly fresh. If dark spots appear, it means that some of the little yeast plants have died, and the yeast cake will not do its work as well. Compressed yeast is wrapped in tinfoil to keep it moist and free from dust. Action of Yeast. — When the yeast plant is put into the bread mixture it feeds upon the starch (which it first changes to sugar), and as it feeds, alcohol and carbon diox- ide gas are formed. This change of the sugar is called fer- mentation. The substance causing the change is a ferment. In this case the yeast is a ferment. If fermentation con- tinues too long, the mixture becomes sour. Dough sours when allowed to rise too long or at too high a temperature. When the dough is light enough, the bread is baked. Bak- ing kills the yeast plants quickly, and causes the alcohol to pass out of the bread as vapor. Experiments to show effect of temperature on yeast: — Fig. 15. Yeast plants (greatly enlarged). (U. S. D. A. Bui.) BREAD— YEASf 133 1. Mix a yeast cake with J^ c. lukewarm water and 2 tsp. of sugar. How can you tell when water is lukewarm? 2. Put a third of the above mixture in a glass. Keep at a freezing temperature for an hour. 3. Put a third of the mixture in a glass and keep at the boiling point for an hour. 4. Put one third of the mixture in a glass and keep at a lukewarm temperature for an hour. 5. Set No. 2 in a warm place for an hour. Notice the change. \ Examine each one at the end of the hour and write conclusions. Why, in order to have the best results in bread making, should an even temperature be maintained while the dough is "rising?" General Directions for Steaming Mixtures. — 1. Use a tin mold or can with a tight-fitting cover. 2. Grease the inside of the mold and the cover thor- oughly. 3. Fill cans only % full. 4. . Tie covers on securely. 5. Set mold on a rack in a kettle containing enough boiling water to come half way up on the mold. Why is a rack necessary? Or set mold in a steamer over boiling water. 6. Cover the kettle or steamer tightly. 7. Keep water boiling all the time, and add more water as needed. 8. Set the mold in the oven for a few minutes to dry off after steaming is done. APPLICATION 1. Steamed Boston Brown Bread 1 c. rye flour ^ tbsp. soda 1 c. cornmeal 1 tsp. salt 1 c. whole wheat 34 c. molasses 2 c. sour milk or 1^ c. water 134 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Method. — Mix and sift dry ingredients; add molasses and liquid ; stir until well mixed ; turn into a well-buttered mold and steam 33^ hours. Butter the cover before placing it on the mold. Fill mold % full. Baking-powder tins may be used for molds. Steam according to directions. {Basis for 2 girls, }/^ rule.) 2. Suet Pudding 1 c. finely chopped suet \}/2 tsp. salt 1 c. molasses \^ tsp. ginger 1 c. milk }/^ tsp. cloves 3 c. flour }/2 tsp. nutmeg 1 tsp. soda 1 tsp. cinnamon 1 c. raisins Method. — Mix and sift dry ingredients. Add molasses and milk to suet. Combine the mixtures and add the floured raisins. Steam in a buttered, covered mold 3 hours. Serve with Lemon or Hard sauce. {Basis for 2 girls, % rule.) LESSON 22 BREAD Bread is one of the earliest and most-used foods of man. Ingredients necessary for white bread are: Wheat flour, liquid (water or milk) and yeast. Sugar, shortening, and salt are used to flavor it. Methods of Making Bread. — There are many ways of making bread, but all come under either of two main heads: (1) slow process or (2) quick process. In the slow process, mix the ingredients into a batter or a sponge and set to rise until it is full of air bubbles, usually over night. Then add enough flour to make a stiff dough. Knead this on a floured board until smooth and elastic to the touch. Let rise again until double its bulk. Take upon the board and shape into loaves; let stand in greased tins until double their size. Bake in a moderate oven 40 or 45 minutes. In the quick process, use more yeast than in the slow process. Mix ingredients together into a sponge, and beat the sponge hard until it is full of air bubbles. This beating takes the place of one rising. Add enough flour to make stiff enough to knead on a board, turn on a floured board and knead as in slow process. Let it rise once to double its bulk, shape into loaves, double bulk again, and bake. This process takes 5 hours. Setting the Sponge. — L Put yeast to soak in a little luke- warm water. This dissolves the starch with the yeast and frees the yeast plants so that they can act more quickly. (135) 136 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 2. Use half milk and water or all water for the liquid. Half and half makes a richer loaf. All-milk bread dries out rapidly. 3. Scald the milk in the upper part of a double boiler. 4. Put shortening (lard or butter), sugar, and salt in a large, earthen bowl. 5. Pour the scalded milk into the bowl and stir all until the sugar and butter are dissolved. 6. Add the water to the ingredients in the bowl. 7. When all is lukewarm, add the dissolved yeast mixture. Stir thoroughly. 8. Add as much flour as liquid, slowly, and beat contin- ually until smooth. 9. Add enough flour to make a drop batter. Beat this until full of bubbles. This drop batter in bread is called a "sponge.'' Making the Dough. — 10. Add enough more flour to make the batter stiff enough to handle on a board. 11. Take mixture upon a board, leaving bowl per- fectly clean. 12. Knead until it is smooth all through, is elastic to the touch, and springs back into place when pressed with the finger. Well-kneaded dough does not stick to the hands or to the board and can be kneaded without using flour on the board. 13. Put to rise in an earthen bowl in a warm place, and cover the bowl with a dry cloth. Wet the top of the dough slightly to keep it from getting so dry that it can not rise. First Rising. — 14. When the dough has doubled its bulk, remove from the bowl, take out clean, and knead just enough to shape into loaves. Cut in the right size for loaves. I BREAD 137 15. Prepare the pans by greasing thoroughly on bottom and sides. Be sure corners are well greased. 16. Shape the loaves well; make them the length of the pans and the same width. 17. Set the pans with bread in a warm place to rise and double bulk again. Baking Bread. — When bread is nearly ready for the oven, test the oven, which should be hot enough to turn M fcfe-"^^/ jr^«tim|^^^H^^^^H^\j Br ' 'jm -^-^ f m..: ^gl^g^ Fig. 16. Bread and rolls, with utensils for making. a piece of white paper dark brown in 6 minutes. Place pans on lower part of the oven and as near the center as possible. Time. — Small loaves require about 35 minutes; larger loaves (about 4 inches thick), 50 or 60 minutes. Divide time into quarters as follows: — 1st quarter, bread should rise and begin to brown. 2nd quarter, bread continues to rise and brown. 3rd quarter, it finishes browning and rising. 4th quarter, baking is finished and the loaf draws away slightly from the sides of the pan. 138 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Turn the loaves so that they will brown evenly. Tests When Done. — Bread draws away from the sides of the pans when done, and sounds hollow when tapped with the finger. Care After Baking. — Remove loaves from pans, and turn on the side on a table. If crisp crust is desired, let stand uncovered so the air can circulate around the loaf. If a tender crust is desired, rub well with melted butter or with milk. Good bread has a fine even grain, with no large holes in it. It has an even, golden brown crust. Uses for Stale Bread. — Stale bread may be used for crumbs, for toast (buttered and French), and for scallop dishes. Save and use all left-over pieces of bread. The large pieces are good for toast. Dry the smaller pieces or remnants of bread in a pan in the warming oven until they are crisp, but not brown. Crush the dry pieces with a rolling pin, and sift through a strainer. Put in a glass jar and keep covered until ready for use for croquettes, scalloped dishes or crumbing. Stale bread not dried may be used in puddings and griddle cakes. To freshen stale bread, put in a steamer over a kettle of boiling water, and steam 10 or 15 minutes until the bread is light and fresh. Suggestions to teachers on the method of conducting bread lessons in 23^ to 3 hours. Each girl makes one loaf and works alone. Preliminary Preparation. — Have double boiler ready, flour meas- ured, and the required amount of yeast at each desk, also pitchers filled with cold water when lesson begins. Scald the milk for the entire class. Class Management. — Mix the soft batter in the double boilers over lukewarm water. (Allow about 15 minutes.) Beat the batter and add the rest of the flour. (Allow 10 minutes.) Demonstrate the kneading. (Allow 5 minutes.) Class knead the dough. (Allow about 15 minutes.) First rising — in double boiler. (Allow }^ hour.) _ Wash dishes and grease tins while bread is rising. BREAD 139 Demonstrate the shaping of the loaves. (About 5 minutes.) Class shape loaves and grease tops. (Allow about 10 minutes.) Second rising takes 3^ hour. Baking 3^ hour. General Suggestions. — Use double period for bread lesson. Aim to have uniform work. One girl can delay the whole class. Increase the standard proportion of yeast to hurry the lesson. Hurry the measuring as much as possible. Hurry the first rising by the use of double boilers. Hurry the second rising by placing the loaves in the gas range slightly warmed; both the oven and broiling oven may be used. Guard against over-heating of dough. Small loaves require only j^ hour for baking. APPLICATION 1. Slow-Process Bread 1 c. scalded milk 1 tbsp. lard 1 c. cold water 1 tsp. salt 1 tbsp. sugar 3^ cake compressed yeast About 6 or 63^2 c. flour 3^ c. lukewarm water Method. — Soak the yeast in lukewarm water. Scald the milk and pour over the salt, sugar, and lard in a bowl. When these are dissolved, add the cold water. When luke- warm, add the dissolved yeast and enough flour to make ^ drop batter. Beat hard until smooth. This is a sponge and must stand several hours or over night to rise until very light; then proceed as in method above for kneading and baking. (Makes 2 loaves.) 2. Quick-Process Bread 1 c. scalded milk 1 tbsp. butter or lard 1 c. cold water 1 tsp. salt 1 tbsp. sugar 1 cake compressed yeast About 6 or 63^ c. flour 34 c. lukewarm water Method. — Soak yeast in lukewarm water. Scald the milk and pour over the salt, sugar, and butter in a bowl. Then add the cold water, dissolved yeast, and flour to make a batter. Beat this batter until it is full of bubbles; then add enough more flour to knead on a board. Take upon a floured board and proceed as directed for kneading. This method requires only 5 hours and two risings, one being in 140 DOMESTIC SCIENCE loaf. The thorough beating of the sponge takes the place of one rising. (Makes 2 loaves.) (Basis for 1 girl, }i rule, with double the amount of yeast for 2J^-rtOMr method.) 3. Whole-wheat Bread 1 cake compressed yeast 2 tsp. salt ^ c. lukewarm water ^ c. sugar 1 so. qt. whole- wheat flour 1 pt. warm milk Method, — ^Soak yeast cake in the warm water. Sift the flour, salt, and sugar; add the warm milk; beat the batter well until smooth; then add the yeast, and beat hard. Gradually add the sifted flour until the dough is stiff enough to be handled on a board. Handle lightly, place in a greased bowl, cover with a clean cloth, and let stand in a warm place. When double its bulk, shape into two small loaves, and let rise a few minutes. Brush with soft butter, and bake in a moderate oven for 45 minutes. For nut loaves, add IJ/^ cup chopped pecans or walnuts with the flour. One cup of chopped floured raisins may be added before the last rising. LESSON 23 BREAD— ROLLS Review setting sponge for bread. Review temperature for yeast. The objects of kneading bread and rolls are: — 1. To make the gluten in the dough elastic. 2. To break the large air bubbles, and distribute the carbon dioxide evenly through the dough. The objects of baking bread are: — 1. To make a more digestible and palatable food. 2. To cook the starch. To expand the gas. 3. To form a crust to hold in the gas. 4. To kill the yeast plants. 5. To drive off the alcohol formed by the yeast plant. Rolls. — Rolls differ from bread in that they are richer and sweeter. This is done by using all milk for the liquid and adding more butter and sugar to make them shorter or more tender. Kinds of Rolls. — A variety of rolls are made from the same sponge, but may vary in size, in shape, and by the addition of fruit (currants, raisins) or spices (cinnamon). Suggestions to teachers on conducting a lesson on rolls in 13^^ hours. Use twice the amount of yeast. Prepare the sponge before class- time, and let it rise ready for first mixing. At the beginning of the lesson measure out the light sponge for each desk. (Allow 10 minutes.) Mix flour into the sponge. (Allow 10 minutes.) Two girls should work together. Knead dough. (15 minutes.) Demonstrate shaping of rolls. (Allow about 10 minutes.) Class shape rolls. (Allow about 15 minutes.) Omit the second rising for class work. Let rolls rise in slightly warmed ovens ^ hour. Class wash dishes. Bake rolls 15 to 20 minutes. (141) 142 DOMESTIC SCIENCE APPLICATION 1. Parker House Rolls (3 hr.) 2 c. milk 34 c. butter 1 tsp. salt 1 cake compressed yeast 2 tbsp. sugar }i c. lukewarm water 63^ c. flour (more or less) Method. — Mix yeast with the lukewarm water. Scald the milk and add the butter, sugar, and salt ; when lukewarm add the dissolved yeast. Add enough flour to make a drop batter. Beat well and let rise until double in bulk. Add enough more flour to make a stiff dough. Knead and let rise until double in bulk. Roll out to about }4 inch in thickness. Cut with a cooky cutter, spread with melted butter, and crease the middle with a knife handle. Fold double, put close together in the pan, let rise until double their size. When ready to bake, brush with milk or slightly beaten egg. Bake in a hot oven 12 or 15 minutes. {Basis for 2, ^ cup sponge.) 2. Clover Leaf Rolls Method. — Use the same rule as for Parker House Rolls. For one roll, shape three small balls of dough about an inch in diameter. Place the balls together in a greased mufBn tin. Let rise, and bake as other rolls. 3. Cinnamon Rolls Method. — Use the same sponge and method as for Parker House Rolls. Roll out sponge to 3^ inch thickness, brush with melted butter, sprinkle with sugar and cinna- mon. Roll up the dough and cut off rolls an inch thick. Place in buttered pans, let rise, and bake as other rolls. 4. German Coffee Cake ^ c. scalded milk 3^ c. sugar 2}4: c. flour (more or less) 2 eggs 1 cake compressed yeast 2 tbsp. lukewarm water }4 c. butter }/^ tsp. salt 3^ c. raisins Chopped walnuts BREAD— ROLLS 143 Method. — Set a soft sponge with the dissolved yeast, the warm milk, and half of the flour. When it has risen to twice its bulk, beat well and add the butter, sugar, beaten eggs, and salt. Add the raisins after mixing them with the rest of the flour. The mixture should be a thick batter. Beat thoroughly, let rise once more, beat down, and pour into a greased pan. When light, bake slowly, sprinkling with sugar and chopped nuts when partly done. If it is first spread quickly with a little white of egg and water, the nuts and sugar will form a better crust. If well made, this cake has a close grain and will keep moist for several days. It may also be baked in deep muflin tins. 5. Zweiback }/2 c. scalded milk . 2 cakes compressed yeast 1/2 tsp. salt 4 tbsp. melted butter 14 c. sugar 3 eggs 3 to 33^ c. flour Method. — Dissolve the yeast cakes in the milk when it is lukewarm. Add the salt and enough flour to make a batter. Let rise until very light; then add the sugar, butter, eggs not beaten, and enough flour to handle on a board. Shape in long rolls as for finger rolls, place close together on a buttered pan in rows two inches apart. Let rise again, and bake 20 minutes. When cold, cut diagonally in half-inch slices, and toast evenly in the oven. Serve with coffee for break- fast. LESSON 24 PROTEIN— MEAT Stock Soups Meat includes the flesh of all animals used for food; as, beef, veal, mutton, pork, poultry, and game. Beef is from the ox, steer, or cow. Veal is from the 6 to 8 weeks' old calf. Mutton is from the sheep over 1 year old. Lamb is from the young sheep, 6 to 8 weeks to 1 year old. Pork is from the pig. Poultry includes chickens, turkeys, ducks, and geese. Game includes wild animals -and fowl; as, deer, quail, partridges. Structure of Meat. — Meat consists of muscles, bone, and fat. The muscles are made up of bundles of fibers or cells bound together by connective tissue. The muscle fibers contain protein, extractives, and water. The connective tissue is very tough. Those of much-used muscles, as in the neck or legs, are much stronger than those of muscles not greatly used, as in the back. The hones consist of about half solid matter and half water. The solid part is composed of two-thirds mineral matter and one-third animal matter, chiefly fat and ossein. Some bones are hollow, and contain a fatty substance called marrow. At the ends of bones and connecting bones at the joints are bands of cartilage or gristle, which is like soft bone. In young animals the bones are soft, becoming harder with age. (144) PRO TEIN—MEA T 145 The fat occurs under the skin, between the bundles of fibers, and around the internal organs. Composition of Meat. — Meats are similar in composi- tion, but different cuts of thesame animal will differ in the proportion of food prin- ciples, as will also the same cuts from different animals. This is due to the nature and condition of the animal and the manner of feeding. Meat contains large percentages of protein, fat, and water. Protein. — The amount of protein is about the same — 13 to 20 per cent — in all meat. The principal meat proteins are : — Fibrin, which is the substance in the blood that makes it coagulate when shed. Gelatin, extracted from the connec- tive tissue, tendons, and cartilage and bone, by long, slow cooking in water. Gelatin is dissolved in hot water, but thickens when cold. Albumin, which is similar to that found in eggs, and is the main form of protein in meat. Extractives or juices of meat, which give the meat its flavor. Young animals have more albumin, while old ones have more nitrogenous extractives. Fat in meat varies in amount very widely. Much is lost in the preparation for market, in cooking, and at the table, so that only about one-half the amount of fat is available to the body. Older animals well fed have more fat than young animals. The fat takes the place of some of the water, and does not affect the protein. Fig. 17. Diagram illustrating structure of meat: a, muscle fibers; b, fat cells; c, connec- tive tissue. (Hutchi- son.) 146 BOME^TJG SCIENCE Water makes up about three-fourths of the weight of meat, but varies greatly — from 50 to 75 per cent. It is much more abundant in the young animal than in the old. Veal and lamb contain more water than beef and mutton. Mineral matter in meat is less than one per cent. This is found in larger proportions in the older animals and is abundant in the extractives. There is no carbohydrate in meat. Approximate Composition of Meat Protein Water Fat Ash 20% 70 to 75% 2 to 5% 1% Food Value. — Meat is the most important of the protein foods. It is like the human body in structure and com- position and fully supplies the necessary protein and fat to build and repair body tissues and give heat and energy. It is easily and thoroughly digested when used in proper amounts. Fat meats are harder to digest than lean meats, because the fat interferes with the digestion of the protein in the stomach. Meats with loose fibers are easier to digest than those with close fibers, for the digestive juices can act more readily upon them. The extractives stimu- late the body activity, and people who use animal food in their diet seem to have a greater vitality than those who live entirely on vegetables. The objects of cooking meat are : — 1. To extract the juices, as in soups, beef tea; or 2. To retain the juices, as in broiling and roasting. 3. To develop the flavor. 4. To soften the connective tissues and make it more digestible. 5. To. kill any bacteria and parasites that may be present. PRO TEIN-^MEA T 147 Experiments to show the effect of heat on meat : — 1. Put a small piece of meat into cold water. Let stand. 2. Put a small piece of meat into boiling water. Let stand. 3. Put a small piece of meat into a hot frying pan, turn several times. Note the changes that occur in each instance, and com- pare. What substance in meat coagulates with high temper- ature to cause the result in Experiment 2 ? How should meat be cooked to extract juices, as in soups? To retain juices, as in steaks and roasts? Meat Soups. — Soups that have meat as their basis are called stock soups. The stock is the essential element which gives it flavor and nutritive value. Stock is also used in meat gravies to make them richer. Kinds of stock soups are: — 1. Bouillon is made from beef stock, delicately sea- soned. 2. Brown soup stock is made from beef and is highly seasoned with vegetables and sweet herbs. 3. White soup stock is made of chicken or veal, deli- cately seasoned. 4. Consomme is made of several kinds of meat (beef, veal, and fowl), highly seasoned with vegetables, and cleared. Food Value. — Meat soups contain very little nutriment, but have a strong meat flavor, due to the extractives. They stimulate the flow of the digestive juices, warm the stomach, and prepare it for solid food. 148 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Proportions of ingredients for soup stock are: Use % lean meat, to 3^3 bone and fat, and 1 quart of water to each pound of meat and bone. Meats for Soups. — The much-used muscles of meat contain more juice; the hard connective tissue is softened by long, moderate cooking. Select meat from the legs or neck. Use left-overs from roasts and steaks to add to the flavor, and utilize all other scraps. Any of the following may be used as seasoning for soups: vegetables, cereals, herbs, spices, and noodles. Directions for Soup Making. — Use all trimmings from roasts and steaks with soup meat. Cut up meat in small pieces. Break the bones, which allows the juice to escape easily. To give color and flavor to the soup, sear a small amount of the meat in a frying pan until brown. Put meat, bone, and fat in cold water. Soak for half an hour until the water is red. The cold water draws out the juices. Simmer 5 to 6 hours, never allowing temperature to reach the boiling point. Boiling toughens the albumen and does not permit the flow of juices. Clean and cut up vege- tables and add at the last hour of cooking. When done, strain out the meat and vegetables. Put into several small jars, so that the entire amount is not disturbed each time some is used. Cool quickly, and keep in cold place. Keep a layer of fat on top of stock to exclude air. Why? Remove the fat from the soup stock before making soup. Use soups often, and vary by different additions. PROTEIN— MEAT 149 APPLICATION (Extracting juices) 1. Brown Soup Stock 4 lbs. beef shin 6 cloves 2 qts. cold water i^ bay leaf }/2 tsp. pepper 2 sprigs parsley Carrot Onion^ f o^^"^^^^ c. each cut in dice Celery J 1 tsp. salt Note. — A few tablespoons of German dried vegetables for soups may be successfully substituted for fresh vege- tables to give flavor. Method. — Wipe beef, and cut the lean meat in small pieces. Brown a third of it in a hot frying pan in marrow from a marrow bone. Put remaining two-thirds with bone and fat in soup kettle, add cold water, and let stand for 3/2 hour. Place on back of range, add browned meat, and heat gradually to boiling point. As the scum rises, it should be removed. Cover and cook slowly 6 hours at a temperature below the boiling point. Add vegetables and seasonings, cook IJ^ hours longer, strain, and cool as quickly as possible. 2. Bouillon Method. — Bouillon is made from Brown Soup Stock by removing the cake of fat, and clearing. It is served clear in bouillon cups. To Clear Soups. — Put stock over fire, and add a slightly beaten egg white with the shell. Stir, let boil 2 or 3 min- utes, and then simmer 10 to 15 minutes. The albumen of the egg coagulates and entangles the particles of meat and vegetables as in a net. Remove the scum, and strain the soup through a cloth or fine strainer. Serve clear. 150 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 3. Vegetable Soup Method. — To 1 quart of stock, add 3 tablespoonfuls each of celery and turnip, either chopped or cut with vegetable cutter; 1 tablespoonful of carrot; and 1 cup of cooked and strained tomato, and a little fried onion; or omit the tomato and onion and add small green peas, cauliflower, asparagus tips, or all three. 4. Noodle Soup Method. — To 1 quart of stock add 3^ cupful of noodles. Macaroni, vermicelli, rice, or barley may be added to the stock for variation. Serve with soup: croutons, toasted crackers, or cheese balls. LESSON 25 PROTEIN— BEEF Broiling and Roasting Beef is obtained from the steer, ox, or cow. It is the most used and the most sustaining meat. It should hang about three weeks to ripen and develop flavor. Appearance. — Good beef is bright red, fine grained, and well marked with fat. The fat is fine and light yellow in color; the fat around the vital organs is white and crumbly and is called suet. Flabby, dark, coarse beef with yellow fat indicates a poor quality. Beef from an old or underfed animal has very little fat. Cuts of Beef. — The beef animal is cut into halves lengthwise along the back. Each half or side weighs about 450 pounds and is divided into the fore and hind quarters by cutting between the 12th and 13th ribs, leaving one rib on the hind quarter. The Cuts of Beef Fore Quarter Cuts Cuts Use Cost 1. Neck Hamburg steak, soup 2. Chuck Stew, pot roast, boil 3. Ribs Roast, stew . 4. Shoulder clod Boil, stew 5. Shin or foreshank. . .Soup stock 6. Brisket Corned, stew 7. Plate Boiled, corned, stew Hind Quarter Cuts 1. Rump Pot roast, stew, mince meat... . 2. Round Pot roast, steak, stew, beef tea. 3. Loin Fine roast, steak (a) Porterhouse Steak (b)Sirloin Steak, roast (c )Tenderloin Steak 4. Hind shank Cheap stew, soup 5. Flank Corned, stuff, stew, roll (151) 152 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Fig. 18. The wholesale cuts of beef: /, round; 2, rump; 3, shank; 4, loin; 5, flank; 6, rib; 7, chuck; *. clod; 9, neck; 10, plate, which includes JI, brisket; 12, shank. PROTEIN— BEEF 153 Other Parts. Cost 1. Heart Braise 2. Tail Soup 3. Tongue Boil 4. Kidneys Stew 5. Brains Scallop, cream 6. Tripe (lining of the stomach) Stew, fry 7. Suet Try out, use as fat 8. Thymus gland and pancreas (calf), or sweetbreads . . Care of Meat. — 1. Remove meat from paper as soon as delivered. 2. Keep meat in a cool place, but not directly on ice. 3. Before cooking always wipe meat off well with a damp cloth wrung out of cold water. Why? Never wash meat in water. Why? Retaining Juices. — Juices may be retained in the cooked meat by broiling, roasting, frying, or sauteing, which sears over at once the outside of the meat and seals up the little tubes that contain the juices. Only the tender cuts of meat can be used in this way, since tough meats require a long, slow heat. Broiling. — Cuts best for broiling use are (1) porterhouse, (2) sirloin, (3) tenderloin, and (4) round. Roasting. — Best cuts for roasting are the top or middle of sirloin, back of rump, or the first three ribs. Time Guide for Broiling Beef (rare), per pound 8 to 10 minutes Beef (well done), per pound. . .12 to 15 minutes APPLICATION 1. Broiled Steak — Oven Sirloin steak 1 to 2 inches thick Butter, salt, pepper Parsley and lemon for garnishing Method. — Wipe the rtieat with a damp cloth and trim off the extra fat. Have the broiler smoking hot; rub with a 154 DOMESTIC SCIENCE little fat. Place the meat in the broiler and broil, turning every 10 seconds for the first minute. (Use two large spoons for turning, as a fork would pierce the meat.) After the first minute turn occasionally until well cooked on both sides. Remove to hot platter, spread with butter, and sprinkle with salt and pepper. Garnish with slices of lemon and parsley. Serve with Maitre d'Hotel Butter or Mushroom Sauce. 2. Roast Beef Method. — Wipe, put on a rack in a dripping pan, skin side down, and rub over with salt and dredge with flour. Fig. 19. Beef: cuts from rump and ribs. Place in a hot oven, that the surface may be quickly seared, thus preventing the escape of inner juices. After the flour in the pan is browned, reduce heat, and baste with the fat that has melted; if meat is quite lean, it may be necessary to put trimmings of fat in the pan. Baste every 10 minutes. If this rule is followed meat will be found more juicy. When meat is about half done, turn it over and dredge with flour, that skin side may be uppermost for final browning. If PROTEIN—BEEF 155 there is danger of the flour burning in the pan, add a small quantity of water. Allow 15 to 20 minutes to each pound of beef in roasting. Beef, to be well roasted, should be started in a hot oven and the heat later decreased, so that when carved the slices will be red throughout, with a crisp layer of golden brown fat on top. Beef roasted at a temperature so high that the surface is hardened before heat can penetrate to the center is most unsatisfactory. Sirloin of rib roast may have the bones removed, and be rolled, skewered, and tied in shape. Roast Beef Gravy Method. — Remove some of the fat from the pan, leaving 4 tbsp. Place on the front of the range, add 4 tbsp. flour and stir until well browned, the flour browned in the pan giving additional color to the gravy. Add gradually 13^ cups boiling water, cook 5 minutes, season with salt and pepper, and strain. If the flour should burn in the pan, the gravy will be full of black carbon particles. 3. Yorkshire Pudding 1 c. milk 2 eggs 1 c. flour }4 tsp. salt Method. — Mix salt and flour, gradually add the milk, stir until smooth, add eggs, and beat hard. Spread on the bottom of baking pan after removing the roast, until mix- ture is one-half inch thick. Bake 20 minutes in hot oven. Baste, after the mixture is well risen, with some fat from the roast. Cut in squares and serve on platter surrounding the roast. 4. Maitre d'Hotel Butter ^ c. butter 1 tbsp. chopped parsley 3^ tsp. salt 1 tbsp. lemon juice 3^ ssp. pepper Method. — Rub the butter to a cream, add the salt, pep- per, parsley, and the lemon juice. Spread on hot steak. ]56 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 5. Dried Beef, White Sauce }4: lb. dried beef sliced thin 1 tbsp. flour 1 c. milk 3^ tsp. salt 1 tbsp. butter Speck of pepper Method. — Remove the skin and separate dried beef in pieces, cover with hot water, let stand 10 minutes, and drain. Make a medium white sauce. Add beef to white sauce and heat. Serve on squares of hot toast. (Basis for 2 girls, ^ ride.) LESSON 26 PROTEIN— BEEF (Continued) Pan Broiling Food Value of Beef. — Beef has the greatest food value of all meat and is in season the year round. Lean meat is chiefly protein, of a kind that the body can use easily and quite completely. Because meat is high in protein, it is easy to eat more than the body needs, which is harmful. Only very active persons doing much phys- ical work need meat more often than twice a day. For most persons a meat dish once a day is enough. Meat must be accompanied with dishes of the carbohydrate class. Name some. What to Serve with Beef. — With steak, serve fried onions, French fried potatoes, au gratin potatoes, combination salad, or mushrooms. With roasts, serve either mashed, creamed, or roast brown potatoes, sweet potatoes, peas, corn, currant jelly, or Yorkshire pudding. Pan broiling is the application of heat to food by means of hot metal. The same results may be obtained as in the oven broil, but it is especially good for the coarser cuts of steaks. Name some. APPLICATION 1. Panbroiled Steak Round steak, %-i inch thick Salt, pepper, butter Method. — Wipe meat with a damp cloth and remove the extra fat. Heat the frying pan very hot. Rub a piece of fat in pan. Put the meat in and as soon as one (157) 158 DOMESTIC SCIENCE side is seared turn to sear the other side. Turn frequently for the first minute. Cook 6 or 8 minutes, turning occa- sionally. Spread with a little butter and sprinkle with salt and pepper. Remove to a hot platter and garnish with parsley for serving. (Basis for 2 girls, 1 piece 2}i inches square.) 2. Hamburg Steak Method. — Chop fine some raw lean beef, season with salt and pepper, shape in small flat cakes, panbroil in a hot frying pan. A few drops of onion juice or onion cut fine may be added, and also one egg slightly beaten. In forming the cakes, handle as little as possible. Cakes that are pressed too compact will be hard and solid. (Basis for 2 girlSf % c. chopped meat.) 3. Mushroom Sauce 1 can mushrooms 14: c. flour ^ c. butter 2 c. brown soup stock }/2 tbsp. lemon juice or mushroom liquor Salt and pepper Method. — Drain and rinse the mushrooms and chop fine one half of them. Cook 5 minutes with butter and lemon juice; drain. Make brown sauce of butter, flour, and soup stock or mushroom liquor according to Method 1 for white sauce. Cook 10 or 15 minutes, add remaining mushrooms, cut in quarters or slices, and cook 2 minutes. Use fresh mushrooms in preference to canned ones. Mushrooms become tough easily if handled much ; they require only a few minutes to cook. LESSON 27 PROTEIN— BEEF (Continued) Cooking Tough Meats and Left-overs In order that there be no waste to the beef animal, all parts are used. The tough meats require a long, moderate heat to soften the connective tissue and hard muscles. This is accomplished by using them for stews, hash or meat loaf. Stewing is a combination of extracting part of the meat juice and retaining part by cooking a long time in a limited quantity of water. APPLICATION 1. Beef Stew 2 lbs. beef (cut into inch cubes) Salt and pepper Yil'': ^^^^^ } tnrnJo V^^ ^^ ^ inch dicC Water 1 turnip j ^^ 4 potatoes (sliced) 2 small onions (sliced) Method. — Wipe the meat and cut best portions into inch cubes. Put the bone and poorer portions of meat, cut fine, into cold water and cook them slowly. Try out some pieces of beef fat in a frying pan and remove scraps. Roll the best portions' of meat in flour; cook in a frying pan until brown, stirring with a knife so that all surfaces may be browned. Brown the onions also. Put the meat and onions into the kettle in which the stew is to be cooked. Rinse out frying pan with hot water and turn the water into the stew. Cover meat with boiling water and cook slowly at least 2 hours or until the meat is tender. Remove the bone and poorer portions of meat, strain the liquid (159) 160 DOMESTIC SCIENCE PROTEIN— BEEF 161 into the stew, add the vegetables (excepting potatoes), and cook stew about 45 minutes longer. Parboil the potatoes for 5 minutes and add them to the stew and cook 15 minutes. Add seasoning. If the stew is not thick enough, add a little thickening of flour and water and boil it 5 minutes longer. (Class work as a unit.) 2. Lamb Stew 2 lb. lamb (shoulder) 1 c. tomato 3 c. boiling water 2 small potatoes 1 small onion 2 tbsp. rice Salt and pepper to taste Method. — Wipe meat and cut best portions into 2-inch pieces. Put the bone and poorer portions of meat into cold water, let them stand 1 hour, and then cook them slowly. Brown the onions a golden brown in hot fat in a frying pan. Then add the best portions of the meat and brown them also. Put the onions and meat into a saucepan, cover them with boiling water and let simmer 2 hours. Add the washed rice when meat has cooked 1 hour. Parboil the potatoes, add them to the stew and cook 20 minutes longer. Add the strained tomato 10 minutes after the potatoes are put in. Add the season- ing. The tomato may be omitted and boiling water used in its place. 3. Dumplings 2 c. flour ^ ]/2 tsp. salt 4 tsp. baking powder % c. milk Method. — Mix and sift the dry ingredients, add the milk slowly until a smooth drop-batter is formed. Drop by the spoonful into the boiling stew on top of the pota- toes and meat. Cover closely to keep in the steam, and cook 10 minutes without lifting the cover. Take out the dumplings, which should be light and fluffy, put the meat and vegetables in the center of a hot platter, and the dump- 162 DOMESTIC SCIENCE lings around the edge. Dumplings may be dropped into a steamer and steamed over the hot stew or over a kettle of boiling water. (Basis for 2 girls, \i rule.) 4. Boiled Dinner 4 lb. corned beef 2 small carrots 2 beets 1 turnip 1 small cabbage 6 potatoes Method. — Wash meat with damp cloth and put it to soak for Yi hour. Put it in a kettle with boiling water to nearly cover and cook until tender (about 3 hours). Wash the vegetables, scrape carrots and turnip, and cut in small pieces. Cut the cabbage into quarters. Pare potatoes and cut into halves. Two hours before dinner time skim all the fat off the liquid and add more boiling water. Re- move meat when tender; then put in the carrots, after- ward the cabbage and turnip, and Yi hour before dinner add the potatoes. Cook beets separately. When tender take the vegetables up carefully, drain the water from the cabbage by pressing in a colander, slice the carrots and beets, and cover the beets with vinegar. Put the meat in the center of a large dish, and serve the carrots, turnips, and potatoes around the edge. ^ 5. Browned Hash 2 c. chopped cold roast beef 2 c. chopped cold corned beef 2 c. cold boiled potatoes 2 tbsp. hot milk Few drops of onion juice Salt and pepper to taste Method. — Mix all ingredients thoroughly. Put into a frying pan 2 tablespoons of beef fat or butter. Spread the meat mixture in the fr>'ing pan and cook, without stirring, over a moderate fire for about 30 minutes. When it is browned underneath, fold it over like an omelet and place on a hot platter. PROTEIN— BEEF 163 6. Meat Loaf 2 lb. beef (cut from the round) 1 tsp. onion juice 1 tsp. salt }4 tsp. pepper 1 beaten egg 3^ c. milk 1 tbsp. chopped parsley 2-inch cube salt pork fat 1 c. bread crumbs Method. — ^Wipe the meat with a damp cloth and put through a meat chopper with the pork. Add seasoning, mix well, add the crumbs, well-beaten egg, and the milk gradually. Place in a well-greased pan. Put small pieces of butter or strips of bacon on top. Bake 40 minutes in a moderate oven. Baste every 10 minutes with 1 table- spoon butter melted in 1 cup boiling water. Strips of pimento and a couple of hard-boiled eggs placed in the center of the loaf add a pleasing garnish to the loaf when sliced. LESSON 28 PROTEIN— VEAL, LAMB, MUTTON VEAL Appearance. — Veal is pale pink and the fat is clear white. The best comes from a calf two months old. Cuts of Veal Cut Use Cost 1. Leg Cutlets 2. Loin Chops and roast 3. Ribs Roast Saddle [(1) and (2), or two hind quarters)] Roast Rack [ (3), (4), (5), or two fore quarters)] Chops 4. Breast Roast 5. Shoulder Stuffed whole for roast 6. Neck Stew Appearance. — The meat of lamb is red and the fat is white. The bones are red and turn white with age. Kinds. — Spring lamb is from 6 to 8 weeks old. Year- lings are about one year old. The best lamb comes from animals 6 weeks to 3 months old. Lamb may be used as soon as killed. MUTTON Appearance. — The meat of mutton is bright red, the fat is yellowish, and the bones are white. The layer of fat next to the skin in mutton has a very strong flavor of oil and wool, which makes it very distasteful to most persons. This should be removed before cooking. JVIutton must hang to ripen. (164) PROTEIN— VEAL, LAMB. MUTTON in: . Fig. 21. Cuts of veal: 1, leg; i, loin; 3. ribs; 4. breast; 5, shoulder; 6 neck. (111. Bui. 147) Fig. 22. Cuts of mutton: 1, leg- ^. loin; J, ribs; 4, breast; 5, shoulder. 166 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Cuts of Lamb and Mutton Cut Use Cobt 1. Leg Roast and chops 2. Loin Chops, saddle roast 3. Ribs Chops and roast 4. Breast Stew and soup 5. Shoulders Roasts Back [(2), (3)] Food Value. — Mutton comes next to beef in food value. The red meat of beef and mutton is more stimulating than the white meat of veal and poultry. Veal and lamb are less nutritious than the flesh of the full-grown animals. What to Serve with Veal. — With cutlets or chops serve peas, rice croquettes. With stewed veal serve dumplings, baked potatoes. With veal loaf or roast serve peas, asparagus, spinach, cauliflower, rice, white or sweet potatoes. What to Serve with Mutton. — With broiled chops serve creamed potatoes, peas. With leg of mutton serve caper sauce, rice, mint sauce, cabbage, or creamed turnips. With saddle of mutton serve baked macaroni without cheese, peas, or asparagus tips. With cold mutton serve sliced tomatoes with French dressing. What to Serve with Lamb. — With roast lamb serve mint sauce, boiled rice, cucumbers, white or sweet potatoes, squash, parsnips, eggplant, new peas, or asparagus tips. With cold lamb serve lettuce, mint salad with French dressing. APPLICATION 1. Lamb Chops Broiled Method. — Wipe chops and put in red-hot frying pan. As soon as the under surface is seared, turn ahd sear the other side. Turn often, using spoon, so as not to pierce PROTEIN— VEAL, LAMB, MUTTON 167 surface. If liked rare, cook 6 minutes. Let chops stand on edge in the frying pan to brown the outside fat. When nearly cooked, sprinkle with salt. Drain on brown paper, spread with butter, and serve with Tomato Sauce. Rib chops which have the bone cut short and scraped clean nearly to the lean meat are called French chops. Chops for pan broiling should have the flank and most of the fat removed. 2. Breaded Veal Chops Method. — Wipe, trim off superfluous fat, sprinkle with salt and pepper, dip in crumbs, in Qgg, and then again in crumbs, and fry until well browned on each side. Care Fig. 23. \'eal: cuts from leg and loin. should be taken in turning not to shake off the crumbs. Cover closely and continue cooking over a low fire until thoroughly cooked and tender (15 to 20 minutes). Veal cutlets may be cooked in the same way. These may be cooked in deep fat. {Basis for 2, 1 chop or cutlet.) 3. Roast Lamb Method. — Wipe meat (leg of lamb), sprinkle with salt and pepper, place on a rack in dripping pan, and dredge meat and bottom of pan with flour. Place in hot oven, and 168 DOMESTIC SCIENCE baste as soon as the flour in the pan is brown and every 15 minutes afterward. Cook about 1% hours. If the flour in the pan burns, add a small quantity of water while the meat is cooking. Serve with Mint Sauce. 4. Mint Sauce 1/2 c. mint leaves chopped fine 2 tbsp. powdered sugar 1 c. hot vinegar Method. — Dissolve the sugar in the vinegar and pour over the chopped mint leaves. Let stand 30 minutes to infuse. If the vinegar is very strong, dilute with water. Serve hot. 5. Veal Birds Method. — Select slices of veal from the leg, cut as thinly as possible, remove bone, skin, and fat. Cut in pieces 23^ inches long by 13^ inches wide, each piece making a bird. Fig. 24. Lamb: cuts from ribs and loin. Chop trimmings of veal and a small piece of fat salt pork, and add one-half their measure of finely crushed crackers. Season with pepper, cayenne, poultry seasoning, lemon juice, and onion juice. Moisten with beaten egg and water. Spread each piece with a thin layer of stuffing, PROTEIN— VEAL, LAMB, MUTTON 169 taking care not to have the mixture come too close to the edge. Roll, and fasten with skewers or toothpicks. Sprinkle with salt and pepper, dredge with flour, and saute in hot butter until a golden brown. Put in a scew pan, add rich milk to half cover meat, and cook slowly 25 min- utes or until tender. Serve on small pieces of toast and garnish with parsley. 6. Veal Loaf 23^ lbs. veal 3^ c. catsup 3^ lb. salt pork 1 c. cracker crumbs 4 eggs Cayenne, salt, pepper Juice of small lemon Bit of butter Method. — Mix ingredients thoroughly and shape into a loaf, placing butter on top. Bake 2 hours in covered pan. May be served with border of peas. 7. Crown Roast Method. — Use lamb rather than mutton. Select parts from two loins containing the ribs; scrape flesh from the bone between ribs, as far as lean meat, and trim off back bone. Roll meat displaced into a semicircle, having ribs outside, and sew ends together to form a crown. Put a cup in the middle to hold the roast in place. Trim ends of bones even and bind each bone with a thin strip of fat salt pork. For a small roast allow about 50 minutes for roast- ing. Remove the pork from the bones before serving. Fill the center of roast with mashed potatoes or peas. Be sure the ribs are separated at the joints before roasting, so that they may be easily served. LESSON 29 PROTEIN— PORK Appearance. — Fresh pork is pale red in color and firm in texture; the fat is white. Pork is more liable to be diseased than any other meat. Diseased pork appears speckled or lumpy. The specks are little worms, called trichinae, which get into the muscle of the hog. When taken into our bodies, these are very harmful. They become active and produce a disease called trichinosis, which is nearly always fatal. For this reason pork should be cooked very thoroughly to kill the trichinae. Pork requires 20 to 30 minutes per pound for cooking. Smoking does not kill trichinae. The frequent use of smoked ham without further cooking is liable to be very injurious. Cuts of Pork Cut Use Cost 1. Loin and ribs Chops, roast, broil. . . 2. Ham, whole or in halves Cured, salted, smoked, — boiled sauted, or baked 3. Back Spareribs 4. Shoulder Cooked as ham, but not as good. 5. Belly — bacon Cured, salted, smoked, — boiled, or sauted 6. Head Headcheese, sausage 7. Kidney fat Tried out to make "leaf-lard." Food Value. — Pork is usually so fat that it is difficult to digest. This is due to the large amount of fat between the fibers. It furnishes so much heat and energy to the body that, together with other foods in the diet, it may furnish an excess of heat, and for most persons must not be used as (170) PROTEIN— PORK 171 Fig. 25. Cuts of pork: /, ham; 2, loin; 3, belly; 4, 5, 7, 9, shoulder, 6, jowl; 8, 9, fat back. (111. Bui. 147) 172 DOM ES^ TIC SCIENCE regularly as beef. Bacon is not difficult to digest and can be eaten by persons to whom other fats are intolerable. What to Serve with Ham or Pork. — White or sweet potatoes, squash, beets, greens, cauliflower, cabbage, apple sauce, fried apples, fritters or croquettes, all go well with pork dishes. APPLICATION 1. Broiled Ham Method. — Soak thin slices of ham one hour in lukewarm water or milk. (Milk makes the ham more tender and Fig. 26. Pork: cuts of loin and bacon. juicy.) Drain and wipe dry and broil in a hot frying pan for 5 minutes. If cooked too long, ham is hard and dry. Boiled ham sliced about 3^ inch thick and broiled is very good, but more expensive. 2. Liver and Bacon Method. — Cover slices of liver cut 3^ inch thick with boiling water and let stand 5 minutes to draw out the blood ; drain, and remove the thin outside skin and veins. Cut in pieces for serving, sprinkle with salt and pepper, dredge PROTEIN— PORK 173 with flour and cook in bacon fat. Use thin sHces of bacon. Put in a hot frying pan and cook until bacon is crisp and brown, occasionally pouring off the fat from the pan. When crisp and an even brown, drain on paper and serve. Fried sliced apples are very good served with crisp bacon. {Basis, each a piece of liver and bacon.) 3. Mustard (to serve with ham) 2 hp. tsp. dry mustard Vinegar enough to thin 1 hp. tsp. flour 1 hp. tsp. sugar ^ hp. tsp. salt Method. — Mix thoroughly and pour boiling water on to it to make a paste; cover until cold, and then thin with vinegar. 4. Pork Chops Method. — Wipe chops, sprinkle with salt and pepper, place in a hot frying pan, and cook slowly until tender Fig. 27. Pork: cuts from loin and ribs. and well browned on each side. Pork chops require about 20 minutes for thorough cooking. A little freshly ground sage adds a nice flavor to pork. 174 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 6. Baked Ham Method. — Select a piece of ham about 4 or 5 pounds in weight. Soak several hours in cold water to draw out the salt. Place in baking pan and cover with a thick layer of brown sugar, with fine bread crumbs on top. Stick a few cloves in the ham and fill the pan with milk or cream to come two-thirds as high as the ham. Raisins may be put on the ham (stuck on with toothpicks), giving a very pleasing flavor. Bake, allowing J^ hour for each pound. 6. Pigs in Blanket Method. — Select long, thin slices of bacon. Place 2 or 3 oysters in these, sprinkle with salt and pepper, close, and tie with string or fasten together with toothpicks. Saute in a frying pan until nicely browned. 7. Fried Pork (salt) Method. — Cut fat salt pork in thin slices. Put enough hot water over the slices to cover. Let stand a few min- utes, drain, and saute in a pan until crisp. It may be rolled in crumbs, egg, and crumbs again, and fried in deep fat. Serve with salt fish, fried mush, or baked potatoes. LESSON 30 POULTRY Selecting Poultry. — Spring chickens are those about five months old. A chicken over a year old is called a fowl. Poultry has a better flavor when full-grown than when too young. The bird should be short and plump in proportion to its weight. The skin should be clear and smooth, but not the smooth- ness due to scalding. The legs should be smooth; toes pliable. The end of the breast bone should bend readily; it should not be broken. There should be a large amount of meat on the breast. Pin feathers indicate a young bird; long hairs and long sharp spurs, an old one. Old fowls usually have a large amount of fat, and the flesh has a purplish tinge. Dressing, a Fowl. — All poultry should be dressed as soon as killed. The feathers come out easily when the fowl is warm and when stripped off towards the head. Remove the pin feathers with a knife, and singe the hairs by holding the bird over a gas burner or a lighted paper. Cut off the head and the feet. Turn down the skin of the neck and cut off the neck close to the body; remove the crop and the windpipe from the end of the neck rather than by a cut in the skin, which, if made, must be sewed up. Remove the tendons in the legs by pulling out carefully one at a time, taking pains not to tear the flesh. The leg of the fowl is more tender if the tendons are removed. (175) 176 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Remove the oil bag in the tail. Make an incision near the vent, and loosen the fat from the body of the fowl. Loosen everything before drawing out, so as to avoid rupturing any part. Insert the hand carefully between the walls of the body and the entrails and draw the entrails out, using care not to break the gall bladder on the liver. Be sure the lungs and kidneys are all removed from the hollows of the backbone. Wash thoroughly, holding under a faucet to rinse the inside well. Fig. 28. Roast chicken, dressed for serving. To clean the giblets: Detach the heart, liver, and the gizzard. Cut through the thick muscle of the gizzard and peel it off slowly without breaking through the lining inside. Cut the heart open. Remove the gall bladder very carefully from the liver. Wash all thoroughly and let soak in salted water before cooking. To Stuff a Fowl. — Place the fowl In a bowl and stuff the neck until the breast is plump; then draw the skin over the POULTRY 177 neck and sew it firmly. Fill the inside of the fowl with the stuffing, and sew up with a coarse thread, taking large stitches. To Truss a Fowl. — Draw the thighs close to the body, cover the legs over the tail, and tie firmly with twine. Fasten the wings to the body with skewers. To Cut up a Fowl. — Separate the legs from the body by cutting through the loose skin between the leg and the body, bend the leg over and cut through the joint. Pull out the tendons from the lower leg, or "drum stick." Cut off the tip of each wing. Separate the collar bone and the wishbone from the breast, and break the backbone just below the ribs. Separate the side bones from the back and also the breast. Always divide a fowl at the joints smoothly; never break the bones. Food Value. — The light meat of poultry is tender, but poorer in flavor than the leg, a diff"erence similar to the loin and the round of beef. The muscle fibers in the breast are short, more open, and less used, which make the breast tender and more easily digested than the dark meat. Poul- try is not as rich in food value as beef, but is easily digested, very palatable, and especially suitable for the sick. What to Serve with Poultry. — White or sweet pota- toes, rice croquettes, celery, cucumbers, mushrooms, apple croquettes, cranberry jelly in molds, and either oysters or chestnut dressings are good to serve with poultry. With tur- key, chestnuts, oysters, or sausage are excellent for dressing. APPLICATION 1. Roast Chicken Method. — Put dressed bird on a rack in the roaster, rub its entire surface with salt, and spread breast and legs —12 178 DOMESTIC SCIENCE with 3 tbsp. butter creamed with 2 tbsp. of flour. Dredge bottom of pan with flour. Roast in a hot oven, basting every 10 minutes until done. Use 3€ cup melted butter in % cup boiling water for basting at first; later the fat in the pan may be used. Turn the bird frequently to brown evenly. If a thick crust is desired, dredge with flour a couple of times. When the breast meat is tender, the bird is done. A four-pound bird requires about 13^^ hours for roasting. 2. Stuffing 1 c. cracker crumbs. ^ c. boiling water }4 c. butter Salt and pepper Powdered sage Method. — Melt the butter, pour over the crumbs, add seasonings. 3. Oyster Dressing 3 c. stale bread crumbs Salt and pepper 3^2 c- butter, melted 1 pt. oysters Method. — Mix in the order given, adding the oysters cleaned and drained from their liquor. 4. Fried Chicken Method. — Wipe each piece of chicken with a clean, dry cloth; dredge with salt, pepper, and flour. Put plenty of salt pork fat or lard and butter in the pan, and saute the chicken in the hot fat until brown and tender (about 30 minutes). Only spring chicken ought to be fried, as old birds require longer cooking. 5. Broiled Chicken Method. — Split a young chicken down the back. Break the joints, remove the breast bone, clean, and wipe with a dry cloth. Season with salt and pepper and rub well with soft butter. Put into a broiler or toaster and broil over a clear fire about 20 minutes. Spread with butter and serve hot. Garnish with parsley and lemon. POULTRY 179 6. Fricasseed Chicken Method. — Cut and prepare the chicken as for frying. Cover with boiUng water, and add 1 tbsp. of salt and a little pepper. Simmer 2 or 3 hours, or until tender. Reduce the water until about a pint remains. Remove all the large bones, dredge with flour, salt, and brown in hot fat. Strain the liquor from the chicken, remove the fat, add 1 cup of milk or cream to the liquor, and reheat. Thicken with 2 tablespoons of flour, moistened with J^ cup milk, add to the liquor. When the gravy or sauce is cooked and thickened, add to the chicken. Serve with or without hot biscuits. 7. Chicken Pie Method. — Chicken fricassee put in a baking dish and covered with a crust of pastry and baked, makes a chicken pie. 8. Jellied Chicken Method. — Remove the skin and bones from a cooked chicken. Pick the meat apart and mix the light and dark meat. Remove the fat from the chicken liquor; season the liquor highly with salt and pepper and a little lemon juice. Cook down to about one cupful. Butter a mold and dec- orate the bottom and sides with slices of hard-boiled eggs. Pack the meat in solid and set away to cool for several hours. When ready to serve, dip the mold in warm water, turn out carefully. Garnish with celery tips and lemon. LESSON 31 PROTEIN— GELATIN Source and Manufacture. — When the bones, connective tissue, hoofs, skin, etc., of animals are cooked a long time, much of the material becomes a jelly, and is called gelatin. Scraps of hide, horns, etc., are used in the same way to make glue, which is a crude form of gelatin. The purest and best gelatin is made from the air bladders of fish, especially sturgeon, and is called isinglass. Appearance. — Gelatin is transparent and tasteless. Commercial gelatin is in three forms, (1) granulated, (2) shredded, and (3) sheet. There are many kinds of each on the market. Food Value. — Although gelatin contains nitrogen and is classed as a protein, it is not a tissue-builder. The body uses it to produce energy, and as such is a great protein- sparer. By this we mean that it saves protein for tissue- building that might otherwise be consumed for heat and energy. It is one of the most easily digested of foods, and for this reason is very suitable to serve to the sick and con- valescent. Effects of Water on Gelatin. — 1 . Gelatin does not dissolve in cold water; it only softens and swells. 2. Gelatin dissolves in boiling water. 3. Dissolved gelatin gets thick when cool. A solution as weak as 1 per cent will set. 4. Gelatin will not thicken if boiled before cooling. Directions for Use. — 1. The ordinary proportion is 1 oz. of gelatin to about 1 quart of liquid. In hot or cold weather, more is required. As served, then, the jelly does (180) PRO TE IN— GEL A TIN 181 not usually contain over 3 per cent of gelatin. Granulated gelatin is more easily measured than either the shredded or the sheet form. A 2-oz. box holds 5 tablespoonfuls. Too much gelatin makes the jelly taste of it. 2. When gelatin is well soaked, dissolve with boiling water, but do not boil or stir much. 3. If fruit is used, more gelatin is needed. 4. Add sugar to gelatin while the water is hot, to dis- solve the sugar. 5. Add flavoring and fruit juice after gelatin is dissolved. 6. Strain through a wet cloth or a fine strainer into a wet mold. 7. Put on ice or in a pan of ice water to stiffen. This takes from 3 to 5 hours. 8. To vary the flavor and color, use different flavors; as, cinnamon, fruit, meat; or a good coloring, sparingly. 9. To make jelly and fruit in layers, put a part of the gelatin with fruit into the mold, let stiffen, keeping remain- der warm in a pitcher set in warm water. Then make a second layer, and repeat until all the gelatin is used. 10. To remove jelly from the mold, dip mold into, and immediately out of, hot water. Turn upon a serving dish. APPLICATION 1. Lemon Jelly 13^ tbsp. granulated gelatin Spk. salt }4: c. cold water % c. sugar 13^ c. boiling water 3^ c. lemon juice Method. — Soak gelatin in cold water to soften (about 5 minutes). Add the boiling water and the sugar and stir until dissolved. Add the flavoring or fruit juice. Strain through a wet cheesecloth or fine strainer into a cold, wet mold. Let stand in a pan of ice water to stiffen. (Basis for 2 girls, 14: fule.) 182 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 2. Orange Jelly 2 tbsp. granulated gelatin % c. sugar }4: c. cold water Spk. salt 13^ c. boiling water 3^ c. orange juice 2 tbsp. lemon juice Method. — Same as Lemon Jelly. 3. Snow Pudding Use the Lemon Jelly rule. Method. — Beat white of 3 eggs until stiff and dry, and when the jelly begins to thicken add the beaten whites. Beat until the jelly is stiff and nearly firm; then pour it into a cold, wet mold or into custard cups. Serve with soft custard made from — 2 c. scalded milk 4 tbsp. sugar 2 eggs (yolks) Spk. salt ' }/2 tsp. vanilla Method. — Beat yolks slightly, beating in the sugar and salt; add the hot milk, slowly stirring the mixture all the while. Pour into a double boiler and cook, stirring con- stantly, until the custard coats the spoon (about 5 minutes). Strain at once and add the vanilla. 4. Tomato Jelly Salad 1 can stewed and strained tomatoes 1 tsp. salt 1 tsp. powdered sugar 3 tbsp. gelatin Method. — Soak the gelatin 15 minutes in 3^ cup of cold water; add the tomato, sugar, and salt. Pour into small cups and chill. Turn the jelly out of the mold, place on lettuce leaves and garnish top of each with mayonnaise dressing. 5. Pistachio Salad }/2 box gelatin Juice of 2 oranges and 1 lemon 3^ c. cold water % c. sugar 2 c. boiling water 3^ lb. walnuts 4 c. celery Method. — Soak the gelatin in cold water; add boiling water and fruit juice, and color green with very little color- PROTEIN— GELATIN 183 ing; add the sugar and, when entirely dissolved, strain. Pour into molds, and when it begins to thicken add the nuts and celery. Serve as a garnish with meats or as a salad with cooked dressing. 6. Meat Jellies Method. — Jellied veal or chicken is made by cooking the meat a long time, reducing the meat stock, removing the meat from the bone, and packing in a mold with the meat liquor. Enough gelatin is extracted to mold the meat with- out adding commercial gelatin. LESSON 32 LEFT-OVERS Scalloped Dishes and Souffles Economical and attractive and appetizing dishes are made from left-overs of cold meat, chicken, fish, and vege- tables. These are combined with crackers or stale bread crumbs, together with thin white sauce to make souffles and scalloped dishes. To Prepare Crumbs. — Dry left-over portions of crackers and bread in the warming oven, but do not brown. Roll with the rolling pin on a board until fine ; then sift them and use them either plain or buttered. To hutter crumbs, use 2 tbsp. of butter to 1 c. of crumbs. Put the butter in a pan, melt, and add the crumbs. Stir until all the crumbs are well buttered. Do not brown. Season with salt. Proportion of White Sauce. — Use 3^ as much white sauce as meat or vegetables for scalloped dishes. Rules for Making Scalloped Dishes. — Use a porcelain baking dish, and butter it thoroughly. Cut up vegetables or meat into small, convenient pieces. Put a layer of meat or vegetables in the bottom of the baking dish, filling dish 3^ full, and cover the layer with thin white sauce. Repeat until all is used. Cover the top with buttered crumbs and bake in a moderate oven about J^ hour, or until browned over well on the top. Note. — To scallop left-over tomatoes, oysters, com or apples, where there is enough liquid, omit the white sauce and alternate layers of crumbs with the material. (184) LEFT-OVERS 185 Souffles. — A souffle is a combination of meat, fish, etc., and an omelet. The air in the egg makes the mixture very Hght. Only finely minced meat, fish and cheese are suitable to use in a souffle. Heavy ingredients make the dish heavy and it will not rise. Make a medium white sauce to which add finely minced meat or fish. Remove from the fire and add the beaten yolks. Cool the mixture; then fold in the stiffly beaten whites, as in an omelet. Put into a buttered baking dish and bake about 20 minutes in a moderate oven. Why a moderate oven? Serve at once. Why? APPLICATION 1. Scalloped Potatoes Method. — Wash, pare, and slice the potatoes. Put a layer into a buttered baking dish ; sprinkle with salt, pepper, and flour and dot with bits of butter. Repeat until the dish is full. Add the hot milk until it may be seen on top. Cover and bake in a moderate oven until the potatoes are tender (about IJ^ hours.) 2. Scalloped Tomatoes 1 qt. can tomatoes 1 tbsp. sugar 1 tsp. salt 2 c. stale bread crumbs 3^8 tsp. pepper 2 tbsp. melted butter Method. — Mix the bread crumbs and the melted butter. Mix all the other ingredients with the buttered crumbs, reserving J^ cup. Pour into a baking dish, cover with the remainder of the crumbs, and bake until brown. Raw tomatoes may be used instead of cooked ones in this recipe. Cut some tomatoes into 34-inch slices. Cover the bottom of the dish and sprinkle with buttered crumbs, salt, and pepper. Repeat until the dish is full. Buttered crumbs should finish the top. {Basis for 2 girls, Y^ rule.) 186 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 3. Scalloped Corn 1 can corn Spk. pepper 1 c. milk 2 tsp. sugar 2 tbsp. flour 1 c. bread crumbs (stale) 2 tbsp. butter 13^ c. melted butter 1 tsp. salt Method. — Make a white sauce of the milk, flour, butter, salt, and pepper, and add the corn and sugar. Cover the bottom of a buttered baking dish with a layer of corn and sprinkle heavily with buttered crumbs. Repeat until the dish is full, using buttered crumbs to finish the top. Bake until nicely browned on top (about 20 or 30 minutes). Grated cheese may be added to top for variety. {Basis for 2, ]/s rule.) 4. Salmon Souffle 2 tbsp. butter 2 tbsp. flour 1 c. milk 1 c. salmon 4 eggs 3^ tsp. salt Method. — Make a white sauce of the butter, flour, milk, and salt. Add the salmon (minced), with bones and skin removed. Remove from the fire and add the well- beaten egg yolks. Cool, and fold in the stiffly beaten whites. Pour into a buttered baking dish or into custard cups; set in a pan of hot water. Bake in a moderate oven for 20 minutes — a little longer when baked in a large dish. [Basis for 2 girls, 34 rule.) 5. Cheese Souffle (Recipe and method are given under Lesson 12.) Domestic Science Principles and Application SECOND YEAR SECOND YEAR LESSON 1 PRESERVATION OF FOOD— CANNING FRUITS Preservation as applied to food is the process of pre- venting decomposition, which is caused by the presence of bacteria. Bacteria are single-celled forms of plant life so small as to be seen only by the aid of a powerful microscope. Al- though they are so tiny, they increase in number so rapidly where they have plenty of food, ,;j^^ &^ ^ •e-i^ moisture, and warmth, that ^ ^ € they are able to cause extensive • o 9 O a as many kinds of bacteria as changes, especially in foods. It is believed that there are as many kmds ot bacteria as ^^ V (%Dv> there are kinds of other plants, a ^^j[ ^ ^y^ and they are found everywhere, 9 c ^5^ { ^ '\ in the dust of the air, in soil, pig. 29. Bacteria (greatly en- watPT QnH fnr»r1 larged): a, rod-shaped, showing water, ana lOOa. spores; h, spherical; c, typical lac- r^,,^C^^ +U^ «U^A^^^ ^C ^^^^^- tic-acid bacteria; d, bacteria with Uurmg the absence ot proper hairiike appendages, with which conditions for their growth they ^^^^ ^"''"^ ^'^^^^ ^" "^^'^^ ""' '^^^■ are inactive and often remain so for several months or years, but spring into life when brought again into the right conditions. All bacteria, however, are not harmful, and some are of great use to us. Common products that owe their flavor largely to the work of bacteria are butter, cheese, and vinegar. The action of bacteria is very useful in the pro- duction of linen, hemp, liquors, and many other products. (189) 190 DOMESTIC SCIENCE If there were no such thing as decay, the surface of the earth would soon become loaded with useless vegetable and animal matter. Bacteria feed upon this material and reduce it finally to substances available to plants as food, and it again becomes living matter. Reasons for Preserving Food. — People of no other age lived so well as the average do today. One great reason is the abundance and variety of food, made possible largely by methods of preservation. Advantages of food preserva- tion are: — 1. To insure clean, wholesome food, free from bacteria. 2. To enable us to have food out of season. 3. To afford us economy by making it possible to purchase food when it is best and cheapest, rather than when it is scarce, expensive, and inferior in quality. 4. To permit of transportation from one part of the country to another or from one country to another. Thus we have the use of foods not grown at home. METHODS OF PRESERVING FOOD Food is preserved by producing conditions unfavorable to the growth of bacteria in it and which destroy their effects. This is accomplished (1) by applying either a high or low temperature, (2) by drying, (3) by adding preservatives. Refrigeration is preservation by holding food at a low temperature. Freezing and cold storage are means of keeping food for long periods; cellars and ice boxes, for short periods. Freezing or packing in dry snow or ice checks the growth of bacteria as long as the food is in a frozen condition. Food deteriorates quickly after thawing out, and should be used immediately. Meat and fish are most commonly frozen. CANNING FRUIT 191 Cold storage, or keeping food in cold, dry storerooms artificially cooled to just above the freezing point, preserves food. Eggs, fruit, vegetables, butter, and meat are kept very extensively and for considerable periods in cold- storage plants. Cellars and ice boxes are cold-storage devices for homes. Canning, or sealing sterilized food in air-tight sterilized jars, is a common household method of food preservation. Boiling for 20 minutes will generally kill most forms of bacteria. Fruits, vegetables, and meats are preserved by canning. Removal of Moisture. — Bacteria require considerable moisture in a material in order to grow in it. Drying a food, therefore, preserves it from decay. Flour, crack- ers, cereals, and many other foods do not spoil because they are dry. Fish, fruits, berries, and beef are other familiar examples of this preserving principle. Dried foods must be kept in a dry place so as to prevent the ab- sorption of sufficient moisture to give the germs of decay on or in them a chance to grow. The excluding of air also aids in preserving some food products. This is accomplished in the case of eggs by coating with paraffin or vaseline or putting them in water glass; likewise grapes are packed in cork. Preservatives. — Antiseptics are materials that do not kill bacteria but which retard or prevent their growth. Those used to preserve food should be harmless to the body. Common examples of these are: — Sugar, — Bacteria cannot grow in a food containing a large proportion of sugar. Jelly, marmalade, and preserves keep well for this reason. Raisins, dates, figs, and candied fruits are other examples. Condensed milk is preserved by the addition of 30 or 40 per cent of sugar. 192 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Salt. — ^Salt prevents bacterial growth in a similar way that sugar does, and it also takes up moisture. Common foods salted are fat pork, beef, fish, hams, and bacon. Salt in butter and cheese makes them keep better. Acids. — Acids protect food from bacteria and give new flavors. Vinegar (acetic acid) is used in making pickles, and lactic and acetic acids that develop in sauerkraut act as preservatives. Spices are antiseptic and are another common means of preventing the action of bacteria on food. Spices are used in mincemeat for flavor and at the same time they help to preserve it. Sage and spice used in sausage and spice in fruit cake perform the same functions. Smoke. — Meats and fish are often preserved and flavored by smoking, combined with the salting and drying that accompany the process. It must be remembered, however, that the smoke does not penetrate deeply into the flesh, but is merely a protective covering, so that any bacteria or parasites within are not killed. Smoked meat is unsafe to eat without thorough cooking. Harmful Preservatives. — Other substances often used as preservatives are borax, boracic acid, salicylic acid and formalin. In small quantities these preservatives have been found to be quite harmless; yet their use in manu- factured foods has been made illegal in many states, in- asmuch as the amount a person may eat cannot be con- trolled. Sterilization of anything is the process of destroying all germs and molds in or on it, and anything that has undergone this process and is free from life is sterilized. CANNING The Primary Principle in Canning. — The central point in canning is to sterilize by heat the food and everything CANNING FRUIT 193 that comes in contact with it, and then to keep it sterile. Bacteria increase in number so amazingly fast that if a single germ withstands the heat or gets into the food after it has cooled, the contents of the jar will spoil in a few days. The jars must be sealed while hot, to insure that all enclosed air will be sterilized and to insure a perfect seal on cooling. Most failures in canning are due to insufficient heat applied or to neglect in using utensils not freed from germs. Avoid the raising of dust in the room while canning is being done. Jars for Canning. — There are many kinds of fruit jars on the market. The best jar is that which is strong and Fig. 30. Jars for canning: a, spring top; 6, jar with metal lacquered top; c, improved Mason; d. Mason. (U. S. D. A. Bui.) simple in construction, which has a wide mouth, and which protects the contained food against contact with metal. The type that seems to give the most general satisfaction has a glass cover clamped on with a spring device, as in Fig. 30. Use glass jars, never tin. Jars having a wide mouth are the best for large fruits, for it is easier to arrange the contents to better advantage. Be sure the cans and tops are perfect and fit closely, to insure an air-tight seal. By fitting jars and tops together before putting in the fruit no time is lost in sealing. —13 194 DOMESTIC SCIENCE To Sterilize Jars. — ^Wash the jars and tops and submerge them in a pan of cold water, jars full of water; bring slowly to a boil and boil 10 minutes. Do this just before filling. Rubbers should not be boiled but should be dipped into boiling water just before putting them on the jars. Tops with the rubbers on them must be treated in the same way. These tops and all rubbers can safely be used but once. Selection of Fruit. — Buy only fresh, firm fruit of good quality and not too ripe. Overripe fruit may contain some bacteria that will not be killed by boiling, causing fermentation after the fruit is set away. Buy fruit in season when prices are best. Proportion of Sugar, Water, and Fruit. — Use M to J/^ as much sugar as weight of fruit; use more sugar with very acid fruits. Use about 3 cupfuls of water to 1 pound of fruit; use less water if the fruit contains much water. Fruit not intended for sauce may be canned without sugar. Coarse-grained sugar is preferable to fine-grained sugar, since it froths less. General Methods of Canning Fruit. — There are two methods of canning fruit: (1) Cooking fruit in a sirup in a saucepan and then sealing in jars; (2) cooking by baking or steaming in the jars with a sirup. The latter method keeps the fruit whole and is especially suitable for berries. Method 1. Cooking Fruit in a Sirup. — 1 . Boil the sugar and water together 5 or 10 minutes, making a thin sirup. Put in the fruit and cook until tender. Cooking a small amount at a time preserves the shape of the fruit. 2. When fruit is tender, set the empty jar from the" boiling water into a pan containing a little hot water, or CANNING FRUIT 195 on a wet, hot cloth. This keeps the jar hot and avoids the danger of its breaking. 3. Put a new steriHzed rubber on the jar. Pack the fruit in carefully, arranging it to look well, and fill the jar to overflowing with the hot sirup. Put on the sterilized top and screw down tight. 4. See that no fruit around the edge prevents an air- tight seal. Set each jar upside down on a board away from any draft and let stand over night. tde Fig. 31. Canned fruit, labeled and ready for storing. 5. On the following day wipe off the jars, see that each is perfectly sealed, and label. Store them in a dark closet. If any jar is not perfectly sealed, open it, boil the fruit, and recan as before. Method 2. Cooking Fruit Whole in Jars. — Clean fruit and pack neatly and closely into the sterilized jars. Fill jars to the top with sirup made as in Method 1. Baking. — Set the jars in a pan containing an inch or two of hot water. Set the pan with the jars in a hot oven and bake 20 or 30 minutes, or until hot all through and bubbles rise in the jars. Steaming. — Set the filled jars on a rack in a boiler con- taining 3 or more inches of hot water and steam about 20 196 DOMESTIC SCIENCE minutes. When bubbles rise to the top and the contents of the jars are hot all through, remove jars, fill with hot sirup to overflowing, and seal, as in Method 1. Note. — Cook hard fruit, such as quince, in boiling water until nearly soft and then in sirup with Method 1. APPLICATION 1. Canned Peaches Method. — Wipe peaches and put in boiling water, allowing them to stand just long enough to loosen the skins. Remove the skins and either cook fruit at once, that it may not discolor, or drop into cold water. Make a sirup in the proportion of 1 pint of sugar to 1 pint of water and bring to a boil in a preserving kettle. Put fruit in and cook 10 or 15 minutes or until tender. Bring to a full boil and then fill jars according to previous directions. The fruit may be cut in halves and a few of the stones put into the sirup for flavor. One section of the class may can according to Method 1 and the other section may follow Method 2. {Basis for 2 girls, 1 can.) 2. Canned Pears Method. — ^Wash and pare the fruit. Cook whole with or without stems; or, remove stems, cut in quarters or halves, and core. Put at once into cold water. Make a sirup of 1 pint of sugar to 2 pints of water, bring to a boil, drain the pears and place in the sirup. Boil until tender. Place each piece separately in the jar with a fork; then cover brim full with the boiling sirup, and seal. Bartlett pears are best for canning. {Basis for 2 girls, 1 can.) CANNING FRUIT 197 3. Canned Plums Method. — ^Wash the plums and prick them to prevent bursting. Add the plums to the sirup (1 cupful sugar to 2 cupfuls water), cook until tender, and can according to Method 1. 4. Canned Strawberries Method. — Select highly-colored, clean berries. To 10 pounds of berries add 3 to 5 pounds of sugar. Place berries in a preserving kettle and mix in the sugar thoroughly. Allow them to stand 5 to 10 hours, until the juice begins to run into the sugar. Place the kettle and contents on the stove and bring to a boil. Simmer 15 minutes, keeping the berries beneath the sirup with a spoon and removing scum that rises. Place in jar and seal. Note. — Blackberries and raspberries may be canned the same as strawberries. Use 23^2 pounds of sugar for 10 pounds of berries. Berries may also be canned accord- ing to the baking or steaming method. LESSON 2 PRESERVATION OF FOOD— CANNING VEGETABLES Vegetables, except tomatoes, are more difficult than fruit to can successfully, because they are harder to steri- lize. They contain much hard cellulose fiber, requiring longer cooking, and the spores (seeds) of certain bacteria, which resist ordinary boiling, are also usually present. Nevertheless peas, beans, asparagus, and corn may be easily canned in the school and the home if the correct method is followed. Sterilizing by Intermittent Cooking. — As we have learned, some bacteria are able to form spores, which are like seeds, that are not killed by ordinary boiling. Soon after the food has cooled, these spores germinate, when they may be killed easily by heating. A second cooling and a third heating will render the vegetable or fruit absolutely sterile. Selection and Preparation of Vegetables. — Select only sound, fresh, young and tender vegetables. If possible can vegetables on the day they are picked. Pare, peel, or scrape, as the kind of vegetable requires. Remove all bruised or decayed parts. If the vegetable is likely to discolor after being pared, cover with cold water until ready to use; if very large, cut into convenient size to can. General Method of Canning Vegetables. — 1. Pack the vegetables firmly into the jars to within half an inch of the top. Arrange in a manner to utilize the space well and to present a good appearance. (198) • CANNING VEGETABLES 199 2. Add salt to the vegetables, allowing 3^ to 1 tea- spoonful to each quart. If sugar is desired, as in beets and peas, add 1 to 2 teaspoonfuls to each quart. Then fill jars to overflowing with clean, cold water. 3. Place the tops on the jars lightly, but do not seal. Place the jars on a wooden rack or other support in the bottom of a boiler. 4. Pour water into the boiler to a depth of 3 or more inches. Put on the cover and boil for 15 or 20 minutes. 5. Remove the boiler cover, seal the jars, cover again and boil for about 45 minutes; then set aside out of a draft in a warm room. 6. On the second day, return the jars to the boiler prepared as before and, without loosening the seals of the jars, bring the water to the boiling point and boil again about 60 minutes. Remove the jars and let stand as before. 7. On the third day, cook as on the previous day, 60 minutes. Then remove jars from the boiler, allow to cool, wipe off, label, and set away. Vegetables may be given but one boiling for a period of 3 or 4 hours, according to the kind of vegetable, but results are less sure than with the intermittent method. Cooking on successive days makes a better product and losses by spoiling will be very slight. Fruit as well as vegetables may be canned by this method. Storing Canned Goods. — Canned goods should be stored in a cool, dark place, for light has a chemical effect on some fruits and vegetables and destroys the color. Canned goods should be sorted as to kinds, putting like fruits and like vegetables together on the shelves and labeling the shelves for convenience when selecting the food as needed. 200 DOMESTIC SCIENCE APPLICATION 1. Canned Tomatoes Method. — Tomatoes may be canned whole or cut in quarters or slices and stewed. Select solid ones of medium size to can whole. Scald, peel, and can with the juice, cooking the tomatoes in the unsealed jar 15 minutes and then sealing and cooking 45 to 50 minutes longer. Repeat the cooking on 2 successive days, according to the General Method. Tomatoes may also be canned in the same way as fruit. If the tomatoes are large, cut them into quarters, after removing the skins, and cook until tender. Remove all scum that forms. Cook in the jars for 45 minutes and again on the second day for 60 minutes. (Basis for 2 girls, 1 piitt can.) 2. Asparagus Method. — Cut asparagus into lengths, fit into the jars, and cook for about 15 minutes; then seal and cook 45 min- utes longer. The next day again cook for 60 minutes, repeating the process on the third day. 3. Beets Method. — Cook the beets until the skins can be removed easily, peel and fit them into the jars, leaving the beets whole. Or, cut them into slices or quarters. Cook for 15 minutes in the jar before sealing; then seal and cook 45 minutes. Repeat the cooking on 2 successive days for 60 minutes each time. 4. String Beans Method. — Remove the strings and wash the beans thoroughly. Boil the beans for 15 minutes and drain well. Fit into the jars and cook 15 or 20 minutes before sealing; then seal and cook for 60 minutes. Repeat the cooking CANNING VEGETABLES 201 in the can on 2 successive days for a period of 60 minutes each day. 5. Corn Method. — Cut the grains from the cob and scrape the cobs. Cook the corn for 15 to 20 minutes, seal, and cook in the cans 45 to 50 minutes. Cook again for 60 minutes on 2 successive days. 6. Peas Method. — Shell the peas and boil 15 minutes. Remove the wrinkled peas and can the good ones. Cook for 15 minutes in the cans before sealing; then seal and cook 45 minutes. Repeat cooking the next 2 days for 60-minute periods. LESSON 3 PRESERVATION OF FOOD— MAKING JELLIES, MAR- MALADES, and CONSERVES Jellies, preserves, marmalades, and conserves are made by cooking fruit juice or entire fruit with an abundance of sugar, which acts as a preservative. JELLIES The ideal jelly is well colored, well flavored, transparent, tender, holds its shape when turned from the glass, and is not gummy or sticky. Composition of Fruit Juice. — Fruit juice consists largely of water in which are dissolved small amounts of sugar, flavoring material, vegetable acids, and pectin. Pectin is the essential substance for jelly-making. If this is not present in a fruit juice it is impossible to make jelly from it. Pectin is a carbohydrate similar to starch in its nature and, like starch, is dissolved in boiling water. It exists in small quantities in raw fruits, the amounts vary- ing with different varieties. Cooking causes the pectin to take on water, which increases it in amount and gives it the jelly-making properties. Overripe fruits do not con- tain enough pectin to jell, for the ripening process changes it to a form of sugar. Fruit not quite ripe is usually best. Test for Pectin. — Add two tablespoons of alcohol to the same amount of hot fruit juice. If the mixture becomes thick, like gelatin, pectin is present. Fruits rich in pectin are currant, grape, apple, plum, raspberry, blackberry, cranberry, quince, pear, and peach. The white skin of the orange and grapefruit also contain it. ((202) JELLIES, MARMALADES, AND PRESERVES 203 Vegetable acids are also necessary in fruit juices for jelly- making, and give flavor to the jelly. Many fruits are deficient in acid; for example, quince, peaches, sweet apples, and pears. In order to make good jelly from these juices, sour apple juice or some fruit juice rich in acid should be used as a basis. Combining fruit juices in this way supplies both pectin and acid where they are deficient, and many pleasing flavors and combinations may be made with a little care and practice. Utensils for Jelly-Making. — Use a granite or porcelain kettle; a large wooden or enamel spoon for stirring; a pointed bag made of Canton flannel, cheesecloth, or old damask through which to strain the jelly; an enamel pitcher or cup for filling glasses; sterilized jelly glasses; and a silver spoon for testing the jelly. Extracting Fruit Juices. — 1. Select sound fruit that is not overripe. Pick over, wash until thoroughly clean and free from sand and dirt. Cut up large fruits. 2. Put in the preserving kettle and if the fruit is very juicy add just enough water to prevent burning, about 1 cup to every 4 quarts of fruit. If the fruit is not juicy, add water to nearly cover the fruit. 3. Cover the kettle and cook slowly, stirring occasion- ally. When it simmers, crush the fruit with a potato masher; cook until the fruit is thoroughly cooked and the juices run freely. 4. Dip the jelly bag into boiling water to sterilize it and wring out quite dry. Suspend the jelly bag on a pole over a bowl or jar, pour in the hot fruit, and let drain until all the juice is well extracted. This usually takes from 12 to 20 hours. Do not squeeze the bag, for this will force out pulp and make the jelly cloudy. 204 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 5. When well drained, return the pulp to the preserving kettle, cover with water, stir until well mixed, cover and bring slowly to a boil as before: then drain again into another jar. By testing the juice with alcohol the amount of pectin present may be ascertained. 6. Sometimes a third extraction of juice is possible. Do not mix the juice from the first cooking with that of the second or third. Proportion of Fruit Juice and Sugar. — A correct propor- tion of sugar to juice is necessary; not enough sugar makes a tough jelly, and too much produces a soft jelly and may form crystals. For most juices rich in pectin and acid, 1 cup of sugar to 1 cup of juice is used; currants and grapes demand this proportion. Some fruits; as, crab apple, sour apples, cranberries, and raspberries, require less sugar, and the proportion of ^ cup of sugar to 1 cup of juice is usually correct. If fruits contain a large amount of water and the pectin test shows a small amount of pectin, use less sugar. For the second and third extractions, which contain more water than the first, the juice should be boiled down quickly until the pectin test shows up clear, when the usual proportion of sugar may be used. This jelly should be as clear as that from the first extraction. Making the Jelly. — Measure out the sugar into a granite pan and put into the oven to heat. Leave the oven door open and stir the sugar occasionally to prevent burning. Pour the fruit juice into the preserving kettle and bring to a boil. Too long boiling destroys the gelatinizing power of the pectin and may also cause crystals of sugar to form in the jelly after it stands. The time necessary for boiling varies with the proportionate amounts of sugar and pectin JELLIES. MARMALADES. AND PRESERVES 205 in the juice. Where much sugar is used, less time is taken, and thin juice deficient in pectin requires longer cooking. Remove carefully all the scum that rises to the top of the boiling juice and from around the edges of the kettle. After the juice has boiled 10 to 12 minutes add the hot sugar slowly, stir occasionally to prevent burning, and continue the boiling until the test shows sufficient cooking to "jell" the mixture. Test for Jelly — Take up a small amount of the hot mixture in a cold, silver tablespoon and drop it from the spoon. If the mixture "jells" and breaks from the spoon, it has been cooked enough. Remove from the fire at once. Filling Glasses. — Sterilize jelly glasses in the same manner as fruit jars, and when the jelly is ready set the glasses in a pan containing a little hot water, to keep them, from breaking when the hot jelly is poured in. With a cup or pitcher fill each glass to within a half inch of the top. Let the jelly stand in a sunny place several hours to set. Then, to exclude molds, cover with hot paraffin, with circles of white paper cut to fit the glasses and dipped in slightly beaten egg white and water or alcohol, or with hot tin covers. Wipe off the glasses with a damp cloth, label each, indicating the kind of jelly and the date, and set away in a cool, dry place. Causes of Poor Jelly. — Failure may be due to one or more of a number of causes, which must be discovered by tests. Fig. 32. Jelly, properly sealed and labeled. 206 DOMESTIC SCIENCE The following are the important causes: — 1. Fruit juice contained too little pectin or not enough acid. 2. Too much or too little sugar may have been used. The error is usually on the side of too much. 3. The jelly may have been boiled too long or not enough. PRESERVES, JAMS, AND MARMALADE Preserves, jam, and marmalade are made from the fruit pulp and juice cooked thick with from ^ to its whole weight of sugar. Fruits most used are strawberries, raspberries, black- berries, rhubarb, grapes, oranges, peaches, and quince or big plums. A conserve is a preserve made from a mixture of fruits with or without the addition of some other material, such as nuts. General Method. — 1. Pick over the fruit, wash and weigh. Cut large fruit into quarters or smaller pieces and crush the berries and grapes. Put in a preserving kettle with enough water to keep from burning, — about 3^ cup to each quart of fruit. Cook slowly until the fruit is soft and the juices run. 2. Remove the seeds from grapes and some berries by rubbing the mixture through a sieve; then return to the fire and add an equal weight of hot sugar slowly. Stir the mixture constantly to prevent burning, and cook until it "jells" on the spoon or becomes thick. 3. Turn out into hot sterilized glasses, let stand aday or two, and then seal and put away the same as jelly. JELLIES, MARMALADES, AND PRESERVES 207 APPLICATION 1. Currant Jelly Method. — Pick over the currants, but do not remove the stems; wash and drain. Mash a few in the bottom of a preserving kettle, using a potato-masher. Add more cur- rants and mash and continue adding currants until all are used. Bring to a boil slowly and let simmer until the cur- rants appear white. Strain through a coarse strainer and allow the juice to drain through a jelly bag. Measure the juice, bring to the boiling point and boil 5 minutes. Add an equal measure of heated sugar and boil until a good jelly test is obtained; then pour into glasses. {Basis for 4 girls, % cupful juice.) 2. Apple Jelly Method.— Wash the apples and remove the stems and the dark spots. Cut into fourths, but do not core or pare. Add just enough water to cover the apples and cook until the fruit is soft and crushed. Drain through a jelly bag. The pulp that remains may be put through a colander with more fruit for flavoring and used for jams. For the jelly, measure the juice and add an equal amount of sugar. Boil the juice for 20 minutes (for a large amount), remove the scum, and add the heated sugar. Boil about 5 minutes or until the jelly test shows the mixture will jelly. Pour into hot sterilized glasses and seal when cold. (Basis for 4 girls, % cupful juice.) 3. Orange Marmalade 9 oranges 4 qts. water 6 lemons Same weight of sugar as fruit Method. — Slice as thin as possible the oranges and the lemons crosswise with a sharp knife; remove the seeds and put fruit into a preserving kettle with the water. Cover and let stand for 36 hours and then boil for 2 hours. Meas- 208 DOMESTIC SCIENCE ure the cooked fruit and add an equal amount of sugar. Cook until the mixture jellies. Jar, and seal when cold. 4. Big Plum Conserve 1 basket big plums 3 oranges, rind of one Sugar, % weight of plums ^ lb. shredded almonds Method. — Cut the plums into halves and remove the stones. Cook the plums, oranges, and the sugar for 45 minutes. Blanch the almonds and cut them several times lengthwise. Add the almonds to the fruit mixture and cook 10 minutes longer. Put into sterile glasses and seal when cold like jelly. This amount makes 13 glasses. 5. Spiced Grapes 7 lbs. fruit 33^ lbs. sugar 1 c. strong vinegar 2 oz. cinnamon 1 c. grape juice 1 oz. cloves Method. — Press pulp out of grapes. Boil the pulp until tender and then pass it through a colander to remove the seeds. Mix the skins with the pulp. Boil all until thick like marmalade. When done turn into glasses and seal. Good to serve with meats. 6. Raspberry Jam 3 qts. raspberries 1 qt. currant juice 3 lbs. sugar Method. — Cook berries with the juice and half of the sugar 20 minutes. Add the rest of the sugar and cook about 25 minutes longer. Stir constantly to keep from burning. Put in jelly glasses and seal when cold. Adding the sugar slowly prevents the fruit from getting hard. 7. Plum and Apple Jelly Method. — Use equal parts of plum and apple juice. 8. Quince and Apple Method. — Use }4 as much quince as apple juice. JELLIES, MARMALADES, AND PRESERVES 209 9. Apple and Raspberry Method. — Flavor apple jelly with raspberry by using 1^ as much raspberry as apple juice. 10. Grape Fudge 7 lbs. grapes 7 lbs. sugar 1 lb. walnuts 1 lb. raisins Method. — Wash the grapes and remove the pulp. Cook the pulp and remove the seeds by putting through a sieve. Chop skins and nuts, mix pulp and sugar, add the chopped portions and whole raisins. Cook until thick and seal in sterilized glasses. This amount makes 2*2 glasses. —14 LESSON 4 PRESERVATION OF FOOD— PICKLING. CONDIMENTS AND SPICES Pickles are eaten largely for their pleasing flavor, and are to be classed as condiments rather than as true food. Condiments and Spices. — Whatever is eaten to whet the appetite and stimulate the flow of digestive juices is known as a condiment. Horseradish and mustard are good examples. Condiments are for the most part aromatic fruits, seeds, or leaves that have a high flavor due to vola- tile oils. These oils lose their strength during cooking. Besides the two named, pepper (black, white, cayenne), mint, thyme, sage, dill, capers, chives, garlic and parsley are those usually added to meats and soups. Spices are condimental in nature and are used to season foods, especially those containing sugar. Common spices are ginger, cinnamon, nutmeg, mace, cloves, allspice, caraway, pepper, peppermint, and angelica. They are used whole, ground, or in the extract. It is much better for young persons, as well as for older ones, if they eat sparingly of highly-seasoned food. The continued use of condiments creates a habit for them and leaves no relish for natural flavors, which are more delicate and more satisfying. Salt is a food, since a certain amount is needed in the formation of gastric juice. In the amounts in which it is commonly eaten, however, it is a condiment. In concen- trated solutions it becomes a preservative. Vinegar is a condiment in the diet and is a familiar preservative. It is dilute acetic acid, made by fermenting (210) PICKLING 211 weak alcoholic solutions like hard cider, wine, and malt. Cider vinegar has an agreeable flavor and is the best for pickling. Pickling is preserving in acid and brine. Vinegar and salt are used with spices and herbs which give flavor and at the same time are preservative. Kinds of Pickles. — There are many varieties of pickles, but in the main they may be classed as sweet, sour, dill, or a combination of sweet and sour. Pickles have little food value and are rather hard of digestion, but used in modera- tion as a relish with a dinner are appetizing and help stimu- late the digestion. Materials for Pickles. — Cucumbers, green tomatoes, watermelon rind, apples, crab apples, peaches, and pears make the best pickles. Use only the purest spices and the best cider vinegar. Whole spices are better to use than ground spices. If ground spices are used, tie them in a tiny muslin bag. General Rules for Pickling. — 1. Never use brass, cop- per, or tin utensils in making pickles. 2. Clean the pickles thoroughly by washing in several waters, remove all stem ends and sort according to size. 3. A small portion of alum improves cucumber pickles, but too much is injurious. 4. Do not boil the vinegar too long, — not over 10 to 15 minutes, — for it loses its strength. 5. Keep the pickles covered with vinegar in good, clean glass or stone jars. A few pieces of horseradish added prevent scum from forming on the surface of the vinegar. 6. If cucumbers are soaked in a brine overnight before pickling they will be firmer, have more of the salt taste, 212 DOMESTIC SCIENCE and will keep better. A brine made of about J/^ cupful of salt to a quart of water is the proportion most commonly used. Sweet Pickle for Fruits 2}4: c. brown sugar 1 tsp. whole cloves 1 c. vinegar (medium sour) 14 oz. cinnamon Method. — Cook the sugar, vinegar, and spices together for about 15 to 20 minutes. Put in the fruit and cook until it begins to get tender. Remove from the fire and put into a large jar. The next day pour off the vinegar, reheat it, and pour again over the fruit. Do this several successive days until the fruit is tender. Weigh down a plate on top of the pickles to hold them under the vinegar. Sweet Pickle for Vegetables 2 lbs. sugar to 2 qts. of vinegar (medium sour) 2 tbsp. of cinnamon or stick cinnamon 2 tbsp. of cloves }4 lb. mustard seed 2 tbsp. ginger or allspice ^ tbsp. red pepper Method. — Cook pickle ingredients together until some- what boiled down, and pour over the vegetables. Reheat the pickle 3 or 4 successive mornings and return to the vegetables. APPLICATION 1. Pickled Green Tomato Method. — Wash and stem small green tomatoes and slice in 3^-inch slices. Cook in slightly salted water, (allow 1 teaspoonful of salt to a quart of water). Cook until tender, being careful not to mash the slices. Drain and put immediately into cold water to make crisp. Let stand an hour. Make a hot pickle as for vegetables and pour over the tomatoes on 3 successive days. If one desires a few slices of onion may be added to the tomatoes. PICKLING 213 2. Sweet Pickles— Peach ^ peck peaches 2 lbs. brown sugar 1 pt. vinegar 1 oz. stick cinnamon Method. — Make a pickle of sugar, vinegar, and cinna- mon. Scald the peaches and remove the wool by rubbing with a towel. Do not stick cloves into them. If very ripe, pour the hot sirup over them on 3 successive mornings. If hard, cook a few minutes in the hot pickle; then pour on the hot pickle on 2 successive days. 2. Sweet Pickled Pears Method. — Select sound fruit not too ripe, and pare and leave whole with stems on. Cook until tender and pour the hot pickle over them several successive mornings. Use same pickle as for peaches. 3. Watermelon Pickles Method. — Cut the pared rind in thick slices. Boil 1 ounce of alum in 1 gallon of water and pour it on the rinds; let stand several hours. Remove rinds into cold water and when cold boil half an hour in a sweet pickle. Reheat the pickle vinegar and pour over pickles on 2 successive mornings. Keep in stone jars. 4. Cucumber Pickles 1 gal. vinegar 1 c. salt 1 c. sugar 1 c. mustard 4 qts. small cucumbers Method. — Mix salt, sugar, and mustard together; then add the vinegar slowly, stirring well. Wash and look over the cucumbers, and put into a stone jar. Pour on the pickle brine, let stand weighed down with a plate to keep pickles under the brine. These pickles are ready for use in a week's time. The brine is not heated. 214 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 5. Oil Pickles 50 medium-sized cucumbers 1 tbsp. celery 1 c. onions (sliced) 13^ c. olive oil 1 c. salt 2 qts. vinegar 1 c. white mustard seed 1 tbsp. alum }/2 c. black mustard seed Method. — Wash cucumbers, cut off both ends, and slice thin without peeUng. Peel the onions and slice them thin. Put cucumbers and onions in a crock in layers covered with salt and let stand over night. In the morning, drain, mix the powdered alum in 1 quart of vinegar and pour over the pickles and let stand 4 hours; drain again. Mix seeds through pickles; then pack all in a jar and cover with oil mixed well with 1 quart of fresh vinegar. Place a weight on top and let stand 3 weeks before using. 6. Bordeaux Sauce 1 qt. chopped green tomatoes 1 qt. vinegar 2 qts. sliced cabbage 3^ tsp. allspice 3 onions % tbsp. mustard seed 1 red pepper 1 c. brown sugar 2 tbsp. salt Method. — Mix all the ingredients together and boil for 25 minutes. Seal in small jars and use with meats as a relish. 7. Tomato Catsup 14 bushel ripe tomatoes 1 tsp. white pepper 3 bay leaves 3 onions 1 lemon 1 tsp. red pepper 1 tsp. black pepper 1 sr. c. salt 2 tsp. mustard ^ pt. vinegar Method. — Wash the tomatoes thoroughly and cut in pieces; cook with the bay leaves, lemon, white pepper, and onions about 2 hours. Strain through a colander to remove the skins. Mix the remainder of the spices and stir into the strained portion, add the salt and the vinegar, stir until well mixed, return to the large kettle, and cook slowly till the mixture thickens and is cooked down about one-half. Put in small sterilized bottles, seal, and keep in a cool, dark place. LESSON 5 DOUGHS— COOKIES Review proportions for doughs. Review recipes for baking powder biscuit and muffin mixtures. Notice the proportion of ingredients. Com- pare with a plain cookie or a cake recipe. What ingredi- ents are found in much larger amounts in cookies and cakes? General proportions of ingredients for cookie mixtures : J/^ to 3^ as much butter as sugar About y^ as much liquid as flour. (Regard eggs as so much liquid.) To combine sugar and butter in cookies or cakes, work the butter with a wooden spoon or silver fork until soft and creamy. This is called "creaming" the butter. The par- ticles are separated and air is introduced, which helps to make the mixture light. Add the sugar, and work until sugar is moist and creamy. Variations in Cookie Mixtures. — A plain cookie mixture may be varied greatly by the use of different flavors, flour (bread, graham, or oatmeal), or spices; by more or less eggs, butter or lard, nuts or cocoanut; by cutting in fancy shapes; and by icing or coloring. Cookies are crisp or soft, depending on the amount of liquid used. More liquid makes softer cookies; less liquid and rolling thin makes crisp cookies. APPLICATION Demonstrate rolling and cutting cookies. 1 c. sugar \i c. butter 1 egg ]i c. milk I. Sugar Cookies 2 c. flour 14 tsp. salt 3 tsp. baking powder 1 tsp. vanilla (215) 216 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Method. — Cream the butter, add the sugar gradually, and cream well with a wooden spoon. Sift the salt and baking powder with the flour. Add the milk gradually to the sugar mixture, then the well beaten egg, then the vanilla, then the flour gradually to make a soft dough. Turn out on a floured board and roll a small portion at a time to J^ inch thickness. Cut with a floured cookie cutter, place on buttered pan and bake in a hot oven until slightly brown (about 10 minutes). Makes 4 dozen cookies. {Basis for 2 girls, }4 rule.) 2. Sour Milk Cookies 1 c. sugar 3^ tsp. soda 3^2 c. butter 14 tsp. salt 2 eggs 2 tsp. nutmeg 3^^ c. sour milk or cream About 2 c. flour, or as little as possible Method. — Cream the butter, add the sugar, and cream again. Add the well-beaten egg and then the sour milk to which has been added the soda. Mix the nutmeg, salt and flour, and add gradually to the mixture. Use as little flour as possible, the softer the dough the better. Roll out, cut, and bake as other cookies. Makes 4 dozen cookies. {Basis for 2 girls, 14 rule.) 3. Norwegian Cookies 2^ c. flour }4: c. sweet milk }/2 c. shortening (half butter, }-^ tsp. soda half lard) 1 c. sugar 1 tsp. vanilla 1 egg 3^ tsp. salt Method. — Beat the egg thoroughly, add the sugar, and beat hard. Dissolve the soda in the sweet milk and add milk to the egg mixture; beat hard. Rub the cold short- ening into the flour with the hands until it is fine like meal ; then add the flour, a cupful at a time, to the wet mixture. Make a soft dough and set it in the ice box until quite cold. Roll out a small portion at a time, very thin, J/g inch thick; DOUGHS— COOKIES 217 cut and bake in a quick oven 4 or 5 minutes. Makes 6 dozen cookies. 4. Ginger Snaps }4 c. shortening 1 tsp. salt 1 c. molasses }^ tsp. soda 33^ c. flour 1 tbsp. ginger H c. sugar Method. — Heat the molasses to boiling point; then add the shortening, which may be butter or half butter and half lard. Mix and sift the dry ingredients and add to the wet. Mix well and chill. Divide the mixture, turn upon a floured board, part at a time, and roll very thin. Use little or no flour in rolling. Cut and bake on buttered baking sheets in a quick oven. Reserve a part of the flour, for all may not be needed. Makes 5 dozen cookies. (Basis for 2 girls, }4. rule.) 5. Sand Tarts }/2 c. butter 2 tsp. baking powder 1 c. sugar IM c. flour 1 &gg }/i tsp. cinnamon Blanched almonds 1 tbsp. sugar Method. — Cream the butter, add the sugar, and then cream well. Add well-beaten ^%%. Mix and sift the dry ingredients and add to the wet. Chill, and roll out J^ inch thick on a floured board. Cut with a knife into dia- mond shaped pieces. Brush over with the white of an %%%, sprinkle with the cinnamon and 1 tablespoon sugar mixed together. Put three halves of blanched almonds in the center of each tart. Bake on a buttered baking sheet 8 minutes in a slow oven. 6. Chocolate Cookies Method. — Add 3 tablespoonfuls melted chocolate to rule for Sugar Cookies. LESSON 6 DROP BATTERS— COOKIES Review proportions for doughs and batters. Review- oven tests for temperature. Time for baking cookies is 10 to 15 minutes. APPLICATION 1. Chocolate Cookies 1 c. sugar Yi c. melted butter 2 eggs 1 even tsp, soda ^ c. milk 2 c. flour 1 c. raisins and nuts 3 square chocolate 1 tsp. vanilla Method. — Mix the melted butter with the sugar. Add the beaten yolks and melted chocolate to this. Add soda to the milk and then add the milk and 3^ the flour to the sugar and eggs. Mix well. Add the raisins with the re- mainder of the flour. Add beaten whites and vanilla and beat well. Drop from the spoon to bake on buttered baking sheets. May be frosted with fudge frosting. (Basis for 2 girls, }/i 'rule.) 2. Rocks 13^ c. brown sugar 1 c. butter 3 eggs 3^ tsp. cloves 1 tsp. cinnamon 3 c. flour 2 c. raisins 1/^ c. English walnuts 1 tsp. soda Method. — Cream butter and sugar well. Add the beaten yolks to this; mix spices and soda with the flour and add to the sugar mixture. Flour fruit and nuts and add to mix- ture. Add the beaten whites and mix well. Drop from spoon and bake 10 minutes. Makes 3 dozen. (Basis for 2 girls, }{ rule.) (218) DROP BATTERS— COOKIES 219 3. Peanut Cookies 3 tbsp. butter 1 egg _ 1 c. flour 1 tsp. baking powder 3^ c. chopped nuts }4: tsp. salt 3^ tsp. lemon juice Method. — Cream butter well with sugar. Add salt and baking powder to the flour. Add the beaten yolk to the butter and sugar. Then add the flour and nuts. Fold in white of egg, add the lemon juice, and mix stiff enough to drop on greased paper. Bake in a hot oven. Makes 2 dozen cookies. {Basis for 2 girls, }4 rule.) 4. Brownies 3^ c. butter }4 c powdered sugar 3^ c. molasses 1 egg 3^ c. flour 1 c. pecan meats Method. — Cream butter with sugar, add molasses, add the beaten yolk of egg, and beat well; mix nuts with the flour and then add to the rest. Add beaten white of egg. Bake in fancy cake pans. Put nut meats on top of each. (Basis for 2 girls, 3€ rule.) 5. Oatmeal Cookies 1 c. butter 4 tbsp. milk 1 c. sugar 1 tsp. soda 2 eggs 1 tsp. cinnamon 2 c. flour }/2 tsp. cloves 2 c. oatmeal 1 c. chopped raisins Method. — Cream the butter, add the sugar, and cream together well. Put the soda into the milk, put the eggs into the sugar mixture one at a time, beat hard; add the milk, then the flour, oatmeal, cinnamon, cloves, and floured raisins. Drop by spoonfuls on a greased pan and bake 15 or 20 minutes. LESSON 7 FATS AND OILS. FRYING UNCOOKED MIXTURES Definition. — An oil is a fat that is liquid at ordinary- temperatures. Fats that are ordinarily solid become liquid in the presence of heat. Oils become solid at low temperatures Sources. — Fat and oils used in cooking are obtained from animals and vegetables. Examples of animal fats are cream and butter, meat fat (suet, marrow, and drippings), lard, tallow, and fish oil. Examples of vegetable oils are olive oil, cottonseed oil, cocoanut oil and oils from other nuts. Food Value. — Fats and oils are one of the main food principles, and serve the body in the following ways: (1) By supplying heat and energy, (2) by building up the fatty tissue, (3) by acting as a lubricant. To Try out Fat. — Beef drippings, leaf lard, etc., must be tried out, or freed from the connective tissue, before they can be used for frying. To do this, cut up the fat fine, put into a pan with enough water to cover, and set it in the oven. Let it simmer several hours. When the fat is melted and free from water, strain through cheese- cloth and cool. Try out leaf lard in a double boiler; strain, and cool. To Clarify Fat. — Fat used in frying takes up water, solid substances, and flavors that should be removed before the fat is used again. To clarify fat, melt it and add a few slices of raw potato. Heat gradually and allow to simmer, which evaporates the water. When it ceases to bubble and (220) FRYING UNCOOKED MIXTURES 221 the potato is well browned, strain through a cloth over a strainer into a lard-pail or jar. The potato takes up odors, and the solid substances are strained out. New fat should be used for batter and dough mixtures, potatoes, and fish balls. After these, fry fish, meat, and croquettes. Frying is cooking in deep fat. Fats used for frying are olive oil (very expensive), cottolene, beef or bacon drippings, or a combination of two-thirds lard and one-third beef suet. The combination gives better results than all lard. ,d i i^mM '^'^'-^^Hb ^^ ^' --^L^M Fig. 33. Doughnuts. Tests for Frying Temperature. — To prevent absorption of fat by foods being fried, the fat must be hot enough to form a crust over the food as soon as put in. The fat is never hot enough until it ceases to bubble. Then test by dropping in an inch cube of bread cut from the middle of a slice. For cooked mixtures, like croquettes or fish and oysters, the bread should turn a golden brown in 40 seconds. 222 DOMESTIC SCIENCE For uncooked mixtures, like fritters and doughnuts, the bread should turn a golden brown in 60 seconds. Cautions in Frying. — 1. Do not let fat get so hot as to smoke badly. 2. Do not fry too large a quantity at one time, for it lowers the temperature of the fat. 3. Drain all fried foods on soft paper to absorb the fat. 4. Use egg and crumbs to cover mixtures that are likely to absorb too much fat. Why eggs? APPLICATION 1. Doughnuts (sour milk) 2 eggs 1 qt. flour 1 c. sugar 1 c. sour milk or cream* 1 tsp. soda 1 tsp. salt 1 tbsp. rnelted butter Season to taste, using vanilla or }/2 tsp. cinnamon nutmeg Method. — Put the flour, cinnamon, baking powder, and sugar into a bowl. Dissolve the soda in 1 tablespoonful of hot water. Add to the sour milk and then add till melted lard. Beat the eggs until light and add to the milk. Add the wet ingredients to the dry. Roll out to 34 inch thickness, cut, and fry in deep fat. Do not put in more than five doughnuts at a time or the fat will be cooled too greatly. Let the fat reheat between fryings. Turn the doughnuts while frying; drain on plain paper. Makes 3 dozen doughnuts. {Basis for 2 girls, \irule.) 2. Chocolate Doughnuts Method. — Chocolate doughnuts are made by adding4 tea- spoons chocolate to the preceding rule. * If sweet milk is used, use 2 teaspoons of baking powder in place of soda. FRYING UNCOOKED MIXTURES 223 3. Potato Doughnuts 1 c. mashed potatoes 3^ c. sweet milk 11^ c. sugar 2 eggs 2 tbsp. melted butter 3 c. flour 3 tsp. baking powder Nutmeg grating }/2 tsp. salt 3^ tsp. cinnamon Method. — Beat the eggs and add the sugar. Mash the potatoes and put them through a strainer; add the butter and milk and put through the strainer again. Add eggs and sugar, and then the flour to which has been added the baking powder and a pinch of salt. Roll out to 34 ii^ch thick, cut, and fry as other doughnuts. Makes 3 dozen. {Basis for 2 girls, }4 ride.) 4. Corn Fritters 1 can corn 1 c. flour 1 tsp. baking powder 2 tsp. salt 34 tsp. paprika 2 eggs Method. — Chop the corn; add dry ingredients mixed and sifted well. Then add the beaten yolks of eggs and fold in beaten whites. Fry by spoonfuls in fresh hot lard ; drain on a paper. {Basis for 2 girls, 14 rule.) 5. Com Oysters 1 c. corn 1 egg 34 c. flour Salt and pepper Method. — Cut raw corn from cobs to which add the egg well beaten. Mix flour and seasoning with this; drop by the spoonful in deep fat, or cook on a hot, well-greased griddle. They should be made about the size of large oysters. Makes 2 dozen oysters. 6. Fritter Batter 2 eggs 2 tbsp. of melted butter 1 c. flour 3^ c. cold water 1 ssp. salt 1 tsp. sugar, if for sweet fritters Method. — Stir salt in egg yolk, add butter slowly, then sugar, and when well mixed stir in the flour slowly. Then 224 DOMESTIC SCIENCE add the water a little at a time. Beat well, set aside for 2 hours, then stir in beaten whites of eggs. Batter must be thick. If not soft enough, add white of another egg. {Basis for 2 girls, 3^ rule.) Note. — Oranges, bananas, prunes, apples, and clams or oysters may be used with this batter. Frtiit. — Cut fruit in quarters, roll in powdered sugar, and dip in batter before sugar has time to dissolve. Fry like doughnuts. Roll in powdered sugar just before serving. Serve hot. For Clams or Oysters. — Use 1 tablespoon lemon juice or vinegar and use liquor of clam or oyster instead of water in the batter. 7. Swedish Timbales ^ c. flour (about) J2 c. milk 3^ tsp. salt 1 egg 1 tsp. sugar 1 tbsp. olive oil Method. — Beat the egg thoroughly and add the milk and olive oil. Sift the dry ingredients together, add the wet to the dry; beat until smooth. Frymg. — Heat the fat as for doughnuts; use a deep dish and hold the iron in the hot fat until thoroughly heated through. Dip the hot iron into the batter to within a fourth of an inch of the top. Place immediately into the Fig. 34. Timbale cases and irons, and rosette iron. FRYING UNCOOKED MIXTURES 225 hot fat deep enough to cover the iron. If the iron is too hot, the batter will slip off into the lard. If too cool, the batter will stick to the iron. Fry to a delicate brown, and drain on plain paper. Use for creamed peas, mushrooms, and finely cut salmon or chicken. Makes 3 dozen timbales. {Basis for 2 girls, }4 fule.) 8. Swedish Rosettes 1 c. milk 4 eggs 2 tsp. sugar 1 tsp. vanilla Pinch of salt 1 /^ c. flour Powdered sugar Method. — Make a well in the flour in a bowl and add the milk gradually. Beat well, drop in the whole eggs one at a time, and beat hard with a Dover beater. When full of bubbles add the vanilla. Fry in deep fat on a rosette iron until a light brown. Move the iron up and down in the fat carefully to loosen the rosette from the iron and finish the frying off the iron. Turn the rosettes like doughnuts while frying. Several may be fried in the kettle at the same time. Serve with powdered sugar or with fresh berries and whipped cream. Makes about 4 dozen rosettes. —15 LESSON 8 FRYING COOKED MIXTURES Croquettes are mixtures of meat, fish, or vegetables with a thick white sauce for a binding. The whole is rolled in egg and crumbs and fried in deep fat. Left-overs of meat, vegetables, or fish are easily and daintily used in this way. General Proportions. — Use about 3^ as much thick white sauce as meat or vegetables. General Method. — Break up meat, fish, or vegetables to be used and mix with the thick white sauce. Cool the mixture and then form into shape. Croquettes may be in the form of balls, nests, cones, or cylinders. About 2 table- spoons of the mixture make the right size. Use fine bread crumbs, rolled and sifted. Roll the croquettes in the gd B^ ^i^H^^ n ^^^^^1.4 '•' ' i^Hj^^^l^DylS^^mb - .,_^^ Fig. 35. Croquettes, various shapes. (226) FRYING COOKED MIXTURES 227 crumbs; then in a slightly beaten egg, to which has been added about 2 tablespoons of water; then roll again in the crumbs. Fry in hot fat until a nice brown, drain on soft paper, and garnish with parsley or jelly. APPLICATION 1. Potato Croquettes 2 c. hot riced potatoes 1 tsp. parsley chopped fine 2 tbsp. butter 3^ tsp. salt ^ tsp. pepper 3^ tsp. celery salt Yolk of 1 egg A few grains of cayenne Few drops onion juice Method. — Mix ingredients in order given and beat thoroughly; shape, dip into crumbs, into egg, and then in crumbs again. Fry 1 minute in deep fat and drain on brown paper. {Basis for 2 girls, ^ rule.) 2. Meat Croquettes 2 c. chopped meat 3^ tsp. salt }/s tsp. pepper A few grains cayenne A few drops onion juice Yolk of 1 egg }4: c. thick white sauce made of white soup stock instead of milk Method. — Mix ingredients in order given, cool, shape, dip into crumbs, into egg, roll again in crumbs, and fry the same as other croquettes. {Basis for 2 girls, ]4, rule.) 3. Chicken Croquettes 1% c. chopped cold fowl 3^ c. thick white sauce 3^ tsp. celery salt 3^ tsp. salt 1 tsp. lemon juice A few grains pepper 1 tsp. parsley chopped fine A few drops onion juice Method. — Mix ingredients in order given; cool, shape, crumb, and fry. Garnish with a sprig of parsley on top. {Basis for 2 girls, \i rule.) 4. Salmon Croquettes 1^ c. salmon (flaked) \i c. thick white sauce A few grains pepper 1 tsp. lemon juice Salt 228 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Method. — Add sauce to salmon, add seasonings, spread on a plate to cool, shape, dip into crumbs, into eggs, and then into crumbs, and fry in deep fat. (Basis for 2 girls, 3^ rule.) 5. Rice Croquettes 14 c. rice }4 c boiling water 1 c. scalded milk 3^ tsp. salt Yolk of 1 egg 1 tbsp. butter Method. — Wash the rice, add to water with salt, and steam until rice has absorbed water. Then add the milk, stir lightly with a fork, cover and steam until rice is soft. Remove from the fire. Add the egg and butter. Spread on a plate to cool. Shape, roll in crumbs, roll in the form of nests, dip into egg, then into crumbs, fry in deep fat, and drain. Put a cube of jelly in the hollow of each croquette. (Basis for 2 girls, }/i rule.) 6. Lobster Cutlets 2 can lobsters }/2 tsp. salt 3 egg whites 1 tsp. dropped celery Nutmeg }4. c. white sauce ]/i c. bread crumbs Cayenne pepper Method. — Mix ingredients and cool. Shape in the form of cutlets; crumb, egg, and crumb again. Fry in deep fat. Insert lobster claw in small end of the cutlet. {Basis for 2 girls, }/i rule.) 7. French Fried Potatoes Method. — ^Wash and pare the potatoes and cut into eighths lengthwise. Let soak in cold water 1 hour. Drain and dry between towels. Fry in deep fat until an even brown. Drain on plain paper and sprinkle with salt. If the fat is too hot the potatoes will brown before they are thoroughly cooked. 8. Julienne Potatoes Method. — Prepare and fry in the same way as French Fried Potatoes, wiith the exception that the potatoes are cut into shreds or strings instead of into eighths. LESSON 9 PASTRY Pastry is mostly flour and fat. It is hard to digest even at its best, and whenever served should be light, flaky, and tender. The lightness of pastry depends on the air enclosed in it; its flakiness, upon the kind and amount of shortening and the method of mixing. Essentials of Good Pastry. — Good shortening. Lard, butter, or a combination of butter and beef drippings are suitable. Ice water. It is important that the ingredients be mixed cold. Pastry flour, which has more starch and makes a drier and more tender crust than bread flour. Salt, to flavor. Baking powder, to make the pastry lighter. Proportions of Ingredients. — Use 34 to 3^ as much short- ening as flour. Use enough ice water to make a stiff dough. Pies are made with either one or two crusts. Two crusts are used for fruit and berry pies. General Methods of Making Pastry. — Method \. — Put the salt and baking powder into the flour and cut the short- ening in with two knives or rub it in with the tips of the fingers if the hands are not too warm. Heat softens the fat and makes a tough crust. Pastry must be handled as little as possible. When the mixture is fine and creamy and looks like meal, add enough water to form a dough. Use the knife to combine the ingredients. Be careful not to make the dough wet. (229) 230 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Turn the dough out upon a floured board, and pat and roll with the knife into a ball. With a slightly floured roll- ing pin roll the dough lightly until about 3^ inch thick and a little larger than the pie tin. Method 2. ^Another method of adding the shortening is as follows: Work in half of the shortening as described above, and roll out the dough to the thickness of half an inch ; then put in the rest of the shortening, in small pieces, around on top of the dough. Fold up each side of the dough to the center, with the shortening inside, and roll out to fit the tin. This method makes a more flaky crust than the first method. To Put Crust in the Tins. — Lift the crust on the rolling- pin and lower over the pie tin. Be sure the dough is large enough all around. Fit the dough to the pan gently, so that no air bubbles form underneath the crust next to the pan. If a single crust is used, have the edge of the dough about 1 inch larger than the pan, and double under, to form an edge to the pie. If a double crust is used, cut off the crust to fit the pan. To do this, hold the pie in the left hand and a knife in the right. Slant the knife with the point away from the body, and cut along the edge of the tin. (See Fig. 36.) To Put Crusts Together. — Put the filling in the lower crust. When ready for the upper crust dip the fingers in cold water and wet the edge of the lower crust. Make slight openings in the upper crust to let the steam out of the pie when baking. Lift the crust on the rolling pin and lower upon the pie; fit down, and cut off even. Press the edges of the two crusts together to hold in the juice of the pie. This may be done with a fork or with the fingers. Do not press so hard that the crust will bake to the pan. PASTRY 231 Fig. 36. Fitting pastry to a pie tin, and method of baking crust on inverted tin. 232 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Time For Baking Pies. — Two-crust, fruit and berry pies require 40 to 45 minutes in a hot oven. One-crust Pies. — Bake the crust first on the upturned tin to allow for the shrinking of the dough. Bake 5 or 6 minutes in a hot oven. Slip the baked crust to the inside of the tin, put in the filling, and return to the oven to com- plete the baking. APPLICATION Demonstrate cutting in the shortening and rolling out pastry according to Method 1. 1. Plain Pastry 14 c. shortening (lard or half butter and lard) 1 c. pastry flour 3^ tsp. salt }4: tsp. baking powder Ice water 3^ to Ji c, or enough to moisten dough Method. — Have all materials cold, mix and sift the flour, salt, and baking powder, cut in the shortening with knives until fine like meal. Add enough ice water to make a stiff dough. Be careful not to make the dough sticky. Take on a slightly floured board and roll lightly to }4 ii^ch thick- ness. If pastry stands on ice before rolling out it improves it. Bake in a very hot oven. Make 2 crusts. {Basis for 2, one small pie, 14 rule.) 2. A Richer Pastry (Method 2) 13^ c. flour 3^ to J^ c. shortening (butter) 3/^ tsp. salt 14 tsp. baking powder Ice water to make a stiff dough Method. — Mix and sift dry ingredients; rub in half the shortening, as in Method 2 ; add the ice water, and roll out the dough on a floured board. Put remaining butter on top in small pieces. Fold pastry or roll up and divide in two parts if two crusts are needed. Roll out each crust separately. Makes 2 crusts. PASTRY 233 3. Apple Pie 4 or 5 sour apples 3^ tsp. cinnamon or nutmeg }i c. sugar 1 tsp. butter 1 tsp. lemon juice 2 tbsp. water }/s tsp. salt Method. — Wash, pare, and slice the apples. Line the pie plate with pastry and fill with sliced apples. Mix the sugar, salt, and spices 'and sprinkle over the apples. Add the lemon juice, butter, and water. Use more or less water according to the kind of apples used. Place on the upper crust. Bake in a hot oven 40 or 45 minutes or until the apples are well cooked. {Basis for 2, }4 rule.) 4. Berry Pie 1^ c. berries (blackberries or blueberries) 3^ c. sugar }/s tsp. salt 1 tbsp. flour Method. — Line a deep pie tin with plain paste, fill with berries, which have been washed and picked over. Cover with sugar, add salt, and dredge with flour. Berries may be cooked before adding to the pie crust, if preferred. Place on upper crust, and bake 40 to 45 minutes in a hot oven. 5. Mock Cherry Pie 1 3^ c. cranberries 3^ c. seeded raisins 1 tsp. butter 1 c. sugar }/s c. water 1 tbsp. flour 1 tsp. almond extract Method. — Line the pie tin with plain paste, put in the cranberries, which have been thoroughly washed and cut in halves. Add the washed raisins and then the sugar, water, and almond extract. Dredge with flour, place bits of butter on top, and put on the upper crust. Bake 40 to 45 minutes in a hot oven, 6. Rhubarb Pie 1 3^^ c. rhubarb 3^ c. brown sugar 3^ c. raisins 2 tbsp. flour 1 tsp. butter 234 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Method. — Wash and cut up the stalks of young rhubarb, but do not peel. Line a pie tin with plain paste, fill with the rhubarb. Wash the raisins and add to the pie, cover with brown sugar, dredge with flour, add bits of butter on top, and put on the upper crust. Bake 40 to 45 minutes in a hot oven. 7. Mince Meat 4 lbs. lean beef 3^ lb. citron cut fine 2 lbs. beef suet 2 c. molasses 6 c. chopped apples 2^ qts. cider 3 quinces 1 tbsp. cinnamon 3 lbs. sugar 2 tsp. nutmeg 3 lbs. currants 1 tsp. pepper 4 lbs. raisins (seeded) Salt to taste Juice 2 oranges Rind of 3^ orange Method, — Cook the meat and suet until tender, let cool in the kettle, and the suet will form on the top in a cake of fat, which may be removed. Cut or chop the meat quite fine, and add the apples, which should be twice the amount of the meat when chopped. Chop the quinces and add to the meat; then add the sugar, molasses, cider, raisins, currants, and citron. Add the suet cut fine, also the meat stock in which the meat was cooked, reduced to about 1^4 cups. Heat all gradually, stir slowly, being careful not to mash ingredients. Cook slowly about 2 hours; then add the spices. Sweet pickle vinegar gives a pleasant flavor to the mince meat, and may be utilized in this way. Keep in stone jars or seal in glass jars until ready to use. 8. Mince Pies Method. — Fill lower crust with the mince meat and cover with bits of butter, dredge with flour, and place top crust. Bake 40 to 45 minutes in a hot oven. Individual pies may be baked in little tins or in muflin tins. LESSON 10 PASTRY (Continued) One Crust Pies. — For cooked mixtures a one-crust pie is used. The crust is much more crisp if baked first. To avoid the shrinking of the paste, bake the crust on the bottom of the inverted tin. Place on carefully, allowing the paste to come well down over the edge of the tin ; trim off evenly, and fold pastry under to make a rim. Prick the crust in several places before baking. When the crust is baked, which requires 5 or 6 minutes, slip it off the bottom of the plate to the inside, and fill. One-crust pies do not require as long a time for baking as two-crust pies. Tins for Pies. — Perforated tin plates are best for baking pies. These may be had shallow or deep, as preferred. The under crust of pies are more thoroughly cooked and browned in these tins than when baked in earthen or granite pans. Never grease a pie tin, for pastry contains enough shortening to prevent the crust from adhering to the tin. Pies can be slipped to earthen plates when cool. Food Value of Pastry. — Pastry is very hard to digest. The fat in pastry completely envelops the starch grains in the flour, preventing contact with water and with the digestive juices. Only tender, flaky pastry should be eaten, and that only by persons who are well and possessed of good digestion. (235) 236 DOMESTIC SCIENCE APPLICATION (One-crust pies) 1. Lemon Pie 1 c. sugar 4 tbsp. lemon juice 2 eggs (yolks) Grated rind 1 lemon 3 tbsp. cornstarch ^ 1 tsp. butter 1 c. boiling water Method. — Mix the sugar and cornstarch. Put in a double boiler, add boiling water, and stir constantly. Cook 2 minutes, and add the butter, beaten egg yolks, rind, and lemon juice. Bake a crust on the bottom of the pan, slip into the inside of the pan, fill with lemon mixture slightly cooled, and cover with meringue. Return to top grate of hot oven and brown meringue quickly. Meringue 2 egg whites 3^ tsp. lemon juice 2 tbsp. powdered sugar 3^ tsp. vanilla Method. — Beat the whites until stiff, add the sugar gradually, and then the flavoring. {Basis for 2 girls, 14 rule.) 2. Custard Pie 2 eggs H tsp. salt 14 c. sugar Nutmeg (grated) 2 c. milk 1 tsp. vanilla Method. — Line a pie tin with pastry, make a good rim on the crust. Scald the milk and pour over the slightly beaten eggs; add the sugar and salt. Strain the mixture into the lower crust, and grate a little nutmeg over the top. Bake in a hot oven to cook the rim well; then reduce the heat and cook more slowly until custard is firm. Test with knife as with cup custard. Egg mixtures require a moderate oven. {Basis for 2 girls, 3^ rule.) PASTRY 237 3. Pumpkin Pie 13^ c. cooked and strained pumpkin % c. brown sugar J^ tsp. ginger or nutmeg 1 tsp. salt 2 eggs 1 tsp. cinnamon 13^ c. milk 1 tsp. orange juice Method. — Mix pumpkin, sugar, salt, and spices, add slightly beaten egg, and milk. Beat well; then add the orange juice. Fill the crust and bake. When a silver knife inserted in the pie will come from it clean, the pie is done. 4. Banana Pie }/2 doz. bananas }/2 tsp. salt 3/8 c. powdered sugar 13^ c. whipped cream Method. — Bake single crust of pastry, fill with sliced bananas, add salt and powdered sugar. Cover with whip- ped cream just before serving. Red raspberries may be used in place of bananas. 5. Cream Pie Method. — Make same as Custard Pie, substituting cream for milk and omitting the nutmeg. 6. Chocolate Pie Method. — Add K square of Baker's chocolate, after it is melted, to the rule for Cream Pie before baking. 7. Cocoanut Pie Method. — Add 3^ cup of freshly grated cocoanut to Cream Pie, before baking. LESSON 11 CARBOHYDRATES— SUGAR, CANDY Sugar is a sweet crystalline substance belonging to the Carbohydrate class of foods. It is soluble in cold water. How does it differ from starch ? Sources. — Sugar is obtained commercially from the sugar cane, sugar beets, and the sugar maple tree. Kinds. — The principal kinds of sugar are: — 1. Cane sugar, or sucrose, obtained from sugar cane, beets, and the sugar maple tree. 2. Grape sugar, or glucose, found in grapes, in dried fruits, like raisins and dates, and in honey. Commercial glucose is made from corn starch by boiling with an acid. Glucose is not as sweet as cane sugar. Honey is a natural sirup made up chiefly of a mixture of sugars and water. 3. Milk sugar, or lactose, obtained from milk. Sugar Cane. — Sugar cane is a tropical plant similar to corn and grows to a height of from 8 to 15 feet. The stalk is spongy like corn and is filled with sweet sap. When ripe the cane is stripped of leaves and tops and is cut and taken to the mill. Sugar Beets. — Sugar beets are profitably grown in many states. About half of the world's supply of sugar is made from beets. There is no difference between beet and cane sugars. Manufacture of Sugar. — The sweet juice is extracted by crushing the cane or beets between rollers. The juice is purified and then evaporated down to a sirup by heating in vacuum pans. The sugar crystallizes out from the (238) SUGAR, CANDY 239 sirup and is removed by centrifugal means. What does not crystallize remains as molasses. Molasses from sugar beets is not used for the table; no way has been found to purify it. Brown sugar is raw, unrefined sugar. In certain methods of manufacture, it is redissolved, passed through filters of lamp black to remove the color, and then recrys- tallized. Forms of Sugar. — The crystals: of sugar as separated from the sirup and dried form granulated sugar. When the thick sirup is run into molds, it hardens and forms loaf sugar, which may be sawed into cubes. The broken pieces ground fine become powdered sugar. Food Value of Sugar. — Sugar in moderate amounts has the same food value that starch has, but is in an easier form for digestion. For this reason it is of value to persons who have difficulty in digesting starch. It is very good in times of great exertion or labor, when the body demands an immediate supply of energy. If taken in excess or between meals it is very apt to cause indigestion or to spoil the appetite for nutritious foods that are needed. Candy. — Candy is a useful food when eaten at the proper time, at the close of a meal. Homemade candy is cheaper and purer than that bought in many stores. Impure sugar and unwholesome coloring matter are too often used in the manufacture of candies. Effects of Heat on Sugar. — Sugar undergoes several changes during the process of cooking. The terms "soft ball," "hard ball," "thread," "the crack" or "brittle" and "caramel" are used in making candy to distinguish the dif- ferent temperatures and changes. 1. Soft ball is the stage of heating sugar when a little dropped into cold* water and then rolled in the fingers forms a soft ball. 240 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 2. Hard ball is the stage when sugar similarly tested makes a hard ball in the fingers. 3. Thread is a higher temperature stage when the sugar spins a thread when dropped from a spoon. 4. The crack or brittle stage is reached when the sugar immediately hardens and crackles when dropped into cold water. 5. Caramel is the stage at which the heat causes the sugar to turn brown. Utensils for candy-making are: 1. A large agate or iron kettle, as sugar burns very easily. 2. A wooden spoon or paddle for mixing. 3. Buttered tins or a marble slab for cooling. APPLICATION 1. Peanut Brittle 2 c. sugar 1 c. chopped peanuts Pinch of salt Method. — Mek the sugar without water in a frying pan. Stir with a wooden spoon constantly, until clear and a light brown; then pour over the peanuts spread on a buttered pan. While still warm cut into squares. {Basis for 2 girls, \i rule.) 2. Chocolate Fudge 2 c. sugar 1 tbsp. butter 1 c. milk or cream 3^ tsp. vanilla 2 squares chocolate Method. — Cook the sugar, milk, and chocolate in a pan, stirring constantly, until a little forms a soft ball when tried in cold water. Add the butter, and remove from the fire. Let stand until nearly cold; then add the vanilla and beat hard until it begins to thicken and to wrinkle at the edge of the pan. Spread quickly 1 inch thick on a buttered pan; cool and cut in IJ/^ inch squares. (^Basis for 2 girls, ]/2 rule.) SUGAR, CANDY 241 3. Chocolate Nut Fudge Method. — Chocolate nut fudge is made by adding 3^ cup of walnuts or pecans, cut in small pieces, to Chocolate Fudge just before beating it. 4. Pinoche 2 c. brown sugar 1 c. pecans }/2 c. milk 14 tsp. vanilla 4 tbsp. butter Pinch of salt Method. — Boil the sugar, milk, and butter until a soft ball is formed in cold water, stirring constantly. Remove from the fire, cool, and then add the nuts and vanilla and beat until thick and creamy. Spread 1 inch thick on but- tered tins. Cut in 13/2 inch squares. (Basis for 2 girls, 34 rule.) 5. Sea Foam 2 c. sugar 3^ c. chopped walnuts }/2 c. corn sirup 3 egg whites ^ c. boiling water 3^ tsp. vanilla Method. — Boil sugar, sirup, and water until a hard ball is formed in cold water, or it spins a thread. Beat the eggs stiff and dry; then pour on the sirup very gradually, add the nuts cut fine and beat until very creamy. Spread 13/^ inches thick on a buttered pan and cut in squares. (Basis for 2 girls, ^ rule.) 6. Butter Scotch 1 c. sugar 1 tbsp. vinegar }4 c. molasses 2 tbsp. boiling water ^2 c. butter Method. — Boil the ingredients until the crack or brittle stage. Pour in buttered pan, about 34 inch thick, and mark in squares while still warm. 7. Pulled TajBfy 2 c. sugar 1 c. water }/2 c. vinegar 1 tsp. vanilla 3 tbsp. butter 3^ tsp. lemon extract —16 242 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Method. — Boil sugar, butter, water, and vinegar until a little forms a soft ball in cold water. Do not stir. Flavor, pour on buttered platter, and pull as soon as possible. (Basis for 2 girls, 3^ rule.) 8. Pop-corn Balls % c. light brown sugar 1 tbsp. vinegar % c. white sugar }4: c butter }/i c. molasses J^ tsp, soda }/^ c. water Freshly popped corn Method. — Put the brown and the white sugar in a sauce pan with the molasses, water, and vinegar. Cook until it spins a thread; then put in the butter. When the hard ball stage is reached, add the soda and remove from the fire. Have the corn freshly popped in a large pan and pour the hot sirup over it. Wet the hands and press the corn into balls of uniform size. Pop-corn balls must be kept in a cool place. LESSON 12 PROTEIN— FISH Fish is next to meat in importance as an animal food. Fish contains albumin, gelatin, fat, mineral matter, and water. Composition of Fish (dressed for market) Kinds Black bass Cod, salt, boneless Halibut Mackerel Perch Pickerel Pike Salmon Shad Smelts Trout, brook Trout, lake Whitefish Clams Lobsters Oysters Shrimps Refuse Protein Fat Carbohy- drate Mineral matter % % % % % 46.7 10.3 .5 .6 22.2 .3 23.1 17.7 15.1 4.4 .9 34.6 13.7 6.2 1.0 62.5 7.2 1.5 .4 35.9 11.9 .2 .9 30.5 13.0 .4 .7 39.2 12.4 8.1 .9 50.1 9.2 4.8 .7 41.9 10.0 1.0 1.0 37.9 11.7 1.3 .7 35.2 12.4 6.6 .8 53.2 10.3 3.0 .7 10.6 1.1 5.2 2.3 61.7 5.9 .7 .8 .2 6.1 1.4 .9 3.3 25.4 1.0 .2 2.6 Water % 41.9 54.4 61.9 44.5 28.4 51.1 55.4 37.4 35.2 46.1 48.4 45.0 32.5 80.8 30.7 88.3 70.8 Kinds. — Fish are classified as vertebrates, or fish proper, those having a backbone; and shellfish. Those having a backbone are divided into two classes: white fish and oily fish. In the white fish, the fat is found only in the liver; in oily fish, the fat is found distributed throughout the entire body. (243) 244 DOM E^'^ TIC SCIENCE White-fleshed fish include whitefish, cod, perch, pickerel, sunfish, smelts, croppies, soles, brook trout, and black bass. Oily fish include salmon, lake trout, shad, herring, mackerel, halibut, and eels. Structure of Fish. — The flesh of fish is made up of bundles of fibers similar to those of meat, but there is so little connective tissue that the bundles of fibers are not held together as firmly as in meat. Notice how easily we can pull the flesh of fish apart. Examine and compare with the structure of meat. Food Value. — Fish is like meat in nutritive value, and may be substituted for it in the diet. It is not, however, so satisfying and stimulating as meat, largely because it contains less extractives. Fish belongs to the proteins; it contains a varying amount of fat and practically no car- bohydrates. In general, the fuel value of 1 pound of fish is about equal to }/s pound of meat. Digestibility. — In general, fish is easily digested, vary- ing with the amount of fat and coarse fiber present. White fleshed fish, excepting the cod, is more easily digested, but less stimulating, than oily fish. Cod has coarser fiber than other white-fleshed kinds. Freshness is the all-important quality in fish. Fish decomposes quickly and there is greater danger from ptomaine poisoning than in other foods. This is especially true of shellfish, which are preferably shipped and sold alive. To Tell if a Fish is Fresh. — 1. The gills are bright red and clear, 2. The eyes are bright and full. 3. The flesh is firm, the tail not drooping. 4. The scales do not come off easily and there is no disagreeable odor. PISH 245 To Clean Scaly Fish. — Fish are cleaned at the market, if ordered. Remove the scales by working a knife over the fish, beginning at the tail and drawing the knife towards the head. If the fish is to be used at once, dip it into boil- ing water and remove immediately. This aids in loosening the scales. Wash the fish thoroughly inside and out with a wet cloth, then dry on a clean cloth. Leave the head and the tail on for baking whole. Keep on ice, but not in the ice box, since the odor may taint the other foods. To Skin a Fish. — With a sharp knife slit the skin along the entire length of the backbone. Remove the fins. Loosen the skin by working carefully with a small knife, beginning at the center of the back and working along one side around the fish. Then turn the fish over and loosen the skin on the other side. To Bone a Fish. — After the fish is skinned begin at the tail with the boning knife and separate the flesh from the backbone on each side. Follow the ribs and work carefully towards the head. The entire backbone and the ribs will all come out together. See that all the lit- tle bones are removed. Methods of Cooking Fish. — Broiling and baking are the best methods of cooking fish. They may also be fried, sauted, or boiled. White fish may be fried, but oily fish rarely. Since fish contains albumin, cold water and boiling water have the same effect on it as on meat and egg white. Review this point. What temperature is best for the cooking of albumin? Large fish are suitable for baking whole, the stuffing and the sauce usually served with it supplying food ele- ments that the fish lacks. Oily fish and those that are of small size are usually broiled. Boiling is a rather wasteful way of cooking fish. 246 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Why? Large pieces of cod, and salmon, sometimes trout, may be boiled. APPLICATION (Baked Fish— Demonstration) 1. Baked Fish Method. — Remove the scales carefully, clean, wipe, and dry the fish. Leave the head and tail on. Rub the fish well with salt. Stuff with dressing and sew up, using a coarse needle and thread. Be careful not to fill the fish too full, for the dressing expands during the baking. Put Fig. 3: Baked white fish. fish on a fish sheet or on strips of cotton or bacon in the pan, which aids in removing the fish when done. Make three gashes on each side of the fish, alternating, and set in 2-inch strips of bacon. This is done to add fat to fish that are lacking it, as white fish. Skewer the fish into the form of the letter S. Sprinkle with salt and pepper and dredge with flour. Bake in the oven 30 to 45 minutes basting every 10 minutes with 1 cup of hot water to which has been added 34 cup of butter. When well browned, remove from FISH 247 the pan carefully to a hot platter; take out the skewers and strings. Garnish with parsley and lemon, and serve hot with a fish sauce. 2. Dressing for Fish 1 c. stale bread crumbs 1 tbsp. melted butter 3/2 tsp. salt Pepper, a few grains 1 tbsp. minced parsley Onion juice, a few drops Water, enough to moisten Method. — Mix the ingredients in the order given; use enough water to moisten slightly. 3. Hollandaise Sauce 3^ c. butter Yolk of 2 eggs }/2 tbsp. vinegar 3^ tsp. salt 1 tbsp. lemon juice Cayenne, a few grains Method. — Wash the butter, separate it into three parts, and put one piece in the double boiler with the vinegar or lemon juice and egg yolks; stir constantly with a wire whisk. Add second piece of butter, and, as the material thickens, the third piece. Remove from the fire and add the salt and cayenne. If left over the fire a few seconds longer it will separate. If a richer sauce is desired, add J^ tablespoon heavy cream and J^ teaspoon hot water. (Housekeepers make full rule.) 4. Drawn Butter Sauce }4 c. butter 3 tbsp. flour 13-^ c. hot water 3^ tsp. salt 3^8 tsp. pepper Method. — Put half the butter in a pan; when bubbling, but not brown, add the salt, pepper, and flour and stir until smooth. Add the water and stir while it thickens. Add the remainder of the butter and stir until it is absorbed. 5. Caper Sauce 2 c. boiling water 4 tbsp. flour }i c. butter 3^ tsp. pepper 3^ tsp. salt 3^ c. capers 248 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Method.— Melt half the butter, add the flour. Stir while gradually adding the boiling water. Boil five min- utes, add salt, pepper, remaining butter, and drained capers. 6. Tartar Sauce }/2 c. mayonnaise dressing 1 tsp. parsley, washed and chopped 1 tsp. chopped pickle 1 tsp. chopped olives Method. — Mix the parsley, pickle, and olives, and add them to the mayonnaise dressing. LESSON 13 PROTEIN— FISH (Continued) Review Lesson 12. APPLICATION 1. Fried Fish Method. — Clean fish and wipe as dry as possible. Sprin- kle with salt and pepper, dip into flour or crumbs, into egg, and again into crumbs. Fry in deep hot fat ; drain on soft paper. Serve on a hot dish, garnishing with parsley and slices of lemon. Cornmeal may be used in place of the flour. 2. Broiled Fish Method. — Bluefish, cod, haddock, and mackerel are split down the back and broiled whole, removing head and tail if desired. Salmon, halibut, and swordfish are cut in inch slices for broiling. Smelt and other small fish are broiled whole without splitting, but the entrails are squeezed out carefully so as not to bruise the fish. Clean and wipe the fish, sprinkle with salt and pepper, and place in a well- greased wire broiler, cooking the flesh side first. Turn it and cook the skin until crisp. Sliced fish should be turned often while broiling, slip upon a hot platter, or place platter over fish and invert platter and broiler together. Small fish require 10 to 15 minutes for broiling. Large fish require 15 to 20 minutes for broiling. 3. Sauted Fish Method. — Prepare the fish as for frying, and cook in a frying pan with a small amount of fat. The fish may be dipped into cornmeal in place of flour. Smelts are best cooked in this way. (249) 250 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 4. Boiled Fish Method. — Large fish are cut in thick pieces for boiHng. Clean and wipe the fish; tie in a piece of cheesecloth to prevent scum being deposited on the fish and to hold the fish together. Place the fish on a rack or frying basket to preserve its shape and to make it easier to remove. Cook gently in enough boiling salted water to cover the fish, using 2 teaspoons salt and 2 tablespoons vinegar to each quart of water. The salt gives flavor and the vinegar or lemon juice keeps the flesh white. Allow about 10 minutes to the pound. The fish is cooked when the flesh is firm and sep- arates easily from the bone. Remove from the water, take ofi^ the cheesecloth, put on a hot platter and serve with Hol- landaise Sauce. 6. Salmon Mousse 1 lb. salmon, either chopped or pounded fine 4 eggs 2 tbsp. butter 2 tbsp. flour 1 c. stock, or milk or cream Method. — Chop the salmon in small pieces, the finer the salmon the creamier the mousse; add the yolks of eggs, melted butter, flour, and stock; put all through a strainer. Add 2 teaspoons salt and 1 level teaspoon pepper; fold in the beaten whites of eggs. Turn into a well-buttered mold. Set the mold in a pan of hot water and bake in a moderate oven }/2 hour. The mousse is done when it is light to the touch. Serve with or without sauce. Potato balls are nice to serve with it. This rule serves 6 persons. {Basis for 2 girls, 3^ rule.) 6. Fried Frogs' Legs 6 pairs frogs' legs Fine bread crumbs 1 egg Salt and pepper Method. — Skin and wash the legs in cold water and dry them on a clean towel. Season with salt and pepper and a little lemon juice. Beat up the egg slightly, and dip the Flf^H 251 legs into the beaten egg, then into the fine crumbs, and fry in hot fat for about 5 minutes. Drain on plain paper. A wire frying basket is best to fry them in. Serve hot with Tartar Sauce. LESSON 14 PROTEIN— FISH (Continued) Preservation of Fish. — Fish are preserved by salting, smoking, drying, or a combination of these, and by canning. Many fish are preserved in oil. Name some examples of each. Cost. — Fish are never plentiful except in seaport towns or near lakes and rivers where they abound. Fish are very perishable and must be transported in refrigerator cars or else frozen or preserved by one of the above mentioned methods. For this reason the price of fish is never very low, where fish is not easily available. Using Left-overs. — Cooked fish left-overs may be broken up into small pieces and used with cream sauce, or scalloped, or made into hash, croquettes, or fish balls. APPLICATION 1. Creamed Codfish ^ c. salt codfish 4 tbsp. flour 2 c. milk 2 tsp. butter Spk. of pepper Method. — Wash, pick the codfish into small pieces, and soak it a few hours in lukewarm water until soft. Drain and add to a white sauce made from butter, flour, pepper, and milk. The beaten yolk of an egg may be added just before serving. Serve on or with hot buttered toast. {Basis for 2 girls, 34 '>"iile)- 2. Fish Balls 1 c. salt codfish 1 egg 2 c. potatoes K tbsp. butter Pepper Method. — Pick the codfish into small pieces and soak in lukewarm water until soft. Boil and mash the potatoes, (252) FISH 253 season with butter and pepper, and add beaten egg. Drain the fish, add to the potato mixture, and beat well. Take up by heaping tablespoonfuls and shape into balls; fry about six at a time in deep fat. Drain on brown paper. Garnish with parsley and serve. {Basis for 2 girls, ^ c. codfish.) 3. Fish Croquettes 13^ c. flaked salmon 1 tbsp. flour ^ c. halibut 2 tsp. butter Salt and pepper }4: c. milk Method. — Put the butter and flour together, add the hot milk slowly, and press out all lumps. Stir the mixture and cook it until it is smooth and thick; add the salt, pepper, and flaked fish. Spread the mixture on a plate to cool. When cool, shape, roll in crumbs, in egg, and then in crumbs. Fry in deep fat and drain on brown paper. Serve on a hot dish and garnish with parsley. 4. Fish and Macaroni Method. — Pieces of left-over fish may be combined with boiled macaroni and white sauce and served as a luncheon dish. 5. Finnan Haddie Method. — Soak the fish in cold water for % hour; then lay them in boiling water for 5 minutes. Wipe very dry, rub butter and lemon juice into the fish, and broil for 15 minutes. Serve with a hot butter sauce. 6. Creamed Finnan Haddie Method. — Put the fish in cold water, cover and let soak 20 minutes. Gradually bring the water to a boil and simmer }/2 hour. Drain, rinse, and separate the fish into flakes, using a fork. To each cup of fish use }/2 cup of medium white sauce, heat together, season with salt, pepper, and plenty of paprika, and serve. LESSON 15 PROTEIN— SHELLFISH Shellfish used for food include oysters, clams, scallops, lobsters, shrimps, crabs, and mussels. OYSTERS Source. — Oysters are found in shallow salt water, the supply for this country coming mostly from the Atlantic and Gulf coasts. They are cultivated in large quantities in the Chesapeake Bay. Season for Oysters. — Oysters are in season from Sep- tember to April, or in any month containing an r. Avoid them in hot weather, when they are flabby and poor. Growth. — An oyster shell has two parts, connected by a hinge. The part on which the oyster grows is deeper and rounder than the part covering it. There are two strong muscles that open and close the shell. The oyster has neither head nor tail, but has a mouth near the hinge end of the shell. Oysters spawn during the summer. One oyster lays millions of eggs in a season. Small oysters are planted along the coast, much as young fish are put into streams. Food Value. — The nutrient of the oyster is mainly pro- tein, which is very delicate and requires a moderate tem- perature and not long cooking. Oysters are more easily digested when raw, and are nutritious. Bulk for bulk they compare favorably with milk in food value. Oysters live on plant and animal life brought to them in the water. If the water in which they grow is impure, they are likely to become carriers of disease. (254) SHELLFISH 255 To Open Oysters. — Run a thin knife blade under the back opening and cut forward through the strong muscle which holds the shell together. Then open the shell and remove the oyster. To Clean Oysters. — Drain off and save the liquid from the oysters. Put the 03/sters in a strainer and pour cold - tiat^:^ ^Lmis^ ^ ^1 ^>^^^ Fig. 38. Blue points, as served. water over them to rinse them. Pick over the oysters separately to remove any pieces of shell. Use the oyster liquid in stews. Blue points are small oysters so named because the first came from Blue Point, Long Island. They are regarded to be of extra quality. OTHER SHELLFISH Clams are similar to oysters. The hard-shell varieties are known as little neck clams, and are served in the half shell, in coast towns. The soft-shelled clams are used more in New England. Lobsters are abundant from June to September, but are used all the year. A lobster weighs about 2 pounds, and is 256 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 12 to 15 inches long. They are more difficult to digest than other shellfish. Lobsters are broiled or boiled. Shrimps are in season from May to October, and are found more abundant in Southern waters, the best coming from Lake Ponchartrain. Canned shrimps are much used for salads. APPLICATION 1. Oyster Stew 2 c. milk (scalded) 1 tbsp. butter 2 c. oysters 3^ tsp. white pepper 1 c. oyster liquor Salt to taste Method. — Pick over the oysters, wash in a strainer set in a bowl of water, removing any adhering pieces of shell. Heat the oyster liquor; then add the oysters and cook until the edges curl, which requires only a few minutes. Add the hot milk, butter, and seasoning, and serve at once. Oysters become tough if not served immediately or if over-cooked. 2. Fried Oysters 1 doz. select oysters 3^ c. cracker crumbs 1 tsp. salt 2 eggs 3/8 tsp. pepper 4 tbsp. water Method. — Clean oysters, and dry them thoroughly between two towels; season with salt and pepper. Roll in fine crumbs and then in beaten eggs to which has been added the water; then roll in fine crumbs again, and fry in a wire basket in deep, hot fat until nicely browned. Drain on a piece of plain paper. Serve hot, garnished with pars- ley or cabbage slaw and lemon. 3. Creamed Oysters 1 pt. oysters 1/^ c. medium white sauce }/8 tsp. celery salt Method. — Clean and cook the oysters in their liquor until the edges curl; drain, and add to hot medium white sauce; add the celery salt. Serve on squares of toast, in timbale SHELLFISH 257 cases, or in toasted buns. Cut off top of bun, scoop out the center, leaving shell whole. Spread with butter, toast in oven. Fill with creamed oysters. Garnish with parsley and lemon. 4. Oysters on the Half Shell Method. — Allow 6 oysters on half shell for each plate. Arrange the shells on crushed ice on deep plates, with the shells radiating out from the center. Place a quarter of a lemon and a piece of parsley in the center of each plate. Serve with salt, pepper, horseradish, cocktail sauce, or Worcestershire sauce. 5. Scalloped Oysters 1 pt. oysters 1 c. cracker crumbs 4 tbsp. oyster liquor 3^ c. melted butter 2 tbsp. milk 1 tsp. salt }/2 c. stale bread crumbs Pepper Method. — Mix the bread and the cracker crumbs and the butter. Put a thin layer in the bottom of a buttered baking-dish, cover with oysters, sprinkle with salt and pepper; add half of the oyster liquor and half of the cream or milk. Cover with another layer of oysters, add the remainder of the liquor and milk and cover with crumbs. Never make more than two layers of oysters, for oysters should be evenly cooked through. Bake 30 minutes in a hot oven. A sprinkling of nutmeg to each layer adds a good flavor 6. Lobster a la Newburg 1 lb. lobster 3^ c. cream 34 c. butter 2 egg yolks 3^-2 tsp. salt Grating of nutmeg Cayenne, a few grains 3^ tsp. lemon juice Method. — Cut or break up the lobster meat into cubes. Melt the butter in a pan, add the lobster, and cook until thoroughly heated. Season with salt, cayenne, and nutmeg -17 258 DOMESTIC SCIENCE and add the lemon juice. Cook 1 minute; then add the thin cream and yolks of eggs well beaten, and stir until the sauce thickens. Serve on squares of hot toast, gar- nished with parsley and lemon. 7. Shrimp Wiggle 4 tbsp. butter 13^ c. milk 3 tbsp. flour 1 c. shrimps 3^ tsp. salt 1 c. canned peas Paprika Method. — Make a white sauce of the butter, flour, milk, and seasoning. Wash the shrimps, remove the dark vein, and break the shrimps into pieces. When the sauce thickens add the shrimps to it, also the canned peas drained from their liquor and thoroughly rinsed. Cook all 4 or 5 minutes and serve on squares of toasted bread. Garnish with parsley, and a stuffed olive. 8. Cabbage Slaw 34 c. vinegar 1 small head cabbage 3 tbsp. sugar 2 tsp. salt 1 c. sweet cream White pepper Method. — Shave the cabbage very fine, place in a dish, season with salt and pepper. Stir the sugar into the vinegar until all is dissolved; then add the sweet cream gradually and stir thoroughly until the mixture thickens. Pour over the cabbage and serve in place of a salad or as a garnish to accompany fried oysters. LESSON 16 SALADS Salads originally consisted of crisp, green vegetables dressed with oil, vinegar, salt, and pepper. Today salads are made of raw or cooked vegetables, fruit, meat, or eggs, separately or in combination, with a salad dressing. The essentials in salad making are: — ■ 1. Salads must be cold. All greens used must be crisp. 2. The ingredients in the dressing must be carefully blended and not be too strong of either acid or oil. 3. The whole must be well mixed just before serving. 4. Materials must be nicely cut and arranged. Points in favor of salads as a frequent dish in the diet : — 1. Salads have considerable food value, since the greens used furnish the body with needful mineral salts and fur- nish bulk to food. The dressing contains oil and acid. 2. Vegetable and fruit salads are refreshing and appetizing. 3. Meat salads contain much food value and may be substituted for the meat dish. 4. Salads may be made an economical dish, as much left-over food may be used. Greens used for garnishing salads are lettuce, water cress, parsley, nasturtiums, or chickory. Wash greens thoroughly in cold water. If wilted let lie in cold water an hour, dry in a towel, roll up carefully in a damp cloth, and put on ice until ready to use. Greens wilt readily, and the dressing must not be added until just before serving. (259) !60 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Classes of salad dressing are: — French dresssing, — used with crisp greens and vegetable salads. Cooked dressing, — used with any kind of salad. Mayonnaise dressing, — used with almost any kind of salad, but especially with egg, meat, and fish. It is not good with fruit salads. Oils for Salad Dressings. — Use only the best olive oil for salad dressings. Much of the oil sold as olive oil and under foreign labels is nothing more than a cotton-seed Fig. 39. Tomato and green pepper salad. oil made in this country. This is pure and good for many purposes, but not for salads, and is easily detected by its strong flavor. In most cases foreign labeled goods bring higher prices than home brands. Home products are usually more economical and of better quality than foreign goods, contrary to the opinion of some American women. Be sure to read all labels carefully. Preparation of Materials for Salads. — 1. Clean the greens and vegetables. SALADS 261 2. Remove all bones, skin, and fat from fish and meat. 3. Cut up materials into uniform size, not too large. 4. Chill all materials before combining. What to Serve with Salads. — Serve crisp crackers, cheese straws, small sandwiches, nutbread, or small slices of angel food spread with preserved figs and rolled as a jelly roll. APPLICATION 1. French Dressing }/2 tsp. salt 2 tbsp. vinegar J4 tsp. pepper 4 tbsp. olive oil Method. — Mix ingredients and stir until well blended and it thickens slightly. A few drops of onion juice may be added. French dressing is more easily prepared than any other, and is almost always prepared at the table, as greens soon wilt if allowed to stand in the dressing. 2. Boiled Dressing (1 egg yolk) 2 tsp. flour Dash cayenne 1 tsp. salt 1 tsp. butter 1 tsp. mustard Yolk 1 egg 1 tbsp. sugar H c vinegar Method. — Mix the dry ingredients. Heat the vinegar in double boiler, add the butter. Beat the egg yolk, add dry ingredients to egg, and then slowly the hot vinegar. Cook all, stirring constantly until the mixture thickens. Whipped cream may be added to this rule just before serving. 3. Boiled Dressing 1 c. weak vinegar 3^ tbsp. salt Yolk 6 eggs y2 tbsp. mustard 3^ c. sugar Red pepper, a pinch 1 tbsp. butter 1 c. whipped cream Method. — Heat the vinegar and butter in a double boiler. Beat yolks in a bowl slightly. Mix mustard, sugar, salt, and pepper together, and add to yolks; beat 262 DOMESTIC SCIENCE well. When vinegar is hot, pour it slowly over the beaten yolks in the bowl, stirring constantly to prevent cooking of eggs, making a smooth mixture. Return all to double boiler and cook until thick, stirring while it thickens. This dressing may be kept several days or a week if placed in glass jars and kept in a cool place. Just before using add whipped cream. (Basis for 2 girls, % rule.) 4. Mayonnaise Dressing 1 tsp. mustard 1 egg (yolk) 1 tsp. salt 2 tbsp. lemon juice 1 tsp. powdered sugar 2 tbsp, vinegar A few grains cayenne 1 3^ c. olive oil Method. — Mix the dry ingredients, add the egg yolk, and when well beaten add 3^ teaspoon vinegar. Add a drop or two of olive oil, stir constantly. Continue adding oil a few drops at a time as the mixture thickens and becomes of uniform consistency. When the mixture becomes quite thick add lemon juice or vinegar alternately with the oil, until all is used, always beating the mixture. {Basis for 2 girls, \i rule.) 5. Salad Suggestions Mayonnaise or cooked dressing may be used with the following combinations : — ■ i. 1 c. apples, 1 c. celery, 3^ c. walnuts (Waldorf salad.) 2. 1 c. pineapple, 1 c. bananas, ^ c. cherries. 3. Bananas rolled in chopped nuts. 4. Prunes stuffed with pecans, whipped cream. 5. 1 c. celery, 1 c. apples, green peppers. 6. 1 c. grapefruit, 1 c. marshmallows, 1 c. white grapes, }4 c nuts. 7. 1 c. pineapple, 1 c. marshmallows, 1 c. white grapes, ^ c. nuts. 8. 1 c. oranges, 1 c. Bermuda onions. 9. 1 c. peas, 1 c. cheese cut in small cubes. 10. 1 c. lobster, 1 c. celery. 11. 3^ pt. oysters, 3 grapefruit. 12. 1 chicken, an equal amount of celery (about 13^ c), 3^ c. olives. }/2 c. nuts. SALADS 263 13, 1 c. cooked chicken, 1 cucumber, 1 c. walnuts, 1 c. peas. 14, Sweetbreads, 1 pt., equal amount of cucumbers. 15, 1 c. olives cut lengthwise, 1 c. almonds cut the same. 16, Canned pears cut in halves, shredded almonds. Place almonds in the pears like quills in a porcupine. Serve on lettuce, one for each guest. 17, 2 c. salmon, 1 c. celery cut fine, }/2 doz. sour pickles. 18, Head lettuce and roquefort cheese. 19, Cooked asparagus, rings of green peppers, slices of pimentos. 20, Sliced hard-boiled eggs, cucumbers, celery, and lettuce. 21, 2 c. cold string beans, 1 tsp. chives cut fine, I/2 doz. radishes sliced thin. 22, 1 can strained tomatoes, % box gelatine, 1 tsp. salt, 1 tsp. powdered sugar. Make a jelly, put into molds, serve on lettuce. 23, Dressing for head lettuce: 1 tsp. parsley chopped fine, 1 tsp. beets chopped fine, 1 egg hard-boiled cut fine, added to mayonnaise, also a little vinegar, paprika, and Chili sauce. 24, 1 pt. beets, 1 pt. cabbage, ^ c. horseradish. LESSON 17 CAKES WITHOUT BUTTER Cakes are divided into two classes: (1) Cakes without butter ; examples, sponge cake, angel food, sunshine cake. (2) Cakes with butter; examples, cup and pound cakes. Things Essential in Cake-Making. — 1. Use only the best ingredients, — fresh eggs, fine granulated sugar, best butter, and the best pastry flour. 2. Use accurate measures. 3. Never grease pans for cakes without butter. Grease pans for cakes with butter. 4. Have a uniform heat for cake-baking. 5. Watch the cake during the baking. Utensils for Mixing. — Use a deep, earthen mixing-bowl and a slotted wooden spoon. General Method for Cakes without Butter. — Separate the yolks and whites of eggs. Beat the yolks until lemon- colored and thick; add the sifted sugar slowly while beating. Add the flavoring; then fold in the whites beaten stiff and dry. Sift the flour several times, cut and fold it into the mixture, until all is well blended. Pour into a pan wet with water and kept for cakes of this class. Sponge cakes and others of the class are raised mainly by air and steam and, containing many eggs, need a mod- erate oven. Baking. — Oven test for sponge cake: Turns white paper light yellow in 5 minutes. Put the cake in the center of the lower rack in the oven at first. Later move above if the oven does not brown (264) CAKES WITHOUT BUTTER 265 enough. Do not open the oven door too much, and avoid any jar or the cake may fall. The Baking of Cakes. — Divide baking time into quar- ters : — 15/ quarter, — the mixture rises. 2nd quarter, — it continues rising, begins to brown. Zrd quarter — it continues to brown. 4:th quarter, — it finishes baking, settles and shrinks from the pan. If oven is too hot, cover cake with tent made of paper, turn gas down or check fire, or place a pan of cold water in oven. Cake should not be moved in oven before it has risen to full height. Tests for Cake. — 1. Cake is done when it shrinks from the sides of the pan. 2. Press the top of the cake with the finger; if it springs back into place it is done. 3. Insert a small straw in the center of the cake; if it comes out clean and dry, the cake is done. Care after Baking. — Remo\'e cake from the pan as soon as it is baked. Run a knife around the edge and invert the pan on a wire cooler or board covered with a cloth. Note. — If cake sticks to the pan, cover the bottom of the pan with a cold damp cloth for a few minutes. APPLICATION 1. Sponge Cake Yolks 6 eggs Whites 6 eggs 1 c. sugar Grated rind H lemon 1 tbsp. lemon juice 1 c. flour 34 tsp. salt 2 tbsp. water Method. — Beat the yolks until lemon-colored and thick; add the sugar gradually, continue beating; add water, 266 DOMESTIC SCIENCE lemon juice, and rind. Fold in the whites of the eggs beaten to a stiff froth. Cut and fold in the flour mixed and sifted with the salt. Bake in a slow oven 1 hour in a deep, narrow pan. {Basis for 2 girls, ^ rule.) 2. Cheap Sponge Cake 1 c. sugar 1 tbsp. lemon juice 5 tbsp. cold water IM c. flour 2 eggs 2 tsp. baking powder Method. — Beat the yolks thick, add the sugar and con- tinue beating, and then gradually add the water and lemon juice. Mix and sift the baking powder with the flour and add to the yolks. Beat the egg whites until sti^, and carefully fold into the cake mixture. Bake in an unbut- tered tin in a moderate oven. The baking powder takes the place of some eggs as a leaven. 3. Angel Food Whites 1 doz. eggs H tsp. salt 13^ c. sugar 1 c. flour 1 tsp. cream of tartar 1 tsp. vanilla Method. — Beat the whites of the eggs until frothy, add the cream of tartar, and continue beating until eggs are stiff. Sift the sugar several times and then add gradually to the beaten eggs. Sift the flour and salt four or six times; then fold into the mixture, and lastly add the vanilla. Bake in an unbuttered pan in a moderate oven for 45 to 50 minutes. 4. Sunshine Cake Whites 10 eggs 1 tsp. lemon juice 1 3^ 2 c. powdered sugar 1 c. flour Yolks of 6 eggs 1 tsp. cream of tartar Method. — Beat whites of eggs until stiff and dry, add sugar gradually and continue beating; then add the yolks beaten until thick and lemon-colored, add the extract, CAKES WITHOUT BUTTER 267 Cut in the flour sifted with the cream of tartar. Bake 50 minutes in a moderate oven in an angel cake pan. {Basis for 2 girls, \i rule.) 5. Jelly Roll 3 eggs 1 tsp. baking powder 1 c. sugar 14: tsp. salt 1 tsp. milk 1 c. flour Jelly 1 tbsp. melted butter Method. — Beat eggs until light, add the sugar gradually, and then milk, flour, salt, baking powder, and melted butter. Line a dripping pan with buttered or oil paper, turn in the mixture, spread evenly, bake 12 minutes in a moderate oven. When baked turn on a cloth covered with powdered sugar. Cut a thin strip ofi^ of sides and ends of cake, spread with jelly while still hot, and roll up cake by, means of the cloth. Keep roll in shape until cake cools. Rolling must be done quickly while cake is hot, to prevent cracking. 6. Uncooked Frosting 2 egg whites 1 tsp. vanilla 1 tbsp. water 2 c. powdered sugar Method. — Put water and egg whites in a deep dish and gradually add the sugar and vanilla; beat constantly until the frosting is of the consistency to spread without running. More or less than 2 cups of sugar may be required, depend- ing on the size of the eggs. Chocolate uncooked frosting is made by adding 2 squares of melted chocolate to the above rule when about half of the sugar is in. LESSON 18 CAKES WITH BUTTER Method of Mixing Cakes with Butter. — Measure ingre- dients, dry first and then the Hquids and butter. Cream the butter; then add the sugar and cream together until the sugar is dissolved and the mixture is creamy. Beat egg yolks with a )over beater. Beat the whites with an egg whip. Add beaten yolks to creamed mixture; then add liquid alternately with sifted flour, to keep the mixture about the same consistency. If spices are used, sift in with the flour. If fruit or nuts are used, cover them with flour to prevent them from sticking together and settling to the bottom. Add the whites beaten stiff at the last, by cutting and folding in very carefully ; add the flavoring and baking powder at the same time. Do not stir the mixture after the egg whites are in. Why? Pans for Butter Cakes. — Grease pans thoroughly for butter cakes, sift a little flour in the pan after it is greased. See that the corners of the pan are well greased. Fill the pans only two-thirds full of the cake mixture. Oven Test for Butter Cakes.— White paper turns light brown in 5 minutes. Butter cakes require a hotter oven than those without butter. If the oven gets too hot, place a cover of paper over the cake or set a pan of cold water in the oven. Frosting a Cake. — Cake may be frosted as soon as baked, if desired. Either cooked or uncooked frostings may be used for either class of cakes; but for cakes without butter, uncooked frosting is very good and keeps the cake more moist. (268) CAKES WITH BUTTER 269 General Proportions of Ingredients. — For butter cakes use — }^ to 3^ as much butter as sugar. ^ as much liquid as flour. Regard butter or shortening as so much Hquid. Sour milk or molasses does not thin a mixture as much as sweet milk or water. Mixtures for fruit must be a little stiffer than those without. The proportion of baking powder and flour is the same as in quick breads, but the more eggs in a cake the less baking powder is needed. Variations for Plain Butter Cakes. — Many kinds of butter cakes may be made from a plain-cake recipe. The following are examples: — 1. White cake, — use 3 egg whites. 2. Yellow cake, — use 4 egg yolks. 3. Chocolate cake, — add one ounce melted chocolate (use less flour). 4. Spice cake, — add 3^ tsp. cinnamon, 3^ tsp. mixed allspice, nutmeg, and cloves. 5. Fruit cake, — add 14 c raisins, 3^ c. currants, }4 c cut citron. 6. Nut cake, — add 3^ c. cut walnuts or almonds. Make in layers and use different fillings and frostings. If bread flour is used, use a little less than when pastry flour is used. APPLICATION 1. Plain Cake M c. butter 3^ c. milk ^ c. sugar 1/^ c. flour }4 tsp. salt 3 tsp. baking powder 1 egg 1 tsp. vanilla Method. — Cream the butter, add sugar gradually, and egg well beaten. Sift the flour and add alternately with the milk. Then add the vanilla, and lastly fold in the baking powder, sifted over the top. Bake 30 to 40 minutes in a shallow pan. This rule may be varied in many ways, as stated above. {Basis for 2 girls, 3^ rule.) 270 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 2. Cup Cakes % c. butter 1 c. milk 2 c. sugar 3^ c. flour 4 eggs 4 tsp. baking powder 1 tsp. vanilla or lemon Method. — Cream the butter and sugar, add yolks of eggs, beat hard, add the milk, and then the flour mixed and sifted with the baking powder. Add flavoring, and bake in individual tins. Cover with uncooked frosting. Makes 3 dozen cakes. {Basis for 2 girls, M ride.) 3. Lemon Queens }/2 c. butter 1 c. flour 1 c. sugar 2 tsp. baking powder 4 eggs 1 tbsp. lemon juice Grated rind of 1 lemon Method. — Cream the butter, add the sugar, add eggs one at a time without beating. Beat mixture hard after adding each egg. Add flour, baking powder, and lemon juice. Bake 25 minutes in small muffin pans. Frost with uncooked frosting or orange frosting. Makes 16 cakes, (Basis for 2 girls, ^ rule.) 4. Orange Frosting 2 egg yolks 1 tsp. lemon juice 5 tbsp. orange juice 2 c. powdered sugar 1 tbsp. grated orange rind Method. — Mix orange and lemon juice with rind and let stand 10 minutes; then strain it. Add to egg yolks, slowly add powdered sugar, and beat until all is added and of the right consistency to spread. LESSON 19 LAYER CAKES Time. — Bake layer cakes 15 to 30 minutes. Points of a Good Cake. — 1. A good cake is smooth on top and baked to an even brown. 2. Cake rounds slightly toward the center, but does not rise abruptly in the center, crack on top, or sink at the edges. If any of these difficulties occurs, either the cake has been baked too rapidly or too much flour was used. 3. The inside of a good cake is fine, even grained, moist but not sticky, and of the same texture throughout. Coarse-grained cake is caused either by a lack of beating or by too slow an oven. APPLICATION 1. Spanish Chocolate Cake }/2 c. butter 1 tsp. vanilla \}/2 c. sugar 2 sq. choc, melted 4 eggs 5 tbsp. boiling water 3^ c. milk or water \% sc. c. flour 4 tsp. baking powder Method. — Melt the chocolate, add the boiling water. Cream the butter, add sugar, and cream all thoroughly. Add yolks, and beat hard; then add the milk, melted chocolate, and gradually the flour. Beat vigorously. Fold in the stiffly beaten whites of eggs, vanilla, and baking powder. Mix quickly and bake in two layers in a moderate oven. Frost with chocolate or caramel frosting. {Basis for 2 girls, 3^ rule.) (271) 272 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 2. White Layer Cake 14 c. butter 3 c. flour 2 c. sugar 4 egg whites or 1 c. water or milk 2 whole eggs 1 tsp. vanilla 6 tsp. baking powder Method. — Same as for Chocolate Cake. Makes 3 layers. {Basis for 2 girls, 14 ^ule.) 3. Cooked Frosting 1 c. sugar 1 egg white ]/2 c. water 1 tsp. vanilla Method. — -Boil sugar and water together without stir- ring until it spins a thread when tested. Pour slowly over stiffly beaten egg white. Beat until it holds its shape when dropped from the spoon. Add flavoring, and spread on the cake. 4. Chocolate Frosting Method. — Add 2 squares melted chocolate to Cooked Frosting. 5. Caramel Filling 2 c. dark brown sugar 3^ c. cream 1 c. white sugar 3^ c. butter 1 c. hot water Method. — Boil sugar and water together until it ropes; then add the cream and butter and cook 4 or 5 minutes longer. Spread between layers and on top. Good with Spanish Chocolate Cake. 6. Cocoanut Filling Method. — Use uncooked frosting rule, add freshly grated cocoanut, and spread thick between layers and on top. 7. Fig Filling 3^ lb. figs chopped fine ]4 c. boiling water 3/^ c. sugar 1 tbsp. lemon juice Method. — Mix ingredients in the order given, and cook in a double boiler until thick enough to spread. Spread while hot. Figs can be put through a meat chopper. LESSON 20 LOAF CAKES Review proportions for cakes. Review methods of making cakes with and without butter. Review oven tests. Time for baking loaf cakes: 40 to 60 minutes. APPLICATION 1. Gold Cake \i c. butter 5 egg yolks Yl c. sugar 1 sc. c. flour 3^ c. milk 13^ tsp. baking powder 1 tsp. orange extract Method. — Cream the butter, add the sugar gradually, then the yolks of eggs beaten until thick and lemon-colored. Mix and sift the baking powder with the flour, add alter- nately with the milk to the butter mixture. Bake 40 to 45 minutes in a deep loaf pan. (Basis for 2 girls, Yi rule.) 2. Caramel Cake 1 c. sugar 1 tsp. vanilla y^ c. butter 2 c. flour Yi c. milk 5 egg whites 1 Yi tsp. baking powder Method. — Same as any butter cake, folding beaten whites in last. Bake in a shallow loaf cake pan 40 to 45 minutes in a moderate oven. Frost with Caramel Frost- ing (Lesson 19). (Basis for 2, }^ rule.) —18 (273) 274 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 3. Nut Cake 1 ^ c. sugar 1 c. walnuts ^2 c. butter 4 egg whites % c. cold water 4 tsp. baking powder 2 c. flour 1 tsp. vanilla Method. — Cream buttei and sugar, add the cold water, the flour, half of the beaten egg whites, then the nuts cut and floured, the rest of the beaten egg, and lastly the baking powder and the flavoring. Bake in an oblong loaf cake pan for 50 minutes. Frost with white uncooked frosting. (Basis for 2, J^ rule.) 4. Spiced Loaf Cake l/i c. butter 2 c. flour 1 c. brown sugar 1 tsp. soda }/2 c. molasses 1 tsp. cinnamon 2 eggs _ _ 3^ tsp. salt % c. raisins 3^ tsp. cloves S}/2 c. strong coffee 3^ c. currants Method. — Cream butter and sugar, add the molasses and well beaten eggs. Sift the flour, soda, and spices together, add 3^ the flour to the batter, and then the fruit, which has been cut and floured. Add the cofl^ee, finally the balance of the flour. Bake in a loaf cake pan in a moderate oven for 1 hour. 5. Potato Cake 1 c. butter 2 c. sugar 1 c. almonds 3^ c. milk or cream 1 tsp. cinnamon 3^ tsp. cloves 3/^ tsp. nutmeg 13^ c. flour 2 tsp. baking powder 3^ cake melted chocolate 1 c. mashed potatoes 4 eggs Method. — Cream butter and sugar, add the finely mashed potatoes while warm, then the yolks of eggs well beaten, then the milk or cream, melted chocolate, and spices. Mix and sift the flour and baking powder, cut nuts fine and dredge with flour. Add flour and nuts to the batter, and lastly the whites of the eggs beaten stiff. Bake I LOAF CAKES 275 in square loaf cake pan 50 to 60 minutes in a moderate oven. This is a very large cake. Frost with Chocolate Frosting. 6. Fig or Date Cake 1 c. raisins 3^ c. butter 1 c. figs or dates 1 c. sugar 1 c. walnuts 2 egg yolks 1 c. boiling water 3 egg whites 1 tsp. soda 1 tsp. cinnamon 1 tsp. vanilla 2 c. flour 34 tsp. allspice and cloves Method. — Look over and chop the raisins, figs, or dates, and pour boiling water (in which has been dissolved the soda) over them. Cream the butter and sugar, add the beaten egg yolks, then the spices and fruit with the water, then the flour, fold in the beaten whites, and add vanilla. Bake 1 hour in a loaf cake pan in a moderate oven. Frost with White Frosting. 7. Eggless Cake 2 c. sugar 1 c. currants 2 c. water 1 tsp. cloves ^ c. lard 1 tsp. allspice 1 c. raisins 1 tsp. nutmeg 1 tsp. soda 1 tsp. cinnamon 33^ c. flour 2 tsp. baking powder 1 c. walnuts 34 tsp. salt Method. — Put the sugar, water, lard, fruit, and spices together in a saucepan and cook for 5 minutes. Let cool a little and then add 1 tsp. soda dissolved in a little hot water. Add the baking powder and salt to the flour and sift the flour into the cooled mixture; add the walnuts; beat well, and bake in a slow oven 45 to 50 minutes. This is a large cake and keeps a long time. LESSON 21 HOT DESSERTS— PUDDINGS Rich desserts are too heavy to use with a hearty dinner and should be used only to form a part of the meal or lunch. For the most part, fruit is best for dessert with a dinner. Methods of Cooking. — Hot desserts are either steamed or baked. Steaming is done in a steamer over boiling water (moist steaming), or in a double boiler (dry steaming). Moist steaming is required for heavy puddings, and for those that contain citron or fruit. Dry steaming is neces- sary for custard, and insures a more even cooking. Steaming is a slow process and requires several hours. Preparation of Materials. — Suet. — Break into small pieces, remove the membranes, and chop on a board. Dredge with flour to prevent suet from being sticky. To Clean Raisins. — Look over and pick out any imper- fect ones and stems. Wash in a strainer set in a bowl of water. Drain, and cut into small pieces. Always dredge with flour before adding to a batter; this prevents the raisins from sticking together. If raisins are not seeded when pur- chased, pour boiling water over a few at a time, drain, and press out seeds clean before cutting up the raisins. To Clean Currants. — Wash currants thoroughly in a strainer in a bowl of warm water. Rub them well and change the water several times until it remains clean and all the grit and fine stems are removed. Drain, and dry between towels. Dredge with flour. Citron. — Cut up citron into small pieces; dredge slightly with flour before adding to a mixture. (276) PUDDINGS 277 APPLICATION 1. Suet Pudding 1 c. suet cut fine 13^ tsp. salt 1 c. molasses ^ tsp. ginger 1 c. milk 3^ tsp. cloves 3 c. flour 1^ tsp. nutmeg 1 tsp. soda 1 tsp. cinnamon }4 c. raisins 3^ c. currants Method. — Mix and sift the dry materials, add the raisins and currants cut fine and floured. Add the molas- ses and milk to the suet. Add wet mixture to dry. Pour in buttered mold, cover, and steam 3 hours. Serve hot with a pudding sauce. {Basis for 2, ]/i rule.) 2. Bread Pudding 2 c. stale bread crumbs 2 eggs 1 qt. scalded milk 3^ tsp. salt }/2 c. sugar 1 tsp. vanilla or 34 c. melted butter li tsp. spice 3/2 c. raisins 13^ c. currants Method. — Soak bread crumbs in milk, let cool, add the sugar, butter, eggs slightly beaten, salt and flavoring, and the raisins and currants. Bake 1 hour in a buttered dish in a slow oven as for custards. Do not use outside crusts. {Basis for 2, Y^ rule.) 3. Queen's Pudding Method. — Spread plain Bread Pudding with currant or plum jelly and then add a meringue, as for Lemon Pie. Set in oven to brown. 4. Apple Tapioca 1 c. Pearl or Minute tapioca 3^ tsp. salt 2 c. cold water 8 sour apples 2Y2Q. boiling water 3^ c. sugar Method. — Soak the tapioca in cold water an hour or more, drain, and add the boiling water and salt. Cook in double boiler until transparent. Core, pare, and slice the 278 DOMESTIC SCIEXCE apples, put in buttered baking-dish, cover with sugar, then with tapioca. Bake in a moderate oven until the apples are done. Serve with sugar and cream. Minute tapioca does not require soaking. {Basis for 2, ^ rule.) 5. Himmels Futter 2 eggs 1 tsp. baking powder 3 '2 c. sugar 1 lb. dates 3 hp. tsp. flour 1 c. walnuts 1 c. whipped cream Method. — Beat eggs separately until very light; add sugar to the beaten yolks; cut the dates and walnuts up fine, flour thoroughly, and add to the egg mixture. Fold in lightly the remainder of the flour, the stiffly beaten whites of the eggs, and the baking powder. Bake in a moderate oven 3^ hour, and as soon as taken from the oven pour over it the whipped cream. Serve while hot. 6. Snow Ball Pudding 3^ c. butter }4 c cornstarch ^ c. sugar 3 tsp. baking powder 1 c. flour }4 c. milk 4 eggs (whites) Method. — Cream the butter, add the sugar. Sift the dry ingredients three times, add to the butter mixture alternately with the milk to keep an even consistency. Fold in the beaten whites, put all in greased molds, steam 1 hour. Roll in powdered sugar and serve hot with Berry Sauce. Makes 12 cups. 7. Plain Steamed Pudding 1 c. molasses 1 egg 1 c. warm water 23^ c. flour 1 c. chopped raisins 1 tsp. soda Method. — Sift the soda with the flour, clean and chop the raisins, and add the flour. Beat the egg, add the warm water and molasses. Combine wet mixture with HOT DESFiERTS 279 dry. Put in buttered molds and steam 23/2 hours. This is less expensive than suet pudding. 8. Plain Sauce 1 c. brown sugar 1 tbsp. flour 3 tbsp. butter 1 c. water Method. — Boil all together until thick, like sirup. Add juice of 1 lemon for a sour sauce. (Basis for 2 girls, }4 fule.) 9. Berry Sauce ^ c. butter 1 c*gg yolk 13^ c. powdered sugar 1 c. mashed berries Method. — Cream the butter, add sugar and cream, then the beaten egg yolk, and berries. 10. Hard Sauce }4 c. butter % tsp. vanilla 1 c. powdered sugar ^ tsp. lemon extract Method. — Cream the butter, add the sugar gradually, add the vanilla, and work to keep sauce creamy. Beat until light and creamy. Set in ice box to harden. Serve cold. 11. Foamy Sauce , li c. hot milk 2 egg whites 1 c. powdered sugar 1 tsp. vanilla Method. — Beat whites stiff and dr>% add sugar gradually, beat hard, add the hot milk and vanilla, beat with Dover beater 2 minutes. Serve at once. 12. Chocolate Sauce \l^c. water 1 tbsp. cornstarch }4 c. sugar H c. cold water 6 tbsp. grated chocolate Pinch of salt ]/2 tsp. vanilla Mehtod. — Boil sugar and water 4 to 5 minutes to make a sirup. Mix chocolate, starch, and H cup cold water; add the salt, then the hot sirup, and cook 3 minutes. Flavor, and serve hot. LESSON 22 COLD DESSERTS General review. APPLICATION 1. Floating Island 13^ c. scalding milk 3^ tsp. salt 3 eggs (yolks) 3 egg whites 3^ c. sugar y^ tsp. vanilla Method. — Scald the milk, beat the whites until stiff and dry. Fold in 2 tbsp. sugar, and carefully cook whites in the hot milk 2 or 3 minutes. Remove them with a large spoon to a serving dish. Make a custard of the other ingredients, the same as boiled custard. Cook until it coats the spoon. Remove at once, add the flavoring, and pour around the cooked whites. Serve cold. {Basis for 2 girls, }/^ rule.) 2. Chocolate Cream Pudding 2 c. scalded milk 3^ c. cold milk 5 tbsp. cornstarch 13^ sq. Baker's chocolate }/2 c. sugar 3 tbsp. hot water 14 tsp. salt Whites 3 eggs 1 tsp. vanilla Method. — Mix the cornstarch, sugar, and salt, add the cold milk, stir thoroughly, and then add to the scalded milk. Cook in a double boiler 8 to 10 minutes, stirring constantly until custard thickens. Melt the chocolate in the hot water, stir until smooth, and then add to the mix- ture. Add the stiffly beaten whites and vanilla. Mold, chill, and serve. {Basis for 2, 3i rule.) (280) COLD DEfiSERTS 281 3. Prune Whip 2 c. prunes 3^ c. sugar 2 egg whites 1 tsp. lemon juice Method. — Pick over and wash the prunes well, and let soak several hours in cold water to cover them. Cook in the same water until soft, remove the stones and rub the prunes through a strainer. Add the sugar, and cook 5 minutes to the consistency of marmalade. Beat the whites until stiff, add the prune mixture when cold, together with the lemon juice. Pile lightly in a buttered pudding dish and bake in a slow oven about 15 or 20 minutes. Serve cold with a boiled custard. {Basis Jor 2 girls, Y^ rule.) LESSON 23 SANDWICHES Sandwiches form the basis of most lunches, whether it is the simple lunch put up for the school girl or the more elaborate picnic basket. Materials for Sandwiches. — Bread to cut well must be at least a day old, when it makes the best sandwiches. Some delicious sandwiches, however, may be made with new bread. The kinds of bread used are white, brown, rye, whole wheat, corn or nut bread, or a combination of two or more. The butter, to spread more easily and evenly, must be creamed, as in cake-making. The fillings used determine the kind of sandwich, and a great variety is made from cooked (warm or cold) meat, fish, fresh greens, eggs, nuts, cheese, fruits, pickles, and jellies. Mayonnaise and cooked salad dressings are used to combine many of the materials used for fillings. Shapes. — Sandwiches are made in a variety of shapes and cut very thin. Those made for picnics or a child's lunch are best made of bread cut about 34 inch thick and cut in squares, triangles, oblongs, or circles, with substantial fillings. For afternoon teas, slices of bread are cut not over ]/^ inch thick with a sharp knife, and the slices are then cut into different shapes with fancy cutters. The sweet fillings, like jellies and marmalades, are best adapted to serve at small teas. Methods of Making. — Cut the bread for sandwiches with a sharp knife and make all slices of uniform thinness. (282) SANDWICHES 283 Remove the crust of the bread and spread each sHce with the creamed butter before cutting. If the sandwiches are to be cut with fancy cutters, it is best to shape before Fig. 40. Sandwiches, showing various shapes. Spreading, in order not to waste any butter. Spread half of the number of sHces with the filhng to be used, and fit the remaining shces on top. To keep sandwiches moist when they are prepared several hours before they are served, wrap them in a damp napkin until ready to use, or wrap them in paraffin paper. Keep in a cool place. Serving. — Serve sandwiches piled neatly on a doily on a plate or basket, garnished with parsley, lemon, celery tips or nasturtium leaves or blossoms. Suggestions for Sandwiches. — Many dainty and deli- cious combinations are possible in sandwiches. The following are suggested : — J84 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 1. Equal parts of finely cut nuts and grated cheese with salad dressing. 2. Equal parts of grated cheese and olives cut fine mixed with mayonnaise. 3. Equal parts of cream cheese and pimento. 4. Ham, veal, or sweet breads sliced thin or minced fine with boiled egg cut fine. 5. Beef or tongue chopped fine with Worcestershire or horseradish sauce. 6. Raisins and nuts chopped fine and moistened with grape juice- 7. Nasturtium blossoms and stems and bread and butter packed in a box over night to perfume the bread. Garnish with fresh blossoms. 8. Crushed maple sugar with thick cream with whole-wheat bread, or nut bread. 9. Marmalade and chopped nuts on white bread or sponge drops. 10. Sardines (split and boned), lemon juice and paprika. 11. Peanuts chopped and salted with salad dressing, with white or wholewheat nut bread. 12. Rye bread, chives, and Swiss cheese. 13. Cut fresh bread while warm, spread with a sweet mixture, roll up and tie with ribbon. 14. Chopped green peppers with mayonnaise dressing. 15. Fresh crisp lettuce with mayonnaise dressing. 16. Cold chicken or lobster, chopped, seasoned, and moistened with lemon juice or salad dressing. 17. Preserved canton ginger in thin slices with plain bread and butter. 18. White bread, cold chicken, lettuce, slice ripe tomato. 19. Alternate about 6 layers of white and graham bread. Use nut or fruit filling and slice across. 20. }4 cup. chopped dates, 34 chopped apple, salad dressing; cut in different shapes. Hot Sandwiches 21. Chicken liver with brown sauce and toast. 22. Brown bread, hot fried oysters, and Tartar sauce. 23. Clubhouse, — freshly made toast, lettuce, chicken, and hot bacon with mayonnaise. 24. Caviar, onion juice, lemon juice, with rounds of toast. 25. Combination, — freshly-made toast, chicken, tongue, bacon, fresh tomato and lettuce, with mayonnaise dressing. APPLICATION Demonstrate cutting bread thin and in fancy shapes. SANDWICHES 285 1. Egg Sandwich 12 slices of bread 1 tsp. salt 6 egg yolks, hard-boiled 2 tbsp. melted butter Method. — Mash the hard-boiled yolks through a strainer, season with salt, and moisten with the melted butter to right consistency to spread. Cut and trim the bread to the shape desired, spread half pieces with mixture, cover with the other half of bread. Boiled dressing may be used with the mixture. {Basis for 2 girls, }/q rule.) 2. Chopped Meat Sandwich Method. — Chop remnants of cold veal, beef, pork, or fowl; put through a meat cutter, moisten with rich meat stock; season with salt, pepper, celery salt and salad dress- ing. Spread on bread. 3. Raw Beef Sandwich Method. — Scrape beef, cut from the round, using a silver fork. Scrape first on one side and then on the other to remove the soft part of the meat. Season with salt and a very small amount of pepper. Spread between thin slices of bread. This may be toasted to a delicate brown on both sides. {Basis for 2 girls, 2 slices of bread.) LESSON 24 FROZEN MIXTURES— ICES Classes of Frozen Mixtures. — There are two general classes of frozen mixtures made in a freezer; namely, ices and ice creams. By varying the ingredients many different varieties may be produced in each class. Ices are frozen mixtures of fruit juice, water, and sugar, with or without eggs. They are named from the kind of fruit juice used for flavoring. Ices include the following frozen mixtures: — 1. Water ice, which is made from fruit juice diluted with water, sweetened, and frozen quite firm. Water ice is served principally with the meat course at dinners. 2. Frappe is a water ice, half frozen and of granular consistency obtained by using an equal quantity of salt and ice in freezing. 3. Punch is a frappe with the addition of wines, fruit, or charged water. 4. Sherbet is made by adding either a little gelatin or the beaten whites of eggs to water ice. When eggs are used, they are added when the mixture is nearly frozen, and the freezing is continued until the mixture is firm and will hold its shape when served. 5. Milk sherbet is made by substituting milk for water in water ice. Care must be taken to thoroughly dissolve the sugar in the fruit juice before adding the milk, to pre- vent the mixture from curdling. Sherbets are richer than water ices, and are served for desserts, like ice cream. (286) ICES 287 The Freezing Mixture. — Ice and salt form a freezing mixture. The salt thaws the ice, consuming heat, and makes a brine several degrees below the freezing point. This draws the heat from the contents of the metal can and causes the freezing. The smaller the pieces of ice and the more salt used, the more rapidly the mixture freezes. If too much salt is used, the frozen mixture has a coarse, granular consistency, as in frappe. One part of salt to three parts of ice freezes a smooth, fine-grained cream mix- ture. Equal parts of salt and ice freeze sherbets and water ice to the right consistency. Preparing the Ice. — Pound the ice in a burlap bag with a wooden mallet or an ax until it is in small pieces of about uniform size. Large pieces may interfere with the smooth turning of the freezer. Prepare enough ice to more than fill the freezer, and have plenty to pack the can in until time to serve. The Freezer. — A satisfactory freezer is one that is strongly built, that turns easily, and that is free from rust. If a freezer is not accessible, one may be made from a tin can or pail together with a wooden bucket or tub for the cracked ice. The can must be turned constantly during the freezing process the same as with a freezer. Owing to the absence of a dasher the mixture freezes to the sides of the pail quickly and must be scraped down frequently to insure a more even consistency to the frozen mixture. General Directions for Freezing. — Adjustment. — Scald the can, cover, and dasher of the freezer thoroughly and then chill. Set the can in the tub part of the freezer and adjust the dasher. Pour the mixture into the can, fiUing it not over three-fourths full, as a mixture expands in freez- ing. Cover the can and adjust the crank. Be sure that the can revolves with the crank. 288 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Packing. — Fill the space around the can with alternate layers of ice and rock salt until the ice comes up nearly to the top of the can. Turn the crank occasionally to make sure the can turns and to pack the ice and salt closely. Freezing. — Turn the crank of the freezer steadily and slowly, so as to expose as much surface to the cold as possi- ble. If the ice melts rapidly, add more ice and salt to keep the bucket well filled above the height of the frozen mixture. The icy brine aids in the freezing and may be left in the freezer, unless it comes up so high that there is danger of its getting into the can. When the freezer turns very hard the mixture is sufficiently frozen. Packing after Freezing. — After the mixture is frozen, draw off the water through a little hole in the side of the bucket. Wipe off the cover of the can to avoid getting any salt inside, and carefully and quickly remove the dasher. Scrape the cream down from the sides of the can and pack down well with a spoon. Put the cover on the can and fit a cork into the hole on top. Pack ice and salt around the can and on the top and throw a heavy piece of carpet or a blanket over it all to keep in the cold and exclude the heat. Frozen mixtures improve by standing at least an hour. Use of Frozen Dishes. — Frozen dishes are for the most part highly nutritious, cooling, refreshing, and attractive desserts that may be used for luncheons, dinners and after- noon or evening entertainments any time of the year. They are especially suitable during hot weather, and are of in- estimable value for invalids. Ices and sherbets are quite often served during a dinner with the heavy meat course. APPLICATION 1. Lemon Ice 4 c. water 2 c. sugar ^ c. lemon juice Method. — Boil sugar and water to a sirup (about 20 minutes), add lemon juice, cool, strain, and freeze. ICES 289 2. Orange Ice 4 c. water ^ c. lemon juice 2 c. sugar Grated rind of 2 oranges 2 c. orange juice Method. — Same as Lemon Ice; add fruit juice to sirup, cool, strain, and freeze. 3. Orange Milk Sherbet 4 oranges 43^ c. sugar 4 lemons 4 pts. milk Method. — Beat orange and lemon juice and sugar to- gether until sugar is dissolved. Add the milk quickly and freeze at once. {Basis for class, full rule.) 4. Three-of-a-Kind Sherbet 3 oranges 3 c. sugar 3 lemons 3 c. water 3 bananas ' 3 egg whites Method. — Prepare juice from oranges and lemons, mash bananas, put all through a strainer, add the water and sugar, and stir constantly until dissolved. Put into freezer and freeze until the consistency of mush, then open the top carefully and quickly and stir in the egg whites beaten stiff. Repack and finish freezing. {Basis for class, full rule.) 5. Sherbets (with gelatin) 1 tbsp. gelatin 3^ c. boiling water }/2 c. cold water 1 c. sugar Fruit juice 1 c. cold water The fruit juice for this recipe may be any of the follow- ing:— Juice 6 oranges 1 pt. fresh pineapple Juice 6 lemons 1 pt. raspberry or strawberry Method. — Soak the gelatin in J^ cup cold water 20 min- utes. Add the boiling water, stirring until dissolved. Add the sugar and the rest of the cold water, together with the fruit juice to be used. Freeze as any other ice. —19 LESSON 25 FROZEN MIXTURES— ICE CREAMS Ice creams are mixtures of cream, sugar, and flavoring, and frozen to a firm consistency in a freezer. Being com- posed mainly of cream, they are richer in nutrients than the ices. Ice creams are used extensively for desserts. Classes. — Many variations of ice cream may be made from the same founda- tion, by simply varying the flavoring and by the addition of fruits or nuts. The foundations of all ice creams, however, are of two classes, as follows: — 1. Those made with all cream, sweetened and flavored. 2. Those made with a custard (milk, eggs) and cream, sweetened and flavored. Ice creams made with custards are not as ex- pensive or as rich in food cream, and are commonly Fig. 41. Ice cream. value as those made of all spoken of as "plain ice cream." Fruit ice cream is made by adding crushed and sweetened fruit to the foundation rule for ice cream. The amount of sugar to be used depends upon the acidity of the fruit. (290) ICE CREAMS 291 Fruits best adapted to Ice creams are pineapple, peach, apricot, strawberry, raspberry, cranberry, cherry, currant, and all candied fruits. Nut ice creams are made by adding chopped nuts to an ice cream rule, and any of the following nuts may be used: walnuts, pecans, almonds, filberts, chestnuts, peanuts, and pistachio. Frozen puddings are made with any ice cream rule by adding plenty of fruit, nuts, preserved or candied fruits, or macaroons, etc., together with flavoring, such as maras- chino, and freezing the mixture the same as ice cream. Frozen puddings are sometimes packed in ice and salt for several hours, and are frozen without stirring. Frozen Mixtures not Stirred. — Some mixtures frozen without stirring are: — Mousse is made of the whip of heavy cream, sweetened, flavored, and packed in a mold in ice and salt (1 part salt, 2 parts ice) for 3 or 4 hours. Parfait is made of cream, sugar, egg yolks, flavoring, with or without the addition of fruit or nuts. The mixture is packed in a mold and set in ice and salt for 2 or 3 hours. Owing to the presence of egg yolks, it does not require as long a time for freezing as mousse. Cream. — The quality of cream depends to some extent upon the animal from which it is derived and the manner of feeding, but largely upon the care given the milk and cream. The fat globules in the milk rise to the top when the milk stands several hours, or they are separated out by putting the fresh milk through a separator. Separator cream may be kept longer, since it is taken from fresh milk, while cream formed by allowing the milk to stand is usually from 12 to 24 hours old. 292 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Cream may be separated thick or thin, and for com- mercial purposes is designated as "thin" and "double" cream, according to its thickness. Thin cream, containing from 18 to 25 per cent fat, may be used for ice cream, with or without a custard foundation. Double cream, usually containing about 40 per cent fat, is very thick, and is best for whipping. This sells for 60 cents a quart, and if used for ice cream must be greatly reduced by milk or the action of the freezer is likely to produce butter. Condensed milk is sometimes used for ice cream, but it must be reduced with water. Custards are mixtures of milk, sugar, flavoring, and eggs. Flour or cornstarch may be substituted as thicken- ing in place of eggs, but requires thorough cooking and does not make as rich a custard. An ice cream with a custard foundation does not require as much cream as one without custard. Custards or any mixture that is frozen requires about twice as much sugar to sweeten as those not frozen. To make fancy shapes or bricks of ice cream, put the molds where they will get ice cold ; then put in the ice cream by spoonfuls. Pack the mixture in solidly and fill the molds so full that when the cover is put on every part of the mold is filled. Two or more kinds of ice cream may be combined in one mold by packing them in layers. This makes what is called Neapolitan ice cream. A water ice may also be combined with ice cream in the same way. Cover the mold with oiled paper or wrap with cloth. Pack in salt and ice, using 1 part of salt to 4 parts of ice, and let stand an hour or two. To remove ice cream from the mold, remove the mold from the packing, take off the cover, and let stand a minute or two. Run a knife around the inside of the mold, if it is regular in shape, invert over a serving dish or platter, and ICE CREAMS 293 the cream will slip out. If it does not come out easily, dip the mold into warm water and out at once, or wipe it with a cloth wrung out of hot water. APPLICATION 1. Vanilla Ice Cream (custard foundation'' 2 c. scalded milk 1 egg 1 tsp. flour }4 tsp. salt 1 c. sugar 1 qt. thin cream 2 tsp. vanilla Method. — Mix flour, sugar, and salt, add the egg slightly beaten, and then the scalded milk gradually. Cook over hot water in a double boiler for 15 to 20 minutes, stirring constantly at first. Remove from the fire, cool, add the cream and flavoring, strain, and freeze. If custard has a curdled appearance it will disappear in the freezing. Serve with Chocolate Sauce. (See Lesson 21, page 279.) (Basis for class, whole rule.) 2. Vanilla Ice Cream 1 qt. thin cream 1 pinch of salt 1 c. sugar 1 V2 tsp. vanilla Method. — Add the sugar, salt, and vanilla to the cream, and freeze. 3. Chocolate Ice Cream Vanilla Ice Cream rule plus 4 oz. bitter chocolate 1 c. water Method. — Boil chocolate and water 5 minutes, and add to vanilla ice cream just before freezing. 4. Caramel Ice Cream Method. — Same as Vanilla Ice Cream, adding 1}/^ cups of caramelized sugar. Then freeze. To caramelize sugar, melt sugar in an omelet pan slowly, stirring constantly until melted and heated to a rich brown color. Then add slowly to hot custard. 294 DOMESTIC SCIEI^CE 6. Strawberry Ice Cream 3 pts. thin cream 2 c. sugar 2 boxes berries Pinch of salt Method. — Wash and hull the berries, cover with sugar, and let stand 2 hours. Mash, and press through a fine strainer, add the salt and cream, and freeze. Red rasp- berries may be substituted for strawberries. 6. Peppermint Cream 9 sticks red and white peppermint candy 1 quart thin cream. Method. — Heat the cream in a double boiler, put candy in, and let dissolve. This takes some time; when thorough- ly dissolved, freeze. The candy colors, sweetens, and flavors the cream. LESSON 26 FROZEN DESSERTS (Continued) To Whip Cream. — Thoroughly chill the cream before whipping. Put cream into a deep bowl and set bowl in a pan of cracked ice. Add a little water to the ice, — it chills the cream more thoroughly. Dilute heavy, double cream about one-third its bulk with milk; undiluted heavy cream will turn to butter if beaten a minute too long. Use a Dover beater or egg whisk to beat with. Cover the top of the bowl with a paper to keep cream from spatter- ing, making a hole in the center for the beater and weighting the corners of the paper under the bowl. A cream whip or churn is suitable for beating thin cream, and is also used in a bowl set in cracked ice. The first whip of cream which appears on the top is filled with large air bubbles, which break easily. This is not good' to use. Stir it into the cream and continue Deat- ing. When the cream beats up thick, remove the top whip by spoonfuls as fast as it forms and put into a strainer over a bowl. The thin cream drains off and may be put back into the bowl to be whipped. The thick whip is ready for use. Continue until all the cream possible is thick. Cream about trebles its bulk in whipping. A charlotte is a combination of cream and gelatin. APPLICATION 1. Charlotte Russe 1 tbsp. granulated gelatin 3^ c. powdered sugar_ }4 c. cold water 33^ c. thin cream whip 3^ c. scalded cream 1 3^ tsp. vanilla 6 or 8 lady fingers Method. — Soak gelatin in cold water, add scalded cream, (295) 296 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Stir until it dissolves, strain into a bowl, add the sugar and flavoring. Set the bowl in ice water, stir constantly until it begins to thicken; then fold in whip from cream, adding about one-third at a time. Line a mold with lady fingers, placing on end side by side 3^ inch apart with the crust side out. Pack the mold with the mixture, and chill. May be made in individual molds. {Basis for 2, 3^ rule.) 2. Pineapple or Strawberry Charlottes Method. — Pineapple and strawberry charlottes are made by adding 1 cup pineapple pulp and juice and grated rind of half a lemon, or 2 cups mashed strawberries and more sugar. 3. Bavarian Cream 1 pt. cream (whipped) 1 tsp. vanilla 1 pt. of thin cream or milk Pinch of salt }/2 c. sugar 2 tbsp. granulated gelatin Yolks of 4 eggs ^ c. water Method. — ^Whip the pint of cream and set aside to drain. Scald the thin cream or milk, add slowly to beaten egg yolks, add the sugar and salt. Return to fire a moment to set egg, remove as soon as it begins to thicken, add the soaked gela- tin and flavoring. Stir until the gelatin has dissolved and then pour through a sieve. When cold fold in the whip of the cream, turn into a wet mold, and chill. Pineapple or strawberries may be used to vary the flavor and to garnish. Line the mold with large fresh strawber- ries cut in halves, or use the grated pineapple and juice in place of the thin cream. 4. Neapolitan Mousse 1 qt. cream 2 tbsp. granulated gelatin }/2 c. maraschino sirup 4 tbsp. milk ^ c. candied fruit, cut fine 1 sc. c. powdered sugar Method. — Whip the cream, drain in a strainer. Use only whip. Soften the gelatin in the milk, dissolve by set- COLD DESSERTS 297 ting bowl in boiling water, strain into a bowl, add powdered sugar and flavoring. Fold in the whip from the cream care- fully, and the candied fruit, cut fine and softened in the maraschino sirup. Pack closely in a wet mold, cover tight, bind with buttered cloth. Pack in ice 3 or 4 hours. LESSON 27 WAITRESS WORK The dining room should be a pleasant room located near the kitchen, with a butler's or china pantry adjoining. The butler's pantry is used for serving and for the prepara- tion of salads, bread and butter, cakes, etc. The decorations in the dining room should be pleasing, harmonious, and quiet in tone, as well as simple, and the pictures suitable. The light must be good, yet not too strong, and the temperature about 70° F. The furniture of the dining room includes a china closet, chairs, table, buffetsor sideboards, and a serving table. The buffet or sideboard contains the silver and linen, and should always be covered with a white linen cover. The serving table is also covered, and is used for dishes containing food. The table may be round, oblong, or square, according to the shape of the room and the size of the family. It occu- pies the center of the room. The place for the hostess is opposite the pantry door, through which the waitress enters. In this way the hostess can direct the movements of the waitress in case of emergency without attracting the attention of the guests. The chairs are arranged around the table with the front edge of the seat just touching the cloth. Place only one chair at each end of the table, for host and hostess, opposite each other, and space the chairs evenly for the guests. Table Appointments. — The table is nearly always cov- ered with a tablecloth, but doilies are pretty used on a well- polished table in place of a cloth. (298) WAITRESS WORK 299 A pad or service cloth must be used under a tablecloth next to the table. It deadens the sound and gives the linen a firmer and better appearance, as well as keeps the table from becoming marred. Asbestos pads can be pur- chased to fit the top of the table, or use heavy table felt or Canton flannel. Linens must be absolutely spotless, carefully laundered, and plainly folded. Use pure linen or damask cloths and napkins of as good quality as can be afforded. A coarse linen is better than a mixture of cotton and linen. The best time to buy linens is in January, for the latest patterns and summer bleached linen are imported in December and there is a better selection at that time. Good standard patterns are the best to buy, but most patterns can be du- plicated within two years. The Shamrock, Irish linen, denotes the best qualities obtainable. These are hand woven, and the strict British laws compel the manufactur- ers to state if hand woven on the margin of all linen, and to produce the same measurements for their goods. As a result Irish linens are dependable. Avoid linen that is stifT and that crackles when bent, as it has been starched to give it a better appearance. Good damask has an elastic texture. German linens are very desirable and come in good patterns, but are not as pure white as the Irish linens. Table cloths that come in patterns are more satisfactory than those that come by the yard, and there is but a slight difference in the prices of the two. Napkins to match should be bought with each table- cloth. Avoid extreme sizes. The standard sizes for dinner napkins run from 22 to 27 inches. To Launder Table Linen. — Heavy damask requires no stiffening, and must be ironed while wet. Thin tablecloths 300 DOMESTIC SCIENCE remain fresh longer if slightly stiffened with a very thin starch and ironed quite wet. Avoid many folds in ironing a tablecloth; make one lengthwise through the center and roll the cloth on a roller, or fold carefully without creasing. Napkins are folded perfectly true at the corners and are ironed quite damp. Fold over half way, then over again the same way, then fold end to end, and again to form a square, leaving the corners of the napkin folded out. To spread the tablecloth, put the single crease of the cloth directly in the center of the table, lengthwise, with the fold straight with the table. Crease the cloth slightly around the edge of the table that it may drape smoothly. The cloth shold be wide enough to hang over the edges of the table a quarter of a yard. A centerpiece of white linen either embroidered or trimmed with lace, is used in the center of the table. A table reflector or mirror may be used as a basis for table decoration. On this place a basket or vase contain- ing flowers or ferns. If flowers or ferns are not accessible, a candelabra or a plant may be used. Avoid too high a basket or vase of flowers. Select flowers free from heavy odors, and those that harmonize with the coloring of the dining room. Dishes and Silver. — Use the best china that can be afforded. White china or china having a delicate design is the best. Never use two kinds for the same course, but different patterns may be used for different courses. Select good styles, and if only a limited number of dishes can be had, buy from open stock and get dishes that may be used for the greatest number of purposes. Knives and forks should be of medium size and of a simple pattern WAITRESS WORK 301 that cleans easily. Plain silver is harder to take care of than that having a simple pattern. Setting the Table. — A "cover" marks the individual place and includes all the silver for one person. From 20 to 25 inches of length and 15 or 16 inches of depth are allowed for each cover. Plates, silver, and napkins are placed one inch from the edge of the table in the order of service, the silver for the first course being farthest from Fig. 42. The proper arrangement for a cover, the plate. A service plate marks the center of each cover, and is placed on the table at the beginning of a meal. Place the knives to the right of the service plate with the cutting edge turned towards the plate; then place the spoons beside them, in the order of service. The number of pieces depends upon the meal to be served. Place the forks to the left of the service plate, tines up, and the napkin 302 DOMESTIC SCIENCE to the left of the forks, with the corners of the napkin towards the edge of the plate and the lower edge in a straight line with the row of silver and plate. The bread and butter plates are placed at the left, at the top of the forks. Put the butter spreaders on the plates with the handle convenient to the right hand. The tumbler for water place at the right-hand side, at the end of the knives, and the individual salts at the top of the cover in the center. The uniform of a waitress includes a neat, simple wash dress, either black or white, and a plain white apron. A small cap may or may not be worn. A waitress must be neat, quick, careful, quiet, clean, and observing in her work. The duties of a waitress include the care of the dining room and room from which the food is served, also the care of the silver, cut glass, fine china, and Unens. She must prepare the salads, butter balls, beverages, and cut the bread. She must keep hot things hot and cold things cold. Styles of Serving. — There are two ways of serving meals: (!) a la riisse or Russian style, where only flowers and perhaps dessert are placed on the table at the beginning of the meal. The several courses are served from the side, each person helping himself when the dishes are passed ; or the plates are served in the kitchen and placed before each guest. This style is best adapted to serving large numbers. (2) The English style of serving is used at small dinner parties and in the home. The host carves and serves the meat and vegetables and the hostess serves the soup, salad, dessert, and coffee. Only one course appears on the table at a time. Bread, butter, pickles, and relishes are placed on the tables and passed by the waitress. The waitress also passes the plates and dishes served by the host and hostess. WAITRESS WORK 303 Table service should be in keeping with the home and its atmosphere; attempt nothing in style or expense beyond what you can well afford. True politeness should be the real guide for table etiquette, and an unselfish thought for others means good manners anywhere and at any time. Rules for Serving. — 1. Warm all dishes used for hot foods, and chill all dishes used for cold foods. 2. Fill water tumblers % full, just before guests sit down. Keep the glasses filled. 3. Place butter on butter plates just before guests are seated, replenishing when necessary. 4. Use a round tray covered with a doilie for serving and removing dishes. 5. Serve hostess first, or the honor guest who sits at the right of the host if a woman and at the right of the hostess if a man. 6. Pass things which admit of choice to the left of the person seated. Hold the dish low and near the person. 7. Place things which do not admit of choice at the right. 8. Remove dishes from the right, unless it necessitates reaching in front of a person. 9. Remove dishes containing food, one at a time, first, in each course, then the soiled plates and silver of each cover in turn. 10. Remove everything pertaining to one course before serving the next. APPLICATION 1. Demonstrate kinds of linens and methods of folding. 2. Demonstrate placing a cover. Individual work in placing a cover. 3. Practice serving, — passing and removing. LESSON 28 DIETARIES— PLANNING MENUS Some Points to Consider in Selecting Food. — In the planning of the meals, it is necessary to consider many things besides just the dishes that are to be served. The kinds, cost, and amount of nutrients contained m each dish must be carefully considered, together with the number, sex, age, and occupation of the persons for whom the food is provided. All persons must have protein for the building and repair of body tissue, and fuel material for warmth "and work. Individuals differ in the amounts and propor- tions they require, and even among those who are in good health there are many who are obliged to avoid certain kinds of food. For guidance in the selection of food, nature provides us with instinct and taste, but we are apt to be influenced too much by taste and to overlook instinct and experience. We need also to acquire the knowledge of foods that science has made possible through the laboratory. When more food is eaten than is needed, the digestive organs are over- taxed or injured and much energy is wasted which might have been used to better account. Food Requirements for DifiEerent Conditions. — Propor- tions vary greatly in the amount of nutrients required by persons of various age, sex, and activity. A young child needs less food than an older one, a man more than a woman, and all require more when at work than when at rest. The following table shows the comparative food requirements (304) PLANNING MENUS 305 of persons of different ages and occupations as compared with the needs of a man in full vigor at moderate work. Proportionate Food Requirements for Different Conditions Man, full vigor, at moderate work 100 Man, full vigor, at hard work 120 Man, full vigor, at sedentary work 80 Woman, full vigor, at moderate work 80 Woman, full vigor, at hard labor 100 Woman, full vigor, at sedentary labor 70 Man or woman, old age 90 Man or woman, extreme old age 70 to 80 Boy, 15-16 years old 90 Boy, 13-14 years old 80 Boy, 12-13 years old 70 Boy, 10-11 years old 60 Girl, 15-16 years old 80 Girl, 13-14 years old 70 Girl, 10-12 years old 60 Child, 6- 9 years old 50 Child, 2- 5 years old 40 Child, under 2 years old 30 These figures illustrate the fact that there is an increase in food consumption from infancy until full vigor and that there is a decrease in old age. They also show that the amount of muscular work performed greatly affects the food requirement. Climate and season are other factors to be considered. In winter the energy requirement per day is greater by about 800 calories than in summer. Heat Value of Food. — A calorie*" is the unit of measure in determining quantity of heat. It is used in designating the fuel value of a food, or the amount of heat that a given quantity of the food will produce in the body. 1 pound of protein yields 1820 calories. 1 pound of carbohydrates yields 1820 calories. 1 pound of fat yields 4084 calories, or 23^ times as many calories as carbohydrates. ♦The heat necessary to raise the temperature of 1 pound of water 4°F. equals 1 calorie. —20 306 DOMESTIC SCIENCE The standard requirement per day has been estimated as follows: — Man at light work 2450 to 2800 calories Man at moderate muscular work 2800 to 3150 calories Man at hard muscular work 3150 to 4200 calories Man at rest 2100 to 2450 calories A woman, .8 as much as a man Since protein foods are indispensable in the building of muscular tissue, fats and carbohydrates should be sup- plied in the right proportion and quantity, so that the proteins will not be utilized as fuel. Fats and carbohy- drates are more abundant and cheaper foods for fuel, and when oxidized leave waste substances that are easily elim- inated from the body. Protein consumed for energy leaves a nitrogenous waste which necessitates additional work on the part of the excretory organs. The nutritive ratio of foods is the proper ratio in which digestible protein should be taken in relation to the diges- tible fats and carbohydrates, so as to secure a diet which will produce the greatest efficiency at the least cost and waste. The nutritive ratio has been estimated by Atwater to be 1 : 63/2> or 1 part protein to 63^ parts carbohydrates. The best proportion of fat to carbohydrates is 1: 23/^; that is, 2J4 times as much carbohydrate as fat. Standard dietaries can be worked out from any table of food materials (as given in Farmers' Bulletin 142, of the U. S. Department of Agriculture) showing the percen- tage of nutrients and calorie equivalents, by keeping in mind the relation of protein to carbohydrates plus the fat reduced to carbohydrate values. Substitution of one food for another will be necessary to keep the nutritive ratio correct, and with a little practice and experience in working out a few dietaries, one obtains a better knowledge of food compositions than in any other PLANNING MENUS 307 way. Dietaries are made for an entire day or week, since it is not practical or necessary to have each meal balance. In some cases several days may not average up, but at least every week should meet the standard requirement. Showing Nutrients and Energy of Digestible Portions of SOME Common Foods 1 0) h 13 — 3 D igestiblc nutrients Kind of food materials a 'B 2 a. 1 1 1 1 o .a CO < I 3 ANIMAL FOOD Beef, fresh: Chuck, ribs Per cent. 16.3 13.3 20.8 7.2 16.4 4.7 3.4 14.2 18.4 16 19.7 10.7 7.7 13.6 Per cent. 52.6 52.5 43.8 60.7 56.8 53.7 68.3 60.1 51.2 42 41.8 48 17.4 34.8 7.9 47.1 42.4 5S .^ Per cent. 1.4 1.6 1.8 1.4 1.2 4.5 1.2 1.1 1.4 2 1.8 1.9 4.4 3.1 5.4 1.2 1.6 .5 .7 .6 5.1 1.9 1.1 .5 .3 1.1 4.9 Per cent. 15 15.6 13.5 18.4 15.9 25.6 19.5 15 14.6 13.1 13 13.1 8.8 13.8 1.8 13.3 15.6 10.8 9.9 5.8 15.5 21.1 12.7 3.2 3.3 2.4 1 Per cent. 14.3 16.6 20 12.2 9.3 6.6 7.1 7.5 14 26.9 23 24.6 59.1 31.7 81.9 11.7 17.5 .2 4 1.2 .4 11.5 8.8 3.8 .3 17.6 80.8 Per cent. 3.3 5 5.1 4.5 Per cent. 0.6 .7 .5 .8 .7 5.5 .8 .7 .6 .5 .6 .6 3.1 3.2 2.9 .5 .6 .6 .5 .8 13.9 2 .7 .5 .5 .4 2.3 Calo- ries. 910 1,025 Ribs Round, medium Shoulder and clod Beef, dried and smoked Veal: Cutlets, round 1,135 890 715 790 695 Leg . . 625 Mutton: Leg 890 1,415 Pork, fresh: Loin, chops 1,245 Ham 1,320 Pork, salted and smoked: 2,720 Ham 1,635 Salt, fat 3,555 Poultry: Fowl 25.9 22.7 29.9 765 Turkey 1,060 Fish, fresh: Cod, dressed 220 44.7 40.4 370 Shellfish: 88.3 40.2 63.5 65.5 87.0 90.5 74 11 225 Fish, preserved and canned: Cod, salt 24.9 325 915 £jggs, uncooked . . . 11.2 635 Whole milk 310 165 865 Butter 3,410 308 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Showing Nutrients and Energy of Digestible Portions of SOME Common Foods (continued) Kind of food materials O Digestible nutrients a C •r, a Calo- ries 1,640 1,800 1,620 1,625 1,635 1,680 1,200 1,925 1,520 160 115 295 100 440 95 190 260 295 150 150 VEGETABLE FOOD Cereals, etc.: Cornmeal Oat breakfast food Rye flour Rice Wheat flour, patent pro- cess ' Wheat breakfast food . . Bread, etc.: I Bread, white wheat .... Crackers, cream Vegetables: I Beans, white, dried . . . . ' Beets, fresh Cabbage Potatoes Squash Sweet potatoes, fresh , Tomatoes Fruits: Apples Bananas Grapes Oranges Strawberries Per cent. Per cent. 12.5 7.8 12.9 12.3 12 9.6 35.3 6.8 12.6 70 77.7 62.6 44.2 55.2 94.3 63.3 48.9 58 63.4 85.9 Per cent. 3.3 5.1 2.9 2.9 3.4 3.8 2.9 4.5 7.9 1.2 .4 1.6 .5 1.2 1.6 17 1 1 Per cent. 7.8 14.2 5.8 9.7 10.3 7.8 8.2 17.5 1.1 1.2 1.5 .6 1.2 .7 Per cent. 1.7 1.2 10.9 1.6 .1 .2 .1 .2 .5 .4 Per cent. 73.9 64.9 77.1 77.4 73.6 73.7 52 68.3 57.8 7.3 4.6 14 4.3 20.8 3.7 9.7 12.9 13 7.7 6.3 Per cent. .8 1.4 .5 .3 1.3 The principal data in the table are shown in graphic form in the diagram on page 20. composition of food materials The selection of menus requires considerable thought and knowledge of the tastes of the individuals to be served, together with the composition and nutritive value of the foods, their cost, and what the market offers. A marketing list of available foods and their prices can be easily arranged and will prove of great value to a house- keeper in her visits to market and in planning her meals. PLANNING MENUS 309 Well-balanced dietaries may be provided with little work by using instinct and good judgment in the selection of food combinations and by avoiding too many foods of the same kind. Breakfast consists of three courses: (1) fruit, (2) cereal and (3) meat courses. Serve each course separately, and remove all dishes pertaining to each course before serving the next. Serve fruit on small plates set on the service plate. Pass finger bowls after the fruit course. Serve the cereal in a tureen, set in front of the host, and place cereal dishes to host's left. The waitress removes the cover for the host; allow no water to drip on the cloth. Remove tureen after cereal is served. The meat course may consist of meat, eggs, potatoes, toast, bread, and cakes, and is served by the host and on warm plates. The hostess pours the coffee at the beginning of the meat course. Luncheon is served from 12 to 1 o'clock in most homes, and is an informal affair, consisting of three or four courses served at the table. The formal luncheon is served from 1 to 2 o'clock in Russian style. Use a tablecloth, or doilies on a polished table. A luncheon differs from a dinner principally in the meat; no heavy meats or roasts are served, and there are fewer courses and fewer vegetables. A typical luncheon menu consists of (1) Fruit cocktails or grapefruit; (2) Soups and a relish ; (3) Main course, — croquettes, patties, fillets or salad; (4) Dessert, — cold desserts, mousse, ices, or sherbets, with dainty cakes, coffee or tea. For a formal luncheon of six courses an entree may be used for a course following the soup, or the salad may be used as a separate course. 310 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Service. — To announce a luncheon, the hostess, with- out formality, simply asks her friends to follow her to the dining room. Dainty place cards and table decorations help to carry out a definite color scheme, which adds charm and indi- viduality to the most simple luncheon. The service plate remains on the table until after the first hot course, the soup. Remove it with the bowls or soup plates. The hostess may serve the salad or dessert and coffee, although a maid usually serves from the side. Coffee is frequently served afterward in the living room, either by a maid or poured by the hostess. Dinner is formal or informal, depending upon the num- ber of courses, and is served from 6 to 8 o'clock. An informal dinner may consist of (1) Soup, (2) Roast with vegetables, (3) Salad (or combine salad with roast for one course), and (4) Dessert, with coffee. The method of serving an informal dinner is more from the table by hostess and host. The meat is carved by the host, with little service; the silver and relishes are placed on the table. A formal dinner consists of many courses, each served quickly and quietly without apparent haste. Use a table- cloth and see that all the appointments, — linen, silver, and dishes, — are of the best. The courses consist of (1) Fruit or oyster cocktail; (2) Clear stock soups, and relishes; (3) Fish fillet; (4) Entree — croquettes or sweetbreads; (5) Meat course, with one or two vegetables and an ice; (6) Salad, wafers; (7) Dessert, — ice cream, mousse, cake; (8) Coffee, cheese, nuts; (9) Bon bons. The coffee is served clear and strong in small cups. Arrange the finger bowls on small handsome plates on lace doilies. Place one to the left of each person. PLANNING MENUS 311 APPLICATION 1. Study food charts; plan dietaries ; assign home work in dietaries. 2. Plan typical breakfasts, luncheons, dinners; suggest suitable dishes from course of study. 3. Plan school luncheons consisting of three courses at 20 cents a cover. LESSON 29 SCHOOL LUNCHEONS Students fill in the cost in accordance with prices in locality and season. Table of Materials and their Cost Amount Material Cost Amount Material Cost c. butter c. sugar, granulated . . . . c. powdered sugar c. flour or meal c. milk c. cream c. white sauce c. molasses c. lard doz. eggs egg cake yeast, compressed, tsp. vanilla tsp. soda tsp. baking powder tsp. spice tbsp. butter tbsp. coffee tbsp. olive oil tbsp. tea tbsp. gelatin tbsp. lard tbsp. grated cheese doz. lemons doz. oranges doz. apples doz. bananas doz. peaches pound raisins pound prunes pound walnuts pound peanuts pound pecans pound almonds 1 pound figs 1 pound dates 1 pound suet 1 pound cheese 1 pound tapioca 1 pound rice 1 pound macaroni 1 pound citron 1 pound peanut butter. . , 1 pound crackers 1 pound corn starch 1 pound sweet potatoes.. 1 pound tea 1 pound coffee 1 pound chocolate 1 pound grated cocoanut. 1 pound can tomatoes. . . 1 pound can salmon 1 pound can lobster 1 pound can corn 1 pound can peas 1 pound can sardines 1 pound can shrimp 1 onion 1 carrot 1 turnip 1 stalk celery 1 cucumber 1 bunch parsley 1 head lettuce 1 glass jelly 1 box berries 1 ripe tomato (312) SCHOOL LUNCHEON 313 314 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Plan of School Luncheons. — Twelve covers at 20 cents a cover is a good number, if facilities for serving are favor- able. The class prepare the dishes during the morning session and the waitresses serve it promptly at noon. Allow a waitress for every six guests and two for each course. Change waitresses at each course in order to give more girls experience in serving. Waitresses are respon- sible for the appearence of the dining room, table furnish- ings, and decorations. A pretty color scheme adds much to lunches. Select flowers in season. Assign duties of each member of the class. The girls that prepare a course are responsible for the serving of that course to the waitresses on time, and for the clearing away of all dishes that pertain to it. See that the kitchen is ready for inspection by the guests at the close of the luncheon. A capable girl may take charge of the kitchen during the serving and see that all assignments are carried out promptly. The instructor acts as hostess at luncheons. Members of the class with artistic ability may provide the place cards in accordance with the color scheme. Ar- range the seating so that each guest appears at her best. Serve the luncheon in not more than IJ^ hours' time. Menus of typical school luncheons, at 20 cents a cover, as served by classes in the Saint Paul schools follow: — Menu 1 Cream of Tomato Soup Wafers Potato Croquettes Salmon Loaf Parker House Rolls Radishes Olives Jelly Vanilla Ice Cream Cup cakes Coffee SCHOOL LUNCHEONS 315 Menu 2 Cream of Pea Soup Imperial Sticks Veal Croquettes Creamed Potatoes Rolls Cottage Cheese Balls Snow Pudding Chocolate Cake Coffee Menu 3 Mock Bisque Soup Wafers Salmon Salad Lettuce Cheese Straws Saratoga Potatoes Rolls Tapioca Cream Chocolate with Marshmallow Menu 4 Watermelon Balls Cream Tomato Soup Croutons Stuffed Baked Potatoes Breaded Veal Baking Powder Biscuit Jelly Individual Strawberry Short Cakes Coffee Menu 5 Fruit Cocktail Veal Loaf with Egg and Pimento Creamed Potato Baking Powder Biscuit Jelly Peach Pickles Snow Pudding Custard Sauce Coffee Itemized Cost of Menu 5 Fruit Cocktail 30c Veal Loaf 60c Creamed Potatoes 25c Biscuit 12c Butter 40c Peach Pickles 15c Snow Pudding 30c Custard Sauce 6c Coffee.... 20c Total $2.38 316 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Menu 6 Cream of Corn Soup Croutons Stuffed Baked Potatoes Creamed Salmon in Timbale Shells Parker House Rolls Radishes Orange Sherbet Lemon Queens Coffee Itemized Cost of Menu 6 Soup 20c Croutons 2c Baked Potatoes 15c Creamed Salmon 60c Timbale Shells 4c Rolls 14c Radishes 20c Sherbet 45c Lemon Queens 40c Coffee 20c Total $2.40 APPLICATION 1. Work out menus, with cost. 2. Select menu for luncheon. Assign the outline of duties to each girl. Practice serving the luncheon. Make all final arrangements. LESSON 30 SCHOOL LUNCHEONS (Continued) (To be filled in by the students) Date: Color Scheme: Decorations : No. of Covers: Menu: Materials and Approximate Cost; Other Good Luncheon Menus: (317) LESSON 31 HOME MANAGEMENT. HOUSEHOLD ACCOUNTS The home as we know it has grown out of a need of shelter for the family. The home-makers have always been women; the care of the home and the management of all household duties have always been in their hands. Knowledge comes from study and practice, or in the actual doing. Every man spends several months or years in preparation for the business or trade he intends to enter. So every girl should spend time and study in fitting herself for her life work. It has been estimated that 95 per cent of the girls eventually take their places in the home. So it seems necessary to include in the education of every girl some study and practice in home management, if her home is to be conducted in a business-like manner. Good home management includes the selection and care of all materials used in the continuance of the home — the food, its preparation and service; the care of children; the management of servants; and the keeping of accurate household accounts. One of the most important features of good home management is system. With a system each day and week has its special duties to be performed, and each member of the household knows what he or she is responsible for. The home-maker must be thoughtful, have a good sense of values, and exercise good judgement in expendi- tures. She must be interested in her home and willing to help others. (318) HOME MANAGEMENT 319 Servants. — Servants need wise supervision and are only too quick to recognize the worth of an employer. The woman who is able to retain good help exercises good judgement in the manner in which she treats her servants. Commending servants for things well done and refrain- ing from nagging or reprimanding them before others will result in better work and greater effort to please. A wage scale for help by which the wages increase at stated times or on the merit system will effect an im- provement in retaining efhcient help. Servants are as ambitious as any other class of workers and move from one place to another in the hope of bettering themselves. Household Accounts. — The standards of living differs with individuals and families according to education, tastes, occupation, and country. The home system of accounts should be simple and easy to keep. A good plan is to divide the yearly income according to months and weeks and to keep all expenses well within the limits. Set aside a percentage of the salary for each class of expenditures — shelter, clothing, food, etc. As the income increases, the percentages of expenditures for some of the items usually increase in proportion up to a certain point. When the division of the income has been decided upon a system of book keeping will greatly aid in keeping track of each expenditure. A sample page of a simple system is here given. All stores send duplicate slips with each purchase. These should be kept together and used to check up with the monthly statement. In case of error these are of great value in correcting the account. 320 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Household Accounts Month of (summary) Items of Expenditures Amounts Totals Food Meat Milk and cream (groceries Total Food Shelter Rent Insurance Taxes . . Reoairs Total Shelter Clothing Total Clothing Operating Expenses Fuel Lieht Gas Ice Telpohone ' Help Total Operating Education and Amusement School . . . . Total Ed. & Amus. Benevolence Church Club dues Total Benevolence Personal Accounts Total Pers. Accts. Emergencies ]Doctor . . . Dentist Medicines Total Emergencies Incidentals Total Incidentals Total Expenses Income Balance (loss or savings) HOME MANAGEMENT 321 The monthly statements may be carried forward each month, showing the balance; or a yearly summary may be drawn on a separate page, showing the expenditure totals and the complete credits or debits at the end of the year. Whatever the system employed in keeping the house- hold accounts, it should show: (1) The total income or cash received, (2) the total expenditures, (3) how the money was spent, and (4) the balance — savings or losses. Children should be taught to keep their own person- al accounts for each week or month, and be made respon- sible for an allowance, however small. APPLICATION 1. Work out a suggestive outline of household duties and plan for a week's work in your home. 2. Assign the duties of one maid. 3. Assign the duties of two maids. 4. Make out a household account record page for one month, using a typical family of four, including two chil- dren. 5. Make out your own home expense account for the past month. 6. Make out your own personal account for the past month. ^21 LESSON 32 INVALID COOKERY Food for the sick is an important subject, and much time can be given to this one branch of cookery. The quantity and kind of food for patients must be varied according to the nature of the disease. A housekeeper with a knowledge of foods and food values suitable to different diets is of great assistance to the physician attend- ing the case, and is able to carry out his orders satisfac- torily and often can do without the services of a trained nurse in simple cases. Dietaries are classified, to assist nurses in caring for their patients, as liquid, soft, light, and full diets. A liquid diet includes milk, beef tea, broths, beef juice, strained gruels, egg nogs, cream soups, cocoa, and all other liquid foods. Tea and coffee must be avoided. A soft diet includes dishes in the liquid diet and also milk toast, soft-cooked eggs, jellies, boiled custards, junkets, ice cream, apple sauce, and cereals. A light diet includes soft-cooked eggs, baked custard, creamed toast, sweet breads, asparagus, scalloped oysters, gelatin jellies, baked apples, stewed prunes. A full diet, includes soups, meat, fish, eggs, cereals, vegetables, fruits, and desserts that are easily digested. Never give to any patient even the smallest amount of food difficult of digestion. Special diets are those ordered by a physician for special cases. (322) INVALID COOKERY 323 Rules for Serving Invalids. — 1. Cook all food carefully and thoroughly. 2. Serve hot food hot and cold food cold. 3. Serve food daintly and attractively. 4. Use the prettiest dishes and the best linen. 5. Put a flower or a small plant on the tray to make it attractive. 6. Plan to have surprises for the patient in the kinds Fig. 44. An invalid's tray. of food as well as in the ways it is served. This helps to create an appetite, which often is lacking. 7. Always remove all bottles and signs of medicine from the sight of the patient, and remove the tray as soon as the patient has finished eating. APPLICATION These recipes are for individual portions suitable for one patient 'and for two girls working together in practice work in the kitchen. 1. Dry Toast Method. — Slice stale bread in }/^ inch slices, remove the crusts, place in a toaster and dry thoroughly, turning S24 DOMESTIC BCIENCE occasionally. Toast a golden brown on both sides. The starch is dextrinized and made more easy of digestion by toasting. 2. Milk Toast 2 slices dry toast ^ c scalded milk ^ tbsp. butter }4 tsp. salt Method. — Butter the toast, arrange on a hot dish, pour the hot milk over it, and sprinkle with salt. 3. Water Toast 2 slices dry toast 3^ tbsp. butter 1 c. boiling water % tsp. salt Method. — Drop the slices of toast separately into the boiling water, remove to a hot dish, spread with butter, and serve at once. 4. Oatmeal Jelly H c. rolled oats IH c. boiling water Pinch of salt Method. — Add the oats gradually to the boiling water, add the salt, boil 2 minutes, and then steam in a double boiler 45 minutes to 1 hour. Force through a fine strainer, mold, chill, and serve w^ith sugar and cream. 5. Barley Gruel 1 tbsp. barley flour 1 c. water or milk 2 tbsp. cold water 14 tsp. salt Method. — Add the 2 tablespoons of cold water to the flour to make a thin paste; then add gradually to the scalded milk or boiling water while stirring constantly. Cook in a double boiler 20 minutes. Season and strain. 6. Cracker Gruel 1 tbsp. cracker crumbs % c. milk ' Pinch of salt Method. — Scald the milk, add the cracker crumbs, and cook over boiling water 10 minutes; season to taste. INVALID COOKERY 325 7. Pasteurized Milk Method. — -Put milk in sterilized, small-mouth glass bottles, stop with cotton batting or absorbent cotton, place bottles in a wire basket, and immerse the basket in a kettle of cold water. Heat water gradually to a temperature of from 160° to 170° F. Keep at this temperature 30 minutes; remove and cool bottles quickly and keep in cold water. 8. Egg Nog 1 egg 1 3^^ tbsp. sherry or % tbsp. sugar 1 tbsp. brandy or rum A few grains salt ^ c. cold milk Method. — Beat the egg slightly, add the sugar, salt, and the liquor, and then the milk gradually. Strain, and serve. 9. Eggs in a Nest 1 egg 1 tsp. butter 1 slice of toast Pinch of salt Method. — Separate the yolk from the white of the egg, beat the whites until stiff, sprinkle with salt, and heap on a slice of toast. Make a depression or nest in the center, drop into this the whole yolk, place in a pan in the oven for 2 minutes. Place a tiny piece of butter in the center of the nest and serve at once. 10. Beef Juice Method. — Broil a small piece of round steak, cut it into small pieces, squeeze the juice from it into a cup, season with salt, and serve. 11. Beef Extract Method. — Cut round steak into small pieces. Put into a sterile canning jar, cover and place the jar into a kettle of cold water. Heat the water gradually and keep at a temperature of 130° F. for 2 hours. Turn meat from the jar and press until the juice is extracted. Season the juice with salt, and serve. 326 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 12. Beef Tea 1 pound of beefsteak cut from the round 2 c. cold water Salt to season Method. — Prepare the beef as for beef extract, put in a sterile jar or double boiler, add cold water, and heat grad- ually, keeping the tempferature at 130° F. for 2 hours. Increase the temperature at the end of that time until the liquid becomes a chocolate color and the albuminous juices are slightly coagulated. This removes the raw taste of the tea. Season with salt. 13. Mutton Broth 2 pounds of mutton from the neck 2 c. cold water Method. — Cut the meat in small pieces, soak in water 1 hour. Simmer for 3 hours, strain, and remove the fat. 3 tablespoons of rice may be boiled and served with the strained broth. APPENDIX EMERGENCIES AND FIRST AID In all cases of emergencies, th^e thing to remember is self-control, and then to render first aid as quickly as possible. If the accident is serious, send for a physician at once, but many cases can be cared for by any one who understands first-aid treatments. Fainting is caused by mental impression, exhaustion, pain, heat, bleeding, overcrowded rooms, etc. The symp- toms are sudden unsconciousness, pale face, cool, moist skin, weak pulse, shallow breathing, and dilated pupils. Treatment. — If face is pale, get more blood to the brain. Lay the patient flat on his back with the head low and the legs raised; sprinkle cold water on his face, and gently apply ammonia or smelling salts to the nostrils to make him breathe. Get him out into the fresh air, and loosen the clothing about the neck and waist. An attack of fainting can often be prevented by sitting in a chair and thrusting the head down between the knees and holding it there until the face becomes flushed. If unconscious- ness is accompanied by a flushed face, elevate the head on a pillow. Heat Stroke. — Heat stroke is the same as fainting. Apply cold water to the body and ice to the head. Bleeding from the Nose. — This is caused by excess blood pressure or from a foreign substance in the nose, and is often hard to check. Treatment. — Hold arms vertically above the head; put ice or cold water on back of the neck, between the shoulders, and over the root of the nose at the forehead ; very cold or (327) 328 DOMESTIC SCIENCE very hot water or hydrogen peroxide should be snuffed up the nose. Pressure by placing a roll of cotton or cloth under the upper lip next to the gum may be a benefit. Should the bleeding still continue, plug the nostrils with absorbent cotton; if the blood then runs in the throat from the back of the nose, the assistance of a surgeon will be required. Bleeding from a Cut. — If the blood is bright red and comes in spurts it is from an artery, and needs prompt attention. If the blood is bright red but flows slowly, it comes from a capillary. If blood is dark red or blue and flows steadily, it comes from a vein. Treatment. — Apply pressure above and below the cut. Raise the portion of the body that is cut. Bind the cut with antiseptic gauze bandage directly on the wound tight enough to stop the flow of blood. In severe bleeding use a tourniquet to tighten the bandage. This is made by putting a stick under the bandage and twisting it to tighten it. Ice, salt, and alum cause the blood to coagu- late and are used on wounds in cases of emergency Infection. — Infection is caused by the presence of bac- teria. To prevent infection in a wound that has not bled freely, clean it thoroughly by washing with a salt solution or alcohol, or a weak solution of carbolic acid, not more than 3 per cent; then bind with antiseptic gauze. Burns are caused by contact with dry heat, as from hot metal; scalds are caused by moist heat, as from liquids, including acids. Treatment. — Cover with a wet cloth sprinkled with baking soda or dipped in boric acid, or apply vaseline or olive oil. Usually a cloth saturated with olive oil will relieve the pain. Where the skin is destroyed, watch the burn carefully to prevent infection. In case the clothing catches on fire, wrap the patient in a heavy rug, blanket. EMERGENCIES AND FIRST AID 329 or coat at once to smother the flames. Send for a physician in severe cases. Frost bite is caused by prolonged exposure of the body to a very low temperature. It produces a loss of vitality and the affected part becomes stiff and white. Treatment. — Never take a frozen person into a warm room or apply heat to a frozen part. The temperature must be raised gradually. Remov^e the clothing, if any, on the affected part, and rub with snow or cold water; later rub with the hand carefully to restore the circulation but do not injure the skin. Stimulants, like brandy, may be given in severe cases, or allow the patient to inhale the fumes of ammonia from a handkerchief to restore con- sciousness. Asphyxia. — This is a condition of unconsciousness due to a great diminution of oxygen in the blood, caused by an obstruction in the air passages of the throat or lungs, or to the presence of poisonous gases, such as coal gas from stoves or illuminating and sewer gas. Treatment. — Remove the cause, in order that the lungs may be supplied with the proper amount of pure air. Reestablish respiration by artificial means. This is produced by moving the arms upward above the head, to elevate the ribs and expand the chest; then slowly low- ering the elbows and pressing them against the sides of the body. Repeat this movement fifteen times a minute until the patient is recovered. Stimulate the heart and the circulation by the use of stimulants, warm applications, and friction. Send for a physician and the pulmotor. Earache. — Apply hot applications. See a physician as soon as possible. Foreign Substance in the Eye. — Foreign bodies, such as particles of dust and cinders, may lodge under the lids S30 DOMESTIC SCIENCE and upon the eye-ball. In the latter situation a physician should always be consulted. To examine the lower lid, draw down with the fingers and at the same time tell the patient to look up; if the particle is not there, evert the upper lid by standing behind the patient, with his head upon your chest, and tell him to look down at his feet. At the same time press a match or the end of a finger firmly about a quarter of an inch behind the margin of the lid, draw the lid down by the lashes and turn it upward and outward over the match or fingertip. If the particle is not visible, search the ball of the eye carefully for it, and if found lift it gently by a quick movement with the point of a burnt match or toothpick. Poisons are caused by the presence in our bodies of substances which act upon the body tissues and life itself, and must be treated at once. Poisons are of several kinds: (1) Corrosive poisons, which act instantly; (2) irritant poisons, which produce inflamation of the tissues; and (3) narcotic poisons, which produce unconsciousness. Treatment. — Send for a physician at once; in the mean- time try to produce vomiting to expell the poison, and give an antidote for the poison. To produce vomiting, run the finger down the throat or give an emetic. A good emetic is a mixture of }/2 pint warm water and a table- spoonful of mustard or salt, or plenty of warm water is often effective. An acid and an alkaline substance neutralize each other when put together; so in case of acid poisoning give an alkali (baking soda); and in the case of alkali poisoning, give an acid (dilute vinegar) for an antidote. Antidotes injure the inside of the stomach and must be followed by some substance like milk, white of egg, or EMERGENCIES AND FIRST AID 331 oil. Stir the whites of four eggs in a quart of water and make the patient drink as much as he can. Poisons and their Antidotes Corrosive poisons Acids — Carbolic Nitric Sulphuric Hydrochloric Oxalic Give an emetic, — an alkali; as, limewater or a solution of soda and water. Follow later with white of eggs. Alkalis Ammonia Lye Potash Give vinegar and water, or lemon juice. Large dose of oil or milk to form an emulsion. Irritant poisons Rat poison Arsenic Paris green Iodine Phosphorus matches Bichloride of mercury Narcotic poisons Alcohol Chloroform Opium Morphine Laudanum Aconite Strychnine Camphor balls Give an emetic, — warm water and mustard. Follow with milk or white of eggs. Same, also Epsom salts. Give an emetic. Keep the patient awake. Give strong black coffee. Use artificial respiration and stimulation. EQUIPMENT FOR TEACHING DOMESTIC SCIENCE Principles of Selection. — A domestic science equipment to be adequate must include all the necessary apparatus for the application of principles and actual cookery in the class-room. If the equipment is too meager, the work is restricted and girls do not learn the value of good utensils; if too elaborate, ingenuity is not developed and girls get extravagant ideas that are not practical or possible in the average home. In selecting an equipment, its wearing qualities and working possibilities must be considered. Often a simple inexpensive tool will serve the purpose and last as long as a more expensive one. Then, again, it is better economy to pay more for an article known to be the best. Expe- rience in the class-room is the best way to determine the best kinds of equipments to buy, and only those of experience ought to undertake the responsibility. Many complete lists of equipment are published, but most of them include unnecessary utensils that may easily be omitted. The cost of equipping a school depends upon the number of students to provide for, on the kind of equip- ment, and upon the methods of work. The number to be equipped for depends upon the size of the school classes. The ideal class averages 16, but this is practically impossible in most schools, and an equip- ment for 24 is more commonly used. Classes larger than 24 are to be avoided. Work is conducted by the group method (girls working in groups of four), or the individual method, each working (332) DOMESTIC SCIENCE EQUIPMENT 333 alone, or in pairs. In the group method larger and fewer utensils are needed. In the individual method smaller utensils are used and they need to be duplicated for each girl. A combination of the two methods, or where girls work in pairs, permits the use of larger proportions than in the individual method and at the same time gives each girl responsibility in the work. An equipment that per- mits both methods to be used at times is much the best. Tables may be separate group tables for four pupils, or a long continuous table with places for working on either side or arranged in the form of an oblong or hollow square. The smaller tables are less expensive, are best adapted to the group method, but necessitate much walking on the part of the teacher, since half the class stand with their backs to her. The hollow square or oblong is best adapted to classes of younger pupils, is better for demonstration work, and is more generally used. Tables are best made of hardwood, finely polished, with drawers, lockers, molding, and hot-plate boards. Table Tops. — The tops of the tables may be made of various materials. (1) Selected white maple with a fine hard finish gives the best service and its use teaches girls how to care for tables like those usually found at home. (2) White enameled iron tops do not break or warp and are attractive, sanitary, and easily cleaned, but more expensive. (3) Zinc-covered tops are good when new, but they warp easily, are more difficult to keep clean, and must be repaired as soon as the zinc breaks. (4) Glass tops are not practical ; they crack easily from the heat of the small stove, and are too expensive. Small gas burners on the tops of the tables are used, a burner for each girl. The attachments must be permanent. 334 DOMESTIC SCIENCE and there should be as Httle piping on top of the table as possible. Avoid the use of rubber tubing. Floors are best covered with linoleum, but this is expen- sive. Good hardwood floors, oiled, and kept in good con- dition, are satisfactory and more practical. Tiled floors are easily kept clean, but are very hard to stand on and are therefore not to be recommended. Walls are best tiled or made of glazed brick, but these materials are too expensive for the average school. Hard wall plaster with a flat paint finish gives as good results and costs much less. Rooms are made much more attractive if tinting is done in blue and white, and there is no difference in the cost. List of Equipment. — The following list of equipment is necessary for the best results in following the two-years' course in domestic science as given in this text-book: — Equipment for Each Desk (for two girls) 1 two-plate gas burner 1 small oven 2 16-inch rubber-tipped stools Enamel Ware 2 mixing bowls, 1^ qts. 2 supply bowls, 1 qt. 1 double boiler, 1}4 qts. 2 custard cups, size 2^ in. ^ 2 sauce pans with covers, 2 qts. 1 seamless deep basin, for dishpan, 1 utility tray, 8xl2xi^ in. 16 in. x 5^ in. 1 soap dish, 3^ x 4^ in. 1 pitcher, 2 qts. Tin Ware 1 biscuit sheet, 7x11 in. 1 draining pan, 83^x14x23^ in. 2 pie tins, 5-in.; 1 cup 1 small angel-food tin 1 square, loose-bottom, cake pan 2 bread tins, 3 3^x6x2 H ^^^ 2 corn cake pans, in groups of 4 4 individual jelly molds 1 flour dredger 1 salt shaker 1 pepper shaker 1 doughnut cutter 1 cookie cutter 1 biscuit cutter, 2-in. 1 small grater, half-round 2 measuring cups 1 small cake turn, black enamel 2 steam molds, ^ pt. or handle 2 15c-size baking powder cans DOMESTIC SCIENCE EQUIPMENT 335 Wire Ware 1 wire strainer, fine 2 egg whips 1 Dover egg beater, cup size 1 potato masher, small Wooden Ware 1 small rolling pin, 12- or 14-in. 1 slotted spoon, holly wood (special) 2 daisy vegetable brushes 2 scrub brushes 2 asbestos mats, with wire 2 stove brushes Iron and Steel Ware 2 7-in. steel frying pans Cutlery 2 good quality black-handled steel knives 2 good quality black-handled steel forks 2 good quality paring knives 2 Utah metal tablespoons 2 good quality 6-in. spatulas 2 Utah metal teaspoons Glassware and Crockery 2 cooking glasses 2 white china plates, 7-in. 2 white china cups, tea size 2 white china saucers, tea-size 2 brown and white covered casseroles, 53^ in. General Equipment for 24 Girls 1 coal range 1 ice box 1 gas range or 1 instructor's table or desk, with 2 wall gas ovens chair 1 supply table, covered with oil- Blackboards cloth and fitted with drawers Good-sized pantry 2 or 4 sinks 1 dining table 1 water boiler and gas heater 1 doz. dining chairs 1 set tables for 24 girls, (to form a hollow square) Enamel Ware 2 only double boilers, 3-qt. 2 only wash basins with hole 1 only sauce pan, 3-qt., with covers (ll^/^-in.) 1 only sauce pan, 4-qt., with covers 2 only sink strainers 2 only mixing bowls, 13^-qt. 2 only pails with covers, 16-qt. 2 only mixing bowls, 3^-qt. 2 only colanders, 10-in. 3 seamless milk pans, 2-qt. 1 only dipper, 1-qt. 3 seamless milk pans, 1 ^ qt. 1 only stew pot, with cover, 6-qt. 2 only seamless deep pudding pans, 1 only stew pot, with cover, 8-qt. 6-qt. 2 only preserving kettles, 8-qt. 1 only coffee pot, 4 qt. 2 only tea kettles, 8-qt. 1 only ladle, 3J<-in. * 1 garbage pail, 16-qt., with cover 2 only hanging soap dishes 1 flat skimmer, 3%-'m, 1 only quart measure 136 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Tin Ware 2 biscuit sheets, 10x14 in. y^ doz. bread tins, 3x8x3 in. }/2 doz. round loaf-cake pans, medium size for angel food ]/2 doz. sq. loaf-cake pans 2 only jelly molds, 1-qt. 2 only apple corers 4 only No. 2 Arctic fruit press 1 only coffee pot, 10-qt. 1 only funnel 6 only fruit funnels 1 only ice cream brick, 1-qt. Cutlery and 1 only (carborundum) knife-sharp- ener }4: doz. larding needles 1 set of steel skewers 2 only mincing knives, double 2 only bread knives, 13-in. extra quality 2 only boning knives 1 only butcher knives, 8-in. 1 only melon mold with cover,3-pt. 2 only pie tins, perforated bottom 1 only steamer, 1034^-in. 2 only oblong cake pans, loaf with loose ends 2 only brown bread molds, 1-lb. size 2 only corn-cake pans 2 only handle fiour shakers, medium 1 only small sugar scoop 2 only nutmeg graters Instruments 1 only self-pulling corkscrew 1 only wood Saratoga potato chip sheer 1 only solid basting spoon, 16-in. 2 only potato scoops, J^-in. 1 only pastry bag, 2 tubes 1 only test tube rack 2 doz. test tubes 2 large pair shears, good quality Glassware and Crockery }/2 doz. lemon squeezers 3^ doz. white earthen bowls, 2 10-in., 2 12-in. 4 doz. jelly glasses with tin covers 2 large baking dishes with covers 1 medium oval platter 1 large platter 1 bean pot 1 teapot 1 glass rolling pin 4 doz. glass jars, pints, for canning 1 doz. 1-pt. glass jars with covers, for supplies 1 doz. 1-qt. glass jars with covers 1 set white china dishes, consist- ing of: 1 doz. dinner plates 1 doz. luncheon plates, 8-in. 1 doz. pie plates, 6-in, 1 doz. bread and butter plates, 5-in. 1 doz. sauce dishes 1 doz. cups and saucers 1 doz. bouillon cups and saucers 2 only vegetable dishes 1 only bowl, 6-in. 2 sets glass sugar and creamer 4 sets salt and pepper 1 doz. thin glasses for serving 2 compote dishes 1 glass water pitcher 1 glass vase Japanned Tin Ware 1 only flour cans, with sifter 2 only sugar boxes, 10-lb. 1 only dust pan 100-lb. size 1 only bread box, 10x10x15 in. 1 only coffee can 2 only nickel-trays, 20x30 m. 2 only nickel-trays, round, 12- or 14-in, DOMESTIC SCIENCE EQUIPMENT 337 Wire Ware 1 waste basket 2 only Dover egg beaters, No. A 2 only cream whips 2 only chain pot cleaners 2 only meat forks 2 only fry baskets, No. 8 1 only mayonnaise mixer 2 only 3E extension strainer 2 only square soap shakers 1 only cake cooler Sheet and Cast Iron Ware 2 only steel fry pans, 9-in. 2 only steel fry kettles, 9-in. extra deep, flat bottoms 1 only steel covered roaster, 12x16 1 only bill file, upright 1 only family scales 1 set asbestos sad irons 1 only bread-stick pan, steel, 12- hole, 5 inches long 2 only rosette irons 1 only claw hammer. No. 12}^ 1 only ice cream scoop 2 only food grinder in.l only call bell 1 only ice chisel 2 only Sprague can openers 1 only round wafifle iron 1 only soapstone cake griddle 2 only timbale irons 1 baking sheet for fish Wooden Ware 1 wash board 1 potato slicer, double knives 2 1-gal. ice cream freezers 2 1-qt. ice cream freezers }/2 doz. rubber-set brushes, l^-in. 1 scrubbing brush for floor 1 stove blacking brush 2 dust brushes 1 clock 1 bottle brush 1 fish plank, 14-in. 1 wooden mallet, 3x5 in. 2 butter paddles, fluted 2 wooden spoons 2 brooms 1 whisk broom, medium 1 long-handled mop 2 dish mops 1 sink scraper 1 clothes rack 1 thermometer, F. 2 chopping bowls, small 1 salt box, white Linens and Cottons, Paper, etc. 100 yds. huck toweling, white 40 yds. plain linen crash, for dish cloths, 15 in. wide 6 yds. cheesecloth, for washing meat and fish 2 strainer bags for jelly 1 canvas bag for ice Plain manilla paper for draining fried materials on Oiled paper 6 stove holders 2 linen tablecloths 2 doz. linen napkins 1 table pad 1 centerpiece 2 tray cloths 3 bolts white oilcloth, for shelves and drawers Large darning needles 1 ball white twine -22 SUGGESTIONS FOR SCHOOL LUNCHES "Penny" Lunches are served in a few of the St. Paul grade schools at recess time in the mornings from the middle of October to the middle of May, and are of great value in raising the standards of health and mentality. In a school of 500 pupils the blood test improved 20 per cent in 7 months, and a greater mental activity was evident, especially following the recess period. In schools where ''penny" lunches are served, approx- imately 75 per cent of the enrollment patronize the lunch- room. In some cases where the children cannot afford to pay for lunches free tickets are furnished. About 20 or 30 are usually served free. The equipment necessary is very small, and consists simply of a range, sink, tables for serving, a few large cooking utensils for the preparation of large quantities of food, and large trays for serving the food. The room is planned with two doors, one for entrance and one for exit, which facilitates more rapid service. 400 pupils are served in 10 minutes, which allows plenty of time for the eating of the lunch. The tables are arranged in a long row from one door to the other. A rail is placed 3 feet from the table and parallel to it, and aids in keeping lines in single file. The principal or one of the teachers manages the lunch- room, plans the lunches, does the marketing, and keeps the accounts. An efficient woman to prepare the lunches is employed by the Board of Education at $1 a day. She reports at 8.30 A. M. and is on duty until the lunches are served and put away. (338) SUGGESTIONS FOR SCHOOL LUNCHES 339 Several helpers are appointed by the week or month from the eighth grade to assist in the serving, and are allowed their lunches in payment for service. Each morning the menu for the day's lunch is listed in each room on the board, so that the children know before- hand what is to be served, thus avoiding unnecessary delay. All articles to be served are placed on trays along on the tables, and a helper stands behind the table at each two trays to serve the pupils as they pass. The pennies are deposited in boxes by each tray or with a cashier; usually 2 cents is the average spent by each child. Dishes that have been found to be practical for the "penny" lunch are: — Sandwiches, both hot and cold, including, — Meat, hash (made of beef, pork, and potatoes baked brown), with rye or white bread. Bologna, with rye bread. Hot wieners, rye bread. Minced ham, white or rye bread. Veal salad (veal and cooked salad dressing), white bread. Sweet sandwiches of molasses or jelly, white bread. Brown sugar on white bread. Baked beans on brown bread. Peanut butter on white bread. Egg sandwiches. Fruit. — Bananas, apples pears. Cakes. — Cup-cakes, sugar cookies, sugar rolls, cinnamon rolls, (very popular), spice cup-cakes, raised doughnuts, graham crackers. Ice cream. — Slice of brick ice cream on a graham cracker. Slice of brick ice cream on salt wafers. Puffed rice balls, served about twice a year. Soups. — Where facilities are adequate, cream soups; as, corn, pea, celery, bean, and tomato, are excellent to serve. The "penny" lunch is self-sustaining, aside from the cost of paying for the services of the woman. Supplies are purchased wholesale in quantities and only food that is wholesome and economical is used. The high school recess lunch is conducted on much the same plan as the "penny" lunch, although on a much 340 DOMESTIC SCIENCE larger scale, and the dishes served cost more. One of the high school teachers or an office clerk has charge of the management of the lunchroom and does the planning, buy- ing, supervising, and checking of accounts. One or more women are employed to prepare the lunches. Where the enrollment is 800, two women are needed and an enroll- ment of 1400 requires three women. These are paid from the lunch fund at the rate of $2 a day for the head cook and $;1.50 a day for assistants. Both boys and girls are appointed to assist in serving and are allowed their lunches for compensation. The equipment for the high school lunches must be quite complete in order to serve large numbers quickly and advantageously. The equipment includes ranges, sinks, steam table, serving tables or counters, icebox, and. dishes for cooking and serving. System I. — Two systems of serving the high school lunches are in use in the schools, and both give entire satis- faction. The one most commonly used is similar to the "penny" lunch. Trays containing the food are placed on long tables, and the students pass in single file up the aisles, until all are served. A high-school helper serves from each tray and is responsible for his or her account. A box for the receipts, marked with the number of the helper, is supplied with each tray of food, as is also a list of the amount of food sent to the helper. Before serving, the helper checks up to make sure the list is correct, and at the end of the recess period checks up the food that is left and the amount sold. The result should tally with the amount in the cash box, which is opened by a central cashier after the boxes are all turned in. All slips properly signed are turned in with the cash boxes. The accounts are then turned over to the manager at BUOaESTlONS FOR SCHOOL LUNCH tJ8 241 the close of the day. This method places responsibility upon each helper and makes a complete system of checking that is accurate and that gives good experience to students assisting. Menus for System I. — In this system the menu with prices is listed on bulletin boards in the corridors, and the price is placed on every tray, so that no time is lost in quoting prices of food. Supplies are purchased wholesale, and lunches are served at a nominal cost. The menus include, — q^^^ Hot chocolate $.05 Cocoa 05 Milk, buttermilk 03 Sandwiches, hot or cold 05 Tea cakes, cookies 03 Doughnuts 03 Cream puffs 03 Loaf cake 03 Fruit, — apples, peaches, bananas, or any fruit in season 03 Sweet chocolate bars 10 Ice cream cones 05 System II. — The other system of serving the high school lunch is on the cafeteria plan and furnishes more hot food and takes the place of the noon lunch, but is served at the recess period. Recess in most one-session high schools comes between 11 and 12 o'clock. The students pass along the supply table or counter and provide them- selves with tray and silver, and order their lunch from the women and assistants behind the counter. When the lunch is selected the tray is inspected by a cashier and a ticket for the amount is placed on the tray. The lunch is paid for when the tray is turned in. Tables and chairs are provided where students may be seated while eating the lunch. 342 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Menus. — The dishes served in this plan include, in addition to those offered in System I, the following: — Cost Soups $.03 Meats: hot and cold, roasts, meat pie, hash 05 Potatoes: baked, creamed, mashed, sweet potatoes 03 Vegetables: peas, beans, tomatoes, scalloped dishes 03 Salads: apples and celery, tomato, potato, fruit 05 Fruit: baked apples, apple sauce, prunes, cranberries 03 Fresh fruits: bananas, apples, peaches, pears 05 Puddings and simple desserts 03 Ice cream: cones, brick 05 Cake: cup cakes and slices of loaf or layer cake 03 Beverages: coffee, buttermilk 03 Tea 02 Chocolate 05 With this plan two women and twelve helpers serve 800 students in 20 minutes. The teachers' lunch is served in all high schools on the cafeteria plan, at 1 o'clock. During the morning the menu for lunch is sent to each room and each order is sent to the lunch room before 12 o'clock. At 1 o'clock the trays containing the lunches are ready when called for by each in- structor, and the lunch paid for when the trays are returned. Lunchrooms are conducted on a cash basis and are self-supporting in every case. The teachers' lunch consists of dishes included in the menu of System II for high school lunches. The grade teachers' lunch is served at noon, and is prepared by the same woman that prepares the "penny" lunch. She receives $2.50 a week for the additional work, which amount is paid from the teachers' lunch fund. Lunchesin the grade buildingsdo not admit of much choice, as only one or two hot dishes are prepared each day, but the menu is varied from day to day and includes meat, a vegetable or a salad, dessert, and a beverage. The cost of a week's lunches, together with the cost of the services DOMESTIC SCIENCE 343 of the woman, is divided equally among those patronizing the lunchroom. Where sixteen are served daily for five days a week, the cost per week averages 75 cent3 per person. These lunches are of great value to the teachers and furnish at a small cost good wholesome food that is not available without the lunchroom. SCORE CARDS FOR JUDGING COOKERY* BREAD Points Loaf well rounded, not cracked at sides, evenly General appearance: baked Baking: Crust even chestnut-brown in color, and about H-inch thick; center of loaf well done, not soggy Odor: Sweet and nutty Flavor: Sweet and nutty, suggesting taste of wheat Grain and Texture: Cut surface should have silky appearance, and be evenly honey-combed with rather small holes Lightness: A well-risen loaf is about twice the size of the dough when placed in pan; cut surface elastic to touch Crumb: Glossy and moist, not gummy when pressed, or dry and crumbly Color: Inside of loaf creamy white, not snowy white Total BAKING POWDER BISCUIT Shape evenly risen to about twice original height. General appearance: not conical or sunken; surface not too rough or too smooth and shiny, no large cracks or holes; color a nice, uniform brown, not speckled or floury Baking: Crust golden brown, not too thick or thin; inside light Lightness: Inside light and white, well baked Texture: Inside moist but not waxy, crumbly, or doughy .... Flavor: That of well-cooked wheat cereal 10 10 5 100 Total PASTRY Baking: Brown top and bottom Texture: Brittle, flaky Flavor: Not greasy; pleasant taste Total DOUGHNUTS Well rounded; baked a good brown; comparatively General appearance: smooth Lightness: Light; elastic to the touch Texture: Holes of aeration fine and numerous Flavor: Not too spicy, or oily, or sweet . Total WHITE COOKIES Slightly rounded over top and sides; no flour on General appearance: surface; edges smooth and unbroken Texture: Holes of aeration small and uniform in size; delicate, seeming to melt in the mouth; thinner and more brittle than butter cake, but not as brittle as a wafer 100 35 40 25 100 15 25 25 35 100 Total 100 General appearance Lightness Texture Tenderness Baking Moisture Flavor Totals . . . *Arranged from M CAKE Chocolate Sponge Cake (loaf, Fruit Cake unfrosted) Cake 10 10 ... . 10 30 30 35 25 . 25 10 15 10 20 20 5 25 10 10 . . . . 100 .. . 100 nnesota Extension Bui. No. 19. 100 INDEX Abbreviations, 21. Accounts, household, 319. Acids, as preservatives, 192. vegetable, 203. Air. 15. as leav^ening- agent, 109. Albumen, 19, 75, 77, 144. Ammonia, 7. Antiseptics, 5. Apples — Apple Pie, 232. Apple Tapioca, 277. Baked Apples, 69. Dumpling, 129. Dutch Apple Cake, 129. food value, 308. Jelly, 207, 208, 209. Sauce, 70. Asparagus, Canned, 200. Asphyxia, 329. Bacon and Liver, 172 Bacteria, 4, 189. Bag, for uniform, 2. Baking — apples, 69. beans, 50. bread, 137, 139. cake, 264. custard, 89. defined, 38. eggs, 80. fish, 246. fruits, 69. ham, 174. macaroni, 60. objects of, 141. quick breads, 109. Baking powder, 113. action of, 113. composition, 11^. experiments with, 113. kinds, 114. Baking Powder Biscuits, 125, 127. Apple DumpHngs, 129. Dutch Apple Cake, 129. Peach Short Cake, 127. Bananas — Banana Pie, 237. food value, 308. Bavarian Cream, 296. Beans, Baked, 50. food value, 308. String Beans, canned, 200. Batters, 108. drop batters, 218. thin batters, 108. Beating, 81. Beef, 151, 157, 159. appearance, 151. Beef Extract, 325. Beef Juice, 325. Beef Tea, 326. Broiled Steak, 153. composition, 307. cuts, 151. Dried Beef, 156. Meat Loaf, 163. Panbroiled Steak, 157. Raw Beef Sandwich, 285. Roast Beef, 154. Roast Beef Gravy, 155. Stew, 159. what to serve with, 157. Beets, Boiled, 49. Canned, 200. Berry Pie, 232. Berry Sauce, 279. Beverages, 101. Cocoa, 106. Chocolate, 106. Coffee, 105. Lemonade, 107. Tea, 104. INDEX Biscuit, Baking Powder, 125, 127. Emergency, 125. Bleeding from the nose, 327. from cut, 328. Blood stains, removing, 8. Blue points, 255. Boiled Dinner, 162. Boiled Dressing, 261. Boiling — cereals, 54. defined, 37. macaroni, 60. potatoes, 42. rice, 55, 56. vegetables, 49. Bordeaux Sauce, 214. Bouillon, 147. Braising, defined, 38. Bread, 131, 135, 141. baking, 137. flour, 123. food value, 308. making bread, 135. Nut Bread, 122, 126. Quick-Process Bread, 139. Slow- Process Bread, 139. stale bread, uses, 138. Steamed Boston Brown Bread, 133. Whole-wheat Bread, 140. Bread-making, 135. suggestions to teachers, 138. Breaded Veal Chops, 167. Bread Pudding, 277. Breakfast, planning, 309. Breakfast foods, 52. Broiling, 37. Broiled Fish, 249. meat, 153. pan broiling, 157, 172. Brooms, care of, 14. Broth, Mutton, 326. Brushes, care of, 14. Buckwheat flour, composition, 52, 53. Burns, 328. Butter, 93. composition, 93, 307 manufacture, 93. quality of, 93. Butter, (continued) substitutes for, 94. to cream, 215. Butterine, 94. Buttermilk, 94. Butter Scotch, 241. Cabbage — Cabbage Slaw, 258. food value, 308. Cake, 264. Angel Food, 266. Caramel, 273. classes, 264. Cup, 270. Eggless, 275. Fig or Date, 275. Gold, 273. Jelly Ron, 267. Layer, 271. Lemon Queens, 270. loaf, 273. Nut, 274. plain butter, variations for, 269. Plain, 269. Potato, 274. Spanish Chocolate, 271. Spiced Loaf, 274. Sponge, 265. Sunshine, 266. White Layer, 272. with butter, 268. without butter, 264. Cake-making — baking, 265. filling for, 272. frosting, 268. method with butter, 268. method without butter, 264. things essential, 264. Calorie, 305. Candy, 358. Butter Scotch, 241. Chocolate Fudge, 240 Peanut Brittle, 240 Pinoche, 241. Pulled Taffy, 241. Sea Foam, 241. DOMESTIC SCIENCE Canning, 192. Asparagus, 200. Beets, 200. Corn, 201. fruit, 189. jars for, 193. methods, 194. Peaches, 196. Pears, 196. Peas, 201. Plums, 197. Strawberries, 197. String Beans, 200. Tomatoes, 200. vegetables, 198. Caper Sauce, 247. Carbohydrates — cereals, 52, 58. described, 19, 21. fruits, 67. heat value of, 305. potatoes, 37. starch, 38. sugar, 238. vegetables, 44. Carbon, 27. Carbon dioxide, 15. as leavening agent, 109. Carpets, care of, 114. Carrots, Boiled, 49. Catsup, Tomato, 214. Cauliflower and Tomatoes, 49. Cereals, 52. composition, 52, 308. cooking, 54. food value, 53. left-overs of, 57. Charlottes, 295. Charlotte Russe, 295. Pineapple or Strawberry, 296. Cheese, 94. baked with macaroni, 60. Cheese Balls, 100. composition, 97. cooking, 98. Cottage Cheese, 99. food value, 97. grating, 60. kinds, 95. manufacture, 95. Cheese, (continued) Souffle, 99, 186. Cheese Straws, 99. Welsh Rarebit, 100. Chicken, 175. Broiled Chicken, 178. Chicken Croquettes, 227. Chicken Pie, 179. cutting up, 179. dressing, 175. food value, 177. Fricasseed Chicken, 179. Fried Chicken, 178. Jellied Chicken, 179. Roast Chicken, 177. selecting, 175. stuffing, 176. Chocolate, 104. Chocolate, 106. Chocolate Cake, 271. Chocolate Cream Pudding, 280. Chocolate Frosting, 272. Chocolate Ice Cream, 293. Chocolate Pie, 237. Chocolate Sauce, 279. Cinnamon Rolls, 142. Citron, 276. Clams, 255. Cleansing agents, 6. Clover Leaf Rolls, 142. Coal as fuel, 29. Cocktails, Fruit, 71. Cocoa, 104. Cocoa, 106. cocoa stains, 8. Condiments, 210. Coffee, 102. adulteration, 103. After Dinner. 106. care of, 103. Coffee, 105. composition, 103. Filtered Coffee, 105. food value, 103. kinds, 103. Percolated, 106. Coffee stains, removing, 8. Coffee Cake, 142. Cold storage, 77, 191. INDEX Combining mixtures, 81. Combustion, 27, Conserve, 206. Big Plum Conserve, 208. Consomme, 147. Cookies, 215, 218. Chocolate, 217, 218. Brownies, 219. Norwegian, 216. Oatmeal, 219. Peanut, 219. proportions, 215. Rocks, 218. Sour Milk, 216. Sugar, 215. variation, 215. Cooking — cereals, 54, defined, 37. methods, 37, 153. objects of, 37, 39, 141, 146. puddings, 276. rice, 55. starch, 39. uniform for, 1. vegetables, 47. Corn — canning, 201. composition, 45, 52, 117, 308. Corn Bread, 119. Corn Fritters, 223. Corn and Pimentos, 50. Corn on Cob, 49. Corn Oysters, 223. Cream of Corn Soup, 74. Creole Green Corn, 50. food value, 118. kinds, 117. Pop Corn Balls, 242. Scalloped Corn, 186. Corn products, 118. Cornmeal, 118. Cornmeal Mush, 57. Cornmeal Muffins, 119, Cornstarch, 118. Cottage Cheese, 99. Cranberrv Sauce, 70. Cream, 92, 291. composition, 92, 307. Cream Pie, 237. Cream {continued) Bavarian, 296. standard, 92. whipping, 92, 295. Creaming — ■ Codfish, 252. ^ Finnan Haddie, 253. Oysters, 256. Creamed Potatoes, 43. Cream of Wheat, 56. Croquettes, 226. Chicken, 227, Fish, 253. Meat, 227. method of making, 226. Potato, 227. Rice, 228. Salmon, 227. Crumbs, to butter, 60, 184 Croutons, 74. Crown Roast, 169. Cucumber Pickles, 213. Currants, to clean, 276. Currant Jelly, 227. Custards, 292. Baked, 89. Caramel, 90. Chocolate, 90. Custard Pie, 236. Soft Custard, 90. Souffle, 90. Cutlets, Lobster, 228. Cutting, 82. Date Mufifins, 116. Desserts — cold, 280. frozen, 288, 295. frozen puddings, 291. hot, 267. ices, 286. ice creams, 290, Dietaries, 304. for the sick, 322. standard, 306, Digestion, 62. outline of, 64. process of, 62. purpose of, 62. relation to cookery, 63. DOMESTIC SGtEl^CS Dining room, 298. Dinner, 310. Boiled Dinner, 162. formal, 310. informal, 310. Dishes, 300. washing, rules, 25. Disinfecting, 5. Domestic science equipment, 332. Double boiler, 54. Dough — baking powder biscuit, 127, 129. bread, 136. cookie, 215. defined, 108. kinds, 108. soft, 123. Doughnuts — Chocolate, 222. Potato, 223. Sour Milk, 222. Drawn Butter Sauce, 247. Dressings, for fish, 247. for oysters, 178. for salads, 261. Dried Beef, 156. Dried Fruits, 67, 69. Dumplings, 161. Apple DumpHngs, 129. Dust, 4. Dust Cloths, care of, 14. Dutch Apple Cake, 129. Earache, 329. Eggs, 75, 81. a la Goldenrod, 85. a la Suisse, 79. Baked, 80. beating, 81. care of, 76. composition, 75, 307. cooking, 78. Egg Nog, 325. Eggs in a Nest, 325. food value, 76, 307. Hard Cooked, 179. Omelets, 82. Poached, 79. preserving, 76. Eggs, (continued) Scrambled, 84. Soft Cooked, 78. Structure, 75. Stuffed, 80. Testing, 76. Eggplant, 51. Egg Sandwich, 285. Eggless Cake, 275. Electric appliances, 35. Electric stove, 34. Emergencies and first aid, 327. English style of serving, 302. Equipment, domestic science, 332. care of, 7. list of, 334. selection, 332. table, 332. Extract, Beef, 325. Eye trouble, 329. Fainting, 327, Fats, 220. butter fat, 93. cream, 92. clarifying fat, 220. defined, 21. food value, 220. heat value, 305. meat fats, 145. trying out, 220. Fining, for cakes, 272. for sandwiches, 282, Fire, 28, 30. Fireless cooker, 35. First aid, 327. Fish, 243, 249, 252. Baked, 246. Boiled, 250. Broiled, 249. cooking, 245. composition, 243, 307. Creamed Codfish, 252. Creamed Finnan Haddie, 253. dressing for, 247. Fish Balls, 252. Fish Croquettes, 253. Finnan Haddie, 253, Fish and Macaroni, 253. INDEX Fish, (continued) food value, 244. Fried, 249. kinds of, 242. preparing, 245. Sauted, 249. Salmon Mousse, 250. to tell fresh fish, 244. using left-overs, 252. Floating Island, 280. Floors, 13, 324. Flour, 123. composition, 124, 308. kinds and grades, 123, 124. manufacture, 123. to tell good flour, 124. Folding, 81. Foods — classes, 18. composition, 20, 307. defined, 18. digestibility, 307. functions, 19. how digested, 62. heat value of, 305. nutritive ratio, 306. requirements for the body, 304. selection, 304. Frappe, 286. Freezer, ice cream, 287. Freezing, 287. directions for, 287. preserving by, 190. French Dressing, 261. Fricasseeing, chicken, 179. defined, 38. Fritter Batter, 223. Fritters, Corn, 223. Frogs' Legs, Fried, 250. Fruits, 67. canning, 192. composition, 67. cocktails, 71. cooking, 69. food value, 68, 308. rules for eating, 68. selection for canning, 194. Fruit stains, removing, 8. Fruit ice cream, 290. Frosting, 268. Chocolate, 272. Cooked, 272. Orange, 270. Uncooked, 267. Frost bites, 329. Frozen mixtures, 286, 295. Frying, 220. cautions in, 222. Chicken, Fried, 178. cooked mixtures, 226. defined, 38. Fried Fish, 249. Fried Oysters, 256. tests for temperature, 220. uncooked mixtures, 220. Fudge, 240, 241. Fuels, 29. Garbage can, care of, 12. Gas as fuel, 30. Gasoline, 30. Gas range, 32. Gelatin, 180. directions for use, 180. effects of water on, 180 food value, 180. Lemon Jelly, 181. Meat Jellies, 183, Pistachio Salad, 182. Orange Jelly, 182. Snow Pudding, 182. source and manufacture, 180. Tomato Jelly Salad, 182. Germs (see Bacteria). Gingerbread, Soft Molasses, 121. Hot Water, 122. Ginger Snaps, 217. Glucose, 118. Graham flour, 123. Graham Mufiins, 119. Grape Fudge, 209. Grapes, Spiced, 2o». Grass stains, removing, 8. Gravy, Roast Beef, 155. Greens, 259. Griddle Cakes, 111. Gruel, Barley, 324. Cracker, 324. DOMESTIC SCIENCE Ham, Baked, 174. Broiled, 172. what to serve with, 172. Hamburg Steak, 158. Hard Sauce, 130. Hash, Browned, 162. Heat, 27. effect of on albumen, 77. heat value of food, 305. Heat stroke, 327. High school lunch, 339. Himmels Futter, 278. Holder, 2. HoUandaise Sauce, 247. Home, importance of, 318. Home management, 318. Hominy, 118. Household accounts, 318. Housekeepers' directions, 1, 24. Ice for freezing, 287. Ice box, care of, 10. Ices, 286. kinds, 286. Lemon Ice, 288. Orange Ice, 289. Orange Milk Sherbet, 289. Three-of-a-Kind Sherbet, 289. Ice creams, 290. Caramel, 293. Chocolate, 293. classes, 290. Peppermint, 294. shaping, 292. Strawberry, 294. Vanilla, 293. Infection, 328. Ink stains, removing, 8. Intermittent cooking, 198. Invalid cooking, 322. dietaries, 322. rules for serving, 323. Jam, 206. Raspberry, 208. Jars for canning, 193. Jelly (fruit), 202. Apple, 207. Apple and Raspberry, 209. causes of poor, 205. Jelly (fruit) (continued) Currant, 207. Plum and Apple, 208. Quince and Apple, 208. Jelly (gelatin), 180. Lemon, 181. Orange, 182. Jelly making, 202. extracting fruit juice, 303. filling glasses, 205. proportions for, 204. utensils for, 203. Jelly, Oatmeal, 324. Jelly Roll, 267. Kerosene, 7, 29, 35. Lamb, 164. Lamb Chops, 166. Lamb Stew, 161. Roast Lamb, 167. what to serve with, 166. Layer cakes, 271. Leavening agents, 108. Left-overs, 184. cereal, 57. Meat, 159. scalloped dishes, 184. Lemon — Lemon Jelly, 181. Lemon Pie, 236. Lemon Ice, 288. Lemon Sauce, 130. Lemonade, 107. Linens, 299. to launder, 299. Liver and Bacon, 172. Lobsters, 255. Lobster a la Newburg, 257. Lobster Cutlets, 228. Lunches, school, 338. Luncheons — planning, 309. service at, 310. school luncheons, 312, 337. Macaroni, 59. composition, 52, 60. cooking, 60. manufacturing, 59. INDEX Maitre d' Hotel Butter, 155. Marmalade, 206. Orange, 207. Mayonnaise Dressing, 262. Measures, table of, 22. Measuring, directions, 22. Meat, 144. beef, 151. care of, 153. composition, 145. Croquettes, 227. food value, 146, 307. kinds, 144. lamb, 164. Meat Loaf, 163. Meat Sandwich, 285. mutton, 164. objects of cooking, 146. structure, 144. veal, 164. Meat Jellies, 183. Meat soups, 147. Menus, 304. planning, 304. for school luncheons, 315, 341. Meringue, 236. Mildew, 8. Milk, 86. adulteration of, 87. composition, 86. condensed, 89. food value, 87, 307. pasteurization, 88, 325 purchase and care, 88 souring, 87. Mince Meat, 233. Milk Sherbet, 286. Mineral matter, 21, 146 Milk products, 92. composition, 307. Mint Sauce, 168. Moisture in food, 191. Molds, 5. Mousse, 291. Neapolitan, 296. Salmon, 250. Muffins, 114. Blueberry, 115. Cornmeal, 119 Date, 116. Muffins, {continued) Eggless, 119. Graham, 119. Invalid, 115. Plain Egg, 114. Rice, 115. Mushroom Sauce, 158. Mustard, 173. Mutton, 164. composition, 307. cuts, 165, 166. Mutton Broth, 326. what to serve with, 166. Neapolitan Mousse, 296. Noodle Soup, 150. Nut Bread, 126, 140. Brown Nut Bread, 122. Nut Cake, 274. Nut Ice Cream, 291. Nutritive ratio, 306. Oatmeal — food value, 52, 53, 308. Oatmeal Cookies, 219. Oatmeal Mush, 57. Oatmeal Jelly, 324. Oils, defined, 21. for salads, 260. source, 220. Oil stove, 35. Oleomargarine, 94. Omelets, 82. Fancy, 82, French,. 84. Puffy, 82. Orange — food value, 308. Orange Ice, 289. Orange Jelly, 182. Oven temperature for — quick breads, 110. Oxidation, 15, 28. Oysters, 254. Creamed, 256. Fried, 256. food value, 254, 307. Oyster Dressing, 178. Oyster Stew, 256. Oysters in the Half Shell, 257. DOMESTIC SCIENCE Oysters, (continued) preparing, 255. source, 251. Scalloped, 259. Packing a freezer, 288. Pan broiling, 38, 157. Panbroiled Steak, 157. Parfait, 291. Pantry, care of, 12. Parker House Rolls, 142. Pasteurizing, 88, 325. Pastry, 229, 235. essentials, 229. food value, 235. pastry flour, .123. Plain Pastry, 231. Peaches, Canned, 196. Peach Pickles, 213. Peanut Cookies, 219. Peanut Brittle, 240. Pears, Canned, 196. Pickled Pears, 213. Peas, Canned, 51, 201. Cream of Pea Soup, 74 Fresh Peas, 51. Pectin, 202. Peppermint Cream, 294. Pickle, Sweet, for fruit, 212. Sweet, for vegetables, 212. Picl' es — Cucumber, 213. kinds, 211. materials for, 211. Oil, 214. Pickled Green Tomatoes, 212. Sweet Peach, 213. Sweet Pickled Peas, 213. Watermelon, 213. Pickling, 210. directions for, 211. Pies, 229. Apple, 232. Banana, 237. Berry, 232. Chocolate, 237. Cocoanut, 237. Cream, 237. Custard, 236. Lemon, 236. Pies, (continued) making the pastry, 229. Mince, 233. Mock Cherry, 236. one-crust, 233. Pumpkin, 237. Rhubarb, 232. Pigs in Blanket, 174. Binoche, 241. Plums, Canned, 197. Plum and Apple Jelly, 208. Plumbing, 9. Poisons, 330. Pop corn, 117. Pop Corn Balls, 242. Pop-overs, 110. Pork, 170. appearance, 170. Baked Ham, 174. Broiled Ham, 172. cuts, 170. food value, 170, 307. Fried Pork, 174. Liver and Bacon, 172. Pigs in Blanket, 174. Pork Chops, 173. what to serve with, 172. Potatoes, 40. au Gratin, 43. Baked, 36. Boiled, 42. Creamed, 43. Cream of Potato Soup, 74. Croquettes, 227. Delmonico, 43. food value, 308. French Fried, 228. Glazed Sweet, 43. Julienne, 228. Mashed, 42. Potato Cakes, 42, 274. Riced, 42. Scalloped, 185. Stuffed, 36. Sweet Potatoes, 42, 43. Poultry, 175. Broiled Chicken, 178. Chicken Pie, 179. cutting, 177. dressing, 175. INDEX Poultry, (continued) food value, 177, 307. Fricasseed, 179. Fried, 178. selection, 175. stuffing, 176. trussing, 177. what to serve with, 177. Preserving — eggs, 76. fruit, 189. methods, 190. reasons, 190. Preservatives, 5, 191. Protein — beef, 151, 157, 159. classes, 18, 145. eggs, 75. fish, 243. gelatin, 180. heat value of, 305. lamb, 164. meat, 144. milk, 86. mutton, 164. pork, 170. shellfish, 254. veal, 164. Prunes, Stewed, 70. Prune Whip, 281. Puddings, 276. Apple Tapioca, 277. Bread, 277. Chocolate Cream, 280. cooking of, 276. frozen, 291. Himmels Futter, 278. Plain Steamed, 278. preparing materials for, 276. Queen's Pudding, 277. Snow Ball, 278. Snow, 182. Suet, 134, 277. Yorkshire, 155. Punch, 286. Quick breads, 108, 113, 117, 121, 123. baking of, 109. Quick breads, (continued) batters and doughs, defined, 108. Corn Bread, 119. Gingerbread, 121. Griddle Cakes, 111. materials for, 108. mixing, 109. Muffins, 114, 119. Pop-overs, 110. Waffles, 112. Quince and Apple Jelly, 208. Raisins, to clean, 276. Ranges, coal, 30. gas, 32. Raspberry Jam, 208. Refrigeration, 190. Rhubarb Pie, 232. Rice, 55. Boiled, 56. composition, 52, 53, 308. Croquettes, 228. food value, 55. Muffins, 115. Steamed, 56. Roasts — Beef, 154. Chicken, 177. Crown, 169. Lamb, 167. what to serve with, 157. Roasting, defined, 37. meat, 153. Rocks, 218. Rolls, 141. Cinnamon, 142. Clover Leaf, 142. German Coffee Cake, 142. Parker House, 142. Roll lesson, suggestions to teach- ers, 141. Rosettes, Swedish, 225. Russian style of serving, 302. Rust, iron, removing, 7. Rye flour, food value, 52, 308. Salads, 259. classes of, 260. essentials for, 259. DOMESTIC SCIENCE Salads, (continued) greens for, 259. oils for, 260. Pistachio, 259. points in favor of, 259. salad combinations, 262. Tomato Jelly, 182. what to serve with, 261. Salmon, Croquettes, 227. Mousse, 250. Souffle, 186. Sal soda, 6. Salt, as a condiment, 210. as a preservative, 192. Sandwiches, 282. Chopped Meat, 285. combinations for, 283. Egg, 285. materials for, 282. method of making, 282. Raw Beef, 285. shapes of, 282. Sauces — Apple, 70. Berry, 279. Bordeaux, 214. Caper, 247. Chocolate, 279. Cranberry, 70. Drawn Butter, 247. Foaming, 279. for fish, 247. for puddings, 279. Hard, 130, 279. Hollandaise, 247. Lemon, 130. Mint, 168. Mushroom, 158. Plain, 279. Tartar, 248. Tomato, 50, 61, 84. Vanilla, 138. White, 48. Sauteing, defined, 38. Sauted Fish, 249. Scalloped dishes, 184. Corn, 186. Oysters, 257.' Potatoes, 185. serving, 283. Scalloped dishes, (continued) Tomatoes, 185. School luncheons, 312, 317, 338. materials for, 312. menus for, 315. plans for, 314. Sea Foam, 241. Seasoning, for soups, 148. Serving, rules for, 303. serving the sick, 323. styles of, 302. Servants, 319. Setting the table, 301. Shellfish, 254. clams, 255. composition, 243, 301. lobsters, 255, 257. oysters, 254, 256. shrimps, 256, 258. Sherbets, 286. Orange Milk, 289. Sherbets, 289. Three-of-a-Kind, 289. Shortcakes — Berry, 128. Peach, 127. Shrimps, 256. Shrimp Wiggle, 258. Sick, food for, 325. Silverware, 300. Sink, care of, 11. Skim milk, 92. Smoke, as a preservative, 192. Soap, 7. Soda, 121. Souffle, 185. Cheese, 99, 186. Custard, 90. Salmon, 186. Soups, 72. Bouillon, 149. Brown Soup Stock, 149. clearing, 149. Cream of Corn, 74. Cream of Pea, 74. Cream of Tomato, 74. food value of, 73, 147. kinds of, 72, 147. ■ proportions for, 73, 148. stock soups, 147. INDEX Soups, (continued) Vegetable Soups, 150. without stock, 73. Southern Spoon Bread, 120. Spaghetti, 59. Spices, 210. as preservatives, 182. Spiced Grapes, 208. Sponge, 136. Squash, food value of, 308. Steak- Broiled, 153. Hamburg, 158. Panbroiled, 157. Sterilization, 192, 19^8. Stains, removal of, 7. Starch, 38. cornstarch, 118. Steam, as leavening agent, 109. Steaming, cereals, 54. defined, 37. puddings, 276. mixtures, 133. Steamed Boston Brown Bread, 133. Stewing — Beef Stew, 159. defined, 37, 159. Fruits, 69. Lamb Stew, 161. Prunes, 70. Rice, 56. Stirring, 81. Strawberry — Canned, 197. food value, 308. Ice Cream, 294. Storing canned goods, 199. Stuffing, 178. Suet Pudding, 134, 277. Sugar, 238. as a preservative, 191. effect of heat on, 239. food value, 239. kinds, 238. manufacture, 238. Sugar beets, 238. Sugar cane, 238. Sweet Corn, 117. Sweet potatoes, 41, 42. Baked, 43. Table, appointments, 298. care, 12. selection, 333. setting, 301. tops, 333. Tablecloth, 300. Tapioca, Apple, 277. Tea, 101. adulterations, 102. Beef Tea, 326. food value, 102. kinds, 101. sources, 101. Tea, 104. Teachers, lunches for, 342, 343. bread-making suggestions, 138. roll lesson suggestions, 141. Timbales, Swedish, 224. Timetables for cooking — bread, 137. cereals, 54. meat, 153. quick breads, 110. vegetables, 48. Toast, Dry, 323. Milk, 324. Water, 324. Traps, 9. Trichinosis, 170. Uniform, cooking, 1. for a waitress, 302. Vanilla Sauce, 130. Veal, 164. Birds, 168. Breaded Veal Chops, 167. composition, 307. cuts, 164. Loaf, 169. what to serve with, 166. Vegetables, 44. canning, 198. classes, 44. composition, 44, 308. cooking, 47. DOMESTIC SCIENCE Vegetables, (continued) food value, 46, 308. selection, 47, 198. Vegetable Soup, 150. Ventilation, 16. Vermicelli, 60. Vinegar, 210. Waffles, 112. Waitress work, 298. duties of waitress, 302. Walls, 334. Water, 16, 146. as a cleansing agent, 6 composition, 16. Water ices, 286. Water glass, 77. Watermelon Cocktail, 71. Watermelon Pickles, 213. Welsh Rarebit, 100. Wheat, 58. breakfast food, 53. Cream of Wheat, 56. Wheat, (continued) flour, 123. food value, 52, 59, 308. structure, 58. White Sauces, 48. Medium White, 48. proportion with scalloped dishes, 184. Thick White, 48. Thin White, 48. Whole-Wheat Bread, 140. Wood, as fuel, 29. Woodwork, care of, 13, 14. Yams, 41. Yeast, 5, 131. action of, 132. experiments with, 132. forms of, 131. Yorkshire Pudding, 155. Zweiback, 143, X 838*'s^ ' "^° K^^" ^*^ .-- ^- ^°°- 'W-. .- LIBRARY