Ill ■ I ^^^^B 1 ^^K M v^ .^^' ^> .o> ^^' :'o 'c' ^ t o'?-' 35^" xF 'JO^ ?■ a. ?i ^^%. y<. v"" .'N ..0*' O. 0- -^^'■^^^I^'^.-^^/V"'^ ,0^^^" '-'^ •■>r ..^^' .<9 ^A v^ c- 1 « " / ''^ % 7 V? 7? * .•^' ':a v*^^ 4 xO°^. * : V 'A \^ * ^ ■/'- WiiSaKSSiWIIWlIll i§ U N I V E R S A L HISTORY O PERSPECTIYE: DIVIDED INTO THREE PARTS, ANCIENT, MIDDLE, AND MODERN. rLLUSTRATED BY A SERIES OF MAPS AND ENGRAVINGS, A CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE, AND MAP OF TIME. BY EMMA WILLARD, ^^ AUTHOR OF HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES, ETC., ETC., ETC REVISED EDITION. /^rsr'^v-^ A. S. BARNES & COMPANY^ NEW YORK, CHICAGO and NEW ORLEANS. THE LIBRARY OF CONGHESS \ WASHINGTON INDEX TO THE MAPS. Perspective Sketch of the Course of Empire. . . , , Pago 33 The First Settled Parts of the Earth 43 Palestine, or the Holy Land 52 Ancient Greece 58 Ancient Italy 98 The Roman Empire 138 Asia Minor 172 The Caliphate, or Empire of the Saracens 190 Middle Europe, exhibiting the Empire of Charlemagne 203 The Western Continent 291 The British Islands , .... 329 Spain and Portuga. . . . . 367 Countries around the Baltic 402 Holland and the contiguous Countries 413 United States 430 Central Europe, exhibiting the principal Campaigns of Napoleon . . 450 India and China 481 The Russo-Turkish War 497 Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1855, Bt a. S. BARNES & CO., Is the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the Soutbeta District of New York. Copyright, 1882, by A. S. Barnes &' Co. PREFACE C'niversal history, as a science, is great in itself, great in ilij conse- quences on .luman conduct and happiness ; and, at this moment, particu- larly important to the citizens of our republic. The l)elief, that much experience in imparting knowledge would ena- ble the author so to arrange and illustrate this vast subject, as to make it less difficult to acquire and retain, was the moving spring which at first produced this work, and wliich now presents it to the public in an im« proved form. This volume offers, in the combinations of the subject- matter, and the arrangement by which it is presented, some original fea- tures ; and in its illustrations, we believe it will be found to solve the problem, what is the best form of presenting the grand outline of chro- nology. We refer, for this solution, to the plan, of which a sketch is presented in the frontispiece ; and which we call the Temple of Time ; and to the enlarged view of the floor-work of this Temple, contained in the Chart of " the Course of Time, or Picture of Nations." Here is addressed to the eye, on a small scale, a plan strictly scientific, (perspec- tive being an exact science,) which is to the whole of history, as it exist-s in time, what a small map of the world, with its few lines of latitude and longitude, is to the same science as it exists in place. If but few cities are set down on such a map, whoever understands geography, having any other citygivt-a with its latitude and longitude, can refer it to its true situation on the map, and thus know its position relative to other places. Such will our Temple of Time be, in respect to the datef of events to those who understand it; and persons already acquainted with history comprehend it at a glance. Such a help, the most profound and culti- vated mind need not despise ; for how often does it occur, that the con- templation of characters and events as they exist with others before oi after them, leads to profound conclusions, concerning the causes and consequences of man's conduct and destiny. But to learn such a method in youth, to become accustomed thus to refer all events to a visible representation of time, where the whole subject of chronology is vviought hito strict unity, and made sensible to the mind at a single glance, must be a lasting advantage. Of the maps contained in this work, we need say nothinii, because the public are already perfectly aware of the importance of sucli illustrations 3 IV PREFACE. TLe repeated requests that they might be inserted, from teachers who use our work in their schools, have led to their preparation. They con- tain, especially those which relate to the middle ages, names of places historically interesting, not easily found on other maps. In the written work, an attempt has been made to exhibit history in its proper relative proportions. The painter allows to objects in space le s and less room upon his canvass, as those objects recede into the distance Such is equally the order of nature in regard to objects as they exist in tune. Yet the mountain which is distant must have more room in the picture than the dark valley that lies near. Thus tower Greece and Rcjine, amid the dimness of antiquity, and thus sink the dark ages, though nearer to the foreground. There are two methods between which, in a book for reading, not for reference merely, the writer must choose ; the ethnographical, by which nations are separately described, and the chronographical, by which the order of time is strictly preserved. When writers of universal history follow the ethnographical method, the reader is naturally led to consides contemporary events as consecutive, and to seek for some plan by which they may be placed together. This is to produce the chronograpliical arrangement which he is apt to think should have been followed by the writer. On the other hand, where the chronographical method prevails, the reader complains of a confusion arising from mingling together the histories of different nations, — selects the scattered parts belonging to each, and having put them together, produces the ethnographical plan. He now thinks that, because he has come to a good understanding of the sub- ject, his method alone is good •, not reflecting that he has had the advan- tages of both. The truth appears to be, that history cannot be well under- stood, unless the reader can, with the one method, trace every great nation by itself through all its most important changes, and with the other, con- ceive himsell placed in any of the most noted periods of time, and glance through the whole range of contemporary events. For such a comprehension of the subject, we refer to the illuStraUuns already noticed ; where we have at the same glance both methods pre- sented to the eye. in the text, we have pursued either, or combined both, as the occasion seemed to require. When a nation has had little connect tion with other nations, its history i.as been treated separately. When several nations have been blended, by reason of their relations with each other, as in case of w^r, their history, for the time, has also been thrown together. To make this book easy to teachers, questions are placed at the foot of each page. By the manner in which these are put, passages of history which, from the imperfection of language, cannot be clearly expressed with the brevity to which our limits confine us, are made per.«picuous, Important events are brought into bolder relief; and sometimes the learner is called on to consider what moral reflections the subject may suggest. The division of the work into numbered paragraphs confines Oie subject of each :juestion, and thus aids both tcaciier and pupd ; while )l will be an important advantage to such as shall not only use the book ;j! claft^ses for recitation, but also for daily reading ; — following the maxim, i.hdt ""in a school, what pupils study they should read, and what lliey read chey should study." To make this book convenient for reference, and a good family Unh- versdl History, an extended chronological table is prefixed, and many dates are set down in a bold character on the margin. No good teacher would oblige his pupils to learn all of these; but they will by mere inspection knov where to find them when occasion shall require. To make this book more attractive to learners, and to give to teachers a sample of the kind of facts, which they will do well to acquire and relate to their classes, the room on the margin has been occupied by side notes enclosed in brackets. These, which the pupil is not generally required to learn or to remember, will, we hope, make the time of study pass pleasantly, and canr,e the book to be regarded as an agreeable companion. Universal history, as a science, is great in its consequences, as it forms the first study of the politician. No wise man presumes to form con- clusions concerning the future destiny of nations, without first acquiring a knowledge of the past. It is at this time peculiarly important to Ame- ricans ; because to them the w-orld are now looking for a response to the grand question, " Can the people govern themselves .^" And, perhaps, the next twenty years will decide it for coming generations. Shall monarchy in its palaces, and aristocracy in its lordly halls, then exult, as it is told that America is passing through anarchy to despotism, — while mankind at large mourn, and reproach us that we have sealed their doom as v/ell as our own, and that of our posterity ? Or shall we continue to be that peo- ple, which of all others heretofore, or now existing, possess the most equitable government; and to whom national calamity is but as a phrase ili understood ? A history of the past, no more extensive than that which IS h3re presented, might make us understand that phrase, with a salutary fear; and it might teach our posterity what we as good citizens must dfsire them to know — the virtues which exalt nations, and the vices which destroy them; — that feo they may practise the one, and avoid tlic clher CHRONOLOGICAL ILLUSTRATIONS. That the method of learning chronology by the eye, originated and first pnb Ushed in this work, is the best, the author may appeal to the fact that fpae^, perspectively divided, is as much the only possible scientific method by which time can be addressed to the eye, as it is the only one by which the receding landscape can be painted. And to the same effect slie can now- quote the judg- ment of a jury of scientific men of ull nations, expressed at the World's Fair in London, 1851, in their award of a medal. It was given on three large engraved Charts, the first being "The Temple of Time," enlarged from the frontispiece oi this work; the second, the Temple of Ancient History; and the third, a cognate Chart of the History of England. These all having been published since the re- vision of this work in 1844, with a small introductory volume called "The Historic Guide," by which younger classes are taught a sketch of universal history on this eystem, and with the charts, as in geography, scholars are with maps, it is r.o longer necessary, as in 1844, to place here a particular explanation of our system of teachiog chronology by the eye. But since this work may go where the larger Charts and "The Historic Guide'' are not at hand, we here remark, that the Temple of Tisne is an invention by which all time, from " the Creation of the World" {xee frontispiece) to the present day is represented by a vast imaginaiy edifice, in which a pillar stands- for a century, and there are on each side as many pillars (grouped in tens for thousands of years) as there hava been centuries since the Creation. The star represents the birth of Christ, from which the centuries are reckoned each way. The rainbow on our little Temple marks the time of the Deluge. The sovereign who wielded the most power has his name on his century's pillar. The roof is divided into, 1st, statesmen; 2d, philosophers; Sd, theologians; 4th, poets and painters; and, 5th, warrioi'S. The pupil who has not the large Temple of Time, may enlarge this on a sheet of drawing paper, and place as many names as he chooses, each in his appropriate place and time. The proper questions to be asked from the Chart of Nations, page 82, will readily occur to the ingenious teacher: such as, When did the empire of Cyrus exist? — of Alexander? — Charlemagne? — Napoleon? Of what nations was each composed? Of what nations was the Roman empire composed? What nations arose from the ruins of the western Roman empire? What from the eastern? What nations which never belonged to the Roman empire, had their origin in the barbai-ous tribes of the Northern Hive ? CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE AXD INDEX. PART I. Sneient Ht«, B. C. ^-''"'^'^'*-' 4004 The Creation, - - - - . 2348 The Deluge, " Division of Countries among Noah's Sons, 2300 The Tower of Babel, and the Confusion of Languages, 2267 Tyre founded, 2204 Babylon founded by Nimrod, 2188 Egyptian Monarchy founded by Menes or Mizraim, 2159 Nineveh built, and the Assyrian Empire founded, 2085 Shepherd Kings, - - . - 1921 Calling of Abraham, (from Haran,) 1897 Sodom and the cities of the plain destroyed, 1729 Joseph sold — 1706 Jacob goes down to Egypt, 1571 Moses born. (He is the first of historians and lawgivers.) 1491 Red Sea passed, ..... 1856 Argos and Sicyon founded, ... 1556 Athens founded. — 1522 Amphictyonic Council, - 1493 Letters brought into Greece, Pass 34 35 36 36 46 36 37 37 38 39 40 40 40 41 41 42 42 1491 Institution of the Passover, " The Moral Law given, .... 1452 Moses dies. — (1453 Olympic Games begin,) 1451 Land of Canaan conquered and divided under Joshua, 1443 Joshua dies — Reign of the Judges begins, 1400 Laws of Minos. — (1406 Deborah and Barak reign 40 years,) 1400 Teucer first king of Troy. — 1359 (Gideon reigns 40 years,) 1326 Theseus, ....... 1263 Argonautic E.xpedition, led by Jason, who succeeds by the aid of Medea, ...... 1250 Sesostris reigns in Egypt. He conquers the south-west part of Asia, ....... 1173 Siege of Troy begins.— (1148 Death of Eli— Samuel,) - 1095 Saul made King, • • . . 1083 Warofthe Heraclidae, - ... 1082 Cheops builds the first Pyramid. 41 43 44 44 44 48 13 43 49 4G 49 45 50 4C nil CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. Antiett Hit. B. C. 1055 David founds a kingdom, and is the greatest c'' sacred poets, " Ionian Colonies founded in Asia Minor, - 1045 Codrus dies — Medon first Archon, 1004 Solomon builds the Temple, Fagb - At 51 - 51 . 45 980 Death of Solomon, ... 52 975 Jews divided into the kingdoms of Judah and Israe.. 52 914 Jehoshaphat's Alliance with Ahab, ... 54 870 Carthage founded by Dido, .... 55 884 Lycurgus gives laws to Sparta, - - - - -55 886 finds the poems of Homer. ^Four cities of Greece coc- tend for the honor of his birth,) - - - - 55 (776 Beginning of the Olympiads.) (Cycles of four years,) - 753 FouNDiNa of Rome by Romulus. (The Sabine Women seized,) 89 747 Destruction of the first Assyrian Empire, - ■ - 59 " Tiglath Pileser king of Nineveh, ... 59 743 .First Messenian war, .... 63 721 Shalmaneser carries captive the Ten Tribes, - - 60 717 Sennacherib's host destroyed, ... - 60 716 Numa Pompilius, .... - 89 710 Dejoces founds the Median Empire, • - - .62 685 Second Messenian War, • - • - - - 63 677 Esarhaddon takes Jerusalem, - - - - - 60 672 Combat of the Horatii and Curiatii, • • - - 90 658 Phraortes conquers Persia, - • - - .62 621 Laws of Draco, - • • • • - -63 624 Laws of Solon, - • • - - - - 63 612 Nineveh destroyed, - ' • • - - 62 609 JfjEG/DDO, Egyptians defeat the Jews, . - - 61 587 Nebuchadnezzar takes Jerusalem and destroys the first Temple, 61 585 He takes Tyre, - - - • - • - 61 560 Pisistratus makes himself Tyrant of Athens, collects the first Public Library of Greece, - - - - - 64 560 The rich Cro3sus is king of Lydia, - . - -65 " Pythagoras' School at Crotona, - > - • - 76 559 Cyrus unites Media and Persia, • • - - - 65 548 THYMBEA — Cyrus is victorious and gains the wealth and king- dom of CrcBsus, - - • - - - 66 538 Cyrus takes Babylon — takes Jerusalem, - - - 56 529 is killed in Scythia, - - - - - 66 525-515 The second Temple built by Ezra and Nehemiah, - - 96 521 Hippias and Hipparchus, - - - - - -65 510 The Council of Five Hundred take the place of the Senate es- tablished by Solon, - - • - - - 65 509 Expulsion of Tarquin from Rome, - - - - 91 496 Darius invades Scythia, and Megabysus, his general, conquers Thrace and Macedon, - • - - 67 498 First Tribunes of the People at Rome, - - - - 93 494 Greeks take Sardis from the Persians and burn it, • - 68 491 Coriolanus joins the Volsci, .... 9S 490 MARATHON, Athenians under Miltiades, conquer the Persians under Mardonius. - > . - . 70 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. !X ^nekmt His. B. C, 434 480 •479 470 451 450 449 448 445 444 440 436 131 414 408 405 404 401 395 390 380 371 367 362 330 338 334 333 332 332 Aristiiles banished, but recalled, - • • - Xerxes' Great Expedition, .... TIIERMOPYLM, Leonidas sacrifices himself wtli 300 Spartans SALA3IIS, The Grecian fleets defeat the Persian, Flight of Xerxes, ..... Mardonius burns Athens, .... FLAT^A—MYCALE, Greeks defeat the Persians, and inv them from Europe, . . . - - River EUK YMEDON, Cimon defeats the Persians, • Decemvirs created to coinpile laws for Rome, Cincinnatus Dictator, . . . . • Death of Virginia by the hand of her father, First Sacred War in Greece, .... Nehemiah rebuilds the wails of Jerusalem, Brilliant age of Greece. Pericles supreme at Athens — Phidias— Apelles — Herodotus, . . . . - Socrates teaches at Athens, . . . - Tlie Coriutliiiiu War. . - - - - The Polopohnesian War, .... Ak'ibiiules.— Athenian disasters at Syracuse, - Sanballat builds a temple on Mount Gcrizim at Samaria, ^'EGOS-POT AMOS, Spartans gain the ascendancy over the Athenians, ------ Thirty Tyrants at Athens, . - . - Xenophon's Retreat, . - - - - Veii taken. — Gannllus, . . . - • First descent of the Gauls under Brennus, take Rome • Plato teaches at Athens, .... Pelopidas delivers Thebes from the Spartans, LEUCTRA, Eparninondas, the Theban, defeats the Spartans, Dionysius the Elder, • ... MANTINEA, Eparninondas is killed, and Thebes loses supre macy, • • .... Aristotle teaches at Athens, .... CHJERONEA, Philip of Macedon makes himself master of Greece, ..---- GRANICUS, Alexander the Great defeats the Persians, ISSUS, Alexander again defeats the Persians— takes Damafcus and Tyre — conquers Egypt, ... Alexander visits Jerusalem, . . - - ARBELA, Alexander defeats Darius, and becomes master of .te whole Persian einpire, . . • - • Paoe. 71 Tfl 71 73 73 74 Death of Ai.exander the Great, Death of Demosthenes, -.--•• IPS US, Aniigonus and his son defeated by four of Alexander's generals, who now divide his empire among themseives. Ptolemy assumes the government of Egypt, Selcucus begins to reign in Syria, FORKS OF THE CAUDINE, the Samnites oblige the Ro mans to pass under the yoke, - - - • i 290 Samnites subdued by the Romans, O ?i2?, 322 301 291 86 99 103 jOO IOC IOC 104 ]0i CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. B.C. 283 28<) 279 2t)4 260 251 246 222 206 219 218 217 216 202 198 192 168 U7 146 133 133- 121 112 102 101 91 86 69 60 Etrurians conquered, .... FANDOSIA, Pyrrhus defeats the Romans, Second invasion of the Gauls, who finally settle in Galatia, BEXEVENTUM, the Romans defeat Pyrrhus, and subjugate all Italy, ..... First Punic War, .... Zadok founds the sect of Sadducees, - • The Achsenn League — Araius, ... Arsaces 1. founds a dynasty in Parthia, CLUSIUM, the Romans defeat the Gauls, and add to their do minions Cisalpine Gaul, ... Philopaemen, the last general of the Achaean League, Hannibal takes Saguntuni, ... Second Funic War commences, ... Hannibal's passage of the Alps, ... TICINUS, Hannibal defeats the Roman army under the consul P. C. Scipio, Til jEBL'I, Hannibal's second victory. Lake THEASY:}IEXUS, Hannibal's third victory, Fabius Maximus, .... CANNS:, 70.000 Romans slain, ZAMA. Hannibal defeated by Scipio Africanus, The Jewish Sanhedrim instituted, THERM OFYL.E, Antiochus the Great defeated by the Romuis FYDIVA, Paulus Emilius defeats Perseus, and the Romaiis be come masters of Macedonia, . . - - The Maccabees oppose Antiochus Epiphanes, Third Funic War closed by the destruction of Carthage, Corinth destroyed and Greece subdued by Rome, Attalus HI. bequeaths Pergamus to Rome, -121 The Gracchi, Mithridates the Great becomes king of Pontus, . Jngurthine War — IMetellus — Manus — Sylla, AIX, Rlarius defeats the Teutones. K. 200.000; pris. 90.000, VEKONA, he defeats the Cimbri. K. 140,000 ; pris. 60,000 The " Social War" costs Rome 300,000 lives, . CH^RONEA and ORCHOMENL'S, Sylla defeats Mithri datus in the First Mithridatic War, Marius tyrannizes at Rome, ... IVIarius dies — Sylla returns to Rome to slaughter and destroy, 2'ARRACO, Sertorius in Spain defeats the Roman consuls Perpenna assassinates him, .... Spartacus in " The Strvile War" defeated by Crassus, • TICrRAN0CERTA.—6S ARTAXATA, LucuUus, the Roman consul, defeats Mithridates and Tigranes in the " Second Alith ridatic War," --..-. £LTJii?^TjE.S, Pompey totally defeats IMithridates, . Pompey establishes the Roman power in Pontus, Armenia, and Judea, ... . - Cati hue's conspiracy defeated by Cicero, Julius C icsar, Pompey, and Craesus, form the First Trixim virate, •■ Paob . 104 . 104 - 103 12C CriItONOLOGICAI. TM'.LK. XI nUdille HiH. H. (> 47 S { H Q 44 (A 4:5 < s Ou s. 42 41 31 t ^ P* JR. Cffioar coinrriatidH in (iuul — irivaiicH iJriiain, - - - 127 CrasHUH irivad'fH Parthiii — fall« into a onare — loHcu lii» army, and finally hiH lile, • - - - - . - 127 CffiBar paHHCH tlu; lluMcon, - - - - -I'M July 20, ['HAIISALIA, Caiwar dcCealH (li»; party of .h« .Senai«, commanded by I'ompcy, ..... \^j(i ZFLA, CiKBar Bubdiifja I'harriacc-s of Poniii.-i, '.' vcni, vJdi, vici.") - . • - • . . .13 Is made Perpetual Diclaior, - - . . - 131 CaiiHeH Carlhai^c and Coniith lo he rebuilt, - . . 131 March 15, C»:Har AHnaHmnaied, ..... 132 Si'cond Triumvirate. — OctaviuB, Mark Antony, and Lepidur, - 134 ArHaceH XIV. of Parihia, aida F'rutuM and Caxsiun, • . 134 /V//A//'y'/, OctaviuH and Antony defeat thern, - . - 134 Cleopatra in her galley Mailo up the Gydnua to 'I'arHUn, • . 134 ACTJUM, OclaviuH deleate the fleet of Antony and Cleopatra, and bubjuKatcH Kf^ypi, • • - ■ • - 13fi Octaviufl, with the title of Aiigtutiu, maeter of the civilised world, - - • • - - 136 UriiverHal Peace, ....... I'f? BIRTH OF JKSUS CHRIST, - - l^ PART II. A. D. BiRTU OF Christ, (suppoBed 4 year« before the vuljjar era,) 144 9 Hermann, a barl)iiri:iii,delcatH Varus the Roman genci'al. - 140 14 TiiiKRiuB BucceedH Aut(UHtii8, • - - . -HI 31 Crucifixion of our Saviour — His ii'esiirrection, ... ]45 •' DeBceni of the Holy (jhoHi on the day of Pentccofli, - - 145 34 Martyrdom of Sieohen. ...... 145 35 Convcrwon of Paul, ...... 145 37 C/if.iuin>A Bucceefia TibcnuB.^— 41 Ci.Arnirs, • - . 142 54 Nerij — 64 Fir$t Pirxecuti/m of the ('hrmtmnfi, - - • 142 59 Sertorius Paulinus destroye the Druide in Britain. — Defeata queen Boadicea, ....... 149 64 Jews under Gesaius Gloriis rebel, .... i4(j 68 Martyrdom of St. Peter and St. Paul at Rome. • - -146 C9 The Prretorian fiuards kill Galea and make Otiio emperor — ViTEM.ius succeeds, - - - - -113 " Vespasian, governor of Jiidea, made emperor, - . - 113 70 Titus takes Jerusalem. — l,10fJ,0fW pensh, . - - H7 78 Julius Agricola defeats GalgacuH in Scotland, - - 149 7'J Hercu!ana;iim and Pompeii destroyed by an eruption of Vesuvius. (Polder Pliny is suffocated by the noxioiin vapour.) - - 148 81 DoMlTIAM. — (95 Sfrond Pemerutif/n of the Chrmtumn,) 98 to 117 Trajan carries the Roman empire 10 its yrcatest limit, 150 107 Third Pemerutifm 0/ the Christiann, .... 150 " .Mariyrdoiii of Ignatiub, 'bishop of Antio<;h.) 150 Xll CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE tlia&tt A. D FvoF 1 17 Hadrian relinquishes the conquests oi' Trajan beyond the Danube except Dacia, - - - - - -ISO 118 Fourth Persecution of the Chrislians, • - • - ]6i: 13f Pinal Destruction of the Jews, who revolt under Barochab— the son of a star," ...... 14" 138 Titus Antoninus Pius — a good and peaceful man, - - 150 161 Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. His reign disturbed, and his life lost by means of barbarian inroads, .... 151 180 CoMMODus gives money to the barbarians to buy peace, - - 151 193 DiDius JuLiANUS buys the empire of the PraBlorians, - • 151 " SEPTiMrtTS Sevekus restores military discipline ; builds a wall from Solway to Tyne, in Scotland, .... ]52 211-222 Four emperors — Caracalla and Geta, Mackinus, and the infamous Heliogabulus, ... 152 212 Fifth rerseculion of the Christia7i!s, under Caracalla, - - 162 222 Alexander Sevekus, (Julia lyiammoea his mother.) His virtues vainly strive against a downward age, ... 152 22(5 Parihian empire, with the Arsncides, extinct. The Persian revives under the Sassanides, of whom Artaxerxes is the first, 153 235 IVIaxi.minus, the Gothic giant, (causes the Sij:th Persecution of the Christia7is,) ...... 153 236-49 Roman emperors — the two Gordians, father and son, Maxi- MUS and Balbinus — Philip the Arabian, - - - 154 249 Decius. Tlie Goths for the first time swarm upon the frontiers of the empire, ....... 155 230 Seventh Persecution of the Christians. — Decius, - - 162 253 Emilianus — 254 Valerian, - - - - ■ - 155 257 Eighth Persecution of the Christians, - - - -162 268 Valerian invades Persia and is made prisoner by Sapor, - - 156 270 Nineteen usurpers — war, pestilence and famine swept away one half the inhabitants of the Roman empire. Claudius, a vir- tuous sovereign, succeeds, ..... 155 " AuRKLiAN contracts the empire on the north; conquers the bar- barians, ....... 157 " CHALONS, defeats Tetricus, and establishes his authority over the west, • - . . . . .157 272 PALMYRA, defeats Zenobia and establishes his authority in the east, - . - . . . - 158 274 The Ninth Persecution of the Christiafis. - • -162 275 Tacitus, an aged and worthy senator, made emperor, • - I ft!) 277 Florianus — Probus checks the barbarians, - - .159 282 Carus, Carinus, Numerian, ..... 160 284 Diocletian makes Nicomedia his seat — takes Maximianus as a colleague, who holds his court at Milan, - - - 160 296 Diocleiian humbles the Persians — makes Tiridates king of Ar- menia, ....... 161 303 The Tenth and most severe Persecution of the Christians, wl'.en Diocleiian burns 600 in a church in Nicomedia, - . 163 304 Diocletian and his colleague abdicate, .... 1G2 " (Jjnstantius and Galerius succeed — several other emperora— great destruction of I'Te by civil war, 16&"3 CHIiO.\OLO(JICAL TABLE XIII HidtlU Hut A. D. PaoE 323 CoNSTANTi.vE sole emperor, rmtkes Christianity the religior, of .he Roman empire. Makes Uyzamiiim (Constantinople) the scat of the empire, ...... \{)?, 325 First Ecclesiastical Council at Nice, condemn the ^opinions of Arius, - . . • • - - • li;} (32J The heaiiioti 'empiiis destroyed,) 337 CoiVSTANTiiVE, GoNSTANTius, CoNSTANS — sons of Coustaritlne but very inferior, - - - • . M'A 360 Julian the Apostate. An able man. (Some reckon his con- tinued ill usage of the Christians as the eleventh and twelfth persecutions.) He restores paganism and vainly endeavore to rebuild ihe temple, ..... 165~ XX CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. Modem Hia. A. D. T/SOB ^"^"VX-^ 1555 John Rogers burnt at Smithfield as a heretic; also the bishops Latimer, Ridley, Hooper and Cranmer, and nearly 300 others, 327 1556 Charles V. abdicates in favor of his son Philip, - - 323 1558 Ferdinand I. succeeds his brother Charles V. as emperor of Ger- many, - - - . . - . -345 1558 Ehzabeth of Englana succeeds Mary, .... 327 1559 Peace of Chateau Cambresis, . . . - 327 1559 Francis II., husband of Mary queen of Scots, succeeds Henrf II. in France, ....... 337 1560 Charles IX. succeeds in France, — his mother, Catharine de Medici, regent, --..-... 335 1561 Mary queen of Scots returns to Scotland. ... 330 " John Knox heads the protestant reformers of Scotland, - - 331 1563 VRETJX. The catholics of France, under the dukes of Guise and Montmorenci, defeat the protestants under Conde and Coligni, - - . . - - - 339 1565 Mary queen of Scots marries Darnley, .... 33] 1566 Tlie Holy liCague, formed in France, for the extirpation of heresy, - - - - - - - - 339 " Murder of Rizzio, - - - - - - -331 1567 Murder of Darnley by Bothvvell, whom Mary marries, - • 331 " The Netherlands revolt against Philip of Spain, - - - 334 1568 ST. DENIS.— -1569 JARNAC—MONCONTOUR. Pro- testants, in France, defeated by the catholics, - 339-40 1568 Mary queen of Scots takes retuge in England after the defeat of her forces at Glasgow, ...... 333 1571 The Turks conquer Cyprus, ..... 34fi 1572 August 17. Marriage of Henry of Navarre with Margaret, daughter of Catharine de Medici, .... 341 *' August 24. The Massacre of St. Bartholomew, . -341 1572 In Poland, the accession of Sigismund II., the last of the dynasty of the Jagellons, ...... 328 1572 Sir Francis Drake circumnavigates the globe, ... 333 1574 Remorse and death of Charles IX. Succeeded by his brother the duke of Anjou, Henry III. ..... 341 1576 Kepler and Tycho Beahe, encouraged by Rodolph II., emperor of Germany, ....... 345 " The liCag'ue. (Wars occurring between the protestants, com- manded by Henry of Navarre, and catholics, by the Guises, called wars of the League,) - - - - - 3»1 1578 Queen Elizabeth grants to Sir H. Gilbert, the first patent granted by an English sovereign to lands in America, - - • 334' 1579 Commencement of the republic of Holland in the union of seven provinces, - - - - - - - 335 1580 Portugal united to Spain, --.-.. 337 1587 Sir Francis Walsingham, by causing the Spanish bills to be pro- tested at Genoa, hinders the Spanish armada a year, • - 333 1587 Mary queen of Scots executed, - - . . . 333 1588 Destruction of the Spanish armada, .... 333 1589 Henry III. assassinated, names as successor, Henry of Navarre, 342 ARQUES —1590 IVRY. Henry IV. defeats the leaguers, 342-4T CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. XXI Uodern His A. D. Pagb '^'"N/'"^-^ 1590 Henry IV. besieges Paris, which is relieved by the d'llte of Parr^/a at tlie head of the Spanish army of the Netherlands, - • 343 J594 Henry IV. is reconciled to the church of Ronre, aiul the catholica acknowledge his sovereignty, - - . . . 312 1598 Edict of Nantz, by which Henry satisfies the Irench pro- testants, - • - - - - - jH " Peace of Vervins, between France and Spain, - ■ 2H " Disinterested character and wise policy of Henry's prime minister. the duke of Sully, - - - - - - 3U 1603 Union of the Scottish and English crowns in Jaracs I. of Eiiglanii, (VI. of Scotland,) who succeeds Elizabeth, - - . 350 1C0.5 The Gunpowder Plot. Lord Monteagle. Guy F^wkes, • ,?57 J606 The independence of Holland established, - • -337 HiO" Jamestown, in Virginia settled by Capt. Smith and others, • 365 I()09 Hudson river discovered by Henry Hudson, - . 3fi{\ 1610 1611 1612 1613 1614 1616 1617 1619 1620 1621 1625 1627 1628 1629 1631 1532 Henry IV. assassinated by Ravailiac, at the instigation jf the Jesuits, - - - - . - - 31C\ Louis XIII. (.Bon) — his mother, the weak Mary de Medici, regent, - - - - . . . .354 Nearly a million of Moors or Moriscoes expelled from Spain, - 35.1 The princes of Germany form the Evangelical Uniou, and make war upon Matthias, emperor of Germany, which provefa the beginning of Richelieu, in France, stirs up a war against the Huguenots - 355 Charles I. succeeds his father, James I.,- - . . 359 Swedes and Finlanders settle Delaware, .... 366 Salem in Massachusetts settled. — 1630 Boston, . - . 365 Assassination of the duke of Buckingham, the unworthy court fa- vorite, ........ 360 Charles contends with parliament, being determined to reign ab- solute, - - - • - - - - 3fi0 LEIPSIC. Gustavus Adolphus defeats the imperialists, -350 LUTZEN, Nov. 6. Gustavus Adolphus defeats the imperialists, but is slain, ....... 350 Maryland settled by a colony of cathulics under lord Baltimore, Siifi x;\ii CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. A.. D . Faoi 1633 Accession of archbishop Laud, who carries the persecution of the puritans to a high pitch, (Old popish ceremonies revived. Clergy required to read in their churches the Book of Sports or Sunday Pastimes,, Great numbers of ministers ejected. Hooker and others emigrate to America.) - - - S6C 1634 NOEDLINGEN. The imperialists defeat the confederates under Horn and Saxe- Weimar, . - . - . 351 1636 Hartford in Connecticut, and Providence in Rhode Island, settled, 365 1636 WITTST0CK.—\6-il BR1SAC.—\&A0 CHEMNITZ.— BRANDEIZ. The Swedes under Bannier, wuh their con- federates, victorious, ...... 35} 1638 The Solemn liCague and Covenant, formed in Scotland, against the prelatic tyranny of the English church, - - 361 " John Hampden takes a noble stand against the usurpations of the crown in TSngland, .... . 36G 1639 New Haven settled, - - - - - - 365 1640 Nov. 3. The Long Parliament convenes. Pym carries to the house of lords the impeachment of Thomas Wentworlh, earl ofStrafTord. Laud is also impeached, ... 361 " The house of Braganza reign in Portugal, ... 354 " Montreal founded. The Jesuits go out from it to christianize the Indians, ....... 376 " WOLFENBUTTEL.—\(,ib THABOR. The Swedes, under Torstenson, victorious, ..-.-- 352 1641 May 12. Strafford beheaded on Tower-hill, - . - 362 " The Long Parhament subvert the constitution by assuming so- vereignty, ....... 362 1642 The king attempts to take five members, but fails, and civil war ensues, ........ 362 " EDGE-HILL. Indecisive. The; first battle of the civil war be- tween the king and people of Great Britain. Several others indecisive, ....... 363 1644 MARSTON-MOOR. The royalists totally defeated by the parliamentary 'eaders, Cromwell and Fairfax, - - 3G3 1645 NASEBY. Charles commands in person, and is finally and ut- terly defeated, ....... 363 " 3IAEIENDAL. The imperialists defeat the French under Tu- renne, ........ 352 1646 NOEDLINGEN.— 16il ZUMMERHAVSEN. The French under Turenne defeat the imperialists, ... 352 1647 Charles a prisoner to Oliver Cromwell, .... 364 1648 1648 1649 1650 1651 Treaty of Westphalia, closes the Thirty Years' War, 353 -53 Wars of the Fronde, in France, .... 36S Cromwell subdues the royalists in Ireland, - • - 370 May 21. The marquis of Montrose hung by the Scoltish cove nanters, ....... 370 July 15. Charles II. lands in Scotland and is proclaimed king, - 371 Sept. 3. DUNBAR. Cromwell defeats the Scots, . -371 Sept. 3. WORCESTER. Cromwell again defeats the Scots, when Charles' affairs becoming desperate, he disguises him self and escapes (Is concealed in an oak, &c.'> - 371 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. XXlll Vodfrn fin. A. D. P*'^'^ -^'N/''"^u/ 1653 Cromwell turns out " the Rump Parliament" a: the point ol the I bayonet, and becomes protector of the commonwealth, -971 1 " Naval war between England and Holland. Seven naval actions ! 1 in a year. Dutch admirals, Van Tromp and De Ruyter,— . i English, Blake and Monk, - - - 371-2 1 j 1654 Christiana, daughter of Gustavus Adolphus — resigns the crown of j Sweden to Charles Gustavus, ----- 369 I ! 165" Charles X. (Charles Gustavus,) conquers John Casimir of Poland. He is restored by the " Peace of Oliva," - - -365 )658 Dunkirk conquered from the Spaniards by the French, and the Eng- lish, sent by Cromwell to their aid. It is yielded to the English, 369 165S Aug. 12. Died Oliver Cromwell, - - - - 372 1659 Peace of the Pyrenees, between France and Spain, • - 369 1660 Charles II. being brought back by general Monk, is peaceably [ received as king of Great Britain, — hence this period is quoted I in English hislory as '^ the Eestoration," • - • 372 1661 Charles shows the faithlessness of his character in the failure of his engagements to the Scots in reference to church matters, - 37J 1662 Winthrop of Connecticut, son of the governor of Massachusetts, pleases Charles II., and obtains a liberal charter for Con- necticut, ...---- 374 1664 Charles makes war with the Dutch.— New York taken by colonel Nichols, from the Dutch governor Siuyvesant, - - 374 1665 Terrible plague in London, — nearly 100,000 victims, - - 374 1666 Sept.2, 3, 4 and 5,-13,000 buildings consumed by fire in London, 374 1667 Peace of Breda, closes the famous naval war between the Eng- lish and Dutch, - - - - - - 371 1667 Charles H. gives to Monk, (now the earl of Albemarle,) lord Shaftesbury, and others, a patent of the southern section of the American republic, ...--- 374 1668 Peace of Aix-la-Cliapelle, consented to by Louis XIV., be- cause the Triple Alliance, by England, Holland and Sweden, had been made against him. The peace was soon violated by Louis, with whom Charles II. makes a shameful secret league, 375 1672 SOLBAY. French and English against the Dutch under De Ruyter. A naval action, . . . - • 3/6 " The two Dt Witts murdered by their countrymen, - -37'' 1673 Marquette sails down the Wisconsin to the Mississippi,— discovers me mouths of the Illinois, Missouri, Ohio, Arkansas. (Stc , 372 " CHOCZIM. John Sohieski defeats the Turks, 1674 SENEFFE, in Brabant. Prince of Conde commands against the prince of Orange. Indecisive— 20,000 killed, " Turenne lays waste the Palatinate. (Worms and Spires suffer,) 1675-6 Great distress in New England on account of king Philip's war 1676 A rebellion in Virginia, headed by Nathaniel Bacon, 1678 Peace of Ximci^ueu. Holland retains her territories, 1679 Scottish covenanters defeat Graham of Claverhouse at Drumclog, •• They are defeated by the duke of Monmouth at Bothwel.-bridge, 331 1682 William Penn founds Philadelphia, .... 382 " Peter the Great becomes czar of Russia, - - - - 393 1683 Lord Russell and Algerian Sidney suffer deata for opposing tyranny. ^°^ * 39v! 31' 377 381 375 378 381 XXIV CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. Modern HU A.D. Pi-^l \-rf»-v/'>»^ 1683 VIENNA. John Sobieski, (a second Charles Vlartel,) defeats the Turks. The Mahometans thus stayed in iheir progress of conquest, ....... 378 1685 Charles II. succeeded by James II. - • - - 382 " James II. sends Sir Edmnud Andros to be governor general in New England, ---.... 38S 1686 Ijcague of Augsburg. Holland, Spain and England against France, 37"? 1688 The English Eevolution, — when the people by rejecting James II. as their king, and calling in William III., prince of Orange, virtually changed their constitution, by setting aside the divine right of kings, and declaring that of an oppressed people to change their rulers, ...... 383 1689 KILLIECKANKIE. The Scots, under viscount Dundee, hold _ out for James — defeat the forces of William — D-undee slain, - 384 " The BOYNE. The Irish, commanded by James in person, de- feated by the English under WiUiam, - . - - 384 1690 Schenectady and other places destroyed by the French and Indians, ....... 38.5 1691 SALUCES.—FLEURUS. French victorious. Also, Off BEACHY-HEAD, 380 " Anne succeeds William III. ..... 385 1692 Off LA HOGUE.—STEENKIEK. The English victorious, - 380 1693 WIDDIN. The French and Turks allied, defeated by the English, 380 1693 (Massacre of Glencoe in Scotland. Macdonald and many other highlanders were butchered in cold blood by the English after they had surrendered themselves and taken the prescribed oath,) 1694 NEERWINDEN. King William of England commands against the French general Luxembourg, — is defeated, - . 3S0 " 1'urks take Belgrade, Upper Hungary, and are again the terror tf Europe, - - - - - . - 380 1697 Peter of Russia sets out on his travels in the suite of his favorite, Le Fort. Goes to Holland to learn ship building. William Penn visits him in London, ..... 395 " Peace of Ryswick. Pecuniary embarrassments oblige the French and English to make peace and they mutually restore conquests, ....... 3Sfl " ZENTA. Prince Eugene, at the head of the German forces, defeats the Turks — their loss 30,000 — they never recover, and at the - - - - - - - - 3S0 " Peace of Carlowitz, they rehnquish some of their conquests, 381 = Treaty of Partition. England, France and Holland against Spain, ...--.- 386 1698 Second Treaty of Partition, against Spain, . . ■ 386 1700 Charles II. of Spain leaves his dominions to Philip of Anjou, grandson to Louis XIV., which gives rise to the wars of the Spanish succession, - .... 3SC 1701 iV^-RI^^. Charles XII. of Sweden defeats the Russians, • 39G " The Grand Alliance, by England, Holland, and Germany, to preserve the balance of power — it being thought it would be endano-ered if the Bourbons ruled in both F>^ance and Spain, - 3S9 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. XXV JiMtrn Hit A.D Paqi 1702 The Alliance declares war against France, - -387 " Near the D WINA.—GLISSA C^.— Charles XII. defeats Augus- tus king of Poland, -..--. 396 " Mobile founded by d'Iberville, - . . . ♦ 423 1703 HOCHSTADT. French under Villars defeat the allies, - 387 " Peter the Great founds St. Petersburg, .... 397 1704 BLENHEIISI. The allies, commanded by Marlborough, gain a great victory over the French, who lose 40,000, - • 388 " Deerfield, in Massachusetts, destroyed, .... 391 1706 Peace of Alt Rausladt, between Charles XII. and Augustus — in which the latter gives up colonel Patkul, who is executed, 397 1707 ALMANZA. The French and Spanish, commanded by the duke of Berwick, defeat the allies, .... 389 1708 OUDENAKDE. Marlborough defeats the French undtr Ven- dome, ........ 389 1709 PULTO IVA. Peter the Great defeats Charles XII., who flies to the Turks, - . . - . . .398 " 3I0NS. Marlborough and prince Eugene obtain a hard. fought field from Villars, the French commander, ... 390 1711 May 21. At the PEUTH. Peter the Great rashly advances against the Turks, and is saved, with his army, by the czarina Catharine. Gives up his posts on the sea of Azof, - - 398 " Charles of Austria becomes emperor of Germany, - . 390 " In Ensland, queen Anne, no longer attached to the duchess of Marlborough, falls under the influence of the tories, and inclines to peace, ....... 391 Peace of Utrecht. Clones the War of the Spanish Succession, 391 Death of queen Anne, and accession of George I. of the house of Brunswick, ....... 409 Peace of Rastadt, between Germany and France, . - 391 FEESTON.—SHERIFF-M VIE. The forces of the pretender (son of James II.,) are defeated, . - . .410 Peace of Passarowitz. The Turks cede to Anstria Belgrade, part of Servia and Wallachia. They receive from Venice the Morca, • • - . - - - .404 " Death of Charles XII., and elevation of his sister Ulrica Eleonora to the throne of Sweden, ..... 299 " (Quadruple Alliance. England. France. Austria and Holland against Spain, ....... 104 1719 Peter the Great sends an embassy to China, . . - 400 1720 South Sea Scheme — a great speculating hoax, which is the means of much pecuniary distress, ..... Hn 1721 Peter takes the title of" Emperor of all the Russias," - • 40C 1733 War of the Polish succession in favor of Stanislaus Leczinski — who finally relinquishes the crown to Augustus II., - . 404 1735 The Pragmatic Sanction, to secure the Austrian succession to Maria Theresa, .... 401 1740 War of the Austrian Succession — Frederic II, of Prussia invades Silesia, - - - - - . • -40! 1741 MOLLWITZ. Frederic victorious, obtains possession of Silesia 106 " League of Prussia, France, and Bavaria, ag.iinst Maria Theresa, 40G 1713 1714 1715 1718 xxvi CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. Modern Ills. A. D. Faob 1742 Peace of Breslau. Frederic II. violates the alliance, and makes peace with Maria Theresa, who cedes to him Silesia, 406 1743 DETTINGEN. English in alliance with the Austrians defeat the French. George II. commands in person, - . 406 1745 FEESTON-FANS.—FALKIEK.— The forces of the you^^ pretender defeat the Royalists, - - - -411 " Frederic II. again joins the enemies of Maria Theresa, and wins ihe hmles of FRIEDBEEG and SORE, - - -40? " In America the colonists take for England Louisburg, from the French, - - - - - - - 407 1746 CULLODEN. The friends of the young oretender totally de- feated by the duke of Cumberland, - - - -411 425 - 42] 413 425 1748 Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle closes the war ot the Austrian suc- cession, or " Eight years' War," .... 403 1750 Ohio Company chartered, ..... 423 1753 Major George Washington crosses the wilderness to bear a letter to the French commandant, ..... 423 1754 Congress meet at Albany — Franklin's plan of union rejected both in England and America, .... 423 1755 Earthquake at Lisbon, ...... 413 " BRADDOCITS. FIELD. Braddock's defeat and Washington's preservation, ....... 423 " FOET EDWAED. Johnson and Lyman defeat the French under baron Dieskau, ...... 1756 The Black Hole of Calcutta, where Surajah shuts up his English prisoners to die for want of air, ... " " The Seven Years' War" begins, known in America as the French war, ....... 1757 Massacre of Fort William Henry, .... " FLASSY. Clive defeats Surajah Dowlah, and the British em- pire of India is founded, . . . - -42] " The French conquer Hanover, ..... 414 " FEAGUE. Frederic victorious over the Austrians. — KOLIN. He is defeated by them, ..... 414 1758 ZOENDOEF. Frederic defeats the Russians.— iJOC/Z- KIECHEN. He is defeated by the Austrians, . - 415 1759 CUNNEESDOEF. Frederic defeated by the Russians and Austrians, ....... 415 " LIGNITZ.—TOEQVA. He defeats the Austrians, - -415 " HEIGHTS OF ABEAHAM. Wolfe defeats Montcalm. The conquest of all Canada, by the English, follows, - - 415 1760 Family Compact between the Bourbons of France and Spain, - 41(j 1762 Peter III. emperor of Russia. His wife Catharine, supposed to be concerned in his death, succeeds, .... 4lf) 1763 Peace of Paris, between England, France and Spain. Canada given up by the French. Florida by the Spanish to the English, 416-1? 1765 The Stamp Act, . - - - - - - 425 1771 First Partition of Poland, by Russia, Prussia and Austria, - 419 1773 Tea thrown overboard at Boston, .... 427 1774 Louis XVI. becomes king of France. The kingdom overwhelmed with debt. - - 436 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE \XVil M Ijrn His. A D. '^•-^fc-' 17; 5 LEXINGTON. First blood s!icd of the war of the Amt revolution, ...... " June 15, Washington made commander-in-chief, " June n, BUNKER'S HILL, .... " Montgomery and Arnold command an expedition against Canada Montgomery killed, ..... 1776 July 4, American Independence declared, " August 27, J5i?00/i'ZFiV. Americans defeated, " December 26-27, TRENTON. Washington victorious, 1777 January 3, PRINCETON. Washington successful, - " BRAND YIVINE.—GERMANTOWN. British victorious, " BENNINGTON.— STILL-WATER.— SARATOGA. Amc ricans victorious, — Burgoyne surrenders his army, - < " Treaty with I''rance, ..... 1778 MONMOUTH. Americans victorious.— 5^ F^IVTiV^//. They are defeated, ...... 1780 CAMDEN. Comwallis defeats Gates, - " GUILFORD C. H. Greene and Cornwallis, - " Sir Eyre Coote conquers Hyder Ali, and takes Seringapatam, 1781 YORKTOWN. Washington invests Cornwallis and captures his whole army, ..... 1783 Peace of Paris, ...... 1787 Convention at Philadelphia frame the American Constitution, 1788 Terrible storm in France — causes famine and hastens the revolu tion, ....... 1789 March 4, Washington and John Adams first president and vice, president, ...... " May 5, The states general convene at Versailles. T\\e French Re volution begins, ..... " Oct. 5, The mob at Versailles — wwmen crying, "bread! bread! 1790 The " National Constituent Assembly" form a constitution, 1791 Escape of the royal family. Seized at Varennes and brought back to Paris, .... " The National Constituent Assembly dissolved, - " Oct. 14, The Legislative Assembly convene in Paris. — Roland. — The Jacobins, ..... 1792 March 20, Tlie French declare war aa;ainst the Austrians, La fayette vainly seeks to save the king and constitution, " Aug. 10, The Tuilleries attacked. The royal family take refuge in the Assembly, ..... " Sept. 2, Having been threatened with destruction by the duke oi Brunswick, the Parisians massacre the royalists, " Sept. 20, The Frejich Republic begins, monarchy being abclishcd by the National Co7ivention, .... 1793 Jan. 21, Louis XVL beheaded. The '' Lrfernal Triumvirate," " The reign of Terror," .... 441- g " The First Coalition against France. All the European pcwers except Sweden, Denmark and Turkey, - - .44 ' VAL3IY. Dumourier defeats the allies. (Lo lis Philip dis tinguishes himself.) ..... Washington and John Adams re-elected president and v-ce-pre sidcnt, - 411 ir 44) 435 KXVIU CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. Modern His. A.D 1794 1795 1796 1797 1798 1799 1800 1801 1802 1803 Pago The National Convention abolish the Sabbath, and aliempt to uver- turn Christianity, ...... 443 Charlotte Corday kills Marat. Robespierre destroys Panton The Convention guillotine Robespierre, - • - 442 In America — British retain forts. — Wayne's War, • 435 Jay's Treaty, . . - - - ■ -435 Nov. 1, The Directory formed. — Napoleon Bonaparti:, 4i2-8 Bonaparte's first brilliant campaign.— 3I0NTE ]\OTTE- MILLESIMO—MONDOVI-LODI—LONA TO-CAS TIGLIONE—MED OLA—R VERED 0— BASS AN 0— Caldiero*—ARCOLA, .... MONTE BALDO—RIVOLI, .... Oct. 17, Peace of Campo Formio, Italy, Switzerland and Holland, conquered countries, cut ap into governments which the French called republics, THE PYRAMIDS. Bonaparte conquers the Mamelukes, ON THE NILE. Nelson with a British fleet totally defeats the French, ...... Second Coalition. England, Russia, Austria, &c., against France, ...... Bonaparte repulsed by Sir Sydney Smith at Acre, Nov. 11, Directory abolished. — The Consulate — Bonaparte first consul, ....... Dec. 14, Death of Washington, - June 14, MARENGO. Bonaparte defeats the Austrians under Melas, ....... Nov. 3, HOHENLINDEN. Moreau defeats the Austrians, Jan. 1, Peace of Liuneville, between France and Austria, Alexander succeeds Paul as emperor of Russia, - Peace of Amiens. (England agrees to restore Malta to France England refuses to restore Malta. French seize Hanover. B tish blockade the mouths of the Elbe and Weser, Bonaparte appointed first consul for life, - 1804 Napoleon's coronation, " Third Coalition. England subsidizes Austria and Russia against France, ..... 1805 Oct. 18, ULM.—Bec 2, AUSTERLITZ. N. defeats the Aus " TRAFALGAR. English defeat the French— Nelson killed, " Dec. 27, Peace of Prestourg, between Austria and France, 1806 Confederation of the Rhine, .... '■ German Empire ceases to exist. The emperor Francis II. take the title of emperor of Austria, ... " Fourth Coalition. England and Prussia against France, " Oct. 14, JENA. Napoleon totally defeats the Prussians, " Dec. 26, Napoleon's Berlin Decree against neutral commerce, 1807 The British Orders in Council, .... " Feb. 8, EYLAU.—Jane, FRIEDLAND. Napoleon defeats the Russians, ...... " Peace of Tilsit. (Napoleon strips Prussia of the kingdom of Westphalia for his brother Jerome.) 43 -4 445 445 445 446 446 446 446 447 446 447 447 447 448 )448 448 448 451 451 452 465 45? 452 452 524 452 452 452 453 453 * Those in capitals. Bomparte's victories ; those in italics, his flefoats CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. XXIX HljiUrn Hi$ A. D 1807- 1808 1309 1812 1813 1814 1815 Pauf ■8 The English take possession of the Danish fleet, . • 453 Napoleon sends an army to Portugal. The royal family emigrate to Brazil, • - • • • - - 453 Napoleon meets Ferdinand, king of Spain, at Bayonne and com- pels him to abdicate, ...... 454 The Spanish patriots defeat the French, .... 455 VIMEIRA. English under Wellesley defeat the French, - 455 CORUNNA. English defeated. Sir John Moote's death, • 455 Fifth Coalition against France. England, Austria, &c., - 456 ABENSBERG, LANDSHUT, ECKMUHL, Aspem, En- sling, WAGRAM. Battles between the French under Na- poleon, and the Austrians, . . . - • 456 Peace of V^lctina, — followed by the divorce of Josephine, and Napoleon's marriage to Maria Louisa, - - - 456 TALA VERA. Wellesley defeats the French, - - - 457 America declares war against England, on account of spoliations of commerce, and impressment of seamen, ... 465 Napoleon invades Russia with half a million of men, • - 453 Aug. 17, SMOLENSKO.—Se^t. 7, BORODINO. The French defeat the Russians, ..... 459 Sept. 14, The burning of Moscow, • - - -459 Oct. 19, Napoleon begins his disastrous retreat from Russia, - 459 Nov. 28, Passage of the Berezina, .... 459 DETR OIT.— QUEENSTO WN. The -Americans unsuccessful.. 466 At sea they take the Guerriere and Macedonian frigates, • 466 Earthquake at Caraccas impedes the revolution, - - • 471 The Massacre of FRENCHT OWN, ■ • - -466 YORK.— LAKE ERIE.— Near the THAMES. Americans victorious, ....--- The Sixth and Grand Coalition against France, May 2, LUTZEN— May 19, BAUTZEN— Oct. 15, Leipsic. Battles between the French under Napoleon, and the allied armies, ....... March 31. The allies enter Paris, .... April 11. Napoleon abdicates. He goes to Elba. Louis XVIII. king of France, ...... CHIPPE WA .—BRIDGE WA TE E.—PLA TTSB URG BA Y. Americans victorious, .... British lake Washington and burn the public buildings, - - 467 Jan. 8, NEW ORLEANS. Americans, under Jackson, vic- torious, ..--.--- 467 Peace of Ghent, between England and America, - - 468 March 1, Napoleon lands in France. His reign of a hundred days. 462 June 18, WATERLOO. Napoleon defeated by the allies under Wellington, ;- - - - - • -16 July 15, Napoleon delivers himself to the English and is sent to St. Helena, 464 . 469 . 488 466 460 460 461 462 466 " Brazil independent of Portugal. Pedro I. is king, Americans chastise the Aigerines, a. '813 Congress of Sovereigns (" Holy Alliance,") at Aix-la-Chapelle, • 484 XXX OHEONOLOGICAL TABLE. Modem Bis. A. D rAas . , - . isia " Manchester riots." Military execution or massacre, - -476 1819-20 American republic obtains Florida of Spain, - - -487 1820 George IV. succeeds bis father, - - - - - 477 1820-1 Struggles of the people in various parts of Europe for constitu- tional liberty, - - - - - - - 473 1821 May 5, Death of Napoleon at St. Helena, - - - 464 1822 Congress at Verona. England takes a stand against the aggres- sions of the Holy Alliance, ----- 477 " The Greeks having rebelled against the Turks, form a govern- ment, - - - - - - - -474 " Massacre of Scio. 70,000 killed and made prisoners, - -474 1823 Iturbide having been made emperor of Mexico, is compelled to abdicate, .--..-. 472 1824 Lord Byron dies at Missolonghi {sec note), - _ _ 474 1825 Peace of Yandaba, by which England gains a portion of the Birman empire, _.---_ 479 1824r-5 Lafayette in America. " The nation's Guest," - - 487 1826 July 4, Death of John Adams and Thomas Jefferson {see note), - 488 1827 The Treaty of London. By which England, France, and Russia regulitte the affairs of Greece, - - - - 475 " JVA VARINO. These powers defeat the Turks, and compel the sultan to liberate the Greeks, ----- 475 1829 Catholic Eelief Bill passes the British parliament, - -478 1830 William IV. succeeds George IV. in England, - - - 473 " July 26-7-8, Three Days Revolution in Paris. Louis Philippe made king, ------- 435 1831 Pedro I. of Brazil, abdicates in favor of his son Pedro II., and goes to Portugal to establish his daughter Maria in that kingdom, ------- 470 1830-1 Attempted revolution in Poland, - - - - 435 1832 Eeform Bill passes the British parliament, by which the "rotten boroughs" are disfranchised, and Manchester and other cities represented, ------- 473 " General Jackson vetoes the National Bank, - - 488-9 " Belgium independent. Leopold made king, - - - 486 " Peace of Adrianople, between the Turks and Russians. Ad- vantageous to Russia, ------ 484 " KONIEE. Ibrahim of Egypt defeats the Turks. England and other powers prevent Egypt from becoming independent, - 484 1833 Slavery abolished in the British colonies, - - - 473 " In Spain, Ferdinand VII. succeeded by Isabella II., - - 4T0 " Santa Anna at the head of affairs in Mexico, - - -472 " British interfere to protect their merchants in an unrighteous traffic in opium, and compel the Chinese government to pay a large indemnity, give up the island of Hong-Kong, &c., - 47S " The ZoII-Verein, a commercial league established in Germany, 484 " " Nullification" in South Carolina, - - - - 488 1384 Quadruple Alliance. England and France unite with Por- tugal and Spain to uphold constitutional government under the young queens Maria and Isabella II., - - - 470 " A decree made it Greece to encourage female education. - 475 CHKONOLOGICAL TABLE. :xx( \to(iern lUs. A. D Piun 1835 The Florida War, ----.-- 4'jO ISoJ March 2, Texas dec-hires independence, - - - - 472 1836 April 31, ^AN JACINTO. The Te.xuns defeat the Mexican:-, apd gain tlieir Independence, ----- 473 1837 Victoria succeeds William IV. in England, - - -479 " The "Eevilsion." Great pecuniary distress in the Anierioar. States, -------- 4S9 " Abdul Medjid succeeds Mahmoud II. as sultan of Turkey, - 435 1840 Napoleon re-interred ic Paris, ----- 436 " Death of president Harrison and accession of Tyler, - - 4^0 " 'I"he Ashbmton Treaty, between England and America, - 49] 1843 The Greeks, by a bloodless revolution, obtain a constitution, lim- iting the power of the king, - - - - -475 " The Free Church of Scotland, - - - - -480 Texas annexed to the American Eepublic, - . - 491 May 11, First blood shed in the Mexican War, - - - 492 May 8, PALO ALTO.—Uay 9, RESAOA LE LA PALMA, - 492 California taken by Fremont and Stockton, . - - 493 New Mexic • taken by Kearney, ----- 493 BUENA VISTA — VERA CRUZ—CERMO GORDO— MEX- ICO, ------- 494_5 French conquest of Algiers completed by the taking of the Emir Abd-el-Kader, ------- 500 The Hungarian nobles and clergy generously liberate their serfs, 512 Feb., Pence of Gaudalupe, ----- 495 1844 1846 1847 1848 1848 Feb. 24, Revolution in France. Downfall of Louis Philippe. Establishment of a republic, - - - . -499 •' March, Eevolutions in the smaller States of Germany, - - 508 " In I'russia, -------- 5^4 " In Aualr'ni (Downfall (f Metternic/i), . . . 505-fi " In Lombardy, and other States of Italy, - - . -507 " March 29, The Hungarians complete, with the pretended sanc- tion of the emperor of Austria, their free constitution, - 511 " Rising of the people in Sleswick and Holstein, - - -512 " May 18, Delegates meet at Frankfort-on-the- Maine to constitnte a federal government for Germany. (The attempt fails), - 503 " June 23 to 26, Terrible riot of the Socialists in Paris, - - 501 " August, Insurrection in Ireland. Smith O'Brien and others ta- ken and transported, ------ 515 " Nov. 25, Flight of the Pope to Gaeta in Naples, — the Republic in Rome, ------- 509 " Extension of the British Empire in India, - - ■ 513 " In America, the Mormons settle Salt Lake City, - - 524 " Gold discovered in California. (Great Immigration succeeds), - 524 " Dec. 2, Ferdinand, emperor of Austria, resigns his crown to Francis Joseph, the counter-revolution being completed, - 507 1849 March 24, NO VARA. Charles Albert, of Sardinia, defeated by Radetzky, abdicates in favor of his son Victor Emmanuel, and Lomb'vrdy is regained by *he Austriaus, - - - 508 sxxri CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. Modern His. A. D. Paob 1849 August, Venice retaken by the Austrians after a Ion? and scveie siege, - - - - - - - -509 " April 26, Counter-revolution in Prussia completed by connt Brandenburg, -----.. 505 '' April, French troops under Gen. Oudinot sent to Rome. (July 5, they bombard and take the city, destroy the Eepublic, and re-establish tlie Pope), ------ 50] " April 12, Palermo, after a bloody revolt, submits to tlie king of the Two Sicilies, Ferdinand IJ., - - . - 509 " TEMESVAR, Aug. 9. Hungary having conquered the Aus- trians, is cruelly subjugated t: Austria by the Russians, - 512 1850 Rebellion breaks out in China, - - - - - 522 " Great slavery agitation in the American Congress, - - 524 1851 May 1, Opening of the Great Exhibition of the Industry of all Nations at London, ------ 515 " Ecclesiastical Titles Bill passed by the British Parliament, - 515 " Slavery agitation in America quieted by the passage of Mr. Clay's Compromise Bill, - . - - - - - 524 " Dec. 2, Fiench Republic brought to an end by Louis Napoleon's " coup W Hat,'''' ------- 502 1852 March 19, Chinese rebels take Nankin, - - - - 523 " November 21, The Frencli Empire restored, under Napoleon IIL, 502 1853 Gold discovered in Australia, - - - - " April 13, Prince Menchikoff sent to Constantinople by tlie czar to set up his claim to the essential sovereignty of Turkey, which leads to the Riisso-Turkish War, I " OLTENITZA. Turks on the Danube defeat the Russians who have invaded the Principalities, - - - - 513 " Nov. 11, Alliance between France and England, against Russia, - - - - - - - - 519 " Nov. 27, SIXOPE. Russians capture the entire Turkish fleet in the Black Sea, " Santa Anna recalled and made dictator of Mexico, - - 52S 1S54 Sept. 20, Allies advancing upon Sebastopol, gain the victories Df ALMA, BALAKLA VA, and INKZRMANN, - - 519 " In the American Congress the Nebraska Bill 'm passed, - 524 " Dec. 2, Treaty of Vienna. Double dealing of Austria, -520 1855 March 2, Death of the czar Nicholas, - - - - 520 " Treaty of America with Japan, - - - - 5a5 " Feb. 16, Opsning of a railroad across the Isthrmus of Panama, - 625 1853 Marcli 30, Peace of Paris closes the Crimean War - - 527 1859 April to July, war between Austria and Sardinia - - 528 1866 June and July, the Seven Weeks' War - - - 528 1870 July to September, Franco-Prussian War . . - 529 1857 February, Sepoy Mutiny breaks out in India - - 533 1859 John Brown at Harper's Ferry . - . . 535 1860 Election of President Lincoln 535 1863 January 1, Emancipation Proclamation - - - 535 1881 July 2, Assassination of President Garfield - - -536 514 518 ilia Mm4 :illl!i:|iltl!l'n)lll,c. ii/ifinicntty cliniui •il tiuouf/h the fistii SIS mailer vC 10111111011 I villi I tlie priniiplr Ir n liiive lure lirimt/lil /irlon a sketcli ol' iJie whole roni ■ I rr.sul Ili.sturv . JVatnes of tittUoii.i ^^''"ijif/ inilii-idiials are fvit/ul ut- most cUstingiashed sot' - lie: aiul of all the, sov- ^^^rinrii'id kmi/doiiis in -%N Sriieraiticccrdituf to Jft of Congress. ANCIENT HISTORY. FROM THE CREATION TO THE BIRTH OF CHRIST. PERIOD I. FROM ^ B. C. ^ THE CfLKAJlOti > S(M)4, < OF THE WORLD, TO THF CAT.tlNCJ > 19'/il. < OF ABRAHAM CHAPTER I. The earliest History of Man. 1. The face of the whole earth, with a few exceptions, is now ^neitnt nu- known. The family of man is divided by natural distinctions, period i into dilTereni races ; and l)y the boundary lines of the countries chap. i. which they inhabit, into different nations, each governed by its s.<*'-v-<*», own peculiar laws. 2. If we take a ma]> representing the entire world, and inquire cnncerning the length of time, which the nations it now presents have been known, we shall find in looking back to different .p^^ human periods, that by degrees, their names and places disappear. In race. A. D. 1491, the whole continent of America was, as to those bati"^ from whom we derive the knowledge of history, as though it thrf)"?'* ti>t were not. A little before the birth of our Savior, Great Britain, tinio, na- the land of our ancestors, was unknown, as was the wliole of "'l,1|'y*"di'g''"' the northern part of Europe, the southern part of Africa, and appecr the eastern part of Asia. If we go back 2000 years from the Christian era, no traces of inhabitants are to be found on the face of the earth, except a few comparatively small nations, r.ent the eastern extremity of the Mediterranean sea. 3. Hence, even without referring to tht sacred writings, we Probable shduld conclude, that the human race probably had their origin „ Jt^'J^^mfH. • 111* I r* ^ • D^rCco WILU in mat region ; and calculating their progress from what is Scripture, known of later times, w^e should also conclude that they might rEKroD I. Chap. I. — 1. What part of the face of tiie earth is now kn mn f How is the human family divided by nature ? How by the bound- ary lines of countries? — 2. When was the whole continent of America un- kn. \V'herr is the garden of Eden supposed to have been ? (See note.) u'liai sentence was pronounced on Adam and Eve for their transgression ? Wfat promis* of rnercv was at the same time made to then? GOD DESTROYS. 36, was coeval witli the fall of man, and lis nood of a Re- • ^""''"' ^'"- 'lennier. i>r,RTon i. 7. We are iiiforincd that the life of man, hefore the deluge, chai-. i. extended to ten thnes its present period. Most of the know- ^-^^/'"^i^ lcdg'3, now possessed by tlie himian race, is derived from the rxporience and observation of the men who have lived l)efore them; i)ut in those days there were no such stores of knowledge /hid up. A life of several hiuidred years would give each man Lnnprnxy-i time to learn much from his own experience, and thus facilitate ^'juvian,*!' the general iniproveinent of tiie race. Hence it seems very na- tural to suppose, tliat God should have allotted to men a longer period of existence at the (inst. As there are no authorities to consult on this part of history, except the sacred volume, which 13, or shoidd be in the hands of every one, we shall refer the student to that for particular facts ; mentioning only those which are more immediately connected with the course of events, as detailed by tliose historians, who, in distinction from the sacred, are termed profane writers. 8. The most remarkable of these events is the universal deluge ; when God, again, for the sins of mankind, smote the ?arth with a curse ; and swept away, at once, the whole of a ^ ^ wicked generation, who had filled the earth with violence. Yet !j34tt- when the fountains of the deep were broken up, and when those Tiie Deiu-re who had climbed to the tops of the mountains were buried in the waste of waters, Noam, a righteous man, who had, in obe- dience to the command of God, prepared an ark for himself and 'cmily, rode safely over the mighty ruin. 9. The Scripture account of this awful event, is confirmed by the researches and discoveries of those, who have examined the structure of the earth. In tluis pursuing the modern science of geology, they find evidences of former changes and convul- sions, not to be ascribed to any causes now known to be in operation. And, independently of any other testimony, they conclude that many centuries after the world was originally <;oi)'t)rn?s'tiis peopled, animals and vegetables were destroyed by an over- ""'Pt""' whelming deluge. The great geologist, Cuvier, gives it as his opinion, that " the event cannot be dated much farther back than five or six thousand years." This coincides with the date of the deluge, as drawn from the Mosaic records. A farther source ot evidence, is found in the traditionary accounts of nations holding no intercourse with each other. The Chinese, Greeks, Traditi< n Hindoos, and the American Indians, all agree in the general "'"" fact, that in remote antiquity, there was an inundation, which overwhelmed the earth. 10. The ark of Noah rested on IVTonnt Ararat, in Armenia. T. Whence is most of the knowledge now possessed by the hunfian race, derived ? What makes it natural to suppose that (Jod allotted a longer dura- tion to human life ai first ? — 8. \\Miat was th(; ocrasion of the universal de- luge? Who survived it? — !). What have we to confirm the Scripture ac- count? Where does Cuvier, reckoning from geological appearances, fix lie date? What nations have traditions of a universal (hduce ' m THK SECOND FATHER OF MANKIND. 2300. Civision of couii'ries tiniong tht ions of JVoah. Coincidence between prophecy and known facts. See Gen. ii. 25, 26, 27. Indefinite- ness of our knowledge of remote antiquity. Tower of Babel. The four earliest nations. When the dove had returned with the olive branch, to show lliat the waves of God's wratli were assuaged, the sole patri arch of the liuman race went forth wiili his three sons, Shkm, Ham, and Japheth, to take possession of his wide and solitary domain. 11. The Mosaic history informs us, that Shem and his de- scendants dwelt in Eastern and Southern Asia; Ham and his posterity, Canaan and others, in Western Asia and Africa ; and that the " lsle« of the Gentiles," meaning probably the Me- diterranean, European and Caucasian regions, were divided among the children of Japheth. Modern physiologists have classed the human species under three corresponding races, namely, the Mongol, the JYcgro., and the Caucasian, The Cau- casian race, in their progress, have conquered great portions of the territories, inhabited by the Pi-Iongols in Asia and America, while the Negro race are held in servitude by their brethren. 12. We cannot indeed tell exactly, what places on the earth's surface were designated by the names of the countries mentioned at very remote periods ; for it was not until ages after, that geography was cultivated as a science, or that accurate maps existed. The sacred historian, after speaking of the loca- tion of the descendants of Noah, informs us, that they all col- lected on the plain of Shinar with the impious design to build a tower whose top should reach to heaven. God confounded their language, and they then separated ; wandering to distant countries. 13. We soon begin to find traces of such connections among particular families or tribes, as gave them the name of nations. The earliest mer.tioned are the Assyrians^ the BahyJonians os Chaldeans,) tlie Egyptians,, and the Jcics. Some obscure ac counts of Ph(pnicia also extend back to this period, and in Greece, Sicyon is supposed by some to have been founded. CHAPTER n. Assyria. — Egypt. Babylon' 1- The name of Assyria vi'as derived from Ashur, the son ol "nlf'"''' ^^ Shem, who was supposed to have been driven out of his pro- NiuiTod. vinces by Nimrod, the grandson of Ham. Nimrod, is said tc lO. Where did Noah's ark rest? — 11. What, according to the best cal cuIatioDs, were ihe respective locations of Noah's descendants ? How do nio dern phys'ologists class the human species ? — 12. Can we tell exactly what places were designated by the names of the countries mentioned at this pe riod ? Why can we not ? What occasioned the dispersion of mankind after the deluae ? — 13. W^hich were the four earliest nations mentioned in history ? — 13. VVhich were the next two ? What was the first city of Greece ' Chap. II. — 1. Whence is the name of Assvria derived? GUt:.\T STRICTURES BUILT BY i;XSLAVi::j MASSES. 37 liave founded Babi/Ion^ about one hi iidred and fifty years after '^^'''_^ the (ieliifTt;, and is believed to be the same with |{;;his or Baal, who period I. waa afterwards worsliipped as a god. The kingdoms ol Assyria '^"ai'. n. Hnd Babylonia, were at first distinct; but when N;\fs, the son "-^ •'^-' of Ashwr, ascended the Assyrian throne, he con(jiiered the adja- rent provinces, and rendered Babylonia trilnitary, Ninns com- ^fl.->9 pie(ed tlie magnificent city of JVinrcr/i. wbicli his father had \j,„.v,.h beg'in. This accomplished prince, and his beautiful mid hiLrhlv I'niit iiy gifted queen Sn:MiiiAMis, are treated in the marvellous records of historians, as the hero and heroine of the age in which ihev lived. 2. Ni.vvAS, their son, lieing an infant, at the time or his fa- ther's death, Seiniraiuis governed the kingdom. She extended her dominions by the conquest of Elhinpia^ and carrif^d the ter- Seiniramf.) ror of her arms beyond the Indus; but her Indian expedition [;"h[},'I,'j;'I'' proving unsuccessful, she returned, with the loss of two-thirds di extended of her army. She is said to have commenced many of those ''ueti^ca)^ noble structures, that adorned and rendered famous the city of Babylon, which she made the capital of her kingdom ; and to have employed in the execution of her plans, the labours of two millions of men. ',i. Ninyas, who succeeded Semiramis, was an indolent and ef- feminate prince; and is charged vvith the crime of being acces- sory to his mother's death. The Scriptures mention Am 'JOfi.'i. raphel, king of Shinar, which was in the land of Chaldca, and Ninya« Pul, who is supposed to be the father of Sanlanapalus, and in whose reign the Ninevites repented at the preaching of Jonah. 4. EGYPT. — A1ene>s otMisraim, the son of Ihim, is supposed tc have been the founder of the first Egyptian monarchy; but oiia.^. of his immediate successors, nothing is known. Some ages Mf-nus had elapsed when Busmis, it is said, built T/irJjes^ and made it {Ir""'^",,'!^ the seat of his empire. That a most wonderful city, called by liim mon- this name, was built, we know, for remains of it exist to this '"'^ ^' day; but there are only traditionary accounts of its founder. We are told that Osymandias, another Egyptian king, erected magnificent edifices, adorned them with sculpture and painting, and founded the first library mentioned in history. Its title or uiimryor inscription was, " The ojjice or treasarij for the diseases of the ti" himogiy. souiy At this period the Egj'ptians had already divided the ?'''<=« year into twelve months, each consisting of thirty days and six hours. 5. Though little is known of the early history and internal revolutions of the kingdom of Egypi. yet it is considered as the I. Who IS supposed to nave been the founder of Baliylon ? When was it fuaruied ? By whotn were Assyria and Uabyioiiia united? Wlio cunnpfeted Nineveh? Who was the queen ot Niiius ? What were the cliiiiacters of Niauri and of Semiramis? — 5i. Who were Aniraphel and I'ul? — 'A. What is said of Niiiyas? — 1. Who tbunded the Egy|iiian monarchy^ When? WLo is said to liavc found Thebes? flow do we know that such a city as 'I'heliea really existed ? What is s;iid of the first library mentioned in liistory ? How had the Egyptians divided the year ? 38 EcJVPT GIVES SCIENCE TO GREECE. point where civilization began, and from whence the rays of knowledge emanated to otlier portions of the earth ; particularly to Greece, through which channel, discoveries made by the Egyptians have come to us. About 2085 B. C. Egypt is said to have been invaded by the Shepherd-kings from Arabia or •* ® Phoenicia, who conquered Lower Egypt, and Memphis, and ad^s(fby tie reigned over them two hundred and sixty years. From the ex- ghepherd pulsion of the Shepherd-kings until the arrival of Joseph, the son of Jacob, there is a chasm in Egyptian history. Note. — While it is held by historians of Christian countries, that Shein la the father of the Mongols, (i. e. the Asiatics and aboriginal Americans ;) Ham of the Negro race, and Japheth the Caucasian, (i. e. Europeans, and their descendants in America); it is maintained by Mahometan writers, that Shem is the progenitor of the Eastern nations — Hebrews, Persians, Ara- bians, and also of the Greeks and Romans, (to whom is assigned the do minion of the world, and from whom all good is to proceed,) — that Ham. i.e the father of the southern nations — Moors, Africans, and Indians, (to whom, is assigned the lot of slavery, but they are to be beloved and cared for by the other races,) and that Japheth is the ajicestor of the northern nations, Turks, Tartars, Germans, Chmese, Slavi.and native Americans. Though both accounts are in degree supposititious, yet, that of the Christian writers is the more probable, as better corresponding with natural divisions. A great question arises, how the differences, which are now found in the physi- cal and mental structures of the different races, have occurred, they having a common parentage. We believe, that God to suit his own \nse purposes, miraculously changed the colour and structure of some of the first descend- ants of Noah. This supposes an omission of an important fact in the Scrip ture history ; but it leaves, in unquestioned veracity, the revelation we possess. 5. Why is Egypt 'mportant in history? Through what channel have the discoveries of the Egypt'ane come down to ud ? By whom was Egyp' iuvsded ? What part ol Egypt diii thoy conquer, and how long did thev raiga? Abraham, aboat to sacrifice his son, takes the lad from his unsuspecting motlicr. PERIOD II. THE CALLING THE INS'IiTUTIO> OF THE PASSOVER FROM B. C. 1921. TO 140 J. OF ABRAHAM, VER5 i THE I THE EXODUS OF SRAELITES. CHAPTER I. ERIOD U CHAP. I. 1921. The man of faith re- ceives a cait and promifli-. Tlie Ib:afciites or Jews. 1. Descended from the stock of Shem, whom the prophetic ^Mjett Hit benediction of Noali had set forth as more blessed than his brethren, Akuaviam, the progenitor ol the Messiah, the father of the faithiul, and the founder of the Jewish nation, dwelt in the country of the Chaldees; and retained, in the midst of an idolatrous and corrupt people, the knowledge of the true God. Journeying from thence with his laniily, his reuinue, and his flocks, he rested for a time in Harcm^ where Tekah, his father, died. Here, God called him, and bade him depart from his kindred, and go into the land of Canaan, that he might behold a country, which his seed should 'nherit. The obedient Abra- ham went with his family, including his nephew. Lot; and so- journed in the promised land. 2. A famine compelled him to go into Egypt in pursuit of Between what dates does this period o!" Ancient History find its place on the Chronographical Picture of Nations? What nations were known during this period ?* Chap. I. — 1. V/ho was the founder of the Jewish nation? From what stock was he descended ? Where did he dwell ? Where was he whe» God called him ? For what purpose was Abraham called to go into Canaan ' Who accompanied him ? ♦ We iccommend to teachers to rep"? Aese qut*tioi\s at the beginiiir ; f each Pernxi. 39 FAITH, FORGIVENESS, AND COMPASS ON. PERIOD n. CHAP. I. 1912. Lot made prisoner by Cliedorlao- iiier is re- taken by Abraham, 1S9T iSodoin 1e»;trcyed. Afcraham's faith is se- cereivlried. ioseph so5(J '«(o Egyps. 1-506. Jacob goes to Egypt. 1675. Joseph died. 1571 WoacB borr corn. On his return to Canaan, he divided the land with Lot, taking the plain of Harare, and giving to Lot the valley of the Jordan. In an invasion of the dominions of the princes inha- biting this valley, by Chedorlaomer, king of E/am, (afterwards Persia^) Amraphael, king of Shinar, and others, Lot was taken prisoner. On this occasion Abraham armed his trained servants, and making a sudden and unexpected assault upon the con- querors, recovered Lot, the other prisoners, and the spoils. The limited extent of the tribes, which at this time are introduced into the records of history, may be estimated by the number Abraham led forth in this military excursion, which was only three hundred and eighteen 3. Lot, by divine command, abandoned Sodom and the othei wicked cities of the plain •, when they were destroyed by fire. Abraham removed from Mamre, and dwelt in Gerar, where he led a peaceful life, changing the place of his tent as the wants of his flocks and herds required ; claiming, however, the land of Canaan as his inheritance. 4. Abraham had at this time two sons ; Ishmael, from whom probably descended the wandering tribes of Arabia, and Isaac, his heir, whom, in obedience to God's command, he took from his fond and unsuspecting mother, to sacrifice upon mount Mo- riah ; but God having tested his faith, provided, a victim in the place of the pious youth. 5. Jacob, afterwards called Israel, that son of Isaac who in- herited the promise, had twelve sons, among whom he distin- guished with blameable partiality, the young and amiable Joseph. Him, therefore, his brethren envied and hated; and they sold him into Egypt. Here he became prime-minister to Pharaoh, the reigning king ; and when his father pressed with famine, sent thither his remaining sons to buy bread, Joseph, after, having, by seeming severities, made them sensible of his power, showed Ihem, that he was too generous and noble to harbor revenge. Weeping, he said to the trembling company, " 1 am Joseph your brother; be not grieved, God sent me before you." His fath-er Jacob removed to Egypt, with his whole fa- mily, including Judah, in whose line was the JMessiah. The Egyptians lightly esteemed their pastoral occupation, and Joseph assigned them, for a separate residence, the country of Goshen. 6. After the death of Joseph, the Israelites, though cruelly treated, greatly increased in number. A deliverer of the nation was raised up, in the person of Moses. The command of the king of Egypt had gone forth, to slay all the male infants of tlie Jews. Jochebed the wife of Amram gave birth to a son. She concealed him for a time; but at length, in pious tnist, she com-= 2. Why did he so to Egypt ? With whom did he divide the land of Ca naan, and iiow did he divide it ? When Lot was taken prisoner what was the coridiict of Abraham ? — 3. What befel the wicked cities of the plain ? Whi- ther did Abraham remove from Mamre? — 4. What sons had Abraham? How did .Tehovah test the patriarch's faith ? — 5. Which son of Isaac inherited the promise? How many sons had Jacob ? Relaie brielly ilie history of Jo- seph? — 3. How were the Israelites treat.-din Egypt after Joseph's death 1 TUB PASSOVER IXSTITUTED. 41 milted linn to God. Ilavin^ her maidens to bathe in the stream. She looked upon the weep- ^ ,.,,., , , ,.. ' , 1 . Saved and mg child, with compassion and tenderness, blie rescued him adopted by from the water, and at Miriam's siiggosiion, restored him for a jlj'ug^,"^^'* season to the arms of his mother. Tiie princess then adopted liim for her son, and caused him to be educated in all the learn- ing of the Egyptians. 7. Moses was, doubtless, early made acquainted with the se- cret of his birth, for amidst the splendors of a court, he thonght in bitterness upon the wrongs of his kindred. Seeing an Egyp- tian smite a Hebrew, his indignation broke forth, and he slew i;im For this offence, he was obliged to flee from the face of l^haraoh; and he went and dwelt in the land of Midian. Here (jod, who had heard the cry of the oppressed, spake to him \4qi from the burning bush, and gave him commandment to return The to Egypt, for the deliverance of his chosen people. Afterwards '^"pas"*'"'' he wa:^ made an instrument to perform many wonderful works through iht in the siglit of the Egyptians. At length, tlie severe judgments of God compelled Piiaraoh to consent to the departure oi' the Hebrews. No sooner, however, had they left the country, than repenting of his permission, the impious monarch p\irsued them to the borders of the Red Sea. Here the man of God lifted his m\>terious wand over the waters; they parted, and the Israel- ites went forward, through the fearful pass. The Egyptians at- tempt ing to follow, tiie sea closed over them. 8. The passover, a Jewish feast, was by Jehovah's commanil, 1 191 instituted in "iiommemoration of the deliverance of the Israelites paHHoverfa from the last plague of the Egyptians; and is the most remark- Btimied. able of the types, which foreshadowed the future coimnjf of the Savior of the world. CHAPTER II. Greece receives and sends forth Colon'es. 1. Greece was originally inhabited by various tribes, of whom the Pelasgi and the ndlenra were the most powerful. The 1856 I'elasgi, a savage people, inhabited the Peloponnesus, and under Inachus, are said to have founded Argos and Slcyon. The <>. Relate briefly the early history of Mosf's ? — 7. How did the wronn;a ot his kindred affect hirn, and what did he do? To what hind did he flee? VVhat commission tliere receive, and in what manner ? Relate ihe manner of the exode, or departure r>' the Israehics. — 'r. (j;ve an acxount of tlw p Bsover (3 Arcod founded 42 GREECE IN ITS EARLIEST STATE. ThePelasgi. The Helle- nes divided Into four [aces. 1556. Athens rounded. 14S3. Letters brought irlo EijyDt. more humane Hellenes, of whom Deucalion was leader, were originally, a small tribe residing in the north of Thessaly ; but becoming powerful, they spread themselves over Greece. The Pelasgi, driven from all their possessions, except Arcadia and the region of Dodona, are said to have migrated in various di- rections; — to Italy, and to Crete^ and other islands of the Medi- terranean. Probably some of them resided in Thessaly, as a district of that country has always borne their name. The Hellenes were divided into four races, distinguished from each other by many peculiarities of language and customs. These were, the lonians, (of whom the principal v/ere the Athenians ;) the Dorians, (of whom the principal were the Spartans ;) the kalians, and the Jlchaians. The traditionary accounts of these early ages represent them as in a savage state, wholly ignorant oi husbandry. 2. Cecrops, bringing a colony from Egypt, prevailed upon the inhabitants of Jlttica, to submit to him as their king ; he di- vided the country into twelve districts, founded the city of Athens, and established the Areopagus — a council of citizens chosen for their wisdom, and wealth, and to whom was en- trusted the power of punishing capital offences. 3. Phosnician colonies settled in Crete, in Rhodes, and ni several parts of Greece. It is said by some, that they brouglit with them letters and music, and a more accurate method of computing time, than had hitherto been adopted. Most writers however, are of opinion, that letters were brought into Greece by a FhcBnician colony under Cadmus, who settled in Bosotia, and founded the city of Thebes. Chap. II. — 1. Give an account of the Pelasgi. Find on the map oi Greece Argos and the several places mentioned. Give an account of the Hellenes. Into what races were they divided ? — 2. Give an account of the founding of Athens. What was the Areopagus? — 3. Give an account of the founding of Thebes. When and by whom were letters brought into Greece ? Re-iiew of the Chapter. — Who was Inachus? Deucahon? Cecrops i Cadmus? (It is recommended that teachers often question, as a leviow. concerrang the characters mentioned in the lesson.) ^'^ V. T THE FIRST SETTLED PARTS Oi^' THE EARTH, PERIOD III. FROM B. C. THE INSTITUTION J^ li!)l.-{OF THE PASSOVER, OF SOLOMON. TO THE DEATH > »8<>. < CHAPTER I. Palestine. — Phcenicia. — Egypt. 1. When the Israelites, under the guidance of Moses, left E^ypt, tley directed their course towards the land of Canaan. While t!.ey were encamped in the neighbourhood of Mount Sinai, God gave them the ten commandments, or the moral law, under the most awfully impressive circumstances. Moses, by his direc- tion, formed a civil constitution, and enacted laws for the na- tion. God, under his name Jkhovaii, was declared their king, and hence their government was a theocrncy. Purity of reli- gious worship was the vital principle of their laws. To pre- sent an insuperable barrier to polyilieism, they were totally ff)r- P-jRioD III. — Chap. I. — I. Whither wont the Iwraehies? What occurred a' Mdiiiii Sinai? What did Moses by God'.s direction? What was tiie Jewish sovorninenl? Why? Wha: was its vital principle? 43 CHAf . I. 44 JOSHUA. PERI'D III CHAP. I. After forty jears the promised land is reached. 1452. Moses dies. Joshua suc- ceeds Moses. Vindication of the P'-.riptures. 1451. Division of Canaan un- fler Joshua. The .Fudges bidden to intermingle with other nations, who, at this time, were universally idolaters. 2. After wandering forty years, during which the fathers of the nation had descended to their graves, and their children had become fitted by hardships to contend with the powerful tribes Avho were in possession of their promised inheritance ; — after they had acquired more knowletlge of the God who protected them, and had learned obedience to his laws, they were per- mitted to emerge from the wilderness, and behold spread out before them the object of their hopes, the land of promise. After having obtained a victory over the Midianites, (one of the tribes who inhabited this land,) and when in sight of the pro- mised inheritance, Moses died. He was the greatest of law- givers, the first of historians, and favored beyond all other men, with direct communications from Gcd. 3. Joshua succeeded Moses, and during a seven years' wai with the powerful tribes who inhabited Canaan* he led on the Israelites to conquest, and to the possession of a large portion of the country ; when, contrary to the divine command, which had directed the total extermination of the idolaters, and fatally foi the future peace of the nation, the Israelites laid down their arms. 4. Impious men have spoken against this command of God given to the Jews. But he who creates, has a right to destroy by storm or earthquake, or by the hands of such executione s as he shall choose ; and when he gives his commands to men amidst such awful signs as dividing a sea, leading them by a pillar of fire, and giving them bread from heaven, they have no right to dispute his will. Mankind are not, however, to derive hence, a license to persecute and destroy one another, on pre- tences of divine intimations, drawn from uncertain sources. 5. The Jews soon surveyed the land, and divided it among the tribes. At the death of Joshua, no successor being appointed, the government was exercised by chiefs, called Judges. This people now reaped the fruits of their disobedience to the divine commands. They not unfrequently relapsed into the idolatry of the surrounding nations, and when compelled to contend with the tribes who dwelt within their borders, were repeatedly delivered into their hands. * These tribes were numerous. Among those frequently menuoned in S.-ripiure are the Midianites, the Amorites, the Jebusites, the Hivites, the Hittites, the Amalekites and the PhiUstines. This latter nation, who in the days of the Judges conquered the Israelites, are supposed by som<; to have been a colony from Egypt. They were a sea-faring people, and worshipped a sea-god, Dagon. 1. Why were the Jews prohibited intercourse with other nr.dongf — 9 What was the length of their sojourn in the wilderness? W.iat had hap- pened during the time ? What good purpose was effected by these hard- ships ? What is said of Moses ? — 3. Who was leader of li^e Israehtes after his death ? VVhatdid the Jews in regard to the idolatrous, inhabitants of llie country ? — 4. Why were the Jews richt in obeying the commands of God, to destroy the heathen idolaters ? Does this justify fai.atical men, who pre- tend to inward revelations, in doing similar acts? — 5 What did the Jew.'^ with the conquerea territory ? Wh?' happened at tb'. death of Joshua? THE ROYAL POET. 45 6. The reign of tlie Judges continued about 460 years. The •^»">"t ffi& most renowned among then) were Deborah and Barak, Gideon, rcnru ill Jephthah, and lastly, the prophet Samuel. In his days, the re- ciiAr. i. bellieus Israelites demanded a king, and Saul wasappr inted. He ^-^^■v'-'w rarri^d on wars with the Amalekites and with the Philistines, to ',«h(»m die Israelites had previously been forty years in subjection. 7. On his death, David, the son of Jesse, who had distin- ^Jshed Iiimself in the Philistine wars, v;as called to the throne of Judali. This j^omg man united qualities seemingly incom- iJavj'r patible. He was beautiful almost to effeminacy, and at the same reigns uvei time terrible in arms. He was cool and deliberate in counsel ; "* ^ ' yet possessed of such tender sensibility, that he keenly felt all the emotions of love, friendship, parental fondness — and, rinally, of that best alFection of the heart, devotion to his God. His accomplishments were no less various, combining a pro- found knowledge of war and politics, a skill in music that could calm the madness of Saul, and a talent for poetry, which David m in the department of sacred song, has, to this day, never been aspects Th- equalled. To this talent, directed by inspiration, we owe the most re- mimitable Psalms. Such was David, beloved by God and man. '""'kings'! " Yet even he sinned ; but being rebuked of God, by the prophet Nathan, he humbled himself, and bitterly repented. Hence we find, in his devotional poems, a deep strain of penitential humility. 8. David becoming sole monarch of all the tribes of Israel, he restored the purity of worship, which, imder Saul, had de- j^jir clined. He took Jebus, a strong fortress, which had remained Reiuiis oJe! in possession of the Jebusites, and on its site he built the city "" '*"'^'^' of Jerusalem, in which he resided. He conquered the Philis- tines, Edomites, and Moabites. He made S}Tia a Jewish pro- jj^ f„„n,(^ vince, and extended his frontiers to the farthest limits of the ]n-o- jerusiiiHiu mised land. He formed an alliance with the Tyrians, an;l fmni them obtained many valuable articles of merchandise. He made many costly preparations for building a temple for the worship of God ; but left the execution of his design, to Solomon, his son and successor. 9. Solomon early made wisdom his choice ; and while he kept it, his nation was elevated to its utmost height of splendor e^„ i:„ and power. He was surrounded by bold and designing ene- huiids the mies, but he triumphed over them. His foreign treaties se- '^'"f''''- cured the peace of his kingdom; and his alliance with Hiram, king of Tyre, furnished many of the splendid decorations of his ncfaus imc magi:if5cent temple. In his later years, Solomon fell into the sin and sins of licfnliousness and idolatry, and thus lost the favor of ptoaperltv God, and brought distress upon his country. C. IIow long continued the reign of the Judges? Which were the most eminent ? Give an account of Saul ? — 7. Who was David ? What was re- markable in liiscliaraeter ? What in his accomplishments ? By whom waa David rebuked? Waa he too proud to repent? — ■^ What did David be- come ? What acts did he perform ? Who succeeded him ? — !>. Wiat ac- count can you give of Solomon during the different parts of his reign f What did Solonion procure of Hiram ? Who svas Hiram ? 46 THE PYRAMIDS. Ancient His. PERI'D III. CHAP. I. d.;ath Tyre fnund- en, nccord- iiis to Dr. Hales.) Si<1oii, the oldest city, eclipsed by Tyre. L'lte Moeris. Besostrie about 125©. Ilia great empire anil edifices. Ramaaes. 1082. C!heops builds the first pyramid. 10. Jerusalem had become enriched by the resitSence of the court, but the ctiuntry around was impoverished. At length, Solomon had the mortification of losing Syria ; which threw oft' the yoke of Israel, and became an independent nation. The peace of his declining days was farther disturbed by the insur- rection of Jeroboam and the Edomites. He died after a reign of forty years, ] 1. Phcenicia, was the earliest commercial nation, md was at this period powerful and wealthy. The Phoenicians excelled in manufactures of various kinds. They monopolized the trade of the west, and are supposed to have visited Britain. They had colonies in Sicily, the north of Africa, and the Persian Gulf. Some attribute to them the inventron of letters^ which, it is believed, they carried into Europe. Tyre, the capital, was in its most flourishing stale between iOOO and 332 B. C. The several cities of Phrenicia possessed independent kings, but they united in a league or confederacy. 12. EGYPT. — In the reign of Mceris, who is regarded as the wisest of the Egyptian kings, the lake Mceris is said to have been excavated. This is one of the most wonderful works of Egypt, and was designed to remedy the inconvenience ansin;^ from the irregular inundations of the Nile. It communicated with the river by a canal, having sluices which opened or shut either the canal or the lake, as there was occasion. Sesostris is the most renowned of the kings of Egypt, and in his reign the empire reached its utmost extent. He first conquered Ethio- pia, and then overran all the southern part of Asia as far as India. Some believe him to be the same, with that Pliaraoli, who in the pride of his power refused to let Israel depart, and was swallowed up in the Red Sea ; but he is generally regarded as much later. To Sesostris is attributed the building of the great sepulchral temple at Thebes, and many otiier of those wonderful monuments of antiquity, of which the astonished tra- veller still finds the stupendous remains. 13. Ramases or Proteus, is mentioned as a king who kept a sumptuous and hospitable court. Cheops is regarded as the builder of the first pj^ramid ; Shishak, the invader of the Jews, as that of the second, and Mycerinus, of the third. The Egyp" tians were, as the inhabitants of India now are, divided into castes. Of these, the lowest were herdsmen, and the highest were priests. These, we have reason to believe, had one reli- gious belief for themselves, and taught another to the people; thus making wicked merchandise of that religious sensibility, which God has given to man, as an evidence that the re do exist lO. What happened to Solomon in his later years ? How long was his reign? — 11. What account can you give of PhcEoicia? In what did the PhcEnicians excel? Where did they go, and what invent? What can you say rf the capital? — 12. What were the mosi distino;uished kings of Egypt during this period ? For what was the reign of Mosris distinguish- ed? What can you say of Sesostris? — 13. What of Ramases? What kings erected the pyramids ? How were the Egyptians divided f What aC' oount can vou srive of the priests f FABULOUS GODS OK THE .WCf.ZSTii. 47 spiritual influences, and supernatural powers. The idolatry -^""'"< ^" which ilie E<^yptian priests taught the people was of a gross peri'diu kind. One oi' their gods, Annufns^ was represented with a dog's i-'"'^''- " head ; another, c/?jo !li80. 5 oF SOLOMON TO THE FOUNDATION > 7 52. < uF ROME,DV ROSiri.lIS. CHAPTER 1. The Hebrews, or Jews. 1. The history of the Jews is always interesting^ to Chris- ineum lians, from its association with that religion from which our perpd iv most assured hopes of hnmortality are derived ; but at this pe- chap. i. riod it is so, of itself considered. The wonderful genius of v^.^'^-v^w David had extended, the Hebrew dominion from the Euphrates to the Mediterranean, and from PhcEuicia to the Pved Sea. He had also amassed large treasures, so that Solomon was the most powerful and wealthy prince of his age. The alliance with Tyre, introduced a commerce, wliich enriched the capital and the court; but it brought habits of luxury, and the people were grievously taxed. Rehoboam, the son of Solomon ascended the throne. The people pressed him to redress their griev- unces. He replied, " My father made your yoke heavy, but I will add to your yoke." Ten tribes revolted ; they recalled Je- loboani, the son of Nebat, who after an unsuccessful insurnx- licn during the life of Solomon, had fled into Egypt, and de- clared him tlieir king. Thus the Hebrew nation became divided into the tw«> kingdoms of Judah and Israel. A.l!!anc« with Tyre. Itehnboani. Chai'TER 1. — 1. Why is the history of the Jews interesting to Chrisiianst Who extended the Hebrew doniinion ? How far? How does it appear that David w.^.s economical ? What eflect had the aUiance with Tyre upon ihe Jewish nation ? W'ho succeeded Solomon ? What was his character * What peiiiioii did he rece ve ? How reply t 53 54 THE KINGDOMS OF JUDAH AND ISRAKt, sncicrx Eis <■) Prophecy had foretold, that the Messiah should be born ot PERi'D IV. the tribe of Judah, and of the family of David. Besides thai CHAP. I. tribe, there remained to Rehoboam, the representative of this family, only the tribe of Benjamin ; the other ten under Jeio- br>?jn, constituting the kingdom of Israel. Of these two king- doms, ilthough Israel was the larger, and more populous, yet Judah, possessing the chief city, was the richer; and their power being nearly equal, their contests were obstinate and destructiva 3. Jeroboam, fearing that the national worship at Jerusalem would draw away his subjects, " caused Israel to sin," by estab- . , j lishing in his kingdom a species of idolatry. Judea was in- vaded by Shishak,* king of Egypt, who pillaged the temple and the king's house, and carried away the spoils. After a reign of seventeen years, Rehoboam was succeeded by his son Abijah, vaded by"the who, in an attempt to recover Israel, obtained a victory over Je- Egyiniana. poboam. AsA, his successor, opposed idolatry and encouraged the subjects of Jeroboam to return to their obedience, and to 955. come up to the great national feasts at Jerusalem. During the reign of this pious prince, Judea was peaceful and prosperous. 4. The Israelites receded farther and farther from the religion of their ancestors. Samaria was founded, and made the capital of Israel, by Omri. Syria had become independent, and Ben- 918. hadad, its king, declared war against Israel, but he was repelled Baal, the by Ahab the son of Omri, a powerful but wicked and idolatrous idol, set up king. Elijah fearlessly encoimtered four hundred priests of "by Ah'ab ''' ^'^^^i ^^^ Phoenician idol set up for worship by Ahab : and al- though God, by sending from heaven upon Elijah's sacrifice, the fire for which he prayed, accredited him as his prophet, still he Jehosaphat was not regarded. Asa, king of Judah, after a long reign, was "aUiance" Succeeded by his worthy son, Jehosaphat, who entered into with Ahab. an alliance with the king of Israel, and married hiy son Jeiioram to Athaliah, daughter of Ahab. 5. Jehu, who had succeeded to the throne of Israel, determin ing to extirpate the family of Ahab, slew among others, Aha- Ath r h' ^■^"•1 ^^^^^ king of Judah and son of Athaliah. This cruel wo- crueity.. i^fin iiow caused her son's children to be put to death, that slie * According to learned conjecture, of Egyptian antiquities, this king h,i 1 two daughters, ^i'he elder, remarkably beautiful, was that " sister spouse" of Solomon, to whom it is supposed the Canticles were addressed, and the other subsequently became the wife of Jeroboam. The sons ot Shishak; the "angry brothers" of SolomoTi's wife, were, it seems, displeasfJ thai their sister was subordinate in the harem to the mother of his heir, and this, it is conjectured, led to the Egyptian invasion. 1. Who was Jeroboam? Who made him their king? What two na lions now existed in Judea? — 2. Of how many, and what tribes was each composed ? What advantages did each possess ? — 3. VV hat is further related of Jeroboam? What disastrous invasion of Judea is related? Who was king of Israel next after Rehoboam ? Who next, and what was his char- acter ? — 4. What was the condition of the kingdom ol Israel ? What became its capital? By whom founded? Who invaded that' kingdom? By whom was it defended ? What idol was set up ? By whom ? What pro- phet opposed this impiety? Who was Jehosaphat? What alliance was entered into? — 5. What was done by Jehu 914. FEMALE AruOClTY. COMPASSION, AND EXTERPRJSK. 53 miglit reign in Jerusalem. But the design of God, that of -^"^icnima the se<.:d of David should coine the Messiali, was not thus to pkhpdiv be frustrated. One infant was saved from tlie massacre by the fiiAP. ii. compassionate Jehoshaba, wife of Jehoida, the high priest, fie '>«*''~^ ""«•»' was concealed for six years ; and at the age of seven, proclaimed knig in tlie temple, by the name of Joash. Athaliah heard tlic n.;f grand- shout, and rushed into the temple, crying treason ! treason ! But ,^",'Ji"'v^^|', she was Seized and put to death. Several bloody wars took ph^^^} between Israel and Syria, durir^ one of which occurred the distressing siege of Samaria. CHAPTER n. Carthage. — Greece. 1. AnouT this period, a colony of Phoenicians from Tyre, under Dido their queen, settled on the shores of Africa, and s^'ft- buih Carthage. As tliis event lianncried so much later than the Canhagc destruction of Troy, the story cannot be true, which is told by *^""^f^o '"' Virgd. of the visit to this queen of J^neas, who liad escaped from the flames of that city. 2. Jilliens was now under the government of hereditary archons, and was gradually acquiring power and rank among the states of Greece. . Lycurgus was of the family of the Her- aclidai, ami commonly reckoned the tenth in descent from Her- cules. By his magnanimity in preserving the crown of Sparta 8S4. for the infant son of a deceased brother, when it was offered to al^partan himseh', he obtained among the people great and deserved popu- P"»ce. larity ; and during the minority of his nephew, the govenmient svas placed in liis hands. He gave to Sparta a new and singu- lar constitution, the ciiicf aim of which was to banisli luxury, instil public spirit in the place of private interest, and to increase the power of the .'^tate, by making it a nation of soldiers. 3. Lycurgus procured a new and equal distribution of land. He compelled every citizen to eat at a public table, where the food was of the simplest kind, and die conversation grave and iustructive. He banished commerce and all superfluous arts Law^foi from S]>arta; and forbade the use of any other money Uian iron 'l^-oAui coin. He establislied a senate of iwenty-eiirht ni(!mbers. to be '".:*'^'^ " '^■"" ekct(!d by the people, over whom the two knigs of Sparta were ' diurs. to preside; also an assembly of die people, which had the power of repealing or sanctioning the decrees of the s>enate. i. Relate the history of Joash ? Chapter II. — I. Who was Dido? For what is 8l\e distingMished ? What hns Virgil related ? Why can this not be true ? — "I. What wns the condi- tion of Athens during this period ? Who was Lycurijiis ? How did he be- come popular in Sparta ? What did he give (o Sparta ? — 3. \\ hat wcro the principal of his institutions 68 THE FAiMOUS CONSTITUTION OP LYCURGUS. The Spar- tans sacri- fice private to public virtue. Self-devo- tion of Lycurgns. 886. Lycurgiis tods the poems of Homer. Death of Ly- CUfgUG. The children of the Spartans were taken from their parents as the property of the state; the males were trained to arms, and the females rendered hardy and vigorous by exercise and tem- perance. Mothers were taugiit to rejoice when their sons fell in defence of their country ; and courage was placed first among good qualities. The Spartans were allowed neither fleets noi walls. 4. The institutions of Lycurgus were far from promotii^g those social aflections and domestic virtues, so essential to indi- vidual happiness. The youth were directed to steal messes, herbs, &.c., from the public halls and gardens ; but, if detected, they were severely punished. The design was, by teaching them to become dexterous and cunning, to render them more fit for the stratagems of war. A boy having stolen a young fox and hid it in his bosom, suffered it to tear out his vitals, rather than bear the detection of his theft. The Lacedaemonians were for- bidden to follow agriculture, or to cultivate mechanic arts. All servile offices were assigned to the Helots* or slaves, who were treated with great severity. Having bound his countrymen by an oath, to observe his laws until he returned, Lycurgus left Sparta, and returned no more •, thus seeking to insure the per- manency of his institutions by a voluntary banishment. During the 500 years in which the Lacedaemonians adhered to thesr laws, they were a powerful people. 5. Lycurgus having labored for the good of his own state, travelled over tlie other portions of Greece. Journeying to Asia, he beheld, with delight, the prosperous condition of the Asiatic colonies. There he discovered the poems of Homer, which he made known to the Dorian conquerors of the Pelo- ponnesus. These poems constitute one of the greatest wondera of mankind. By them we see poetry, the chief of human arts, brought forth at once in its full perfection, by a poet whose birth-place is unknown, and wlic was probably poor and ob- scure ; — yet to whom, the geography of Greece and Asia, Mino? was certainly known, and probably its early history. 6. According to Plutarch, Lycurgus committed suicide, putting an end to his life by severe abstinence ; but Lucian says, he died a natural death at tlie age of eighty-five. * These were so called from Helos, a Laconiaii town, Fii'jdued by the Spartans, who took the inhabitants prisoners, and reduced them to the con- dition of slavery. Other slaves were afterwards called Helott. 3. "What was the character of these institutions in regard to patriotiara or the love of country ? — 4. What in regard to individual happiness and virtue ? What was forbidden to the Spartans ? By whom were servile ofRces Ic be performed ? Why were they called Helots ? (See note.) What method did Lycurgus take to ensure permanency to his lavs?.— 5. What did hi. observe in Asia Minor? What did Lycurgus diftcover? What do theiy poems constitute? — 6. What accounts are given of the death of LycitgiiS ? Romulus marking out the limits of Rome. PKRIOD V. FROM B. C. THE FOUNDATION ^ 152. ^ OF ROME, BY ROMULUS, 3N< 152. J( TO OF? 35 THE DEATH OF > 323. 5 AI-EXANDiyi THE GREAT. CHAPTER I, Assyria. — Judea and Israel. — Egypt. 1. Ttie sovereign power of Assyria was in the hands of the profligate Sardanapalus, the last and worst of an effeminate race of princes, when Aroaces, oovernor of Media, and Belesis, governor of Babylon, lieaded a revolt of the oppressed and mur- mnring people. Sardanapalus, besieged in Nineveh, his capi- tal, and too weak to attempt defence, ordered the erection of a ftineral pile in his own palace, on which he burnt himself with his wives and treasure. Thus ended the first AssjTian empire ; having existed more than 1450 years. 2. L.'pon its ruins were raised three kingdoms, Babylon^ Me- dia^ and JS'ineveJu or Assyria. Belesis, or Nabonasser, was the fust monarch of Babylon; and to him succeeded Merodach Ba- ladan. Tiglath-Pileser was the first king of Nineveh after the destruction of the ancient Assyrian empire. He was solicited for aid by Ahaz, when Judea was invaded by the kings of Israel and Damascus.* He immediately marched an army into Pales- * Syria was rot. .=rrici!y speaking, a itingdom, for the small cities of which ii « "js foinposed were not connected tinder one government; but j'.ist before tills p< nod, ii.schief city, Datnnscus, hnd snlijecied mosi of the smaller cities, and WHS fdrmed into the kingdom of Damascus. Period V — Chap. 1. — 1. What is said of Pardanapahis ? What hap- pened in hifi reign ? — 2. What three kingdoms are mcniioncd ? From what fcinpire were '.hey formed? Who were the first kings of Bahylon? 5f) .^Kctcnt Rh' n^'Htb-Pv lesf.i rub- dues aU east of ttM' Jcrdu^ 60 THE ASSYRIANS DISTRESS TJIE JEWS. ^neiint His. PERIOD V. CHAP. I. 721. Shalmane- Bur carries away the ten tribes. ■yi-y. Senna- cherib. Qezekiali. Miraculous ilestruction nf Seiina- clierib's host. Manaseeb Esarhaldon takes Jeru- salem, but reetoiea it. tine, invaded Syria, possessed himself of Damascus, subdued Hosea, the king of Israel, took possession of ail the lands on tlie farther side of Jordan, and even exacted tribute from Ahaz. Thus this king, in freeing Judah from the Syrians and Israelites, had introduced a more dangerous enemy. 3. The throne of Assyria was next occupied by Siialmane- SER. He besieged Samaria, which after enduring unexampled horrors from famine, was compelled to surrender; and the ten tribes now suffering the punishment of their continued idolalry and disobedience, were carried into captivity. Great numbers of them were transplanted into a mountainous region hi the in- terior of Asia ; and from this time history is silent with respect to the fate of these lost tribes. 4. Shalmaneser next besieged the wealthy city of Tyre. This siege, in which the Tyrians resisted him with the most invincible courage for five years at length came to an end by his death. Senjvacherib, who succeeded him, demanded of Hezekiah, the reigning king of Judah, a heavy tribute. After this, he marched a powerful army into Egypt, and besieged Pe- lusium. The Egyptians checked his progress by a vigorous re- sistance. He returned and sent again to Hezekiah, demanding the surrender of Jerusalem. The inhabitants were in conster- nation. The fate o^ the ten tribes was vivid in their recollec- tion, and they looked fearfully forward to the destruction of their beloved city. The prophet Isaiah exhorted the king to trusl in the God of Israel, assuring him that the power of the Assy- rian should be broken. At midnight the Lord sent to the camp the angel of death; and in the morning one hundred and eighty- five thousand of the proud Assyrians lay dead on the plain. The humbled Sennacherib hasted to return to his capital, and was soon after assassinated. 5. Hezekiah was succeeded on the throne of Judah by his son, the imperious and profligate Manasseh. Esarhaddon, son of Sennacherib, and monarch of Assyria, taking advantage of the internal troubles of Babylon, made himself master of that city, and reunited it to the Assyrian empire. Syria and Palestine, after the defeat of Sennacherib, had thrown off their allegiance. Esarhaddon recovered them, and then removed from their coun- try the remnant of the Israelites ; transplanting at the same time into the cities of Samaria, an idolatrous people from the coun- tries beyond the Euphrates. He took Jerusalem., and cairied away prisoner Manasseh, the wicked king of Judah ; but after a few years he released him, and restored to him his kingdom. 6. JosiAH restored the purity of the national worship, re- paired the temple, and extirpated Idolatry from the land. But 3. Give some account of Tiglath-Pileser in connexion with Jewish his- tory. — 3. W!io succeeded him on the throne of Assyria ? For what memo- rable events of Jewish history is his reign remariiable ? Is any thing now known of the " ten tribes ?" — 4. Give an account of the siege of Tyre. What account can you give of Sennacherib? — 5, What was the character of Manasseh ? Whni did he succeed? What was done in reference to tfe? Jpws in his reign, by the Assyrians ? DESTRUCTION OF JERUSALEM. 61 111"? virtues suspended for a time only, the fatal decree, wliich -indent Hia h,ad gone forth against a rebellious people. In the wars be- period v. tween Neciio, king of Egypt, and the Assyrians, Josiah opposed chav. i. th-; passage of ihe Egyptians through Judea. A batde was ^-^^/-^k-^ fought between him and the Egyptian king in the valley of Me- 609. gi.ldo. The Jews were overthrown and Josiah mortally -^fEOWDC wounded ; when JNecho marched to Assyria, and conquered se- ^"feat'ihe rcral cities. He then returned to Jerusalem, took the city, de- Jevys. throned Jelioahaz, the youngest son of Josiah, and made Je- finiAKiM king. The success of Necho, in his war against the Babylonians, encouraged the Syrians and Jews to throw off the Assyrian yoke. 7. Nebuchadnezzar, who was at this period associated with his father, Nabopolassar, in the government of Assyria, was the most powerful prince that had yet reigned over the jy h h d Assyrian empire. He recovered from the Egyptians, Carche- nezzar inish, an Assyrian city, which commanded the passage of the ^^fa'^'^em? Euphrates, and which Necho had taken. He then marched against Syria and Palestine, and reunited both provinces to his dominions. He took Jerusalem, and carried away many cap- tives and much treasure, including the sacred vessels of the temple. 8. Mattaniah or Zedekiah, the third in succession from Je- hoiakim. revolted from the Assyrians. Nebuchadnezzar reap- ^ar^ peared before the walls of Jerusalem. The inhabitants, expect- uetakesuie ing succor from Egypt, maintained an obstinate resistance for ''"y ^""^ ^®" nearly a year. The city was at length taken by storm, wlien first tempi» the vengeance of the BaI)ylonians was wreaked upon its inha- 'jitants. The children of the Jewish king were murdered in the presence of their father, ids eyes were put out, and he was carried captive to Babylon. The inhal)itants and the remaining treasures were carried away; and the temple, the dwellings, and the fortifications levelled to the dust. 9. Four years after the destruction of Jerusalem, Nebuchad- 5SJ>. fiezzar besieged Tyre. But not until thirteen years did he J^'^'^f?^^ make himself master of that strong and opulent city. During Takes Tvre iJie seige, the inhabitants retired with their most valuable effects, to an island not far distant, where they built the new city of Tyre. Nebucliadnezzar next invad-jd and subdued Egypt, ^^^.^ v'.iiich though among the most powerful and warlike of the Egvm anr.ient nations, was now rent bv intestine divisions, and weakened by rebellion. The footsteps of his army were every whore marked with such horrible devastation, that forty ispunishea years were not sufficient to repair their ravages. On his return ''•^ •**}*, Lo Babylon, his mind being lifted up, and his heart hardened "^'p ' fi. Wha£ kins' of Juda'i restored the national worship? In what battle was he mortally wounded? Give some account of Necho — 7. Who were the kings of Assyria ? — "*. What account can you give of Nebuchadnezzar's nets in reference to the .lews ? — ?). What df Nebuchadnezzar's conduct in regard to the Pha-nicians? What in regard to Egypt' What happened nri hie return to Babvlon ? 65/ THE MEDES CONQUER ASSYRIA. ^10. Uojoces founds Media. (85S. Phraortes conquers Persia. 634. Cvaxares. The Scythians invade Media. The Kingdom of Lydia ap- pears in his- tory. «12. Nineveh vleslroyed. witu pride, the Almighty deposed him from his kingly throne, and drove him from the dwellings of men. His body was wei with the dew of heaven, and he ate the food of beasts, until he knew " that God ruleth over the kingdoms of men." 10. MEDIA. — Dejoces established the first monarchy of Jtft- dia. His efforts « ere directed to the improvement of the savage and licentious manners then prevailing among the people; and dur- ing a reign of fifty-three years, he preserved the nation in peace. He founded the city of Ecbatana, and made it the capital of his kingdom. Dejoces was succeeded by his son Phraortes, who extended the kingdom of Media, by the conquest of Persia ; and subjected to his dominions almost all Upper Asia, from Mount Taurus to the river Halys. Cyaxares, his son and successor, invaded Assyria, defeated the Assyrian army, and laid siege to Nineveh. But he was recalled by a danger which threatened his own kingdom. 11. The Scythians were a barbarous nation, who inhabited the north of Europe. They were unacquainted with the arts and sciences, ignorant of agriculture, and without settled habita- tions. Like other nomadic tribes, thej' wandered from country to country, as the wants of their families and flocks required, removing their wives and children in a kind of wagons covered with the skins of animals, which, when they settled, formed their simple habitations. 12. This formidable people had invaded Media, and threat ened to overspread all Asia. Cyaxares hasted to the relief of his subjects, but was vanquished by the barbarians. For twenty- eight years they spread desolation through all Upper Asia. At length the Medes invited the principal Scythians to a feast, where they were made intoxicated, and in this condition many were massacred. The remainder fleeing to the sovereign of Lydia, (a kingdon now rising to consequence,) he afforded them protection. This embroiled Cyaxares in a war with the Lydi- ans, which, after five years of nearly equal success on both sides, was terminated by peace. 13. Cyaxares no sooner found himself established in his king- dom, than his thoughts reverted to his favorite enterprise, the destruction of Nineveh. He entered into an alliance with Na- bopolassar, who had revolted from the .king of Assyria, and es- tablished himself as an independent king in Babylon. Their united armies laid siege to Niiieveh, and effected its entire de- struction. Saracus, the reigning king, was killed, and Cyax- ares soon made himself master of all the other cities of the kingdom. lO. Who was Dejoces? Phraortes? Cya.xnrss? — 11. Give an aii count of the Scythians. — 12. Give an account ut' the Scythian invasion. Of the means taken to espel them. How was a war with Lydia brought about ? How long did it con inue ? — 13. Give an account of the destrucf i)n of Nineveh. CHAPTER 11. Greece. 1. Tlie Spartans, under the laws of Lycurgus, had increased -*>««£«« ffts in power, and become the terror of the surrounding states. The peiiioo"v. Argives, (people of Argos ;) the Arcadians, and especially the ciia?. ii. Messenians, suffered from their ambition. The first war with ^•^-^^v-Vi^ Messenia continued twenty years, during which the Spartans "7-12. entirely subdued that people. For forty years they retained them in bondage. 2. At length, Aristomenes arose and attempted the rescue of his country. After having fought three years, with great braver)', and defeated the Spartans in several engagements, Aris- secondMee- tomenes was forced to throw himself into Eira, a strong fortress senian war. near the sea. Here he had maintained himself during a siege of eleven years, when the Lacedaemonian commander, discover- ing, on a stormy night, a post which had been deserted by its guard, occupied it with his troops. Aristomenes struggled two days and three nights to regain it. Finding himself foiled, and the people suffering with hunger, he formed a column, in the ^he'p^f^t' centre of which he put die women and children, and resolutely chief, demanded a passage out of the place. His enemies saw that he was rendered desperate, and suffered him to retreat to Arcadia. A part of the Messenians were made Helots or slaves, a part Italian and leceived the protection of their allies the Arcadians, and many e^.l^n^'j migrated to Italy and Sicily, and there founded Rhegium and Messina. Sparta was now the chief state of Greece. 3. Athens was gradually assuming a republican form of go- vernment. After a succession of twelve hereditary archons, the term of oflice was limited to ten years, the archons still to be chosen from tlie family of Codrus. Nine archons were subse- quently chosen in place of one, and the term of ofKce limited to one year. Tiiese nine were at first elected by the voluntary suffrages of the people, afterwards by lot from among the no- bles. Faction and discord prevailing, a reform was needed, and praco foinM a code of laws, termed the bloody code, was made by Draco, a code of By this, the smallest offence, and the most heuious crime, were ''^^'^' alike punished witli death or banishment. 4. Tliirty years after Draco, when the Athenians, by the 594 rigor and injustice of his laws, were plunged into confusion and go^oli'^on misery, the wise Solon was appointed archon, with the power of "the of reforming the state. His first attempt was to settle the quar- '^Vwnof rels between the rich and the poor. In order to remove the '^r'-ece." Chap. II. — 1 . What was the condition and conduct of the Spartans f How long was their first war with the people of Messenia? How did it termi- nate? — 5J. Give an accoum of the second Messenian war. — .'J. What changes occurred in the government of Athens? What were the laws of Draco called ? "'^'^hy ? — 4. What was the effect of " the bloody code ?'' 63 64 PISISTRATUS TYRANT OF ATHENS. PERIOD V. ■■;haP. II. Solon di- vides the people into tuar rlasses. 594. Power of llie Areopa- gus in- crensed. 5@0. PIsislratus disregards the laws of Rolon. He ccllects the first pub- Ik. library at Athens. evils which arose from the debts of the poor, and the power of their creditors, he lowered the interest of money, raised its no- minal value, and deprived creditors of power over the persons of dehtors, or those of their families. He extended the right of property beyond the death of the owners, allowing them tc dis- pose of their estates by will. He divided the people into four classes according to their wealth. Only the first three classes, composed of the rich, could hold public offices ; but the fourth had an equal vote in the assembly of the people. 5. The nine archons were continued as chief magistrates, but associated with them was a r.ouncil or senate; and nothing could be brought before the people which had not been first dis- cussed in this body. The members of the senate were chosen annually by lot, from the first three classes of citizens, and con- sisted of four hundred persons. The assembly of the people comprised the four classes of citizens, and possessed the power of deciding upon war or peace, of choosing the magistrates, and of deliberating upon the subjects proposed by the senate. So Ion re.'tored and augmented the power of the Areopagus,* mak- ing it me supreme court of judicature. It was composed of those who had held the office of archon with honor and dignity, and its members retained their place for life. The reputation of this court for justice and integrity was so great, that it is said even the Romans, who were now rising to power, referied causes to its decision. 6. But these wise regulations did not long restrain the rept- less spirit of the Athenians. Pisistratus, a descendant of the ancient kings, and a relation of Solon, by his insinuating mari- ners, and great pretences to zeal for the j)eople, made liimself the most popular man in Athens. Appearing one day in the market-place, bloody and covered with wounds, he declared he had received them from his enemies, by whom he hail been waylaid. The people believed that his life had been thus ex- posed for the public good, and a guard of fifty soldiers was granted him. Soon after this, he augmented the number, seized the Acropolis, and exiled all who would not submit. Thus he made himself tyrantt of Athens. He was twice expelled, bm finding means to reinstate himself, he reigned seventeen years in peace. He governed in a mild and equitable manner, not at- tempting any farther alterations in the constitution of Solon. He established a public libi-ary, and made the Athenians ac- * Plutarch attributes the origin of this hifrh tribunal to Solon; but from other authorities it would appear that it existed, though with inferior powers, in the time of Draco. t The Greeks employed the word tyrant, in a sense diflferent from its modern acceptation. With them, it denoted a person who had obtained the sovereignty in a republic, but it had no reference to the abuse of power. 4. Give an account of Solon. Of his edict to help the poor ? Of that in reference to wills ? Respecting the divisions of the people ? — 5. What did Solon direct in regard to the archon? % What with respect to a senate ? What respecting an assembly of the people ? ^Vhat concerning the Areopagus ? — ft. Who subverted the laws of Solon ? Give an account of him. RISK OF THK PERSIAN FOWKR. 65 quainted with the poems of Homer, which he collected, and or- •^""*"' ^^'* dered to he read at the puhlic f;asts. Pekiod v 7. Pisistratus was succeeded by his sons, Hippias and Hip- (-haf. w. PARCHUS. Their united reign, at first popidar, was, after a few v^~v"^ years, terminated hy the assassination of Hipparchus, at a reli- jjioiis feslival. From this time, the government of Hippias ex- hibits a jealous and cruel policy. The Alcmaeonida?, a power- 521. fill family, who had been banished from Athens, united with n'/ppaniuw Cleomenes, the reigning king of Sparta. They advanced with a large army, and joined by other exiles who had suffered from iho cruelty of Hippias, laid siege to Athens. Hippias and his family lied from Attica and went to Sardis, then under the government of Darius, king of Persia, who espoused his cause. 6. Ci.isTiiENES, one of the Alcnicconidas, succeeded to power. He undermined the constitution of Solon, by introducing certain 510. alterations pleasing to the populace. He increased the numl)er rrg*\^.g"^ of tribes from four to ten, and enacted that fifty should be councUof chosen from each tribe to constitute the senate, from this time, ^*^^"' called tJie council of Jive hundred. CHAPTER HI. Persia. — The empire of Cyrus. Section I. 1. Persia, until the time of Cyrus, consisted of twelve tribes, who inhabited only one province of the vast territory which has since borne this name. Of these tribes, the Pasargada;, to which Cambvses, the father of Cyrus, belonged, was the most noble. The power of Asia was at this time divided between Babylon, Media, and Lydia. Cr(Esus, the king of Lydia, was 560 renowned for his wealth. With the exception of Lycia and E^enTofhtf Cilicia, his dominions extended over all Asia west of the Halys. Kingiom Babyhm, under the successors of Nebuchadnezzar, had been declining in power. 2. Cyrus was the son of Cambyses, a Persian noble, and RIandane, the daughter of Astyages, king of Media. The Per- sian tribes united in him, as their chief or king, and he effected 559 tlu; union of the Persian and Median kingdoms. The" victories '^^.'p"^"'^,'^ of Cyrus over the Armenians, aroused the jealousy of the ne'gh- Vn--. boring sovereigns. A coalition was formed between the kings 7. (Jive an account of his successora. — 8. Who next rose to power, and tiow did he alter the laws of Solon ? Chap. III. — 1. Between what three kingdoms was the power of Asia divided? What can you say of Croesus and his dominions ? What of Bo- ' bylon ? — 5f . Give «ti account of Cyrus ? 9 66 GREAT PERSIAN KMPIRK UNUER CYRUS. Antsent His. PERIOD V CllAl' 11'.. 5-fiS. VHYMBRJl Cyrus llctoiious over the aliiea. Bolshas- ^n.r's feast. Daniel wophesies. 538. Bt'lphazzar slain. The temple ■ t Jerusa- lem rebuilt. Cyrus l.illed in Scythlrt. succeeds biin. of Babylon, Eg}^pt, and Lydia, and a battle fought betwef^n the Persians and the allied forces at Tkymhra^ a city oi" Lydia, in which the fortune of Cyrus prevailed. He soon made himself master of Sardis, the capital of Lydia, seized upon the vast riches of CrcEsus, took him prisoner, and put a period to his kingdom, obliging his people to adopt the Persian costume and manners. In his distress the fallen monarch called out •' Solon! Solon !" In his prosperity he had received a visit from that philosopher, who would not call him happy, beca t:;»^ he lived ; and no man living could tell what dangers he miglit yei experience. 3. Having reduced all Asia Minor, Cyrus carried the war into the Babylonian empire, and in a pitched battle, defeated Bel- suAZZAR, who retreated to his capital. The conqueror then sat down before the city. Knowing what passed within, he ordered his men, on a certain evening, to open the great recep- tacles, prepared by former sovereigns to draw off the water of the river in seasons of inundation. Thus the channel of the Euphrates was drained. Belshazzar, secure in the strength of liis city, had that night made a great feast for his nobles, and in tlie disorder of the festival, die gates of brass, which had closed the descent to the river, had been left open. The troops of Cyrus, passing into its bed, were soon in the heart of the city. In the meantime, the effeminate monarch had been awaken- ed from his dream of pleasure and security, by a mysterious appearance. A hand had written on the wall in characters of divine vengeance — " Mene,tekel." Daniel, severe in youthful sanctity, fearlessly read to him their prophetic import, "• Thou art weighed in the balance, and found wanting." At this dread moment, the troops of Cyrus were at hand, to verify the words of the prophet. Almost without resistance, they took the city, and slew the sentenced Belshazzar. 4. Cyrus jjermUted the Jews, who were still in captivity in Babylon, to return to Jerusalem., and not only assisted them 'n rebuilding tlieir temple, which had been destroyed by Nebuchad- nezzar, but restored its sacred vessels. The dominions of Cy- ■ rus extended from the river Indus to the JEgcan Sea, and from the Caspian and Euxine Seas, to Ethiopia and the Sea of Jlrahia. He was a great and virtuous king, and his name was long held in reverence among the nations of the east. He Ava.s killed tn an expedition against the Scythians. 5. Cambyses, his son, succeeded him. This cruel prince ex" tended his dominions by the conquest of Egypt, whose king he put to death. From a jealousy of his brother Smerdis, he or- dered his assassination. During the absence of Cambyses, a 3. On what occasion was the batile of Thymhra fought? What fol- lowed? What reminded Crcesus of Solon? — 3. Where did Cyrus noxi carry the war ? Relate the manner in which the Persians entered Babylon. Relate what happened to Belshazzar. — 4. What favours did the Jews re ceive from Cyrus ? What was the extent of the empire of Cyrus ? What was his character ? How did he lose his life ?— 5. What was 'he name ani! character of his successor} ri: K PKHSIAN'S INVADI-J THE SCYTHIAXa b7 Mugian, calling liimself Smerdis, pretended to have escaped the i!it(!nded assassination, and seized upon the throne of Persia. 'i'he imposition was at length discovered, and the impostor de- throned and killed. 6. The royal family becoming extinct by the death of Cam- bvces, Darius Hystaspes, a Persian nobleman, was raised to tiie throne. He recovered Babylon, which had revoked, and then collected a fovmidable army for the invasion of Scythia, taking as allies some of the Asiatic Greeks. He passt (! into Europe, and crossed the Danube on a bridge of boats. This lie left in charge of his Greek allies, with permission, if he did not come back in three months, to destroy the bridge, and return to their country. The Scythians, on learning that Darius had crossed the Danube, sent away their wives and children with their flocks, to the northern part of their country. They then laid waste the region through which the Persians must pass; consuming the forage, and destroying the wells and springs. Having done this, they marched towards their enemy, not with the view of giving him battle, but of drawing him into an am- buscade. Darius advanced ; at length a herald from the Scythian prince appeared, bringing to him a present of a bird, a mouse, a frog, and five arrows. One of his officers expounded the enig- ma, which the messenger refused to do. " Know," said he, 'Mhat unless you can fly in the air like birds, or hide yourself ill the earth like mice, or swim the water like frogs, you shall hi no wise be able to escape tlie arrows of the Scythians." 7. The Persian ami}*, amid the barren steppes of the north, and annoyed i)y the wily enemy, becoming disheartened, their monarch was compelled to relinquish his imprudent enterprise, and retrace his steps towards the Danube. Tiie Persians, hav- ing as usual lighted fires in their camp, the Scythians did not discover their retreat till morning, when they despatched envoys (o persuade the Greeks to destroy the bridge, they had been left to guard. Being acquainted with all the 'passes, they arrived before Darius. A consultation of the Grecian chiefs was held, many of whom, believing that the destruction of Darius v.'ould procure the future independence of their own states, were in favor of destroying the bridge. Other counsels prevailed ; but this treachery was made known to Darius, and was onp cause of his subsequent hostility to the Greeks. He recrossed Oie Danube in safety, and leaving Mkgabysus, one of his gene- ral?, with part of his army, he retired with the rest of his troops to Sardis. Macedonia and Thrace were conquered by Mega- V,'sus, and added to the Persian dominions. 8. The loniuns of Asia, who had for some time been subject to the Persians, headed by Aristaooras, tyrant of Miletus, re- PERIOD V CHAiv ni. 196. I)ariu6 invadeE Sc)thia- Present ol llifl Sry thians to Uariua Darius re- turns, but leaves au army Persiaiii conquer ThrJice anv Macf loma 5. What were some of his acts? — 6. Who succeeded him ? What were his first measures? What did ihe Scythians when their country was invaded ? How was their present explained ? — T. Ivelate the circumstances of Danits' retreat What cause of hostility to the Greeks did he find? Whs' generat did he leave in Europe ? What countries did lie conouer? 68 PERSIANS AT AVAR WITH THE ASIATIC GREEKS. PEItlOD V. CHAP. ni. Asiatic Creelis re- volt 494. Greeks biiiii Sardis. Are defeiited. Miletus be sieged. Naval vic- tory of I '.e Persians, atid DTstTuctinn of MILETUS. irtardonius invades Greece. Ilia fleet wreck- ed &t Mount Athoe. voited from Darius, and despatched ambassadors to the several states of Greece, to implore their aid, Cleomenes, king of Sparta, refused to engage in the war ; but the Athenians, offended with Darius for havmg taken part with Hippias, their banished king, now willingly entered into an alliance with the 'onians To render the revolt against the Persians more formidable, bj, engaging the people heartily m their cause, Aristagoras travelled throusfh all Ionia, prevailing upon the tyrants to restore freedom to the cities, of which he himself set an example by liberating Miletus, 9. In the third year of the war, the lonians collected a fleet, and sailed for Ephesus. Leaving their ships at that place, they marched to Sardis, which they took, and having driven Arta- PHERNES, the cruel Persian governor, into the citadel, they set fire to the city. They then marched towards Ephesus, but the Persian and Lydian annies overtook and defeated them with great slaughter. The Athenians escaped to- their ships, and re- fused to engage any further in the war. 10. Miletus being the centre, and most important city of the Ionian confederacy, Artaphernes concentrated his forces, and besieged the place. The lonians, with a fleet of three hundred and fifty-three vessels, determined to engage the Persians at sea ; who with a naval force far superior to theirs, were lying near the besieged city. So skilful were the Greeks in maritime affairs, that the Persian commander dared not hazard an engagement until he had first sought to corrupt the different squadrons of which the Ionian fleet was composed. He promised indemnity to those countries whose vessels should forsake the Ionian cause, and threatened utter destruction to the places, whose fleets should adhere to it. All, but the Samians, stood firm in their devotion to the common cause. Their admiral, in the commencement of the battle, gave the signal for flight, and of their sixty ships, forty-nine deserted. The Samian people dis- approved his treachery, and ordered the names of the eleven captains who disobeyed his commands, to be honorably re- corded on a pillar erected by the commonwealth. Tliough the lonians and most of tlie allies fought with bravery, the battle was lost. Miletus was soon after taken by assault; its inhabit- ants put to the sword, and its dwellings and temples burned. Devastation was spread through the towns and country, to thp shores of the Hellespont. 11. Artaphernes was recalled, and succeeded by Mardonius, a young nobleman, who had married a daughter of Darius. He was directed, with a large army and a powerful fleet, to carry the war into Greece. His land army crossed the Hellespont, 8, Who revolted from the Persians ? From whom did they seek for aid, and with what success? What measures were taken by Aristagoras ? — 9. Relate the naval operations of the war. What city did the Greeks burn ? What followed ? How did the Athenians bear this reverse > — lO. What is eaid of Miletus ? By whom was it besieged ? Relate the naval battle. Jis result — 11. Who succeeded Artaphernes ? THE FIRST PKFISIAN INVASION OK GREECE C9 and marched into I\Iace(lonia and Thrace. His fleot, in •^"^'*'" ^^ doubling Mount Alkns^ was exposed to a violent storm, in which period v three hundred ships, and twenty thousand men were lopt. The chap. iv. season was advanced, and the Persians for the time relinquished '^^^/-^^' tlie enterprise, and re'.urned to Asia. CHAPTER IV. Greece. — The Persian War. 1. Greece was at th's time composed of a number of small and independent states, connected witii each other by ni bond of interest or obligation, but often engaged in feuds and hostUi- ties. Sparta and Athens, having obtained a pre-eminence over the other states, were ever jealous of each other. The Persian ".nvasion for once united them, a national spirit awoke, and laid the foundation of future greatness. The year following the in- vasion of Mardonius, Darius sent heralds into Greece, demand- ing of all the cities earth and water, llie usual form in wiiich the Persians exacted submission. Thebes, yEgina, and many of the cities and islands submitted ; but Athens and Sparta re- sented the demand, and in the one place the heralds were thrown into a cave, in the other into a well, and bade to procure liiere the earth and water which they wanted. 2. Darius, in the meantime, had made vigorous preparations for the war. Datis, with ARTAPHERNEs,son of the former go- vernor of Lydia, was appointed to succeed Mardonius. They departed from Asia Minor with a fleet of 500 ships, and an army of 100,000 men. Having taken the islands of the iEgean Sea, they proceeded to Eretria, a city of Euboea, which had greatly incensed Darius by its participation in the Ionian war. Having reduced the city to ashes, and sent the inhabitants in chains to Persia, the Persians, under the guidance of Hippias, the banished king of Athens, advanced towards Attica, and landed on the narrow plain of Jlfaro/Aon. 3. The Spartans, from some superstitious fears, were imwil- luig to join the little band of Athenians till after the full moon. In MiLTiADES, the Athenians possessed a commander capable of directing the energies of the republic, and infusing into the breasts of the people the ardor of his own self-devoting spirit. He had formerly been tyrant of the Chersonesns, and havuigf 8 1 . Relate the circumstances of his invasion ? Cha?. IV. — 1. Of what was Greece composed ? Which states were at ihf head of Greece ? In what manner did the Persians demand submission ? How did the several states answer them ? — 'i. Relate the military arrange- ments of Darius. The number of his ships ? His trooos ? Their -irogress until they arrive at Marathon ? — a. What forces on the part 0^ t/ie Greeks ODposed this formidable armv ' 491. Darius e». nctB pub- mission o< Greece. Diiiia ."iiU Arta- plicrne* Persians land in At III. a- Ppartano am taidy. hi MARATHON. 490. MARJ}- THOJV. Persian loss, 12,000. Oruek loss, only 200. A soldier runs from Marathon to Athens. MiltiadeH dies in uriscsn. Xer.'ics pre pares to invade 4§0. He Invades Greece. iiccompauied Darius in his Scj'thian expedition, A\'as acquainted with the Persian mode of warl'are. This intrepid man did not even await the approach of the Persians, but marclied onward to Marathon with only his little army of 10,000 heroes, ami prepared with alacrity for the encounter of the Persian ho^U which was ten times his own in number. 4. The strength of the Persian army consisted much in its cavalry, and the prudent Miltiades had drawn up his forces on a narrow plain, where calvary had no opportunity for action. Datis, the Persian commander, was aware of his disadvantage- ous position, but trusting to the superiority of his forces, con eluded to hazard an engagement. On the signal for battle, the Athenians advanced running, at once engaging the enemy in close fight. The whole Persian army retreated in disorder to their ships. The Athenians pursued, slaughtered 12,000, sei many of the ships on fire and took seven. An Athenian sol- dier, finding the victory secure, left the field of battle covered with blood, and such was his exhaustion on reaching the city, that he could only exclaim, " Rejoice, rejoice, the victory is ours," when he fell dead at the feet of the magistrate. 5. Miltiades now obtained of the Athenians a fleet of seventy ships, with the design of punishing those islands which had fa- vored the Persians. He laid siege to Paros, but having received a dangerous wound in attempting to enter the town, he raisei! the siege and returned to Athens. On the accusation of one of the citizens, this benefactor of Greece was tried for treachery in raising the siege. He v/as fined fifty talents, and, being unable to pay this sum, was thrown into prison, where he died of the wounds which he received in the service of his ungi-atefuJ country. 6. Darius was occupied for three years in preparing a more powerful armament, intending to lead the expedition in person; but dying, Xerxes, his eldest son, succeeded him. Xerxes subdued the Egyptians, who had revolted, and then continued tlie vast preparations made for the invasion of Greece. After four years, in which he had gathered an army from every part of his extensive empire, he commenced his march tov.'ards tiie Hellespont. He passed the winter at Sardis. from whence he sent heralds to all the Grecian states, except Athens and Lace- doemon, demanding earth and water. The Thessalians and some others submitted. 7. hi the spring, Xerxes, at the head of an army, said to nave been greater than was ever collected either before or since his time, advanced towards Greece. A bridge of boats had been made at a monstrous expense, for the passage of the host across the Hellespont. The width of the strait and tlie rapidity of the cur rent were not sufliciently considered, and the undertaking proved 3. What account can you give of Miltiades ? — 4. Desciibe the great battle of Marathon. — 5. How was Miltiades treated ? — ©. What was done by Oarius ? What wore the lirst measures of his successor? What was doii« bv Xerxes ill relation to t]\e invasion of Greece? THE GREAT AJOIY OF XEUXES. 71 as useless as it was difficult and dangerous. The bridge was destroyed by i violent storm, and Xerxes, in a fit of passion, ordered ibe workmen to be put to death, and the rebellious sea lo be scourged with three hundred lashes, and chains to be thrown into it. A second attempt succeeded; a bridge was completed, and the army occupied seven days and seven nights in the passage. Having crossed the Thracian Chersonesus, and arrived at Dor, Xerxes reviewed his army. His infantry amounted to 1,700,000, and his cavalry to 80,000. His lleet, when he left Asia, consisted of 1207 vessels, of three banks of oars, each carrying 300 fighting men. The European nations hud added to his fleet 20 vessels, each carrying 200 men ; be- sides w^hich. there were small galleys, transport siiips, and ves- sels carrying provisions, amounting in all to 3000. 8. Great was the terror of the Greeks. Athens and Lacedae- mon sent rmbassadors to Geloa, the principal tyrant of Syra- cuse, — to Argos, and to the isles of Corcyra and Crete. From each an unfavorable answer was returned. The Athenians next consulted the oracle of Delphi. The answer was, tliat when all else was destroyed, their wooden walls might preserve them. This, Themistocles, who now took the lead in Athens, inter- preted to signify their ships. After the battle of Marathon, that profound politician, foreseeing the probable re-invasion of his country, had sought to increase the maritime power of Athens. At his suggestion, the revenues of some silver mines, whicli had usually been distributed among the people, were applied to the building of a hundred galleys. On the first alarm they had doubled their number of ships, and they now appointed The- niistocles to the command. Eukyeiades, a Spartan, was com- mander-in-chief of the whole naval force of the allies. 9. In the present danger, Athens and iEgina had become re- conciled, and all internal divisions were healed. Themistocles joined in soliciting the return of Aristides, whose banishment he had been active in procuring. Aristides had, in the war with Darius, been of great service to the state, and by the spotless integrity of his character had acquired the surname of the Just. While tlie question of his banishment was pending, he heard a citizen, who did not know his person, speak of voting against him. ''• Wliy?" said die good man. '• what evil has Aristides done to you .'" " I am tired," said the citizen, " of hearing liim culled the Just." He dien went into voluntary banishment, but returned at the invitation of his country. 10. The Persian king marched at his ease, through Thrace, Micedonia and Thessaly. The cities through which he passed prepared for hun splendid entertainments; and Xerxes believed he had but to march over the necks of a prostrate people. .iticient Um PERIOD V CHAf. !V. 480. Xcr.xoK reviews Lis erniy. Thcnals tocles tlu? author of the naval power of AtllClld 4S4. Aristides banished by the Ostracism (So called) from the Greek word signifyinR oyster, be- cause tiie people wrote the name o( the person whom tliev wished to banish oo slieils. The man whose namd \\ as written on the preat est number of shells waa banlribed T. Relate Xerxes' pagsaae of the Hellespont. The size of his amy? Of his fleet ? — **. What measures were taken by the Grecians ? How ditl Themistocles persuade the Athenians to increase their navy ? Who were the naval commanders ? — 9 What account can you give of Anstides t 72 LEONIDAS. PERIOD V CHAP. IV. 4SO. Persians wpulsed at THERMO- Death of Leonidas and 20,001) Persians. The Persian fleet. Leonidas, the king of Sparta, met him at the pass of Thenno pylae,* with only five thousand regular troops. Xerxes, hearing that the Spartans had taken possession of this narrow pass, seni to them that it was the Athenians only, with whom he was at war, and he desired that they would lay down their arms. " Tell him to come and take them," said Leonidas. The Per- sians attacked, and were repulsed with great slaughter by the Grecian phalanx.| During three days the Persians made re- peated attempts, but the Spartans kept the pass. At length a treacherous Greek showed them a secret path, which led to the top of a mountain overlooking and commanding the Spartan position. Leonidas now determined to sacrifice himself and his Spartans, believing that their devotion would show the Per- sians with whom they had to contend ; and his example enkin- dle the enthusiasm of his countrymen. Besides, the oracle had declared that either Sparta or her king must perish. Reserving his three hundred Lacedaemonians, who were emulous of shar- ing his fate, he dismissed the others. Without a hope either of conquest or escape, this little band advanced to the onset, determined that their lives should cost their enemies dear. Leonidas was one of the first who fell. His soldiers, roused to fury, rallied around his body, and fought till 20,000 Persians were slain. Only one of the three hundred remained to carry the news. Sparta despised him, while she rejoiced over hei patriot sons, who so nobly died in her defence. IL The fleet of Xerxes had encountered a terrible storm, which had destroyed hundreds of his vessels. It had followed the movements of the land forces, and lay near them, on the northern coast of Euboea, and was still superior to the Grecian in strength. Several engagements took place between them, which, though not decisive, were favorable to the Athenians, and served to animate their spirits. News of the battle of Thermopylas, induced the Grecian fleet to withdraw from the neighborhood f>f the Persian, which now took possession of Euboea. Xerxes, advanced through Phocis, burnt its cities, and laid Avaste the country. 12. The Peloponnesians, forgetful of the claims of their al- lies, set about fortifying their peninsula by a strong Avail ex- tending across the isthmus from the gulf of Corinth to the gulf of Athens. When the Athenians found themselves deserted, * This was a narrow pass between Mount CEta and the sea, leading from Thcssaly into Phocis. It derived its name from two Greek words, thermm, warm springs, of which there were several near, and pylcB, gales. Through this narrow way, not wide enough for two chariots to pass each other, the Persian land forces were obliged to march on their way to Attica. t A square battalion, or body of soldiers, with their shields joined and pikes crossing each other ; and so closely arranged in rank and file, as to render it exceedingly difficult to break it. It sometimes consisted of 8,000 or 10,000 men, but frequently of a smaller number. 10. Relate the conduct and fate of Leonidas. Where was ThermopyliB i — 11. Relate the naval operations. The progress of the Persiaii fieel and land army. — 12. What circumstances preceded the destruction of Athens ? THE FLIGHT OF XERXES. 73 tney abandoned their city. Almost all the male citizens went on board the ships, piously trusting, through faith in the oracle, to their " wooden walls." The protection of the city was so- lemnly committed to Minerva, and the women and children were sent to Salamis and iEgina. Xerxes advanced and took Athens ; he burnt the citadel, and slaughtered the few remaining citizens who had valiantly defended it. Tiie hnest paintings and statuary he sent to adorn Susa, now the capital of his own dominions. ] 3. Eurybiades, with most of the conleuerates, desired to re- treat with tlie Grecian navy, near to the isthmus of Corinth, where tiie Grecian land forces were stationed. But Themisto- cles urged the necessity of maintaining the advantageous posi- tion which they occupied in the narrow strait of Salamis. At the same time, to oblige the Greeks to tight, he used a strata- gem, wliich brought the Persians to threaten them at both ends of the strait. Aristides, who was at Ji^gina, on learning the movements of the Persians, procured a passage to Salamis. On his arrival, the officers were discussing the expediency of a retreat, but he informed them that tlio entrances of the strait were already in the hands of the Persians. 14. Nothing was lelt to the Greeks but united resistance. The Persian fleet was far superior in numbers to theirs. The land army, with Xerxes at its head, was drawn up on the Attic shore. The vain monarch, confident that he should but witness an easy conquest, was struck witli astonishment and dismay when he found the valor of the Greeks prevailing, and at length beheld the destruction and flight of his mighty armament. Alarmed for his personal safety, he was seized with an eager desire to escape from a country, where victory itself had been to him scarcely more than another name for defeat. Fearing, from secret advices, that his bridge across the Hellespont might be destroyed, he hastened to depart, leaving 300,000 of his best forces under Mardonius, by which he still hoped to subjugate the country. 15. The Greeks pursued, as Xerxes fled before them, lor forty-five days, during which, his army suflTered great distress from famine. At lengtli disease appearing among them, he left them behind, and with only a few attendants hurried forward. Findmg his bridge across the Hellespont destroyed, he did not delay in order to chastise the sea a second time, but crossed it hi a small fishing boat. The remains of the Persian fleet were stationed at Samos, to prevent the revolt of some of the pro- vinces of Asia Minor. Mardonius with his troops retired for winter quarters into Thessaly. 16. The Carthaginians^ who, (oUowei] the steps of the PhoR- nicians, from whom they sprang, had made themselves a wealthy Ancient His The Greek fleet suc- cessful by means of Tliemislo flea 4SO. Defeat and (lif-'ht of Xerxe« ^^ar<1onial reipaini- Xor^ics humbled, reoroHses the Hclle» pont 12. What attended it? — 13. What rircnmstanres led to the hatt'.e of Salamis? — 1-1. What was the position and roiuhici . Give an account of the battle of the Eurymedon. Chaf. V. — 1. What was the slate of Greece at this period? What was the ciiaracter and spirit of their mythology 1 — '2. What was held at Athens ? What account can you give of Socrates ? Of Plato? Of Aristotle? Of Zeno ? What double-dealing was practised by the Eiiyptian priests ? Who was their scholar? What did he teach to his scholars? How? WKh. ■iifTcrRiice was them in the manner olilic Atuenian sages? <0 THE AGE OF PERICLES. PERIOD V. CHjil'. V. The great sculptor Phidias died 432. (Apelles the preat pain- ter, lived about the same time.) 444. Romaa deputatioB. [lerodotus. (A.ristoi/ha- nes, a writer of comedy and satire, lived about tliis lime.) to their pupils, they taught that there was but one God . Pythago- liAS, who had received from them their doctrines, taught this to his scholars at his famous school of Crotona, in Italy, but fri' vately. The democratic philosophers of Athens taught public-^ ly for the good of mankind at large, whom they respected^ what they themselves believed. 3. The elegant arts of poetry, painting, sculpture, and archi- tecture, were also at this period carried to a perfection never yet equalled in any other age or country. Much credit for pa tronizing the arts and sciences is due to Pericles, who now obtained ascendency in Athens, and preserved liis authority for the forty years comprising the golden period of Athenian liis- tory. 4. Though born and nurtured in the aristocracy, yet he artfully joined the democratic party to undermine the influence of Arislides and Cimon. Aristides died, Cimon was ban- ished, and Pericles ruled without a rival. Content with the substance of power, he forbore to excite envy by its pomps and titles. When he spoke, it was with force and eloquence. His ad- ministration was just and equitable; but still he was more his own, than his country's friend. He corrupted the people by treasures, which he removed from Delphos to Athens. He caused the city to be embellished by splendid buildings, and superb statues, executed by Phidias.* The envy which he shunned himself, he thus drew upon Athens, from the other Grecian states, and in this manner paved the way for attacks from without ; while by flattering the lowest of the people, he weakened the force of the laws, undermined the internal con- stitution of the state, and rendered it unable to make a vigorous resistance. 5. Such was the reputation for wisdom, which Athens had at this period acquired in distant countries, that a new nation, rising in the west, sent deputies to obtain the laws of Solon This nation was Rome, destined to be the conqueror ol Greece About this time, Herodotus, the " father of history," read his work to a public assembly at Athens, and received flattering honors. Euripides, Eschylus and Sophocles cai ried the Greek drama to its perfection. Though Greece was thus esteemed by other nations, yet her states, wanting a well defined system of con- federacy, were no sooner delivered from foreign pressure, than * His statue of Minerva was the pride of Athens; but when he was ban- ished he made for the people of EHs a still nobler inonament of his art, the statue of Jupiter Olympus, reckoned one of the wonders of the world. A temple of Minerva, situated on the Acropolis, was said to have been A\e most beautiful building ever erected. It was of pure white Pentelican mar ble. It was called Parthenon, because erected to a virgin goddess. Phidia was the chief architect. a. In what besides philosophy did the Greeks excel ? Who patronized the arts and sciences? — 4. Give an account of Pericles and his administra- tion. — 5. What nation sent to Athena f)r laws? What historian appeared at this time ? What tragic poets ? What effect had foreign wars upoa Greece ? Give some account of the works of Phidias. (See note t GkfeKCE DIVIDED AGAINST ITSELF. 71 they txliil)ited a tendency to disunion iinong themselvea. ■^"cient Hi$ Athens and Sparta struggled for supremacy, and the other states period v for independence; and petty wars soon succeeded the great Per- chap. vi. Hian conflict. . >^^-n^"x-> 0. T\\e first Sacred war^ occurred about this time. It .vas i»o called because it originated in a dispute arising from a claim -j., r tg. . ol the Delphians to the sole care of the temple of Apollo; its credwar seat was at Delphos. Three years after this, in a war with the Samians, the Athenians, under Pericles, prevailed and took the island of Samos. 7. The Corcyrians, originally a colony from Corinth, but who now surpassed the mother coimtry, had hitherto declined ^3^- joining any of the Grecian confederacies. Being at war with "'war.'^" Corinth, they asked aid of Athens. Ten galleys were furnished them by the Athenians, but with orders to engage, only if the Corinthians invaded the island of Corcyra. Hostile feelings thus beginning between Athens and Corinth, were farther in- creaseonnesug. 430. The plague Rt Athens.' Death of Pericles. 439 Brasidas takes Arophipolis. Tliucydides banished by Ostracism. Deaths of Cleon and Brasides. ticading men in (Vtbens 2 Archidamus, king of Sparta, al the head of the Pelopon ne?ians, advanced into Attica. Pericles determined to prevent a battle ; and to retaliate for the injuries of the enemy, by a descent upon the Peloponnesian coa'st. The inhabitants of the conntry were made to destroy their own houses and fields, to remove their cattle to Eubtpa, and to retire to tlie cit}-. Nv»t withstanding the distress of tlie multitudes thus collected, tho)' cheerfullv bent their energies tcwa)-ds carrying on the war TJie Spartan king desolated the country. Tiie popidar voice called loudlv for battle-, but Pericles, though censured, remained firm to his purpose. The Athenian fleet, meanwhile, landed on the Peloponnesus, ravaged the western coast, and so distressed the inhabitants, that the Spartaii army was recalled home for its de- fence. Thus each destroyed the other, while neither gained any thing of value. 3. Athens suffered, the next year, a divine chastisement. A plague of a most virulent character broke out in tlie city, and multitudes of its crowded population became its victims. Such was the extent of the distress, that the dying were unattended, tlie dead unburied. Yet the living took it not to heart to amend their wavs, but broke out into the most disgraceful licentious- ness. The city was crovv'^ded ; for the invasion of the Spartan? had again led Pericles to take the people of tlie country withii the walls, while again he sent the fleet to ravage the Peloponne- sus. Tlie same policy was followed in succeeding years. PoK - cles lost all his family by the plague, and at length, bowe. down with sorrow, died himself 4. The Athenians having been successful in several engage- ments, and having at Pylos taken a number of Spartan prison- ers, the Lacedaemonians made earnest overtures for peace, but they were rejected. In the young Brasidas, Sparta found a general who partially retrieved her affiiirs. He transferred the seat of war to the coasts of Macedonia, and took Amplufolis^ the mosi valuable of the Athenian possessions in Thrace. Thucydides, the historian, had command of the Athenian squa- dron, now stationed at Thasos, which he brought up as soon as he found Amphipolis was attacked. Though too late to pre- vent its surrender, he saved other cities which were threatened. For his failure, though innocent of any mismanagement, the Athenians banished him for twenty years. Cleom was sent with an army to check the Spartans. An engagement ensued in which both he and Brasidas were killed. A truce was mado for fifty years, but it was not kept. 5. The cliief power in Atliens was now shared by Nicias. s nobleman of integrity and patriotism, and Aixibiades, the grandson of Pericles. The latter was born to wtallh, possessed S. Describe the Spartan operations in Attica f The Athenian in the Pc loponnesus? — 3. Give an account of the plague in Athens? — 4. What did ttie Spartans propose? What distinguished men are mentioned in thia pa ragraph? What became of ihein ?-^'>. Give an account of Nicias ? Whr v/as Alcibiades ? AX UXriilNClPLED CiRRAT MAN. 7^ unrommon beauty, aii<] ^rreat power over tlie minds of ollitrs ; - ^^ttent Hta but he was unprincipled an(l proflig^atn. Hoping to acquire pbuiod v glory by the conquest of Sicily, lie had prevailed on the Athe- chai". vi. nians, contrary to the wiser councils of Nicias, to send out a ^'-^"""■'">«' fleet as^ainst Syracuse, which had favored the Spartan cause. 'l')\e most powerful and splendid armament which had ever sailed from Athens, was fitted out, and Alcibiadcs and Nicias appointed chief commanders. The night previous to the de- unfoytun^t, pirture of the armament, some outrages having been committed RiriUcn (ipon the images of Mercury, which the Atheiiians discovered ^'^'' aOer it had sailed, suspicion rested upon Alcibiades. Being sum- moned home for trial, he left the fleet, fle^' to the Peloponne- sus, and joined the Spartan cause. 6. Syracuse had sent to Sparta, imploring aid against Athens. Alcibiades, determ.ined to make Athens feel his resentment, had pleased the Spartans by conforming to their plain dress and se- vere manners, and he now artfully wrought upon their fears and their pride; and persuade^ them not only to send supplies into Sicily, but to make a fresh incursion into Attica. The Athe- -48.-1. nians laid siege to Syracuse. A powerful Spartan force under j^.'/,'.3't/^d"ui Gymppus arrived. Nicias wiote home for reinforcements, Byracuec which were sent out under Demosthe.ves, a relative of the celebrated orator. The two generals were unable to sustain the siege. Battles were fought by sea and land, in which the blood and treasure of Athens perished. In attempting a retreat, both Nicias and Demosthenes were taken prisoners and barba- rously slain. 7. The Athenians were in dismay at the news of these disas- ters; and the condition of the republic seemed desperate. Their treasury was exhausted, their navy almost destroyed, and their The Per- allies ready for revolt. Yet the spirit of the people sustained ,|j'g"Llced«'^ ihem, and energetic measures were speedily employed to re- monianii trieve their affairs. They might have succeeded, had thev not monev found a new source of power to encounter, in //;e gold of Per- sia^ which had found its way into the hands of their enemies. The satraps of Lydia and of the Hellespont, nersuaded bv Ly- eA.vPER, an accomplished Spartan, furnished them with power- ful supplies. 8. Meanwhile, Alcibiades finding himself suspected at Sparta, aad visited Sardis, and. ingratiating himself with Tissaphernes, Airibiadee ihe satrap ^f Lydia, had rendered him favorable to Athens. At 'poilcy^nd* ihe same time he offered his own services to his dejected coun- retri'-v«s try. He was recalled and appointed general. Under his gtiid- of AUi^nd anco the Athenian fleet was repeatedly victorious ; Bijzan'ivm 'Cds laken^ and the Athenian supremacy in Ionia and Thrace established. 9. About inis time the Athenian fleet, during the absence of Alcibiades, and contrary to his orders, engaged at Notium 5. Wh.it disnstrotis war did he promote? — H. What treachery to l.is cotiniry did he practise? Give an account of the Ricihan war? — 7. What was the condition of Athen.« ? — 8. What part did Alcihiadf s now act? 80 SUPREMACY OP SPARTA. Ancient His. PERIOD V. CHAP. VI. 405. rOTAMOS. Spartans defeat the Athenian fleet. Hthem taken. 405- End of the Peloponne- eian waj. 404. The thirty tyrants. Socrates. 401. The thirty tyrants expelled. Lj'sander, the Spartan admiral, and was defeated. Tliis drew upon Alcibiades the wrath of tlie inconstant populace. He was dismissed from the command without trial, and again became an exile. Having retired to a village in Phrygia, the Spartans in- stigated the Athenians to destroy him. They sent soldiers, who set fire to his house in the night. As he attempted to es- cape, the soldiers fearing to approach, killed him with arrows One woman, alone, had sufficient regard for him to give his body a decent burial. 10. After various turns of fortune, Lysander again obtained a decisive naval victory. He entirely destroyed the Athenian navy and reduced their allies to submission. He then blockaded Athens with his fleet, while at the same time it was besieged by land, with the whole strength of the Peloponnesian forces. Fa- mine at length compelled the Athenians to surrender, and accept such terms as their conquerors -saw jfit to impose. The walls of JIthens toere destroyed ; its ships., with the exception of twelve^ given up ; its exiles restored., and its government changed to an oligarchy under thirty rulers. 11. Sparta now niled Greece, yet the constitution and laws of Lycurgus, under which she had risen to consequence, had become subverted by Persian gold and other causes of corrup- tion; and the self-sacrificing spirit of public virtue had passed from a degenerate people. From the effect of the laws of Ly- curgus, the power of education may be inferred. If it could lead men to form and preserve, for so long a period, characters contrary, in some respects, to reason and nature, much more might it establish them in the reasonable practices of true reli- gion and virtue. 12. The chief power in Athens being vested in persons sup- ported bv the Lacedaemonian interest, the most cruel and arbi- trary measures ensued. Critias, the chief of the thirty tyrants, had formerly been banished from the city, and he now sought to gratify his revenge by shedding the blood of his countrymen. Yet amidst the scenes of tyranny, murder and profligacy which reigned in Athens, one individual shines forth with the lustre of virtue. Socrates, the philosopher, conforming his practice to the principles of morality which he taught, resisted the torrent of vice, with calmness and intrepidity. 13. The reign of the tyrants could not long continue. The same year in which it was established, the virtuous Thrasybu- Lus, at the head of a number of his exiled countrymen, entered the city, attacked and defeated the tyrants. Favored by a Spar- tan party under Pausanias, the king, he procured the banish- ment of the tyrants, and the restoration of Solon's constitution But the better spirit of Greece had departed. The tyranny of 9. What happened at Notium ? What was the consequence to Alcibia- dea ? — 10. What occurred at ^gos-Potamos ? After this disastroua do- feat what happened to Athens? — 11. What state was now at the head of the Grecian confederacy ? — 12. What was the condition of Athens undej the thirty tyrants? — 13. By whom were they expelled ? THE RKTKEAT OF THE TEX THOUSAND. 81 the many followed that of the few. This fact is strikingly il- •^""''"' "" lustrated by the contlenination of Socrates, llis death was piro- period v cured by the Sophists^ a sect whose opinions he justly despised, cuaf. vii. Having taken the poisonous hemlock, he calmly conversed with his friends till the moment of his dissolution. One of his dis- ciples expiessed his regret that he should die innocent. Socra- U 8 said, with a smile, *•' Would you have me die guilty .'" CHAPTER VII Persian War. — Thebes. 1. Darius Nothus, king of Persia, died about the close of (he Peloponnesian war, and was succeeded by his eldest son, Artaxerxes. Cyrus, another son of Darius, called the ycningpr Cijrns^ retained the government of western Asia, as a satrap of hi3 brother. Mutual jealousies and quarrels ensued between 401. the brothers. At length Cyrus raised a considerable army, and ru^Jfuf^f^t engaged in his service 13,000 Grecian mercenaries. With uyrus du- these he marched towards Persia. On his arrival at Cunaxa^ he "^'si'aiii. was met by Artaxerxes at the head of his army, and defeateil and slain. This prince is much extolled by historians. Xeno- PHON, overlookmg his lawless ambition, declares, that next to Cyrus the Great, he was the man most worthy to be a king. 2. Tlie Persian followers of Cyrus submitted. The Grecian generals were invited to a council and treacherously slain. Ten Xenophon thousand Greeks, under Xenophon, the historian, alone re- from cu- mained. They resolutely bent their steps, amidst appalling ^ "j)^^ '"^i^ dangeis, towards their distant home; and, through an enemy's jo.ooomen. country, efFected the most memorable retreat which history has recorded. .3. The Persian monarch, offended with the Greeks for the part they had taken in his brother's revolt, his satrap Tisa- PHERNEs attacked some Grecian cities on the coast of Asia Minor. These applied to Sparta for aid, and tioops were accordingly sent, who united with the 10,000 under Xenophon. But little progress was however made against the Persians, until the (frefi^de- arrival in Asia Minor of Agesilaus, the wise and valiant king of featthePer- viparta. His energy and address proved effectual to their relief, pfojcf"n and drew over to his interest some of the Persian commanders. ejeat He invaded Phrygia, and, the succeeding summer, defeated a Persian anny near Sardis. These successes led the Greeks to tlie project of the conquest of Persia, which Agesilaus seems 13. What account can you give of the death of Socrates? Chap. VII. — 1. Give an account of the younger Cyrus. — 2. Of the re- treat of the 10,000 ? — 3. Give some account of the military operations ill Aei^ Minor. To what proiect did the Grecian successes lead ? 11 82 SVaKT.VN AGGRKSSIOXm. PERIOD V. C}14.1'. VII. i:CROA''EA Spaitans Jffeal I he riiebaiis. JJV/C US. Athenians Jestroy the Spartar. fleet. 3S6. Sparta takes Maiitinea and "ivnthus. TalceB pog- lession of TUfbes. 3sO. I'elopidce rtetotes libertv I J Thebes. the lirsl to have formed, and which afterwards Philip of Mace- don meditated, and his son Alexander executed. But a war which broke out between Sparta and Thebes, and which Per- sian bribery and intrigues had been iiistrumental in producino-, obliged Agesilaus to return to Greece. 4. THEBES. — During the decay of the Atlieniaii powei, Thebes, the capital of Baiotia, had been increasing in strength. The Lacedcsmonians plundered the holy land of Eli?. Thi> gave the Thebans a pretext to oppose the tyranny of that state Agesilaus, at the head of an army, passed through northern Greece and entered Beeolia. A battle between the Spartans and Thebans was fought near Coronea, in which the former ob- tained a complete victory. Their success by land was, how- ever, counterbalanced by the loss of a naval battle near Cnidus, where their fleet was destroyed by the Athenians and Persians under Conox. Sparta here lost her maritime supremacy. This war desolated Greece for eight years. Persia, whose gold had fomented it, dictated the conditions of the peace, and obtained for herself the cession of the Asiatic colonies, 5. Sparta next attacked Mantinea, a town of Arcadia, and Olynthus, a city of Chalcidice, where this haughty power as- sumed to put do\vn the democratical form of government A Spartan army passing through Thebes, on its way to Olynthus found lliat city divided into the usual oligarchical and demo- cratical factions, which were possessed of nearly equal poAver. Phcebidas, the Spartan commander, joined the oligarchical party, and unsuspected by the peaceful citizens, garrisoned tlie citadel with his troops. Ismexias, the leader of the democra- tical party, and first magistrate of the city, was seized on the charge of treason, and imprisoned in the citadel. Blany of the Thebans fled, and four hundred of them took refuge in Athens The Lacedaemonians, although they fined Phcebidas, and de- prived him of the command, vet evinced their approbation of his measures, by retaining the garrison in the citadel, while they sent for Israenias to Sparta, where he was tried, condemned and executed. 6. A plan for restoring liberty to Thebes, was now formed by some Theban exiles, headed by one of their number, the in- trepid Pelopidas. They left Athens in disguise and entered Thebes in the night. They completely surprised their oppo- nents, and throwing open the prison doors, proclaimed liberty to all the citizens. Pelopidas was appointed governor, and re- ceiving aid from Athens, he besieged the citadel. Tlie Lacedse- monians, after a few days' resistance, capitulated, on condition of being allowed to return to their country. Athens, since the expulsion of the tyrants, had regained a part of her former in- 4. What state of Greece was now rising to power ? By whom was the battle of Coronea fought ? Give an account of the naval battle and i'.s con- sequences. What is said of the peace wliich was concluded? — 5. R.n]ate the overbearing measures of ?parta. — 6. Hnvdid Thebes regain hff li bertv ? BUIKI" SCiMiK.VlACY UF TilKUK? S3 fuence ; her luivy ulii( li luu! been dcslroyed, was now iiicrra.sed, -^""^'e"' '^'» .I'.i'.l the I'oililicatiotif dl' ihe Fineus rebuil.. From Athens, pi^kiod v Thebes lioped to derive aid ; but wlicn tlie Lacedajnioniaiis en- cuai-. vm. :ered B. What was now the nitii of 'I'hehes? On what did her greatness depend ? V\'hat was the fate of the two generals ? — lO. What council do we again hear of? What decision did they make in the case of the 'I'lvLianb and .Spariana? 84 rniLtP OF MACEDON. /incicn. iJu^ tvons, less just, pvoved disastrous in its consequences. A vague PERIOD V. and doubtl'ul tradition existed, that tlie rich Cirrheaii plain, CHAP. vni. wliicli had long been cultivated by the Phooians, furnishing ^-^"v^"^^ subsistence to many of them, had anciently been coi.secvated by the Amphictyons to the Delphian Apollo. A decision was now obtained bv the Thebans, wlio were inveterate enemies of the Phooians, compelling them to cease from the use of the sacred land, and pay a heavy fine for its former occupancy. This gave rise to a civil war of ten years' continuance, which t.tieii :\'ar. embroilei! all Greece, known by the name of the "•' Second Sa* ci-ed War." 351. Phof ian, CT second CHAPTER Vni. Macedonia. 360. rhiiip of W-i>.cos3on. Philip f>p posed by Deiuosthe nc8 and PhccioB 1. The supremacy of Sparta was annihilated, the short-lived glory of Thebes was past, and Athens, though increasing in strength, was still unable to make good any claim of authority over the other states. Philip, king of Macedon, a man of powerful and cultivated talents, took advantage of die times to ibrwaril his own ambitious views. This prince had been the pupil of Epaminondas, and had learned of him the system of military tactics, which he had invented. Macedonia, but litde known before the Persian invasion, was supposed to have been originally peopled from Argos, though it was not considered one of the Grecian states. From the tirst Greek invasion to the battle of Plataea, it was subject to Persia. Subsequently it be- came independent, and now under Philip it was rising to power. 2. This ambitious monarch designed it to become the head of Greece. For this purpose, it was necessary to procure its ad- mifcsion into the Grecian confederacy. The Phocians, by the phuider of the temple of Delphi, had rendered tlieir cause im- popidar, and Phdip joined the Thebans. The Phocians were conqnereil, and the council of the Amphictyons decreed that the Amphictyonic rights of the Phocians should be transferred to the Macedonians. This was highly displeasing both to the Spartans and to the x^thenians. But the crafty Macedonian had his faction in every state of Greece. In Athens there was, how- ever, a powerful party against him, led by the great orator De MOSTHENES, and Phociox, a celebrated Athenian. Aware of his lO What ^ave rise to the Phocian.or second Sacred war ? Chap. VIII. — 1. What was now the condition of the principal states of Greece ? Give an account of Phihp of INIacedon. Of Macedonia. — 2. How did Philip procure the admission of Macedonia into he Grecian con- federacv ? Give some account of his eloquent opponent. (See '^ and -1. ALICXAXDKR THE GUK \T. OJ subtle policy, aiuJ foreseeing in its success llie dftsiriiclion of ilie •^"' '^"' '^^ remains ofGreciim fref(Join, they resolutely opposed it I'EMOd v. 3. Tiie faction of Pliilip again excited the religious sen.si- chai'. mm. bihties of tlie people, to use lliem for his interest. The Locriaus ^.^'v-'*^ \v',>re now accused of cultivating the sacred lands of Apollo and this new sacrilege must be avenged. The ohsequious Anipliic- '.m;. tyons met, and made Philip their general. Demosthenes, in I'Uiiii; I . tcs of thunder, raised a voice of such burning severity, that ,f uVmoii. to this day the overwhelming accusations of orators are called tii<;iir;8' ••philippics." He so far prevailed, that Athens and 'i'hebes headed hriran^'ai.-, an armed league against him. Philip met the army of tiie allies at Ch;eronea. He was completely victorious, and the independ- ence of Greece received its death-blow. A Macedonian garri- /^'f*^- son was placed in the citadel of Thebes. But the measures of j^i-J/ Philip towards his conquered foes were mild and forbearing. Piiiiip Aristotle, invited by his father, had been his preceptor, and in- structed him in all the learning of the times. 5. On Alexander's accession to the throne of I\Iacedon, he \ first turned his arms against the bar!)arians. Having subdued them, he hastened to chastise the revolted Thebans. He stonned their city, aiul caused, vviih a cruelty which he afterwards re- pented, their old men, their women and children to be ma.ssa- jj., ^.-g^o,., cred in the streets, and their buildings to be levelled with the Tiif.ben ground, sparing only the house of the poi-t Pindar. Athens now trembled, for Alexander said, " Demosthenes called me a boy, hut I will show him, before the gates of Athens, that I am a man." But the Athenians submitted, and Alexander, needing their services, spared them. » •i. fJy wlioiii waa the baule mentionerl ioui^ht, and what was its conpo- Oi!<'iice? Hciw did he treat the conquered? — I. What boJd scheme did l'hili|) next meditate ? What was done by ifie Amphictyons ? What change nf sovereiitns occurred 7 What was the state of Alexander's enri|jiro on his fuihor'p dcatli ? What account can you ^ive of Alfxander'e early years? Wild was his (lerci'ptor ? — 5. What were tja first mea?urc« ana sovercifrr ? «lj ALEXANDER S VICTORIEH. PERIOD V. CHAP. VIII, appoinied rouiinander of the fotfcs. 334. ORJJjYI- cus. Alexanior deft.ils tlic J''irsi;ins. 3 Of? rssiTs. Alexander again defeats the I'ersiana. Takes Damnscns Hnil Tyre. Cnnqiicrs F.gijpt. 33-2. Founds Mesandria. 331. aAt.xinder'D ilua! con- quest of iho Persians G. Another council of the Amphiclyons was called al Coruith. All the deputies except those of Lncedaemon, beiii^ awed by the arms of Alexander, appointed him commander of the Grecian forces, and again sanctioned the attempt to conquci Persia. That empire had been declining for several preceding reigns. The effeminacy of its monarchs, and the extent of it« territory, had left much to the control of the different satraps; and internal dissensions and divisions had so weakened the em pire of Darius, the reigning monarch, tiiat notwithstanding hy great resources, he was now little fitted for a contest with a warlike nation, headed by so daring a commander. 7. With an army of not more Umn 30,000 foot and 500 horse, Alexander advanced and crossed the Hellespont. Mem- No.N, the most elhcient general of Darius, v/ith an army of 600,000, gave him battle at a ford of the rapid Granicus. Alex ander and his troops ibught like madmen. Hard pressed, he was himself saved by his friend Clitus, from the stroke of a Persian batUe-axe. At length the Greeks forced the passage of the river and defeated the Persians widi great slaughter. Sardis submitted to the conqueror. The Grecian cities willingly be- came his allies, and by conciliation or force, he made himself master of all Jisia Minor. 8. The ensuing year he met, near Issus, the main army of the Persians, under the command of Darius liimself, and again he was the victor. The slaughter of the Persians was imniense. Darius and a part of his cavalry escaped, but his wife and fa- mily fell into the hands of Alexander, who treated them with hospitality and respect, hrstead of pursuing Darius, the con- queror took Damascus^ and then marched into Phu3nicia. Some of the cities submitted to him without resistance; but Ti!/re, still the wealthiest and most powerful, maintained a siege of seven months, after which it was taken by assault. Eg^^pt, to which he immediately proceeded, next submitted. During his stay in that ancient country, he fountietl the city of Jllexandria. He visited the temple of Jupiter-Ammon, in Lybia, from a vain- glorious desire to be called the son of Jupiter. 9. The ensuing spring he again marched towards Persia ; and having crossed the Euphrates and Tigris, he met at Arbela 700,000 Persians, commanded by Darius, and fought there a more desperate batde, than even that of Issus. Notwitlistand ing tlie situation was more favorable to the Persian cavalry, the mihlaiy skill of the Macedonian phalanx gave them the victory. Darius again fled. His army was now destroyed, and his powei at an end. Alexander obtained possession of the southern pro vinces of his empire almost without resistance. So rapid were t>. VVhnt course was tnken b} he Ampliictyons ? What w;is the concii tion of Persia ? — ?. Give an account of Alexander's expediiinn up to tliK time of the ba tie of Issus. — S. Relate the circumstances attending the L/ittlc of Issus. What places did Alexander next conqiier ? What ciiy was fonn4 ed ? Whni plaice visK*d ? — O. " "<"" f^i-- pelldd to relr(:at into IJactria, while all Media yielded to the rtitiou v conqueror. The friendless monarch was here inhumanly mur- <^iiAr. vim. dered by a dejjendant, named Bessus, the governor of the pro- "v.^~v"^k-^ vince. For this ad of injrratilude and treachery, he ex perted to "'^hkus kiii.< be rewarded ; but Alexandtr eventually punished his crime by a nHpiroj t<> cri.cldealh. .... . ^ii^nl^or 10. The conqueror, wishing to a.ssimilate the people of his Uaciria. extensive empire, adopted the Persian dress, married Statira, the yvioxandc (laughter of Darius, and caused many of his oflicers to marry marrins !*er.sian women. He spent three years, partly in the intoxicating ''t'lur'*- enjoyment of the immense wealth which he found in the royal Thais, cities of Babylon, Susa, Ecbatana and Persepolis In the latter iinsTctcrV place, at the instigation of Thais, an Athenian courtesan, he set tion had ai fire to the palace. A part of the lime he devoted to reducing preaim- tho remaining provinces of his empire to entire subjection. ^",''"'^'1.''.' Once, during the period, he successfully carried his arms against Grpcce ; the Scythians. 11. New schemes opened before the conqueror. But his troops, long absent from their country, and insensible to the glory of extending conquests, from which they could not hope to sax derive any advantage, murmured, and turned their eyes wistfully The army ot towards Greece. They liked not Alexander's adoption of the d^.^ffectod Persian dress, and his evident preference for oriental customs. a'« subdiie. lie had become elated by his conquests, intemperate in wine, Btrongai. and in the indulgence of his passions. In the fury of his anger. 't,','h'i""" he had caused his devoted friends, Parmemo, and his son, to be executed ; and with his own hand, in a drunken revel, he had killed Clitus, who saved his life at the Granicus. His troops, in disgust, revolted, — but when their favorite commander .«howed his stern displeasure, the veterans came unarmed, and stood, for two days, imploring his clemency. He wept, forgave them, made them presents, and led them forth again, to make, as he vainly believed, the conquest of the world. 12. He carried his arms beyond the Indus, with uniform suc- cess. Taxi I, us, one of the Iinhan kings, came forth in peace. "O Alexander," said he, "wherefore should we fight. If I have more riches than you, I will give you a part. If you have most, 1 am willing to owe you a favi>r." With him Alexan- der exchanged presents. Porus, a wise and valiant king was Aieiandci brought prisoner before him. " How do you wish to be treat- ^*'n""JL o«l," asked the conqueror. " Like a king," replied Porus. des«tt. Again the army rcmoiistraled •, and after erecting twelve altars at the utmost limit of his concpiests, Alexander turned his course. When he regained the Indus, he found there his fleet under 9. What was the fate of Darius? — lO. What marriage is here related ? What change in cosnmie, &,c. ? How did Alexander spend the succeeding three years? — I I. Wliai were the causes of the revolt of the army? WJiat was the manner of ihcir return to alletriance? — 12. What is said of'Taxilus? Of Por-is ? Beyond wliat river did Alexander penetrate? Wnat did he erect ? S8 ALEXANDER'S DEATH DISSOLVES HIS EMPIRE. Jliicitiit Jiis Seven! suf- ferings of iIk' army.' Alexander niakos Uabylon the Htiat of his •■nipire. April 21. AlcxunUur Nearchus. Embarking with a part of his army, he sailed do^vn the hidus to its mouth, and thence marched tniDugh Gedrosia, Caramania, and Persia. This was a perilous march, where Alexander had great occasion both for his rash valor, and his generous condescension. 13. The sufferings of his army were severe, but their courage was sustained by the reflection that their course was home- wards, and their spirits were cheered by the noble conduct of their commander. On one occasion, a little water, in a trnie of great drought, was found, from which a soldier filled a helmet, and brought it to the thirsting prince. Alexanaer looked upon his famished troops and poured the water on tne ground; not choosing to enjoy a refreshment, in which his companions could not share. Arrived at Babylon, he devoted himself, during the remainder of his life, to the improvement of that city ; ha;ving selected it, from its commanding situation, and central position, for the seat of his empire. It was Alexander who first projected the plan of opening a communication between Europe and India, through the Nile, the Red Sea, and the Indian Ocean. But he, whose will never bowed to man, could not resist the messenger of God, sent to call him to his final account. After having been the means of death to so many of his fellow-be- ings, he sickened with a fever, occasioned by his excesses, and died in the thirty-third year of his age ; leaving many of his pro- jects unfinished, and his extensive empire unsettled and inse- cure, and soon to become a prey to anarchy. CHAPTER IX. Rome, under its kings. Fabulous ages. (To Alba.. l.oii^'a thf! Latin lan- guage is traced.) 1. While the nations of Asia and of Greece seemed tottering on the verge of ruin, Rome had arisen and was destined, ere long, to become the mistress of the world. For the earliest his- tory of the ancient Romans, we have nothing better than tradi- tion and the tales of poets. According to these, jEneas, with his father Anchises, his son Ascanius, and a small band of fnl- lowers, fled from the destruction of ancient Troy, and sough! refuge on the shores of Lallum. Here he at lengtli married La- viNiA, the daughter of Latinus, the king, and thus became his successor. Alba-Longa, a city of Latium, or a Latin city, whose 12. Tra(;6 Alexander's homeward route. — 13. What was his conduct to his soldiers ? What city did he choose as his metropolis ? What project did he form ? What can you say of his death ? Chap. IX. — 1, Is there good historical anihority for the earliest history of the Romans ? What story have we of JPneusl What is rej^ardcd as the parent city of Romulus an! his colonv THK GEKM OP KOMAN POWER. 89 lan^ia^e shows that it must have liad a cultivated population, is regarded as the parent city of Rome. Romulus traced witli a plough the place of the first walls, lie was the chief of a war- liice band of men from Alba-Longa, and was, by election, the first king of the new city. 2. To provide hdiabitants for Rome, liomulus invited strangers to settle there, granting them equal privileges with his subjects. Those of the citizens who could show a noble, or even a free ancestry, were termed patricians^ and were admitted to a share ill t!ie government. Of these one hundred were selected, who formed a senate. The remainder, called plebeians^ were sub ject to the king and patricians ; each iiuUvidual, with his house- hold, being attached to the head of some patrician family, from whom he received protection, and whom he was bound to serve. To tlie protector and dependant were applied the terms patron and client. 3. Four months after the founding of Rome, Romulus, wish- ing to provide wives for his followers, invited the Sabines to the celebration of a religions festival. Mis soldiers, at a given sig- nal, seized all the ycung women, and carried them off. They married them, and treated tliem with so much kindness, that they at length became attached to their husbands; and wher., some time after, the Sabines made war upon the Romans to re- cover them, they ruslied between the combatants, and plead with their fathers and husbands to live in peace and union. Their desires were granted, and the Sabines and Romans be- came one people. 4. The Senate was noiu doubled by the addition of a hundred Sabines. Romuhis divided the citizens into three tribes, each tribe consisting of 300 men and separated into ten curias, each consisting of 30 men; over each of which was appointed a president, called Curio. Tlie senate was the chief council of st;ite. There was a national assembly, composed of the people assembled by curiffi, in which questions were de- cided according to the voles of the gi'cater number of cu rite. 5. The first monarchs of Rome do not ^eem to have derived their crown from hereditary right, nor, with the exception of the two first, to have possessed unlimited power. On the death of Romulus, NuMA Pompilius, a Sabine, was elected to the throne. His reign was peaceful and just. Revered as a favor- ite of the gods, he caused it to be believed that he was honored with celestial communications, by a divine nymph, called Ege- ria, who met him in solitary places, and gave him instructions in regard to many laws, which he promulgated He instituted different «>rders of priests. Their duties were performed by .Ancient Hi» "752. Patricians and pleb'iiaiis. Patron and client. Ronmns seize tlie Sabine woiiipn Divi-i to force its people to a union of the two cities. It was at length ( oinbaT'of agreed that three champions should be chosen by each party to (loratii and decide, by batde, whether Alba should be the subject or tlie (Tiieir mo- mistress of Rome. The Romans chose three brothers, the Ho- saiTwere RATH, and the Albans, their three cousins, the Curiath. The sisters, and six fought till five Were dead. The survivor was Horalius, who ' d'iy\'av"^ hasted to receive his honors. His sister met him bearing the hinii, tiie i-obe which she had wrought for Curiatus, her Uiver, one of the iiircH iiiTM- slain. She wept and tore her hair, and bitterly reproached her- hi, the oilier brother, who plunged his sword in her bosom. For this he was curidtii.) Condemned to death by the senate, but pardoned by the people. Alba was razed, and its inhabitants removed tn Rome. 64®. 7. Angus Martius established the superiority of the Romans ivfanius ^^^^ Latium, and extended the territory of Rome to the sea lie established the colony of Ostia at the mouth of the Tiber ^-.^ and made it the port of Rome. Tarquinius Priscus, who was Tarquiiiius uext choseu king, continued the wars of Ancus Martius with Priscus. j^jjg Latins, and conquered the iEqui. He added a hundred new members to the senate ; and forming three new tribes from among the plebeians, united them to the patricians. 8. Servius Tullius was the next king. He produced SfS- changes in the government which laid the foundation of the fu- Tuiiiusf ture republic. He divided the whole nation into thirty tribes.^ 'h"1aw'I'of ^^™ °^ which were contained in the city, each tribe having a "Rome be- magistrate who was its head and representative. He also caused an estimate of the property of each citizen to be made, and separating the Eqiiites^ who comprehended the patricians and wealthiest of the people, he divided the rest into five classes, classes, in- ^hich were again divided into centuries or hundreds. The ef- F,;:uit'es. forts of Servius to raise the privileges of the plebeians were re- sisted, tliough ineffectually, by the patricians, and brought upon him their enmity. 9. Servius Tullius was murdered at the instigation of his un- natural daughter, TuUia, by her husband, who thus became king, 5©9. under the name of Tarquinius Superbus, or Tarquin the Liicietia, of pjjouD. He was successful in war, but his haughtiness and ty fftmih'. ranny made him odious to the Romans. At length his son, Sextus, insulted Lucretia, a noble Roman lady. She as- 6. Describe the combat of the Horatii and Ctiriatii. — 7. What was done in the reign of Ancus Martius ? Of Tarquinius Priscus ? — 8. What regulo ticMis were made by Servius Tullius ? — ii. What can vou sav of Tarquin the Proud? comft more democratic. .n respect to oroperty, six KINGLY GOVERNftlENT ABOLISHED. 91 sembli'il her husband Collatinus, her father, and a relative, named, from his supposed siupichly, Brutus. Calling on them to avenge her wrongs, she stabbed herself in their presence. Brutus rose, and with thrilling eloquence, vowed to avenge her wrongs and his country's. Sextus was killed and his father ex- pelled from the throne; and thus terminated the reign of the Ro- man kings. The only change at first eliected by the expulsion of the kings was the transfer of the supreme authority to two magisirntes^ called ConsuU^ who were annually elected. iO. The Tarqiiins atlemi)ted to recover the throne, and en- lii-ted in their cause Porsen.xa, king of Etruria. VViiile he lay vvith his army before Ron)e, Mutius, a Roman soldier, was taken in his camp prepared to assassinate him. Porsenna was about to torture the soldier will) (ire. Mutius put his right hand into the flame, and calmly discoursing on tlie contempt whicli the lover of glory felt for bodily pain, he told the king tb.at his death would not avail hhn, for he was but one of 300 Roman youth, who were banded for his destruction. Porsenna released him. T\\g Etrurian army, in attempting to enter Rome, was stopped by the valor of Horatius Cocles. He resisted an ■irrny single-handed till the bridge over the Tiber was broken down behind him, and then swam safely over, 'J'he conrag.- of these two Romans so impressed the mind of the Etruiian king, that he made peace, and abandoned the causu of Tarquin. 11. A conspiracy also existed in Rome among the patricians to restore the kingly office. With tiie conspirators were the •)Ons of .Junius Mrutus, the defender of Lucretia. He and her husband Collatinus were first chosen consuls. Brutus con- demned to death the conspirators, among whom were his own sons. He witnessed their public execution, while his counte- nance displayed by turns the stern justice of the judge, and the tender anguish of the father. During the wars to oppose the Tai-quins, a Dictator was appointed by the senate, and approved by the patricians. He was to continue in office six months, with unlimited authority. From liis decree there was no appeal. The populace understanding this, and seeing the axes which were carried before him as symbols of his power, were struck with terror, and submitted to his rule. !). What caused kindly goveiniiient to bt; nbolished ? — 10. What king PspouGed the cause ot'l'arquin ? What was done by Mutius to make him believe that it was dangerous to be an enemy to Rome? What e.\pl(pit was performed by Horatius Codes? — 11. Give an account cl a conspiracy among the patricians. Who were the first consu.'sf What was *he conduct ot" Brutus in regard to his sjns ? When was tlie first dictat )i apj pointed > Whnt account can you gi^ t of the otTice I ^ncitni Uus Hnratiua Coclem. Br Jius' sterii justice 5©3 The first Dictator ap. pointed. CHAPTER X Disputes between the Patricians and Plebeians. — The Decemviri. dnatiil Hit Tbe plebeiana oppressed by the patriciULs become ex- cued. rhe (>atriciaiis deceive them and procure en- listment!!. They vanriuisll the public enemy. Fastule.-is- r\ees of tile patriciauK. 4JJ,S. LartiU!) \aleri'.iR «licl;Ui!r. 1. The plebeians were originally treated with deference, but the patricians had now seized the government, and the public lands no longer pttid, as formerly, a tenth of their revenue to the state. The plebeians, forced by taxation to become debtors, were made bond-slaves, and in the dungeons of the patrician liouses suffered the severest distress. At a time when Rome was threatened with a war by the Volsci, the indignation of the populace was roused by the appearance of a man advanced in years, of a pale and haggard countenance, a squalid garb, and a withered, emaciated figure, suddenly throwing liimself into the forum.* He was recognized as a centurion of the array, who had shed his blood for his country. He showed to the people, wlio crowded around him, the cruel marks of recent stripes, which his patrician creditor, not content with his miser- able incarceration, had inflicted. 2. Excitement spread from the forum to all parts of tiie city. The senate were alarmed, — the multitude refused to enlist in the Volscian war, — and the city seemed threatened with destruction within and without. The consul, Servilius, dismissed the se- nate, and attempted to conciliate the people. He promised that their grievances should be redressed, and declared that he only sought for a delay until danger from the foreign foe should be over. To evince the sincerity of his declarations, he now or- dered that no person should hold any Roman citizen in bonds or confinement, so as to prevent his giving his name to the consuls ; that no person should take the goods of a soldier upon service, nor detain in custody his children or grandchildren, These measures quelled the tumult, and procured the enlistment needed. The Volsci were defeated ; and after them the Sabines and Auruncians. 3. The plebeians, now that peace was established, looked for the redress which they had been promised, but the patricians disregarded their just claims ; and open expressions, and secret cabals, proved that their discontent was deep and dangerous The Volscians, jEquians, and Sabiiies, profiting by the occasion, again took up arms. The senate and consuls, in dismay, ap- pointed a dictator. Lartius Valerius, in whose family the ple- beians had confidence, being chosen, they deferred urging their * The Forum was an open space, (marked out by RomuUis, and sur rounded with porticoes by Tarquinius Priscus,) in which the people assem bled to speak upon, and transact public business.. Chap. X. — 1. What change had occurred in regard to the plebeians' What incident roused up the oppressed people? — 2. VVhai promises were made to the plebeians by the consuls ? U'liat successes followed ? — '.J. Did the nli^beians receive the nromised ledress i Uhat was the cons iquence ? ROME BECOMKS MOKK UEMOVliVVlC. 93 )iist claims, again enlisted, and a force greater than had ever he- ■^"^'"** ■^^" fore heen raised, was now enrolled. The Roman soldiers re- peuico v turned victorious Croni the foreign war, only to see their hopes chat. x. of relief agani disapj)ointed. Valerius, finding it inipossihle to -^"n^'-'v- bring t!ie pal, icians to reason, resigned his olhce. The senate fcarisd to disfjaiid the soldiers ; and believing tliey would feel diemsclvcs Ijound by their oaths to the consuls, determined upon retaining them in arms. Jiy tliis measure, however, they only hastened the crisis which they dreaded. 4. The army, williout wailing for the commands of the con- suls, retired to J\]ons Sacer^ (the .sacred mount,) about three rJurcT/ miles from the city. There, without any commander, they for- MonsSacur ti/ied their position, 'i'he senate and patricians, then at their senate at mercy, sent deputies to tlie camp, who granted the demands of 'he mercy o the plebeians, and allowed them a share in the government. Three officers from Ihtir numher, called tribunes^ were appoinled -qo as magislrales and invested with inviolable privileges^ having Tiibure* power to protect the people even against the cf)nsuls. All debts cieci-.' were cancelled, and the debtors released ; but the law remained unaltered. The tribunes were to be elected annually, and no patrician was permitted to hold the ofllce. Thus the contest between the patricians and plebeians seemed terminated. 5. But it was soon renewed. A famine broke out in the city, the lands having been untilled during tlie insurrection of the plebeians. The sufferings of the people were intense. A quan- Famine tity of com was sent as a present by Gelo, king of Sicily. The ^"'f'^^m^^ senate debated at what price it should be given to the people. Syracuse. March;s Coriola.nus, a haughty patrician, who had signalized himself by his valor, proposed the restoration of the former 491. rights of the patricians as the price of the supply. Tlie peo- ^^'^",',','i'X-j pie heard the proposal with deep indignation, and Coriolanus and joins was summoned by their tribunes to a trial, and condemned to ""^ "^'^'' exile. He retired to tlie Volscians, and incited them to a war with Rome. In the dusk of the evening his tall figure was es- pied by their general, Aufidius, standing in his tent. Proudly he announced himself, and offered his services against his native city. Aufidius gladly accepting them, he marched to the attack and encamped witliin five miles of Rome. 6. The senate, unable to depend on the plebeians for assist- ance, knew not what to do. Deputations were sent, but with- out success. The priests in their sacred garments went to him as suppliants, but in vain. The matrons then assemliling round Veturia. tlu! mother of Coriolanus, and Volumma, his wife, Corln-anu-' who led his t'vo little sons, proceeded in sadness to the Volscian 'hSipowcj"^ famp. The stem warrior melted at the tears of his mother. 3. How were the people again appeased ? How were they again treated by the patricians and the senate? — 4. What bold step was tnken by the Boldiera' What concessions were thus forced from the patricians f^-5. What soon renewed the ill-feeling between the opposing parfirs in Rome ? What account can you give of the conduct of Coriolanup 1 — <►. How ir:is Conolaiius won back to hits oountrv 1 ?A lAIPROVEMEXT IN ROMAN JURISPRUDEXC K. dncient Hts. ftomans send to Cireece for laws. 451. Decemvirs created. Laws of tne Ten Tables improve Roman ju- risprudence. Wickedness of Appius. 449. Death of Virginia by tlie hand of her father Virginius. 444. Censors es- tablisvied at first to num- ber the peo- ple, after- wards to watch over public mo- rals and cilucation Weeping, he said, ''•You have saved Rome, but destroyed vour son '^ In a short time he drew olT the Volscian troops. Tlie Romans, in honor of this event, erected a temple to Female Fortune. 7. The patricians and plebeians were still jealous of each other. Dissensions arose concerah.g the disposition of som ■ lands, gained by a league with the Herulians Further change^ in the government were demanded, and to obtain tliese, ambas- sadors were sent to Athens for copies of the Grecian laws. On their return, ten magistrates were created, called I he Decemvirs who were to compile a body of laws for Rome. They were appointed for one year, with absolute power. Daring that time there v/ere to be neither consuls nor tribunes. It was disputed whether plebeians should hold this high office, and decided that they should not. During the first year the decemvirs executed their trust with impartial justice. Assiduously applying them- selves to the framing of just laws, tliey produced the ten tables, which, after being examined in an assembly of the people, were approved and ratilied. It was then said, that two more tables were needed. For the purpose of adding these, the office v.^as continued another year, and new decemvirs elected, at the head of whom was Appius Claudius. 8. These decemvirs held secret meetings among themselves, governed with haughtiness, and as at the expiration of the yeai they showed no intention to lay down their office, tlieir tyraniiv seemed likely to become perpetual. A most wicked act of Ap plus Claudius, which resulted in the death of tlie young a:i'.i lovely Virginia,* irritated the people to madness; and another re- volution took place, by Avhich the decemvirate was abolished, and the consuls and tribunes were restored. During this period, the cause of the plebeians was gradually advancing. A icai\ alloioing the intermarriage of patricians and pleb ians, was, after much opposition, passed. Another law, by which ple- beians should be admitted to the consulship, was proposed. The plebeians, though unsuccessful in this, obtained, as a sort of compromise, the election of military tribunes with consular power, to be chosen from patricians or plebeians, without dis- tinction. The censorship, an office confined to the patricians, was also about this time established. 9. In these broils between the patricians and plebeians, the common resort of the aristocracy Avas to ^-eaken the peo|)le bv employing them abroad in foreign wars, it was upon the oc.-a * Appius Claudius sees this lovely young girl in the streets, and deter mining to get her in his power, procures a base man to claim her as a slave. Her father in vain proves her his, for Appius sits judge. As she is abo.U to be torn from hirv, the father plunges a dagger to her heart, regarding more her purity than lier life. T. What measures did the Romans take to procure a code of laws ? Who'- new magistrates were appointed? How did the first Decemvirs execuif their office ? — 8. Those afterwards elected ? What caused their office to he abolished? What laws were established which wi-ro favorable to t)if people ? THE GAULS APPKAR IN HISTOIIY. 95 sif.M oi' th(.' wars with the Equi and Volsci, that ihe venerable CiNciN.VATUS, plowinjr in his field, received the messenfrers Crom Rome, wlio announced to him that lie was appointed dictator of the fommoii wealth. lie left liis fields and oxen with regret; snd after leading die Romans to victory, he returned in six- leen tiavs to his rural occupations. 10. TIk; lionians, roiiiiiiaiideii by Camillus, besieged Veil, an opiiloDt ciiy of Ktnu-ia, t«n miles from Rome. Tlie war being protracted from various causes for ten years, tlie soldier* were for the first time obliged to stay from Rome during tbe winter. A schoolmaster ot Falerii led forth. f»r a walk, his scholars, the sons of the most respectable families of the besieged city. The lads followed with confidence their teacher, l)ul he wickedly led them by a circuitous route to the camp of their enemies, to deliver ihem to Camillus, who thus possessing the children, mi^ht make his own terms with the |)arents. But the virtuous Roman, instead of taking advantage of this wickedness, or rewarding the pedagogue, put a whip into tlie hands of each of the boys, and bade them drive him back with lashes to the city, and tell to their parents his treachery. By this means Camillus won the hearts of the people, who gave up the city. A regular stipend was in this war allowed to the Roman soldiers. 11. In the mean time, l/ie Gauls^ now first mentioned in his- tory, invited by the fertility of the southern countries, poured like a sweeping torrent througli the northern provinces of Italy. The Clusians, whose city they besieged, applied to the Romans for aid. The Romans despatched an embassy to the Gallic camp, with offers of mediation. The offers were rejected, when the Roman ambassadors entered Clusium, and engaged zealously in its defence. One of them l)eing recognized in the act of kill- ing a Gallic chief, Bhe.v.vus, the leader of the Gauls, sent envoys to Rome, to complain of this breach of the law of nations, and demanded that the offender should be given up ; but the Romans haughtily disregarded the demand. Brennus marched instantly towards Rome. An army was hastily collected; but the sol- diers, without striking a blow, fled in dismay from the strange arppearance of their unknown enemies. 12. The Gauls continued their march fifteen miles, to the city. The citizens, generally, had abandoned it, and only some of the aged, and a few of consular rank, remained. Their vene- rable appearance, for a lime, stayed the fury of the barbarians. But at length, they put them to the sword. The Gauls then be- siesred the citadel, which was saved, when they were about to •nake a niglit assault upon it, by the cackling of some geese, fiwakening the sentinels. At length, the Gauls agreed to quit he city, on condition of receiving a largeamount of gold, wfiich was to be weighed. Brennus threw his sword into the scale, ^luient Hit. I'KKIOU V. CHAl'. X. 405 to 395. Siege ol Vei). vvlii'li b taken. 390. netscent <• the GuutP into Itnlv BreiiuuB r.arches to Rnmi». f*. flive an account of Cincinnatus. — lO. What happened at tlie siege oi Veii? — II. What nation now invaded Italy? How did the Romans |)ro. voko Brennus? — 12. Give an account of Lie hostile visit to Rome. Hie conduct \\ hen within the city. Ub THE BUILDING OF THE SECOND TEMPLE /Indent Bis. ^yith the Weights, already complained of as too heavy, ^^t this I'ERiOD V. moment, Camillus, who had been banished, entered the city at CHAP. XI. the head of an army, which he had collected. He told the ilo- . .^-^x-n^ mans to put up their gold, and redeem their city with iron. 5. Thus aroused, they chastised the Gauls, and expelled them from snrnt j^Qj^g_ rpj^g barbarlaus had, however, burned it to the ground. The inhabitants wished to leave the spot, and to inhabit Veii; but Camillus prevented them. They soon rebuilt the city, though without order or regularity. Rrme tuunt bv the Gauls. 536. Return of CHAPTER XI. The Jews. 1. It was under the guidance of Zorobabel, of the ancient royal family, and of the high priest Joshua, that a colony oi Jews was permitted by Cyrus to return and rebuild the temple: tiie Jews to but the wealthier and the more numerous part of the nation re- JoTusaiem. ^jj^jj-^g^j beyond the Euphrates, where they had settled. 2. Samaria was at this time occupied by a race who were not the descendants of the Israelites, but of the colony sent thi- Rebuiiding j.]^gj. by Esarhaddon, after he had carried away the ten tribes. ofthetcin- _, -^ ^ . i, it i -i "i /-^ i pie begins They were unfriendly to the Jews, and prevailed on Cam.Dyses, ^*'*'^- the son of Cyrus, to forbid them to proceed with the rebuilding '^'^M^^'*^ of the temple, and it was not until the time of Darius Hystaspes that the interdict Avas removed. Then Ezra, and after him 445. I^EHEMiAH, brought new colonists, who engaged with ardor in r^bu'lfiu'the the pious task. During the reign of Xerxes, Jerusalem was walls of under the satraps of Syria •, but as the Persian empire began to Jernoaiem. ^gg^j^g, the high priests gradually became the actual chiefs of the nation, though nominally under allegiance to the Persian monarchs. 3. Nehemiah, in his zeal for the violated law, obliged all who had married heathen women, either to separate from them or to quit Jerusalem. Manasses, son of Jehoida the high priest, was one of this number ; and rather than part with his wife, he ac- T^?^ of companied her to her father, Sanballat, governor of Samaria. slnmria, The Samaritans had previously blend-ed the worship of the God ^^'mouIu " of Israel with that of their idols ; and Sanballat now obtained of Derizim. Darius Nothus leave to build, at Mount Gerizim near Samaria, 13. Of the manner in which he was expelled. Chap. XL— 1. Who permitted a colony of Jews to return after their cap- iivity? Under whose guidance did they return? Where were the wealthier portion of the nation ? — 3. By whom was Samaria occupied? How were the Samaritans affected towards the Jews ? Give the time and some of the circumstances of the building of the second temple. Under what govern- ment was Jerusalem ?— ». What law did Nehemiah make ? Give an ac count of Manas.ses until he became high priest at Mount Gerizim. ALEXANDERS VISIT TO JERUSALtM 'j'i H temple of wliicli he made his son-in- aw high pnest. 'I'he '^ "'^'"' '- '^'^ Samar.Uiiis asserled the superior sanctity of this temple to that r nitiou v of Jerusalem ; aud irreconcilable hatred dius arose between diem lhat. si. anil the Jews. v^-n-^v, 4. Sucli was die divided state of Judea, when Alexander the Great ha\ing invaded it, sent a mandate to Jerusalem to furnish Aiexandu las army with provisions and troops. Jaddus, then the high "Jfenu^"^ priest, returned for answer Uiat he had sworn allegiance to Uie subiiushi.iu Iving of Persia, and could not desert his cause while he lived. Alexander, as soon as the siege of Tyre was completed, marched to Jerusalem to take venireance for Uiis refusal, 5. Apprised of his purpose, and utterly unable to contend with him, the high priest in his distress cried to heaven for protection. Being instructed by a vision in the night, he threw iipen die gales of the city, and strewed the way widi flowers. Clothing himself in the splendid vestments of the Levitical priest- iiood, he went forth to meet the conqueror, followed by all the priests, robed in white. Alexander met him, bowed, and wor- 33^- shipped. Being asked by his astonished friend, why he, whom "c vis is others adored, should adore die high priest, he answered," I do and appear not adore him, but the God whose minister he is. I knew him ^""^wc"" as soon as 1 saw his habit, to be the same whom I saw in a v^ision in Macedonia, when I meditated the conquest of Persia- and he then assured me, that his God would go before me and give me success." Alexander then embraced the priests, walk- ing in the midst of them, and thus ejil?ring Jerusalem; where, in die most solemn manner, he offered .saciifices in the temple. "[',ejj^v<* The high priest then showed him tlie prophecy of Daniel, and interpreted it to foreshow, that the Persian power should be overthrown by him. The monarch encouraGced the Jews to make requests of him, which he granted; and during his life he continued to show them favor. 4. What message was sent by Alexander the Great, and \. hat answer returned? What retaliation was threatened? — 5. What did thu liigL priest i What was the behavior of the proud conqueror whi^n he met the prooessio'i ofpri'jsts? What reason did he give his frieid ? What interpretation was inadt hy Jaildus of the prophecy of Daniel i AU-xander giving tiii> rini; t PERIOD VI FROM B.C. ? B. C. C THE DEATH > .,.,., < OF ALl [•II I X.li.S OF CHRIST. CHAPTER I. Empire of Alexander after his dcatli. 1. After the death of Alexander, his vast empire presented a s<;ene of iinceafMiij^ tumult, confusion, and bloodshed. His generals, bold, ambitious, and unprincipled, were each ea^er to seize a share of the mighty wreck. The rights of his infant son, Alexander, and of his brother, Aridaeus, afterwards (-idled Philip, were acknowledj^ed, and they were styled kinsrs. 'I'heir power, however, existed only in name. The dyini^ monarch being asked whom he desired should succeed him, rej)liI». Ipsus. which esta!)lished the league of the four generals, became ' ^,1','^'; !^,?^' king of Macedonia and a part of Greece. .After his short reign, .vit-x iudc the feelile princes, his sons, suffered the kingdom to fall into ^igx^,,,)^, * Selpuciis, to strengthen himself in power, married for his second wife, ^{l t- Strato.vice, the daui^nter of Demetrius I'oliorcetes. The consuniinii pas- sion of liis son Antiochus Sorer lor this beauiii'iil woman, which had thrown him into a disease — the physician's discovery of this by the chrintre of his pati'^.iit's pulse when Stratonice appeared — the resoliitiori of the iailier to re- iinq Lih his wife to his son — are pussaiies of history which deeply fi.\ theni- selvos in the memory ; and while we admire the magnanimity of Seleucus, we cannot hut be shocked at the little heed which was given to the sacred- ness of marriage, and the brutal tyranny ol the times iti regard to women , when men considered their wives as their propTty, to keep or give to an- oi!'3r, at their capricious pleasure. 5. By conquerinc; Lysimachus what countries did he ^in? What thinjjp did Seleucus, more serviceable to the world than war and murder? Name the Selucidae from Seleucus to Antiochus the Great ? (See margin.) — C». What time did their united reigns occupy ? In whose 'eign did Bactria ana Parthia become independent ? What kingdom was founded ? — 7. Who re- vived the glory of the Selucidae ? What are some of his acts? — 8. What aco'jnt can vou g've of An'ipater ? Of Cassander and his sons I 102 THE LAST KIXG OF JMACEDOMA. .'i r.rknt Hit sj,cli a distracted siate, tliat Alexander, men king, called to iiis PERru VI. aid Pvrruls, king of Epinis, and Demetrics Poliorcetes ciiAP. I. Demetrius learning some time after, that Alexander was plotting his assassination, killed liim and usurpeTl his throne. Pyrrhus expelled lum. He, again, was supplanted by Lysimac u; s of Thrace, who, like the others, retained his power but a .-jhor! period. Faniilv (jnarrels brought on a war with Seleucns Ni- cator, and in a battle in Phrygia, Lysiniachns was defeated and slain. The wb.ole of Asia Minor and Syria was now united to ricucusde JMaccdonia and Tlirace. Seleucns proclaimed himself king-, bu) (eats Lvsi- , ■ ■ . r i ■ . i ninchns. ou iiis passage mto Lnrope he was assassinated. •.2t9. 9. Ptolemy Cekauivus, his murderer, who usurped th Jouihlvaded '^''"'^'''C of iilacedon, was soon deposed and slain by the Gauls iiy the !n three successive invasions these northern barbarians overran ' possess '" Thrace and Macedonia, penetrated to tlie temple of Delphi, and Thnice. threatened to lav waste all Greece. Thcv were at lenotli ex- UaUici.i, or ,. , . ,-, ■ 1 ; ) ■ mi , ~ «;iiio- pelted irom Greece, but niaac a sclllnnent rn 1 /trace, winch was fira^cia. fjj^jj. j^^.^ jq Macedonia. They settled also in Galatia. JO. A.NTiGOiXUs Go.vATUS, the son of Demetrius, successfully *Goifanis^ contested the throne of IMacedonia, witli Alexander, the son of dj^^s Pyrrhus, that great commander having been killed in an attempt piw'un'jii'es *^" Argos. Antigoiuis during a reign of forty years songht to S'JS. recover the country iVom its ruinous condition. After his death fyJl'^'-^- this monarchy declineil. Philip, who reigned some time after, The Rn- ^^^^ '" league with Hannibal against Rome. He made war to iaiKs defeat subdue the Other slates of Greece which had fallen from the Ma- •Jiola^t'khiy cedonian dominion. He cruell}' put to death his amiable son -.{ M.iceiion. Demetrius, and paved the way for what happened in the reign of FsRSEUs, his successor, — the subjugation oi' Macedonia to the Roman power. 11. ATHENS. — On the death of Alexander, the Grecian states combmed against Antipater, who on this occasion appeared in Dcnio"- arms agahist the Athenians, when they submitted. He demanded thones. the orators. Demosthenes, to avoid falling into his hands, fled ""'"■ to a neighboring city and killed himself by poison. Antipater dying, Ptolemy and Cassander sent Demetrius Phalereus, (■frjirji!uic\ "^^'l^'^' rnleil Athens ten years. From his rule they were sei free la the case by that eiegaut and accomplislied prince, Demetrius Poliorcetes, U')i:ei6e ' who had been sent by his {l\ther with a large fleet. After hav- ing been uorshipped as a god by the Athenians, he was recalled, and with his father lost the battle of Ipsus, when the Athenians refused, to receive him. 12. Yet it was in these degenerate days that the venerable ' (ccH3d"^ Phociox lived, whose virtues Alexander had respected, and at- piijciou tempted to reward by lavish presents; none of which, that in- 8. AVho were invited to his aid by Ale.\andcr ? Whax followed previous io the haitle of Cyropodimn ? What is here rchi'ed of Seleucns Nicator? — !>. \\'hat was done by llie Gnuls? — U). Wliereuas Fvnhus killed? What is relaied of Antigonus? — 11. V/hat course did the Athenians take on the death of Alexander? Give ati account of the dea:h of Denr^silienes. On what occasion was Athens visited by Demetrius PoUorcetes? How did the A'henians treat him ? GKKOIAN LlliKRTY MARKS A LAST STRUGGLE. 103 dop*!M(lent Atlieiuiin would accept. He never sought prefer- •^"'^'"" ^'''^ meut, but he wks forty-five tiinea chosen general. So much pkhi'D \ i. was he in the habit of exposing vice wiih severity, that generally ciiai-. i. some persons felt themselves reproved. Once, when all ap- v_^'~>^-^^ plauded, he turned in surprise to a friend, and asked, "Have I inadvertentlv let some IkuI ihinc\m'^ Ho was ever tlie protector of tlie unlortunale, yet the Athenians im? condemned hiin. Afier he hud tjiken the poison l)y wliicli he was to die, lie charged his son to forgive his destroyers. i:j. THE ACH.EAN LEAGUE.— Achaia made the last struggle for Grecian freedom. A union of twelve Achaean cities, po.s- sessed of democralical governments, and leagued on terns of i^.^,*. [,. perfect equality, had existed from the early ages of Greece until iwecii^ the death of Alexander the Great; but the confusion and troubles cyon^'and of the subsequent period had caused its dissolution. A leader other ciuo* now arose in Akatus, a native of Sicyon, who united the scat- tered portions of the league, of which he was made general, and to which he soon added Corinth and Megara. 14. Sparta, corrupted by intercourse with Persia, had departed attempt m widely from the institutions of Lycurgus. Aois, one of llie best rcKtorethu and in.)st amiable of its kings, had attempted a reformation, but on"ycur2v"s Leomdas, his colleague, caused him to be betrayed and assassi- nated; and obliged his widow, Ariatis — wealthy, and renowned for wisdom and beauty, to many Ci.eome.ves, his son. She levered the memory of Agis, and, by her discourse, led Cleo- menes to admire his character, adopt his plans, and make a .^.><> similar attempt to revive the ancient constitution. The power sFjj-JisiA of the king had been swallowed up by that of the Ephori. He '''f'" Achm- determined, if possible, to restore it. This was opposed l)y the Macedo- league, and a war ensued, in which the Achreans called to their nians ans asked Aihinana. aid of Philip III. of Macedon, whose kingdom liad, after an in- j,-- Icrval of peace, l)ecoine powerful. The i'lColians were joined ^EtoiinnB by the Spartans, and, fatally for the indepenrleiice of Greece, by forma the Rnmana^ irho^ after the Carthaginian war:5, aubjugated the nicUnm.ins whole countrj/. After the death of Aralus, another general nnc arose among the Aclueans, who, in the il'^olians wars, more phiio- Ihan supplied his place. PuiLoptEMiiN was deserving of abet- va-i-Aca 12. What account can you eivc of Phopion ? — 13. What is said of Acliaia ? OFiIio AcliiEaii leaij^iie ? — !!. What was the condition ofRpirifi? What attempt was itiado by Ai;is ? What was done liy Leoiiidas? Wliat was Cli'oriienes persuaded to undoriako ? Wiiat was the result of his at- tempt ?--lt'>. What now became the condition of Sparta? What war ag;ain set the (Grecian stales to destroying each other? What foreign power did tliey suffer to interfere in the'' domestic qua'-eis? What can you pay of Philopojmen ' lU4 THE ROMAN RKPUBLIC. iy. but distress by the Romans, soliciting his aid, he again eml)ark.ed for Italy. He was totally defeated and compelled to return STS. to Epirus. The Romans had now made themselves masters of yVj^^fuy Italy, but the relations sustained by the conquered nations to uoman? ' Rome were various. Some were merely allies, ret^iining their p'trriui^ internal constitution, but oI)liged to pay tribute, and furnish auxiliary troo[)S when demanded ; others were compelled to re- ceive Roman inagistnites, annually elected. 5. SICILY. — After the expulsion of tiie Athenians, the Sicilians were invaded by the Carthaginians and lost Agrigrntum and two other cities. Diovvsius, the Sicilian general, conducted the war against them with al)ility, and ac{]uired the confidence of the people. Abusing it, he became the tyrant of Syracuse, ninny tie was of so suspicious a temper, that he caused a room to be "^ '"i,''i'j'^ made for confining prisoners, from wiiich, as from the human external ear to the tympanum, sound could be conveyed to an apartment where he sat to listen to their conversations. Thus knowing himself disliked and fearing danger, he cruelly destroy- ed the lives of his subjects. Damocles flattered him. " Thou sbilt," said the tyrant, " taste the sweets of royalty." At a magnificent banquet, the courtier sat and feasted, when looking above him, he saw a sword hanging by a hair. 6. His son, Dionysius the Younger, succeeded him, and was DionyFius A still more execrable tyrant. His cousin Diox, and afterwards Younger the amiable Corindiian, Timoi.eo.v, overthrew him. But the Syracusans had not sufficient virtue to keep their recovered ^|"J. freedom. Ar.A tuocles, a man of low origin, but of talents and rr.ilitary renown, seized the sovereign authority. He, dying Timoiron childless, afTairs fell into confusion, and Pyrrhus was called over 344. r,d 3ir7 3. Wliat followed this battle? What account can you give of Fabricius f — ■t. Where did Pyrrhus next go? On hisreiurn what Itattle was fought? — •'». What was taken from the Sicilians? By whom ? What account can you give of the elder Dyonisius? — G. What two remarkable persons over- threw at different times the younger Dionysius ? Give o-^me further accoun' af the history of Sicilv. us THE FIRST PUNIC WAK. 9rt:ieiU His PERl'l) VI. CHAP. II. First Punic liy the iniqt ilous llterferenf e of the Komans 2«?5. Ronians tuke Agri- eentum. Carthage Miistrcss of the sea- Romans liuild a navy. first naval victory of .he Romans. 25^ Romana ai'i a se- cond naval V'ic'.ory. 2rj6. WithovU tlie :Jtv of CjSR- VHJiOE. Xaiithipptis (lef ats Ueguius. to reduce them to order, but in vain. Hiero, a descendant of Gelon, til en obtained the regal authority. 7. Pyirhus was carrying on the war with the Carthaginians, and had obtained some advantages, when the appearance of a new enemy united the Syracusans and Carthaginians, for a tinv?, in a common league. A body of mercenary troops, called the Mamerlines^ Mdiom Agathocles had employed in his wars, en- tered Messana as friends ; but murdered the inhabitants, and ob tained forcible possession of t?ie city. The Carthaginians and Syracusans were invited to aid the Messanians. while the Ma~ mertines applied to the Romans. Justice inclined the Roman senate to liesitate, but did not deter them from yielding to the stronger dictates of ambition, which prompted them to interfere, that they might turn the dissensions of their neighbors to thei'- own advantage. They sent troops to the aid of the marauders, And thus commenced the first Punic toar. 8. Hiero soon changed sides, united himself \vith the Romans, and formed with them a plan for the expulsion of the Cartha- ginians from Sicily. Agrigentum, after a siege of several months, fell into the hands of the Romans. During this siege they per- ceived the necessity of a navy, to contend successfully with Carthage. This nation was now mistress of the sea, and at the height of its power, possessing a large portion of Africa, Spain, and Sicily, with Sardinia and other islands. But Rome had a more free constitution ; her warlike citizens fought their own battles, while those of Carthage were intrusted to men of other countries, who served for pay. A Carthaginian galley had been taken which served the Romans as a model, and with incredible industry, they set about building a fleet. To inure their men to naval exercises, benches similar to those of the galleys were prepared on land, where they were taught to perform the action of rowing. In two months the fleet was equipped, and Dun, Lius, the commander, sailed in pursuit of the enemy. The two fleets met, and the Romans obtained their first naval iriclory. 9. A project was formed for transferring the war to Africa. To prevent its execution, the CariJiaginians liazarded, and lost, another naval engagement, which took place off the coast of Sicily. Regulus, to whom was committed the African expedi- tion, landed and took Tunis, where he encamped. The Car- thaginians received a reinforcement from Greece, commanded by Xantkippus, a Lacedaemonian of great military skill. Re- gulus was defeated and taken prisoner. The Carthaginians, tired of the war, sent Regulus to Rome, to ofler terms of peace; but bound him by oath to return, if the terms offered were nol accepted. By the advice of Regulus, the Romans rejected T. How did the first Punic war commenre ? — 8. What was the course of Hiero? What was the condition of Carthage? What advantages hid the Romans ? How did they proceed in procuring a fleet ? What succes.- had they ? — •^. What naval battle occurred ? Oivp an account of Rpo-uhui Who was X nthiopu." ' ROME UNHIC.HTEOUSLY CiUASl'IXt;. 107 'luein. He returned a willing prisoner, ami was oarbaroiisly -^""'"^ ^^ torturud and destroyed. I'Eiiro vi 10. The war was for some years carried on mosdy at sea, i^»ap. ii. and with so equal advantage, that there was no prospect of peace. At length a decisive victory was obtained by Lutatius, the Roman admiral, over the Carthaginian (leet. The Romans became masters of the sea, and deprived die Carthaginians of p'"?^'.'",^; the means of conveying succors to their Sicilian cities. They first I'.inrx Jlicn made peace on con 'iiion of abandoning all their posses- "•''• eions in Sicily, paying the Romans a large sum of money, and restoring tiieir prisoners without ransom. The Carthaginians dms exhibited a character die reverse of diat of their enemi(!S ; who never, in the iiiost disastrous days of the republic, pur- chased safety by submission to a foreign foe. Peace was hardly concluded, when die Carthaginians were involved in a war with c^rttiaoe. the mercenaries, whom they had employed. Though hnally Mercenary victorious, the republic was greatly exhausted. The mercena- ries in Sardinia, catching the spirit of insurrection, rose, mur- dered their Carthaginian rulers, and obtained possession. The Romans, regardless of the peace with Carthage, interfered, and xheRomatiK made themselves masters of tlie island. The Carthaginians re- seize monstrated, but unable in dieir preseiit weakened state to sup- port theii right by arms, tliey were obliged to submit to a second treaty, in which Sardinia was ceded to Rome. But the injus- tice '.vhich the Carthaginians thus suffered, rankled in their minds ; and to this the ,%econd Punic war, though delayed some vears, may be traced. 11. The Carthaginians sought compensation for their late losses, by extending Uieir conquests over Spain. Here also the ^^^^^^ Romans jealously interfered, and a treaty was forced upon them, rtstrici.- restricting their conquests to the further side of the Iberus. ^'^'t'>^J-'" These wrongs to his country were keenly felt by Hamilcar, the Carthaginian general in Spain. He had with him a son, Hannibal, a noble boy, whose heart he tilled with the impla- cable enmity which burned within his own: and at the age of „*-''*7-, nine, he made him swear, upon the sacred altar, eternal enmity sweurs to Rome. This lie was to declare when he could find or make enumy. a lilting occasion. Hamilcar, and his son-in-law, AsoKunAt., Asrtrubai commanded in Spain seventeen years. Most of die southern '■^J|^'g,,^^_^' part of die peninsula submitted to their arms. To secure their Conquests, Asdrubal budt the city of New Carthage, or Carthagena. 12. After the close of the first Punic war, Rome sent a fleet 22:>. into the .Adriatic, to put a stop to the depredations of the Illqrinn TiieiiomoM, pirates. This fleet secured the dominion oi the Adriatic, and nunm onqnered a part of Illyria. The Grecian cities which had suf- i>'r''^s lO. What victory was nbiained ? What great advantage did this victory pive to the Romans? On whni conditions did die Carthaginians tiiat^e peace? On what occasidn did the Romans deprive Carthaire of Sar dinia ? — 11. What conquests did the CarihaLMnians make in Spain ? _ What treaty was forced upon tiiem ? Wiiat did Hamilcar in resnrd to hi* son? What city was built by the Carthac;inians ? — 13. What ni=rlite.xis enterop'^f wac .io".v undertaken by the Romans? What did they jjain? lOS HAXNIBAL. /Snxie^t His. fered greatly from the piratical incursions of tlie fllyrians, hailed {'ERI'D VI. the Romans as deliverers, and vied with each other in doing CHAP. M. them honor. The Gau/s had frequently, since the destruction ^-*^^''""*^^ of Rome hy Brennus, made irruptions into the Roman provinces, having joined both the Etrurians and Samnites. The north had, 22*1. however, remained quiet for some time, and as yet the Romans VLUSWM. had not crossed the Po. Another irruption of the barbarian? umiJrTmU "ow took place, and a bloody war ensued, in which Emilids lius defeat defeated them at Clusium, drove them beyond the Po, and Cis- alpine Gaul was added to tlie Roman dominions. 13. On the death of Asdrubal, Hannibal obtained the com- mand of the Carthaginian army in Spain. Bent on executing the ■^S®- plan meditated by his father of humbling the pride of Rome, takes"sal his first act was to besiege Saguntum, a city of Spain, under puntum. Roman protection. Ambassadors were despatched, first to Han- liions'.rate. nibal, who refused on some frivolous pretence to admit them to an audience ; then to the senate of Carthage, from whom they received no satisfaction. Meanwhile Hannibal prosecuted the siege with vigor, and at length took the city. 14. SECOND PUNIC WAR.— The fate of Saguntum was no sooner known at Rome, than a war was declared, of which Hannibal determined to make Italy the seat. With this view he 218- prepared to pass the Alps ; an achievement which the Romans cTcieses'the believed to be altogether impracticable. He had previously Pyrenees m taken measures to secure the favor of the nations through whose n» spring. ^gj.j.jtQj.igg i^g ,^-,ygt pass; having distributed gold with an un- sparing hand among the barbarian chiefs. Early in the spring he commenced his march. Having reduced the nations which lay at the foot of the Pyrenean mountains, he here left his general, Hanno, with a sufficient force to guard their narrow passes. He also dismissed about ten thousand of his troops, sending them home with a view of securing their good will. Passes 15. The Gauls, being informed that the war was against Italy, Transalpine "^t only allowed Hannibal to pass through their territories, but Gaul during aided him on his wa}'. On his arrival at the Rhone, however, thesumnier. j^^ found the nations who dwelt on the opposite side, drawn up His passage to prevent his passage. He sent a detachment of troops farthei Rhon'edfs. Up the river, who crossed it in secrecy, and then came down nuted. upon the rear of the Gauls, who, finding themselves surround- ed, immediately dispersed. Pubmus Cornelius Scipio and Tiberius Sempronius were the Roman consuls for this year. To the former was assigned Spain ; to the latter Africa and canip''at'the Sicily. Scipio departed for his province, but finding that Han- pjouthofthe nibal had already crossed the Pyrenees, he stopped and pitched his camp at one of the mouths of the Rhone. 12. What did the Grecian cities ? Give an account of the war with the Gauls. — i;S. What did Hannibal on obtaining the command in Spain ? — 14. What was done in Rome when this was known ? What was Hannibal de fermined to do? What were his previous measures? — l!i. How did Han- nibal succeed in passing through Transalpine Gaul ? What happened at the Fh>me ? What account can you give of the Roman consuls ? ha\mb.\l's passage of thk alps. l(i*J 10. [laimibul, determiiiingio avoid a bailie, willulrew his forces ■^"'•"*' "^ IVoin llie sua, and ioilowed up llie waters of tiie llhoae iiiilil he i>eui'U vi arrived al ihe foot of the Alps. Here tlie hearts of llie most •-hai'. u. courageous grew faint. The inouiUains with their snowy tops ^^^"v^^*^ penetrating the clouds — the naked and apparently inaccessible clill's over wliich their path must lie — llie hostile Gauls, liovering on ih'i precipices which liung over tlieir heads, and ready on their iltiinpt to ascend, to precipitate them into the depths below — all th.ese were objects calculated to (ill them with dismay. Hannibal used every art to uivimate tlieir courage. Having nianffiuvros ascertained that the mountaineers abandoned the pass at night, i" avoid lie, with a small parly of light troops passed rapidly through it, making himself master of the eminences on which the Gauls liad, during the previous day, l)een posted. At early dawn, the army commenced its ascent. Tlie Gauls perceiving it, iiaslened to their usual post, but to their suq/rise, beheld it in possession of their enemy. The mountaineers now pressed into the delile by various circuitous routes, spreading terror and confusion in the army, until Hannibal was compelled to leave the eminence in order to disperse them. 17. The army at lenglli gained the first pass, but they met i5l.*» new dilhculties; sometimes, fallinij iiito ambush throuu-h the "■'.'"'•'>='■«' 1 1' -I • 1 r 1 1 • 1 1 • ? periioiw pat- treachery ot guides; again, led through bewildering tracks, and sa^-o of tjw over wrong roads; now, intercepted by large bodies of the t'h'eauuimn hostile Gauls in battle array ; liien, shuddering as tremendous rocks were rolled from the precipices above, crushing in iheii onward course both man and horse. But Hannibal pursued his way, until on the niiilli day lie completed the ascent. Snow uow fell upon the mountains, which increased the dangers of the way. Tlie army, dejected and dispirited, hopeless of any termination of their toils, were sinking into utter despond- iia„,,,tjr»i ency, when Hannibal led them to a projecting eminence, and arrivi^s iu ordered them to halt. Here they looked down and beheld the '^'^' valley of the Po, stretching out before them in all its beauty and luxuriance. Hannibal lost 30,000 men, and employed half iiia ifteen days in the passage of the Alps; and it was five months a""*- from llie time of his leaving New Carthage, before he arrived in Italy. 18. Scipio had returned from the llhone, and encamped with '21S. Iiis legions at the Ticinus. Here Hannibal attacked and van- Vianmimi' quisled him. In the heat of the battle the consul was wound- du-fcau eil, and would have been killed; but his son, a youth of .seven- • *"• *''^'i'''' teen, sprang forward and saved his life. That voulh it was, sc]p"!!"(^f vvno, sixteen years afterwards, contpiered Hannibal at Zama. ierwa.-(i» The desertion of a large body of Gauls from the Romans was sa"^'s"'iw (he consequence of this defeat. Scipio apprehending a general '^^""'' 10. What did Hannibal do to avoid a battle ? \Vhat ditfictilties presented Uieinselves when the army arrived at the loot of the Alps? How did Han nil)al pain the first pass? — 1?. After this was ijained, what next occurred ? How loni; was Hannibal in crossinsx the Alps, and what number did ho liS3 ? — 18. Give an necount of Hannilial's fi.st victory in I'alv. I 10 THE ROMAN WASMIXfiTi iN . Ancient His TERl'D VI. CHAP. II. 21^. Luke Tl{RJlSy- MEJ^'OS. Uannibal ain viclo- Fabiiis Maxinius, .lictaior. wasie iiie country. Hannibal also deso- lat.s il. Momli of I lie IBERUS. fJiicius |»e. Of his third. What nntural phenomenon occurred during this haitle ? — 20. What can you say of Rome at this time? What of Fabius Ma.ximus? What policy did he pnisue? — 21. What victory did Cneius Scipio gam ? \Vhai was done with respec! to Fahins Maximus ? THE voungi:r sciPio. 11; l)o\vever. Caius Teuentius Varro attained the consulshiji, a - ^"^""^ -^^ diirerent course was pursued. Hannibal drew him into an en- peri'd vt giigeinent at Cannae. There the llower oC the Roman youth cuAr. ji lay (lead, upon the most disastrous of" the battle-fields ol' Italy. ^"^"~'''^^-' Hannibal, instead of" proceeding directly to Rome, sought lirst 216. to reduce Lower Italy. Tiie most powerful of its nations iuivnibiS pidimitted to his arms, or souglit his allianc^e. Having estab- victorious, li^hed his quarters in Capua^ the luxurious habits and effeminate 70,000, tiir^""""''* " t . cut>itul the command of his brother Asdrubal, Hannibal now acted erro- merely on the defensive. The policy of Rome furnished Philip ^ with employment, by stirring up enenues against him in his own uTiiiifbai country, in the meantime, the Romans were regaining their remits his strength; new legions were formed, and the spirits of the nation uome*'7u. revived. Capua was at length taken from Hannibal; and though ^'^'"^ he had marched boldly to Rome, yet, when he learned, that while encamped before one of its gates, his presence had in- spired so little terror that recruits f"or the army in Spain had SOT passed out of anothei', he retired in chagrin. Asdrubal,* his M^vr^^a- broUier, having eflected Uie passage of the Aljjs, and arrived in , ^'f^-- tlie nortii of Italy, was met, defeated by the Roman armies, and featthe'car slain. His severed head was thrown into the camp of Hanni- ti''U''j"i:»ns bal, who exclaimed in agony, "■ It is done; I have lost all my 56,ooo. u good fortune, and Carthage all her hopes." " '"-''«ooit 23. Meanwhile Uie vou.nger Scirio had, by the terror of his arms, re-established the Roman power over the territories of Spain, and, by his engaging virtues, won the hearts of the peo- ple. The Celtiberiaiis, a warlike people, were gained by his generous dismissal of" a beautiful princess betrothed to their leader. So great was his renown, that after his return to Italy scipfo"r«.^o! he was elected consul, though under the age prescribed, and vers Spain, having Sicily assigned as his province, he had the power grant- '^"Africli ""^ ed him of carrying the war into Africa at his pleasure. He accordingly invaded Africa, where his success compelled the Carthaginians to recall their forces from Italy. 24.. The grief of Hannibal, when he received the mandate to return, was extreme. On his arrival at Carthage, he took the command of the army, and advanced five days into the country, * There were four Carlhagiiiian generals by tfiis name. One was llie brotlier-in law, and one tlie brother of Hannibal. 21. Deicribe tlie battle of Cannaj ? Did Hannibal follow up his victory oy proceeaing to Rome? VVhai course did he take? — 'Z'i. from what quarters was Hannibal e.xpeciing aid? What were the ruii.sons that he did not receive it ? By whom, and with what result was the batiie of Metau- rus? — 2;J, Give an account of tlie younger Scipio ? Why was Hannibal "■ecalled i 112 END OF THE SECOND PUNiC WAR. aucitru His, when he encamped at Zama. A battle ensued, in which, though PERi'D VI. the valor of the Carthaginians sustained their reputation, the CHAP. III. Romans obtained a complete victory. Scipio advanced towards Cartilage ; but at Tunis he was met by ambassadors. The terms imposed by the conqueror, though severe, were acci pted by the disheartened senate of Carthage. The Carthaginians agreed to relinquish their possessions in Spain, and thencelbnh to restrict their power to Africa; to deliver up the Roman pri- soners ; to destroy their navy, and to pay tribute to Rome 25. Cartilage, thus deprived of its foreign possessions, and its navy, though enjoying its own constitution, and the name of an independent republic, was eflectually deprived of all means of thwarting the boundless ambition of Rome. Even uuiiVoied ^'^ ^^^ ^^^^^ "^' ^^'"i^''- its power was soon checked. Masinissa, condition of prince of Numidia, who had aided the Romans in tlie late war, dse. ^y^g j^y them established in his kingdom ; and being declared an ally of Rome, the Carthaginians were obliged to remain at peace with him. CHAPTER III. The progress of the Roman Power. 1. GREECE. — The Romans had drawn the iEtolians, and miroduce^an subsequently, several other Grecian states, into a league of army into alliance. Some of the Grecian cities were dissatislied with the terms of the peace with Philip of Macedonia, which tbllowed the " Social War." The Romans were hostile to Philip, on account of his treaty with Hannibal, and they introduced an army into Greece, commanded by the consul Acii.ius. 2. Aiiliochus the Great was on the throne of Syria. To him ilaiinioai in Hannibal, exiled from his ungrateful country, tied. He jiointed out the grasping ambition of Rome, which he invited Antiochus to oppose by carrying a war into Italy, ofiering to command an advanced army, until the monarch could arrive. The Car- ii^'^- thaginians had the meanness to inform the Romans of the move- THERMO- ments of Hannibal. Fortunately for Rome, Antiochus did not Consul ^^^^^ '^^^ advice; but himself marched an army into Thessaly AiMiius lie- took several ciues and proceeded to the pass of Thermopylas, ''"hus^of" where he was met and defeated by the Roman army under Svr'ia. Acilius. He escaped with a very few of his troops to Chalcis, 2'!. Give an account of the closing battle oi" the war? What were the condiiions of peace I 25. What was now the situation of Carthage ? Chap. X. — 1. What measures were the Romans taking in order to sub- jugate Greece? — 2. To what was Antiochus of Syria advised ? How was Hannibal treated by his country? What was done by Antiochus ? Where was he defeated ' What did he then ? THK GKEAT ROMAN RiMPHlE FORMING. 113 from whence he returned to Asia. The cities and fortresses^ Ancient //» of which he had obtained possession^ surrendered to the Romans. peki'D vi 3. The next consul, Lucius SciPio, carried his arms into i^hap. m. Aaia, fought, and conquered Anti>chus. lie now sued for peace, '"■-^'"^^"'^^ which lie obtained only by resigning his claims in Europe, and w'^???', by the cession of all Lesser Jisia., as far as Mount Taurus, aiJi. ' and the surrender of half his ships. With a show of magna- '^t^fi'-'ft*'" niiriity, the llftnians freed the Cireek cities of Asia iMinor, iiiemfs. divi(hng the remainder of the conquered lands between their ^jefeats^^ allies. But their moderation was only in appearance. In reality, Antiocbuc tkey now held sway from the JItlanlic to the Euphrates. After the peace with .\ntiocluis, the persecuted Hannibal fled to l*KUsiAS, king of FJithynia. The Romans demaiuled him, and iiannibM he, whose great, but misguided talents, had been employed for gu"p"^'|,*. the destruction of his fellow-beings, now, far from home and poisou. friends, raised his hand against himself. 4 Philip v., of Maceiloniu, was extending his power, and waiting an occasion to make war upon the Romans. The con- dition of his young son, Demetrius, whom he had been coin- Demei.iua. pel led to surrender as a hosljige, and who was now at Rome, for a time delayed the hostilities of the father. At length he received him. The amiable youth had become attached to the Roman people, and his innocent expressions were attributed by bis elder brother, Perseus, to treasonable connexion with the enemy of his country, — a design to dethrone his father, and sup- ported by the Romans, to become monarch in his stead. Bv order of Philip, he was secretly put to death. Too late, the .'I'.^i^'fat"' j-epentant father found, that he had sacrificed an innocent son. to a base and jealous deceiver. Struck wifh remorse, he died, and left his crown to the unworthy Perseus, who sought everywhere lo stir up enmity against the Romans. But after war was de- clared, his avarice prevented him from iflbrding much aid to his allies. The Romans, on their part, did not pursue the contest 16H. Ill Greece w;th their usual vigor, till at length, Paulus iE>ii- i>.uiius ' Lius, being elected consul, obtained a decisive victory over -E'niiiupdc. Perseus. Perseus fled, was pursued and taken ; and with his \cw. family carried captive to Rome. Macedonia was now a Roman province. 5. A triumph, as was the case in great successes, was now granted, by the Roman senate, to the conqueror. History gives no account of any exhibitions of human vanity, equal to the triumphs of the victorious generals of Ron e. Oi th's occa- sion, three days were consumed in gorgeous processions, in li*^ which the spoils of the vanquished were paraded through the l^lnius'' streets, with splendid military show, and martial music. T,ast -^^'oiiuK. 3. Give an account of the battle of Magnesia? What was its conse- quence on the Syrian power? What was now the extent of the Roman authority? What was the faie of Hannibal ? — '1-. Relate the history of De- metrius ? What was the course pursued by Perseus ? By whom was the battle of Pydna fought? What was its consequence? — 5. Describe the triumph of Paulus jEmilius ? 15 I 14 THE WICKED DESTRUCTION OF CAUTIIAGE. ^ncien. hts came Paulus Jilmilius in his pompous chariot, blazing with gold I'ERi'D VI. and purple. Behind the triumphal cai of the victor, on loot, CHAP. III. ami clothed in blaclc, followed the conquered king, with his '*"^"''^^"*'^ little children, holding forth their hinds, and imploring the pity Perseus, the of the Spectators. This, says Plutarch, the children oi Perseus 'Mace'dou liad been taught to do, for they were too yonng to feel their dies. miserable degradation. When Perseus begged of his conqueror to be spared this degrading exhibition, ^Emilius replied by hint- ing to him, that he might spare himself by committing suicide. Paulus Jilmilius was however regarded as a man of moderation, but his day was before that of Christianity. The miserable Perseus ended his days in a Roman prison. 166. 6. Antiochus Epiphanes, now king of Syria, was success iJeen Syria f"lly engaged in a war with Egypt, whose kings, Ptolemy Phi- and Egypt, lometer, and Ptolemy Phvscojv, requested the interference of the Roman senate. They sent ambassadors, requiring of the Romnns in- Syrian prince, in an authoritative tone, to restore the places which he had taken from the Egyptians. Such was the terror of the Roman name, that he felt himself obliged to submit to the imperious mandate. 7. THE THIRD PUNIC WAR.— Fifty years having elapsed since the close of the second Punic war, the industrious Car- 149. thaginians had repaired their ruined city, so that it began to ex- Cato urges \i[\y[\^ traces of its former splendor. C.4T0, the censor, an aus- lion of Ca'- tere man, now in his dotage, having had occasion to visit thage. Carthage, and not receiving all the attention to which he thought himself entitled, gave to the senate, on his return, such accounts of its growing power, that he awakened their jealousy; ending all his speeches, no matter on what subject, by saying, "and in my opinion, Carthage must be destroyed." Pretexts were soon found in a dispute which arose between a Roman ally, Masi- NissA, king of Numidia, and the Cartliaginians. While the se- nate were deliberating on the expediency of immediate war- utica 8U'- deputies were received from Utica, tlie second city of Africa, rendered to and in the neighborhood of Carthage, surrendeiing their citv to the Roman power. 8. Having now a convenient depot, the senate no longer he- sitated to send a fleet to Africa, although the Carthaginian am- bassadors at Rome made ofTers of satisfaction and submission No sooner was it known at Carthage that the Roman fleet had arrived at Utica, than ambassadors were despatched thither alstx to make all necessary concessions to obtain peace. The Ro- mans demanded that the munitions of war should be conveyed ofthxiRo- from Cai'thage to the Roman camp. The Carthaginians gav€ To" "hii"*-^ them up; but the means of defence were no sooner rcmo^ed biod rival, from their city, than their ambassadors were ii formed that it 5. What was the fate of Perseus ? — 6. How was the quarrel between Syria and Egypt adjusted ? — 1. What was, at this period, the state of Car- thase ? What account can you give of Cato? Whai tiretexi did "he Ro man senate find for sendina: an army to Africa ? — '^. How did the Romans proceed with the Carthaginians? FALL OF CARTHAGE. 1 15 was the will of the Roman senate tliat Carthage should be (le- •^""'"^ ^*^ ^ stroyed ! and that they commanded all tlie citizens to depart. peri'D vi. With astonishment and grief, the ambassadors supplicated mercy, chaw. iv. They could only prevail to obtain permission to send another ^-^"^•"^i^ embassy to Rome. The deputies went and returuetl, a id con- 'irmed the barbarous decree. 9. The citizens, in despair, resolved to defend themselves to ilielast extremity. The delay of the Roman consuls, who ap- prehended no resistance from a disarmed city, afl'orded the Car- thaginians an opportunity to prepare for the siege. The tem- ples, palaces, and markets, were converted into arsenals, where ti.« men and women worked day and night in the manufacture of l>ospair and arms. But these efforts only delayed a fate, which tlie unhappy " peoiue. people could not avert. After a bravely sustained siege of three years, Carthage capitulated, with no other condition than that the 146. lives of those who were willing to leave the citadel should be carthf»s:o spared. The city, which had existed for 700 years, and which at the commencement of the war contained 700,000 inhabitants, was now reduced to ashes. CHAPTER IV. The East. 1. PERGAMUS, a city of Mysia, took advantage of the war of Seleucus with Lysimachus (both of whom claimed it,) to assume independence. The weakness of the Seleucidse, enabled the inhabitants not only to maintain it, but to add to their territory the surrounding country. Attalus I., a prince of pergum-.s noble character, laid the foundation of the monarch.v. He I'ecoMrus an was the ally of Antiochus the Great, and at the same time, the of Rmuk. friend of the Romans. His son, Eume.ves II., took part with the Romans against Antiochus, and when they had vanquished that king, they gave to Eumenes almost all his domini' ns in Asia Minor, and he became an "ally," which signified little ally ofiioCie else than a servant of Rome, to be protected in danger, but to mcaui. be carefully watched, and punished if not found in the ways of •bedience. Thus Pergamus nominally had her territory ex- tended, but virtually lost her independence. Pergamus had be- I'JS. come, next to Alexandria, the most distinguished seat of arts 'sea"cf ' and literature. A rich library was collected, which Antony ^c-tnr-e 9. How did the cruel conduct of the Romans affect the citizens of Car- thage? Were their efforts avaiiini^ ? (losv lout; had Carthage continued? How many inhabitants did it coniain at the commencement ot the war ? Chap. IV. — 1. What two of .Alexander's <{ener;ils claimed Perf Pergamu? in regard to Uterature ? Its library ? J16 PYliUIIUS A GOOD GEAKRAL A BAD KINO. jincUnt His. PERl'U VI CHAP. IV. UctmrUc Waloi 7 of iFYoia Pyr- .iiiis ll'.'e Roiii-uis Ittnriicii liiiw 10 fortify a camp.) MHieriKil :ir- feclioti inspires i'our:isre. I'vrtlius is "killed. 146. riiesosI:ites iiuk'pfii- c'enl. IS* l'r;isiiK*siili- j'lsiated liy Mil)iriil:ne? I , killod l.y A.I tij.n!ias. al'tern-ards earned to Alexandria as a present to Cleopatra At TAX.us 111. gave, by hv7/, //((' kingdom of Fergumus to llmne^ and t/ic senalc made it a Roman provinci' under the juune of ^isia 2. Rhodes became a republic, and enjoyed, for a hundred years, a splentlid period oi' liberty, commerce, and naval power. EptRUs v.as an independent kingdom us tar back as the Trojan war; but it makes no lignre in history till ilie time of Pyrrhus 11. Olvivipias, the mother of Alexander the Great, was the dangliter of NEOPTOLEiMrs, a descendant of Achilles, and one of tlie predecessors of Pyrrhus. His relationship to such heroes inspired the ardor to acquire similar renown, llisfathei having been deposed, Pyrrhus was carried in his infancy to the king of lUyria, who adopted him, and, with an army, placed him on the throne of Epirns at llie jige of twelve. 3. At seventeen, he Avas expelled from his dominions. Ap- plying to Demetrius Poliorcetes, he was by liim sent to the court of Ptolemy, in Egypt. Here he so ingratiated himself with queen Berenice, that he received the hand of her daughter As- TiGo.NE, and aid from Ptolemy to reinstate him in his kingdom. But he had not the wisdom to remain there, and take care of his subjects. He went tirst to Macedonia, where he was eng-aged in wars with his brother-in-law Demetrius, and his son Anti- gonus ; and next, he passed over mto Italy, to head the Ta- rentines in a bootless war with the Romans. He was finally Killed in an attack on Argos, by a tile thrown from a window, by a poor woman, who in the battle saw him about to slav her son. The last sovereign of the race was Deidajiia, his grand- daughter. A republic of short continuance followed ; and lastly, Epints /'t7/, u-ilh the rest of Greece^ under the dominion of Rome. ' 4. BITIIYNIA and PAP IILAGONI A were formed into se- pcrate states, and had their kings tluring the Persian power. Bias, the reigning king of Bithynia, defended himself success- fully against Alexander, as his son and heir did against his suc- cessors. Hannibal took refuge with Pri'sias H., who, advised by him, made war successiully upon Eumenes. Nevertheless, he was about to deliver liim to the Romans, when Hannibal prevented it by a voluntary death. The Romans invaded^ and, in fact, suhjugated the country ; but to keep up a show of jus- tice, Socrates, the last king, was persuaded, or forced, 1o ofive his empire by will to Rome. '">. PONTUS was, during the present period, governed by princes subordinate to the Persian monarchs, but deriving their descent from the same stock. 3Iithridates II., the fourth of tliese, submitted to Alexander, and after his death, to Antigo- nus. but was by him distrusted and slain. His son Mithridates li. ^Vll.^t can yon s;iy ofRliodes? Of Epirus? Give some account of the lineaire otPvirhiis^ Ot'his early years? — >i. Othis lile uniil hisijoing to [taly ' Where, and liow did lie die ? — I. Whai were formed into separate states? • Wlio was Bias, aiid what did he and his son I — 5. Give an account of Pontus I i P.AIITHIA U.\CONQ.t'LrtkD. 117 HI., after the battle of Ipnus, became iiiflfipendent. Tl.r iciri- '*"'^^""' ''** tories of thf; kint^floni were (jradiially enlarj^erl. The Sfleiici(l 'if Cappadocia ? What act of injintice airi cruelty is here rcUreri of Mitfiridaii'S ? What did ;hc RofiiariB? — H. What countries were influded in Parthia? What can you say of Arsacea f What can you say of f'anhia in reu-n-ncji to the Ui» n.an power? 1.18 THE ASMUNEAN FAMILY. Indent His. of (ommexce from the west to the east, by refusing to pfcrma PERi'D VI. people from other nations to pass through their ten itories CHAP. IV. Hence the East India commerce made its way through Palmyra and enriched the country around that city. 9. BACTRIA shook off the yoke of the Syrian kings undei its Greek governor, Theodatus, afterwards king, not only oi Bactria, bui SOGDIANA. One of his descendants, DemetriuS; was invaded by Antiochus the Great, but the invasion ended hi a treaty •, Antiochus giving him his daughter in marriage. He extended the Bactrian kingdom, by the conquest of Northern India and Malabar. Aesaces VI., conquered Bactria and an- nexed it to Parthia. 10. JUDEA. — After the death of Alexander the Great, Judee was added to Syria, and during the wars of his successors, i'. t'^*^i?,',.= fell under the dominion of the Ptolemies of Egypt. When An- I lie Jews o*^ J favored by tiochus the Great was on the throne of Syria, the Jews voh-.n- intiochus. j^j,jjy submitted to him, and assisted him in driving awav the Egyptian troops. Grateful for this service, Antiochus continnec ^f' them in all the privileges of their peculiar religion. The Jewish •Sanhedrim, priesthood had continued in unbroken succession; and 198 B. C, mention is made in history of an ecclesiastical senate, or Sanhedrim. 14'?. 11. Judea flourished, and was scarcely more than nominally The temple subject to the king of Syria. Wealth had accumulated, parti- ""luinchus'^ cularly the treasures of the temple. Antiochus Epiphanes so Epu'hanes. j^ignaged, as to get into the priesthood creatures of his own, (Tiie who dispensed it to him in presents. The Jews revolted. An- Ma^Jca t-iochus took Jerusalem, and began a horrid extermination of bee the worshippers of Jehovah. Headed by the illustrious fromlhe feniily of the Maccabees, the people made successful head letters acraiiist their oppressors. The first of these, was the father. MCC .. it/¥ B. j. " Mattathias, the second was his valiant son Judas Macca- j.'d^s ^-^^'S- He defeated the generals of Antiochus in several battle.s, bore on aud obtained the friendship of the Romans. "da^rd"" 1^- '^^^^ t^i^d °^ ^^^^ illustrious i\Iaccabees, was Jonathak ^\ They Maccab^us, who, attaining to the dignity of high-priest, was LTtiais acknowledged as the head of the nation, even by Demetrius H., of He- i^ow king of Syria. The fourth of the Maccabees was Simon\ words, who succeeded his brother in the high-priesthood, and in con- "'^"s"^" sequence of military services to the king of Syria, was freed "Who from tribute, and received the title of prince. His son John thep'odo Hyrcanus succecded to his dignities, and not only maintained is liki! his independence, but renewed the connexion with Rome. He ih"e,jH- took advantage of the decline of the Syrian power, and con- tiovah;") 8. How did Palmyra become wealthy? — 9. Give an account of Bactria, and obEerve whether Rome conquered it. — lO. Under what masters did Judea at this time fall >. At what time do we hear of an ecclesiastical court j 11. What conne.xiou had Judea with the Selucidae ? Who was the first of the Maccabees ? The second? — 12. The third? What account can you xive of Judea in his time? VVhat account can you give of Jox-U Hyrcanus ? Why were this family called the Maccabees ? (See note.; o RKAIK ASPIRES TO UNIVERSAL DOMIMuN. Ill) quered Samaria and Idumea. With his death the heroes of this •^'"^■'"^ ^^" family have an end, and many troubles begin. peiu'd vi 13. The Pharisees were a sect whose name implies "set chap. iv. apart ;" and they had, from their sanctimonious observances, gained much authority with the people. Zadok, a Jewish phi- losopher, disgusted with their pretensions, founded a sect called Sadducecs^ which went to the opposite extreme in matters of religion, denying the immortality of the soul, and the agency of spirits in human afikirs. These two sects, formerly at variance only in matters of religion, now became violent political parties. Tvvo sons of Hyrcanus, in deadly hostility to each other, successively occupied bis place, but the race had become dege- nerate; — stained with cruelty, disunion, and bloodsherl. The g3_ Romans came in. as arbitrators, and that, with them, was to rule Pompey as masters. They imposed a tribute upon the Jews, sent Aris- ^to'buiu^'io TOBULUS, a grandson of Hyrcanus, with his family, prisoners Rome, to Rome, and appointed one of his opponents, Axtifater, as ^S- procurator, or Roman governor, of Judea. He adhered to "'\'/,e''idu'/* Rome, and when his patron, Julius Caesar, was assassinated, his mean, second son Herod gained the friendsliip of Mark Antony. the'iam^Iy'of He was afterwards by the triumvirate made kintj ; and although Herod, wiiu a suspicious and cruel man, he obtained the name of "Herod ly "the the Great." By the generosity of the Roman sovereign, his p^an"d\foi'r 'cingdom gradually extended, till it embraced all Palestine, with Judah.") Jdnmea; and from these countries he was allowed to collect revenue without tribute. It was in the last year but one of his reign that our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ was born. 14. THE ACHAEAN LEAGUE.— Troubles having arisen letween the members of the Achaean League, which had till this time, preserved a shadow of liberty, the Romans availed themselves of the opj^ ')rtunity afforded by their dissensions, for dissolving it. An embassy was sent to Corinth, with orders to scsieiue. separate as many states as possible f'-om the league. When, to execute their commission, they called on the league to surrender those places in the Peloponnesus, formerly occupied by the Macedonian king, the Corinthian multitude became so furious as to insult the ambassadors, who v/ere obliged to flee from their violence. This furnished the Romans with a pretext for war. The Achaeans, although heroic in their efforts to restore the freedom of Greece, did but perish in the attempt. Crito- Greece /nb- LAUS, their general, was defeated, and in the same year that jugaied. Carthage loas burned^ Corinth was also taken and destroyed ; and Greece, under the name of Achaia, became henceforth a Roman province. 15. SPAIN. — Wars with the native tribes had been waged by the Romans, since the expulsion of the Carthaginians. Cato THE Censor had at one lime reduced Hither Spain ; but the 13. What history can you give of the Pharisees and Padducees ? Of Antipater? Of Herod? Of the conduct of liie Romans lo the Jews ?■— 14. Whar course did the Romans pursue in regard to the Achaean league * How did tlio war terminate ? 120 THK SIN AND CURSE OF AxMBI TION. Jinaini IBs coiitest was soou renewed, and carried on with sucli success b} I'ERTP VI. the natives, as to give even the Roman soldiers a dread of going cii.\v. V. tliiilier. ViRiATHUS, a native Lnsitanian, was raised to the su- preme command o'l his nation, and uniting the various tribes of Hither and Farther Spain under liis command, he proved a formi(lub'l-5 foe. Tlie Romans at length triumphed over hirti; not in open warfare, but by hiring his servants to murdei hira. This act proclaims the degeneracy, which had already taken kjeps the placc in the Roman character. Itouians at buv. morn! ton CHAPTER V. Moral degeneracy of the Romans. — Domestic (roubles. 1. Thus, by the arts or arms of Rome, the last feeble glim- mering of Grecian liberty had been extinguished : Cartilage lay smoking in ruins ; Syria had bowed in humble submission, and Spain had found her native valor unavailing. The Romans corruption ^^"^"^^ ''^^ Wealth of these vast and remote nations into their of public own treasury, and from this period bribery and corruption 'sequl'iit s'^'^'ayed the senate at home, while extortion and oppression disortieis. marked the administration of the provincial governments abroad 2. Rome was divided into aristocratic and democratic parties, whose contests were more destructive than the ancient dissen- (it is said by sions between the patricians anil plebeians. The great power the'sitives^L ^^ ^'^"^ senate had given rise to a family aristocracy, odious to Rome were the people. A law was passed called Licinian, from Licinius nine tenths c* i i i • ^ \ • . ,i • ,^ i t- lit" the popu- c'tolo, whose object was to restrict the possession ot public lation. 400 ]and to live hundred acres. This for a while restrained the slaves were . , , , - - i i , , . , once put to avarice ol the wealthy, and enabled the poor to omain iarms cause onlfof ^^' "I'^'^lerate rates. But at length this law was disregarded, and their nnm- the rich secuved the public lands, wliich were cultivated by pccteri of* slaves, of u'hom the patricians possessed incredihle numbers ; murdering iJic prisoners madc 171 war beinsi f^ficn sold, or given axoay, as ter. In such siic/i. Thus, the Soldiers who were called on for military ser- i/ie^Royna^ns "*'^^^^i ^^'^^'^ often left without the means of procuring a "liveli- 01 their hood, while the rich enjoved the fruits of all their victories and "^'""'■^ conquests. 15. \yhat was the conduct of the Romans in regard to tne unoffending natives ot Spain ? Give sonie account of the Lnsitanian leader. You have now seen how the Roman senate extended their empire — do you beheve that the Righteous Ruler of the universe couid look with approbation upop 'tieir conduct? Review the chapter, and examine the map for the follow- ing questions. What countries had Rome conquered ? CHAr. V. — 1. What was now the extent of the Roman territories? — 2, Into what parlies was Rome divided ? \\hat had given rise to family aris- tocracy ? What was the law which Licinius Stoio procured? Did this long remain in force? How was the .lind of the rich uUivated? Had the patricians many slaves? U'hat circumstance shows that they feared the ??laves ? How were the common soldiers situated ? MAIUUS AND SYLLA. 121 li. An agrariaii law was proposed by the Ir.bune of the peo- ■^"''*"^ ^"' - pie, TiBKRius Semi-ko.mus Gracchus. He proposed to improve pertd vi the condition of the poor by a juster distribution of the public chai'. v. lands ; and notf as some Imve supposed^ by taking the private ^-^^v^.' property of the rich^ and giving it to the poor. The law first 133. ] proposed was mild in its character. But the enthusiasm of the ^jf^i^/.J [>opulace, who began to look forward with hope, and the ob- 'f- s. ctiiiacy of the nobles in defence of their usurped privileges, ^^us" brought on violent measures. .At length the Liciniau law was 'nirricd rftncwed. Gracchus then made a further proposal, tliat the iia, iTcasures of Attalus, left by will to Home, should be divided ^i,!l^^f among the people. The nobility resisted; sedition ensued, and sripio 'J'iberius, with three hundred of the citizens, fell victims. ,i"gi*' 4. Although the leader was destroyed, the party was by no Ti'e^ means crushed. Tiberius had made the people feel the power those of their tribunss, and they resolved to exercise and increase it. /^■''," "', I 1 r- rn r i ''Oyhood Caius Gracchus, a brother of Fiberms, some years afterwards she ol)tained the o/Iice. He proposed several laws which tended to aD"'A^i^,fr diminish the power of the senate, while they increased that of jfw.;iH." the people. But his opponents raised a tumult, in which Caius f.^^j i was slain, with three thousand of his friends. Thus the aristo- o/ac- , cratic party finally triumphed over the people. They nrocured *^""'^) ' the repeal of the agrarian laws, confiscated the goods of Caius. and prohibited his family from wearing mourning. But the me- mory of the Gracclii, was revered by the people, who afterwards •jrected statues to them, in the most public part of the city. 5. THE JUGURTHINE WAR.— Micipsa, who had suc- ceeded his father Ma-inissa on the throne of Numidia, had at .*''■?• his death left his kingdom to his nephew Jcgurtha, conjointly ^„^uni|'^' with his sons Hif.mpsal and Adherbal. Jugurtha dethroned the sons, assassinated Hiempsal, and seized the whole kingdom. Adherbal fied to the Roman senate, and appealed to them. HacI they acted promptlv, they would for once have had a good cause. But they suffpred Jugurtha's arts and bribery to produi e delay — andthedeatli of Adherbal. Then the senate sent tlie con- sul Meteli.us into .Africa. This brave man was bringing the war to a favorable termination, when iVT^Rius, a new demagogue, who by his valor and abilities had obtained the favor of the people, was appointed to the cliief command. BoccHfs, king Rupi'i.intod of (jpper Numidia, tlie son-in-law of Jugurtha, privately olTered ^i' '"^'""U''- to deliver him up to Syli.a, who was an officer in the army of nebypyrn Mdrius. Sylla went to the camp of Bocchus, where .lugurtha was given into his hands. The ambitious Sylla had a seal made representing the exploit, and thenceforth claimed the honor of terminating the war. Thus began the quarrel between Marius and Sylla. •i. vVhat farnilyiiiade an effbri to rieliver the people from this oppression ? What did T. S. Gr.icchus propose? How did he perish? — 4. Whnt waa afterwards done iiid suflTered by Caius (Gracchus? — ft. Who was Jugurtha? How happened the Romans to make war \junn him? (live. an ancount of tlie wor. IP 122 ROME IN DANGER FROM BARBARIANS. PERI'D VI. CHAP. V. Marius buys the sixth consulate with money. Metellus ia banished. A-fterwardB recalled. Marius (lares not 'pmain in Rome. 91. The Social .T Marsian j>ar. t'oeta 300,000 lives. 6. The genius of Marius procured a triumph for the plebeians, he being the first of their number made consul. The Cimhr' and the Teuiones poured down from the north in alarming multitudes Haifa million had collected and were moving to wards Rome. Proceeding through Helvetia, they were joinsd by the Celtic and Helvetic tribes. They attacked Roman GauL The senate sent, during four years, three armies against thera who were defeated. Then they made Marius a second time consul. Near Aix in Provence, he defeated the Teutones, and near Verona, the Cimbrians. Thus were already begun those barbarian incursions, which proved the final ruin of Rome. 7. Marius having delivered Rome from foreign foes, returned to disturb her domestic tranquillity. He obtained a sixth con- sulate. Metellus, whom he had supplanted in the Jugurthine war, possessed an inflexible integrity, — the spirit of better days. Marius hated, and determined to ruin him. Associating with himself Saturnius, a tribune of the people, they procured laws to be passed, increasing to an alarming degree the power of the democracy. Metellus opposed them and was banished, though afterwards recalled. The insolence' and crimes of the popular party now knew no bounds. Marius, although at first he encouraged them, was at length obliged to call out a body of soldiers to suppress the riot. Thus he incurred their ill- will. Hatred already existed between him and the senate. Sylla, his implacable enemy, was rapidly increasing in popu- larity and Metellus, whose banishment he had procured, was recalled from exile. Marius, foreseeing evil, withdrew from Rome. Other and pressing dangers for a while occupied the nation, and gave the factious spirit of the citizens employment without the walls of the city. 8. The Italian allies of Rome had, from time to time, been flattered with the hope of obtaining citizenship,* until, despair- ing of the accomplishment of their wishes, and driven by con- tinued oppressions, they formed a league among themselves, ■which threatened to subvert the power of Rome itself. This contest was marked by frequent and bloody battles ; victory sometimes declaring in favor of the allies, sometimes for Rome. The war was finally terminated by concessions on the part of * The term citizen, in its common meaning, signifies an inhabitant of & city vested with its freedom and Hberties. In Rome the term became ex- tended. Those who lived in other parts of the commonwealth received from the senate the title of Roman citizens, as a reward for services, or as a matter of favor. Hence the distinction was considered highly honorable. Besides, some privileges were connected with it. The Roman citizen could not be scourged, and he had a right, in cases of criminal prosecution, to ap- peal to Rome and be judged there. C5. How did Maiius obtain a triumph for the plebeians ? What incursion of barbarians occurred ? What were their numbers ? What was done to cheek them ? What was done by Marius ? What numbers of them were killed, and what made prisoners? What was done with prisoners? (See paraffiaph 2.) — 7. What was the conduct of Marius on his return ? What vv?3 done by his rival ? Relate what nest happened to Marius ?— 8. Give Eonie account of the Social war ' SVLLA KULES ALONE. 123 the itoi;:;!iis ^ tie allies eventually obtaining all the privileges ivaicli they demanded. 9. Mithiidates the Gr°at, during his conquests in Asia Minor, had given indications of hostile views towards Rome, by put- ting to death great numbers of thn Roman citizens of Lesser Asia. The factions in Rome wert still distracting the republic. During the Marsiaii war, in wliich both Marius and Sylla had been employed, Sylla liad increased in popularity, and Marius had declined. War willi Mithridates being declared, Marius |)rocured himself to be chosen to conduct it, but the army re- fusing to obey liim, the command was transferred to Sylla. 10. Open war between die rivals ensued. The fortune of Sylla triumphed • — Marius was driven into exile, and in Cam- pania he was seized by Sylla's emissaries and dragged to a pri- son in Minturn.-E. A Gaul was commanded to cut off his head in prison. Entering the dungeon, he met the terrible look and voice of the stern man — ^'Darest thou kill Caius Marius.-^" The Gaul at these words dropped his sword and went forth, declaring that he coidd not do the deed. The people, amazed, took the part of the prisoner. He was released, and escaped to Africa, a price being set upon his head at Rome. 1 1. Sylla departed for Asia, but not until by his cruelties he had made himself odiou?' to all parties at liome. The Grecian cities, with the exception of Athens, which had declared for Mithridates, opened their gates to the Roman army. SvUa be- sieged that city and took it. He violated the temples of Greece, and made himself master of their treasures, which he distril)iited with lavish profusion among his soldiers; thereby attaching them to his service, but corrupting the army. Near Chaeronea in Boeotia, and at Orchomenus, in Thessaly, Sylla obtained vic- tories over the forces of 3Iithridates, who was at length com- pelled to sue for peace. All claims to Cappadocia, Bithynia, and Lesser Asia, were relinquislied •, and on these terms Mithri- dates was declared a friend and ally of the Romans. 12. But while Sylla was thus iriumphhig in the east, a revo- lution was effected at Rome. The consul Cinna, of the party of Marius, after the departure of Sylla, having resorted to the former measures of the Marian faction, was expelled by his col- league OcTAVius. He now raised an army, recalled Marius, defeated the army of the senate, and entered Rome triumphant. Massacres and horrors followed the entrance of the vindictive Marius. Rome, deluged with the blood of his victims, turned her eyes towards the victorious Sylla. Marius heard with ap- palling dread the approach of his enemv. He sickened and [lied, and Rome rejoiced at the event. Young Pompev, who was rising into consequence, and had the command of some PEUi r; VI CHAP .'. ss. First MithriJatic war. I'owt-r of tlie eye and voice. Sylla takes Athens. 86. Sylla (t.>- featfl Mith- ridates, and nt ORCJiO MEXUS. lie suUiu tK S7. Marius re- turns to Rome to wreak Iiis vengeance 86. Detith of 9. Give an account of the beginning of the Miihridatic war. — lO. What occurred lo Marius? — 11. Describe the course of Sylla in Greece. What were the condiiioiis of peace granted to Mithridates ?- 12. Whut had hau- iiened >ii Rome ? What did Marius on his return 124 ANAr.CHY THE FORERUNNER OF ^KSrOTISM. encierd His. troops, with 11 ost of the leading citizens, declared for Sylla, PERi'D V who entered i'ome like a trumphant conqueror. CHAT. VI. 13. He had now overcome his enemies. The senate and peo- ViS'^v'-^^' pie soon leanied, that they had only exchanged one tyrant i'oi another still more bloody. He caused lists cf such persons as he disliked, to be put up in public places, offering rewards to S3. those who v.'ould kill tliem. These lists of proscription were ti^''^^" daily renewed. Whoever favored a proscribed person, although sercise his his own father or nearest relative, was himself devoted to death- cruelty. ^}^i|p those who destroyed their friends received ample rewards. The streets were filled with the dead. On one occasion, seven thousand persons were assembled in a small place, and there put to the sword ; while the insulted senate, sitting near, were compelled to listen to their groans. To such degrading tyranny Avas Home, the mistress of the world, compelled to submit; and thus were her cruelties to Carthage, and other fallen ene mies, visited upon her own head. ^ 14. Sylla had declared himself dictator ; and in this capacity Death" of he modified the laws to suit his own purposes. Afterwards he Sylla. voluntarily abdicated his power, and although he escaped the The great chastisement which he deserved, from human hands, yet God numtierof gmote him With a most loathsome disease, of which he died the wars of In the wars of Marius and Sylla, thirty persons of consular dig- Marius and j^j|.„ ^^^^^ hundred senators, and 150,000 Roman citizens are said gylla. JT . . , 1 ' to have perished. Sertorian Sertorius had been an oflicer under Marius. He escaped from Sylla, and in Lusitania collected 10,000 soldiers, with o^Xt whom he made head against Metellus and Pompey, with 120,000 , gaining a victory at Tarragona. At length Perpenna, his lieu- war TJIRRA 6erlorius defeats the Romans, tenant, assassinated him at a feast. t Ancient AmiJgt the disorders of Rome, some Thracian gladiators, name Tarraco. headed by the gigantic SpARTACUS,ran away from their masters, The and posted themselves strongly in the hills, near I'apua. Slaves and the oppressed joined them, till, with an army of 72,000, Spartacus for a time was the terror of Italy. While Crassu^ commanded against him he v;as defeated and slain. S«rvile war. CHAPTER VI. Rome passing from anarchy to dcspotis'in. Second ^' '^ *^''*^ &Q.si^ another war with Mithridates had broken Mitiiridatic out. The consul LucuLLUs had obtained the command in that quarter, and conducted the v/ar with such vigor and ability, that 13. Relate some ofibe cruelties of SyUa. — 14. What number of victime is it supposed lost their ives in these civil wars? Give an account of tlie ^^crtorian war. Of the Servile war. WW. POMPEY COxXUUERS MITrUirVATES. 125 die second year he compelled Mithridates to ily to his son-in- -"fncic^ij^ law, TiGRANEs, king of Armenia. Tigranes, although he had peui'D vi before neglected to afford him any aid, now refused to deliver chap. v;. him up. Lucullus, therefore, carried the war into Armenia. At Tigrauocerta, and Arlaxata, the army of Lucullus obtained •■ii'.ories over the allietl forces of these kings; but a mutiny among the Roman soldiers embarrassed his movements, and enabled Mithridates to recover his strength. 2. A party adverse to Lucullus had arisen in Rome. Pompey i.ossofiii- nad been successful in t!io war in Spain ; he had conquered llie i^oj'ooo'jl'.rji pirates of Cilicia and Isauria, and now was gratiried by being ss.uuo home, sent, with an army of 30,000, to supersede Lucullus, and thus have the glory of being opposed to Mithridates, the most power- ful and able general with whom the Romans had contended pn,npey m since the days of Hannibal. With the aid of Tigranes, he had Uie Easi. already reconquered most of his territories. His policy was tc avoid a general battle, but to hover near the Romans, and by in- fercepting their convoys, to distress and reduce them. 3. Pompey felt the etTects of these measures, and departed from Pontns into Armenia, determined to reduce that province, or force Mithridates to battle, in order to relieve it. Mithri- dates followed with his army. Pompey, failing to draw him gg into an engagement, besieged him in his camp for fifty days. j^eartheEO Mithridates, reduced to distress, at dead of night attacked the ^„™>fjj^^ Roman guards, broke through their entrenchments, and gained Pompey to- the open country. Pompey pursued, and finding unguarded Mu^hrhiutcJ passes, sent detachments, which secretly gained commanding .""ii positions in the rear of the Pontians. He then surprised theii 'S""^""" camp at night. Tlius surrounded, they suffered a total defeat. Mithridates escaped with SOO horse ; but even this remnant of his army forsook him and fled. With only his wife, his daugh- ter, and one olficer, he sought the court of Tigranes, who now refused him a shelter; and he pursued his melancholy way till lie found a home among the more generous Scythians. 4. Pompey made Tigranes, by treaty, a Roman ally, in otiier words, a Roman subject. He then went northward in pursuit of Mithridates. After two years of war with the Scythians and 64. <53. hardsliip to his troops, getting no clue to tJie abode of his uti- mnkeTtle fortunate enemy, Pompey retraced his course to Pontus, and noviannmas •'educed those places which remained faithful to the absent 'mtniaand Jionarch. A'^ter these victories, Pompey received the submis- '^<^'^- sion of twelve kings. He then carried his arms into Syria, con- quered Jiitlfpn, and penetrated tc Arabia. 5. After Pompev''s departure, Mithridates issued from his con- ceaimcnL,and appearing in Pontus at the head of an army, mads CiiAPTT-K VI. — 1. How did Lucullus conduct the second Mithridatic war?— . '4. W hat iasaid of Pompey? What of Mithridates? — 'i. Hive an account of f ho movements of the contending parties. What did Mithridates after the battle f — -. Wiiat was done by Pompey in respect to Tieranes ? Flow did he ne.Ti extend the Roman power ? — ">. G've an account of the third Mithridatic war. W hat did Pha-races become ? W hat was clone in Rome on P' impey s return * Ii6 THE FIRST TRIIMVIRATE. Ancient His, himself master of several important places. But liis ofllccrs PERi'D VI. mutinied, and in vain he asked the aid of the Scythians. His THAP. VI. son Pharnaces, availing himself of the disafiection of the army, -"•"v^v-^ proclaimed himself king. Milhridates, in despair, committed Pompeyex- suiclde. Pompey, after declaring Pharnaces an ally to the Ro- ends the Ro- ir J ' o .> manpower mans, returned to Italy. Rome rejoiced in his success, and on ;i)ar Pontus. ^^q proposal of CicERo, the greatest of Roman orators, twelve days were set apart for thanksgiving to the gods. 6. On his arrival in Italy, Pompey disbanded his army, to the great joy of the senate, who feared he would retain it, and after the examples of Marius and Sylla, make himself absolute in 64. poAver. Rome was however unquiet. Catiline and his asso- ^°"ff '.'i^'^y ciates had formed a horrible conspiracy. Their iiitention was to ot CatUine - i ti i i i^ i t-i defeiitedby extu'pate the Roman senate, plunder the treasury, and set Rome ^"cato^"*^ on fire. Through the eloquence and patriotism of Cicero, thence called the " father of his country," aided by the honest and philosophical Cato, the dreadful plot was detected, and the conspirators punished. 7. But the master spirit of the times was JuLitis C^sar, who had just returned from a successful war in Spain. Concealing his boundless ambition, he was now at Rome, paying court to the ladies, and acting the intriguing demagogue. Crassus, by assuming popular manners, by increasing his gi-eat wealth, auil by constantly making himself useful by his money, to those 60. ^^^^ needed his aid, had, with far inferior talents, acquireil s^rstTrium- power and influence in Rome equal to those of either Caesar or OEsa^'pom- Pompey. Crassus and Pompey were at variance. Caesar an- pey, and fully recoi. ciled them, and the three formed a union, dividirip Crassue. 777,7 r 1 between themselves., under the name oj the triumvirate, ///e su-preme power of the commomrealth. Caesar, at his desire, was appointed to undertake an expedition against the Gauls. He be- lieved that in the five years allotted to him, he would be able to form and discipline an army, which would put within his reach the absolute power at v.^hich he aimed. The succeeding year, Crassus was to govern Asia, while Pompey remained at Rome at the head of the affairs of Italy, Africa, and Spain. 5^_ 8. A treaty Avith Partliia had been entered into by Lucullus, Crassus pro- and renewed by Pompey, the terms of which that nation haci wlrdsPar- faithfully kept, but Crassus, wishing to increase his wealth, •iva. Hesa- and to equal the military fame of his rivals, undertook against p! under "the the Parthians an unprovoked and unrighteous war. At the head jewieh of the Roman legions, he passed through Syria and Judaea, 'plundered the temple at Jerusalem., crossed the Euphrates, and reduced many towns of Mesopotamia. 6. How did Pompey recommend himself to the Roman senate ? Give an account of the horrible conspiracy which had been formed. To whom was its detection and punishment owing? — 7. Who was, however, the master spirit ? What appearance did he now put en ? How did Crar^sua become powerful? Who and what vas the nrst triumvirate? How did itie three divide the Rorr an power be ween them ? — ir«. What right had tb.o Romans to attack the Parthians ? Whav sacrilege was committed bv Crassus » tpmple THE PARTHIANS DESTROY A ROMAN' AR.MY. 1211 9. Tlie Parthians rose in arms, and while Crassus with his anny •^"^'^''t g«« svas in winter quarters, they retook the places which he had con- pertd vi quered. When he recommenced his march, they provided liim chai'. vi vvith an artful adviser in Ariam.ves, a wily Arabian chief, to ^^^-^/-^ whom Crassus ?ave ear, caught by his ffreat pretences of friend- "' '"''• '"'" ship and gratitude to '.he Romans, for services rendered his fa- her. Deaf to the remonstrances of Caius Cassius, an able general, and of other officers and friends, who knew the Par- thian mode of warfare, he persisted in keeping the open plains of Mesopotamia. For some time the march of the army was through a fertile and well watered country, where the wants of the sohhers were easily and fully s^upplied. Soon, however, the scene changed, and they entered upon dry and sandy plains, where neither stream, nor tree, nor plant, appeared. A hostile army lurked all around them, and now sure of their prey, openly attacked tliem. The Romans fought bravely, but in aiurklTby vain ; whether advancing, or retreating, the discharge of the the Par- Parthian arrows was equally effective. The army of Crassus, ^'"u"oir"^ surrounded on all sides, was reduced to the greatest extremity ; a large division was totally defeated ; and his son, who com- manded it, slain. 10. Crassus effected a retreat, and threw himself into CAarr«; thither he was pursued by Sure.va, the Parthian general, and 53- fearful of an assault, he determined, unknown to tlie inhabitants, uuTier.' to leave the city. His design was discovered by Surena, and ^'/'".iy'iwjjj"* again a guide was suborned, who led him into marshes, where pris.10,000 he was overtaken and finally slain. Of all his army, only 500 horse, under the command of Cassius, escaped. 11. C.F.SAR had at first received the government of Gaul for rive years, ijut at their expiration, he was involved in wars with ^f^, the barbarians, and other five years were added to the time. Julius Ca,. During this period, his daring achievements, his adventurous oiltiimir'ii spirit, his personal toils and exposures, exhibited military ta- jji^^'^gj^j lents equal, if not superior, to those of Alexander, and of Han- talents, nibal. To these he added, what neither of them possessed, the polish of the finished scholar. The commanding powers of limguage were his, whether he chose to exert them in speaking a,^te^tofor or in writing. He had in his ymith pursued his education in education Greece, whither Cicero, Cato, and other eminent orators, at this n'^hiest i^olden period of Roman eloquence, resorted for instruction ; the Boimmf. Romans thus ceding the nobler palm of the arts of peace, to ihe nation whom they had mastered in war. 12. The expeditions of Cfesar brought to the notice of the Ro nans, places which they had not before known. Tluis they connect with him, even us, the Anglo-Americans. By Julius CcBsar the Romans mere first led to Britain, the land of our progenitors. The language he spoke became in part incorpo- 9. Relate the history of his march, and observe whether he prospered ? — 10. How did Crassus finally meet his doom ?— 1 1. What did Caesar at this lime ? How did CsDsar excel Alexander and Hannibal ? Where did he gc for his education ? In what respects did the Romans cede to the G'ecians ? I2S POMPEY AND C^SAR. /ijicient His. vatod with that of the native barbarians, v/lien hirf counirjnnen, fEEi'D VI. following liis footsteps, subjugated the island ; and this mingled CHAP. vn. language, farther modified by the Saxon and Norman French, is -^-o'-N/^v-^ that which our mothers taught us in our cradles. Ceesar twice Casar visits invaded Britain. In his sangumary course, he enlarged tl c Y/ivaVos bounds of the Roman empire in Gaul, and found tribes, of new :;e. luciny ^nj singular appearance. He also invaded Germany, and had bloody battles with its wandering natives, who were distin- guislied by peculiar customs. They dwelt not in cities, and they paid religious veneration to women. CHAPTER vn. Ftrot trlum- vir:ite dis- aolved. <;ssar and Pompey HVfarrel. 49- luonded to Jlubaiul his army. Rome the prey of ambitioup citizens. 1. On the deathofCrassus, the first trmmvirate was dissolved, and Pompey and Caesar were left to contend for tlie supremacy. Julia, the amiable daughter of Caesar, wliom he had given in marriage to Pompey, had proved a bond of union between these two ambitious spirits ; but she was now dead, and Pompey mar ried Cornelia,* of the family of the Scipios, and the widow ol the son of Crassus. Animosities between them, fatal to the peace of Rome, were now beginning to appear, which Cicero vainly attempted to reconcile. Pompey enlisted the senate and the people on his side. Caesar, on the other hand, was the idol of his veteran army. 2. Pompey obtained a decree from the senate, commanding Caesar to disband his troops ; and Mark Antony, a tribune, fied to Caesar''s camp at Ravenna, with the news. To obey the mandate, would be to put himself in the power of his rival. To advance with his army, and pass the river Rubicon, the bound * Cornelia, was beautiful, amiable, well versed in polite literature, played the lute, and was also acquainted with geometry and philosophy The condition of women among the ancients was, however, degradnig Their fathers or brothers, witl;out consultini; their affections, gave them in marriage, as it suited their own ambitious purposes. When Cajsar wished for a poliiical connexion with Pompey, Julia, who was on the eve of a mar- riage to another, must be given to him. Formerly, when Sylla wished for the same connexion, he took his step-daughter, Emilia, from her husband, and obliged the youn^ Pompey to divorce his first wife Anstitia, and marry her. Men divorced tneir wives at pleasure. Even Cicero, in his old age, divorced Terentia, the mother of Tullia, for whose death he mourned so im moderately, and married a young heiress, who was his ward. Met), as fa thers, have been more generally just to women, tlian as husbands. 12. The English language which we speak is partly derived from the Latin — Can you tell how it became so ? What are you told of Caesar's in- vasion of Britain, and of Germany ? Chap. VII. — 1. How was the first triumvirate dissolved? Whom had Pompey on his side ? Whom had Caesar? — 2. What decree did the senate pass ? How did Caesar hear of it ? CiESAR DICTATOR. 12'J ary of his province, would be setting at defiance the power of -^ncieiu //i« the senate. Taking 6,000 sohliers, he atlvanced with an agitated pertd vi. mind, pansed all night, riding to and fro, on the brink of the in- f^nAP. vn. terdic*ed stream, then at dawn, he daslied forward, and as he ^-^""^^^^w passed, he exclaimed, " the die is cast." The celerity of his movements surprised his enemies. Pompey, not being in force to 49. meet liirn, (U'd from Kome, first to Capua, and afterwards to Catarpaupcs Bruitdu^ium. Caesar, by the departure of Pompey, was left in "" '^"'"o"" pos.session of Italy, and soon entered Rome. Collecting the membcirs of the senate, lie attempted to justify his conduct, and made proposals of peace, while, at the same time, he continued his preparations for war. To facilitate these, he entered the treasury, and took an immense sum, telling the tribune who op- posed him, and plead the violated rights of his country, that "arms and laws did not (loarish together." 3. Appointing lieutenants over the different provinces, with legions at their conmiand, and leaving Mark Antony com- mander-in-chief in Italy, he proceeded in person to reduce Spain ; reduces where the army was in the interest of Pompey. Having, with Spuin great hazard, eflfected this, he returned to Rome, leaving one of his lieutenants to command in Spain. The patriotic citizens of Rome knew not how to act. Cicero said, "Cajsar is the abler The riii^en-. man, but Pompey has the better cause." Believing thus, he and '"""their"""^ most of the senators, magistrates, and distinguished citizens, left mastf r Rome to follow the fortunes of Pompey. 4. Caesar assembled his friends and the citizens which re- mained ; and the pr;etor, Lepidus, nominated him dictiitor. lie cx^m held the ollice but eleven days, during which he made some d'ctaiur. improvements in the government. He fdled the vacant oflices with hi'5 friends. Himself and one of his partisans he procured to-be appointed consuls. He next invested Pompey's forces in Brundiisium; buthe escaping the snare, crossed the Adriatic into Greece. Caesar embarked from Brundusium with a part of his army, leaving the remainder under Antony, to follow ; but their delay, and the danger of their being intercepted by Pompey's Cfesar foi- fleet, induced him to make overtures for peace. They were re- 'p,7''ac'rood jected. Caesar, impatient to learn the cause of Antony's delay, the Adriatic attempted to cross the strait in a tisliing boat, telling the master, affrighted by a storm, " Fear not, thou carriest Caesar and his fortune." Mark Antony having arrived with the remainder of his troops, Cajsar besieged his rival in camp at Dyrrhachium. But Pompey forced liim from his position with loss; then, as Caesar retreated, he followed him into Macedonia. 5. Pompey's army far exceeded C;esar's in number : and in hi,s camp were almost all tlie friends of itoman liberty — Cicpro, Cato, and his son-in-law, the patriotic Brutus. The two ar- mies were drawn up on the memorable plain of Pharsalia. 2. Give the history of Caesar's movements ? — 3. What were Caesar's next measures? What course did the most patriotic Romans now take ? Where did they go, being with Pompey? — 1. What were Caesar's measures? What was done at Brundusium ? What at Dyrrhachium ? 17 130 THE PALL OF PO.AIPKY. Incitnt, His. PERI'D VI CHAP. VII. The fate of Ponipey. iDf^ratitude of Ptolemy. Gnef of Cornelia. Ox-bQi es- nouees the muse of (Sleopufia. r>eath of Ptoemv They who had sat together in council, shared the same social repast; perchance, drawn their infant su&.enance from the same maternal breast, joined in unl)oly strile. Pompey fought his country's children, not as he had fought her foes; and CfEs-ar was victorious. As soon as Pompey perceived that his cavalry were defeated, he retired to his camp in despair, and sat down When the whole army was routed, and he was informed that Caesar was approaching to storm the intrenchments, he ex* claimed, " in my camp too," and laying aside the insignia of :)flice, he prepared for flight. 6. Pompey, now a wretched fugitive, passed by Larissa, and in the vale of Tempe, he who could so lately command the at- tendance of suppliant thousands, prostrated himself to taste the running stream, and was glad to rest his wearied limbs in a fisherman's hut. In the morning he embarked on the Peneus in a small boat; but coming up with a ship of burden com- manded by a Rom.an, he was welcomed and carried to Mity- lene, where tlie affectionate Cornelia, expecting her husband as the master of die world, was told that if she wished to see Pom- pey with one ship, and that not his own, she must hasten When she approached, he ran and caught her in his arras, as she was falling in a fainting fit. Yet it was her husband's fi^te, and not her own, that affected her; and she ingeniously sought to blame herself for his ill-fortune. 7. With one small galley, they embarked for Egypt, to seeK the protection of Ptolemy. On their arrival at Alexandria, the base counsellors of the young king advised him to assassinate Pompey, in order to obtain the favor of Ceesar. Accordingly, a boat was sent off to the galley, as if to take him to the city Cornelia, looking after him as he moved from her, saw the as sassin stab him through the body ; and her shriek of agony was heard upon the shore. Caesar pursued Pompey to Egyyt ; but when his head was presented to him, he turned away with ab- horrence, — wept the fate of his former friend, and caused his murderers to be punished. 8. The crown of Egypt was in dispute between Ptoi.emy, the acknowledged king, and Cleopatra, his sister. The claims of Ptolemy liad been upheld by the Roman senate, and Cleo- patra banished. To lay her cause before Caesar, she hastened to Alexandria. Caesar was charmed, as by an enchantress, and he summoned Ptolemy to appear before him. At tlie instigation of his minister, he disregarded the summons, and despatched an army of 20,000 men to besiege Caesar in Alexandria, who, at- tended by only 4,000 troops, was in imminent danger. Al length, reinforcements arrived, with which he attacked and car- ried the camp of Ptolemy ; who, in attempting to escape, xvas drowned. Caesar settled the crown upon Cleopatra. 5. Describe the battle of Phorsalia ? What was the loss on the aide of ike vanquished? — 1». What \vas the course of Pomiey ai'ter tiie battle?— T. What occurred after he reached the shores of E^jypt ? — J^. Who was Cleopatra? What course did Caesar take to upholo *»e. cliim? CATO AXD HIS LITTLK SENATE- 13) 9. Tue war was closed, but the coiiqueroi lingered. At ^"""^^ *« leiigth he was aroused by iiuelligence of tlie revolt and con- peutd vi. ijuests of Fliarnaces, the son of Mithridates. According to liis chap. vu. i>wn account, he " went, saw, conquered ;" and having appointed '«^''~^'>«»' Mithridates of Pergamus, who had succored him in hi6 dislre.ss 4'?. at Alexandria, to be the successor of Fharnaces, he embarked subdues for Italy. He found, on his arrival at Rome, that during hisab- I'harnnres sence, he had been created dictator for one year, consul for five iuh tionori years, and tribune of the people for life. ^' '^*""*' 10. Tlie remaining partisans of Pompey, including several senators, after their defeat at Pharsalia, passed over to Africa, under Meiellus Scipio, Cato, antl Juba, the son of liiempsal, who was dutiful to the last to the senate of Rome. The oidy 8,.mi't'e ai independent members of that once august body, now collected '^"'^"• in Utica, where Cato presided. Caesar sought them, and de- feated in battle their militxiry force. Juba and one of his gene- rals killed each other in despair. Scipio, who commanded the 46. arn^.y, was slain ; and Cato, the most virtuous a^id patriotic of ^k'**.'" the Romans, seeing that all hope was lost, having read and dustroy* the commented on Plato's work on the immortality of the soul, ''of r "('"lYi ' with philosophic composure committed suicide. Ciesar. on his liberty, return to Rome from tliis expedition, was honored with a splendid triumpli, which lasted four days; tlie people, with base ilattery, hailing him as the father of his country. 11. The sons of Pompey, yet unsubdued, held Spain, and were in a condition for war. Caesar went thither, con(}uered, and returned. He had now triumpkfd over all his enemies^ and teas sujirrme in Rome. His sway, unlike that of iVlarius and Sylla, was mild and ecpiitable ; — liberal to his friends, kind and Cwsar'a ud- forgiving to his enemies. He made salutary laws. U'iih the aid of learned men he reformed the calendar^ and thus showed the advantages of learning in conditions of power. He caused Carthage and Corinlk to be rebuilt, and sfnt out Roman colo- nies to repeojile them. He planned a war witti Parthia, in order to extend the empire, and to revenge the death of Crassus. 12. Had Ce an account of his expedition to Asia. What honors awaited him at Home ? — 10. Who were assembled in Utica? What was the fate of Juba? Of Cato? — 11. Describe the conduct of Caesar as supreme in power. — l'^. What error as a politician did Caesar commit ? If our citi- yens and rulers cease to have republican virtues, what do you suppose will be the fate of our republic ? 132 C^&^R MURDERED. anciciu His, of hls Coronation, murmurs arose. The thoughtful Cass'us/he PERI D V!. envious Ciima, and others, were stirring up a hatred against CHAT, VIII. iiini which aimed at his life ; and at length they gained the man who, since Cato, had more devotion to his country than any other Roman, "^rhis was Marcus Brutus, who had fought against Caesar at Pharsalia, been pardoned by him, loaded with favors, and adopted as a son. " Loving Caesar much, he yet loved Rome more ;'■■ and by a misguided patriotism, he joined the conspiracy, in which sixty senators were engaged. 13. The ides, or fifteenth of March, was the day appointed for the execution of die murderous deed. The night preceding, Calphurnia, the wife of Cajsar, was warned in a dream ; and would fain have persuaded liim not to go that day to the senate. Csesar, as he passed a soothsayer, who had foretold tiiat the ides of March would be fatal to him, said triumphantly, '•'' The ides of March are come." " But not ffone,'" was die reply. On Til** sooth- o ^ I J saver.' account of the alarm Calphurnia's dream liad given him, he of- fered sacrifices before going to the capitol. The omens were inauspicious, and he thought to adjourn the senate, but one of the conspirators asked " If he would bid them go, and come i5Ui March, agalu when Calphurnia had better dreams ?" He then took his CoeffT- falls, accustomed seat. A friend gave him a paper, containing an ac- count of the conspiracy, which he desired him to read instantly. As he held it in his hand, the conspirators pressed around him with petitions. At length Cinna gave the signal, by pulling his robe. At the moment, all drew their swords and fell upon him. He defended himself at first, but seeing Brutus about to strike, he exclaimed, " And you too, my son !" Then wrapping his man- tle about his head, he fell, pierced with many wounds. CiEB!2T'8 14. Thus died, in the 56th year of his age, a man, who, it ii '^mem*^" ^'^'^'' conquered 300 nations, took 800 cities, and in different Human de- battles, defeated 3,000,000 of men, of whom 1,000,000 Avere tnuctio.j. jiiiied in fight. Great as he was, he was a man of blood, and in blood he fell. CHAPTER VHI. Rome under the second Trium^'irate. The cfrnani- ^' The conspirators retired at first to the capitol, but the foS laiorH at loAving day they appeared in public, and addressed the people, '"^?ceted!° *^ho seemed to listen with composure. The senate passed a 12. Describe the conspiracy which was now formed. — 13. G ve an ac- count of CcEsar's death. — 14. How many nations had he conquered f Cities? How many men were defeated, and how many slain in his wars? Chap VHI — 1 . What course was t-aken by the conspirators after Csesar's death ? OCTAVIUS, AKTERW.ARDS AUGUS'I US. 133 decree, which, ihovigh it confirmed the acts of Caesar's dictator- ship, bestowed sucti oflices upon the conspirators, as ini^ht be regarded as an approval of their deed. But wiih misjudging moderation, they permitted Marlv Antony, an eloquent man. whose dangerous character was a singular compound ol' politi- cal design and anient passion, to bring forward the dead body of Caesar for a publit; funeral. Antony uniched the national pride of the Romans bv (Miumeraling Qesar's achievements, and liieir sensibilities by declaring his acts of kindness. With llie genuine tears of bereaved affection, he showed them ^ sweet Caesar's wounds ;" and with the art of the politician read them his will, wherein he manifested his love to liie [Ionian people by bequeathing them money. The deep feelings of sorrow thus excited by the orator, were artfully turned to rage against those who wrought his death. The people rose in their mad- ness; and the conspirators, to save their lives, fled from Rome. Brutus and Cassius went to Athens, where the Greeks, honoring them for their love of liberty, received them cordially; and they applied themselves for a time to the study of philosophy. Bru- ins had already imbibed from Cato, the sublime devotion to virtue which characterized the Stoics. 2. Antony had brought the senate into many of his measures. A new aspirant now appeared in Octavius, grand-nephew to Ju- lius Caesar, whom he had adopted as his son, giving him the name of Caesar, and making him his heir. He had been pursuing his studies in Greece, but on learning his uncle's death, he posted to Rome. Antony, though at the head of affairs, had neglected to pursue the conspirators. He now withheld from Octavius the fortune bequeated him by his uncle, that he might not have the means of acquiring popularity. Octavius, seeing his design, secured the favor of the people, by selling his patrimonial es- tate to pay Caesar's legacy. Cicero, regarding him as less dan- gerous than Antony, aided him by his great influence. 3. The senate sent to Antony, who was now in Gaul at the licad of an array, certain orders, which he thought proper to disregard ; whereupon they despatched Octavius, with a force to riiduce him to submission. An engagement took place in Cis- alpine Gnul^ in which Octavius was successful. Lepidu;, an unprincipled man, was in command of an army in Farther Gaul. To his camp Antonj fled, but was ill received by the general. Feeling his life in danger, he appealed to the army. He was manly and graceful in person, persuasive in speech and manners — tie friend of Julius Caesar, and he appeared among the soldiers in distress., Thev espoused his cause, and Lepidus now felt that Antony had become his master. 4. Octavius had the command of the forces of the senate, but he had suspicion? of the attachment of that body to himself, and ^luxent Hin PlilU'D VL CUAl'. VIII. 4ft. I^Iarih 10 Antony's orution .D Ctes.'ir'j funeral. Conspir*- tofa flee. Octavius gains the favor of thi peopi" By Cicero- i influence tliu setiat.; iMnpIoy liiiii. Octavius defeats Antuiiy. K Ruddon vurn in tlie affairs of Antony stj I.eti'du* 1. Give some account of Caesar's funeral. Whither did the conspirators fle*' ' What philosophical sect did Brutus belong to ? — 2. Give an account of Oc.avius. — "i. Describe his e.xpedii'on against Antony. What sudden turn in Antony's affairs occurred ? i:i4 THE SECOND TRIUiMVIRATE. 9ncien', Kjs. PERI'D VI. CHAP. VIII. Arsaces "SIV. aids Brutus and Cassius. 42. PHILIPPI. Criitus and Cassius defeated. 41. Cleopatra's celftbruttd galley Baiis up the C ydnua to tarsus. ihouglit the destruction of Antony would be but a prelude to bis own. When, on making application for the consulship, his suit was rejected, he no longer hesitated upon his course, but pri- vately sent to Antony and Lepidus, j)i-oposing terms of recon- ciliation. They gladly embracing his proposals, the three met on a little island in the Rhine, where, uniting their military force, they formed the second trium.virate. 5. The first business of this iniquitous league was to make a proscriptive llst^ in which each gave up many friends, in order that the others might agree to the destruction of his enemies. This bloody catalogue contained the names of three hundred senators, and two hundred knights. Octaviiis gave up to the hatred of Antony, the virtuous Cicero, the friend of his country and the pride of Roman eloquence. He was pursued and mur- dered. The estates of the proscribed were seized and given to their murderers. 6. The triumviri prepared for war with Brutus and Cas- sius, who by this time had collected a considerable force. Brutus had travelled into Asia and there made friends. Arsaces of Parthia gave him aid. Brutus, troubled in mind, one nigliJ while in Asia, saw, or seemed to see, a terrible spectre, who said " I will meet thee again at Philippi." Said Brutus, " I will meel thee there." The Roman students at Athens embraced his cause ; the friends of the commonwealth, and the partisans of the sons of Pompey, who were still scattered in various parts of the pro- vinces, flocked to his standard. The hostile armies met at Philippi, in Macedonia •, and agam the thousands of Rome stood arrayed against each other. The battle was fought bravely. While Brutus proved victorious over Octavius, Antony com- pletely routed the troops of Cassius, who, ignorant of the suc- cess of his colleague, fell upon his sword. Brutus collected the forces of Cassius, and after twenty days, he ceded to the importunity of his troops, and liazarding another battle, he was totally defeated. VVitnessing the irreparable loss of his army, and determining n<:>t to survive the liberty of his country, he also committed suicide. 7. On the death of Brutus, the party of the conspirators was no longer formidable ; and the Roman empire was complete!'^ suhjected to the triumviri. Octavius returned to Italy, where Lepidus still remained. Antony went into Asia, where he re- ceived the homage of its various kings, collected the revenues, and regulated the affairs of provinces and tributary nations, as his caprice might dictate. At Tarsus, for some alleged of- fence, he summoned to appear before him the fascinating qnee?i of Egypt. Knowing that Antony affected at times to personify 4. What induced Octavius to plan the second triumvirate ? Giec an ac- count of its formation. — 5. What shocking feature had this league ? How many were proscribed? Whose murder is particularly noticeable? — 6. Give an account ot Brutus. Of what troops wa.^i his army composed} Des'M-ibe ilie l)atile of Philippi. The fate of Brutus — T. Had the triumvin etill any enemies in tlie field? CLEOFATfiA AND OCTAVIA. 135 Bacclius, tlie god of wine, Cleopatra came to him in the cha^ meter of Venus, sailing up the river Cydnus, in a galley deco- rated in the perfecl'on of art and elegance. Antony, at her invitation, came to her galley, and was charmed to his ruin. He accompanied her, on her return to Alexandria, where, sunk in effeminacy, he forgot public affairs. 8. Octavius assiduously employed himself in attaching the veteran troops to his person, and in bringing the whole nation to regard him as its head. Italy was, however, the scene of want and misery. Sextus PoiviPEV, who had made himself master of Sicily, infested tiie sea with his fleet, and prevented the importation of corn ; while multitudes of women and child- ren, deprived by the appropriation of the lands to the soldiers, of home and subsistence, crowded the temples and the streets. Multitudes of husbandmen and shepherds flocked to Rome, to excite the compassion of the conqueror. Among the suppliants, the poet Virgil alone found favor, and was permitted to retain his patrimonial estate at Mantua. 9. Antony, roused by the representations of his friends, tore himself from Egypt, and returned to Italy. Octavius met him, and by mediation of friends, and mutual policy, they became re- conciled. In making their bargain, the noble Octavia, llie sister of Octavius, was given, in the traffic, to be the. wife of the lover of Cleopatra ; and another division of the empire was made. Octavius took the command in the west ; Antony in tiie east ; while to Lepidus was assigned Africa ; and to Sex- tus Pompey, who had now acquired considerable power, the Peloponnessus and the islands of the Mediterranean. Difficul- ties between Antony and Pompey soon arose, which resulted in the destruction of the latter. Lepidus, thinking this a good op- portunity of adding Sicily to his possessions, drew upon himself tiie indignation of Octavius, who by secret intrigues procured the desertion of his army, made him prisoner, deprived him of till authority, and banished him. 10. Antony, by the influence of Octavia, for three or four years, kept terms with Octavius. He at length undertook to conduct a war against the Parthians, at the head of 60,000 foot and 10,000 horse. He marched into Parthia, suffered de- feats by his imprudence, and retraced his steps, after having lost one-fourth of his army. Influenced by his blind passion for Cleopatra, he liastened to Egypt, which again became the scene of his dissipation and folly. He bestowed on Cleopatra and her children, first Phoenicia, Cyrene and Cyprus, and afterwards all Asia from the Mediterranean to the Indus •, and the ambitious queen thought, as was known in Rome, that she should yet ''give law in the capitol." 11. The wrath of Octavius, now sanctioned b}^ the people, 8. What was the condition of Italy? What can you say of Virgil ? — 9. In this paragraph four principal actors are mentioned — tell what was done by each — 1st, Octavius ; 2d. Antony ; 3d, Lepidus; 4ih, Sextus Pompey, — lO. Trace throui^h the tenth paragraph the course ot Antony. JiucUnt His PERI'I) VI CHAP, vin. Policj of OctaviuB Miserablti condition of Italy. Antony returns ta Italy. New divi- i- Td'^'iard'^' pi'^^^^i publicly divorced her, and married Cleopatra. Bill Cleopatra, his fall was af hand. Octavius attacked, and totally de- ,. feated him in a naval engagement, near Actium. Early hi .iCTicTjir. the action, sixty vessels, which Cleopati-a commanded in Octavius person, fled, and Antony immediately followed. His fleet was Antony "nd easily defeated, and after a few days, his land forces, which had Cleopatra, ^ggn drawn up on the adjoining shore, surrendered, without striking a blow. 12. Antony and Cleopatra repaired to Egypt, whither Octa- vius followed. Antony despairing of his fortunes, and deceived by a false report of the death of Cleopatra, committed suicide. Death of Octavius was desirous of conveying her to Rome ; but to pre- cieopatra. ^'Q'ni it, she exposed herself to the bite of an asp, which pro- cured a lethargic death, without disfigurement. When the mes- senger of the conqueror came to take the celebrated queen to grace the triumph of his master, he found her elegantly reclined upon a sofa, — but dead. Of her two maids, one lay dead beside her, and the other dying. Egypt was from this time a Roman pj-ovince. 13. Octavius, on his return to Rome, was hailed with accla- mations, and flattered by a gorgeous triumph. The obsequious senate, whose vacancies he now filled with his own creatures, no longer laid claim to independence ; a7id Ro7ne henceforth bc- octavius, (^djfi^f^ Q monarchy. With the recent fate of Julius Caesar before now Aiisus- *' tus, sole him, he could not but be aware of the dangers with which he "mfiifJiVrf" ^^'fis surrounded. He wisely avoided the vain show of power, tbe govern- and sought to cover his usurpations by names acceptable to the wisely, people. At first he called his oflice the tribunate, and received it for ten years ; after which it was renewed, and, at length, he took the tuies of Augi'stus and Emperor. He assiduously courted the favor of the people, continuing to all the magistrates their old titles and offices, although the effective power of every of- fice centred in himself Counselledby his wise minister, Mjece NAS, and conversing freely with Virgil and Horace, he became the framer of salutary laws, and the patron of arts and letters. 14. The world was now in a situation altogether peculiar— *oV wim^i^' different from any thing before or since. The nations were ga now the A'.)- tltered into one. The Roman Empire embraced the best parts ol nan .vimre. £^j.Qpg^ Asia, and Africa. Its revenues were immense. A great 11. Describe the conduct and ill usage of Octavia. The battle between Octavius and Antony. — 12. Give a history of Antony's death. Of Cleo- patra's. — 13. In what respect did Octavius condnci more wisely than his uncle ? ^^'hat powers did he exercise ? What titles at length bear ? Who was his wise minister? With whom did he converse, and what become I I HI. What was peculiar in the situation of the world at this time ? THK GUK.VI'KST KVENT IN THK COUllSK OF TIME. 137 anny was kfjjpl on loot and distribuUid in different provinces, -^^cient Hit T'he prajtorian and city cohorts, aftei wards so powerful and iMOuru vi dangerous, consisted of 10,000 men, and fornned a guard for the chap. vni. Kmperor; to whose title, tlie senate now added that of " Fatfier of his country." I'iie king f)f Fartliia sent to hirn tiie spoils of the army of Crassus, and the kings of India souglit his friend- ship. Tiie Spanish nation, being now, for the iirst lime, com- Uniyersal pletely subdued, and insurrection of the German trilies having l-een quelled, the temple of Janus, which was shut only in profound peace, and wiiich had remained continually open since the reign of Numa Pompilius, was closed. At tliis period it Wd.i that the "Desire of all Nations," the " Prince of Peace," JESUS CHRIST, The Savior of men, was born at Bethlehem, in Judfea. 14. What army was formed within the city of Rime? What was eent by the king dI Parihia to Aiif^ustus ? What u mple was shut ? How ioiig had il remained open? What personage, alio a all kiups and potentates, now canic ' to visit the earth in great humility ?" |>ear«. H. ■ IS MIDDLE HISTORY. FROM THE CHRISTIA.V ERA TO THE UISCOVERV OF AMEHIC/i.. The Birth of Chrif^t. PERIOD I. FROM THE BIRTH ^ A. D. ^ OF CHRIST, TO THE DIVISTO.V OF ^ '.iiiH. < THE ROMAN EMTIRE. CHAPTER I. The Roman Ernpire- 1. The treasures of the world pourerj into Rome ; and sta.ely Jiiadie mti. monuments, splendid buildings, literature and the fine arts, all period 7 marked an age of luxury. But the liberty of the people had be- cha-- come extinct. The spirit of the republican institutions had de- s-^-^^*^ parted, and a military despotism had usurped its place. Here condn!)no( and there, perhaps, a spark of the old Roman spirit might kindle ^''|J5iiiie^' in the breast of some solitary patriot, but it was soon smothered. The memory of the aged carried them back to the scenes of Middle History. — Period I. — Chap. I.— Point out on the map of the Roman empire the countries which it included. — 1. What was 'he condition "f ihv Roman empire ? 139 14U AUGUSTUS. Miiidie Hist , horror wliich marked the days of Rlarius and Sylla, while they I'EUioD I. knew not freedom, but by history and tradition. The young CHAP. 1. thus learned to turn witii disgust from the prospect of a renewal ^-.^>'~^s/-'^a^ of civil wars, and welcomed peace and quiet, though purchased by the surrender of the sovereign power into the hands of one individual. 2. Augustus had a wide grasp of mind, by which he pene- trated far into consequences. He had industry and observation abMii'ie' of ^*^ learn for himself the truth of the circumstances and charac- Augustus, ters which surrounded him ; and he was as prompt to do, as he was quick to know. Hence he presents the sublime specta- cle of one mind, ruling and reducing to order, a vast scene of chaos, such as was the Roman empire at his elevation. 3. The emperor made anew arrangement of the provinces, which had before been governed by supreme magistrates, commissioned by tile Roman people, and named prtetors. He now divided between the senate and himself the authority over the whole so legions in empire. But in order to keep in his own hands the entire- 'nrm".*"" power over tlie army, he took as his share, all the foreign pro- 10,500 made vinces, and left to the senate the Italian states. These they ruled by proconsuls, with only civil authority. Augustus n legions on governed the remainder of the empire, by dividing his armv of the Danube, ^^v.-v ,-\i-\r\ i • • i • T ■ i r 5 oa the 4uU,UuU men, and st^itionmg them m such provnices as he chose, Saa''M''?m ^'^'•'^^ generals of his own appointing, who were dictators, each Britain, 2 in ill his province. The camps of these standing armies were Eejirt. often chosen in die valleys of the great rivers, and they soon became cities. The fleet was manned by 50,000 men, and these were easily transported from place to place at the emperor's ^cuanil^" ple^'^^^'^e. He instituted as his own guard, ten cohorts of J, 000 •20.000.' soldiers each, who were called the praetorians ; and this number he soon doubled. 4. The policy of Augustus inclined him to peaceful measures, and he wisely considered the danger of extending the empire. His tranquillity was, however, disturbed by a disastrous war A. I), in Germany, in which Varus, his general, sutfered a signal de- ^'„ the ^^'^^' '^^ establish his authority, and secure the succession in jthineand liis family, he associated with him in the government, Marcel- Uennauu or ^'^'^f ^^^^ ^^^ ^^ '^^^ excellent sister Octavia, by her first marriage, Arraiuius. to whoni lie gave for a wife, Julia, his only child. Marcellus a barbarian j. ii-^'i i . /" i i . ciiief. dying, Julia was bestowed on Agrippa, (a general to whom Au- RoiiianVun- g"^^*^"^ Owed important military successes;") when she became iier yarns, the mother of two sous and three daughters. She was a pro- "ib 40*001^ fligate woman, and Augustus, whose own moral character was '■2. What in regard to abilities was the character of Augustus? — 3. Wha new arrangemenT did he make respecting the f;rovinces ? — How did the senate rule the Italian states ? How did the emperor govern the remainder? What nutnbers were in the Roman standins army ? The navy ? Wliat number constituted a legion ? (See note.) How many legions were there, and how distribuied? Give an account of the piiEtoriaii guard. — 4. To what did the policy of the emperor incline him ? What disturbed him i Who was 3Iarcellus? Julia? Agrippa? MORAL DARKNKSS. 141 not good, was at length obliged to banish her from his court.* Mtadu HUi He had married Livia, tlie mother of two sons, Drusus and Ti- perjod i nEiiius. The former, recovering the German provinces, received chap. :. the name of Germanicus. Livia was unprincipled, artful and in- v^-v'-v^ triguing. Having great influence over Auguslun, she secretly pouifjit to elevate her own sons above the members of his family, u. Augustus associated Tiberius witli himself in the adminis- tialion of the empire, but required him to adopt Germanicus, fhe son of his brother Drusus Germanicus, now dead. These ami wi- things being done, Augustus died in the deep secrecy of the ihTraTace palace. The manner and exact time of his death are unknown; |^ the circumstances were, however, such as gave rise to suspi- Uoaiiiof cions, that he was poisoned by Livia. AugustuH. 6. Tiberius, who, at the death of Augustus, was in possession of the imperial power, though an able general, was a hypocri- tical, sensual, and cruel tyrant. Yet at first he dissembled, and ^'^nn\>-» appeared to govern with moderation ; but the mask soon drop- J"ti:i- ^vi- ped. The fame of Germanicus, who, at the death of Augustus, dauciiter of commanded in Gaul, excited his jealousy. He was recalled, Augustus, and transferred to the command of Syria, where Tiberius pro- her to cured his death by poison. Livia enjoyed but little the eleva- death.) tion of her favorite son. He was jealous of her power, dreaded her genius, treated her with neglect \ and when she died, he denied her funeral honors. 7. He removed his court from Rome to the island of Capreae; but in the midst of brutish sensuality and continual intoxication, he kept, as it were, a demoniac eye on the affairs of Home-, — knew every thing which passed ; detected every conspiracy ; and n^ while the companions of his vices were quafTmg with him the (xiberins cup of intoxication, he, perhaps, was plotting, with impenetra- tietects \ur ble dissimulation, to destroy them. Conspicuous virtue was a of his favor- mark for vengeance. Fearing the friends of those he destroyed, ai^rtpuHiiinl he removed them also. Even the mother's mourning for her to dejuh ) slaughtered son was in his eyes a crime deserving death. The senate, to whom he transferred all the political rights of the Thescnate'i people, had become degraded, and thus obsequiously sanctioned DimihTiat'^iMl. his acts, and offered the incense of perpetual flattery, to the man who filled their streets with blood. It was under the adminis- * The female character in Rome, as well as that of the men, had become profligate in the most shameful deg;ree. Augustus, in the conduct of his daughter, was justly punished for his own sensual crimes. BecominK ena- mored of Livia, the wife of another man, in order to marry her, he divorced Scribonia, the mother of Juha. Three months after this marriage, I'lbe- riuB, the son of her first husband, was born. 4. What was the character cf Livia? Who were her sfjns? — 5. Who was Germanicus 7 What account can you give of the death of Augustus ? — 6. Give an account of the beginning of the reign of Tiberius. How did he treat Livia? — T. Did he while at Capreae understand the affairs of Rome? Was it bad citizens whom he destroyed, and real crimes which he pun- ished ? What had he done to gratify the se ia:e ? What was at this time their character and cotiditioa 1 1.42 TIME OF THE CRUCIFIXION. Middle Hist. (Claudius is ruled by Messalina, his infa- mous wife, and after her deatli by Agrippiua his new wife, the mother of Nero.) (Agrippina murders Claudius to make way for her son Nero, who kills her.) 64. First perse- Diitionof the Christians. (Nero nriur- iers tlie re- maining members of Ilio family of Caesar, and filially him- self, the last of the race, June 11.) tration of this most debased of men, that our Lord Jesus Christ was crucified in Judea. 8. Tiberius adopted Caligula, the son of the gocd Gei manicus, but not the heir of h!s virtues; and said he raised ''a serpent for Rome, and a Phaeton to burn the rest of the world." CaHgula, eager to obtain the imperial dignity, was declared em- peror, while Tiberius was supposed to be in the agonies o( depth. I^»ut the tyrant opening his eyes, the party of Caligula threw the bed-clothes over his head, and stifled the reviving spark of existence. 9. Caligula wished that " the Roman people had but one neck, that he might despatch them at a blow." His conduct ac- corded with the disposition here expressed. After a reign of nearly five years, he was murdered, and the stupid Claudius, the brother of Germanicus, ioas raised by the frcEtorian cohorts to the imperial throne. Although vice pervaded the capital, there were able generals abroad, and victory crowned the arms of the legions, especially in the wars with the Parthians and Britons. 10. Nero, whose very name is used to signify all that is base and cruel, was raised to the empire. On his first accession, he revived the hopes of the people, by giving promise of a just and peaceful reign ; but the illusion was soon dissipated, and the murder of his tutor, the philosopher Seneca, his brother, his wife, and his mother, displayed the relentless tyranny of his character. He gave loose to the most licentious passions ; and subserviency to his pleasures proved the only passport to hi'' favor. Professing himself a patron of the fine arts, he aspired to the character of a poet, and degraded the dignity of the eiii- pire by appearing as a public actor on the stage. The discovery of repeated conspiracies, increased his maliciousness and jea- lousy. The city presented a scene of l^lood, and funerals darkened the streets. 11. The Christians, who had now become numerous in Rome, were the peculiar objects of his hatred. To amuse him- self with such a spectacle as Homer related in the burning of Troy, he caused Rome to be set on fire , then charged the crime upon the Christians, and devised means for their punishment. While the city was burning, lie was engaged in reveliy and dancing. He decorated his person, sang, played the lyre, and was, in short, the leading coxcom.b of his time. He corrupted the high born youth of Rome, making them the companions of his revels. Flatterers and sycophants thronged around him; and he was pleased when they told him that he was the great est of poets, and that his voice was " divine melody." The 8. Give an account of Tiberius' successor. Of the manner of his sue. cession. — 9. What speech of Cahgula shows his character? Who sue ceeded him? — 10. Give an account of Nero. — 11. What fact respecting the Christians now becomes apparent ? On what pretence did Nero sees to destroy them? (What may be presumed concerning the character of the Christiane when such a man as Nero hated ihem?) POWER OK THE PR^TORIAXS. 143 disco\'ery of a design which he had formed for destroying the •''^''^'^^ ■""' senate, and pgain setting rire to the city, produced a general re- period i volt. The /senate aroused and pronounced sentence of death chap. i. Qgahist him. Different armies named each its own generals •^^^-^v'-v^ to succeed him. He lied from the capital to a villa owned by ')?ie of his favorites, where he put an end to his life. 12. The whole Roman empire now presented a scene of dis- cord. The military force, with which Augustus had kept the world in awe, now, in weaker hands, recoiled upon the mon- archy The soldiers had learned their power, and the senate could only assent to their decisions. In two years, four gene- 69. ral5 were successively raised to tlie sovereignty by their respec- •rhc"prB-t'j ■ five armies. Three of tliem were displaced and murdered, ti^ns kiu Galba, the first of these, was commander of the military forces set up ou^o in Spain, when, at the age of seventy-three, he was proclaimed emperor by his legions. The senate confirmed their choice; and a promised donation to the praetorian cohorts, secured their concurrence. By parsimoniously withholding the promised do- native, and attempting to enforce rigid discipline, he alienated the prajtorians. Tiiey soon proclaimed 0th o, who had com- manded in Lusitania. A bloody tumidt succeeded, in which Galba and his friends were murdered, and Otho elevated to the throne. 13. ViTF.LLius, to whom Galba had committed the command of the German legions, was by them already proclaimed empe- ror, and was marching towards the capital. His forces met and bedria defeated those of Otho, who committed suicide. Vitellius en- Vitfii^f/dc tered Rome as a conqueror, and a horrible scene of carnage en- feata otim sued. Meanwhile, the legions o( the east declared for Vespa- sian, who commanded in Judea. Those in Syria, Egypt, and lUyricum espoused his interest. After a bloody civil war Ves- pasian was raised to the imperial throne. This proved the commencement of a new order of things. His authority was recognized by the senate, and peace and order were restored to the suffering community. Vespasian directed his earliest eflbrts ^ 70' to the regidation of the finances, the enforcement of discipline pjovoh'u" in the army, and the subjection of rebellious provinces. Some a:.oo(i sove- of the Germans and Gauls had united in an attempt to throw of) "~"' ihe Roman yoke, and the success of their arms spread the ter- ror of their name even to Rome itself The generals of Vespa- '-iiHi were at length victorious, and reduced the Germans to Fubmission. 1 I. Relate the manner of Nero's death. — 12, What was now the con- diiioii of the empire? Givf an account of the first of the generals raised to liO emperor by his army. How did Galba lo e tlic favor of the soldiers? riirc an account of iiis successor. — 13. Relate tlie confcet between Otho end Vitellius. By whom was Vitellius succeeded ? Give an account of tho olniinietration of V'espasian. CHAPTER II. B. C. ficrod made king by M. Antony. 38. Flee? to Rome. 37. Takes pos- session of Judea. ir Rebuilds the temple. Cuts off all the Asmo- nean family. Murders the innocents. A. D. 29. John the Saptist be- headed. Rise of Christianity. — Destruction of the Jewish nation. 1. The New Testament is regarded, by the Christian, a." the charter of his everlasting inheritance, and the chart of his course. Its undesigned coincidences \vith profane history, form no small element in the proof of its veracity. It assumes, and truly, as we know from profane writers, that there existed in Judea, at the time of our Lord's advent, a strange admixture of authorities, Roman and Jewish, secular and ecclesiastical. We have seen who was that " Caesar Augustus," that sent forth his edict and taxed the world, when she, the most honored of the human race, was by Providence conducted to a manger in Bethlehem, that the Son of God and man might be brought forth in that lowly place, to show that the pomp of this world detracts from moral grandeur ; whose essence is voluntary suffering, en- coimtered not for ourselves, but others. 2. King Herod was the son of Antipater, an Idumean. He was by Julius Caesar made procurator of Judea, and with him the sceptre departed, as foretold, from .ludah to foreign princes. Herod, perceiving the greatness of the Roman power, paid his court to Mark Antony, and was by him raised to power. The Jews rebelled against him. He fled and took refuge with the Triumviri at Rome. They received him graciously, and by the favor of Augustus, he was appointed king ; when he returned and took possession of Jerusalem and Judea. He built several cities, rebuilt the temple, and was called by men " the Great ;" but he was a wretch in cruelty. To cut ofl" the remaining blood of the Maccabees, he murdered a beautiful wife, MARiAMNE,two sons of his own and hers, — her motlier, brother, and grandfa- ther. This man, of whom the emperor Augustus said, " it is better to be Herod's swine than his son, " feeling still insecure, when he heard that a child was born who was to fdl the throne of David, sent forth his executioners, to whose poniards the shrieking mothers of Bethlehem were forced to yield their infants. 3. On the death of Herod, his three sons, Archelaus, Philip and Herod Antipas, were appointed over different parts of his kingdom. Herod Antipas beheaded John the Baptist, after that prophet had fulfilled his mission, by proclaiming that a new and heavenly kingdom was to be ushered in; and idenli- Chapter II. — 1. How is the New Testament regarded by Christians What forms an element of the proof of its historic truth? What does it as- sume in which profane writers agree? What might have been the Divine purpose in the lowHness of tlie place in which our Savior was born ! What prophecy was now fulfilled? — 2. Give an account of the parentage of Herod. What were the steps by which he rose to power? What his acts and character ? — 3. What occurred after the death of Herod ? What mio eion did John the Baptist fulfil ? 144 CHRISTIANITY. ii:. fying Jesus, by whom it was to coini!. After various cliangts, •^|^'/ej^''" Jtidea and Samaria were aimoxed to Syria under procurators, peuiod i subonlinale to the Syrian governors ; of which Pontius Pilate, ciiaf. ii. by whom Christ was given up to be crucilied, was the fifth. He is represented by liislorians as a cruel man, and an unjust judgf:; considering more, what he himself should gain or lose in money, or in popularity, than the right of the case to be de- cided, lie permitted many cruelties against the innocent, wliich at length so disturbed the peace of Judea, tliat complaint was made to the Pvomans. lie was deposed by Vitellius, and sent >o Pvome (or tiial. Caligula banished him to Gaul, where, in want and misery, tie committed suicide. 4. Altliough tliC Jews were, in temporal affairs, under the Ro- mans, yet, in regard to religion, they sternly maintained their in- dependence. I'heir '•*■ chief priests and elders," formed an ec- clesiastical council, with the high-priest at its head. This ^^• tribunal it was who first accused Christ to Pilate, of a state of our offence, that of seeking to make himself king in the room of Savior Caesar- and then, with the fatal imprecation, '•'■let his blood be on us and on our children," they put him to the death of the cioss for alleged blasphemy, because he declared himself die Son of God. But, on the third day,HEAnosE from the dead. 5. His followers, few and unlearned, after seeing" him ascend, obeyed bis command, by remaining at Jerusalem till the Hoi.v (.pX"]!"! of Ghost, the promise of the Father, was sent down. A miracu- itieHoiy lous cliange came over them; and now the timid and igno- ,)'.iy'o"pen! lant fishermen of Galilee, who but lately denied Uieir master, or t<'cost. h)rsook him and fled, stood forth before the astonished multi- tudes, gathered from different nations .it Jerusalem, and pro- J^e Apos- " . . ' tie? meet a. claimed to each in his own tongue, what they had heard and change, seen of Him who was the Word of Lif'; manifest in the flesh; whom, said Peter to the members of the Jewish Sanhedrim, " ye have taken, and wiUi wicked hands have crucified and slain, whom God hath raised up." 6. That he was risen from the dead, the apostles, especially, Peter and John, proved by wonderful miracles wrought in his name,* so that many believed. The Jews began to treat the ser- 34. vaiits of Christ as they had treated their master. Stephen was ofs'tepi'itn! stoned. A young man, named Saul, stood by, consenting to his (lefith. He was of a resolute, determined mind, and thinking to do God service, he persecuted the church even to strange cities. To this hor.es I, but erring man, the risen Savior revealed him- cn,i*reioii tclf in glorious light. As soon as he knew his Lord's will, he of t?t. Puia was rsady to perform it; and from henceforth we find him more * The wliole bonk of the " Acts of the Apostles," was once entitled " the Deinonsuation of the Resurrection." (See Adam Clark's Commentary.) .1. Give an account of Pontius Pilate. — 4. What was the situation of the Jews in regard to ecclesiastical affairs? What double dealing course did (he Sanhedrim pursue in regard to their accusation of our Lord? — 5. What course did the di3cij)les of our Savior pursue after his ascension ? — C. Rc'ate tlic earliest steps in the spread of Christianity. 19 146 THE FIRST PJlfi.VCHERS OF THE CIOSPEL Mid dle iiht. alnniilaiU in the labors of the gospel, than all the otlici TERiOD 1. apostles. ouAr. 11. 7. For a tune the word was preached only to tlie Jewish ^-*^"''^'*— ' nation, all others being calleil Gentiles, and counted by them ag unworthy lo hold any intercourse \\'ith God's chosen people. T^^^po9t!ee This dispensation was miraculously changed. A devout Ro- if-'.'^h!^! ni^^ii centurion learned from an angel that his prayers and alms Uif ;\t wdis- had ascended, and that he must send tor a ttacher divinely com- a(.phe"\'o missioned. \Vhen he appeared, Cornelius m ould have worship- • tie'rrMniies. ped; but Peter said, "stand up, I also am a man." Cornelius believed, received the spirit, and was baptized ; and thus the wall of partition between Jew and Gentile was broken down. 8. After this, St. Paul carried Christianity into Asia xMinor, d'l- Greece, and Italy. He, with the other apostles, relinquished all or^rLmu's *'i^^^ makes menlove this life ; — went forth suHering stripes, fast ings and imprisonments ; every Avliere gentle, no where resist- G5. ^'V? "'^^^^ violence, not even when death and torture were before Mariyrd.iin them ; — preaching alike to the rich and the poor, to ilee from "ami St*."' ^^^6 wrath to come, and lay hold on eternal life. Thus was Peter.) Christianity established, by men who exulted in the flames of martyrdom, there linishing tlieir earthly course with joy. 9. IIerod Agrippa, the grandson of Herod the Great, received iVom Caligula tlie title of king, and from Claudius the domi- nions of his grandiather. The Jews, but partially subjecttxl, proved troublesome to the Romans. An outbreak occurred on tb.e occasion of an attempt by Caligula, to desecrate the temple o^^ii^^ ^^^' placing in it his own statue ; but an open revolt was caused Giorus by the rapacity of Gessius Glorus, who was placed over the "^Jews tc^ Jews by Nero. Vespasian commanded the Syrian legions, rebel and obtained repeated victories, at length making himself master of all their strongholds and fortresses, except Jerusalem. Re- called to Rome, to accept the imperial purple, he left his son, Titus, to conduct the war in Judea. 10. He beiran the siege at the passover, when tlie Jews, from every nation, were gathered within the city. They ■\\-ere divided into three factions, each with tlie most rancorous liatred of tlic 69. others. With the Roman army at their gates, they still cont'nued Lvu "iTe:! t'le f"ry of their contentions, their outrages, and murders. Ea-civ •TonisaUnii. part of the city was tilled with pollution and massacre. The religious ceremonies, indeed, were not suspended, but even in the temple, the blood of the citizens mingled with that f;f the sacrilices. Thus "the abomination of desolation," stood in the lioly place, and called down the vengeance of a righteous God War without, deadly fend and starving famine witliin, caused ? T. What did the Jews universally believe respecting other nations [ How did Christ's followers learn that his religion was not for the .Tews alone ?— f*. Into what countries was Christianity introduced and in what manner f — 9, Mention some particulars concerning " king Agrippa." What was the temper of the Jews towards the Romans ? What Roman general S.egan tbt' war ? — lO. Give an account of the measures of his successor ? What wa the condition of the Jews in Jerusalem ? JKKUSALEM DliSTIlOVEl) 147 scene of "■ irilmhilion such as was not since the beginniiig of the -^f "''"' ^'-'t' world, no, nor ever shall be." ]'i;iii<)i) I. li Titus jnade Uie Jews reneated ofiers of pardon and pr >- ' hat. ii. toction, on condition of surrender, but tliey resisted w'.h inllevi- '^-^\^''^-^ hie obstinacy. Tacitl's, the great Koman historian, remarks, ,,,^.|^').'i,'lrt'i>e •^ that liiey were misled by an ancient prophecy, which foretold, •! mtiiu^r oJ ihat in this very jnicture tlie power of the east would [)revail .,^,7i'Jvr!)"n over the nations, an 1 a race of men would go forth from Judea, ire life ) lo extend their dominion over tjie rest of the world.'"* 'Die (/iirisiians, when they saw " Jerusalem encompassed with ar- mies, and a trench cast roimd about her," remembered tiie pro- [)helic words of liieir Lord, and Hed to the mountains. 12. The Uoinans stormed the city — the Jews fighting with the most determined bravery. The Koman arms obtained no 'iO- ■idvantisre in the first assault. In the second, which continued Jfr'ii>i!« m I 1 ' 1 • ■ • rill II dixtroj-d three days without mtermission, a part ot the walls were Itvel- \,y lUc led, and a portion of the city taken. The Jews, driven Iroiii J'o-n^ns- one part, retreated to another, and still maintained the fight. At length the temple alone remained. This, Titus resolved to save, but the sentence n( its destruction had been j)ronounced by a higher Power. The .Jews crowded into it, and thither the Th*; tompic Komans pursued them. In the dreadful uproar, a soldier threw I'umi. a lighted torch, which caught upon the wood work, — was com- municated, and soon enveloped in flumes the whole of that beautiful and veneraljle faln-ic ; and so complete was its final de- struction, that *•' not one stone was left upon another." I'.i. JosEiMius, the Jewish historian, estimates the number ,^^ •.vhich perished during the siege, at eleven hundred thousand, riiinioiiiio The Jews no longer held the rank of a nation, and Judea was en- ^^^^^f^'^'Jf'a tircly subjected to the Koman power.* Its inhabitants have, for an.i driv.-u more than seventeen hundred years, been scattered over tlie face revolt 'I'l.'is'.') of the earth, without ever amalijamating with the various nations of Jiaroiiiiib with whom they make their residence; thus constituting one ofaeiar."'* of the strongest proofs of the divine authority cf the Holy Scriptures. * "Not undcrstandin;;," observes the historian, that "this referred to Vespasian and his son Titus." Tacitus, equally blind with the Jews, did not himself understand that this race of men were to be the heralds ol a peaceful religion, which was destined, in the fulnets of time, to spread its bcovenlv dominion over the whole earth. 1 1 . What offer did Titus make ? Why, accor Jing to Tacitus, did they not accent? What did the Christians remember and do ? — I5J. Give an ac- count of tlie final destruction of the city. — fi3. What wae the nuinbet kH'od ? VVHiut now if the cond.tion oi the Jewe ? CHAPTER III. The Roman Empire. Widdit ffhi. 1. Vespasian reigned ten years ; most of which were passed T'EP.ioD I "^ tranquillity. He was the first Roman emperor who had died CHAP. III. without violence, unless we except Augustus. Titus, who .^^/"'ife^ was styled " the delight of mankind," succeeded his father, and •5'9. sustained the character of a virtuous and beneficent prince. He ^o'tT'"'^ is one of llie rare instances, in which elevation in rank produces improvement in virtue. His efforts were directed to ihe hap^- piness of his people. The zeal v/ith which he engaged in noble undertakings, may be learned from the regret which he expressed, when, on reviewing the events of a day, and finding no good deed performed, he exclaimed, " O my friends, 1 have lost a day." His reign of two years was prosperous in all thai depended upon himself, although marked with several disas- g/j trous events. One of these was the great eruption of Mount Hercu'la- Vesuvius, which desolated a considerable portion of the coun- i\)mpeU°de- ^^Yi ''•^^ buried in ruins Herculaneum, Pompeii, and Stabiae. stroyed. The ELDER PLi>fY, desirous to observe the phenomenon, went so The elder ^^^^^ ^^^ crater, as to be destroyed by the volcano. A fire broke Pliny goes out in Rome, which for three days raged with fury, and de- '"vo'lcano. ^ stroyed a great portion of the city ; and a pestilence spread its ravages, which in its most destructive period swept from Rome 10,000 persons in a day. Titus repaired from his treasuries the loss by fire; and his kindness and compassion comforted the hearts of his afflicted people. 2. DoMiTiAN, brother of Titus, succeeded him. He was cruel, frivolous, and blasphemously vain; causing himself to be Domitian. Styled God and Lord. He once assembled the senate to debate on the question, in what utensil it was best that a certain fish should be dressed. Once, in mockery, he invited the senate to a feast; and when arrived at the palace, they were by his ordei conducted to a gloomy subterraneous hall, lighted by dim tapers — and shamed hung with black, and provided with coffins, on one of which, each fiil levity, guest saw his own name inscribed. Soldiers with drawn swords came in upon them and threatened their lives. After this, which the emperor esteemsd a good joke, he let them depart. His Domitian is chiel amusement was catching flies, at which he was very ex- ihe ia>-t oi pert. He, however, enragred in war, on an alai;minff invasion of lliH twelve " .' 7 00 7 "^^ oetars the Dacians ; but it was only to buy a shameiul peace by a tribute. 3. BRITAIN. — Julius Caesar foimd this island inhabited by forty different nations of the Celtae or Gauls, and partially sub- Chap. III. — 1. Of what is the emperor Titus a rare instance? How did he manifest a right disposition ? What disasters occurred in his reign ' — 2. Give an account of Domitian. — 3. What inhabitants did JuUus Caesar find P in Britain ? 148 AGRICOLA CIVILIZES THE BKlTO-\S. 149 dncd it. The Romans under Claudius, and Platinus, hi- gene- •'^^j>^ ^«- ral, defeated, in several batdes, the natives under Caractacus. fkrioui. The gallant chief olten rallied, but was (inally overcome. ciiAr. m. Under Nero, SERionirs Paili.vus was sent over to c >mpleie >-*^-^, -v^^- the conquest of the island, wliich he found a dillicuit uiuier- lnkiii<:. lie attributed the obstinate valor with v.liich tlie n;;U\ej riisisU'd, to ilie dark and gloomy superstition by which their ^*y fhiiid priests enshrouded and ofoverned them. 'iMicv practised StrioMut ,■ • •■" -iL 'ill- PiuSii.us liicir mysterious rites, sometmies gory with human uluod, m the deep recesses of dark groves, — by huge stones, strangely j)iled tngethei. Tlius diey inspired the feeling of religious awe, and subjugated the minds of the people; to whom llie Piomans did groat service in delivering them from this tyranny over the soul. Paulinus dcstr;)yed the sacred seat of the Druids in the island of Mona or Anglesea. 4. On his return to Brilain^he met queen Boadicea, who hav- ing been grievously wronged by the Romans, had exerted such wonderful energy and eloquence, that she had collected, from ^^°"g^'* difi'erent British nations, an army of 250,000. Paulinus defeated Eoadat.* her, and site committed suicide; when the Romans tarnished toooo'^ their victory by the cruel slaughter of the vanquished. Ju- lius Agricola, who was sent to Britain by Vespasian, de- feated, near the Grampian hills, the brave Galgacus, and subdued the country to the friths of Clyde and Forth, betv^een ''•** which he constructed a chain of forts. He civilized tlie native "'id" ur* inhabitants, bv nersuadinw diem to adopt the costume, language, f-"'"-'' «"•- •'' ^ .' '007 n||-g III £Jr|_ and manners of the Romans. Agricola's fame excited the mean tai;i u :u envy of Domitian, who recalled, and probabh'^ poisoned him. ^'5f,i!'i"' The tyrant fell by a conspiracy, and the whole nation rejoiced. The senate,— perhaps remembering the graves by which he had frightened them, would not allow his body to be buried. Qu!.\- TILJAN was, at this period, teacher of eloquence in Rome, and the first wiio received a public salary. 5. Nerva, at the age of seventy, succeeded Domitian. He luaiiei.y is distinaruished for his amiable and benevolent character. Find- ^"■''*" ^T w ^ ^ ^ \'ej nor oi ing the weight of the empire too great for his advanced age, he Hitiiy!iia, associated Trajan in the govenuneni, and designated him as "eVrmrk'a'i'ia his successor. The character of Trajan is one which historians i'-ti*r re- unite in applauding. The wise Plutarch was his preceptor, and c'hrist'ians.i the younger Pliny, one of the most lovely characters which «?«<>. Rome has produced, was his intimate friend. Althouifh a war- ir^ian nor, and a conqueror, Trajan governed with moderation and Uoman em. equity; and so established himself in the affections of his sub- '"rtiiUi* jfcts, that it was customary in succeeding times, on the eleva- im -u •J. What was done in the reign of Claudius t To what did Sertorius as- •••r t.o the ohsiinatu resistance of the Briioii?? Wliere did the Druids prac- ti<-t: their rites? Wiiat did the Romans destroj', and wherein did they do tercice to the Britons ? — 'I. What happened on the return of Seriorius Pau- linus from Mona ? Give an account of Agricola. How did he civilize the Hritons ? What further can you relate of Domitian ? Who was Quintilian 7 — 5. Give some account of Nerva. What illustrious author was said to have been Trajan's preceptor ? His friend ? What was the character of Traian i i50 1 RAJ AN AND THE ANTONINES. Trajan con- quers in the aortli and (jaijl. EOT Tlio JJliristians persecuted. lot. Martyrdom of Ignatius. Trajan dies at SijleQo.a on liis r.'.- turii from tile east. Hadrian. (Judoa's last revolt and final de structioii.) 13:5. Antoninus Pius. Virtue, p(?ai;e and orosperity £61. Marcus An rtliuy Antf- liinus, tlio pljiiosopin'r, i. e- accord- in:; to ety- molosry and ancient meaning, a lover of v\ idJoiu.) lion of an emperor, to wish him " the felicity of Augustus, and the virtue of Trajan." His military achievements restored the lustre of the Roman arms. He conquered Dacia, and at the head of his legions^ ci-ossed the Euphrates and Tigris, and re- duced Mesopotamia to a Roman province, lie marched through tracts of country where the Roman arms had never before been known, penetrating even to India. On his return, he esta- blished a king upon the Parthian throne, and appointed lieiite nants in various provinces. 6. Historians have censured his policy in enlarging the bound- aries of the empire, and his inhumanity, in persecuting the Chris- tians, leaves a blot upon his otherwise untarnished fame. He had made laws against them, ordering that they should be put to death when found, but should not be sought after. On his visit to Antioch, the venerable IGxXatius, bishop of that city, presented himself to the emperor, — owned, and vindicated the faith of Christ. Trajan imprisoned him, and sentenced him to bs thrown to the wild beasts at Rome. Animated with the prospect of a martyr's crown, he went joyfully thither, and suf- fered death by the lions of the amphitheatre. Trajan died at Seleucia. 7. Hadriax, the succeeding emperor, returned to the pacilii, policy of Augustus ; and with the exception of Dacia, he even relinquished the conquests of his predecessor. This, and the two succeeding reigns, have been pronounced the happiest days of the Roman empire. The laws of Hadrian were salutary, and his administration excellent. He secured the future prosperity of the nation bv appointing a worthy successor. 8. This was Titus A.vtomxus, afterwards surnamed Pius, When he ascended the throne, he found the various departments of government moving on in regularity and order, and the whole empire in prosperity and peace. His reign of twenty-tliree years flowed on in the same calm and happy course. Averse to war, the circumstances of the state permitted him to indulge his love of peace ; while his renown for wisdom procured llie admiration of the barbarians, who, in their di (Terences, resorted to him as arbiter. In his reign, the persecution of the Chris- tians ceased, and all classes of his subjects reposed in peace, trusting in the justice of their sovereign. 9. iAIaucus Aurelius Anto.vixus, who succeeded Titus in the imperial government, had acquired, by his attaciiment to science, and philosophy, the name of the Philosopher. Tlie situation of the empire, however, did not permit Aurelius to in- dulge in his favorite pursuits, or pass his days in contemplative retirement. The camp required his presence; for the peace of 5. Give an account of Trajan's administratipn. — S. What laws had he made respecting the Christians ? Give an account of Ignatius. In what respects has Trajan been censured for impolicy ? For cruelty? — 7. What was the happiest period of the Roman empire ? What account can you give of Hadrian ? — S. What of his successor and the state of the empire ?— -li \\'hai was the name and character of the successor of Antoninus Pius ? THK PK.'l•;Toi!I.\^'S SEx.L 'I'HE ri;.AlPlRK. 151 the empire was now disturbed in its various i)orders fn Asia, -v/JJ/e HhL the Parthians rebelled against the sovereignty of Rome, as did the pEiuon y barbarians on the Rhine and the Danube. Aurelius sent his chap. ni. g^enerals aganist the Parthians, and in person conducted the war s-^-^^-^*-^ a 1 sians. Alexander returned from the Persian war, belore he went north to encounter a vast swarm of barbarians, who threatened y^^.^^ ^^,^y^ to overwh'^lm the empire. In his camp on the banks of the the Ger- Rhine, while successfully pursuing the war, this prince, too good for the age in which he lived, fell, with his mother, a vie- Death of tim to another mutiny of the soldiers, fomented by Maximinus, sen^erus*'^ an ambitious aspirant to the throne. 18. Maximinus Avas born in Thrace. His father was a Goth, and his mother an Alan. Thirty-two years before, Seve- rn.?, halting his army in Thrace, to celebrate games at wrestling, the young barbarian, Maximinus, of the gigantic height of eight Icet, and of size and strength in proportion, presented himself, ,,'*'.• and, in a rude dalect, asked to be admitted as a competitor. His the ootiiic prodigious exploits astonished the emperor; and lie peiTnitted s>^"^- jiim to enlist as a common soldier. Prom thence he rose by degrees, till he attained a high command in the army. But \v'illiout gratitude or mercy, he had nothing but brute force to 15. What example is given of die lawless insolence of the soldiers ? — 16. On what occasion of revolt did Alexander c;irh ihorn with dignity? — 17. What is here said of Persia? In what wars was Alexander Severus en gaged? — 18. Give an acoount of Maximinus. 20 'l.54 civil wars. mdd,,e nisi, recommend him. He persuaded the soldiers diat Alexanaer was PERIOD I. effeminate. They slew him, and proclaimed the barbarian em- CHAP. III. peror. He was suspicious of contempt I'rom the well-born and -^'>^-^-«' learned, and he hated and destroyed them. The senate refused to sanction the nomination of the army ; and though Maximinus continued the German war with success, his cruelties created disaffection, which, when he made the taxes of the provinces in- tolerable, broke into revolt 19. in Africa, the proconsul, Gordiajv, a man of eminent vii- Maxtmiiius, ^"-'^S' ^^^^i together with his son, proclaimed emperui , and the Oordian and election was ratified by the senate^ The governor of Mauritania (soonliam,) espoused the cause of Maximinus, attacked and defeated the ^^f^ximus Gordians, who both perished in battle. The senate, desperate tins, all em- on hearing this, nominated two of their own number, Maximus 'Barn's Ume*^ and Bai.binus. The news of these proceedings roused Maxi- minus to fury. At the head of his legions, and breathing ven- geance on his foes, he advanced upon Italy : but here he found a wasted and desolated country. By the care of the senate, all Death of provision and forage, and all the inhabitants were removed. He Maximinus. laid siege to Aquileia. His army, suffering from fatigue and fa- mine, became mutinous ; a conspiracy was formed, and the bar- barian was slain in his tent. The virtuous reign of Maximus and Balbinus was short and insecure. The nation, indeed, re- ,,„^ joiced in the destruction of Maximinus; they undertook re- Death (if formation, but the real sovereigns of the Roman empire, the Maximiig praetorian guards, were refractory, and declared they would not Uaibinus. acquiesce in any choice made by the senate. They slew Maxi mus and Balbinus, and proclaimed young Gordian, a descend- ant of one of those who fell in Africa. Persian 20. In the east, the Persians continued to encroach upon the ^^'^- empire, and had already invaded Mesopotamia. Gordian marched against them, and had compelled them to retreat from the Ti- 244. gi-ig^ when his sudden death checked the progress of the Roman acce'ssoryTo arms. Philip, an artful Arabian, who by his abilities had risen Go dian^his ^^ ^^ prefect of Rome, was immediately proclaimed emperor by benefactor.) the army. The Pannonian legions revolted, and invested theii n • « o • S^^^^^^^i Decius, with the purple. The rival emperors met hi quers Philip, battle at Veroiia, where victory declared tor Decius ; and Philip, after a reign of five years, lost his crown and his life. 19. Give an account of the Gordians. father and son. Whom did the senate proclaim ? What was the fate of the Gothic giant ? What part was taken by the prastorian guards? Who succeeded Maximus and Balbinus 3 20. What was done by Gordian ? What can you say of Fhilip ? CHAPTER IV. Decline of the Roman Empire. i The Golhs^ supposed to come from the Scandinavian re- Mddu liiac ffjon, nou'^ for the first tune^ poured ioicn upon the empire. periodT Crossing the Danube, they entered Thrace, and spread devasta- chap. iv. tion and ruin on all sides. Decius marched against them, and -..^^^y/-^^^ after a struggle of two years, this monarch, worthy of better times, perished in battle. Gali.us, his general, was made em- 258. |u;ror. He purciiased a peace with the barbarians, that he \\>ak uitJ might return to the ease and luxury of the palace, — thus reveal- '""-^ ing the weakness and the wealth of the empire, and taking the surest course to incite otlier invasions, IS or did the hardy and rapacious l)arbarians linger long; arul while the Goths and other bordes made attacks on the norlli, Persia menaced Syria and the other provinces in the east. 2. jEmilianus, one of the generals of Callus, routed the Goths and pursued them beyond the Danube. His praise was every where heard, wliile Gallus was despised. So strong is ambition in man, that ^Emiliauus coveted the imperial purple, stained as it was with the blood of so many emperurs, and worn but as a prelude to assassination. He was proclaimed by his ^^j^*^, troops, and met the army of Gallus at Spoletto. The soldiers of euppiants the emperor mutinied, murdered him, and confirmed the succes- caiiuo. sion of .Cmilianus. Valerian, who in the reign of Decius had been appointed censor by the .'■enate, and had faithfully executed many oliices of trust, now, at the age of sixty, appeared at the head of an army of superior strength, as a competitor for the regal power. The soldiers of Ji^milianus, after he had reigned four months, despatched him, to make way for his more power- ful rival. 3. Valerian stood high with all; but age had impaired his mind, or the people had been deceived in his character. VVidt the blindness of parental aflection, h'd left in his place, while he departed to the war in the east, his son Gallienus, \vho pos- 25-1. sessing genius without judgment, was excellent in poetr\', ora- aii/h^s'coo torv, cookery, and ffardeninij; but contemptible in wai and temptibic ' mi • .. 1 1 11 • I mu BonGall'ue government. 1 he empire was attacked on all sides. 1 he i,us. /'Vr/?//, v, the .^lemanni, the Goths^ and the Persians., hovered on the different frontiers, and threatened it with destniction; while Gallienus amused himself in Rome, held mock triumphs, — smiled, and made witty speeches when he heard the news of Rome's disasters. 4 I'lie Franks, from whom are descended the modern French, Chap IV. — 1. Give an account of the Goths. Of the movements of Decius. What was the name anil conduct of his successor?—^. Give an nccount of .?!mi!ianus. — 3. Give some account of Valerian. Of his son. By what lations was the empire now attacked ? 155 156 A MOIETY OP TFIE PEOPI-E SWEI'L' AWAY. Middle Bist. 2SS. War with Persia. Sapor de- feats Vale- rian and treats him hasely. (Sapor is second ofthG Sassanides.) Said to have been '"thirty tyrants." Nineteen can be Jraced. Miseralilo londirioii of ibe empire. 270. OJoiulius had always defied the Roman arms; mdeed they received the name of Franks or Freemen^ from their love of independence They now spread terror and consternation through the provinces of Gaul and Spain ; and they passed over into Africa, and threatened the province of Mauritania. The Alenianni, wdiose name, signifying all men^ expressed their great numbers, were a wavlike race inhabiting Germany. They crossed the. Danube, passed the Rhcetian .\lps intc, the plains of Lombardy, — advanced to Ravenna, and alarmed the capital. Gallienus sent his Jeu- tenants against the Franks, but remained in Milan to amuse himself there, whilst on the senate devolved the task of provid ing for the defence of Italy from its formidable enemies. 5. On the throne of Persia was Sapor, the son of Artaxerxes. tie had compelled the Armenians, allied to Rome, to submit to his power, and advanced upon the Roman provinces. Valerian, marching to oppose him, intimidated the Goths, who were in possession of the Euxine, in Asia Minor, and for a time they withdrew. The emperor then passed the Euphrates, and was betrayed into a situation near Edessa^ where his army was sur- rounded by that of the Persians. Affecting to consent to a parley. Sapor made him prisoner. He was the first Roman emperor, who suffered that disgrace. His army surrendered, and. the haughty Persian spared him no indignities, mocking him, and treading on his neck; at length the aged emperor sunk be- neath his fate and died, while Sapor spread the terror of his arms through Syria and Cilicia. 6. Neither the death of his father, nor the distress of the em- pire, interrupted the amusements of Gallienus. But the disaf- fection of his people sometimes roused him to direful revenge, In one instance, he commanded the governor of a province to exterminate all the males. Usurpers, encouraged by tlie dis- contents of the people, started up in every direction. A fancied resemblance between this period and that of the Athenian ty- rants, gave rise to the assertion that there were thirty claimants in Rome for the imperial purple. Nineteen onlv can be traced, and all these died by violent means. Gallienus at length fell. 7. At this deplorable crisis the Roman empire seemed lying in hopeless ruin. The civil wars caused by the several usurpa- tions, the contests with the barbarians, and their devastations, togedier with famine and pestilence, say the historians, hail swept from the face of the empire one half of its inliabilants Ea!., from the course of history, we may infer, that the pride of the Romans had been humbled, and that virtue, so often tlie child of adversity, was now the fruit of their miseries; and in Claudius, who was next placed upon the throne, Rome 4-. Give an account of the Franks — of the Alemanni. — 5. Who was Sapor? Give an account of the war between him and the Romans. — (». What was the consequence of the foolish behaviour of GaUienus ? — "* . What was now ilic condition of the empire? What was the character and conduci of Clatidius ? WITH VIUTUK, TALENT, ASD U.MO.V, RO.ME REVIVES. 157 once more possessed a sovereign suited to lier wants. His •^^'^'^^'^ ^^"' first c'fibrts were directed to restore order to the army, and period i. prepare for the expulsion ot tlie barbarian invaders. In his chap. iv. reign (f two years, he defeated the Alemanni; and obtained so *»-^~^''"''*-' great :i victory over the Goths, who had passed over into Greece, ua to obl'jui the appellation of the Gothic Claudius^ 8. Claudius died of the j-lague, and was succeeded by Aure- LTAff, wliose great military abilities for a time stayed llie de- sti notion of the 1' oman empire. The barbarians, though repulsed by Claudius, were ready to resume their depredations. The 270- provinces of Britain, Gaul, and Spain, were in a state of revolt; Aun-iiau and Syria, Egypt, and Asia Minor, acknowledged the sway of Zenocia, queen of Palmyra. She was the widow of Odena- Tus, a general who had humbled the pride of the haughty Sapor. Aurelian, after disciplining his army, obtained some advantages over the Goths, and entered into a treaty, by which he guarantied them a safe retreat into their own country, on condiuon of their furnishing the Romans with a body of two thousand auxiliaries, consisting of cavalr)^ Finding it difficult thenrl'niii'err to defend so extensive a frontier, he withdrew the Roman forces limits of the n 1 -T-v- -1 ri-r>- empire to (rom the ancient JJacia, removmg the greater part oi the Dacians within the to the southern side of the Danube ; tlius adding strength to i>«t»u"s the province of Mcesia, which now received the name of Dacia. A part of the inhabitants of the old province, liow- ever, chose rather to remain in subjection to the Gotlis. 9. While Aurelian was thus enffaored, the Alemanni made an . • ■ 1 11^-1 /• 1 Aurelian irruption into Italy, and extended their devastations Irom the a. feats the Danube to the Po. The emperor hastened to meet them, and Aion.aimi. after three battles, drove them from Italy. He next quelled cHJiLQJ^'^i an insurrection headed by Tetricus, who held command over Anrpiianes- Gaul, Spain, and Britain. In a bloody battle, fought near Cha- '^aulhoMty" Ions, Aurelian was victorious. The whole empire, with tlie ^'^'''\ ''"^ exception of those provinces which owned the sway of Zeno- bia, now acknowledged him as its sovereign. 10. Of the early history of Palmyra^ whose ruins afford the modern traveller an object of wonder and admiration, little is known. By some, it is supposed to have been the Tadmor of the desert, built by Solomon. But, that so splendid a city bhould have risen in the midst of a barren waste, can be ac- Paimyrs. 1 <■ 1 1 • • • 1-1 1 r» • the Hinpo- counted for. only by its situation, as lying between the Persian rium of ihc Gulf and the Mediterranean sea; thus constituting an emporium 'f,'^',').^" for the merchandise conveyed in caravans from India to Eu- rope. In the contests between the Romans and Parthians, I'alniyra maintained its independence, until the victories of Trajan; after which, it sunk into a Roman province. In the war which Sapor waged with the Romans, and in which the emperor Valerian was made prisoner by the Persians, Odenatus, 8. What was the character of Aurelian t What enemies had he to con- lend with ? What course did he pursue ? — ^9. Give an account of his war wiih the Alemanni. With Te jicus. — lO. What is known and supnosed of Palnivra? I5S ZENOBIA. Middle Hist. Zennbia coiiquere Egypt. 2r3. So con- ijuerod by Aurelian. Longinua put W dcasli. the {.fince of Palmyra, was the only eastern ally who rendered the Roman empire anj" sei;vice. He made an attempt to recover Valerian, which though unsuccessful, harassed the Persians, and prevented tiie further progress of their arms. To reward his service, Gallienus declared him his colleague in the empire, but he was assassinated by his nephew. 11. Zenobia, his widow, immediately after his death, as- sumed his authority, and conquered Egypt, from whose ancieni Macedonian kings, she claimed to be descended. Such was her reputation, that Persia, Armenia, and Arabia, dreaded her power, and courted her favor. Her sway extended over Syria, and she assumed the splendid title of " Queen of the East." Zenobia is represented as the personiticati'on of mingled loveliness and ma- jesty. These blended harmoniously in her face and figure, in the sound of her voice, and in the powers of her mind ; which were improved by the education she had received from the cele- brated LoNGiMUs. She was mistress of the learned languages, versed in the poetry of Homer, and in the philosophy of Plato. In conduct she was prudent or firm, economical or liberal, as the occasion demanded. 12. But she had to cope with the superior force of the em- pire, and the military skill of the first captain of the age. Yet Aurelian writes of her, " The Roman people speak witli con- tempt of the war, which I am waging against a woman. They are ignorant both of the character and fame of Zenobia. It is impossible to describe her warlike preparations and her despe- rate courage." This he writes after he had defeated her, at the two battles of Antioch and Edessa, and while he was prosecut- ing the siege of Palmyra. Here, reduced to the last extremity, Zenobia undertook to escape by flight, but she was taken pri- soner, and conveyed to the camp of Aurelian. The monarch reserved her for his triumph. He allowed the few Palmyi-enes who had escaped the desperate siege to rebuild the city ; but he stained his glory by putting to death the wise and amiable Longinus.* 13. Aurelian on his return was gratified by a splendid triumph, in which the beautiful Zenobia, covered with jewels, and bound in chains of gold, followed his triumphal car oa foot Yet he afterwards grave her a beautiful villa at Tivoli, * Gibbon, on the authority of Vopiscus and Zosimns. two writers, v boni he takes the liberty to disbelieve wlienever they tell improbable stoiies, says that Zenobia imputed her obstinate resistance to Longinus — a poor excuse for the conduct of Aurelian, if tnie. But the story is not only niconsistenl with the whole tenor of her character, but it supposes her to ent thus with- out any motive. What had Zenobia to n;ain or to lose by attribuiinii her con- duct to LoTiginus ? She had already lost all hut her life, and the descendant of the family of Cleopatra knew too well that the " Queen of the East" would be preserved by the conqueror as the proudest trophy to grace his triumph. lO Give an account of Odenatus — 11. Of Zenobia. — 13. What ac- count did Aurelian give of her? What was the event of the si'^ge of Pal- myra ? Why is the storv of Zenobia' s betraying Longinus improbable ? (Sea note.) — 13. What exhibition of vanity had the conqueror on tiis return ? THE ROMAN CHARACTEU IMPROVED. 159 where slie found an honorable seclusion. After liis triumph, •^fi'/t/-^ Htst Aiirelian advanced towards Asia with the design of humbling period I, tlie pride of Persia. On his marcli, near Byzantium, he was tiiAP. vi. assassinated in a suchlen frenzy of the soldiers. An interreg- num of eight moiitlis succeeded his death. The legions re- pented the nisliness wliich iiad deprived them of an able, tiiough severo commander, and iiumbly requested tlie senate to ap])oint a succcf^sor. The senate, struck with such unwonted respect Mutual dofe from the military, referred back the choice to the army. Three '«",';at'e ar. What change did he begin? How did he distribute the go vernment of the whole empire to himself and three others ? Where fix the two principal seats ? — 18. How did these arrangements affect the senate ain) people of Rome ? BEGIXMXG OK iMODPMl-V COURT ftTIQUETTE. IGj to them only when at tlie head of the army, now came io -" ^"^"^ ^t-'t be exercised by them upon all occasions. Diocletian intro- proiuoD i. duced into his court tlie pomp and ceremony oC the oriental tuAr. i/. monarchs ; and unlike tlie former emperors, to whom access v,^~^/''x> might at any time be obtained, he kept himself at an elevated i^^ictian distance, and was approached only with pn^stration. In thus tiubstitutinir the manners of Persia f(^r those of Rome, the sune- '"'po/tant 1 /- T > • 1 • III 11 I ■ UHe of loriii nor mnuJ ol JJioclcUan was probal)Iy actuated by other motives ami cere- thaii those of vanity. The monarch would thus be less ex- "'"ated'anu' posed to tfie rude license of the soldi^r«, and might avert the dauvfroua fate of his predecessors. The administration of justice by the P"""""^ emperor was rigorous; and his military achievements relieved tlie empire, for a time, from numerous foreign invaders. 19. In the preceding reign, Britain had been dismembered Irom liie empire, l)v the rebellion of Carausils, a naval com- V" ^"""" I I 1 111 -rill '"""■ "<"" manner, who was now acknowledged sovereign ol the island. gaiwn. He had taught the iniiabitants the rude navigation of the day. 'I^o Const;intius was assigned the reduction of this province, 296. now greatly valued by the Uoinans. Civil war had, ere his ar- Keiipiiion in rival, completed half his work. Carausius had been assassi- quelled ijy nated, and a new usurper reigned. The inhabitants readily ^""siantiua. returned to their allegiance, and after a separation of ten )-ears, were glad to be again under the mild protection of tlie i'oman empire. 120. Galerius kept the Godis in check ; Maximianus quelled insurrections which had arisen in jAfrica, while the superior genius of Diocletian was directed to the Persian war. The dis- grace inflicted on Home by the proud Sapor, in the person of the venerable Valerian, was as yet unatoned for. The Ilomans formerly exercised, as a right, the honor of nominating the king of Armenia. Sapor had subjected this province. Tiridates, son of the king of Armenia, had been preserved, while an in- niocietmn fant, from tlie wreck of his father's fortune, and protected bv P'V';!* Arme- .11) I • I • • ■■ » I 1 1 "'a a native the Koman emperors during his minority. As he had now ar- king, rived at manhood, Diocletian declared him the sovereign of Armenia, and sent him to claim the throne of his father. The Armenians hailed their native prince with every demonstration of joy, having now been ninety-six years under the Persian government, and nobles and people flocked to his standard. 21. Persia, being at this time embroiled in civil war, had little leisure for the affairs of Armenia, and for a while the arms of Tiridates triumphed. When, however, the civil contests had ended in the elevation of Narses to the Persian throne, Tiri- dates found himself unable to cope with so powerful an adver- sary, and had recourse to Pvoman aid. Diocletian seized the Diocietinn favorable opportunity of humbling, in Persia, the only remaining peroia'nB. rival of the empire. His arms triumphed, and Persia was cora- 18. Describe the court of Diocletian. — 19. What is said of the rebelhon m Britain ? — 20. What waa the state of things in the east? — 21. Give nn uccount of the Pereian war. 21 KOCUtlOllS. 162 CONSTANT IXE THR GREAT. m^die Hht. pelled to sue for peace. In the treaty the Roman b.>undarics PEKTOD 1. were somewhat extended, the Armenian prince was acknow ciiAi'. IV. ledged,and the dependence of Armenia upon Rome established. v..;»^v--w/ 22. After the termination of this war, Diocletian, who had Diocletian „ot visited Rome since his elevation, repaired to the city, where A"rRo(rau he enjoyed a splendid triumph, — memorable as the last of these iriumiiii. 0-oro-eous exhibitions of human vanity. In the twenty-first year of his reign, not long after his triumph, and when the empire ^®4. had been delivered from its foreign enemies, and restored to und Maximi- P^ace, Diocletian formally resigned the imperial power, and ro- biiiis resign tired with philosophic calmness to the enjoyment of an elegant lo''the"'t^wo retreat in Dalmatia. He had prevailed on Maximianus to resign cisars, his power also: and the abdication of the two emperors, the one conmmius .^^ jYjiij^j^^ the other in Nicomedia, took place on the same day. oaierius. 23. Diocletian's great name is stained by the most cruel of all the persecutions of the Christians. Of the ten persecutions^ the first was (A. D. 64,) under Nero; the second, (95,) under Domitian : the third, (107,) under Trajan; the fourth, (118,) under Adrian ; the fifth, (212,) under Caracalla ; the sixth, (235,) The ten per- under Maximinus ; the seventh, (250,) under Decius ; the eighth, (257,) under Valerian ; the ninth, (274,) under Aiirelian; the tenth and most severe was begun on Christmas day, (303,) under Diocletian, when in the city of Nicomedia, then the cruel under seat of Diocletian's court, six hundred of the despised followers T'sts^t'-'^"' °^' Christ assembled to celebrate his nativity. The emperor "ears. gave the horrid order to bar the doors, and set the building on fire; and his executioners, fearing man more than God, enclosed them living within their funeral pyre, where their bodies all perished. 24. CoxsTAXTius, who, with Galerius, was now elevated to (Di^cie*- ^^^ ^^'^'^ ^^ Augustus, retained it but fifteen months, when he tian's noble sickened at York. Constantine, his son, hastened from Nico- VaUnalld Hiedia with secresy and celerity, and arriving before his death, her mother was appointed his successor. Tlie army in Britain saluted him "cincd be^-*^" Augustus and emperor ; — Spain and Gaul ratified the nomination. cause she ^he inhabitants of Rome felt more than ever the weight of the refused to , . , i • i ■ i -i • i j marry one taxes which Were levied wuh mercuess seventy upon them, and nerors^^^He ^cre indignant at the continued absence of the emperors from plead for the imperial city. The senate, and the praetorians, whose povrei "vt?n,'a"V" Diocletian had almost annihdated, jomed in a conspiracy willi died with (he citizens against Galerius, and Maxe.vtius, the son of Maxi- Great de- ™i'i"us, was invested at Rome with the imperial dignity. The ftructionof restless spirit of Maximianus could not submit tamely to the ^v'lTycars retirement to which Diocletian had doomed him; and he now i.f civil w ar. came forward to lend his name and aid to the party of his son, 32. What occurred at Rome on the return of Diocletiati ? What further can you relate of this emperor and his colleague ? — 23. What is a deep b!cl on his character ? Give an account of the ten persecutions. — 2-1. Who were left emperors ? Where was Constantius when he made his son his succes- sor ? What number of emperors were tiow in the field, and what was the state of the empire ? What account can you give of Valeria ? (See note.1 CHRISTIAMTV iMADF, TIIK RKLIGIOX OF THE E.^MPIR!:. 163 assuming to himself tlie exercise of imperial power. Tico ether ^f'''^^' ^'■'>* tlaimanls appeared^ and Home now felt the evils of a divided peiuod j frovernment. No less than six emperors, at enmity among chap. v. themselves, shared the sovereign power. These dissensions led ''-^^^^"^^ to bloody and destructive civil wars. After a period of eighteen years, the genius of Constantine triumphed over all liis rivals, axid he remained sole master of the empire. CHAPTER V. The Roman Empire from the adoption of Christianity. 1. CoxsTANTiXE possessed a lofty and majestic stature, a bold, open countenance, and a graceful deportment. His con- stitution was made healtliy by vigorous exercise in youth, and preserved by tetiiperance and sobriety in later life. In busbiess he was indefatigable, aiul he looked with a vigilant eye upon 323. the affairs of government; while, by rendering kindness to all co'i^tatuiu-: who approached him, he secured love, at the same time tliat vants in I • . . • 11 r. 1 i-1 various tir- his talents and virtues commaiuied respect, buch was (.>on- cum»tancej stantine while dangers surrounded him; but when released from fear, and placed above responsibility, his character seems to have fallen from its elevation. Among other unworthy acts, lie iS charged with jealous cruelty to his son. 2. Two events mark the boldness of his genius, and render _ 1 • 1 -• Hvzaiitiiiiu nis name memorable. Tlie one was his removal ol the seat ol jjni.rnved the Roman empire to Constantinople; the other was his ^a',',""".'^'' adoption of Christianity as the religion of the empire. Whether emperor Constantine embraced it from conviction of its truth, or from go^. policy, is matter of dispute. Certain it is, that this religion, Christianity though receiving from the Roman power only silent obloquy, J',',;'o^/of^'i"j or active persecution, had extended among the people; so that Roman Constantine strengthened himself in the affections of the soldiers ^'"vire by adopting it. At this period too, Christianity might number more writers of talent and literary abilities than paganism. So- ciety had in its morals assumed a new and more healthful tone, it had be- VVomen, taught that they were co-heirs with men in tlie bless- '^n"'i';,n''o/a* hiffs of the oospel, felt their equal value as immortal beings, and great por- ^11 ? . . .1 \ 1 • .1 . r tionofiho tlius leanifd to respect themselves, and insure the respect ot people, '-a men When such had become the influence of Christianity in "''''J^''!'y "^ the realm, worldly ambition pointed to the course which were die emperor pursued in declaring himself a Christian ; and chnstun*.', Chap. V. — 1 . What was the character of Constantine ? — 2. What two e\'ents rendered his name memorable? What had Christianity up to this period received from the Roman power? Why was it a matter of pohcy with Constantine to profess it? Did he show himself a true difciple of Christ in making Christ's kingdom a kingdom of this world? 164 ■ CHiiisTiANrrY debased by worldly exaltation. Middis Hist surely it was not in the spirit of Christ, who said, "My king* PERIOD 1. t'Om is not oi' this world," that Constaiitine made it the religion of ciiAi'. v. the empire ; — and from henceibrth we find its heavenly influence v.«^N,^-G PAGA.MSM RESTORED BY JULIAK. AfiddU Hisu fiig claim, inarched with secrecy and despatch to the attack of PERIOD I. Co islantmopie. Constantius, reUnquishing the Persian Avar, CHAP. V. marched to meet him ; but his death relieved the empire from the horrors of civil contention. 8. The reign of Julian was memorable for the re-eslablish- nient of paganism. The emperor was, doubtless, above believing in its fooleries himself; but he thought like most of the early philosophers of Greece and Rome, that the people must have some religion coined for their use. His ideas of Christianity were associated with the character, and conduct towards his fa- mily, of the Constantines, its supporters ; and he probably thought that Christianity, as well as paganism, was such a coinage; not reflecting that whatever God has made his creatures to need, he (T. lis n.E^u- . . ~ . . meat stated invariably provides. Man is created to need religion; for since in form. j]^g j^wn of history there have been double-dealing traihckers in God gives the article. Among these stand prominent the Egyptian, Greek, he makel'^ and Roman priests, the Delphian oraculars, and the Druids of him to have Britain. These manufacturers of fable and imposition, supplied "iViieeil of" ^^^^ market kept ever open by man's mental craving; and they He iias were repaid by his submission of body, soul, and estate. Unlike need reii- these, the Christian teachers believed that Christianity was in pinn. truth that spiritual food, which the Almighty Parent had him- Thercforo , , , ^ • ,' . ^ ■ - , n ■ i ■ m lie has sell sent down to satisly the desn-es oi the lamishmg soul. To glon frTr hhri^ ^^^^ ^^^''^ of Christianity, which exalts it over all others as the «. e. ciiris- only true religion, Julian himself gave an incidental testimony ; 'aiiij. |-^^ j^g recommended, that with the heathen ceremonies, the people should follow the Christian morality. This emperor did not indeed revive the persecutions of former pagan sove- reigns, or prohibit the worship of the Christians; yet he removed them from offices of ti'ust, and from the care .of the education of youth, and oppressed them in various ways. 3l»<>. 9- Julian setllesl the concerns of the west, and proceeded into Julian's Asia. After wintering in Antioch, he marched towards Persia, liedkiou.^" ra^'igsd the plains of Mesopotamia, passed the Euphrates, and spread devastation through a part of Syria. He attempted, with the strenuous aid of the Jews, to rebuild the temple at Je- rusalem, in order to disprove the prophecy of Christ. The oi>fl foundations ol '.he temple were laid, but they were destroyed. His vain at- " Horrible balls of fire," says a pagan historian, '•■breaking oat 1*^'"!?''°. '■,'^' from tlie foundation with frequent and reiterated attacks, ren~ Jewioh dered the place inaccessible to the workmen. Tiie victorious lonijiie element continuing in this manner, seemed obstinately bent to T. [low was his accession secured and the empire saved from civil war I — 8. For what is his reign chieiiy memorable ? What is the strong proba- bility respecting Julian's own behef ? When we know that God has created rrian to need any thing, what may we infer ? Who are named as classes of men who have trafficked with the religious wants of r ■ankind ? What have iliey manufactured for the people? What have the), got Irom the people in return ? What difference do you find between these and the early teachers of Christianity ? How did Julian incidentally bear testimony to Christiani- ty ? — 'i. Give an account of Julian's Persian expedition. Of his attempt tc rebuild the Jewish temple. THE EMPIRE DISMEMBERED IN THE EAST 167 (liive tlifiin to a distance, and the hopeless allompt was abun- ■'''^'^'i^'- ^'-^' doned." Clirislians and pagans alike believed that tlie doom p^uiou i- of a supernatural power Ibrbade the work; and it was no more chap. v. attempted. v-«^>''~>w/ 10. At the passage of the Tigris, the Romans obtained a vic- tory over the Persians, but here tlieir successes ended. Julian was induced to burn his lleet at the suggestion of a treacherous Persian, who, in the character of a deserter, had entered his Julian in :he. camp. As the Romans advanced their provisions failed. The vvh'jchcras- <:attle were ch-iven away, the inhabitants had departed, and the sus formerly ,,,..-, , , , .^ . rni was. He country, naturally lertue, presented only smoking ruins. 1 he perishoB. emperor sought to retrace his steps, but the Persian prince, with a numerous army, appeared in siglit, hovered around, and liarassed his retreat. Attempting to force his way, Julian was mortally wounded. His dying moments were passed, not in sacrilicing to the gods, but in philosophical discourse. The unexpected death of the leader spread, in the harassed army, confusion and dismay. The officers could not agree upon a successor, when the name of Jovian, a man of no military re- p^.* nown, but attached to the household of Julian, was circulated succeedH. among tlie troops, and he was immediately declared emperor. 11. Amid their deliberations and sorrows, the legions had been compelled to contuiue their retreat, surrounded by the Persians, TtieRo- aiid momentarily subject to their vexatious and often fatal at- JJeanened" tacks. Four days after the death of Julian, the disheartened .»">'. army reached the city of Susa. The Tigris was still to be Jncniy's crossed, and they were almost in despair of effecting their es- power. cape. Here Sapor sent them proposals of peace, and although Roman em- they were disadvantageous, they were accepted. The provinces '"'''^1.'^'*"^ beyond the Tigris, which Diocletian had obtained of Narses, hy losing were dien ceded to Persia, and the impregnable city of INisibis, vfnTerea'st w'lich had so often resisted tlie Persian arms, together with ofiheTigris, some of the strongest fortresses in IMesopotamia, were surren- Moiiiis dered ; when the army were suffered to pursue their homeward way in ignominious peace. 12. On the accession of Jovian, Christianity again became the established religion of the empire. But his reign was ter- minated by death before he reached Constantinople. Valen- Ti.viAX, commander of the guards, was unanimously proclaimed his successor. He appointed his brother Valens as his col- league, committing to hini the eastern provinces, while himself 364 retired to tlie western, where he prosecuted the war against the vaiemmian barbarians witli considerable success. Yet the decline of the ^'li!, ^^^^^'* empire became more and more apparent. J he civil wars of the pire near its sons of Constantine had destroyed vast numbers of soldiers, and *'"'^**' left the frontiers exposed to the depredations of the barbarians. The valor and energy of Julian had, indeed, for a moment, 10. What was the manner of his falling into a snare ? V/hat were its consequences ? Wha. was the manner of Julian's death? Relate the ap- jwintment of his sucressor. — 11. Give an account of the treaty of peace and the dismembering of the empire. — 12. What religion did Jovian favor I 1G!S THE GOTHS ADJHTTED IXTO THE EMPIRE Middle Hh t. clicckeJ their incursions, but bis ijisuccessful Persian war had PERiO!) I. '^'il^ lartber weakened the military force of the empire, and pre- cuAv. \. pared U\e way lor the peace, by which Jovian began its iHsmem- ^^^^"'•■^^''^ bernient. ^'aU^ntinian died in the twelttii year ol" his reigii, and S'?5. left the empire to his sou Guatiax, with the condition that a nVears'of .V'^^^gPr SOU iiauied Valeutinian, then an infant, sl\ouhi be as- ago. sociated with him. The Goths ^^- '^^^^ Goihs, who had repeatedly iuvaded tJie empire, iuuiiore aid again appeared on its frontier; not now indeed in the charactei " iiKiiis'' '^^ hostile barbarians, but of humble suppliants, themselves Qfrainst the driven I'rom tlieir doiuinions. The IIuxs, a vast and terrible Huns. race, iuhabiting the north of Asia, and more barbarous than either the Goths or Germans, had been precipitated by the wars in the cast, upon the frontiers of Europe. Lhuler .Attila, called the "Scourge of God," they had subdued the nations of the Alani, who inhabited the regions between the Volga and Ta- nais. and advanced upon tlie kingdom of the Goths. 'Ilieir tirst appearance on the Gothic frontier was in the declining days of the great chief, HkrjMaxric, whose dominion, it is said, ex- tended from the Baltic to the Danube and lake Mitotis; and wiio had united under his sway the two great portions of the Division of Qothic race, the western or Visigoths, and tlie eastern or Ostro- tlu; Goths ' , 1-1 * 1111 '1 ill eastern goths ; the tormer liavmg been governed by the house ot the vvesloni. Salti, the latter by that of Amali. The death of Hermanric, prevented the united eti'orts of tiie Goths in checking the in- vaders, and the Ostrogoths soon submitted. The Visigoths, m terror as the desolating "Scourge"" approached, su])plicated the emperor Valens, for vacant lands on the southern banks of the Danube, engaging to guard the frontier from the dreaded euemy. 3*^ 14. Valens agreed to admit the Gothic nation within the em- lowed Vo pi''^' ^^11 certain conditions, to wliich they acceded ; but the settle ill th»- most important of which, the relinquishment of their arms, they Ronivin Em- ,. , , , rni ^- ^ . i i " Dire. auerwards evaded. 1 he nation was transported across ilie Danube to improve the waste lands of Thrace. A million of barbarians, who could bring into the tield '200,000 warriors, ■were thus admitted to a peaceful settlement witliin the bosom of the empire. The emperor granted the Goths permission to ihojaroiH- engage in tra flic; but the avarice of the Roman ministers not trcat.-d by ^^,,iy rendered the permission useless, but destructive to them. At length their property was exhausted ni procuring means o» ji.sivrrectiou sJubsisteuce, and they were compelled to sell their children to cftiicGotiis obtain bread. The treachery of the Roman governor of 3Iar- cianopolis towards Fritigerx, a valiant Gotli, enkindled his 12. Give an account of his successors. Of the disastrous state of the empire. Give an account of Gratian. — 13. In what character did the Goths now approach tlie Romans I Give an account of the Huns. What liad l^een the extent of the Gothic empire in the days of their great chief! Wliat division of the nation subinitted ? Which petitioned Valens, asid for whnt ? — 11. Where did they settle? What condition did they evade I What was tlieir whole number? I'he number of their warriors! How were they treated in respect to traflic ? To what did necessity con.pei them ? What chieft-xin arose » rUKOlJOHlVH. V/.) wrafli. lie jjurnrnoned }iw counlryrncri U> anTi«, and IcA thfcrn •^"'^utmti U> M^HJa, wtiich th';y overran and dexolaUsd ; and then procccdwi pkriod l l« thr«;aU;ii llic rajjital, '.HAf. v, l.O. Val<;nM now »*rror tl'lJ^'^XuTiiir WAH wounded, and convcycA u> a building, which being /irwl •"y »*">- by the enemy, he \n:rh]n:<\ in the flarne«. Tw(M\i'n- but Huch wa", the t/nvering geniu« of the «on, t-.uch hi-« reputation '"^'" lor u'i«rlom and magnanimity of t/;;nf)f;r, that the emfK.-ror, in hi« hour of peril, «cnjplf-d not to arjmit him aH hia [;?irtner. "VUeo- dojiiuH wa» free from the vainglory' of conqu^^L, and he pursued at firxt a careful and watrjhful fKdicy. From ThrrfJMalonica, which he mji^le hix hwid quart/jrw, he kept hi« eye fixe^l upon the barbariiiuw, and availed himxelf of every judicious opjK^r- tunity of waxtitig their forces, or gainijig over their learJern. 17, Fritigern died, and disunion among the Goth» ensued; Thfj>Aii%m% the diff;;rent tribes pur«uf;d f^ch its own individiial intercHt wiili- y'j''?.'*?}'^ out concert or design ; and in four yfi^rs from the death of Valens, the policy of Theodosius procurwl an arlvantageouji p'ra/;e, the conditions of which were arrange^l in the nei(/hbor- liood of O^nKtantifKtple. 'f'heodosiiis invited their aged chief, Athanakic, t<^> vi.sit the f:apita!, and f^artake the hospitalities of «,^a,/,d'or hiH rmlace. The chieft^iin wai« mUjii'mhed at the (frandeijr and "v*"^""''* magnihcence of the object« presentr.-d t^i his view. •' I njly,'' exclaimed he, •' the emperor of the Romans i« a gfxl upon efirlh. and the prr-Mumpluous rnan, who dares to lift his hand iigain-ft hitn, is guilty of hi« own bhKxJ." Alhanaric sickened and die«t resjKiciful honora to hia 15. r;iv«» an account of the batiJ« between the Orrffsa and Romanti. — IW. Whv flifj Oraiian choo«e an a>»!'»'-:;i''; ? \V'i;v H d he tn:\(:':l 'I he/nkv «a«T — 17. Give an a/rc/iimt of ih': uiHriv.f.t tn v-hi-h 'V\ueijAimfui tnaXfA the Gotlid. or tJw opirrop of tJje thi»-f rciFpfcciiritr kuni. 22 I TO THE SERVANTS OF CHRIST EXERCISE LORDSHIP. Xiddle Hisl. PERIOD I. CHAP. V. 383. Maximua proclaimed emperor in Gaul ; de- hlroys Gra- tia n. Theudosius receives Jiistina, and marries her daugliter. The banks of THE SAVE. Theodosius defeats Maximus. 388. Theodosius becomes the last emperor of the whole empire. Ecclesiasti- cal power assumes control over the civil. "ITieoiIosius not only humbles (limself, but (he secular power. remains; and his grateful Goths, thas converted into friends, entered the Roman legions, declaring that while Theodosius lived they would acknowledge no other chief, 18. While Theodosius was thus calming the disorders of the east, a new insurrection had arisen in the west. The indolence of Gratian liad alienated the affections of his subjects. Maxi- mus, at the head of his legions, entered Gaul, where he was hailed as emperor. Gratian, who was at Paris, fled to Lyons, and was there assassinated, through the intrigues of Maximus, who next invaded Italy, and compelled the widowed (im- press JusTixVA, with her young son Vale.ytiivian II., and her daughter Galla, to flee for succor to the emperor of the easL Theodosius did not invite them to his court, but met them at Thessalonica, whither they had come by sea. His wife being dead, he married the beautiful Galla, and then marched, at the head of a hardy and disciplined army, into Pannonia. On the banks of the Save he met and defeated the forces of Maximus, and executed the usurper. The provinces returned to their alle- giance ; and Theodosius, superior to the seductions of pros- perity, so often fatal to virtue, magnanimously restored to Va- lentinian the throne of Milan, and added to his dominions the provinces of Britain and Gaul. But the young prince soon fell a victim to domestic treason. Theodosius thus became sole monarch of the empire, now for the last time united under the sway of one sovereign. 19. Since the reign of Constanline, Christianity had been rapidly declining from its primitive purity, and ambitious men sought, through its medium, to gratify the unhallowed lust of power. By gradually extending the authority of the bishops, the foundation was laid of that abominable oppression, which for so many ages was to weigh down the moral and intellectual energies of Europe. During the reign of Theodosius, the ecclesiastical power manifested itself as already supei'ior to the civil. Ambrose, bishop of Milan, had forbidden to the empress Justina, who reigned in the name of her son Valen- tinian II., the use of a chapel, where she might worship agreeably to her belief in the Arian doctrines. The bishop next sternly and openly denounced her as a heretic, and when she passed an edict to banish him, he refused to obey ; — nor could she compel his obedience, or punish his contumacy. Theodosius had, in a moment of passion, given the only cruel order which stains his equitable government^ that of putting to the sword the offending people of Thessalonica. He repented, and sought, too late, to hinder its execution. Ambrose boldly reproached him, and exacted of him public penance ; and the 18. Give aa account of the last days of Gratian. Give some account of Maximus. What account can you give of Justina? Of Galla? Of Valentinian II. ? — 19. What may be said of Christianity from the reign of Constantine ? What during the reign of Theodosius, concerning the stretch of ecclesiastical power ? What was done by Ambrose in relation to Justina? To Theodosius ? DLATH OF THE GliEAT THEODOSIUS. 171 master of ihe world, in a mournful and suppliant posture, with •^^"^'^^* ^""- sighs and tears, confessed and deplored his crime, in the pre- period;. sence of the congregation. chap. v. 20. Theodosius died at Milan, a few months after he had ^-^''^^-^-^ quelled tlie disturbances consequent on tiie death of Valentinian, Sifft. lamented by tlie church, to wliich he had been reconciled ; by ThrotoVius the Roman people, whom he had governed with moderation; and even by the vanquished provinces, who had experienced liis kindness. Before his death he divided the empire between his two young sons; and this division proving permanent, becomes aji important epocha in historr, SO. Wut) Theodj^iius honored in his Ac£A\\ ? What division of the em- pire Jid he maiie ? Theodosius and his Bona PERIOD II. THE DIVISION OF THE ROMAN EMPIKK, TO E ARABIAN 7 (;'>2. 5^'"' HEGIRA, 3 '"* * C ' TO THE EASTERN AND WESTERM FLIGHT OF MAHOMET. CHAPTEIl I. The Western Empire. 1. TiiR student has hitherto found his attention directed to some one f^reat nation, extending its influence to all the smaller kingdoms and nations of the earth, and thus, at the same time, placing before him the whole civilized world. The Egyptian, A.ssyrian and Chaldean, — the Macedonian, Persian, Grecian, and Roman empires, have thus successively risen to his view. But from this period he will find his attention divided, first, between the two divisions of the Roman empire, now distinct and sepa- rate governments, and subsequently, between various independ- ent and powerful nations, arising from the ruins of the Roman imptre, and the, civilisation of the northern barbarians. 2. On the death of Theodosius, his son Arcadius succeeded to the Easter.v empire, comprising Thrace, Dacia, Macedon .a, Asia Minor, Si/ria and Egypt ; — while to his remaining son, I[o\oRius, fell the Western empire, which contained Italy, Jifrica, Gaul, Spain, Britain, and the provinces of JVoricum, Pannonia, and Dalmatia. Although the barbarous nations had Period II. — Chap. I. — 1. To what has the attention of the student been hitherto directed ? What empires have successively occupied the principal place ? Whit is now to become the course of history ? From viJiat. origin are we to jiiid nationn arisins ? — '2. Which of the sons of Theodosius had tile Eastern empire? Of what did i* consist? Wliich had the Western* What provinstcs did it comprise ? Middle //itet PEIUOD U (.IIAT. I. Eastern enj- piro, capita. Constanti- nople. M'etiteru empire, capital Milan. 174 SWARMS OF BARBARIANS. Middle Hist 402. The Ostro- goths. Treachery of Rulinus. POLLEJT- TIA and VEROJ^A. Stilicho de- feats the fJothp under Alaric. Great confe- deracy of German tribes. FLO- RENCE. ?liiicho be- sieges thrni hi camp, and torces them to capi- tulate. bowed to the superior abilities of Theodosius, they knew theil own strength, and the weakness of the empire. The Roman armies were not only filled with barbarian auxiliaries, but tliey were also not unfrequently commanded by chiefs of barbarian origin ; while the indolent and effeminate citizens refused to leave their luxurious pleasures for the service of their country. Luxury had, in another manner, laid Ihe train for the subver- sion of the empire. The Roman soldiers had obtained pemiis sion of the different emperors, to cast aside their heavy sliiejds and a part of their armor; so that when they were exposed to the attacks of the barbarians, now instructed in the art of war, clad in armor, and skilful in the use of missile weapons, the contest was unequal, and the barbarian? had the advantage. The youth and incapacity of Arcadius and Honorius subjected them to the control of their favorites. Rufinus, a Gaul, go- verned the councils of Arcadius ; while Stilicho, a Vandal, di- rected the administration of his brother. 3. The western Goths, under Alaric, took up arms, passed into Greece, and spread desolation through Macedonia, Thes- saly, and Attica. Rufinus, deeming it a stroke of policy to turn their arms upon Italy, negotiated an alliance with them, and privately advised Alaric to seek his fortune in the Western em- pire, promising that succor should be sent him. The Gotha accordingly proceeded towards lllyricum, Istria, and the north- east of Italy. Stilicho, at the head of the western legions, ad- vanced to repulse them. The history of their progress is obscure, but it is certain that Stilicho obtained a decided advantage at Pollentia, and that they were compelled to retreat. Alaric waa again defeated at Verona ; and the vigilance and skill of Stilicho finally procured a temporary peace. 4. The fears of Honorius were awakened by this invasion, and to preserve his person from danger, he removed his resi- dence from Milan to Ravenna^ a more secure situation, which henceforth became the imperial city. An irruption of Pagan barbarians now occurred, more formidable than even that of the Goths, who being christianized, possessed the rudiments of civilisation. These were a confederacy of the German nations, the Vandals, Stiei'ii, Burgundians, and part of the Jilani, to the number of 200,000 fighting men. Headed by their king, Radagaistjs, they issued from the shores of tlie Baltic, showed themselves upon the banks of the upper Danube, passed into Italy, and laid siege to Florence. The active Sti icho ap- peared with his army, surrounded the barbarians, and besieging them in their camp, reduced them to the greatest distress, and coni- 2. What causes of the downfal of the empire were now at work ? Whc were the reppective favorites of the monarcha ? — 3. What nation attacks x\u Romans ? What portion of the empire do they ravage ? How and bv wliai treachery is their course turned ? Describe their next operations, and those of StiHcho? — 4. What change did Henorius now make in the seat of the Western empire ? What irruption of baroarians occurred ? Why was :i more formidable than that of the Goths? What was .heir progress? It whom and how were thev met 1 j\LARIC. THE GOTH. 175 pelled a great part of tliem to capitulate. Radagaisus pcrishi d ; • ^^"^'^fa bisl when the remainder of tlie army retreated. Leaving Italy, they period ii. proceeded to devastate and take possession of Gaul, from the chap. i. Rhine to the Pyrenees. " This," says Gibbon- " may be con- ^~-*'-^/'->^ sidered as the fall of the Roman empire beyond 'he Alps?'' 5. The feeble and contemptible Honorius, whose principal occupation, history informs us, was to feed poultry, was moved, by the arts of an ambitious flatterer, to jealousy and hatred against the only man whose talents could support his tottering iinnorius, slate. Stilicho was murdered, and Alaric advanced upon Rome, "mso/suiu The venerable city was forced to purchase with money the re- •^f'"- dt*- ,• 1 1 1 ■ mi I- r ^ strova liiin. treat ot tlie barbarians. 1 he conditions ol the payment not being strictly complied with, Alaric made this a pretence to re- •. What kind of emperor was Honorius? How did he reward his best friend and ablest general? What immediately followed ? How did Rome put ofT her evil day? What treatment did the city, formerly boasted as eternal, now receive? — O. Relate the death and burial of Alaric. The noble conduct of his brnther-in-law. Where and how was the mar- riage of Adolphus and Placidia celebrated ? fSee note.) tT6 GEXSERIC, THE VANDAL. Middle Hist. PERIOD II. CHAP. I. 424. Placidia go- verns for her son Va- lentinianlll. 42T Genseric with hia Vandals overruns Africa and isiablishes a Linsdom. 442. The Huns the most iiu merous am' formidable of all the barbarians. Gaul, and from thence into Spain, where he founded the king doni of the Visigoths. 7. The independence of Britain was acknowledged by Hono- rius, and he had ceded the lands of Upper Germany to the Bur- gundians, and of Lower Germany to tlie Franks, when, after an ignominious reign of twenty-eight years, he died. Adolphus had fallen in war, and Placidia, having returned to Italy, had become the wiie of ConstaxNtius, a distinguished general. He succeeded Honorius, was assassinated, and his son Valenti- NiAN, a boy of six, proclaimed emperor. The administration was com.mitted to his mother, Placidia, as regent. The armies of the Western empire were commanded by ^tius and Boni- face, between whom there was an irreconcilable enmity. The misrepresentations of jEtius, led Placidia wrongly to distrust the loyalty of Boniface, and to recall him from Africa, where he held the command. Boniface, who has been styled the last of the Romans, was roused by the suspicion of his integrity, and revolting, he invited to his aid a desolating scourge. 8. This was Genseric, king of the Vandals, who had esta- blished his nation in Spain. He transported his hosts across the straits of Gibraltar, drew to his camp the wandering Moors, and then began the devastation of Africa. Boniface learned too late his mistake, and returned to his allegiance. But the pro- vinces from Tangiers to Tripoli had become a prey to the de- structive fury of the Vandals. Boniface engaged them in battle, but was defeated and compelled to retreat. The success of the Vandals was for a time retarded by a treaty with the Western emperor, but in eight years, Genseric had obtained possession of Carthage, and permanently established a kingdom. 9. The terrible Huns, who had driven the Goths and Vandals from the north of Europe, now spread their savage hosts from the banks of the Volga to those of the Danube. Attila, their king, claimed descent from the ancient Huns, who had con- tended with the monarchs of China ; and 700,000 warriors fol- lowed his banners. He had conquered the various nations of barbarians who still inhabited northern Europe. The Gepidae, casion, indebted as much to love, as to reason for deliverance. The royal nuptials wore celebrated with great splendor at Narbonne, the capital of the new kingdom won by Gothic valor. A hall was decorated after the Roman fashion. The first place of honor was reserved for Placidia, while Adol- phus, clad in a Roman toga, himself took a lower seat. Fifty beautiful youths, attired in silken garments, whom he destined as a gift to his bride then advanced, each presenting to her two cups, the one filled with gold, the other with gems, a part of the spoils of Rome. At the same time Atialus, that Attalus whom Alaric had created emperor, appeared, and sang the epithalamium. 7. What parts of the empire had become independent ? Who succeeded Honorius? How did Placidia become vested with the chief power? In what respect was she unfortunate in her generals ? What mistake did she commit ? What wrong did iEtiiis ? What great wrong did Boniface ? — H Describe the course of Genseric and his Vandal subjects. — 9. Who were the Huns? What was the extent of their empire? The number of theil warriors ? What nations were subiect to Attila f ATTILA, TJI!-: UVS. I77 frd tl e Ostrogoths, the kings of Scaiidiiiavta and of the islands, Mddiu nut. owned his supremacy. His depredations extended to Persia; period ii and Theodosius 11., now emperor of tiie east, was compelled to chap. i. pay him tribute. He made an alliance with Genseric, and jire- ^-*'"~'^^^«^' venting the eastern emperors from yielding assistiince to Valen- tinian, facilitated the conquests of tlie Vandal king. 10. Intending to invade the Western empire, Attila sought to Theodori- unite with him die nations of Gaul, among which the Visigoths, kingof uic headed by Theodoric, the son of Alaric, and permanently set- Phe'tjaianl-^, tied in the southern part, were the most formidable. Theodo- declares ric wavered between the rival powers ; but when iEtius marched Romans. into Gaul, he united in its defence. Jiltius further drew to liis standard as allies, the Saxons, tlie Burgundians, the Sarmatians 451. or Alani, the P' ranks, and other powerful tribes. At Chalons, chjilojvs. .Etius and his auxiliaries encountered the formidable host of feats Attiia. Attila, and by one of the most, bloody battles recorded, com^ Lossoiij)oth polled hirn to retreat. The Visigoths constituted the strength i62,ooo of the Roman forces, and Theodoric, their valiant kinsf, fell in ^, ^ . the battle. The Goths, animated by the son of Theodoric, killed, were furious to revenge his death, but the >;olicy of iEtius, who wished to preserve the Huns as a counterpoise to the pov/er of the Goths, secured Attila a retreat. 11. The power of Attila, however, was not broken, nor his resources exhausted. The ensuing spring, with apparendy un- diminished strength, he passed the Alps, and invaded Italy, — be- ._„ sieged and took ^iqui leia, Milari., and Pavia. Valentinian made The Huns a hasty retreat from Ravenna to Rome, and the defence of the "'^'^'^ J , nation was again committed to J^^tius, who, destitute of other inroad into troops than his domestic forces, found himself unable to with- '''''^• stand., or retard the depredations of the enemy. The barbarians of Gaul refused to march to the defence of Italy. An embassy, -^^^^ ^g^j^ accompanied by Lf.o, bishop of Rome, in his sacred robes, was pnrciiasea despatched to the barbarian camp. Attila listened with attention ^ ^^'"^" to their humble supplications, and acceded to a treaty, which purchased the temporary safety of Italy, at an immense price. 12. The death of Attila, which occurred soon after his re- treat, by disuniting the various nations who had yielded to the sway of his genius, ruined the power of die Huns, and relieved 453. Rome for a time from the terror of its most formidable enemy. Death ct Yet the destruction of the empire was not to be stayed by the en|j''of thy removal of external foes. Its internal strength v/as gone, nor great empire did any virtue remain, to give hopes of recovery. Placidia of**^''""^- was now dead, and the feeble Valentinian, no longer governed by her, gave way to jealousy ; and the first sword which ^^ii/,"'^!^ ' perhaps he. had ever drawn, was plunged into the bosom of teat friend, his faithful iEtius. He thus, as he was told by a bold Ro- 9. With whom did he form an alliance ? — lO. What did Attila seek to do? What course was taken by Theodoric? By j5Ctius? Give some ac- count of the battle of Chalons. — 11. What cities did Attila next take? What hindered his taking Rome ? — 12. What effect had the death of Attila on the empire of the Huns? What was done by Valentinian? ^3 Wrnnss and 455. Genseric iWi COUNT RECIMF.II Middle Hist. i;i)ai-i, " cut off his right hand with his left/' His vices did noi pERionn. ^ong remain unpunished He fell a victim to the vengeance of CHAP. I. Fetronius Maximus, an injured husband. '*-'*'~~^ '"^ 13. Maximus was elected emperor. He compelled Eudosia, the wddow of Valentinian, to maiTy him ; and she, in the madness of hatred, secretly called on Genseric to avenge her vongrance wrongs. He had become powerful by a naval force, and had of Kiidosia extended a system of piracy into every part of the Mediterra- nean. Joyfully accepting the invitation to invade Italy, he landed his troops at the mouth of the Tiber, and advanced to the gates of the now defenceless city. Maximus, on learning the approach of the Vandals, attempted to escape, but was slain in the streets. The entreaties of the good Leo again saved the city fiom conflagration, but for fourteen days and nights it pre- lakesa'nd sented horrible scenes of pillage and rapine. Private and public ^Rjfm'^'* wealth, the treasures of palaces and churches, became the prey of the Vandals. The ornaments of the capitol, with the statues of the gods, which since the introduction of Christianity, had not been removed, — with the treasures and vessels of the holy temple of Jerusalem, which had been brought by Titus to adorn Makc3 his triamph, were alike embarked for Carthage: but they were wisoner. lost on the passage. 1 lie empress Ludoxic., and her three daughters, were carried, by Genseric, prisoners to Africa, with multitudes of Roman women and children. 14. AviTus, of Gaul, was at Toulouse on an embassy to Theodoric II., king of the Visigoths, when the news of the death of Maximus, and of the recent disasters at Rome, was received. The vacant throne tempted his ambition. The powerful Theo- Count Reci- ^Joric encouraffed it, and by his influence, Avitus was received iner the real .„ /-/t-. i eo/ereignof mto Rome as emperor. Count Recimer, a descendant of the ome. kings of the Goths, commanded the barbarian troops who formed the defence of Italy. He was indignant that he should not have been consulted in the choice of an emperor ; and compelling Recimer Avitus to abdicate, he raised to the imperial dignity Majori- puts down ANUS, a man of virtue and talents, who in his person seemed Avitus and , • , . r ^ r, ■ TT 1 1 elevates to revive the image of the Roman majesty. He attempted the Majorianus. character of a reformer, but the various classes who derived ad- vantage from the existing abuses of the degenerate times, united against him. 15. Italy suffered severely from the piracies of the Vandals., and Majorianus built a fleet, vainly attempting to subdue the 461. power of Genseric. His want of success afforded Recimer Destroys a pretence to depose him. This maker of emperors next pul liiin to make o /- i • ir • • ^i • way for "P oEVERUs, ol course himseli exercising the sovereign power. .Severus. Finding a navy necessary to prevent the depredations of the 13. What events follovi'ed his death? What was novir the condition ol Genseric? What his conduct in regard to Rome? What treasures were Jost at sea? What prisoners were sent to Carthage ? — 14. Give an accouiit of the successor of Maximus. Who put him down and elevated another 5 What was the character of Majorianus? — 15. How was he displaced, and who was put in his place ? EXD OF THK WKSTERX E.MPIRt. 179 Vandals, Recimer solicitcnl tlie aid of Leo, who now lliled the •"•'•^■^ '' ^''■■"■■ imperial throne of Constantinople; and liis assisUmce was pkkiouh. ijiaiUed, on condition that he should nominate an emperor ihat. i. lie accordingly named Atiiewius, who repaired to Italy, wiierc, "--^-^.^"it^ to streniTthen his power, he jjave his dauijhter in marriage io '•SW?. f'ccimer. The strength of both tlie Roman empires was now (';J'|."i^'if,,,"" .employed against Genseric, but failed to deprive him of his naval mius, whom supremacy. Recimer became jealous of Athemius, and es- ami"pliis''iip poused the interest of Olvbp.ius, who had married the daughter oiyiirius. if the empress Eudoxia, — marched to Rome, took the city, and u,,,iiii(T ildivered it up to pillage. lie slew Athemius, and declared sacks Home Olybrius emperor. Forty days after, Recimer died, and Italy ins de;itii. rejoiced in tiie death of the tyrant. 16. Olybrius reigned but seven months. Two competitors appea.-ed, Glvcerius, a Roman, and Julius Nepos, the go- vernor ol Dalmatia. Glvcerius exchanged his crown for a ^, mitre, — Julius ?< epos was received by the senate, and reigned ami .luims a year. Orestes, a Pannonian, who commanded the motley '^^i'"" army of barbarians who had enlisted in the Roman service, now excited a rebellion among them. Nepos, on their approach to Ravenna, retreated to Dalmatia, and Orestes proclaimed his son, 47J^. .^UGusTULUs Romulus, emperor of the west. Orestes found '^ko,"„Vi'is1' the power he had easily acquired for his son, not so easily sus- the last em tained. The barbarians wbo procured his elevation, not content 'Ro'mr by the increase of tlieir pay and privileges, required him to di- vide among them a third of the lands of Italy. Orestes refused to sacrifice the natives of the soil to their capricious demands, suceecied Among them was the aml)ilions Odoacer, king of the Heruli,a i^y odoacer savage people who had migrated from the coast of the Baltic to wiio takes Pannonia and Noricum. He led them to Rome, took and pil- "'*' ''"^'J^ "^ laged the city, — executed Orestes, and assumed the sovereign power. Augustulus Romulus laid down his sceptre, and found mercy in the camp of the llerulian cliief. So passes from the historic scene the Inst emperor of Rome. 17. It is a singular coincidence, th.at his name contains that of the first king and founder of Rome,, and also of the first em- peror; reminding us of the infancy, the maturity, and the fall 4'^6. of the empire. Odoacer was the first barbarian who reigned Oiioacer over Italy under the name of king. The western empire, after '"°" "^ existing from the foundation of Rome, 1229 years, was now ex- tinct ; while the eastern, at the period of their separation in the like state of decay, continued nearly a thousand years longer. la. What lirther did Count Recimer? — 16. Wfiat further changes oc- airrcd to the time of the last emperor of Rome ? How did Augustulus Ro- mulus gain, and how lose the imperial crown ? — IT. What singular coinci- dence may we observe to aid the memory 1 What may we remark of Odoacer ? CHAPTER n. The EasiBrn or Byzantine Empire. mddlo Hist. I The stronger allurements which the Western emnire of- PERiOD :i. fered to the barbarians, and the subsidies paid by the emperoi's ciiAF. II. of the East, preserved that portion in comparative tranquillity. '>.*^''v-"«!fc^ Arcadius, a weak and timid prince, was, at his death, succeeded by his son Theodosius. He was a minor at the time of his 40S. accession, and, during his whole reign, was subject to the II. and ' influence of his sisior, Pulcheria. On his death she suc- Puichena. needed to llie throne, and was the first female who swayed the sceptre of the Roman empire. She was a princess of genius and virtue. On her death the Theodosian family became extinct 450. in the east. Marcian, her husband, continued to reign with a r'"^''?" "^.j' vigorous and prudent policy. Despising the miserable artifices tribute to by whicli former emperors had purchased immunity from the the barba- jj-gat'ed arms of the Huns, he stopped the payment of the sub- 'ians. sidies. The Huns menaced revenge ; but the death of Attila oc- curring at this period, delivered the empire from the danger ot the threatened invasion. Leo, the successor of Marcian, was j'g^' emperor at the period of the destruction of the Western empire. Times of Zeno, Ax\astasius, and Justin, successively ascended the Dtace. throne, but left behind them no deed which should preserve their names from oblivion. 2. Justinian, succeeded Justin. The kingdom of the Van- 52T dais in Africa, founded by Genseric, had become established. ustinian . ijjLpgpjQ^ grandson of Genseric, succeeded him. He was de- posed byGELiMER. Justinian, desirous to recover the province, kinsdom in aflected to favor Hilderic, and sent Belisarius with an army Vo^'*d''b" ^'^^° Africa. He conquered the Vandals^ reduced Carthage, and Belisarius. took Gelimer, whom he carried to Constantinople, to grace his triumph. As Hilderic had been executed, the race of Genseric became extinct, and Africa now belonged to the Eastern em- pire. Gelimer was seen in the triumphal procession of Belisa- Tiie Gothic rius, arrayed in regal robes, and though he neither sighed or ''itai*v"de-° "'cpt, he was heard to murmur, " Vanity ! vanity ! all is vanity I" ■siroyed by Belisarius next marched to Italy, where he defeated, the Ostro- R^iisarijs ggfj^g^ subdued Italy and Sicily, and returned to Constantinople with ViTiGES, the Gothic king, in chains. 3. These successes awakened the jealousy of Chosroes, reigning sovereign of Persia, who now renewed the war Avhich had been suspended by a truce. Belisarius was sent against him, ; and the war was waged with various and alternate success, unti. Chap. II. — 1. What preserved the Eastern empire in comparative tran- quil Hty ? Give some account of Pulcheria. Of Marcian. What happened in the reign of Leo ? Who were the next three of the emperors? — 'i. What in the reign of Justinian was the condition of the Vandal empire in Africa I Give some account of the African war. Of the war with the OstrogotlLs.— 3. Give some account of the Persian war. 180 JUSTIXIAN. ISl Ilie declining years of Justinian and Chosroes cooled their mi- ■^id-He ^^'■•'t litary ardor, and procured a further truce for fifty years. Belt- period ii. sarins was next sent to Italy against the Goths, who had rebelled, chav. it. but being recalled throuirh a jealousy which had arisen in the mind of the emperor, Narses, another lieutenant of Ju.sliiiian, was substituted in his place, and elTected their complete reduc- tion. After this final conquest of the Gothic kingdom, the government of Itidij vuis administered by officers styled Evarchs, who held their court at Ravenna^ and were the representatives of the eastern emperor. 4. The BuJirarians. aided by a multitude of barbarous Scla- '^'""* "^ ^'"' vonians, now crossed the Danube, ravaged Macedonia and Thrace, and extended their devastJttions within a few miles of g^^y^i Constantinople. Bclisarius met and defeated them. But this m'opi.e. was the last of his many victories ; and he who had so glo- ,iefea,Yi'i,'e riously sustained the military fame of the empire, was doomed Bulgarians, by regal ingratitude to pass his old age in penury and disgrace, neiisarius •5. While the arms of the empire had acquired glory abroad, '"■''■''^''''' the declining nation was still in distress. Constantinople was distracted by factions. Earthquakes of unusual extent and du- earih%wi>-c. ration spread desolation in diflerent parts. Antiocli, especially, Jintiachde- 1 1 11 1 1 1 -Krr, r\r\i\ sirnyed, VJilh was almost wholly destroyed, and 2ou,ujrid life by OH the dress, and with his presents in his hands, appeared be- Tid'oke^ fore the army. The enraged soldiers, thus insulted in the person of their commander, revolted, and deposed the foolish monarch. His son Chosroes fled to Constantinople. Maurice received him faAorably, and despatched an army to Persia, which subverted the power of Bahram, and placed him, as Chosroes II., on the throne of his fathers. 545- 8. The Avars^ an Asiatic race, had fled from the victorious conjinenre arms of the Tiirks, or Turcomans. By union with the Lom- ■j>s Tinkhh bards, they had destroyed the Gepidae. After the Lombards f?rttie first carried their arms and nation into Italy, the ^8vars setlkd in in Par.no- Pannoiiia, irhich Ihey had vncaied, and extended their dominion Hungary. fro7n the Eu.vine to the foot of the Alps. While the Persian war employed the imperial arms in the east, the Avars threatened the empire from the north. As soon as the military force was Make war released from the Persian war, Maurice hastened to employ \l upon the against these barbarians. His generals were ill selected, with empire. ^ . . * . . . ^ the exception of Priscus, who obtained several victories •, — but the situation of the army and the empire rendered even his victories unprotitable. 9. The emperor ordered the army to make the country of the Avars their winter quarters. Ah'eady inclined to mutiny, 602. ^hey now burst into open revolt, declared Maurice unworthy Phocas. of the crown, and elevated PHocAS,an ignorant and brutal cen- turion. The rebel army then hastened their return to Constan- tinople. Maurice and his iamily had fled to Chalcedon, whither the cruel emissaries of Phocas followed. They compelled the emperor to witness the successive murder of his five sons. The suffpringof agonized father uttered the ejaculation, "Thou art just, O Lord, « Christian, j^^j thy judgments are righteous." Even amidst this dreadful scene, his stern adherence to truth prevailed over natural aifec- tion. When the nurse by falsehood sought to preserve the life of his infant, Maurice disclosed her design, and surrendered his child. 10. An ignominious peace with the Avars was made by Phocas, who found himself exposed at once to a revolt of the province of Africa, and to the arms of Chosroes, who now found, in the death of his benefactor, Maurice, a pretext for war. iJBO. ^^^ wrested from the empire many of its eastern fortresses, Tiif brutal and Carried terror into Syria. Heraclius, son of the ex uosed^i'y' ai'ch of Africa, who had never acknowledged the authority of Heraclius. Phocas, advanced at the head of the African forces, and bv T. Give an account of the revolution in Persia. What pari in it had Maurice ? — ?*. Give an account of the Avars. Of the war with them.— 9. What further account can you give of Maurice? What account can you eive of Phocas? — lO. Give an account of Heraclius. HERACLIUb. IS.'J a union uith the disaflected, made himself Maytnr of Con- -W'M^'' ^^'st. stantinople, and deposed and executed the tyrant. Chosroes period ii. made himself successively master of Antioch, Jerusalem, and f^iiAP. u. Alexandria ; and while one division of his army extended his conquests to Tripoli, another marched to the Bosphorus, and, for ten years, lay encamped in the neighborhood of Con- stantinople. The Avars renewed their hostilities, and encamped their hosts along the plains of Thrace. Thus, on every side, the speedy dissolution of tlie empire was threatened. 11. In this extremity tlie funds of the church were appro- palace has . . 40 000 priated to the service of the empire, and an immense army was columns of levied, while a large subsidy purchased, though it did not secure ^''"^^ooo*^ the neutrality of the Avars. Declining to engage the Persian globes of army, which lay encamped opposite the city, Heraclius, master pj^es^n" /i^p' of the sea, transported his forces to the confines of Syria and heavenly Cilicia, and pitched his camp near Issiis, on the ground where The'imtriot- Alexander had vanquished Darius. Here, secure from attack, ism of the he organized and disciplined his troops. The Persians repaired /^-""^s to Cilicia ; and Heraclius drew them into an engagement, and defeated them. 12. In the next campaign, Heraclius passed the Black Sea, iieraciiiis and traversed the mountains of Armenia. He penetrated into the pJr^siaf heart of Persia, to compel Chosroes to recall his armies for the w^''^. chos defence of his own kingdom. The Persian king, however, 'constant;- still maintained an army in the vicinity of Constantinople, to ""f'*' second the operations of the treacherous Chagan, or chief of the Avars, who, regardless of the subsidy he had received as the price of his neutrality, had entered into an alliance with the Persians. A host of Avars, Gepida;, Russians, Bulgarians, and Sclavonians, now besieged Constantinople, but were repulsed ; while the Persians, on the opposite side of the Bosphorus, be- held their discomfiture, without being able to render them any assistance. 627 13. Heraclius nad, meantime, strengthened his army by an winevkh alliance with the Turks. A memorable battle was fought at ',''^''j""!T . C3 (ained bv Nineveh, in which the Roman arms trmmphed. Chosroes tiic Turks) was shortly after assassinated by h'.s son Siroes, who con- j"f"a{g\*he eluded a peace with the Romans, in which he relinquished the Persians, conquests of his father; and Heraclius withdrawing his forces „ ^'t, from the kingdom, returned to his capital in triumph. Persia. 10. What parts of the empire are conquered by Chosroes ? What other tnemies are in the field? — 11. What was done in this extremity? VVhat course was taken by Heraclitiis ? Relate the batile of Issiis. — 12. Where did Heraclitus k'o 'he next campaign ? Where did Chosi^^ cause. To assist the memory, Ave shall' recall in a connected 7 great mi- yiew the SEVEN GREAT IMICRATIONS of the GerMAN NATIONS trillions ot . , -^ . rr>i r ■ ■ 11' tlio Goruian luto the Roman empire. 1 lie jirst inigralion occurred belore barbarians, d^i-igt. The Civihrianst and Tculancs migrated towards Rome, J>. V. desiring places to settle. They crossed Helvetia, and were joined 113 by the Celtic and Helvetic tribes, surmounted the Alps, and llit "^ ^^^^ valley of tlie Po spread death and consternation. They Vst niii^ra- defeated, in throe successive campaigtis, the Roman armies under tion. ti^p consuls. At length the rehictant senate sent to meet them Cains A[(irius. He twice defeated them ; their last and linal defeat being at Verona. Vi«* '^" ^'^^^ second migration occurred in the reign of Marcus ,,^ Aureli\Js Antoninus. The empire was then invaded by a con- \'%Q. fodoracy of the Sucm., Quadi, Marcoman7ii., Vandals and other 'M nivpra- Exu'opoan tribes, with several from Sarmatia, of whom were the Jazygcs from the Dnieper, the Roxalani and the Alani. The Pcntii of n whole people. Perhaps diree-fourihs of the words in common cuap. m. use in the English language are of Saxon origin, it was during >^^-N^">fc' the Heptarchv that Chrisuanitv was introduced into England ,(Some say ^ . • - = &t. Paul V.- bv AuffUStine. siled Bitlsir ' 10. FRAXCE.— The Franks were also an association of die ""fhe"^/ " warlike tribes of Germany They derived their name, which churches. signities freemen, from their love of liberty. They made con- ihe"ni>t bii- quests hi Gaul, in the third century, and were governed by chiefs i»-*i' w:"'-? ^ or kings of the family of Merovius. His grandson, Clotis, 2S6 \ was chief of a tribe called the SaJian, and the founder of the .4m. French monarchy. When the Western empire was subverted ci..vu. by the barbarians, Gaul was at the time divided between the (From ihe Visigoths, the Burgundians. and the Romans. Svagril's, the \omes iiie Roman commander in Gaul. had. in the declining davs of the Sa'«^»^' ^ • . wiiu'D pro- Roman empire, thrown olThis allegiance, and established an in- Iul-Us a dependent government. Clovis took arms against hhn, defeated ^J^^"^™ hun at Soissons. and subjected the Roman provinces of Gaul to sovereip.) the sway of the Franks. " sot^oXs 11. He next engaged in war with the .iJemajini, an independ- ent German nation, and deleated them in a great batde. In the "^^'^ . TOLBl.iC'. course of the eniragement, his troops were ready to give way. ciovis de- Clovis Jiivoked the God of Clotilda, a Christian prmcess of ^iema^^S Burgundy, whom he had married. Rallying his troops to the charge, he obtained the victory, embraced Christianirv. and was . ^.* '^ , - - - baptized 9X baptized at Rheims. •' Bend thy head, proud barbarian," said Rhtims. St. Reni, the bishop, as Clovis approached the sacred font. The conversion of the monarch was followed by that of great num- bers of his subjects. His alliance, by marriage, with die Bur- gundians, secured their friendship \ while his embracing the Catholic Aihanasian faith, insured the powerful support of the clergy of Gaul, and alfarded the subtle monarch an opportunity of turning their influence to advantage, in a war upon Alabic II.. king of the Gallic Visigoths, who held the Arian tenets, to which the clerrv' of Gaul were vehementlv opposed. The armies of the Visigoths and Franks encountered each other in tiers. battle, near Poictiers. Alaric was slain, his forces defeated, and ^J'^'^i^ ''^" the provmces of .'Iqu'daine and Thoulouse were added to the kuis Aianc kingdom of the Franks. 12. On the death of Clovis, his extensive dominions were , ^*-Vi divided between his four sons. During the reign of these bro- vi? present a Uiers, the dominion of the Franks was extended over Burgundy. ^^^e*ftf The annals of the kingdom present an unvarying scene of en- dUcord. lU- Who were the Franks ? From whot^ is their firsi dynasty named ? What is meant by the Salic law ? (E.xamine the side notes.) Give an ac- connt of Clovis. How was Gaul divided? What did Cloris obtain by the battle of Soissons? — 1 1. Give an account of his conversion to Christianity. By whai means did he gain the clergy of Gaul to aid him against A.aric f Relate the batile of Poictiers and its consequences, — 12. What happened on the death ol Clovis ? (8S THEODOlilC THK GREAT Middle Hist. PERIOD 11. CHAP. III. 395 to 402. E.xteiu of the kingdom of the Suevi and ( Vandals. The Visi- goths overpower them. Ostrogoths overpower- ed by Attila. Revolt and are allied to the Romans. 493. Theodoric the Great, educated at Constanti- nople, founds in Italy the kinedom of the Ostrogoths. Wise regu- lations of Theodoric. Brihius put So dr^ath. mity, contention, violence, and bloodshed. Ci.otaire, the youngest of the four, finally reunited the nation under his s^va}^ On his death, the kingdom was again divided between his four sons, and this second division was followed by crimes even more aggravated and horrid than the first. The death of these four princes, left Clotaire IL, grandson of the former monarch of that name, undisputed sovereign of France. 13. SPAIN. — TheSueviaud Vandals carried destruction over this flourishing portion of the Roman empire. Their monarchy at one period, extended from the Loire to Gibraltar, but the con- quests of Clovis wrested from them the greater portion of theii possessions in France. The Vandals, under Genseric, founded a new kingdom in Africa. Adolphus, whose marriage with Placidia was celebrated at Narbonne, proceeded to the conquest of this monarchy, and made a triumplial entry into Barcelona. Of his successors, Theodoric was slain at Chalons; — Euric became entirely independent of the Romans, and hence is re- garded as the real founder of the Gothic monarchy in Spain. 14. ITALY. — In Italy iccis founded the kin-gdo7n of the Os- trogoths. This nation, subdued by the Huns, followed the standard of Attila in his invasion of the Roman empire. On his death they threw olT their allegiance to the Huns, and by arms established their independence. Theodoric, the son of their monarch, was given as a hostage to Zeno, the emperor of the east, with whom the Ostrogotlis formed an alliance. Theodo- ric was a youth of talents, ambition and courage ; and after a re- sidence of some years at the Byzantine court, he returned to his nation elevated above his rude subjects. The emperor Zeno, to divert the Gothic arms from his own dominions, gave Theodoric the kingdom of Italy, which OJoacer had wrested from the Romans. Theodoric defeated Odoacer, and established the kingdom of the Ostrogoths, upon the ruins of that of the Heruli. 15. Theodoric reigned thirty-three years. Under his govern- ment Italy was in a state of comparative peace. The Romans or Italians were left in possession of two-thirds of the lands, while the i-emainder was divided among the Goths. The Italians retained their laws, customs, dress, language, personal freedom, and had the civil administration. Theodoric executed Bcetiius, the last Roman orator, on the alleged charge of treason against the Gothic government ; for which he was visited with remorse. He left no son, but on his death-bed he commended to die no- bles his daughter Amalasoxtha, and her son, then ten yeais of age. Tlie son soon died with disease, and the mother, after some j'ears of able administration, was killed. Thud it suc- 12. On the death of Clotaire? — 13. What barbarians wrested Spain from the Roman empire ? What was the noriliern boundary of their king- dom i The southern ? By whom were the Suevi and Vandals jvevpower- ed ? What kingdom was established in Spain and the south ot Ganl ? — 14. Give some account ot tlie Ostrogoths. Ot'l'lieodoric. — 15. What division of lar.d and civil power did he make? Who succeeded him? ORIGIN OP THE TUKKS. 189 ceedc'l wlio was soon displaced to make room for ViriGES. •*^"^^c ^"*- Belisarius then conquered the kingdom, and carried Vitiges cap- period ll. tive to Con.stantinople. When Belisarius left Italy, the Goths re- ^haf. m. volted, and proclaimed for their king Ton la, a brave and war- like prince, llim Narses defeated and slew ; and Italy was tuniexed to the Eastern empire. IB. After the destruction of the kingdom of the Ostrogoths, the Wc-stern empire was ruled, as formerly, by the Exarchs of Kivenna. Tlieir j)eace was disturbed by the ferocious Lom- Lombardo bard^, and their king Alhoin. To the weak and often-con- A^ibofii. qucred Italians, Alboin was invincible, and with hardly an effort, he made himself master of the greater part of Italy. But his reign was short. His wife, Rosamond, was a princess of the Gepidaj, whose father Alboin murdered. He then compelled her to drink from a cup made of her father's skull. She avenged the abominable act, by the death of her odious tyrant. 17. THE TUKKS. — The original seat of the Turks was Origin of the among the Altai mountains, in the interior of Asia. The race had been slaves to the Khan of Tartary, by whom they were employed in the manufacture of iron, of which great quan- tities were found among their native mountains. Leaders at length arose among these slaves, who induced them to throw off their allegiance to their masters. At different times they invaded China and Persia, and showed themselves dangerous enemies. In the wars of Heraclius, the Turks rendered him essential service. Their empire extended itself by degrees over the northern parts of Asia; while on the south their conquests included the nation of the While Huns, who possessed the cities of Buoharia and Saniarcand, IG. Who founded the kint<('.oin of the Lombards, and what was his cha- racter? What revolting act of his caused his death ? — if. Give some ac- count of the Turka. Mahomet relates his Dream to hit> Friends PERIOD III. FROM THE ARABIAN / ^oo 3 ^^ FLIGHT OF HEGIRA, S * ^* ? MAHOMET, THE CORONATION '^■^1 G22. ^ TO I 800. ^0 F CHARLEMAGNE. CHAPTER I. Mahomet and his Religion. 1. Mahomet is one of the most remarkable men, and alto- gether the most successful impostor, who appears on the page of history. He was born in Mecca, and was a descendant of one of the most powerful families in Arabia. Early left an or- phan, he was indebted for support to the kindness of an imcle, Abu Taleb ; who, to instruct him in the business of a merchant, took him when only thirteen into Syria. He remained with his uncle until the age of twenty-five, when he engaged in the service of Khadijah, a rich widow of Mecca, whom he sub- sequently married, and thereby became one of the richest men of his native city. In his fortieth year he opened his alleged mission ; having by previous sanctity and solitary watching in a cave prepared the minds of his family to receive it. To Kadi- jali he first imparted the story; declaring that the angel Gabriel liad appeared to him in the cave, and told him that he was the chosen apostle of God. To love is to trust, and Khadijah believed her husband and rejoiced in his glory. Mahomet's next disciples were Zeid, his servant, Ali his cousin, and Abu Beker his friend Period III. — Chap. I. — 1. Give some account of Mahomet and of his parentage. Who was his early protector ? Who was Kadijnh ? At what age, and how, did Mahomet open his alleged mission? How did Kadijah receive his declaration of a divine mission? Who were his next foUowereV 191 Middle nm. CHAP. 1. MahonietV first disciples. 192 MAHOMET. Middle Hist. 2. It is probable that the great mind of Maliomet was from PERi'D in. his youth teeming with liis mighty plan ; and that he pursued it CHAP. I. in the deep silence of his own heart, many years before he ^-rf'^N/'"^*-^ began to develope it in action ; — gathering information on every Mahomet of subject Connected with it, and educating himself in secrecy, designing Acquainted with the Jewish and Christian systems, he followed ciiiiiatter. t|;,e,;n {^ the ideas which he inculcated of the Supreme Being. He acknowledged the veracity of their histories, the truth of their miracles, and the divine character of their teachers. His system, he declared, was the perfecting of theirs, he being the Comforter promised by Christ. He spent much time in his cave, and thence issued with the chapters of the Koran, one by one pro- duced, and declared to have been received from the angel Gabriel. 3. These productions are works of genius ; and as Mahomet 609- professed himself illiterate, they appeared as miraculous evidence the Maho-' of the truth of his apostleship. Some suppose he kept a monk '"'^m"^*^'^'''' concealed who wrote them for him. It is far more probable that his time in the cave was spent in studies which he concealed ,. from every eye, and that he thus became master of language, and ' -vrote the Koran himself. He was forty before he opened his mission. He, who was wise enough to know that the faith of Reasons for ^^g -wife was of the first consequence to his success, would be that Maho- too wise to give himself a master, in any man who would be able tr'^Kora*' at any moment to expose his imposture, or to put an end to it uimtjeif. by withholding his assistance. The style of the Koran corre- sponds to that of Mahomet's words and actions ; and if another man of genius had been engaged in getting up the deception, he would have appeared to claim his share in the rewards of suc- cess. For these reasons, we believe that the Koran Avas both planned and executed by Mahomet himself. 4. After three years labor, Mahomet had only fourteen prose- lytes. He then invited his numerous relatives to a feast, and told them that the Almighty had commissioned him to call them to him. He offered them present and future happiness, and en- Mahomct's quired who would be his vicar. Ali rose up, amidst the laughter inK to his of the company, and sternly accepted the office. Now, said they, relatives, jgeringly to Abu Taleb, the father of Ali, "You must obey your son." Still there were those in whom Mahomet's earnest man ner and good character produced conviction. He then began to preach openly to the people, and incensed them by upbraid ing them with their idolatry and crimes. His uncle Abu Taleb remonstrated in displeasure, and advised him to cease. " Not," said Mahomet, " if you set the sun against me on the one hand, and the moon on the other." Thus the gi*andeur of his genius 2. What is probable concerning Mahomet's deep designs ? What did he acknowledge concerning the Jewish and Christian religion ? In what man- ner and wiin what declaration did he bring forward the Koran ? — 3. What rea- sons does your author give for beheving that Mahomet wrote the Koran himself? — 4. What was his first progress in making proselytes ? Relate his first preaching to his assembled relatives. How did they receive it ? What passed between him and his uncle, and en what occasion ? THE HEGIRA. 193 sustained him, and tliougli he made many enemies, he gained a Middu^msi^ lew sincere followers. He next took the bold measure of as- peri'IUU. serting tliat he had been favored widi an entrance into the hea- chai. i. vans, wliere on the throne of God was written, " Tliere is no ^-^>/ ">u/ God but God, and Mahomet is his prophet." Tliis became afterwards the creed of liis followers. The marvellous tales marrieb whicli he related shocked the faith of many who had before Aye?'ia,ju.; been his disciples; but while some laughed, and some mocked daugiiter oi with bitter irony, oLliers believed, and thus became the tools ^^"^ ^*^^^^ and «lupes of him who deceived them.* 6. The powerful tribe of Koreish were Mahomet's inveterate foes; and they treated his followers so rudely, that he led them forth for a time, but returned. His last flight was to save his life. Accompanied by his friend, Abu Beker, and two other per- . ,. sons, he hasted secretly to Medina. This was Mahomet's poo' lowest point of depression, and is made the era of his followers. The Flight, His reception at Medina was the renewal of his hopes. The or Hegira. various tribes and inhabitants of Arabia were accustomed to pay their annual devotions in the Caaba or temple of Mecca. fn their pilgrimages there, many of the citizens of Medina had listened to the eloquence of Mahomet, and become converts to his religion. He was now, in his distress, received by tliem with enthusiasm. Five hundred citizens advanced to meet him ; the people unanimously embraced his faith, and swore allegiance to his person. Mahomet had, up to this time, propagated his Mahoin«i religion peaceably. If they would not hear him, that, he said, \vk"keJneF€ was the aflair of him who sent him, not his own. But now . "'' '"s that Mahomet felt his power, he pretended to a new command. This proves the selfish wickedness of his imposture. God had noAv, he averred, directed him to propagate his religion by the sword ; and the false prophet, at this time, promised a sensual paradise to those who died fighting in his cause. 6. The first military exploits of Mahomet and his followers were to intercept the caravans of Mecca, engaged in the Syrian trade. Abu Sophian, the head of the Koreishites, and the Military e*.- mortal foe of Mahomet, on returning from Syria with a wealthy p'"''^ of caravan, was attacked ; and by Mahomet's personal intrepidity, * The angel Gahriel, Mahomet said, came spreading seventy pair of wings, and bringing for his acconimodation the milk-white mule Alborak. I'he wonders of his journey were manifold. One will serve as a specimen. Among the varieties oi angels, he saw one in the form of a cock, his feet standing on the first heavens, and his head reaching to the second, five hun- dred days' journey above, as men travel. When the Almighty sang his moriiing hymn, this angel-cock always crowed so loud, that he was heard throughout the whole universe except by men and fiends. 4. What pretence did he next boldly make? How was this received ? — 5. What tribe wete the false prophet's foes? What was Mahomet forced to do ? What and when was his lowest point of depression ? What is thiii point of time made ? What proved the renewal of his hopes? Relate hib reception at Medina, flow had Mahomet up to this time propagated his re- ligion ? What new command did he now pretend to have received? — 6. What were (he first mihtary exploits of Mahomet and his followers ? Who wns Abu Sophian ? 25 194 THE FORMATION OF THE MOSLE.M EMPIRE. Xiddk Hist. PERI'U HI. CHAP I. Mahomet enter? ilecca. 63^. Death of Mahomet. F.xtcntofhis empire. Arabs rebel and are subdued. (Sara- cen, de- rived from Sarra, an Arabian word signi- f)ing desert. The earliest fol- lowers of Mahomet were Saia- cens. Maho- met called his religion Islam, i. e. submission to the will of God, " Moslem," or Mussel- mans, signi. fying "the pacred.") 633. Oraar suc- ceeds Abu Beker. t?5.Tia con - qucred- defeated. The following year Abu Sophian attacketi Medina with 10,000 men of various nations. Divisions were excited among the discordant tribes, and a tempest adding to their dis- tress, Medina was saved. Mahomet's arms were next dir(!Cted against Mecca, but the Koreishites defended it. A treaty was concluded by which hostilities were to be suspended foi ten years, and the prophet ^vas permitted to enter his native city as a pilgrim. His imposing entrance into the city — ■his devotion and eloquence, produced the conversion of multitudes. The truce was broken, Mahomet was victorious and entered Mecca as a conqueror. The citizens embraced his religion, and were par- doned for past offences. The submission of Mecca resulted in that of all the neighboring tribes. The idols were now every where destroyed, and ihe faith of Mahomet xoas established throughout Arabia. At the age of sixty-three, the false prophet died, having spread the terror of his name from the Euphrates to the Red Sea. 7. Abu Beker, his friend, was chosen as his successor, re- ceiving the title of caliph or lieutenant. The Arabian fribea were unused to subjection, and on the death of Mahomet they rebelled, but were again reduced to submission; and the ca- liph's lieutenant, Caled, called by the Arabians the " Sword of God," conquered apart of Persia. Abu Obeidah, another of the Saracen commanders, conducted an army into Syria, v/here he met and defeated a formid-able force sent by the emperor He- raclius to the defence of the province. The Saracens then in- vested Damascus, which, seeing no hope of succor, capitulated. Abu Obeidah permitted the Christians of that city to depart into exile ; but after three days, Caled, led by an apostate Christian, pursued the fugitives, overtook them, and gave them up to in- discriminate slaughter. 8. Omar succeeded Abu Beker in the caliphate. Being in fonned by the aged and dying caliph that he was to be his successor, Omar said : " I do not want the place." " But," said Abu Beker, " the place wants you;" During the first years of the reign of Omar, the Syrian war was prosecuted ; and succes- sive victories increased the enthusiasm, and augmented the num- bers of the faithful. Damascus., Heliopolis^ Jerusalem., Aleppo^ and Antioch., successively fell before the Saracens; and in seven years after the death of the prophet, the whole province of Syria was added to the empire of the Saracens. In Persia they passed the Tigris and took Ctesiphon., when Yezdegerd, the Persian monarch, fled for protection to the Turks. 9. The invasion of Egypt succeeded. The rapid success of th3 Mahometans in this province was in a degree owing to the 6. Relate Abu Sophian's attack on Medina. Relate Mahomet's return to Mecca. How was Mahomet's reh^on extended soon after? How far at his death? — T. Give an account of Mahomet's successor. What wai was carried on in Syria ? — 8. Who succeeded Abu Beker ? What places had the Saracens conquered in seven years from Mahomet's death ? VVhal was their progress in Persia ' THE CALIPHATE. 19j divisions and hatred existing among the difTercnt Christian sects J^fj^idiejiU't. dl this period. I'he emperor of" the east had persecuted a large pEiiru ill portion of his Egyptian subjects, who welcomed the Moslems chap. i. as deliverers. Memphis submitted without resistance, and Alexandria* was taken after a siege of fourteen months. The great library of tliat eidighlened citv was destroyed. The caliph, '.'.hen petitioned to spare it, replied, " If these writin.gs of the Greeks agree with the Koran, they are useless, and need not be preserved; if they disagree with it, they are pernicious, and ought to be destroyed." In the reign of the succeeding caliph, Othman, the Saracens extended their conquests into the pro- vince of Africa. 10. Dissensions now arose among the Moslems with respect to the rightful succession to the caliphate. An insurrection re- suited in the assassination of Othman; and Ali, the cousin of Aiianiiiir Mahomet, and one of his first four proselytes, was now elected to FatUniscs. the office. The pretensions of Ali, who married Fatima, a (laughter of the prophet, and of his descendants, the Fatimiles, are the origin of the discord which has ever existed between the Persians and tlie Turks, who had now become Mahome- tans ; the lormer espousing the interests of Ali, and the latter maintaining the equal sanctity of the three preceding caliphs. Extent of On the accession of Ali, the sceptre of tlie caliphs extended over ,'''^ . L 1 • /■ 1-1 • o • 1 ■ IT-- -vr caliphate. the kmgtioms of Persia, Syria, Arabia and Egypt. Yezregerd, the last of die Persian monarchs, made an ineffectual attempt to R«ii?'on of 1 • 1 • • I 1 1 I 111 ""^ ^*i"P' recover tus dominions, but betrayed by a servant, and deserted displaced b> hy his allies, he was slain in attempting to escape ; and the reli- ^'a,','.fg"i',*''' gi">n of the Magi was thenceforlli displaced by that of Mahomet. 11. The empire of the Saracens began to be weakened by in- ternal dissensions and civil wars. Ali, though not engaged in the assassination of Othman, reaped the advantages derived from his death. Moawiyah, son of Abu Sophian, of the family of Ommiyah, to cover his own ambitious purposes, undertook to * The literature and science of the world had for several aprps its chief seat in Alexandria. To the Ale.xaiidrian school, the nohle youth of the most re- fined countries repaired for instruction. Theon, a president of this school, Constuntinc had a daughter, Hvpatia. whom he found possessed of so extraordinary a ^^•"t "P i|"^ genius, that he gave her great advantages; and she became, in philosopfiy, ^^^ '^.g, geometry, astronomy, and mathematics, the most learned persrui of her age. opened it. On her father's death she was promoted to sncceed him in the presi- Afltervvard.i dency. The flower of all the youth of Europe, Asia, and Africa, sat at Theon and the feet of this beautiful instructress, greedily receiving learning and philo- 'J,^f^\i2;','" Sophy from her mouth. Her moral life was pure and blameless; but a party of the people, in the interest of Cyril the patriarch, becoming enraged with Oresi es the governor, who was the friend of Hypatia, they tore her from her chair and brutally murdered her; (415,/ when the school was discontinued. 9. Why were the Egyptian subjects of the Greek emperor not attached fo his government ? What was the progress of the Saracen arms among the cities ? What became of the great Alexandrian library? What had Alexandria been for some ages past? What remarkable woman flourished there ? (See note.) What conquest was begun in the reign of Othman ? — 10. Relate the manner of the accession of Ali. What dissension arose re- specting jhe succession to the caliphate ? How far did the caliphate now extend ? Give some accotint of Yezdegerd. — 11. Who was Moawivah I the chaij. 415 193 THK MOST inifOKTAXT RATTLE RECORDED. Middle His avenge it. Abion, the viceroy of Egypt, espoused his cause, PERri) ni. Moawiyah was declared caliph at Damascus, and at tlie head CHAP. I. Qf a large army marched against Ali. After a sanguinary con- '--'-'^r-'^^ flict, in which many thousand Moslems perished, a truce was ufe firsYof effected between the rival caliphs. Meantime some enthusiasts the dm- in the temple at Mecca planned the deliverance of the nation cjids oiiThe from these evils. Assassins were despatched to procure the miircYr of death of Ali, Moawiyah, and Amon. Ali was murdered, while 661. Moawiyah and Amon escaped. Moawiyah succeeded to the caliphate, which was row changed into an hereditary office. Tiie Moors 1^- During the reign of the Ommiyades, the lieutenants of the of Africa caliphs penetrated the deserts of Africa, and extended to Mount submit to . , J^^ , J^ ,- , • mi -li -I -1 1 1 the Sara- Atlas the terror ol their arms. 1 he Moonsli tribes along the ^&^ coast, after a short resistance, were conquered, converted, and adopted into the Arabian family. 13. The Goths of Spain were in possession of the garrison of Ceuta, on the African side of the straits. Here the Saracenf were at first repulsed, but at length Count Julian, commander ■^43- of the garrison, becoming a traitor, put them in possession of ^vad'-d"' '■'^^ fortress, and instigated them to the invasion of the Gothic kingdom of Spain. The obscure race of kings, who held sway over the monarchy founded by Adolphus in Spain, presents no name worthy of mention in history. x\ civil war had enabled Roderick, a noble Goth, *o dethrone Witerza, the lawful IflS. king, and usurp the crown. It was at this period that the Sa- TMif Masfo- I'ficens entered Spain. In a decisive battle at Xeres, in Andalu- metans es- sia. thev established the Mahometan dominion. The princes cTnpfre over ^nd iViends of Witerza's family revolted, and joined the Maho- that ot" the metans ; and Roderick, "■ the last of the Goths," was drowned in Visii^olhs m . t~pain- the Guadalquivir. The Goths submitted to the victor, but being Christian.", were allowed the enjoyment of tlieir own religion. The dominion of the Saracens extended from the Mediter- ranean to the Pyrenees. Pelagius, a member of the royal family, finding it impossible to resist the conquerors, retired with a band of followers to the mountains of Jlsturias, where he established an indppe7ident Christian kingdom. 732. 14. The Arabian victors advanced beyond ihe Pyrenees, bent Chas'^Mar '^^ ^^^^ entire conquest of Europe. The valiant Charles tei, in a Martel, of France, took the field against them. An ever me- TotaUy'^de^-' Kiorable battle was fought near Tours, where an immense mul- foats the titude Were slain. The Saracens retired to Spain, and it is a withThe remarkable fact, that they made no further attack upon the '^"ormoi.s northern nati ^ns. 350.000. 15. In pursuing the victorious course of the Arabs westward, 11, Between what parties was a sanguinary battle fought? How did Ah come by his death? W^ho sueeeeded, and what changes occurred? — 12. What occurred during the reign of the Ommiyades? — 13. Give some ac- co'int of the Saracen invasion oFSpain. Who was Roderick? Witerza? Who were the pariiee in the battle of Xeres ? What happened to Roder'ck after his defeat ? How tar did ihe Saracen empire in Europe now extend ? What place, however, did they fail to eonquer ? — 14. On what were the Saracens now bent ? Relate where, and by whom, they received a memorable oheclt EUROPE PRESEIIVLD FROM THE MOSLEMS. 197 we have passed by the attempts made, under the caliph Mo)a- -^"^^^ ^'** - wiyah, upon Constantinople. The Moslems attacked it in the peri'd hi. summer, and retreated in the winter, for five successive years, chap. i. At length the Greek fire was invented by C.^lli.nicus, of Helio- ^— '^^■"»— ' polis, and brought by hirn to Constantinople. It was a compo- mH- M'.ion of tiaplitha, pilch, and sulphur, which, when once ignited, inv^ro^ Cvuld not be extinguished by water. It adhered to v/ood, and stamincpic. r insuined whole fleets ; when thrown upon the combatants, it 1 i.dnuated itself between tiie joints of their armour, and they 66^. died a death of torture. It was projected by pistons, "took fire 'ttcGr""k' iu the air, and approached its victims in the form of fiery fire. dragons." In one winter the caliph lost a fleet and army; and not only retired, but concluded a peace, by agreeing to pay the emperor a tribute for thirty years. Thus providence barred the way of the Mus.selmans to the conquest of Europe, both in the west and the east. 16. Damascus was now the seat of the caliphate. The family „ , 1 ' J\l ■'! h o n I H I H o of Urnmiyah, although during ninety years they produced CKtionc fourteen successive caliphs, yet had never been favorites with the Arabian people. Their early persecution of the prophet, and the tardiness with which they embraced the faith, made them suspected by the devout. The descendants of Ali and Fatima had abandoned their pretensions to the sovereignty, and by strict devotion to the observances of religion, had acquired great reputation for sanctity among their countrymen. The descendants of Abbas, the uncle of the prophet, were more aspiring in their views, and had secretly enlisted great numbers in their cause. The adherents of each of these factions was designated by the adoption of a peculiar color in their dress. The green was appropriated to the Fatimites ; the white, to the Ommiyades ; and the black to the Abassides. 17, The contest of the white and black faction could only be "y^O- terminated by a civ'il war. Abbas ai. Saffah, the chosen caliph of the Abassides, and Merwa.n, the last of the Ommiyades, ^^^ led their armies to battle. Merwan was defeated, and the ^f,'* Abassides triumphed in the east. Apdalrahman alone, of the "JST royal family of Ommiyah, escaped. Spain received the fugitive, Abdairah- and established him on the throne of Cordova,, where for more Spain from than two hundred years, his descendants reigned. Tne dynasty '''gj^'^^"^ of the Abassides was established in the east, and they made Bagdad their seat; but the unity of the empire was destn»yed. Under these princes, of whom Haroln al PiAscHiD, and his son AL Ma.mox, stand pre-eminent, learning was patronized, and n.ro^n'oj the literature of Greece and Rome carried to the east. Raschw t''>. Relate the attacks of the Saracens on Constantinople? What re- in:!rkn'.)le agent saved the cityt By whom was it invented, and what its ilFi ci ? — Id. What was the seat of Cahphate at this period? What three fi 'lions existed among the .Moslems, and how was earh distinriuished ? — IT. Uctween which was a civil war ? Who escaped of the Ommiyades? Where did he reign ? Where did the Abassides fix the seat of government ? Which was the most illustrious of these, and what did he encourage? Refer to the map, and look over the chapter, and point out all the country wliich the Mahometans had now conauercd. CHAPTER II. The Easter. 1 Empire. — The Church. — The E.npuc of Cbarlemagnc m duu Jiui 1. EASTERN EMPIRE.— Ileiaclius lived to set the Syrian PEHi'D III. pr'''^*^-' able period, present no name worthy of record ; and the annals (Thi; Mos- of the empire are marked with revolting accounts of intrigues. "Jerusalem assassioations, and petty revolutions of the palace. The cruel as a ''holy g^j-jj shameful vices of JustixXian II. produced general disaffee- in sanctity tion. Being deposed and expelled from the empire, he retired ioUncca). j^ Bulgaria^ a new kingdom on the north-western shore of the Jii tin^'uiii E,iixvne. The Bulgarians lurnished him an army, with which he recovered his throne. His cruelties again produced an in- surrection, during which he was assassinated. V«'iih him perished the last of the race of Heraclius. isniiriandy- 2. The Isaurian dynasty commenced with Leo III., who rose nasty hesiiis f,.o,;i^ ^u obscure oriijiu. In his reign was the commencement wish J.eoUI. , , => . , ° ,. ^ . ..'.-> ot the controversy respecting the worship of images ; tne Ko- man church contendinjj for the practice, and the Greek church Image-wor- . . ,. <= ^ , ' , ship. agamst it. 1 his dispute separated the eastern and wesiern cb.urches, and contributed to disengage Italy from all dependence •y-ia upon the Greek or Byzantine empire. Image worship was. Separation however, restored by the infamous Irene, who was the empress ' era a:;d of Leo IV., and mother of Constantine VI. The death of i-.h'ii-c"" ^--eo, while Conslantine was but ten years of age, placed the imperial government in her hands. 'When Constantine arrived '?'§l- at maturity, she still wished to retain the power; and henre ^'^*ifene'.*^^'' bitter enmity arose between the mother and the son. Ambition stilled every sentiment of nature and humanity, and the horrid Her iniiu- woniau deprived her son of his sight and his life! After Irene man df- ],^j] reigned live years, Nicephorus, her treasurer, seized the iier son. dirone, and doomed her to exde in the Island of Lesbos, wliere she earned a scanty subsistence by spinning. 3. CHURCH HISTORY.— The bishops, or overseers of the (First Christian churches, at first demeaned themselves in the meek tcnturv. .. .,/. 1 ^1- T- T-. 1 11 Second .ant ?pi'"''l ol the louuder ot their reugion. but at length tiiey Ufird cen- sought temporal power, and worldly advantage. The bishops* * There were four general councils of bishops and doctors, called (Jilcu- menicai Councils. The first was convoked (33,i) by Constantin'E. and was held at Nice, in Asia Elinor. The Nicene Creed "-as here adopted. The patriarchs of Alexandria and Constantinople presided ahernately. The second was convoked (381) by Theodosius, and lield at Consiantino- Cdap. it.— 1. What was the condition of t^e Greek empire? Give some account if Justinian II. Of a new nation which had arisen. — 2. What dispute occurred iti the reign of Leo the Isaurian? What kind of « person was it who restored image worship in Constantinople? Of wliai horrid act was she guilty ? — 3. What may he said of the bishops of the Christian churches in the first century ? Where were the four genera] councils held ? I9S OKIGIN UF MON'ACllIb.M. 199 of tlie great cities assumed authority over those of ihe surroun J- ^^ •/•"• cam 3 predominant, and each regarded the other with jealous ,.. ^."^ rivalry. This uidwdy spirit broke into action on the question of t i n.jj mage-wor.sliip; and,as we have seen, severed into two branches tlie vi.sible church. Pepin's gift, confirmed by Charlemagne, made a U;mj)oral dominion for the bishop of Rome, now called pope. The ambition of these potentates grew as it was giati- (ied, till they aspired to universal dominion. Theodorus 1. 4ihtothe (G12) assumed the title of sovereign pontiff. Gaining one ^''[^^y^' conces.sion afier another fiom Christian princes, the pope of Rome became, througli the dark ages, a king of kings; nay more — he assumed to be in the place of God. 4. jyjonachism^ or Alonkcry^ was another feature of the dark 250- ages. Paul of Tiiebes, in Egypt, fled from the persecution I'aui of of Dccius to a caverji, where dates were his food, and palm ^,*r,',du''cefi leaves his clothing. St. A.ntho.w, another Egyptian, abode in monkery, a hut in the desert, and made his fdth his boast. At a little .^■?"' ,. , , ■ r 1 1 1 1 r Anthony, (hstance were tlie cabins of other ascetics, whom also the fame of Egypt, of Anthony's sanctity had attracted to be his followers. Soon the practice of retiring to poverty and religious seclusion be- Drigin or came general ; and monasteries, or houses to contain devotees, monasierlcs both male and female, were erected, and were governed by a superior, called abbot or abbess. The first monastery of the west was founded by St. Benedict, at Casino, near Naples. Convents were soon afterwards erected in France. St. Patrick, who introduced Christianity into Ireland, issued from one of these, 5. The idea prevailed, that to torture the body, was to do gf)od to the soul, and was meritorious with God ; this wa.s the principle of ^6ce/ic/.S7W, and was carried to an astonishing ^.®'^- kiiglh. SiMo.v Stvlites lived thirty years on the top of a andljeiiT lolly column. Convents soon existed in all Christian countries-, fi"' "^ed.) and a host of monks and nuns took vows of celibacy and reli- gious seclusion. But these changes had their causes in the '^|h"^refu"c' condition of the times. The feudal system had made the great of women barons so many petty sovereigns ; and except when the king hatefuVmaf was a man of commanding mind, they were wholly unrestrained, rioses. pie. The third was convoked (431) by Tueodosius the Younger, and was held at Ephesus. St. Cyril, the patriarch of Alexandria, pre.sided. The fourth waa convoked (451) by .Makcia.n, and held at Chalccdon, when it was decided that the church at Constantinople should have the same privi- leges as that of Rome, 'ihe opinions of Arias were the occasion of these councils, and although respectable minorities were n favor of them, they were condemned by the majority. 3. What in the second and third ? What bishops constituted an oligir- chy ? What two became predominant? Who first took the title of Bove- leign pontiff, and at what time? What did the pope become? — *. Give some account of the use of monastic institutions. — 5. What was the grand rnn^iplo "f aceticism ? What was done by Simon, surnamed Stylite« ' 20iJ THE FEUDAL SYSTEM. Middle Hist. PERVU HI. CHAP. II. feudal Eystcm gives great power to the ba- rons and enslaves the people. (Feudal sys- tem intro- duced by Clevis. By Alboin. Hengist in- troduces it in England.) TESTRY. Pepin vie- torius. C'AarU'3 Martel. from whom the Carlovin- gian dy- nasty takes its tame. The fierce passions of these irresponsible loi'ds were ever ready to break out into actions of murder and rapine. Females were allowed no choice in marriage, but were disposed of by fathers or brothers •, or, if heiresses, by their liege lords. When the ecclesiastical power was the only appeal of the oppressed, and the convent the only refuge of the victim, — it is no wonder that many good men sought to exalt the power of the clergy, and to found monasteries. 6. The Feudal Svstem is a term used to express the mart- ner m which the chiefs, who conquered by. the aid of thei? armies, and settled in the conquered countries, divided the lands among their followers ; and the liabilities and privileges growing out of this division. When the chief, or king, saw the whole un- divided territory on the one hand, and the body of his follow- ers wishing to settle it on the other, the question naturally arose, how should he divide it .? The unsettled state of the v/orld was to be considered. If he divided it among his people, without preserving a warlike attitude, they would become the prey of some of the armed hordes, still moving in search of settlements. The leader, therefore, after retaining what he chose, gave out the lands in large portions to his principal captains, — on condition of their doing homage to him, paying a certain sum of money, and appearing in the field with a certain number of retainers, whenever he called for their aid. These chief officers, after keeping what they desired for their own use, divided the remainder of the land assigned them, to their own favorites ; who were to furnish money and soldiers to them, as they were to the king. The conquered inhabitants who remained became slaves, and were transferable with the lands. These kings rose by their own prowess ; but on settling with their nation, the mo- narchy v/as generally first elective in their families, then hereditary 7. In FRANCE, the Merovingian dynasty, the degenerate de- scendants of Clovis, still remained upon the throne. In the disor- ders consequent upon the weakness or mmority of these monarchs, the regency, or administration of government, was committed to the mayor of the palace, who combined the offices of judge and of steward of the household. These mayors acquired such an extent of power, that the authority of the monarch was little more than nominal. One of these ofiicers, Pepin d' IIeri&tai. headed the nobles in a contest against the king and the people ; and, after six years of war and confusion, was victorious in the battle of Testry. By this he established his authority, and made it hereditary. He was succeeded by his son Charles Martel. It was during his administration that the Saracens 3. Wliy in those times might good men wish to set up the ecclesiastical au thority and form monasteries ? — 6. What is meant by the feudal system ? What considerations would induce the chiefs in those times fo preserve a warlike attitude ? Hov/ were the conquered lands divided ? What became of the conquered inhabitants ? Was the kingly office then h<"-editary ? — T. What officers in France had set their authority abovo that of the monarchsl Which of them made the office hereditary ? What acco int can you give o hiB SOP ? THE GREATEST SOVEREIGN OF THE MIDDLE AGES. 201 conquered France, from the Garonne to the Rhone. Charles •^^MU Hist, collected his warriors, and fought with them the great batde of peri'd iil Tours, which lasted seven days. lie defeated the invaders with chap. ii. a very great loss, and recoveied the provinces. This battle in its results is probably the most important ever fought, — influen- cing not only the destiny of France, but of all Europe, — and put- ting a ( heck to the final progress of the Mahometan religion. Martei, the Charles did not assume the name of king, but exercised the full fl^om'hls power. force in S. He was succeeded in the mayoralty by his son Pepin wlio, performing the functions, aspired to the title of sovereign. The aid of Zachary, bishop of Home, now known by the ap- ^^rsrvVho' pellation of pope, was sought by Pepin, who inquired of him, tookthetitio •'Whether a prince incapable of governing, or a minister in- g'mreVf" vested with royal authority, and who supported it with dignity, ^°^'\\ '^^^ ought to have the title of king?" The pope decided in his fa- bishops into vor. The people were absolved from their allegiance, their "gembHer" consciences quieted, — and Childeric III., the last of the Merovin- gian race, was deprived of his crown, and shut up in a monas- tery. Pepin was crowned king of France, at Soissons, by St. Boniface, bishop of Mentz. He was not unmindful of his obli- rheexarch- gations to tlie pope. In his wars with Astolphus, king of the o-i-eofRavcii- Lombards, he conquered from them the exarchate of Ravenna, Greek empe- which they had wrested from the Greek empire. This he gave „ir^,'^""^.e to the pope, who thereby became a temporal sovereign. The pope. kings of France were recognized as patricians of Rome. 9. Pepin was succeeded by his sons Charles and Carlo- man. The sovereignty of France could hardly be considered chnries and as hereditary at this period, as the consent of the nobles was carioman. required to the accession of these princes. The death of Car- ^^^I^JJ "^'' Ionian left the whole kingdom to Charles. This prince gave dau^'htersof early indications of those qualities which gained him the name ca'rioman of Charles the Great, or CharlemaGiVE. He found a pretext „'^;5^" for invading the kingdom of Lombardy, in the hostilities of Desiderius against the pope. Charlemagne crossed the great TT4. St. Bernard from Geneva, and successively took Pavia and Ve- Charie- r 7 J 11 I • • 111- masne rnii rona. Linmbaray was soon reduced to submission, and the king quers the made captive. Charlemagne next visited Rome, where he was 'jhe Lom-'^ received, by pope Adrian I., with every demonstration of joy, bards, and and hailed as the deliA'erer of the church. He caused himself f" uiaTkinc- to be crowned king of Lombardy. <^"'" "^'4 10. The Saxons now extended from Bohemia to the German 220yeaiR. orean, and from the Rhine to the Baltic. They had often been T. What is said of the battle of Tours ? From whom are the succeeding Rinpr? railed the Carlovinwian dynasty ? — !^. What question was submitted by Pepin to the arbitration of tlie pope? What was the decision? Who was tlie last of the Merovingian kinjrs, and what became of him ? What did Pepin give to the pope which made him a temporal sovereign? How Qid Pepin obtain his title to the exarchate of Ravenna? — ?>. Who succeeded Pepin? Give an account of Charles. Who was Desiderius? Relate Charlemagne's invasion of his kir>gd(un, and the result. Where did he next go ? Of what kingdom was he crowned king? «6 202 THE EMPIRE OF CHARLEMAGNE. Middle Jiisf. forced to pay tribute to the monarchs of France, and as often PERi'D III. revolted. Charlemagne made war upon them; but it was no! CHAP. II. till after thirty years of arduous contest, that he reduced them to submission. Witikind, the most valiant and renowned of their chiefs, at length embraced Christianity, and resigned his arms. Charlemagne then obliged the Saxon people, under pe- nalty of death, to receive baptism, fie invaded and conquered the Huns and Sclavonians. He then turned and attacked the From the Saracens of Spain, and annexed to his dominions the territory con?iuMs ^ between the Pyrenees and the Ebro. On his return, as the rear Spain to thi: of his army, loaded with booty, passed Roncesvalles,hi5 nephew, Roland, and many of the knights, were attacked by the Gas- cons, and though brave, they perished in the valley. 11. Until the emperor, Leo the Isaurian, had outraged the feelings of the Catholics by the proscription of image-worship, the Division of authority of the Byzantine court had been acknowledged in andwestYni Rome. GREGORY II., now pope, remonstrated; but finding his churches, efforts for the removal of the edict ineffectual, he excited the people to vindicate what they considered the cause of religion. Rome and Ravenna revolted, and all Italy flew to arms. The statues of the emperors were broken, and at Ravenna, the lis cause- exarch, and many of the Inoclasts, or image-breakers, were massacred ; and thus the eastern and western churches be- came ultimately divided. f 54. 12. LuiTPRAND, the ambitious king of the Lombards, availed Pepin pre- himself of these disorders, took Ravenna, and subdued all the Lombard cities of the exarchate. The Greek emperors recovered Ra- tonqueststo venna, and continued their persecution of image-worship; and whidi i«l the popes not less zealously continued to favor it. Astolphus, g"iftiie of Lombardy, again subdued Ravenna, and threatened Rome. The pope, Stephen III., went in person to the court of Fepin, (.\Seeisthe who, as lias been related, conquered the exarchate, and gave it ove"\vh^tch ^o the See of Rome. Charlemagne, after conquering the Lom- a bishop has bards, affected to confirm the gift of his father to the Holy See, rai juriVdic- adding to it all the cities and islands which had been annexed ''see of'^*^ ^° ^^^ exarchate. Yet, during the life of Charlemagne, these Rome is dominions were dependent upon his power ; and both Ravenna "(Tu'i'v ece^") ^^^^ Rome were numbered in his list of the metropolitan cities of his Great Empire of the West. 10. Where dwelt the Saxons at this period? What had been tneir con- duct towards the kings of France ? How long did it take Charlemagne to subdue them ? What can you relate of Witikind and of the Saxon people ? What nations east of the Saxons did Charlemagne conquer? What south of France? What happened at Roncesvalles ? Look through paragraphs 9 and 10, and show upon the map the countries which Charlemagne had now conquered? — 11. Relate the occasion on which the eastern and west- em ciiUrches divided ? — 12. Who was king of the Lombards, and what was his conduct? Did the Greek emperors aherwards recover the exarchate ? How was it concerning image-worship? What was done by pope Stephen ni., and on what occasion? What waa now given by P(pin? What course was taken by his son f Charlemagne receives from the Caliph the kej's of the Holy Sepulchre. PEllIOD IV. FROM THE CORONATION J- 800. -i OF CHARLEMAGNE, TO THE COMMENCEMENT -{ llOO. -J OF THE CRUSADES, r? 800. ^( TO CHAPTER I. Empire of Charlemagne. 1. At the coronation of Charlemagne, Pope Leo I If., after placing the crown upon his head, sainted him willi the title of emperor of the Romans. He had quelled the barbarous nations of Euro})e, with the exception of the Danes, or Normans', and his kingdom comprised France, Germany, Iialy, and the north of Spain. From the east Irene, the empress of Constantinople, sought his friendship; and even the caliph of Bagdad, the princely Haroun al Raschid, entered into a correspondence with him, and sent him the keys of the holy sepulchre of Jerusalem. Charlemagne, though a barbarian who at first conld not write his name, but " signed his treaties with the hilt of his sword, and enforced them with its point,'" had yet great sym- patliy with learned men. After he was a conqueror, he took as a master in certain sciences, Alc um, an English ecclesiastic, and he founded the university of Paris, the first in Europe. Period IV^. — Chap. I. — 1. When did Charlemagne receive the imperial crown, and from whom ? What nations had he conquered ? What was the extent of his einpire ? What sovereig p of the east honored him? Whai present did he receive from a cahph ? What can be said of Charlentagne 'n regard to science and literature ? PEKl'D IV. CHAP. I. soo. Charle- mil fine crown- «d at Rome. The Ca- liph sends hi PI the kt.yn of the sepul- chre 2 204 RUINOUS FAMILY DISSEJNSIONS. Middle Hist Charlemagne had daughters whom he was careful to have in- structed in the duties of their sex ; and he had two brnve and warlike sons, by whose death his last years were darkened ;— and the invasion of tlie Norman pirates, whom he foresaw would distress his people, it is said, melted him to tears. 2. Louis, surnamed, from his meekness, '' le Debonuaire," was ill qualified to govern the great empire to which, on the louis le death of his father, he succeeded. He early associated his tiiree Mi°e"' sons with himself in the empire. Bernard, son of Pepin, Char- son of lemagne's eldest son, had been previously placed on the ihrone magne" of Italv. He Eow revolted, claiming that as the son of an elder (by a brother, his right to the empire was superior to that of his mar- uncle. Bernard was made prisoner by Louis, and being con- nage.) (jgrnned to the loss of his eyes, he survived only three days. Louis, seized with remorse for his cruelty to his nephew, im- (Hvides peached himself, and requested the clergy to condemn him to his era- penauce ; and they gladly seized this opportunity of humbling ^^^' the civil power at the feet of the ecclesiastical. „. 3. Meanwhile, the birth of a son, Charles the Bald, by a second secoud marriage, made Louis desirous of another division of jutHth ^^^s dominions, which should give this son an inheritance with ofBava- his brothers. Lothaire, his eldest, who was associated with stieaTes bim ill the government of the empire, at first consented to a him to jie^v division. He soon, however, repented, and joined his king- younger brothers, Pepin and Louis, to wdiom had been assign- heTson ^^ ^^^ kingdoms of Aquitaine and Bavaria. The three openly ciiaries rebelled against their father. Pope Gregory IV. joined the Bald) party of Lothaire, who was proclaimed emperor. The father was imprisoned in the monastery of Soissons The nobility, however, soon returned to their allegiance, took Louis from the convent, and restored him to the throne. Lothaire was forgiven by his father, and permitted to retain the kingdom of Italy. On the death of Louis, his sons turned their arms against each other. Pepin, to whom had been assigned Aquitane, was dead, and his possessions had been given by his father to Charles the Bald. Lothaire, however, grasped at the whole empire. His brothers united against him ; and the blood of fiiousands flowed to gratify the ambition and hatred of men, who should hav-e shown to each other only kindness and affection. §41. 4. The civil war was succeeded by a negotiation, in which a Down- new division of the empire was made. Lothaire, with the ini- the em- perial title, was left in possession of Italy, and the north-eastern pire of pj,j.( Qf France, known by the name of ../9usfrasia. To Charles magiie. the Bald were assigned JVeustria and Jlquitaine^ while Lottis 1. How did he have his daughters instructed? What sources of grief had he in his last years? — 2. Give an account of Charlemagne's succes- sor. — 'i. For what purpose did he make a second division of his dominions ? What did his three elder sons? With v/hom did the pope take part, and what followed ? By whom was Louis restored ? How did Louis treat Lo- thaire? What occurred on the death of Louis? — t. How did IiOthair© Louis, and Charles the Bald divide the -mpire among themselves? END OF CHARLEftlAGNE's EMPIRE. 208 retained possession of Germany. Thus fdl the empire of Char- •'^fMh Hist, lemagnc. Divided among his grandsons, and sub-divided among peki'dTv their successors, its several portions became the scene of anarchy, chap, i 6. The Normans, or Danes, took advantage of these dis- *>i^'~^'^^^-' turl Hiiccs, and spread devastation in tlie dominions of Ciiarles tl>e Bald, even to the neighborhood of Paris. Lothaire, the thairc I emperor, in his declining days, divided his dominions between {'!*''<*«• 11 II- 1 • , '"■ «"- his .ions, and sought, by retirement and penance, to expiate the pire. sins of his former life. Ilis eldest son succeeded to the impe- rial honours under the title of Louis IF. 6 Louis OF Germany governed his dominions with consi- derable ability. On his death, they were divided between his _. . three sons. Carloman governed Bavaria; Louis, Saxony; and eion of Charles, Suabia. Louis II., emperor and king of Italy, dying ^"^*" without sons, the Pope espoused the interest of his uncle, Charles the Bald, who now received at his hands the impe- rial crown. In virtue of his authority as emperor, Charles was compelled to cross the Alps for the protection of Italy, which was invaded by the Saracens, and during this expedition he died. 7. The successors of Charles are little worthy of a place in 879. history. His son, Louis the Stammerer, reigned but a few ,/f°"'^j months, and was succeeded by his two sons, Loiis and Car- cario- LOMAN. The death of these princes, while their brother, '"^"' Charles the Simple, was yet a minor, transferred the crown of France to Charles the Fat, son of Louis the German p^^^\ king, who had inherited the possessions of his brothers, and uie Fat. had already obtained the imperial crown. This, under this monarch, was nearly reunited the empire of Charlemagne. His incapacity for governing it was, however, soon apparent. The ^-or- Normans again apppeared, and besieged Paris lor two years, '"ans during which the wonderful exploits of Eudes, Count of Paris, varu'! and of his brother Robert, saved the city. The inefficiency of Charles, who engaged to pay money to the Normans, on ^S.S- condition of their departure, displeased his subjects, and he Cmint was deposed. Charles the Simple, yet a minor, was de- and clared king, and the valiant Eudes held the sovereign authority Charles in trust. The Germans made Arnold, an illegitimate descend- sinipie. ant of Charlemagne, their king. 8. Eudes died 898. With all his valor and ability, he had ^^^' (bund himself unable to heal the disorders of the realm, which feudal the weakness of Charles the Simple increased. The barons p^e^'p".' obtained from him a decree, making their estates and titles he' tuajc. Give some account of the affairs of Germany. What is fiirilicr eaid of Charles the Bald ? — T. Give some account of his successors. Under whom was the empire nearly reunited? Who saved Paris from the incursions of the Normans ? Who was the real sovereign of France while Charles the »*^imple was the nominal one? What account cm you eive of Arnold? — 8. What co' cessions did the barons gain from Charles the Simple » 2<)6 ROLLO, OR DUKE ROBERT. Middle H:sl. PERI'DIV. CHAP. I. 905 The same people, who un- der tlie name of Danes invaded Eng- land, under KoUo, conquer the western pro- vince of France. ®12. Nor- mans em- brace Chris- tianity. Rollo adopts the feu- dal sys- tem, the main features of which are here repeat- ed redltary in their families^ and this is considered the hegmrnng of modern nobility. They ivere also permitted to fortify theiT castles, which Charlemagne had prohibited, but which the attacks of the Normans rendered necessary. In process of time, however, this, with other measures, left the nobles a mere no- minal dependence on the crown ; and they exercised withiij their respective domains, the rights of sovereign princes, and France was filled with the miseries arising from their continual depredations upon each other. 9. The Normans, or Danes, made a new incursion, and spread devastation far and wide, plundering even the churches, and carrying terror and dismay into the remotest parts of the country. The martial spirit seemed wholly to have deserted the sons of the Franks ; and with the most astonishing cow- ardice, they suffered themselves to be plundered, and even butchered by the barbarians. Under the command of their ce- lebrated chief RoLLO, they sailed up the Seine, and made them- selves masters of Rouen, which they fortified. Charles, unable to repel the invaders, ceded to them the province of JVuestria., thereafter called JVormandy, and gave to Rollo his daughter in marriage. The Norman chief was, however, to do homage to Charlej, kneeling and kissing the royal toe. Though willing to acknowledge the supremacy of the king of France, th« haughty Rollo was displeased with the manner. At length il was arranged that one of his officers should perform the cere- mony in his name. His substitute, as unwilling to stoop as his master, under pretence of carrying his majesty's foot to hi? mouth, overturned him in the presence of his court: and Charles!, unable to revenge the insult, submitted to it in silence. 10. The Normans became converts to Christianity, and Rollo was baptized, receiving the name of Robert. He adopted the feudal system, dividing Normandy into large shares among his chief captains, on condition of their doing homage to him, and bringing to the field a stipulated number of followers. These chief officers divided the remainder of the land thus assigned them, each among his own favorites, who were to furnish sol- diers to these chiefs, as they themselves were to the sovereign, who, in Normandy, received the title of duke. This was an improvement upon the course of tilings among barbarians; as it was better that men should settle down and cultivate the soil, feeling that they possessed it, than that they should be wander- ing robbers; and in order that other freebooters sliould not destioy them, as they had the unresisting inhabitants who pre- ceded them, it was necessary to keep up a military organisa- tion. But in the process of time, the feudal system became exceedingly oppressive to the serfs, or villains, as the Ioavcs class were denominated ; and the former inhabitants of the 8. What is this considered to be the beginning of? What wris the con- dition of the kingdom? — 9. Give an account of the invasion rf the A^or- mans or Danes. On what terms did thej cease hostihties? — SO. R.cpeaJ the main features of the feudal system adoptf^l by Rollo ? BEGINMXG OF TIIK GERMAN COXFEDERATIOX, 207 conquered countries were always of this lowest class. Their •"^■'^rf^* ^'><- condition was essentially that of slaves, as they were liable to pertdiv. be sold with the land. They could not, however, be transferred chap. n. but with the soil ; and hence families were not liable to be for- v^'-n^"v-^ cibly disunited. 11. A shadow of royalty alone remained to the degraded 98^. trt dcfcendants of Charlemagne ; many of the nobles possessing Japet*. 5 more resources and greater power than the monarch. Hugh ThoCa- THE Great, son of the duke of Brittany, put up kings, and put ''gu'c-"'' ihsm down at his pleasure. At length his son, Hugh Capet, ,j,"^[|^. in 989, added to the power, tlie title of king of France, and was lovin- the founder of the Capetian dynasty. gians. 12. Five nations, each governed by their own laws, and their F've own dukes, the Franconians, the Saxons, llie Swabians, the nt'tkir," Bavarians, and Lorrainers, composed at this time the German «""•"«■ CovfederalJon. Among their princes vv^ere able men, and they and determined to choose, in a pressing emergency, (the terrible ^^^^^ Huns having invaded them,) one of their own number as their mo- emperor. Assembled in diet at Worms, the electors of these "eiec7 nations conferred upon Conrad, the duke of Franconia, the t'^e. imperial dignity. The reign of Conrad was disquieted by the 911- rebellion of some of the powerful nobles of the empire, and by ^"V^"^ the irruptions of the Huns, who spread themselves over Pan- nonia, which from them received the name of Hungary. From thence they extended their ravages to the Baltic, — passed the Rhine, and desolated France and the northern part of Italy. Germany was, however, the scene of their most destructive inroads. Conrad became weary of the cares of state, and r-e- lommended a rival, who had sought to deprive him of power, as his successor, because he believed his talents fitted him to be „„„ an able sovereign. This was Henry the Fowler, duke of u^nry Saxony. He obtained a decided victory over the Hungarians, the whicli, though it did not efiectualiy subdue their power, yet sue-" freed the Germans from tlieir depredations. He was succeeded cieds by Otho the Great. CHAPTER II. Britain.* 1. The most interesting event which happened during the Heptarchy was the introduction of Christianity. The period of * Raid to have been originally Bruit-tan — Tin-land. lO. Did this tend to equality in the circumstances of men, or what was Its tendency ? — 1 1 . What was the condition of Charlemagrfie's descendants ? What father and son supplanted the Carlovingian monarchs and founded & new dynasty? What was it called? — 12. Explain the condition oi the Germans, and what they now did in reference to the sovereign. Chap. II. — 1. When and by whom was Christianity introduced into England ? Who was th ; first martyr ? a !* 208 ALFRED. Middle Hist. §65. Ragnor Ladbrog a fa- mous sea- king is killed, which causes the sea- kings or Danes to infest Fasi- iand. §71. Alfred the Great. Alfred visits foreign coun- tries. Learns to read of his fa- ther's young queen. this, is generally reckoned to be that of the visit of st. Augus TINE, 596 ; although there had been Christians much earlier. St. Alban, England's first martyr, suffered in tlie persecutions of Diocletian. After much bloodshed, the seven kingdoms which formed the Saxon heptarchy, were united under one monarch, Egbert, king of Wessex. The council of the VVittageinot was composed of about thirty persons, the most powerful in the kingdom, whether lay-men or ecclesiastics; and probably rather hereditary than elective. Their consent was necessary to all laws. Their laws, however, show the barbarity of the times For murder, offenders were fined, and in proportion to the rank of the person murdered. For a king, the sum was very large ; for an earl or bishop about one-fifth as much ; for a serf, less than a hundredth. The tranquillity of Egbert's reign was dis- turbed by the depredations and assaults of some of the most fierce and fearless of barbarians ; who under the names of sea- kinffs, Normans, Northmen, and Danes, ranged in ships, — pirates at sea, and robbers on land. He encountered them in battle ; and though he obtained two successive victories over them, still their ships brought new swarms. 2. Under his successor, Ethelwolf, the nation suffered still more severely from their ravages. Ragnor Ladbrog, a noted sea-king, had been killed in England by Ella, one of the Saxon princes ; and to avenge his death, no. less than to glut their ap- petite for plunder, murder, and rapine, these terrific natives of the peninsula of Jutland, commanded by the sons of Ladbrog, again united their forces to ravage England. They landed in great bodies, plundered and desolated the country, m.ade pri- soners of the inhabitants, and when attacked by the English, re- treated with their booty to their ships. A succession of three weak and inefficient princes, Ethelbald son of Ethelwolf, and Ethelbert and Ethelred his sons, was followed by the reign of Alfred, the younger son of Ethelwolf. 3. In his early youth, Alfred had accompanied his father in a pilgrimage to Rome, and on his return visited Paris •, thus gaining some insight into the characters and situations of other and more civilized nations. At the age of twelve he was igno- rant of the art of reading, an acquisition at that time rare ; but he delighted in hearing Anglo-Saxon songs. One day he dis- covered in the hands of queen Judith, a French princess whom his father had married, a written volume of his favorite poems. She promised him that as soon as he could read the volume, he should possess it. He eagerly applied himself to the task, and soon obtained the valued trophy of his victory At the age of twenty-two he ascended the throne. The Danes were now more formidable than ever. Alfred gained some ad 1 . Who was Egbert ? What did he do in reference to the Saxon Hep- tarchy ? Of what was the council composed ? Give an account of the ter- rible invaders of England. — 2. Under what kings did the" continue theii incursions? — 3. Give some account of Alfred's early years. Of the firp^i years of his reign. BATTLR OF ETHAXDUME. 200 vantages over them, and they stipulated to letire ; but receiving •^f'^'Jic nht reinforcements, tliey violated their treaty. Tlie young prince peri'd iv fought eight battles with them in one j'car; but they swarmed chap- u. upon the coast in greater numbers than before. v-^^'-v ■'^' 4. The Saxons believed then^solves abandoned by heaven, S77. 1 and Alfred sought in vain to rally them, lie then took the Aifrt-.i | habit of a peasant, determining to reserve himself for more fa- tiie ji^- vnraljle times. To make his disguise the more complete, he S"'«« "f laid aside his princely bearing, as well as his regal robes, and sum, m with the dress and language of a rustic, he offered his services ntv' go- to a herdsman, and faithfully tended his cows as they grazed, merset- Once, wlsen l:is mistress liad desired him to watch and turn the cakes at the fire, his mind wandered to other things, and the ^pveais good wife scolded him for permitting the cakes to burn. Yet, to some knowing his fault, he submitted patiently. He was beloved by "Jj',j''^'^j' the honest pair, whom he afterwards gratefully rewarded. At sit him length Oddune, eail of Devon, whose casde the Danes had ^'itJyf' l)esieged, made a sally, and took from them what they supersti- tiously believed to be an enchanted banner. Alfred now seeing visits cause to hope for better days, made himself known to some of "'? his nobles who had in x-eadiness their forces. He then took a camp as bold resolution. Disguised as a wandering minstrel, and bear- gtroi"" ing a harp, he entered the camp of the ])anes-, and while his music entertained them, they unsuspiciously suffered him to oh- j^^g serve their careless security. He also learned that they were eth- about to celebrate a festival. Quitting the hostile camp, he re- if{J^p^ vealed himself publicly to his rejoicing subjects, v.dio b.ad Aiirod thought him dead. They collected from all quarters, attacked *"'u,'p'^ the astonished Danes o\\ the day of tiieir celebration, and Danes, gained an easy, but complete victory. o. Alfred granted the Danes permission to setde in Northum- berland and East Anglia, on conthtion of their being governed by his laws, and embracing Christianity. They were accord- j^ifre.i ingly baptized; and the king himself stood godfadier for Guth- truly UUM their chief. The civil and military institutions of Alfred ol'^n have acquired for him the admiration of posterity. The love . 'he of letters manifested in youth, continued through life; ami, En,r. tliough buidened with the cares of government, and harassed '^"'' 'he with vexatious wars, he yet found time, at the age of thirty- most eight, to study the Latin language, and to write several works ^^"^*" of reputation. He founded the university of Oxford, and he formed a SJjatevi of jurisprudence, which is supposed to he the q«ft fcundalion of English common law. lie establislicd a navy, Alfred" which is considered as the commencement of the greatest naval ^"'|(,_ ] [H)wer the world has ever w^itnessed. In short, it was Alfred 4. (Jivft ail av3ctunt of Alfred's subsequent changes of fortune till the bat- tle of Ethandune. — 5. Where did he pe;-mit tiie Danes to setile, and on what condition ? What did Alfred accomplish to merit the admiration of poste-ity ? Do you find any vioe to counterbalance his accomplishments and virtues ? You have now reaa the history of many sovereigns, have you found this a common case ? 27 210 THE AGE OF SUPERSTITION. JiliddU Hh;t. PERI'D IV, CHAl'. II. O o in 6 9«1. Ed- ward I. 925. £l.hel- stan. Ed- mund I. Edvvy and El^'iva. A tragic story of love blighted by su- persti- tion. Dun- Stan the great author of mon- Ucrv in ring- 's nd who laid the foundation of the British monarchy. Nor do w^ find one act of inhumanity or vice, one habit of indolence or irregularity, to sully the fair fame of his f ublic virtue. Ho had fought fifty-six battles; but his wars were those of defenc3 imd ever unstained by ambition or cruelty. 6. The three immediate successors of Alfred were alle princes, who held the government with a firm hand. These were EowiRi) THE Elder, his son and successor, who built many fortiesso? and subjugated the Danes ; Athelstan, natural son of Ed- ward, loho is much renowned in history for the victories he oh- tai7ied over these and other barbarians by whom the kingdmn icaa assailed ; — and Edmund the Elder, who conquered North- umberland from the Britons and bestowed it on Malcol^i, king of Scotland, on condition that he should do homage to him, and defend the northern frontier from the Danes. The reign of Edred, his brother and successor, is memorable for the esta- blishment of monasteries in England ; and for the influence which DuNSTAjf,* abbot of Glastonbury, possessed over this superstitious monarch. 7. Edred left the throne to Edwy, a prince of seventeen, — ele- gant in his person, and ardent in his affections. The beautiful Elgiva, his second cousin, had captivated his youthful heart, and he married her, contrary to the decree of the church, which forbade marriage between persons of this degree of affinity. Dunstan denounced and insulted him ; and he boldly banished the monk from the realm. But the spirit of fanaticism, — the prevailing spirit of the age, — was on the side of the church. Odo, archbishop of Canterbury, tore Elgiva from her husband, and caused her face to be scarred with a red hot iron, to destroy the beauty which had ensnared the king. The hapless wife es- caped from the cruel hands of her persecutors, and was returnmg to her husband, v/hen they retook the fugitive, murdered her, and dethroned the wretched Edwy •, who, forsaken by his sub- jects, and excommunicated by the reienriess clergy, soon rested from his sorrows in death. 8. Edgar, a boy of thirteen, brother to Edwy, succeeded him ; and Dunstan, who had now returned, took the govern ment in the name of the young prince. This monk set himself against the marriages of the secular clerg)^, and obliged grt-al numbers of them to separate from their families. He was also * This mpnk concealed great ambition under the cloak of sanctity. The ignorance and credulity of those times cannot be better illurtr„ied than by the stories which he made the people believe. In his misernble cell, the devil, atTronted as he said, by his holy mortifications, annoyed him by fre- quent conflicts. At length, he came one day in the shape of a woman. St. Dunstan seized him by the nose with a pair of red-hot pincers. Satan i oare^ »nd bellowed, and after this never dared show his face to the -vaUam monk 6. What were the names and characters of the three immediate successors of Alfred ? (Always in answering such questions, give the names ii\ the order of time.) For what is the reign of Edred memorab'e ? Who was Dunstan ? — T. Relate the history of Edwy and Elgiva. MASSACRE OF THE DANES. 211 tive in endowing monasteries, and thus sluitting up in idle- -Vii/./ic Hisi lujus many men whose services tlie kingdom needed. Edgar, i-eri'div. as he grew to maidiood, saw the didiculty of his situation, and lhaf. ii. in reality proved the master spirit of his kingdom; but his cha- racter presents us greatness without virtue. Flattering the monks, he preserved tl)eir favor; and unrestrained by mora! piinci|)lc, he violated, in the pursuit of pleasure, all laws, human aud divine. He built and supported a powerful navy, which he ^lers*^ divitled into Uiree squadrons, commanding each to make by """- turns, the circuit of his dominions, Uuis keeping the seamen in Tiit"'s practice, and intimidating the Danes. Edgar married for his j^"*^ second wife, Elfrida, die daughter of a nobleman, more cele- brated for her beauty than her virtues.* 0. Edward II., son of Edgar by his first marriage, was raised f}72. by Dunstan to the throne, in opposition to the wishes of Elfri- rdw.iid da, who desired her own son, Ethelred, to receive the crown. MaVtyr. He obtained die surname of the martyr; for the wicked Elfrida ifiS. soon caused him to be murdered; thus securing die crown for ^rcIT'' Ethelred. 10. The Danes, with fresh hopes and recruited strength, again entered England, and the weak monarch gave them money to depart. I^his was both a lure and an acknowledg- ment of weakness; and, as if to add yet another induce- 1I002. ment to the myriads of the northern hive, the weak and cruel '^e'r'e of son of Elfrida gave orders for a general massacre of all the "'« Danes in his dominions; and the order was executed widi the most barbarous inhumanity. Among the number was Ginhm.- DA, sister of Svveyn, the powerful king of Denmark — a Chris- tian princess, married to a nobleman of England. The mother was made to witness the dying agonies of her children, who were put to death before her face ; after which she was herself inhumanly slain. The fierce wrath of Sweyn was enkindled. *5*fi3. (^ He collected a formidable armament, laiuled in the west of Eng- expels land, and carried fire and sword through the land. The timid '^'^^'' Ethelred fled to Robert, duke of Normandy, (whose sister * The fame of her beauty had reached ihe monarch, and he sent Erhe!- wold, his favorite, to see if her charms deserved tlie pr;iise bestowed upon them. Ethelwold, enamored of her himself, falsely told his master that re- port had exaggerated licr beauty — but that she was a rich heiress, and would be a desirable match for himself". Edgar promoted the union. Afterwards, suspecting the treachery, he determined to visit the casile of Ethelwold. The distressed husband confessed to liis wile the fault his passion had led him to conmiit, and besought her to conceal her beauty as nmch as possible. But Elfrida was careful to attire herself in the most becoming manner. The monarch was charmed, slew the husband with his own band and married Elfrida. She who had thus connived at the destru«.iion of her husband, rarried dissension and disaster into the royal family. 'a 8. Give arj account of ihe reign and character of Edgar. What was Diin- SfBH engaged in bringing about ? — M. What was the name and fate of Ed- gar's successor ? — lO. What was done by Ethelred in relation to the Danes ? Give an account of their massacre. Who avenged the death of Gunhilda? To whom did Ethelred flee ? 212 CANUTE. 1042 Edward the Con- fessor, last of the Saxon kinss, de'"- fcendert from rrrdic. Emma he had married for his second wife.* Sweyn died before he had time to establish himself in his conquered do- minions. 11. Ethelred returned to England, but found Canute, the son and successor of Sweyn, a powerful adversary. The death of Ethelred left his eldest son Edmund Ironside to carry on tlje war. Edmund, though brave, was unable to resist the war like Danes, surrounded as he was by the treacherous machi nations of his own subjects. He was defeated in a battle, anu compelled to relinquish a part of his territories. Caimte re- ceived the northern part of the kingdom, while Edmund was left in possession of the south. But this monarch, worthy of a better fate, was assassinated by two of his rebellious subjects in the interest of Canute, who then seized on the dominions oJ Edmund, and became sovereign of the entire kingdom. To strengthen his title he married Emma* the widow of Ethelred. 12. Canute sent back a part of his followers into Denmark, and restored the Saxon laws and customs. After this he return- ed to Denmark, and conquered Sn'cden and JVorwai/ ; when he returned to reside in England. Canute became weary of the flatterers, who pronounced him omnipotent. He ordered his chair placed by the sea shore, and commanded the advancing tide to stop; but it moved onwards and wet his robe — when, turning to his flatterers, he sternly rebuked them. On his death, his sons Harold and Hardicanute successively obtained the crown of England. On the death of the latter the English threw off" the Danish yoke, and recalled Edward, surnamed, on account of his piety, "the Confessor." He was the son of Ethelred and Emma, and had been under the protection of his maternal uncle, the duke of Normandy. The reign of Edward was disturbed by rebellions among his nobility, some of whom openly aspired to the crown. 13. The death of Edward the Confessor, who was th£ last of ttie Saxon kings, left the succession to the English throne open * Emma was a descendant of RoUo ; her father, Richard the Good, of Normandy, beina; Rollo's great grandson. She is remarkable as a con- necting link in ihe English history. She married iwo of the kings of Eng- land, Eihelred, to whom she was the second wife, and by whom she had two sons, Alfred and Edward ; and after his death Canute, by whom she had one son, Hardicanute. Ecimund Ironside was her step-sou, as was the second Harold, so that she was connected as either wife or mother, to six of the kings of England, Ethelred, Edmund, Canute, Harold. Hardica- nute, and Edward the Confesssr. She was aunt to Wilhim the Conqueror, anil his only claim to the crown of England was through her. Thus she forms the connecting link between the Saxon, the DanLsL, and the Nor* man kings of England. lO. Give some account of Emma. (See note.) — 1 5 , Give an account of Canute. — 12. What did Canute in respect to the Saxon customs? What kingdoms did he conquer? .\s Canute was originally king of Denmark, of how many, and what countries was he now the Sijveroign? What inethod did he take to reprove h.s flatterers? \Vho succeeded Canute In the sovereignty of England? ^Vhat was done on the death of Hardica- nute? What was the parentage of Edward the Confessor? Who was hie remote aiccstor 1 Of what dynasty is he the last king ? WiLLlAM THE CriNUUEIlOR. 213 Jo conUMilion. Edgar, purnamed Athei.ing, (the illustrious) a ■^dumeu Bon of Edmunc] Iroii.side, presented his claim, and also VVii.mam, pekio iv DUKR OF Normandy, natural son of duke Uohert, the brother chat. ii. of Emma. Before, however, the question of right was decided, '^-^"'''^'•«-' Uaroli), sen of the powerful Earl Godwin, usurped the sove- \iH*'i- ncipU}-, and obtained the alleoiance of the nation. William of "^"^"''^ " Nomiaiidy, was distinguished for courage, aniI)ition, and niili- .^.. ... . .^ ii!!y skill. His court was thronged by youth of diflerent cjun- ,i,otii.,r'"iis tjio-;, enger for military enterprise. William dutifully applied ^^^}l^^l%( to pope Alexander il.for permission to conquer England. The ataimtr) pope gave linu the country, and sent him his blessing, with a ring coTitaining one of St. Peter's hairs. William no longer hesi- tated, but embarked his army, and landed at Pevensey. Harold was in the north, where he liad just defeated the forces of the king of Norway, who had invaded his kingdom, when he Jl^gj^ learned that the duke of Normandy had landed with a power- fyos. ful army. Elated with his recent victory, he hastened to the con-'" south. Deaf to remonstrances, at Hastings he ventured his q'lprs kingdom, though with an inferior force, upon the success of a land' single battle, — lost it — and with it his crown and life. 14. William proceeded to London. Before he reached the vvn- citj-, he was met by a deputation who odered him the crown, ''("',|!"' accompanied by Edgar Alheling, with the two nol)lemen E.dwin queror and Morcar, who had proclaimed this descendant of the Saxon "'hj'/" line. After six months he revisited Normandy. The rapacity of |''''"" his army produced a revolt. William hastened his return, and si've'io found that the insurrection was headed by the most powerful """^ii'^o- nobles of the realm, aided by the kings of Scotland and Denmark. fie crushed the rebellion, and found pretences to enrich his j'^ Norman followers, bestowing on them the estates of the rebels. tj 15 William introduced the feudal system into England, di- I vidinir the kingdom into !a: presented cl-iirrie to the throne at his death? Who was ac- kiiD-ivlfdircd kinu? F'oi what was VVillinrn distinjriiished ? What species uf |.(*rs(iiis llirontred h's court ? When he invaded f^ngland, at what place diJ lie land ? Where was Harold ? Give an aceount o'the battle of Hast- iii;;S iind i'a resitlt.'j? — !'S. Relate ihe circumstance.* of the early part of his ri'ifrn. — 15. In following out the feudal systenri, whom did William make tlio cliiel' barons? Who became serfs? What measure did he take con- cerning the landed property in England? — 10. Give an acco'"- of the euo- ce.ss..-r8 of William. 21. KENNETH M' ALPINE. PEUI'D IV. CHAP. II. The high- lands of Scotland pevtT con- quered by the Ronmna. i)ividod be • twcen the IMcts and .^cols. In Kenneth is nnitod t!ie eniiiirp of llif' I'Jcts iind Scots. Duncan. Macbeth. S©56. Malcolm. The good qu !en Mar- (taret. Wars betweLii these brothers followed. At length Robers im- bibed the entliusiastic spirit of the crusades; and resolving to devote himself to the holy enterprise, mortgaged Normandy to his brother William, for a sum of money sutFicient to enable him to embark. 17. SCOTLAND. — The ancient Caledonians were never conquered by the Romans, though they employed the arms of some of tlieir most skilful commanders against them. In the tifth century, when the island was abandoned, and the Britons were left to their independence, we find in the nortliern parts, two powerful and distinct tribes ; the Picts and the Scots. The Picts are supposed to be the descendants of the ancient Britons, vv'ho, in tlie Roman conquests, chose to migrate north- ward rather than to submit. They iniiabited the eastern, while the Scols^ supposed to be of the same origin with the northern Irish.) occupied the western coast of the island.* These nations were continually at war with each other, and with die inltabit- ants of South Britain, who at last, unable to withstand their depredations, called in, as we have seen, the aid of the Saxons. These contests of the Picts and Scots v/ere at length closed by the elevation of a prince named Kenneth QIcAlpine, to the throne of both kingdoms, lie uniting the blood of the two royal families of the Picts and the Scots. The country received die name of Scotland. 18. Duncan succeeded to the crown in 1033, but fell by the liand of Macbeth, who usurped his throne. The usurper was soon slain in battle at Dunsinane, by Macduff, an injured noble. Malcolm, the son of Duacan, had taken refuge in England, where he was hospitably received by Edward the Confessor. By the assistance of the Duke of Northumberland, whom Ed- ward sent into Scotland, Malcolm recovered his kingdom. During the remainder of Edward's reign, the two nations were at peace. On the accession of Harold to the English throne, Malcolm favored the insurrection against him. Many of tiie Saxon nobles of England, stung by the mdignities suffered fronn their Norman conquerer, iled to his court. .Among them, were Edgar Atheling, and his sister Margaret, a virtuous, beautiful, and accomplished princess. The monarch of the Scots made her his queen, and she exerted a most happy influence, laboring * The lan^age of this people is called the Celtic, or more reccntlv (he Goelic. The learned are at variance respecting the Celts; some maintuin- iiig them to be the same people as the Guihs, others assigning them a dif- ferent origin. Julina CjBsar found in Gaul, a peo[)le whom he caiiod Celts. Some suppose that Caesar referred to the Belgic Gauls. All, we believe, agree that the oiilj' remains of tins people now discoverable, are found in Ireland and the western part of Great Britain. IT. \Vere the ancient Caledonians ever conquered by the Romans? What two tribes gave demonstra:ions of their power in the ff;') century? What is believed concerning the Picts? \\'hat is snid of the Scots? (Ex- amine the note.) Why is the reign of Kctmeth Mo Alpine memorable?— v8. Whom did Macbeth assassinate? Where, and by whom was Mac- betn slain ? Give an account of his successor. W-ni persms fled to Mal- colm's court ? Giv«^ an account of Marsrarpi OTUO TUii GRKAT. 215 for tlie instruction of the barbarous Scots, and relifiring tlie iJis- -"^^tiJ/t lua tresses of her Saxon countrymen. During tlie reign of William pkri>i) iv Uufus, iMalcolin was frequently engaged in hostilities, and was t^"*''- '"• finally slain in battle. His ciiildren being minors, his brother v.^'-v-'v, Donald Ba.ne usurped tht crown, and Scodand was for some S093 years rmbroiled in civil war ; but at length, Edgaii, the third )l'"n,t. sou of Malcolm and Margaret, obtained the crown. 1038 lidg.vr CHAPTER HI. Germany. 1 After the downfall of Charlemagne's empire, Germany, 936. from the cliaracter of its sovereigns, took the lead in the poli- ,f*'*'" '• lies of Europe. Otiio the Great succeeded his distinguished 'iiis dig- fathcr, Henry the Fowler. Tlie powerful nobles of his king- ",o'},7g'^. (lorn openly aspired to independence, but he obliged tlieni, by extends j tlie force of his arms, and the superiority of his genius, to submit, power He balanced their power by conferring upon the clergy the "ver rights of temporal princes. Bohemia he rendered tributary to ^nja a*"!!*! I Germany, compelling the inhabitants to embrace Christianity. Hungii- He encountered tlie warlike Hungarians near Augsburgh, and was victorious. He invaded Fiance and Denmark, and where- ever he went, he made the will of others bend to his own. 2. Since the extinction of the empire of Charlemagne, Italy ^p"* had been governed by native princes, engaged in frequent hos- gfii. tilities with each other, and the realm was divided by powerful Kings of factions. Of these princes, perhaps Bere-nger I., v/ho. from Beren- duke of Friuli, became king of Italy, is best known. The aid K"y^J^- of Otho was now implored against Bere.vger H., who had ger ii. rendered himself odious by his tyranny. Otho marched into Italy, subdued Berenger; made himself master of his kingdom, deposed the licentious pope, .loii.v XH., who favored Berenger, and placed Leo VIII. in the papal chair. Otho determinhig to set the civil above the ecclesiastical power, revived a q'Jj^*^ claim that he and his successors should have the poicer of unites naming the pope^ and giving investiture to bishops. On the ^^l ^.p" ,-elurn of Olho to Germany, his Italian subjects again revolted, P'-'c- tind on the death of Leo, contested the right of the emperor to ut)nunate his successor. His arms, however, again compelled 18. Who are tlie &i)r-cessors of Malcolm ? Chap. HI. — I. On what account did Germany take the lead in politics? From wliat able monarch did Olho the great descend? What actions showed the force of Oiho's character ? What nations did he 8uc:;esst'ully contend with ? — 2. What occurred in Italy after the fall of Charle/nagne'e empire ? What pretext had Otho for invading Italy ? What did he effect in Italy ? What claim did he set up ? iw 9 \J GERMAN r. JSiddlc Hist. Otho II. Three popes at . the j same time. 9§3. Otho III. 1©03 Henry II. 1024 Conrad II. ao39 Henry HI. mm ~ i [Jcnry } Warol the in- I vesti- > :urea. submission, after which his reigii was tranquil. Ha was the most powerful monarch of his time. 3. Oiho I. was succeeded by his son, Otho II , who during the life of his father had been elected his successor. By a mar- riage with Theophana, daughter of the eastern en.peror, he ob- tained a claim to the Grecian provinces of Italy. During his reign, the most disorderly and turbulent proceedings were wit' nessed at Rome, where at one time three several popes were elected, each anathematising and excommunicating the others. 4. Otho III., although a minor at the time of his father's death, had by his influence been elected to succeed him. The Italians rebelled, and under Crescejsttius, a Roman, who took the title of consul, an attempt was made to re-establish the re- public. But the degenerate Romans had no longer the virtue to remain free, even if a leader of talents had been at their head. Otho, when he became of age, soon quieted the disturbances made by the party of Crescentius, and restored pope Gregorv whom they had deposed. This emperor defeated the Danes, and entered into an alliance with Eric, (who then swayed the sceptre of Sweden, Noru^ay, and Denmark,) obtaining permis- sion for Christian missionaries to enter his kingdom. Olho ex- pelled the Saracens from the south of Italy^ u-here they had made^ for forty years^ deslructive ravages. He dying without heirs., several claimants of the imperial crown appeared. 5. Hexry II., grandson of Otho II., obtained the election. His reign is marked by no important event. It is said, that dis- gusted with the world, he desired to retire to a convent, and as- sumed the monastic habit. The abbot received him as a bro- ther, but remarked, '• Monks owe obedience to their superiors. i order 3'ou to continue at the helm of government." Henrj- obeyed his superior, and reassumed his crown. At his deatli an assembly of princes, after six weeks deliberation, elected as his successor, CoxRAD I!., surnained the Salic, duke of Franconia. During his reign, the kingdom of Burgundy was annexed to the German empire. 6. He was succeeded by his son, He.vry III., who found Itim.self engaged, at the commencem.ent of his reign, in wars with the Flungarians, the Bohemians, and the Poles who had now become a nation; iu all of which, success followed hi? arms. Henry extended the prerogatives of die crown, and exer- cised a more absolute power than any former German monarch. His nobles murmured, and after his death their enmity descended to his son and successor, Henry IV., and was manifested in the course of the war with the popes, called the rear of the investitures. The former Roman emperors had exercised the power of nominating bishops and abbots, and of giving them 3. Give an account of his successor. What was the state of the pope- dom ? — 4-. Who was Crescentius? Eric? What is here said of the Sara- cens? What actions were performed by Otho III. ? — 5. What can you say of Henry II. ? \Vhat kingdom v^s annexed to Germany by Conrad tho Ralic ? — 6. What account can you give of Henry HI. ? HII.DFBUANU. 217 inve'^liture uy the ring and crosier. Oilio the Great, and his •^'' ^'^ ^"' ; tutcessors, had claimed this power. Pope Alexander II. had peri'U iv published a decree during the life of Henry 111., lorbidding this cuap. hi. nivestiture, and the doctrine was now maintained, that as the ^-.^n'"^-^ spiritual power was superior to the temporal, the bishops and HbbDts received their authority from God, and not from the em peror; bin, on the contrary, that the emperor was to hold his investiture of the pope, and his authority under him. 7 The famous Hildebrand, with the title of Gregokv Vll., uj^g. -. was aow in the |)apal chair. He dispatched a legate to the brand Geri.aan emperor, forbidding him to exercise the rights of inves- p,^w'e"l | liture. Henry treated liis messenger with contempt, convoked f"''"'"<^ an assembly of his prmces and ecclesiastics, and declared popes. Gregory a usurper of the papacy. Gregory, luUy aware of ^^J^'^** ihe disafiection of the German nobles, pronounced a sentence claims of excommunication against Henry, absolving his subjects from ""^dol their allegiance, and depriving him of his imperial authority. lumion. The German nobles, thus encouraged, revolted, and the German clergy, who had just before declared Gregory an usurper, now espoused his cause. 8. Henry, surrounded with dangers, saw no safety but in ap- peasing tlie wrath of the pope. With this view, he passed the 1076. Alps, und accompanied by only a few domestics, proceeded to Riean- Canosa, vviiere Gregory then was, and presented himself as a ^i^^iy, penitent at the gates of the fortress. The monarch was only and ar- admitted within the outer court. There, wrapped in sackcloth, severity wiih his feet bare, he was detained three days in the month of "f tiio January, before the haughty pontiff would admit him to his pre- sence. The penance of Henry, and his promise to submit in all things, at length procured him absolution. 9. The reconciliation, however, was short; the arrogance of uepTy's the pope had alienated the minds of the Italian princes, and a eecond strong party was formed in Henry's favor. He renewed the witiithc war, but wliile engaged with the Italians against the pope, his y^^^e- German subjects revolted. A second excommunication was wolf- thundered ^.e'-'nst him by Gregory, who again deposed him, ^^f'/r'^^ and declared Kodolph, duke of Swabia, emperor. Henry, aug- rhipia. mented his party in Germany, and convening a few bishops who ^['f'^ll^ adhered to him, he degraded Gregory ami appointed another Ro- pope. He defeated and slew Rodolph, when his followers dis- (^"lois I pcrsed. Henry then returned to Italy, laid siege to Rome, and '|^'"^^, ' continued 't for two years, when at length the city was carried lancuof ' by assault. Gregory escaped, but shortly alter died. Henry ^,!'g'^'°}' j procured the consecration of Cleme.nt HI. After the emperor's ;..-./ j G. What was the point in dispute between tho popes and emperors re- spcclino investiture, or investing wiih aii'hoiiiy ? Wlio was Henry I V. ? — T. What pope was his opponent ? What cnuree did he pursue towards Henry ? How did Henry retaliate ? How did ilie German noldes now conduct? — 8. Ilelate tiie abject submission of Henry, and the conduct of the pope. — !). ^\'hom in this contest did the Italians favor? Whom did the Germans ? By wnat parties ivas the battle of Wolishcim fought, and what uere iis resuhs ? 28 218 RISE OF THE ITALIAN REPUBLICS. PERI'D IV. CHAP. III. Italy divided and desolated. 936. Otiio the Great haijed as a deli- verer, fixes tbe German sovereignty. Hist; of the Italian ■ritles, which become the Italian re- (lublics. reiuri. to Germany, his enemies deposed Clement, and elected Victor, whose early death made way for Urb^n II. lie re- newed the war of the investitures, and embroiled Heiiry in a quarrel with his son, Conrad, This brings the history of Ger- many to the period when the council of Clermont decided upon the first crusade. 10. ITALY. — When on the death of Charles the Fat, the empire of the west passed from the Carlovingian family, the go- vernment of Italy was usurped by the principal nobles. Of these, the dukes of Spoletto and Tuscany, and the Marquises of Pavia, Susa and Friuli, were the most powerful. The great duchy of Benevento, had been divided into the principalities of Benevento, Salerno and Capua. Apulia and Calabria were still subject to the emperor of thi east, JVaples and Jlmalfi loere re- publics, under the protection of the Grecian empire. Rome was subject to the pope. For seventy years the sovereignty of Italy, though little more than a name, was the subject of contest be- tween the most ambitious and powerful nobles. The northern parts were desolated by the Hungarians, while the southern coasts were subject to the inroads of the Saracens, who had made themselves masters of Sicily. 11. It was at this time that the assistance of Otho the Great was sought. He marched into Italy, and received, at Milan, the iron crown of the Lombards, and at Rome, from the pope, the golden crown of the empire ; thus reviving in his person, the title of emperor of the Romans, which had been extinct for forty years. Otho, and his immediate successors, exercised the pre- rogatives with which the emperors of the west had formerly been endowed. TKey repeatedly marched into Italy at the head of armies, received the homage of the Italian states, exacted their rents, and promulgated their laws. The tie which bound Itah to the German empire was, however, growing weak. The dis- tance of the emperor prevented the continued and energetic ex- ercise of the imperial prerogative, and a spirit of freedom was enkindled. 12. The dangers with which the cities were surrounded, compelled the inhabitants to provide for their own defence, and by permission they rebuilt their walls. The protection they thus afforded, drew multitudes of the country people within them. Their population and wealth rapidly increased. Obe- dience to the dukes, counts, or marquises, was thrown off, anJ the people of the cities elected their ovm magistrates The war of tlie investitures, in which the cities engaged, part of them on the side of the emperor, part on thai; of the pope, showed these little communities their importance, and contributed to diffuse n republican spirit. In Lombardy, Milan was the most import- ant of these independent governments. There existed at this lO. Describe the condiiion of lialy? — 11. What crowns did Otho tlie Great receive? What occurred after his death? — 12. Desciibe the man- ner of ths growth of the Itahan cities ? Of their becoming rep ublics t Whdl five are here mentioned ? TUB BROTHERS ROBERT AND ROGER. 210 porioil, still older republics, which had arisei from the ruins of the Grecian possessions — Venice, Ravenna,, Genoa, and Pisa. 13. When Altila drove from their homes the inhabitants of Av'iuileia and Padua, they found a refuge on some islands in the Adriatic, where they built and settled, calling their city Kialto. It gradually increased in population, and was subject to the By- zantine empire, till the tenth century. It then became commer- cial and independent, and conquered the adjoining territories called Venelia, Istrm and Dahniilia. 14. Early in the eleventh century, Ike jyonunns were em- ployed by a prince of Salerno, against the Saracens, who had invaded his territories. Fresh adventurers from the north flocked into Italy, where they founded the small ciiy of A versa near Capua. A ditliculty respecting their j)ay. at lengtli pro- duced a war between the N ornians, and their employers. They invaded Apulia, which they soon subdued. Alter the conquest of the Grecian possessions of Italy, the republics of jYaji/cs and Jhnalfi, fell beibre the invaders, "^he sovereignly of .rpulia was conferred upon Robert Guiscard, one of the renowned brothers, sons of Tancred, lord of Hautcville, in Normandy. 15. The pope, Leo IX., formed a league with the emperor of Constantinople against the Normans, and Leo marclied in person against Robert, but was defeated and taken prisoner. The de- votion of the Normans dictated the most honorable treatment to the head of the church, and the warriors knelt to implore his forgiveness for arming in their own defence. The pope granted them absolution, and conferred upon them the sovereignty of the country they had conquered, which they now held as a fief of tlie holy see. Roger, tiie brother of Robert Guiscard, conquered the Saracens of Sicily, and made himself master of (he island. Robert next directed his views towards the eastern empire. At the head of his Normans he advanced into Epirus, took tlie city of Durazzo, and obtained a complete victory over the army of the Greek emperor, Alexius Comxenus. His successes in Greece, however, were of no permanent advantage. Robert was recalled to Italy by the revolt of some of the cities of Apulia. In the war of the investitures, he afforded powerful aid to pope Gregory VII., and at length gave him an asylum when driven from Rome. Middlt Hsu. 452. Venice founiifd 1060. The Nor- mans caUeil in to aid acaiiisi the Saracens, take the country themselves Robert eiimameil Guiscard. (or the cuiininir,) makes thil pope prir^oncr. 1060 to 1090. Royer con^ quers SicU; Robert makes war upon Alexius Coninenus. 10S2. DUH^ZZC Robert affords aia to Gre- gor>' VII. 13. V^'hen and how was Venice founded? — 14. Describ* the rise of the fiingdoni of Naples? — !•>. What league was formed against 'he Normans? Which of the sons of Tancred of Normandy canquered Sicil" ? What \Yar was afterwards made by Rol^ert Guiscard ? CHAPTER IV. France, Spain Russia, Greek Empire, &c. Xi££eHist. ]. FRANCE. — The princes of the Carlovingian tamily liad PEuro IV. become so msigniiicaut, and tlie ties which bound the n uiou cu\p IV. to its monarch were so slight, that the accession of Hugh *«<-' Capet, the founder of the new dynasl\-, was hardly considerod fTheCa- as an usurpation, and was attended wuh no disorder. After a I Bh,'nas- reign of eight years, Hugh transmitted the sovereignty to his ! ^^.^ son, Roi?ERT, whom lie had already associated with himself in I *Hi,ch 1^^6 government. Robert was undisturbed bv foreign foes, but I Capet, the discipline by which the papal power Inimbled and subjugated Robert l^i"g"s- blasted his domestic happiness, tie had married Bertha, (Owing sister o( Rooolph, king of Burgundy, his cousin in Uie fourth twdbfe degree, whUe tlie prohibidon of the church extended to the se- power venth-, and Gregory V. ordered the dissolution of the marriage, coinmu- under pain of excommunication. The king ventured to disregard nication ^[^g thuuders of the \'atican,* aimed not onlv at him, but against ser- all tliose who had abetted the offence. The bishops who had wouut sanctioned the marriage were suspended. Robert soon expe- not rienced how terrific the power of excommunication had become, anvar- His courtiei'S and servants abandoned him. Two domestics ticie were all who dared remain, and even these ptirilied by lire the had vessels used by the unfortunate prince, and threw die remaining been in j^qJ ^^^ jj^g dogs. The v.'eak monarch, instead of arousing to witiithe her defence, at length repudiated his blameless wife, quoen^) ~- Hei\ry, his SOU and successor, being disturbed by do- mestic conspiracies, sought aid of Robert, duke of Norman- 1031. t^Vi ^^dio re-established him upon the throne. In reward for this Henry I. service, Henry added to his duchy Cliaumont, Pontcvse, and odier places which belonged to the croM-n. He was succeeded ?060. by his son Philip I., only eight years of age. During his rhiJip I. niinority the regency was committed to dte pious and digniiied Baldwin, earl of Flanders, wdro preserved die peace of the nation by being always ready for war, Philip was on the throne of France, at the time when the council of Clermoni decided on the first crusade. 3. SPAIN. — it M-ill be recollected that after the conquest of Spain by tlie Saracens and ftloors, some of the Christian inha- bitants fled to the mountains of the nordi, wliere they founded * The palace of ihe popes of Rome is called the Vatican. The decrees which the pope sent forih had become, from his great power, so t-rrib.o that they .vcrc expressively called " the thunders of the Vatican." Chap. IV. — 1. What may be said of the accession of the Dynasty of Capet in the room of the Carlovingian ? Under what circumstances had hig successor contracted marriasre ? ^Vhat was the consequence of Ins excom- munication? — 2. What account can yon give of his successors ? — 'i. Wttat country nf Spain had "ot been conquered by the Moort ? 220 ASTLMUAS THR GKR.M OP CIIillSllAX SPAIN. 221 ihe kingdom of .Balurias. From this mountainous domain, Midd le iiui. whose very insignificance proved its Sf^curily, sprung other pkiu'd iv. kingdoms, which eventually subdued the Mahomet^m power on ciiAi-. iv. llie peninsula. The descendants of the powerful Ahderrliaman ^^'"v-n-^ l:rid undermined their own strength hy their frequent dissen- Tho ki.ig- f-.'on-i; and about the commencement of the eleventh century his turia«oriihc (iinaiv became extinct; and the kingdom of Coidova was divided ""^the^n i.l<* separate provmces, cr petty kmgdoms, over which the provcB tho principal nobles assumed t.ie sovereignty. The Christian do- ri^,^i^',aff, minions in Spain had, at this time, become enlarged by en- Hpain crourhmenls upon tiie Saracens, and the kingdoms of Leon, Caslile,JYavarre, and Arragon had each its respective monarch. 4. Sancho hi., «^r the Great, united in his person the sove- Sanchoth* reignty of Navarre and Arragon; and his son Feki;i.\and made lOOO. himself master of ('astile and Leon, so that the whole of Chris- tian Spain was, in 1035, under the government of one family. Aiphonoo Ai.puo.Nso VI., the successor of Ferdinand, recovered the city ^''; of Toledo. The wars between the Christians and Moors, in *"*»**• this century, are memorable for the display of valor and chi- valry. Do.v RoDERiGO DiAS DK BiVAR, Called the Cid, (the chief) was the most eminent of the Spanish knights, whose :»xploits have descemled to posterity glowing with all the ro- ^^^ ^' ' nance of the ago. •5. I'lUSSIA. — It was during this period that we first meet in eih centuiy history, the name of Russians, in the ninth century they ap- nrs" knowt peared at Constantinople as traders, and exchanged their slaves, '» h''*i'>ri'- furs, honey, and the hides of their cattle, for the corn, wine, oil, manufactures and spices of Greece. The luxury and splendour of Constantinople excited the desires of the barbarians, and piratical expeditions were commenced. Their vessels, descend- ing the Borysthenes, penetrated the Euxine, and spread desola- tion through the province of Anatolia. At length the adventu- rous Russians menaced Constantinople. In their first enterprise, ulrZH'Hii they entered the port during the absence of the emperor. Mi- Constami- chael. A tempest destroyed their ships, and compelled them "">'*-• to retreat. 6. Afterwards Nicephorus, emperor of Constantinople, in- Buieari* sligated Swatoslaus, prince of tlie Russians, to undertake the conquered concp.iest of the liulgarians. The Russian prince having acliieved ^ iians."" this, soon gave indication of his dangerous vicinity. At the head of his barbarians he invaded the empire, and Nicephorus found himself unable to cope with the enemy he had brought Russianein upon his dominions. His successor, John Zimisces, was more /■"'«*'"' /• 1 ri 1 • 1 I • Greek em Huccessiul. lie obtained repeated victories over the Russians, pirc. dro\e them out of the empire, and pursued Swdtoslaus to Dritza, 3. What sprung from it? What was the coridition of the Saracens of Spain? What four Christian kingdoms had arisen? — 1. Which of them did Sancho the Great govern? Which his son ? Who is ihe most noted of the Spanish knights? — !i. Give an account of the Russians in their first mvasion of the Greek empire ? — O. What waa done by the Rucsians under Swatoslaus? 222 ALEXIUS COMNEKUS. Middle Hut. PERI'D IV. CHAP. IV, 963. Phocas. 969. Zimis- ces. 5; 1059. Isaac. Alexius 10S2. DU- RJiT.. ZO. llohen Guis- card lefeats llcKius a jjost on the Danube to whicli he had retreated. Here he b& sieged him, and compelled him and the remnant of hi.s IblloW' eis, to return to their nation. 7. Or.GA, the mother of Swatoslaus, was a prim:ess of un- common character. She bad early embraced Christianity, and received baptism from tlie patriarch of Constantinople. Iler zealous efforts to Christianize her barbarous subjects had, )iow- ever, proved ineffectual; even her son having rigidly adlierecl to the ancient religion. Yet the example and inliueuce of Olgp were not without effect. Her grandson Vlodomir, on his mar- riage with A^"XA, a princess of Constantinople, renounced ido- latry, and embraced the Christian faith. Her efforts to civilize her subjects, evinced a mind far in advance of the age in which she lived, and Vlodomir pursued the course marked out by her superior wisdom. 8. THE GREEK EMPIRE.— Basil, the Macedomax, wa? the founder of a new dynasty. He restored in some measure the falling honor of the empire, and rendered it again formidable to the barbarians and the Saracens. The reigns also of Nicefho- Rus Phocas, and of his successor, John Zimisces, are signalized by their military spirrt. John Zimisces conquered the Russians penetrated Syria, and not only recovered Antioch from the Saracens, but passed the Euphrates, and made himself maste? of many Saracen cities. After these successes, the empire again sunk into insignificance, under the government of weak and effeminate princes. Jn the reign of Michael VI., the last of the Macedonian race, die Greeks awoke to a sense of their degra- dation, and invested Isaac Comxexus with the imperial purple. The Comneni were an dlustrious family of Roman origin. Isaac, who was first raised to the imperial dignity, enjoyed his elevation but two years, when his declining healtli induced him to abdicate. 9. Alexius Comnexus, who succeeded him, filled the By- zantine throne at the time of the first crusade. Dangers sur- rounded the empire on every side. The provinces of the east had been conquered by the Turks, while the Greek possessions in Italy had been usurped by the Normans, who were advancing to Constantinople. Alexius found himself without soldiers, and with an exhausted ti-easury; yet compelled to maintain a con- test with powerful enemies. He made the best preparations in his power, assembled an army, and marched into Epirus, to • meet the Normans, who, under Robert Guiscard, had laid siege to Durazzo. Alexius was defeated; yet, amid all his calamities, he sustained himself with dignity, as is shown in the exrrllcnt 7. Give some account of Olga. — S. What dynasty acceded to tbe do- minion of the Eastern empire in Sfi? ? Give an account of the foundei". What three reisrns (the two first not consecutive,) are signahzed by energy and military talent ? What conquests were made by the last of the three t What after this became the condition of the empire ? V/hai change of dy ntsetics occurred ?— 9. Give an account of the second of the Gotnneai Who invaded his emoire ? W'hat battle was fouaht J IS DECLINE ^iXD F.\LL OF THE CALIPHATE. 223 history of the times, written by his daughter, \.n.\a C'omne.va, •''^''^fe Hisi. the best writer of that age, and the most renowned of female i>eri*I) iv. historians. The conquests of the Normans were stayed by the ciiat. iv. return of Robert to Italy, where, having restored tranquillity, ^-^^^^^^^ he resumed his eastern enterprise Alexius had improved hisC^'^'''^'"^*^'^' naval force, and now disputed with the Norman chiei" the ilo- xu^ms with minion of the sea. Three engagements tooii jilace near the "if^ana.V i^ltind of Corfu; the third resulting in a victory o( the Nor- jiians. Bui the death of Robert relieved the empire from its most formidable enemy. 10. EMPIRE OF THE CALIPHS.— Haroun al Pxascliid SO?. (Aaron the Just) was ihe sixth of the Abassides. His empire munai was more extensive, his power more absolute, and liis court R''»- more splendid, than that of any other monarch of his age. IVhile literature graced his luxurious capital, his victorious arms „ .„ spread terror through the wesL But he was killed in quelling Haroun a rebellion in Khorasan. The succession was disputed be- "' f^"«- tween his sons, and a civil war ended in the elevation of the killed in youngest, Al Mamox, who was even more distinguished ^han '^f^^^fi his fiither for patronage of arts and letters. In his rrigii lion in volumes of Grecian science were translated into the Arabic '^ha"" language, and every facility and encouragement afforded to the study of the sciences, fk conquered Sicily and Crete. \ S 11. But even in that magnificent reign, the decline of the em- I | pire had begun. Motassem, tlie successor of Al 3Iamon, es- i j« lubJis/tcd a guard of 50,000 Turks for the security of his t^,||jj,,, I t throne ; these soon, like the prffitorians of Rome, assassinated guards t^ and elevated sovereigns ot pleasure. At length their chief was xhlV^^- ' ^ called " Emir al Omrah," " Commander of Commanders," and lac.:, ruled in the palace as the mayors had in France. The caliph came to be considered merely as the chief ecclesiastical officer. ^^''|^.": Spain, as we have seen, had revolted, and placed tlie last of the 300.000 Ommiyades, Abdalrahman, upon the throne of Cordova., and anTits even his descendants had passed away, and his kingdom been toiin rent into fragments. Fez was built and made the capital of a ^''nmst^*^ petty kingdom. Three dynasties had arisen in Africa in the ppip'i, Q i®74. 5? '5! Malek Shah. ^ £i O ^ hj 1^ Soli- man. E^ ^ (< tm&. Jerusa- lem taken by the Turks. an ancient Scythian empire, but it had long been dissolved, and now powerful and independent tribes were widely scattered throughout the interior of Asia. Slaves and soldiers of Turkish ex- traction, were in the service of every monarch of Asia. The prin- cipality of Ghazni, in Khorasan, was founded by Alp Teguj. who rose from the condition of a slave. The most distinguished sovereign of the Ghaznevide dynasty, was Mahmojd. He was the patron of scienco, which now centred rather at Ghazni than at Bagdad. Avigenna, "the prince of Arabian philosophers and physicians," flourished during his reign. This great genius, at the age of twenty-one, undertook the first Encyclopedia which was ever compiled, and carried out his plan in twenty volumes, entitling his work " The Utility of Utilities." Besides this, he wrote seventeen other works, translations of which were the only books on mathematics and physics in use In uie schools of Eu- rope in the twelfth century. Mahmoud added Transoxania and Persia to his dominions, and extended his conquests to Hindos- tan. He conquered the cities ol' Delhj, Lahore, and Mul.an, thus extending to the remote east the religion of the Moslems, which the Turks had embraced. The caliph of Bagdad conferred on him the title of sultan of Ghazni, and his auihorUy was acknoiv- hdged from the Caspian to the Indus. 13. Tagrul Beg, a valiant Turk of the family of Seljouk of Samarcand, was the founder of the Seljoukian dynasty. He passed the Jihon, defeated Masoud, then sultan of Ghazni, and received from the caliph of Bagdad the title of sultan. He delivered the caliph from the oppression of the Turkisn and Arabian emirs, and restored to him the city and district of Bagdad. Malek Shah, the second prince from Tagrul, was one of the most powerful conquerors of his age. He extended his dominions from the borders of China t-o the neighbourhood of Constantinople. The reign of Malek was peaceful and pros- perous, and through his liberality, the literature of the east re- vived. On his death, the empire iims divided among his sons ; the Persian kingdom., as that to which the others were in some measure subordinate, being given to the eldest. Solima]v, of the family of Seljouk, was a renowned and powerful sovereign. His interference was felt in the affairs of the Greek empire, as we find him establishing one of the emperors upon the throne. Under this valiant Turk, Jerusalem^ Aniioch, and at length all Asia Minor rvas subdued. Alexius, emperor of Constantino- ple, trembled for the safety of his empire, now also threatened by the Normans. He was forced to comply with the demands of the Turks, and confirm by treaty the conquests of Soliman. 13. Who was the founder of the dynasty of the Ghaznevides? What and where was his capital ? Give an account of the most distinguished of the Ghaznevides. Give an account of Avicenna. What dynasty supplantr.-^ the Ghaznevides ? — 13. Give an account of Tagrul Beg — Of Malek Shah-- Of Soliman. Notice particularly what cities he took, and how far he oj; tended the Turkish dominions. Preaching of Peter the Hermit. PERIOD V. THE COMMENCEMENT > IIOO. < OF T!!E CRUSADES TO THE DISCOVERY > 1492. < OF AMERICA. CHAPTER 1. Pilgrimages. — Chivalry. — Tlie Crusades. I. As the spiritual worship of the early Christian? was ex- changed for the frivolous rites and idle ceremonies of later days, the possession of relics, and pilgrimages made to holy places, became objects of eager desire, and substitutes for personal piety. Of all pilgrimages, that to the holy sepulchre of Jerusa- lem was the most frequentl}- made, and considered the most meritorious, ft was performed by midtitudes of devotees from every part of Europe. After the holy city fell into the hands of the Saracens, these pilgrimages, though attended vvith more difficulty and danger, were still continued. The caliph Ilaroun al Raschid afforded protection to the Christian pilgrims, even presenting to Charlemagne the keys of the holy sepulchre. His successors, the Abassides, pursued, as we have .seen, the same tolerant system. But when the Fatimites of Africa obtained possession of Palestine and Syria, the pilgrims suffered from (hem sevvvR persecution. Under the reign of Hakem. the third calipli of the Fatimite race, Christian churches were aemolished, PERIOD V. CHAP. I. Pilgrimages to the Iloi) Sepiilchrt'. The Ahassi- des protect tlie pilgt'tiis The Fail- niites p<*^ ever. Policy might dictate this course, as the treasury of the caliphs was replenished by the tribute which procured the pro- tection of the devotees. 2. Two years preceding the first crusade, pilgrimages had in- creased to an unparalleled extent, and multitudes of every age, and rank, and sex, thronged the roads to Jerusalem. The holy r-)C) Turks land now came into possession of the Turkish hordes; and the 's'Ji'racens* pilgrims, who with toil and suffering had pressed their way Slid become from the most distant parts of Christendom, often found them- the Uoiy selves on their arrival at the holy city, debarred from entrance, Land. ^y Jemands which they were unable to meet, and thus deprived of the object for which their sufferings had been endured. Mul- Thcpiigrims iJ^^des perished by want, and of the thousands who directed in distress, their enthusiastic way to Asia, few returned to their homes. 3. These brought accounts of their injuries to their brethreii in Europe. If in our days such devotees had existed, and had uttered complaints, the calm of society would not have been broken. The effects then produced, show how powerfully re- ligious faith animated the mass ; and not more remarkable is the stupidity with which the people rejected the Savior, with all his mighty works, than the zeal with which they were now ready rejecrthe to sacrifice every thing to rescue his sepulchre. Yet had this, Savior, and (Jeep feelinsj existed in the minds of the Christian comma- fight for his . r , " , , , . . , . , , , , sepulchre, nity one hundred years earlier, its dictates could not have beeii carried into action. But in the meantime, a spirit had been pro- duced, and an institution had arisen which while it was ini- bued with the superstition of the times, was yet more honor- able to man, than any other merely human. This was the spirit of chivalry and the institution of knighthood^ which, connected with Christianity, laid the foundation of a new, and eventually a better order of things. CHIVALRY 4. Chivalry arose in Normandy, in the eleventh century arose in There the home-born oppressions of the castled barons was se- ^°"?v"*r^^ verely felt. Those petty princes were leading their followers to eieveu'ih perpetual wars, and outrage and licentiousness filled the land* oo.iii'jiv ^vhile no government existed which could protect the weak against the strong. Then the spirit of virtuous indignation against oppression — of deep faith in Christianity, and of newly awakened admiration of the female sex, induced a band of noble minded young men to dedicate themselves in the fear of Goil to riglit the wrongs which existed around them. The priest 3. What is said of the acquisitions of the Turks ? How did they treat the pilgrims i — Jt. Suppose in our day such complaints had been made ? What do we find then remarkable in the spirit of those times? Could that spirit have been earned into action much earlier? What spirit and what institu tion had arisen ? — -4. When and where did it arise ? NVhat oppressions gave rise to it? What was the -pirit of chivalry ? 'I'o what did the knights de vote themselves ' A RETT K II STYLE OF MlCS AND AVO.MF.N 221 fiooJ sanctioned these resolutions, and the order of knighthood J^ii'J-i^t msi. began. period v Ct. Kacn nieinl)er of tlie order possessed the power to confei chap. i. ii.on such candidates as had proved themselves worthy by vii- Vi««^~^'"^w tuou? deeds and valorous exploits ; and knighthood soon be- t-anie an honor to which kings and princes aspired. A conscious loflir.ess of purpose, and a tirm persuasion of llie protection of heaven, bore the kniglits almost above humanity. 'J'hey ne- dected nothing which could increase and preserve their physi- ^j^^gg great cal powers. They inured themselves from early youth to in- care lo poH. credible labors and privations, which made them strong and b?jd^y^arw"f hardy; and for self-preservation ai^ainst tlie arms in use, they as a sound cased their persons in steel armor, so heavy tliat a man of mo- derate strengtii at this day could scarcely lift its weight. The ^var-horse wliich bore him to battle, was cared for by the cham- ^ ^,em^e^o' pion, as a mother cares for her child. The true knight pos- "tJodand ' , , !• ■ £• . 1 1 1 I the laJies.' sessed the penection ol manners, — courtesy, controlled by candor. To mainlain truth in word and act, was a part of his vow. He was not ashamed of his religion, or his love, and :)evr-r spoke lightly of the one or the other. 6. In the meantime, the female character and condilion had The regeno been changed by the introduction ol' Christianity, which showed j;"""g '"- that women had an equal share with men, m tlie grace of God ChristianKy and the blessings of innnortality. The virtues which elevate the ""(-t'eraniV ■?ex were taught and enforced. Men received special directions, condiiionof from Christ and his apostles, in regard to their treatment of the weaker sex; which moderated their tyranny, and restrained their The feudal licentiousness. 'I'he feudal system, co-operating with these brinplanew causes, produced an entire new feature in modern civiliza- feature into . ' , .... , , ... . modern c! - tion, which was now arising h'om the ashes ol the ancient, viiization This was domestic socirtij. 'I'lie hereditary baron in his proud castle, surrounded with his serfs and menials, was a petty so- vereign; and but for the society of his own family, must have be regarded been reduced lo utter solitude. His wife and daughiers thus astyranm- came to be known and ap[)reciated, as the dispensers of domes- women are tic iov. Woman beiiiuf now beheld in her proper niche, — her diffose'l <>/ J ^ ® ' . in n*;irritim; style of character changed hy Christianity, — seemed invested wirhout with a new and holy light. Men of finer mould, such as knight- hood found or made, seemed awe-struck, and almost rendered idolatrous worship. 7. Petf.k the Hermit, a native of Amiens, in France, re- returned from a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, where his enthusiasm had been fed, and his resentment enkindled. He hastened to 5. What power did each kniglit possess? Who aspired to be knights? What mentally and phvsically bore up the knights and fitted them for hiph achievements? Did tfiey neglect their own healih, or even that of their war-eteeds? In what respect had the true kniglit the highest style of fine manners? — C. What had ertecied a change in the character and condition of women? In what respect did it show ihein on an equality with men? What precepts of Christianity operated in favor of women? What effect had the feudal system on modern civilization ? How did it operate to pro- Juce this effect ? tluir own ccneenl.) 228 EUROPE IN AilMS. )'i;riod v. CHAP. I. 1©95. Peter the lierinit rjuses up (-iie people, already by rrc^ious ac- -tDunis pre- pared. 1095. Uriiaii II. CaU^ a com - cil at Pla- cemia, in taly. A second council at Clermont, •n France. Eloquence of Urban, tnd e'llliu- siism of the people. 109«. Firsl army of crusaders under Peter and Wal'er. Ara fle- atroyed in Hungary and Bulga- ria. vioit the pope, Urban II., and vvitli liis approbation the enthu- siastic Peter went through Europe, publishing the sufferings of the pilgrims, and calling on Christain svarriors to have pity upon their brethren, — to go up to battle in the nanie of the Lord, and no longer suffer the holy sepulchre to be deliled by iniidels. The hearts of the people burned as he spoke, and the fltme spread from city to city, from country to country. Every- where the holy Peter was received with rapture. The pope called a council at Placentia. Ambassadors were here received from Alexius Comnenus, emperor of the east, who had pre- viously sent to beg the aid of the western pov.'ers agajnst the Turks by whom Constantinople was threatened ; and iie now reiterated his petition, and plead the danger of delay. S. A second council was convened in the autuiiii) of the same year at Clermont, to make a final decision. An unmense multitude of priests, princes, and nobles were present ; and so great was the concourse of people, that the city was tilled, and thousands compelled to erect shelters in the fields. IJi-ban ad- dressed the assembled crowds, and with the most pt rsuasive eloquence depicted the horrors of infidel oppression, vhe duty of arming in the defence of the holy cause, and the rewards of the faithful. The efiect was overwhelming; the crowds sent forth, simultaneously, the shout " God wills it." " God wills it." " It is the will of God," replied the pope, ^' and let this memorable word, the inspiration surely of the Holy Spirit, be forever adopted as the battle-cry, to animate the devotion and courage of the champions of Christ." The sign of the cross was immediately impressed on the right shoulders of the garments of the champions ; the pope pronounced the absolu- tion of their sins, and the multitude separated to prepare for the war. 9. The loth of August following, was fixed for the depar- ture of the pilgrims; but so eager were the lower orders, and so incapable of appreciating the necessity of preparation, that crowds, under the command of Walter the Pennyless, and Peter the Hermit, look their departure early in the spring. Walter was possessed of considerable military talent, but the multitudes who marched upder his standard were un- disciplined and ungovernable. The crowd who followed Peter were, if possible, still more licentious. Before they reached Constantinople, many of these crusaders had fallen by skir- mishes with the Hungarians and Bulgarians. From Constanti- nople they crossed tlie Bosphorus, but in their progress through Bithynia, nearly the whole fell an easy conquest to the Turks Peter returned to Constantinople, and ^Valte^ fell in battle. 10. But while these undisciplined bodies were hurrying to de- struction, the chivalry of Europe, under their most warlike and T. Who first pnmched a crusade? How was his preaching received 1 Who was the pope, and what course did he take ? — 8. Describe the coun cii at Clermont. — 1>. Give an account of the tirst innv of crusaders. THE FIRST CKLS.\IJE. J2y able commanders, were preparing for more regiiUr warfare. The most renowned chief's of the first crusade were GoDFitEt OF Bouillon, duke of Lorraine; Hugh, count of Vermandois, brother of the French king; Kocert, duke of Normandy, son of William the Conqueror; Robert, count of Flnnders; K.w- MOM), count of Toulouse; Adhemar, Bishop of Puy, and BonEMOND, prince of 'I'arentum, son of Robert Guiscaid. U wa.' under his banners that Tancred, his kinsman, and the pride of European chivalry, marched. These various forces, under the command of their respective chiefs, took separate routes for Constantinople. 11. Hugh of Verniandois was the first who reached the do- minions of Alexius Comnenus. Here he had expected friend- ship and welcome, but he was, on his arrival, arrested and imprisoned. The emperor of the east was conscious of his weakness, and though when he supplicated aid from the west, he would gladly have received a few thousand troops, he was alarmed at such formidable and warlike hosts. " It seemed,"' says the princess Anna Comiiena, "as if all Europe, loosened from it.s foundation, was precipitating itself upon Asia." On the arrival of Godfrey, Hugh was released, not however, until he had d<^)ne homage to tlie emperor of the east. The policy of Alex'ius was to preser\'e his own sovereignty, and to convey from Constantinople one army, previous to the arrival of another. 12. Before the walls of A'/cp, now made the capital of the Seljoukian kingdom, the several bodies of crusaders met and besieged the citj'. Robert of Normandy arrived after the com- niencenient of the siege. Peter the Hermit also joined them with the small wreck of his host. The number of the crusaders after this junction, is computed at six hundred thousand armed warriors. While the Christians besie^i^ed his capital, Solinian who had been assembling his warriors from the distant parts ol his dominions, arrived on the mountains, in view of the Chris- tian camp. A battle ensue capital (i( lie Scljnii kias, be- eifired and ak<'n by at arttiv of 0(lO,'(X« crusaders Crufaricre ga'ii victo rir>r.= ovef the lurks lO. Who were the chiefs of the reg^ular army? — 11. How did Alexius Cornnrnus treat the crusaders? What was his daughter's expression re- speciing the number of the crusaders? — 12. (iive an account of the sieec of Nice as to the besiegers. What did the siihan ."^oliinan ? — 13. What linopeiied to the crusaders on their way from Nice >o .\n'iijch ? 230 DESTRUCTIVE SIEGE OF ANTIOCH, The V ru- Siidcrs be- siciied in Antinch by llie Persians mid Turks. I'ricsts re- sort to the 91 Jof siipei stitioii. (" Those tbat hide can find."') The cn;- saders de- feat t>/e Turks a'.iri Persi.-,i;r.. Loss . With what nLimbeis, and at what time did the cruiadcTS march fi im Antioch to Jerusalem ? JEHUSALKAl TAKEX BY TJIK CRUSADERS. 231 liolv city. Dissensions had arisen, but the knights laid thein •Vi«j/«^^wt. osick. by mutual concessions, and directed every thought to tlieir peuiod v. common object. Though now reduced to less thai! sixty chap. n. tjiousand men, the most vigorous preparations were made ("or the assault of the city. Mov^ibie towers, and all the imple- ments of" destruction known to the warriors of the eleventh century were prepared. Efl'orts of valour almost incredible were made by the chiefs during the two days of the assault. They take At length they gained the battlements, and there planted the ' ^Btorni. ^ standard of the cioss. A most dreadful massacre followed, and 1099- (lie blood of thousands polluted the holy places of Jerusalem. 17. Tlie object of the war being accomplished in the deliver- ance of the holy sepulchre, the crusaders now bent their thoughts to the permanent establishment of their power. God- askelon. FRi- V of Bouillon, the most deserving of their chiefs, was elected king of Jc- kins; of Jerusalem. He soon found himself compelled to en- rusaiem, ■ n- 1.111 111 defeats a gage m new conliicts, and at Askelon he encountered and de- Moslem featcd a great army of Moslems. On the death of Godfrey, 4oo'd[io foot after much dissension, Baldwin, his brother, received the ami 100,000 crown. Under his administration, the kingdom of Jerusalem flourished. His army triumphed over the Turks, Persians and Saracens combined. Acre, l^ripolis, and Sidon were taken ; and also, in 1124, by the aid of the Venetians, Tyre was added to the kingdom of Jerusalem. Thus had this vast movement 1124. broken for the time the power of the Turks. Had the Chris- ^^^ ^"^ tians remained at home they would probably have been obliged 10 receive its shock at their own doors. CHAPTER H. Tho Greek Empire. — Germany. — France. 1. THE GREEK EMPIRE.— The emperor Alexius, equally lOST" iilarmed bv the encroachments of the Turks in Asia, and the cJe'ry^of swarm of pilgrim warriors from Europe, pursued a treacherous Alexius, course of policy, by wliich he designed to benefit his own kingdom, whichever way the fortune of war might incline. Thus, ■while he urged the Christians to the prosecution of the holy war, be afforded them no aid, but rather impeded their movements. On the surrender of Nice to the crusaders, a secret treaty was completed between an agent of Alexius and ihe Turks, by which that city became the prize of the Grecian enlarges emperor. While tlie Christians proceeded onwards to Jerusa- ii's •'"»- lein, and occupied the attention and strength of the Mahometan powers, Alexius recovered by his arms possession of many of 10. Depcribe tlie taking of the city. — IT. What was the ne.xt object of ths crusadeis ? Who was the first 'wng of Jerusalem ? Give ai account of the kingdom during t!ie reign of Baldwin. What had this vast move- ment ;iccoinvili.shed ? C'hai . II.- -1. Wha' was he policy of the emperor Alexins ComrieniiBf 232 THE WAK^ OF THE IN VESTITURKS. , Middu Hist, the cities ol Asia Minor, auJ of some of the islands whicli had been conijuered by the Turks. He llius transmitted his empire to liis successors with its boundaries enlarged, and its internal allairs in a prosperous condition. 2. JoM.v, his son and successor, swayed the imperial sceptre twenty-five yeai\s with vigor and clemency. The iK>nalty of death was abolished during his reign. JMa.vuel, a warrior of great plivsical strength and prowess, was the son and successor of John, lie was occi:pied with a series of wars against the Turks, and the barbarians beyond the Danube. After his reigii a period of tifty years occurs where the Byzantine history j)rfc.» sents no prominent name or event. 3. GEKMANY. — The war of the investitures did not cease with the death of Gregory VII. L'rban II. pursued the same design of aggrandizing the Roman See, and Henry IV. of Ger- lOS-t. many, the same resolution oi' keeping the power of the emperoi "^'w'iul''' s'lip'^"^^" ^*-^ '^^^''^ ^^ ^'^^ pope. At tire instigation of Urban, Cox epriins! iwo rad, the SOU of llcnry, rebelled, — assumed the title of king of :uiirhis^'{wo Italy, and induced many of the cities to submit to his govern- sons. ment. jMeanwliile, tlie death of Conrad and Urban, while it changed the actors on the scene, did not change the current of events. Pascal II., successor of Urban, excommunicated tlie emperor, and induced his younger son, Henry, to revolt and assume the imperial honors. Henry IV. was deposed, and he who had fought sixty battles was reduced to such extreme dis- tress, that he applied for the place of under-chanter in a church at Spires, and was refused, where gratitude was his due. Bu« his fortunes seemed ag-ain rising, when he died. 4. No sooner did his successor Hexry V., lind himself se- 1106. curely seated on the throne, than ho entered upon the same Henry V. course of opposition to the church, which his father had maiii- wuuTiu" tained. During the contest, which continued many years, poix'ts tlie Henrv repeatedly marched into Italv, defeated the force's of the war for pre- " , ^ " i i • '• rrn einineiu-e, pope, autl at oue time mane him prisoner. I he pope excom- "^■^^"^oftii^ niunicated the emperor, and the emperor appointed a new pope, mrestiturcs. who revoked the sentence, and cmitirmed his right of investi- ture. At length the states, weary of the disorder and confusion attending the contest, ejected a reconciliation. Calixtcs 11., 1119- ^^ '^^^ filled with ability the papal throne, called a council, a) I'opo aiui which the ambassadors of the emperor appeared, and in which '^"condk-r" ''* <"t">nipromise between the emperor and the pope was concluded. The reign of Henry V. was one of the most bloody which had desolated Christendom; marked not only by the war just men tioned, but by others with Hung-arv and Poland. ES.'2.'^. ■^- ^" '^^^ death of Henry, who had no children, the states i.^^thairc of elected LoTHAiRE. i.uke of Saxe Supplembourg. He engaged in v.ar Avith the Bohemians from whom he exacted homage. Lo taxiuiy. 1. Til what condition did he leave his empire? — 2. Give some account of the successors of Alexius ? — 3. Relate the rem;under of the history of Henry IV.— 1. WhiU course did Henry V. take with regard to the wars of the iH' ceptimre ? Kow was the dispute settled? CJUELPHS AND omUELLINKS. 233 ll.aire PHj^cuKed the cause of I\.voce>t II., a^aiiust a rival pojx!, MuUt bul A.VACf.E'it.s, and marched into Italy to ei5ta.bii>;h his right. This yzKUtv v Mivolved him in a war with KooEit, duke of j^pulia, who e»- chaj-. h. pouj-ed tlie rause of Anacleliis. 'i'he aniiB of LotJiaire prevaiieJ* v^~-^"^. Roger waa driven from hi>j Italian po«He8sion» int^j Sicily, which he had rei^nily conquered, and Anacletus wai> imprisoned. l'uiin;t thia reign, .v- 114 1. HAD of Kranconia, nephew of Henry V. 774e erial t-Sisi'ntht»e lorces, and his soldiers took the name of Ghihellijtei, from *"«« tb« Ghibel, the place of Frederic's nativity, llcnce.whilctfu; party wtr-jtiurg favored by I lie pf/fje wan terrnf.d the Guelp/us^ that of (fie erupt- ^^"ja^kt^u, ror was called ifie Ghibel line a., and the war« for suprenriacy badit^av^ui which h-df\ been called the wars of the investitures, were re- Yifs^'w'itu' newed under the party wattrh-words of Guelphs and Ghibellines. v. »iat ti«.-y 7. No sooner was tranquillity in any measure restoree, crutad« 1152. Frederic revolted from the emperor. Frederic marched "nto Italy, and lyart/^rwst took signal vengeance on the revolted cities /i ra2creaching a E^.-cond crtitade ? What was done by Conrad in reference to "><; Holy I^iid ( dive an account of Conrad's succe^por. Oi hin ojieraiS' -.« in Italy. — ** What wag thjc character of Philip I. T What was do?je by /'>pe ^'ii»n aj.d where ? .SO 234 THE SECOND CRUSADE. jtsi ddie TFisi oouraged his nobles, wlio openly aspired to independence:^ and PERIOD V during his weak and inelKcient reign, many encroachments were cHiP. II. ir.ade on the prerogatives of the crown. -«''~v'>^.^ 9. Philip was succeeded by his son Louis VI. The entrg^' '"ll®§ and virtue of Louis restored the monarchy. During the priit- ^?"" cipal part of his reign, he was occupied in a Avar with Ileury L >Tar of England, who had acquired Normandy from his brother Ro» m'nrj ^^^% ^^'1*^ iiow \\ithheld it from William, the son of Ilobert. j. of Louis mainlained his -power over the nobles, by shoicing liimself lajid'. ^^'^ protector of the lower orders, and by maJcing freemen of many of the vassals, and thus comjwsing a third estate, or com- mons. ^., 10. Louis VII., the Young, his son and successor, wa.s Louis * early involved in war Avith the aspiring nobles. He was suc- vii. cessful in subduing them, but the destruction of thirteen hun- ceeds dred persons in the town of Vitre, who had taken refuge in a Vi* '^' f^'i^ir^l^ to which he ordered fire to be put, pressed heavily on his conscience. Reasoning on the vain addition to Cliristianky -, J .^ made in the dark ages, he believed that his own deeds could be carried by the cliurcli to the credit side of his IMaker's accounl These- current: and to balance this sin, he undertook a Secoxd Cru- COTlrt . tiisado. SADE. His army fell before the arrows of the Moslems ; and after a visit to the holy city, productive of no efficient aid to Eiea- the Christians there, he returned with the wreck of his forces. heiress ^" ^^^* reaching France, Eleai\"0r, his queen, was divorced on 0/ an accusation of adultery. She married the duke of Normandy, ne and afterwards Henry 1 1, of England ; who, by this marriage, Poictou, obtained her rich dovv-rv — the fine provinces of Guicnne and di- ^ . - ^ virced. FoiCtou. IL Philip Augustus, succeeded his father in the fifteenth year of his age. He bore the character of a wily politician, who knows how to move men, as in a game. He entered into an al- IISO. liance with Richard, the son of Henry of England, and eucour- Au-^us- ^Z^^ ^'^^'^ aided him in a rebellion against his father. He en- tiis. gaged in the third crusade, with Frederic Barbarossa, and with Richard, who had succeeded to the throne o^ England under the title of Richard I. Each of these monarchs were aspirants Crafty for military fame ; nor is it difhcult to believe that they re- ptfiuic. garded Palestuie, less with the reverence of devotion, tliau as a (Such was the state oflearning ia this age, that if a man was condomneJ to death for crime, and could prove that he was so learned a clerk ar to Ic able to read and write, he was set at liberty ; the state not knowing how to part with persons of such rare acquirements. This privilege of the learned was called " benefit of clergy.") 8. Did he preserve the royal auihority ? — 9. How was the monarchy re- stored ? How was Louis occupied ? How did he maintain the royal authority over the nobles? — lO. Who was his successor? In what war was he en- gaged ? With what success ? What act of cruelty troubled his conscience ? How did lie believe he could expiate this sin ? For this purpose what di(i lie do ? Whai was his success ? What was done on his return ? Who mairied the divorced queen ? Wli3.t was her dowry ? — 11. What account can you j»r"e of Philip Augustus i OKUilX OF THK PLA.VTAGE.NETS. 23' field on which they were to reap the laurels they so ardently '^^"^'^^° ^ *^ coveted. period v. 12. ENGLAND. — William the Conqueror left three sons, chap. n. William II., who succeeded to the crown of England, Robert, ^--'-^/"n-' who inherited Normandy, and Henry. Robert in his zeal for t096 " the deliverance of the holy sepulchre, had, as has been related, ^ '{',f "^ mortijaaed his dukedom to his brother, William il.. in order to Hufuf obtain the sum requisite to enter upon that enterprise; but he wa^, notwithstanding, the legal heir. The death of William oc- llOO curred during Robert''s absence in the Holy Land, which enabled ^'^"^ flenry, the younger brother, to usurp the sovereignty both in Beau- England and France. To render his usurpations secure, Henry marries courted the favor of his subjects. He promised, — though he did ^atii- not fulfil, — to restore the laws of Edward the Confessor ; and the niece to more effectually to ingratiate himself with the ancient English, ^'|^" he married Matilda, called the good queen Maud, a daughter liug. of Margaret queen of Scotland, and thus a descendant of the Saxon kings. 13. Robert was already on his return from the Holy Land when the news of William's death reached him. He hastened to England to claim his inheritance, but Hfenry persuaded him to enter into a treaty, by which he received the dukedom of Normandy, and a small annual tribute, but left Henry in pos- Roi,crt session of the crown of England. The brother who outlived heated the other, was to inherit the dominions of the deceased. The ^y jealousy and ambition of the brothers, however, would not per- '"^^ niit them to remain at peace, and Henry soon possessed liimself by force of Robert's dominions, made his brother prisoner for life, and inhumanly deprived liim of his eyes. J 4 Henry's only son, prince William, in whom, as the child of Maud, was the blood of the Saxon line, was shipwrecked on his return from Normandv. He miiiht have been saved.but for his fruitless efforts to preserve his sister, a natural daughter of the king. One hundred and fortv vouns nobles perished beside: and Henrv „ never smiled again. He induced a council of the prelates and only son nobles to lake the oath of fealty to his daughter, Mai;d or Ma- flown^at TILDA, whom he married to Geoffrey Pla.ntage.vet. the earl sea. of Anjou. On the birth of an heir, afterward Henrv II., the king procured from the nobles a renewal of the oath, extending it to hei son. After a reign of thirty-tive years, disturbed by wars and disorders, Henrv died. 15. Stephen, earl of Boulogne, grandson of the conqueror 1135. Ste- •11 the maternal line, notwithstanding he had been the first to phcnde-l take tlie oath of fealty to Matilda and her son, now urged his ^^rom'' ' claim to the throne. Before Matilda could arrive in England, Adeia 1 12. What sons did Wiliiam the Conqueror leave? Which succeeded him as kiii^ of Enorland ? Which as duke of Normandy? For what did he mortgaije his patrimony ? What was done by Hetiry ? What did he do to please his English subjects ? — 13. Give the history of duke Robert after his return from the crusade? — l-l. What family affliction had the king ? How did one family of the kings of England get the name of Plantaeenet? 15. What king o*^ England was of ibe hoiise of Blois I 236 USURPATIONS OP' IHE CHURCH. PERIOD V. CHAP. II. t. 1 'U54. Henry s 11. OJ ? Extent of his domin- a. ^ ions. B. C. About 5©©. Called iMUe- Biana, from Milosius. 441. St. Patrick carries Christianity into Ireland. 1L1T2. iieland con- quered by Henry II. Henry con- tends witU 5~ the K| church. .^ Kl o S" 115S. 5? Thomas Q^ a 5ea to be descended? VViiat was done by St. Patrick, and when? What was Ireland about this time? What hero is celebrate.^ in Irish annuls, and lor what? How did Brien Boirhume lose his life? When and by whom was Ireland subjugated? — 17. What exemption did the clergy claim? What was often their conduct? What did the king de- sire ? \Vhom did he put in the first office of the church in England, and for what reasons ? What did Becket to gain the people's confidcnci- 1 THE CONSTITUTIONS OF CLARENDON. 237 Who coiilil doubt tliat wiih such mortifications Beckct was a MidJUjust.^ saintr Tliis character established, lie i)pe;iiy oppoi-cd the au- period v. Ihority of the kiug. ^^'"•*'- "• i8. Henry summoned a council at Clarendon^ in which latrs. '-■^f^'w^^ were passed declaring that priests should be amenable to the ll<>fl (ird tribunals, icithout appeal to the pope, and that no edict of cori'ti- Ihe pope shall be binding in England without the sanction of Miuns the king. Becket resisted these laws, and was arrested. Henry ^,cndun. called him to account for the rents and profits lie had received while he was chancellor. Becket appealed to Home, and oh- ghanbe tained the support of pope Alexander III. The king, however, 'rierf '".y obliged him to llee from England, and he was for a time sup- bunaiB." ported by the king of France. Henry, further to resist the usurpations of the church, suspended the payment of certain chuich revenues, and concluded an alliance with Frederic Bar- barossa, who was at war with the pope. 19. At length, each party afraid of the other, came to condi- tions of peace; and, waiving controverted points, Becket was re- stored to his archbishoprick. He came to England like a con- queror, and assumed a splendor little less than regal. Pie notified three of the principal prelates that the pope had excom- municated them, for certain acts of obedience to the king. When the news of this arrogance was brought to Henry, who was in Normandy, he exclaimed, " Will my servants still leave me exposed to the insolence of this ungrateful and imperious ll'VO. priest ?'' Four knights of rank, William de Tracy, lluofh de i^!^'"!*.'' Morvillc, Richard Britts, and Hegindd Filz Urse, on hearing nated. this, repaired to Canterbury, and assassinated Becket in his church, during the evening service. The news of this sacrilege filled the king with consternation. Me hastened to make his peace with Rome, and the death of Becket procured for the (iierry ohurcli concessions which his life could not. Henry ob- „o,'pro- tained absolution from pope Gregory VIII., and made a pilgrim- ""'t age to the shrine of the murdered prelate, who was canonized ; cour^ and so great was the fame of the martyr, especially for healing e''"i'«- discases, that 100,000 pilgrimages to his tomb, are computed to have been made in one year ! 20. The latter portion of Henry's life was embittered by do- 1173. mestic dissensions. The king of France incited his sons to take Henry's nrins against him. Henry, the eldest, claimed Normandy, and his beTami' father's refusal was the signal for his rebellion. Richard and .^^"J Geoffrey united with their brother, notwithstanding their father into had been liberal to them ; and William, the king of Scotland, '''■""=^- 17. What afterwards in respect to the king's authority? — 18. What couninl did Henry call ? What laws did they pass ? Who encouraged liecket in his course ? Where did he go ? What other measures did Henry take against the church? — 19. Each party fearing the other, what wne done ? What was Becket's course of conduct ' What unguarded e.xpree- sion was used by the king? What was the consequence ? What did the king on learning Becket's deith? — 20. What was Henry's situaticn in re- gard to dimes ic peace ? 238 PREPARATIONS KOR THE THIRD CRt SADE. Mdiiie Hist, joined the confederacy. The English dominions in France were for hoo years the theatre of war betio^en the contending parties. A pacification was at length effected, and the voung princes pardoned. Notwithstanding this, Richaid, now his ll§3. eldest son, rebelled, and united with Philip Augustus of France, ifenry -Amid these troubles, and sorely disappointed at finding himself Jies. deserted by his yoinigest and favorite son, John, Henry was taken ill, and died. This king, in most respects of a happy character, was yet soured by misfortunes, brought upon him in some measure by his vices ; and he expired with a curse againsl his disobedient children.* 11S9. 21. Richard I. succeeded to the throne of England. His Richard first acts were preparatory to the famous crusade led by him- Lion'.'' self and Philip Augustus. On the day of his coronation, a most horrible slaughter -of the Jews took place, as a sacrifice Perse- acceptable to God. Their residence in the different kingdoms of "he ^^ Europe could never be considered safe, as they were without Jews the protection of the laws; and at times multitudes of them fell victims to a fanatical and infuriated populace. ?5 ^ Nou- ^ reddin, ^ the most power- isn ful !<; Atta- ?^ bek ."^ of the t. east. «! 1M5. CHAPTER III. The Turks and Crusaders. — Eastern Empire, 1. When Jerusalem was taken by the Christians of the firsi crusade, consternation was spread through the empire of tiie Moslems. The Seljoukians had followed the usual course of the Asiatic dynasties, and the last of the race sunk into imbe- cility and vice. The name of the sovereign of Persia was hardly known to the Christians ; but the Attabeks became for- midable. This was a Turkish name given to the petty prnices, who in the decline of the dynasty of Seljouk, obtained the * When a man marries a bad woman from ambition, and tiien treats her ill, his family will naturally be the seat of disorders. Henry is that sovereign M'hose queen, Eleanor, is said to have poisoned his favorite, fair Rosamond. But this story is fabulous, as Rosamond Clifford, it appears, retired to s monastery, and there died. To Henry's want of ronjuiial tideliiy and law- less loves, may be traced many of his troubles. There is too much reason to believe that he cheri.shed a criminal passion for the young Adebis, the betrothed wife of his son Richard, and sister to Philip, king of France, who was sent in her childhood to be educated in England. When she was de- manded by Richard, his fathei would not relinquish her; and on Henry' j death, Richard refused to marry her. This caused the enmity ot R;rh3.r^ to his father and the liaired of Philip to Richard. 20, Give an account of Henry's last days. — 21. Who succeeded him f What happened on the day of his coronation ? What was the condition of the Jews ? Chap. HI. — 1. What was the condition of the Seljoukian Turks f Give ail account of the Attabeks. SAl^ADn; RECOVKIi« JKUUSALE.M. 239 eovcmmfnt of tlie (lifTerent provinces, and undertook the de- ■^'^'"x_/ good and just a sovereign, thai after his death, the oppressed i-^\'-ppo^ni poor cried ir tlie streets, Noureddin' Noureddin! wliere art w«re bis l}lf,U ! capiUila.) 2. The Fatinute caliphs of Egypt wore at this time rethiced Azidad- lo the most distressed and degraded state. I'heir prime minis- ja'"t pa- tf re, caHed viziers or suhans, liad usurped the supreme autho- timate rily. and Cairo was (hstracted by hostile factions. The aid of i^y'pi." Noureddin was implored by the caliph AziDAnDi.v; and Shikkoii, a valiant commancier of KurdistYin, was di^.;patclled to his assist- ance. Shirkoh was accompanied in his Egyptian expedition, by his nephew Sai.aimn, who, on the death of his uncle, was pronioit'd to the office of vizier. So/adin at length threw off xhe liis allegiance, not only to the caliph of Egypt, but to Al .■'•>n<-'iy Malel, the successor of Noureddin. lie made himself master of Egypt, invaded and conquered t^lej>po, Damascus, and Jjiarhekir ; Arahia submitted to his arms, and the inhabitants of Tripoli and Tunis acknowledged his authority. 3. Saladin proceeded to wrest the kingdom of Jerusalem tVom the Christians. This kingdom, now under Guv of Lu- IIST siGNA.v, was reduced to a state of extreme weakness. A battle '^^J^_ was fought at Tiberias, in wiiicli Saladin was victorious. This Paladin battle broke the Christian power in Palestine ; and al length ''''1^^* Jerusalem itself, in the conquest and defence of which so much t;^ri8- blood had been shed, was recovered by the Turks. The con- duct of Saladin in the surrender of Jerusalem was mild and , magnanmious; he accepted a ransom lor the richer prisoners, lem ^nd pemiilted the poor to go free. He still extended his con- '^'"■"• quests, and,w/7/t the -'rception of Tyre, he made himself master of the vhnle of Palestine. 4. THE TillHD CHL'SADE.— The news of the conquest ,"^^111';!']^ of Jerusalem fdled Europe v/iih dismay. Pope Gregory VIIJ. df-naken iij sought at once to heal the dissensions of the Christian monarchs, pil^i'i'^i '' and induce them again to take up arms in defence of the Holy gustuH and Land. The enmity of France and England presenting an ob- ^'^,11^^^' stacle to the absence of either monarch from his kingdom, (Crceory Richard I., and Philip Augustus solemnly agreed to lay aside joins a fi've their animosities, and together embark in the holy war. The )tar« fa^t, first monarch to go forward, in the third crusade, was Frederic meat on Barbarossa. In his march through the Greek empire, he was il^^F "1*4 Frid2ya) 1. Who was now the most powerful sovereign in the east ? What was ihc extent of his dominions? What his character ? — 2. What was the con- dition of the Fatiinate caliph": of Egypt ? To whom did the caliph apply for aid ? Who was sent ? Give an account of Saladin. Of what countriee did he make himself master? — 3. What was ihe condition of the kingdom of Jerusalem? Describe the progress of Saladin in the Holy Land ? — 1. What was the consequence of Saladin's taking Jerusalem ? What agreement was made between Richard and Philip Augustus? WcWe the part taken in the third crusade by Frederic Carbaroes*' 240 RICHARD THE LION-HEARTED. PERIOD V. CHAP. m. 11S9. siege of Acre, seve- ral batlles fought un- der its walls. 1192. ■A7.0TUS. Richard de- feats Sala- <".in. They make a truce- Richard Ca?ur-de- lion, for valor the ■anight of kirghts. subjected to all the annoyances which had destroyed tlie former expeditions. The resolute Frederic, however, crossed the Bos- phorus, defeated the Moslems, took the city of Iconium,, and spread the fame of his military skill, and the terror of his arms, even to the throne of Saladin. But he died by bathing in the Cydnus. His troops proceeded to Antioch. to await there the arrival of the other crusaders. 5. Philip Augustus and Richard wisely resolved to avoid tlie evils incident to a passage through the Greek empire. They accordingly embarked, Philip at Genoa, and Richard at Mar- seilles, and met again at Messina, in Sicily. During their siay here, animosities arose between them, which threatened the de- struction of the enterprise. Philip, however, advanced to Pa- lestine ; and, aided by the remainder of Barbarossa's army, he commenced the siege of Acre. Richard was detained at Cyprus. A terrible storm had dispersed his fleet, and stranded, on that island, vessels in which were embarked Richard's sister Eleanor, and the lady Berengaria, of Navarre, to whom he was engaged in marriage. The king of Cyprus treated the princesses and crews with rigour. Richard, in revenge, landed his aimy, fought two battles, took the king, and subjugated the island; — and having married his betrothed, he joined the crusaders before Acre. 6. Philip Augustus, displeased with the delay of Richard, and also with his marriage, by which his sister Adelais was slighted, returned to France; leaving, however, 10,000 sol« diers under the command of the duke of Burgundy. Neai Azotus, Richard, by his personal prowess, as the army was nearly defeated, obtained a victory over Saladin and the Maho- metans. He took Cesarea and Jaffa, and advanced within view of Jerusalem ; but he was discouraged by the dissensions of the camp, his wasting numbers, and diminished resources. He therefore made with Saladin a truce for three years, on condi- tion that Acre, Jaffa, and the cities conquered by the crusaders, should remain in their possession, and that the Christians should have free access to the Holy City 7. Had Richard been as discreet and politic as he was brave, he might have made himself master of the cast. Perhaps no warrior of history ever dealt such blows as Richard the lion- hearted. Of almost giant size and strength, cased in the heavy armor of the times, his might in the battle Held made him n host in himself. Learning one day that his garrison at Jaffa was in jeapordy, Richard hasted with a small body of troops to their relief, rushed with his men into the thickest ranks of the enemy, vanquished every thing that dared oppose him, and 4. When and where did he die ? What became of his army ?— 5. Re late the movements of Richard and Philip Augustus. What important island wast^ken? — 1». What was done by Philip "Augustus? What battle waa fought ? By whom was it fought ? What was its result ? Did the victor judge it prudent to follow up his success, or did he negociate ? — 7. What were some of Richards exploiie ? DKATII Oy SALADIX. 241 rescued two noble knights who had been taken by the Saracens. Once he was surrounded by a band of soldiers, and single handed he cut his wav throu^'h them. Such terror and admira- tion seized his enemies, Uiat fifty years afterwards his name was usred in the east to frighten wayward children. 8. I( is said that, on one occasion, when Saladm perceived the flight of his men, he inquired the cause; and being told that the F'.nglish king had himself driven them from the city, asked, "Which is he.'" He was pointed to a little hillock, where Fl'chard with his men had halted. "What," said Saladin, ''on foot among his servants ? This is not as it should be ;"' and immediately he sent him a horse. After the departure of liichard, end the death of Saladin, which occurred a year afterwards, the Cliristians of Palestine enjoyed a season of repose. Saladin was the wisest and most upright prince that ever fdled a Ma- hometan throne. When he found himself near death, impressed with the worthlessness of earthly grandeur, he ordered the standard which had been borne in his victorious marches, to be removed, and a shroud to be substituted in its place. This he commanded to be carried through the streets, the criers pro- claiming " Behold what Saladin the mighty conqueror carries Vv-iih him of all his vast dominions." These dominions weit- divided at his death. 9. EASTERN EMPIRE— The Byzantine empire, alreadv stiipped of its Asiatic provinces, was now further dismembered. Jiulgaria, which had for almost two centuries acknowledged its supremacy, revolted and became independent. Cyprus had been usurped by a prince of the Comnenian family. Pilchard of England conquered him, and bestowed the island upon Guy of Lusisrnan, the former king of Jerusalem. 10. The throne of Isaac Angells, monarch of Constanti- nople, was usurped by his brother Alkxius Angelus, and the dethroned monarch deprived of his sight, and imprisoned. Young Alexius, the son of Isaac, escaped, implored the protec- tion of pope Innocent III., and sought to engage the nations of the west to employ their arms in the restoration of his father. At this time many of the nobles of Ger.many and France, the flower of western chivalry, had assembled with their vassals at Venice, with the design nf procuring conveyance to Palestine for a fourth crusade. To Venice Alexius proceeded, and be- sought, for his father, the aid of the gallant warriors. His im- poiiunity was seconded by Dandolo, the aged and venerable doije of Venice. A large body of the pilgrims, whose leader weus Bai,uwi.v, count of Flanders, embarked with t!ic Venetians for (l!on=tantinople. Middit rrttt PERIOD V CHAP. III. ofSalailln ItiF death 1195. "1 Alexics Ange- liit", his cruelty tn his brother. 1202 Dando- lo, dope or duke of Ve- nice. Ilis ex pcdl- tl»n 3 M rk 8. What instance of courtesy is related of Saladin ? What was the cho- racter of Saladin ? — !*. What provinces were taken from the Grrck em- pire ? — lO. What was the conduct of Alexius Aneelus ? Who was young Alexius ? What crusade was about to be undertaken ? VV^here did young Alexius apply for aid, and to whom ? By whom waa he favored ? WIki* tirbarked for Conitantinoplef 31 242 THE LATIX EiMPIKE OF CO^■S■l\\^•Ti^'OPLE. 11. The crusaders destroyed the Grecian fleet, and rode tri- PERIOD V. uniphant in the harbor. The city, containing above four hnn- iHAP. 111. dred tliousand inhabitants, was besieged by twenty thousand '-'^-'/''v-/ Latin pilgrims. Alexius Angelus, after one attempt at a sally (led in secresy from the city, while the nobles released Isaac S204. ^''"<^'" prison, placed him upon the throne, and opened the gates T Jims iakL' of the city to the besiegers. The conditions of the succor ^r.'jp 1"' promised by the young Alexius were, the submission of tfic eastern empire to the pope, aid in the hnjy icar, and i contribur tion of two hundred thousand 7naTrcs to his deliverers. The Greeks were displeased with these corditions, and irritated at Ths Greek-, the prospect of surrendering the independence of their church. r^tnscto 'pjjg ens^awments of Alexius were not fulfilled, and the Latins the iiuiepen- became dissatistied and insolent in their conduct. The indig- '^^'ciiun.'h*'"'' "^^'^' Greeks petitioned the senate to give them a more worthy emperor, and oflered the imperial purple in succession to all the senators. 12. Alexius Ducas, surnaraed Mazoufle, encouraged the revolt, placed himself at its head, and treacherou-.ly obtaining possession of the person of Alexius, he murdered him, and . . assumed the sovereignty. The aged emperor died of grief and Alexius . » . ^ Mazoutte. fear. IMazoulle at tirst had possession of Constantinople, and endeavored to defend it against the Latins, whose demands he refused to satisfy They besieged and again took the city. Plunder followed the conquest, and the most precious monu- ments of ancient art were destroyed by the hands, not of bar- barians, but of the Latin soldiery. 12®4 ^^- '^^^^^ victorious crusaders elected as emperor, their pun Bald- cipal leader, Baldwin, count of Flanders ; and to another of win I. (].^g^. cliiefs, the Marquis of Montserrat, was given the island of Henry. Crete and Asiatic Greece. Baldwin was soon compelled to de ^^^^^ fend the empire he had conquered. The Greeks of Thrace t, having revolted, he marched against them ; but was defeated and ^ ■ Robert, taken captive. Under his successors, the Latin kingdom lan- Joiin. guished, until in 1261, less than fifty years after its conquest, it was recovered by the Greeks under Michael Palxologus, a ^.'^''J] nobleman of exalted Avorth, who became emperor. Another Empire nobleman, Theodore Lascaris, founded a kingdom of which ^ii'i'/, Nice Avas the seat. 14. MOGULS. — Terbiugin, known as Jenghiz Khan, wns the son of a barbarian, who reigned over a few hordes of Tai- 1-261. 11. How many inhabitants had Constantinople? By whom was it in vested ? Who opened the gates to the besiegers i What engagements had Alexius made to the Latins as the condition of their succor ? Were thcsf fulfilled on the part of the Greeks? What was done in relation to a suc- cessor to the crown? — I'i. Who became emperor, and what was his con- duct, — especially towards Isaac and Alexius Angelus? What was now done by the Latins ? — 13. Whom did the Latins make emperor of Con- stantinople? What was given as a kingdom to the Marquis of Montserrat f How many Latin emperors were there, and how long did the Latin e:iipirc coiitinue ? By whom was it recovered for the Greeks ? By whom \^ as the kingdom of Nice founded ? GRKAT K.MPIRK OF TIIF- MOGULS. 213 lai*, on tlie banks of the Selinga, numbering in all, thirty or -^^^^ww^ut. forty thousand families. The death of his father, while he was period v. yet a child, induced the revolt of his subjects, and at the age of '-ha»-. hi. iliineen, the courageous chief fought a baltle wiih the rebels. »-^^^'^*'w lie was compelled to flee, but his spirit and valor acquired him HOI- r(;nown. IW degrees he gained control, until he was formally ^i-'u^'^^' proclaimed Khan of the .\loguls and 'J'arliirs. lie afterwards thi^foftLc 'jciok the title of Jen-g/iiz Khan, which signifies, the " xHo.st *Monguu' (ireat Khan of Khans." 10. lie led vast multitudes against the Chinese, — passed the great wall, and stormed and destroyed a multitude of cities, llis path was the track of desolation. His retreat from Cliina was purchased by a tribute. A second expedition drove the Thp?rcateKi emperor of China to his southern provinces, while the northern <;""'ju«rof were added to the empire of Jenghiz. Passing towards the do- d.;r«'rttu! minions of the Mahometan sultan, 700,000 .^loguls and Tartars "^'"'J^J^'^ followed his standard, while their antagonists, the Mahomelan.s, vainly opposed him with 400,000. City after city, from the Caspian to the Indus, was besieged and taken; — nations and kingdoms were so wasted and depopulated, that five centuries were not sufllcient to repair the ravages of four years. While Jenghiz himself engaged in this expedition, one of his generals had spread the terror of his arms from the western provinces of Persia to the banks of the Volga, and the farther shores of the Conqufteth Caspian. Jenghiz Khan was the most cruel and bloody of all *'iihan."* tyrinUs. lie made war to exterminate nations, tliat he might plant the countries with his own people. Once he had 100,')00 / captives executed on ttie same day. It is computed tliat he / • aiised the destruction of 14,470,000 of the human race. 16. On the death of Jenghiz his vast empire was divided loji among his four sons. They extended his conquests, — nearly conquesu completed the reduction of all Asia, and conquered a consider- of Jenaiiiz'i anle portion oi f>urope. tlis grandson, KouLt (or Kublai) Khan, achieved Ihf entire conquest of China, the northern pro- r,,,,), K^an vinces of which had submitted to Jenghiz, and the remains of estaMish-ji tlie former family of emperors was exterminated. He built Pekin ^patTy iu and made it his capital. Jiengal and Thibet also yielded him Cbiim. tribvie and obedience. The arms of the .Moguls were, under another of the grandsons of Jenghiz, again carried into Persia, the empire of the caliphs was subverled^and the conquests of the Moguls extended to Aleppo and Damascus. The Mamelukes of EgJ'pl opposed their progress, but the kingdoms of Anatolia 11. You have now reached the history of tlie greatest of all conquerors tnd murderers, — g^ive an account of his parentage and early years. What do you Isarn of his titles? — 15. What of his progress in China? Whnl army did nc gather in passing through the country of the Moguls and Tartars? What army did ine Mahometans attempt to o^jpose to him ? Describe from the map the countries conquered by Jenghiz Khan ? What was his charac- ter ? H jw many human victims are computed to have been sacrificed to his ambition and cruelty ? — 10. Hov/ was the vast empire of Jenghiz divided f What conquests were made by hie grandson Kouli or Kublai? What undcf another of his grandsons 7 244 THE OLD MAX OF THE I\!0VNTAIX3. M-dJU Hist ji,;(] ^^iincnia submitted to their sway. They conqurrcd Rtissicu invaded Poland, and spread devaslalion through Hungari/. Of one of the grandsons of Jenghiz it is said, tliat in the space of less than six years, lie extended his conquests over a line of ninety degrees of longitude. 17. The extensive conquests of the Moguls were not con- Tiie Teat ^^^ted by tlie successors of Jenghiz in person, but committed emi-'iieof to their lieutenants. By degrees, these lieutenants threw off falls 'inio^ their allegiance to the great Khan, and acquired the supreme iii4j,iut:!it.-:. control in their respective provinces. After a time tliey re- nounced idolatry, and all connection with tlie Mogul idolaters of China, and embraced Mahoinei anism. Holagou Khan, a descendant of Jenghiz, extirpated the terrible banditti known bv the name of the '•'• Society of Assassins," which had continued under a succession of chiefs 172 years, though changing the seat of power. It was founded 1090, by Hassan Sebek, called on account of his residence among the mountains south of the Caspian, " the Old Man of the i\Iountains." The same title 1G90. descended to his successors. They pretended to divine inspira- iJ.*"^ 'f'l^ '•^'^"^ 'i^'-l their maxim w^as, " to the faithtul nothing is forbid- Mo'.tn- den." In Syria they had at one period, 60,000 men. Their 'bihiie's'tii''" daggers were lurking in the cities of the east and of the west — "Assas- I \ie terror of all. The Druses were a sect formed from the As- *""^' s issins, and nihabiting the same region. They adopted faith in Hakem, a counterfeit i\Iahomet; who, wlien told of his licen- Tiie Drueca. tionsness and crimes, said, '*• their history constituted a sublime allegory for the edifying of the faithful!" So long as mankind love imposition, there will be impostors. CHAPTER IV- Germany. r 1. Hexrt VI. succeeded his fatlier Frederic Barbarossa. The i IISO death of William, king of Sicily, gave him a claim upon that ^ j crown, in right of his empress Constaxtia, the sister of tlie de- »5 \ ceased. His riglit was disputed, and again the faithful soldiers = j ITfrrj of Germany were dragged from their homes to Italy, that their I ■ sovereign^ who ought to have applied himself in the fear of the 1 Lord to their public alfairs, might possess a foreign dominion, 16. Did ihey conquer Egypt? What countries of Europe were con- quered by the Moguls? — 17. How did the immense empire of the I\Io- guls pass from the successors of Jenghiz ? What rehgion did these heuien ants embrace ? What was done by Holagou Khanf Give an account of the Assassins. Of the Druses. Chat. IV. — I. Who succeeded Frederic Barbarossa? How did ho de rive a claim upon Sicily ? What did he to estabhsh his claim I lionor.i'W OF hap&buro. 245 Henry made himsrlf masltr of nearly all Campania^ Calabria, MdJU^aMU and Jijmlia ; and at loiiglli achieved in another expedition, the i'ekiod v. conquest of tlie kingdoms of Sici/y and JS/'aples. His efforts to cjiap. iv. render the imperial dignity hereditary, liad so far succeeded, as ^-^~^^'~^*»^ !o procure a decree, by wiiicfi his son, Fkedeuic 11. was, on his (ieaih, made king of ike li/jjiuins, and heir lo tlie empire. i-n-y i 2. Frederic being a minor, his uncle, Fiulip, tluke of iSwabia, (Klob i bcr,ame regent. 'l"he sultan of Egypt had reduced the Chri.s- 'r^j'; | lians of the east to great distress, and their only hope was in '•> s»- t'ie aid uf their breiiiren of the west. To engage Frederic in 'Viu:,'/ tiieir cause, the pope gave him in marrbge Yola.vda, the daugh- e^fy ) ter of .'oftN OF Brik.nne, titular king of Jerusalem, with that king- VZ^ZH- dom as iier dower. Still Frederic manifested a reluctance to Vic'ii' depart, until the r».ilience of the pope was exhausted, and he «""- pronounced his excommunication. 1 he emperor now renewed it,e the war of the Guelphs and Ghibellines. He invaded Italy, *'"'»• compelled the pope to flee from Home, and ravaged his pos- sessions. Frederic at length proceeded to perform his vov/; but ^,.,'t^in„ departed for the holy land without the sentence of excommuni- in I'a- calion having been revoked. His crusade was more successful jliW.'j'a' than that of either of the preceding monarchs. The sultan of '" ""* Egypt ceded lo him Jerusalem^ ii'ilh several other cities. A truce ceeding often years was concluded. Gregory IX. would not allow any """ ^ ecclesiastics to assist in crowning Frederic king of Jeru.salem, wtii-'h but he took the crown from the altar, and with his own hands [^.'^.^ placed it on his head. four.) 3. The pope instigated his subjects in Italy to revolt, and for several years, Germany and Italy were deluged wiili blood. A succession of popes declared Frederic excommunicated and de- m^dc- throned, and new emperors electe. What three of the Swiss cantons aie here mentioned? What account can you give of them ? What orders did Albert give his officers? Rehite ihe story of WiUiam Tell. — 6. Who were tlie three patriot leaders leagued with 'fell ? What was done by them end the Swiss generally ? What occurred afier the death of Albert in rela- tion to the succession? What number and kind of force went against the .SWISS 1 With wi'.at did the Swiss defeat theni, and where? vuria. THE rOFES AXD EMPERORS STILL CONTEMJ. 241 to reduce the Swiss, and went against them wiili 21,000 cavalry. -''^"^■^^' ^'^'^j But the brave niounlainecrs, with 1,300 //(/W/j/r?/, defeated them pfjuod v. at jMorgarten ; and establislied the independence of Switzerland, chap. iv. Otiier cantons soon joined them, and in 1353, there were thirteen, ^-^"''^'^w 7. HeiN'rv, coLiNT OF Luxembourg, was elevated by the electors to tlie tlirone. His short reign is bnt a repetition of I318. that of his predecessors — intrigues at home, — contests with the n-nry vn popes, — wars in Italy. During one of these he died suddenly, uie'^pl^pe' at bcnevento. iMter an inierregnum of fourteen months, two enipeiors were elected in Germany, who, by their conflicting ««>»>2 claims-, brought again the curse of civil war. Louis of Bava- Louis oirua BiA being at length elected, carried his arms into Italy. Pope John XXll., w ho resided at Avignon, excited the German princes to revolt. On the return of the emperor to quell the domestic disturbances, the pontifi' recovered his power at Rome, and the The same friends of the emperor were expelled from the city. Finding over"agaiB. all reconciliation with the Roman see impossible, Louis sum- Tiie empe- ... ,-11 11 1 11 ror and tue moned a diet, which decreed that the pope had no superiority pope con- over the German emperor; nor was his approval essential in ''^'^'^^^^"[jy" the imperial elections, the power of choosing the emperor being vested in the college of electors alone. For a while the empire remained at peace, but the intrigues of the pontifis again pro- duced open hostilities to Louis; and Clement VI., who had \\Joi^ succeeded to the papal chair, procured the election of Chari.es Luxem- ofLuxEjiBOURG, son and heir of tlie king of Bohemia. Louis soon died, and Charles becoming emperor, was a mere tool for the reigning popes. 8. It was, however, during this reign, that the constitution 1355. called the " Golden Bull" was established. By this the number j^uii, a and duties of the electors were settled, and the succession of each onsti- electorate acknowledged as belonging to the oldest son. This r„rtiie famous instrument shows the style and spirit of the times. It ^„'i[|"^j" begins with an apostrophe to Satan, Anger, Pride, and Luxury; racy, (so and it sets forth the necessity that the number of electors should 'f|."|;f be seven, in order to oppose the seven mortal sins .' On the "'e death of Charles, his son Wlnceslaus succeeded to the impe- '"^f" rial throne, as well as to the crown of Bohemia. The shameful wiiichit levity and utter profligacy of this prince disqualified him for the writ- care of his empire ; and under his administration, its alfairs, both '"^""^ in Germany and Italy, went to ruin. The electors held a diet and deposed him. Winceslaus took their treatment, however, iSiys in good part, and returned to his hereditary dominions ; only Winces desiring the cities to send him as a parting present, some butts of their best wine! 9. Frederic, duke of Brunswick, was next chosen, who was shortly after murdered ; and subsequently, Rupert, count pala- tine of the Rhine, was elected to fill the vacant throne. At this 1. What occurred during the reign of Henry of Luxembours ? What during ihai ot Louis of Bavaria? — ?^. What wis the go'den hull? What vas sell led b\' it ? Give some account of the successor of Chailee IV. '> Who succ:cded Winceslaus ? % 248 DAWN OF THE REFORMATION. Middle Hist. PERIOD V. CHAP. IV. Sigisiiiund. Council of Constance. John Hiiss buint. Jerome of Prague. ■Albert 11. siicceefla Sisisniu'id. Frederic in. 145S. Turks maS" lers of Con- Btantinopie. Masiiiiiliar. I. 11?91. Plillipll., Aueustiis perio J may be dated the commencement in Germany of a scliisni in the church, which led the way to " the Reformation." John Huss, of Prague, a ioliower of certain opinions which Wjck- LiFFE had taught in England, began to teach in Bohemia. The emperor Rupert vainly sought to heal the dissensions wl ;ch arose in the church, but died without effecting his object. He was succeeded in the imperial government by Sigismitnd, king of Hungary, brother to the deposed VVinceslaus. The disorders of the church claimed his first attention. A general council was, with the approbation of the pope, convened at Constance. Huss was cited to appear, charged with heresy, condemned, and with a mitre of paper placed upon his head, on which were painted three devils, he was committed to the flames, and died maintaining his faith. The same opinions were professed, and taught by the learned Jerome of Prague, the companion of Huss ; and he suffered the same fate. But these executions served to increase the number of the Hussites; and in Bohemia they maintained a long war with the imperial power. A pacification was at length effected, and they were granted the privileges which they claimed. 10. Albert, duke of Austria, son-in-law of Sigismund, suc- ceeded him in the kingdoms of Hungary and Bohemia, and was subsequently raised to the imperial throne. His short reign was alarmed by the appearance of the Turks in Bulgaria. His sudden and early death prevented his meeting them in arms. He was succeeded on the thrones of Hungary and Bohemia, by his son Ladislaus, then a minor, and the empire was conferred on his cousin, Frederic of Austria. This prince wandered, like his predecessors, after the phantom of power which their Italian titles conferred, and was crowned at Rome. Europe loas now alarmed at I'le progress of the Turks., ivho made them' selves masters of Constantinople. Assemblies were summoned for the purpose of arming Christendom against them, but nothing effectual was done. John Hunmades, general of the Hunga- rians, compelled them to raise the siege of Belgrade, which they had invested. Frederic HI. was succeeded by his son, Maxi- iMiLiAN, arch-duke of Austria. He married Mary, only child of Charles the Bold, and heiress of Burgundy and Flanders, and thus obtained possession of these extensive domains, lohich were at this period rich and commercial. 11. FRANCE. — Philip Augustus, on going to the crusade^ liad pledged himself by oath not to encroach upon the do^ minions of Richard ; but th-e pope giving him a dispensation. J). Who subsequently ? What persons were at this period tried and con- demned ? At what council were they condemned, and for what? What effect had iheir death upon the belief of the people ? What was done, and what obtained by the Hussi'es ? — 10. In whose rei^n did the Turks ap- pear ? In whose reign did tney conquer Constantinople? What hero met them in Hungary ? Pay particular attention to the successor of Frederic III. Who was he ? By what marriage connexion did he gain large pos- sessions? In what condition was Burgundy and Flanders? — 11. How did Philip Augustus conduct in reference to Richard of England? THE TIME OF INNOCENT HI. 249 t'liilip held himself free to follow out his ambitious inclinations. Middu HUt. He excited Kichard's younger brother John to rebel against him, period v. and practised to have Richard himself detained prisoner in chap. iv. GeriTiany : but the lion-hearted warrior escaped, and Philip ^-^"^^^*ii^ wrote to John, " Beware: the devil is unchained." On Richard's ^°': ' returr lo his dommions, a war ensued between the rivals, but it revena was characterized by no remarkable event, and waged with pferfc"}, jitlk vigor. On the accession of John to the crown of Eng- crown, land, Philip summoned him as liis vassal of NoiTnandy, to ap- pear before him and answer for the murder of his nephew, Artliur. John neglecting to appear, his conlinenlal dominions phiiip were declared forfeit, and annexed lo the French crown. The a^^g"",^^ pope, in a quarrel with John, gave to Philip the crown of Eng- vereign land ; and he made extensive preparations for a war in vindica- ch'u'iL lion of the claim thus obtained. JMeanwhile the pontiff con- magne. eluded a peace wilh England, and revoked the gift. Philip, as a sovereign of the French, was one of their best. He not only enlarged his domains, but he consolidated his power, and gained an ascendancy over ilie nobles favorable to the interests of -g.^no the people, constituting a royal court, to which they could ap- ril^.ji'a f peal from the decisions of the baronial courts. He also estab- ^,^^'- lished a royal military force, paid directly from his own cofl'ers. asainst 12. The short reign of Louis VIII. is memorable for nothing ^^{'^^l tave finishing a cruel war undertaken by his father, Philip Au- ses. gustus, against the IVuIdenses and Albigenses* religious orders in the south of France. Pope Innocent MI. denounced them as 122G heretics, and commanded the chivalry to destroy them. The j^j^^j^ famous SiMox de Mo.mfort commanded against them, and ix. 200,000 men were employed in extirpating a million of harm- maifeg less people. Louis IX.. called Saint Louis, being a minor, his uie se- mother, the excellent Blanche OF Castile, held the reins of civ- government, and with a vigorous hand. He undertook a cru- *1^*- sade for the benefit of Christians in the east, now in distress, the* He first directed his arms against Egypt, as being the key of '^a'^'^'" the holy land; but his army was reduced by pestilence, defea*- laoi. ed by the Moslems, and himself mide prisoner. He was re- * The Albigenses, who were in Piedmont, must be distinguished from the Waldeiises, or followers of Peier Waldo, in Dauphiny, Narbonne and Provence. The Albigenses, so called from the town of Albigeois, were a ecct of the Manichaeans. and held to certain doctrines respecting the origin of good and evil deemed heretical ; with these ihey mingled an abhorrence of the Roman hierarchy, for which the pope decreed iheir destruction. The Waldenses held to deriving their religion, without the intervention of man, directly from God — by his holy spirit, and through his written word, which they circulated. This makes the Waldenges the true precursors of the Re- forma'.ion. The persecution of the Albigenses was, however, equally sinful. Sonu distinguish the Valletises from the Waldenses as a church coming down Irom the apostles, and having never bowed to Rome. II. Where was Richard detained on his reiurn from the holy land? What did Philip write to John when he escaped ? How did Philip get pos- tession of Normandy ? Wliat gift did be receive Irom the pope ? What was Philip's character as a sovereign ? What were his principal acts ? — 12. For what was the reign of Philip's sen memorable ? Who were the Albi- »enses? I'he Waldenses? Tlie Valleii?es ? Give an account of LouiB JX a, C5 ?n') THE SICILIAN VESPERS. Middle mi.t. leased, in exchange for the city of Damietta of which hisarmv PEUiOD V had obU.iiiied possession. After passing four years in the holv cuAP. IV. land he returned to his kingdom. But his rage of crusadmg ^*"^^^^^^*^ was not extinguished. He invaded the kingdom of Tunis, ui order to convert the monarch and his people ; but himself and his army fell a prey to an epidemic disease m hich ravaged dve country. ri"i53. 13. Philip the Hardy, succeeded his lather. In his reigii Philip a massacre of the French took place in the island of Sicily, Hardy.*' Called the '■'Sicilian vespers." Charles of Anjou, the sove- reign of Sicily, was a French prince, and uncle to Pliilip. His ambition and talents had made him feared and hated by the clergy, especially by the pope ; and the seeds of revolt were sown deep in the minds of the Sicilians. At Palermo, as a The bride witli her train were passing the streets, they were treated ciiian rudely by a Frenchman. A Sicilian immediately stabbed him ^'''^*"„ to the heart. Instantly the cry was heard in every direction, "• Kill the French ! kill the French !" JMen, women, and chil- dren were massacred; and the French population in the island wholly exterminated. Charles escaped from Sicily, and apped- ing to his nephew, Philip, engaged him in his causa. Peter, king of Arragon, liad claims upon Naples and Sicily, and these were now acknowledged by the inhabitants. Philip, in orde? 2 j to establish the claims of Charles, invaded Spain ; but he suf- ct. fered much in the attempt, without accomplishing his purpose. ° -.-.oo 14. Philip ''the Fair," engaged in contests with the pTiUip haughty pope, BoxiF ACE VIII. His linances being low, he ex IV. sue- acted monev from the priests, notwithstanding Boniface had his fa- prohibited the clergy of any kingdom whatever, from granting ther. iiioney to princes, without his special permission. Boniface sent as a legate, to threaten the king of France, one of his own Bonu rebel subjects, who was immediately seized and imprisoned by face his sovereign. Boniface, enraged, issued a proclamation de- Tn]e daring that the "Vicar of Christ was vested with lull authority Philip Qygj. g\\ t]^g kings and princes of tlie earth ;" and ordered the Fair. French clergy forthwith to repair to Rome. A French priest carried this proclamation to the king. Philip threw it into the Their lire, asscmilcd the representalivcs of the stales of his kingdom, ieads'\o ^^'^^ laid the case before them. They acknowledged Philip's the first independent authority, and disavowed the pope's claim. It was national ^f. • ,7 ^'..i . ,■ /• •/• jj j assem- Oil this occasion that the representatives of cities were fi>'st regU' F^'a'°^ ZrtrZj/ sj/m??io??e(Z /o Mc rw/JonaZ assemhli/. FhiViTp W. improved the civil policy of France, both in the legislative and judicial 8^1 I departments/'' Louis X- 15. His son and successor, Louis X., was a mean and avari- 13. What occurred in the reign of Philip the Hardy ? Who was ivintr of iSicily ? Give an account of the " Sicilian vespers." How did Philip bt'. come involved in war with Spain ? — 11. Wiih what pope was Philip IV. at variance? What claims did this pope set up? How did Philip treat him? 'I'o what memorable assembly did this dispute lead? In what respect was France improved by Philip ? CUNPOWDEK KIK.ST USED. 25 i cious lung. He executed hia prime minister, Marignv, tin the MiMum»t^ pretence of IiIh dealing in magic; but in reality in order to con- i-iJiioD v. tiscatc his great possessions. The death of Louis without male 'I'AI'. v. heirs, gave rise to a contest respecting the right of female sue- ^v^-v->p> cession. The decision was unfavorable to the daughter of the 132H. king, tlie Salic law having decreed that no female could inherit phjnpv the ciown of Trance. It passed first to Philip the Lo.vc, then ioCnAiir.ES THE Fair, fjolh brothers of the late monarch. The fy/'" short reign:? of these princes, who died without lieirs, were fol- lowed by the elevation of Pimm? of Valois, cousin of the late vi., of kings ; and l/ius the crown of France passed from Uie Captliana ^^^^^ i(t l/ie houae of Valois. CHAPTER V. England and France. 1. Edward HI, put in a claim to the sovereignty of France, 1336- in right of his mother Isabella, daughter to Philip IV. It was Edward disallowed by the French, who unanimously placed Philip on the throne. P^dward, doubtless trusting more in tlie strength of his arms, than in the justice of his cause, assumed the title of king of France, and invaded that kingdom, where he fought the famous battle of Cressy, and defeated the army of Philip with 1340 great slaugliter. Ih then /jcsifgrd and look Calais^ when a truce ^j^p''' was concluded between the two nations. On taking that city, Edward which had resisted his arms for nearly twelve months, Edward "fjy,ta' threatened to put the inhabitants to the sword, unless they Philip would deliver up to death six of their principal citizens. Six noble burghers, self-devoted, came forth to his camp with hal- ters on their necks. Edward commanded their execution. His queen Philippa arrived, threw herself upon her knees, and im- plored her husband to save thern. She prevailed, and the gal- lant burghers exclaimed, "Edward conquers our cities, but Philippa our hearts." 2. Artillery 'vas, for the first time, used at the battle of Cressy, and by the tnglisn. The invention of gunpowder is ascribed to ScwARTZ, a monk of Coloj^rje , but Pioger Bacon of Eng- land, the greatest European philosopher of the flark ages, had, ''1'^""-" in a work on chemistry, described the mixture, and its explo- p"w<^er. bive force. Small arms were not used till nearly a century af- Icrwards. The knights regarded shooting as a barbarous mode 15. What ocourred inihe rei^n ofLoii'e X.? Wfiat rcBpeotins the Burcee- «ion? NV'ho were the three nexi kinL's? What change of dynasty'took plai'C ? Chap. V. — I. On what ^ound did Edward III. claim the sovereignty of France? Wha* did he to f-nfurce his claim? What occurred on liiB taking Calais ? — ti. Give some account of the invention of ginpowdcr I 252 MISFORTUNES OF FRANCE. Middle Hist, of attacking an adversary. But experience has demonstrated PERIOD V. that llie invention of fire-arms has been one of the greatest means CHAP. V. of civilizing the world. As heavy ordnance costs labor and '*-«''~^^^"*»' money to u-ansport it, an advantage not before possessed was Desuuctive given to the invaded over the invader, which kept nations settkd, vvar^givethe The physical strength of a steel-guarded giai.t, who covld deal to'm"ntar heavier blows than his neighbors, no longer gained him an as- over piiysi- cendancy to which his moral and intellectual energies allbrded Tothe^i"- ^^^'^ ^o claim. The hazards of war could be better calculated, vaded over and disputes were oftener settled without bloodshed. What- e uiv cr. ^^^^^ increases the dangers and l:azards of those who fight, na- turally duninishes the number of wars, as it makes people more inclined to settle their differences peaceably. ■ .-^p^ 3. A truce was made, during which Philip VI. dietl, and left John be- the government to his son John, a prince ill qualified for his coincs king station. On th-e expiration of the truce, the Prkvce of Wales, called from his armor the Black PpaivcE, who had when very -„^jj young distinguished himself at Cressy, entered France at the POIC-' head of an army, and near Poictiers he encountered the forces TIERS, of John: and althouofh they were far superior in numbers, he Edward, the , ' , =,•'.,. . t ^^ , . , ^ Black routed them and made their king prisoner. JNo knight ever feats John" treated a captive with more respectful courtesy, than the Black of France Prince did king John. He was carried into England, and dur- '^hini'nri-* ii^g h's abscncB, the government of the kingdom was committed son'or. to the dauphin, afterwards Charles V. 4. A truce witii England for two years, relieved France from foreign enemies ; but it was torn with domestic dissensions, v/hich the weak administration of the young dauphin was un- able to check. The national assembly was convened, but instead of assisting the king's government, they availed themselves of . present disturbances to extend their own prerogatives, and limit those of the crown. Paris revolted : the example was fol- War of the , , , , . . , , i i i "jaqucrie," lowed by many other cities, and anarchy pervaded the nation. or pe^saiu- j^^ ^j^g ^^^r of the " Jaquerie," the peasants rose against the no- <5:sorders. bility, burnt their- castles, and murdered their families without mercy. The horror and desolation which spread through the (J5ic spirit land, and the want of any authority to check disorders, brought tiiis ume the capital to submit to the dauphin, and Charles now pro- as iniich ceeded with vigor to restore order in tlie state. The truce wag 3''rO(^ din ~ France as in now exchanged for a peace. King John was set at liberty for EuKiaqd.) ^ ransom in money, and for giving up, without reserving even right of homage, several French provinces to England. o. John did not long survive the peace, and the dauphin, 2. Why was it a means of civilization ? — 3. What change in sovereign occurred in France ? Was ihe war suspended or terminated ? Give an ai' count of the exploit of the Black Prince. (If his courteous behavior. In John's absence who was at the head of affairs in France? — 1. What sus- pension of the war now occurred ? What was the condition of the kingdom V What occurred in the war of the Jacquerie or peasantry? To what did thie inarchy lead the people of Paris ? On what conditions did the French make peace with the English ? DUKE OF BURGUNDY ASSASblA'ATF.D 253 Chatilcs v., ascended the throne. When the internal disor- •"^'dJfg Hiat ders which had so nearly destroyed his kingdom, had by his pekiodv vigor and prudence been healed, he renewed the war with Eng- '-"ap. v. land; whose continental afiairs, in consequence of the advanced v-^'N/'-'x-/ age of Edward 111., and feeble health of the Black Prince, were 13641. now less prosperous. During the remaining years of his reign, ii^cWkic.' he conquered all the English possessions in France, except Calais, Bordeaux, and liayonne. 6. IJis son, Charles VI., a minor, succeeded him. The am- bitious dukes of Anjou, Berri, and Burgundy, uncles to the young king, were made regents during his minority. They 13SO. overburdened tiie people with taxes, and lavished the revenues tunate'" of the kingdom upon the regal household, or suirered them to charies vi be plundered by the ofiicers of government. This state of mis- (the Be-* rule led to horrible assassinations, and at length a cruel war. 'oved.) The hostile parties, called from their leaders, Armagnacs or Or- leanists, and Burgundians, each struggled to obtain tlie person ,. ... of the king, and as they obtained it, they alternately seized the civil war of reins of government. The dregs of the populace of Paris es- 'Jlfcs^or'or- poused, with die most ferocious zeal, tlie parties of the rivals, leans factiou and unchecked by any authority, committed the most horrid nurRun'- crimes. The unfortunate Charles became insane, and never re- d'ii''j- covered. Henry V., now on the throne of England, profited by the miseries of France, to renew the war. He landed at the , -«r mouth of the Seine, and took Harjlcur. On the invasion of a ^aijv--' foreign enemy, the French, for the moment, suspended their vuuht. quarrels, and rallied in defence of the kingdom. An army of Enuhind tu-- 50,000 uion, under the constable P'Albret, posted them-clves ft^^i's simhio French witL near the village of Agincourl, to intercept the English on their ii,ooo march. A bloody battle ensued, in which Henry was victorious English, over an army more than four times his number. 7. The Burgundian and Armagnac or Orleans factions, again made war upon each other, and the count d'Arjmagnac was bar- C'vji '^o-r id barously massacred in Paris by John of Burgindy. Henry renewed, made himself ma^>ter of Normandy, and prepared to advance to Paris. The young dauphin, now at the head of the Orleans party, aflected to seek a reconciliation with the Burgundians, and a meeting between him and duke John, surnamed the Fear- "jeansano less, was appointed on the bridge of Montereau. The duke dered"i)y'"h£ knelt to the dauphin. At the moment, one of the Armagnacs oiieanists stal)bed him, and he fell dead at the prince's feet. The Burgun- ^ofMonU*!* dians, who had the good-will of Paris, believed that the royal rcau. family were ^rivy to this deed of treachery, and Philip, their yoimg duke, hastened to offer to Henry of England the crown 5. Who surceeded John of France ? What did he before renewing the War with England ? What was the situation of England's continental af- fairs ? What did Charles conquer? — <». Who was Charles VI.? Who were regents during his minority ? What was their character and conduct ? To what did their misrule lead? What factions arose, and what waa their conduct towards the king? What befel the king? — t . Relate the succeed- ing murders of the two factions? To what adjustment with Henry V 3» England did these affairs lea^l ? 254 JOAIV OF ARC FULFILS HER MlSSIOriJ. Middle imt. of France. The other party also, intrigued with this foreii;?! PERIOD V. king. Affairs were compromised by the trealy of Troyes, by CHAP. V. wliicli Henry espoused the princess Catharine, daughter ol '"""^^^•''^''•^ Charles VI., and ivas declared heir of the French monarchy I420- The two kings Henry V. and Charles VF., died the same year ^rroy'es!^ and Henry Vi., the infant son of Henry V., was proclaimed king, with equal rejoicings in London and Paris hariesvn. 8- Nevertheless, the dauphin assumed the government, undeT the title of Charles VH., and took the field. He was crowned Bedford, by his partisans at Poictiers^ Rheims, the usual place, being in English re- the hands of his enemies. The regency of France was corn- cent m . . , r- 1 i-> 1- 1 1 T-i France, mitted, on the part ot the Lnglisn, to the duke of Bedford, uncle of the young Henry. 9. While the English interest in France was supported by the dukes of Burgundy and Brittany, the nation, after the death of their monarch, evinced symptoms of returning affection for the amiable Charles, his son. Yet, though the number of his adherents increased, and he received auxiliary troops from Scotland, his treasury was at a low ebb, and his prospects VER- ' gloomy. The duke of Bedford obtained a victory over the united NEViL. French and Scotch at Verneuil. He then besieged Orleans, de"" Bedford which was considered as the key to France ; and Charles, hope- defeat the less of relieving it, was about to retire, — when his sinking and French- . ^ . ^ almost ruined fortunes were retrieved by means of the most ^eeeO^- lingular kind. A young female presented herself before him, leans. and declared herself commissioned by God to deliver the city of Orleans, and conduct him to Rheims, there to be crowned "LaPu- and anointed. Her own solemn persuasion of the realily nf "Ma'idof her mission, — which was, she said, communicated in visions, — Orleans •' together with the intrepidity of her manner, made an impres .sion of awe, — even on the minds of the gay courtiers. 10. Tiie politicians saw, that whether true or false, important use might be made of the heroic Joan of Arc; yet at first thev doubted, or pretended to doubt; and called a council of the clergy, who pronounced her revelations genuine. Clad in steel ai'mor from head to foot, and mounted on a gallant war-steed, the maid of Orleans rode forth, bearing a consecrated banner, Joan of Arc She took the command of the array, and assured, as by a voicf. 'a'iese of from God, the joyful troops followed her into the city. The Orleans. English affected to laugh, — but they were heart-stricken wiih (The identical steel armor worn by Joan of Arc is in the "Mu.see d'Ar^ tillerie" at Paris. Its weight is such that an ordinary woman of our day could not lift it.) T. What two kings died the same year, and what year ? What prince was proclaimed ? — 8. Who formed, however, a party in France to ciown Charles VII. ? At what place was the coronation, and why at that place f Who was the English regent in France ? — D. With whom did the Scots take sides? What was the situation of Charles VII.? What battle was fought, and who conquered? What siege was maintained ? By whom wcrn the fortunes of Charles retrieved ? Relate her own account of her niis?ii>n, and her impression concerning it. — lO. What is said of the politicians anc the clergy ? D-'scribe the appearance and first exploits of Joan of Arc. FRANCE RECOVEl'.ED FIJOM THE ENGLISH. 25o tlie fear, that haply they were fighting against God. The hero- -.Wd'^^g out ine led the French to repeated attacks ; and by continued victo- peuiod v. ries, compelled their opponents to retire from Orleans. ciiai-. v. 11. She then demanded of the king, that he should depart ^■^"^'^^^z for Rheinis to be crowned. It seemed a mad undertaking, for the country was in the hands of the English. Yet, Charles obeyed the mandate. The English, although the duke of Bed- ford was indefatigable, could scarcely be prevailed on to offer the little army any annoyance. The cities, as they passed, 7., ,^" ) ; Rheims sent its keys, and Charles entered — crown- opened their gates Rheims was crowned — and anointed with the holy oil kept since the *** " time of Clovis. Here the maid declared that her mission was closed ; but the French pleaded for her stay, and she unwisely joan of remained in the camp. At the siege of Compegne, she was Arc bar- taken captive in making a sally, tried by an English ecclesiasti- lyimmt" cal court for tiic crime of sorcery, and burnt alive. Her influ- ence was however still felt. Heaven had interfered in behalf of the French, and restored their lawful sovereign ; and the nation, after such divine interposition, was not slow in return- nig to its duty. 12. The party of the English rapidly declined ; — the death of the duke of Bedford gave the finishing blow to their misfortunes, j § and enabled Charles to obtain entire possession of his kingdom. | § The remaining years of his reign were devoted in endeavors to f"^ restore the wasted energies of the nation ; and were successful in raising it from its long depression, to a high state of pros- perity and happiness. A standing army was supported by a tax upon the people. This, by rendering it unnecessary to call 1-440 upon the forces heretofore furnished by the vassals of the of tiie crown, prevented the strict relation which had existed between f<^"''-=>' the nobles and their retainers ; and facilitated the decav of the feudal policy, found, in the progress of society, to have become destructive in its conseqiiences, both to the rulers and the people. 13. Louis XT., the son and successor of Charles, gave early 1461. indications of that intriguing policy, which characterized his ^Jci'^ reign. He collected around him to execute his plans, the most poiuio degraded of his subjects. His attempts to humble his great fa^iiV. vassals, and extend the prerogatives of the crown, caused a war, 'cm. known by the name of the war of the "Public Weal," which ended in a treaty favourable to his subjects ; but which Louis ooon infringed. He was long engaged in hostilities with CiiARLFs, surnamcd the Bold, duke of Burgundy. I I. After she had raised the siege of Orleans what did sho require of Cliarles ? Describe the passage of his armVi and the result of the move- fneiit. What did Joan then declare ? What did she unwisely consent to do ? What was the consequence ? How was her influence felt after her death ? — 12. What was now the condition of the English party ? To what were the remaining years of Charles VIL devoied ? "What had been found to be the operation of the feudal system ? What was done i i France par tially to destroy it ? —13. Give an account of Louis XI. 256 CHARLES THE BOLD. PERIOD V. CHAP. V. Rudolf. Philip the Good. CliarleR the Bold. and MORMT. Siviss de- feat Charles. J'fAJ^C r. Duke of Lorraine defeats Charles the Bold. Louis treacherous and cruel, and yet for the people at large a good sove- reign. 14§3 Charlps vin. 14. Burgundy, as a kingdom, Avas founded by Rudolf. At one period it comprised Switzerland as far as the river Aar, — the country north of the present province of Burgundy, once callea Austrasia and Metz ; while on the south it took in at its greatest extent Dauphiny and Provence. In 1369 Flanders and Artois had been added to the duchy, by the marriage of duke Philip THE Good to Margaret, the heiress of these domains. By other means he acquired dominion over the whole of the Low Coun- tries. The duchy of Burgundy was now an independent sove- reignty, in a high state of cultivation, and celebrated for its manufactures of wool. Charles the Bold, who succeeded John, was the richest and most powerful — kept the most splendid court for tournaments and feats of arms — of any sovereign in Europe. Louis XI. took the extraorchnary i^esolution, after giving Charles much cause of discontent, to go almost alone to pay the fierce Burgundian a visit, Charles, however, was by no means outwitted by him; and Louis could only get from his power by mortifying concessions. The Swiss, whom Charles despised, defeated him in the battles of Granson and Morat. Charles, in attempting to establish his authority in Lorraine, was killed in battle near Nancy. His only child, Mary, married Maximilian of Austria. 15. On the deatii of Cliaiies, Louis seized part of the do- minions of Mary, his daughter, the heiress of Burgundy. Multi- tudes of the subjects of Louis were sacrificed to his cruelty and treachery. During his reign, 4000 are estimated to have perished by torture, without any kind of trial. Yet he was himself perpetually tormented by the fear of death, and of that punishment thereafter, which he well knew that, for his crimes, he had merited. Yet, as a king, Louis XI. was to the people at large, a better sovereign than many who dazzle by generous qualities, and excite admiration for valor. If he oppressed the people himself, he suffered no one else to do it; and one tyrant has always been found a less evil than many. Louis XI. was succeeded by his son Charles VIII., who married Anne, the duchess of Brittany, by which that province, the last of the great feudatories of France, was annexed to the crown. I'l. Give an account of Burgundy as to its founder and early extent? What domains did Philip the Good add by marriage and otherwise? In what state did he leave the duchy to his successor — or what is said of the power and wealth of Charles the Bold? What was done by Louis XI. ? How did he get out of the power of Charles? What people did Charles despise ? In what battles did they defeat him ? Where did he lose his life? Who was his heiress? Whom did she marry ? 15. By whom wcio a part of Mary's dominions seized ? What was the character of Louis XI. I CHAPTER VI England and Scotland 1 RicitARD, on the conclusion of the truce with Salailin, .vidnc nm ! astoiied his return to liis own kingdom, where the intrigues of ^^ his brother John, and Philip Augustus, rendered his presence chap. vi. necessary. On his arrival in Germany, where he travelled in v.,,**-^^'-^^ ilisguite, he was discovered, and made prisoner by the duke of 1192-4. Austria ; who, for £60,000 placed him in the hands of the em- Kiciiard th-; peror. After two years he was liberated, the English paying ini")'risoned. the emperor £300,000. He then returned to England, and was welcomed with joyful acclamations by his subjects. His brother ror pa^ys^tii'» John had cause to dread his approach ; but Richard, naturally "I'lke, asa kind-hearted, was willing to overlook his misdeeds. " I freely ffiecuiaiion, forgive him," said he, "and 1 hope I may forget his wrongs, as fg*'*Jjoo' 0*^ soon as he will my pardon." Richard though a valorous knight, and a jovial companion, was fierce and rash in conduct; and his reign was unfortunate for his country. His delight was in havd blows, and he received his death-wound in storming the casde of a rebellious subject in France. 2. On his death there were two claimants of the English ISfJO. throne; John, who took immediate possession, and AKTaun •'"^" of Brittany, his nephew, son of Geoffrey Plantagenet, an «ldcr brother. John defeated the forces of Arthur, took the young n"r"f/ prince prisoner, and killed him. The king of France summoned John to answer for the murder of Arthur, both John and Artlmr being, on account of their French possessions, vassals r/f that Normandy monarch. John not appearing, his domains were forfeited, and French* p%. Philip took possession of JVormandy, Maine and Jliijou^ which vinces loei •jyere thus alienated from England. 3. The unnatural murder of his nephew Arthur, and the continued violence and oppression of which John was guilty, had rendered his character and peison odious to his English subjects ; while his weakness enabled ihe people to put forth their claims to those riglits of which they had long been de- VJth. prived. A confederacy, including nearly all the nobility of ^^t^Run"'.'" England, demanded the restoiation of their ancient laws, and mede lom- the redress of their grievances. To enforce their demands, they grinrthem prepared for war. Jolni found himself compelled to treat with jiis the Magna subjects at Runy?nede, and he subscribed " the charter," or the " "^ Ch^p. VI. — 1. What happened to Richard on his return from the rrii- eado ? How was the affair concerning his ransom ? How much money did Che emperor make ? What occurred between him and his brother John ? Wliat was Richard's character, and the manner of his death ? — 2. What claimants were there to the crown? What was the conduct of John, and the fate of Arthur? What was done by the king of France? What pro- vinces did the English lose? — 3. What made John unpopular and even odious ? What important measure was now taken by he nobles? What constitution did they obtain from John ? Where and when ? 33 257 M.\GNA CHARTA. JiTvidie Hist PERIOD V. CHAP. V!. iu lia(5ing iimlations. John's bad faith. Henry III. Ten years of ane. Loi;i3 is de- feated ai eea and abandons England. 1236. Henry III. marries Eleanor of Provence. Parliament ut Osfjrd- " Magna Charta." The venerable archbishop of Canterbury. Stephen Laxgtox, braved the displeasure of the pope, by being one of the foremost in procuring, and afterwards defend- ing tVoin tlie faitliless attempts of Jolin, this great chart of Eig- land's tVeedom. Twenty -five of the barons were named as guardians of the liberty of the kingdom, to whom was com- mitted the charge of seeing the provisions of the charter ex- ecuted. This important instrument contains the germ of Eng- lish constitutional liberty ; and not only of English liberty, but of American. The main points for which the charter gives surety are : — 1, representation in parliament ; 2, trial by jury ; 3, writs of habeas corpus. It provides also for the fixed and regular returns of the courts of common pleas, and for the sal'ety of foreign merchants travelling within the realm. 4. John now gave his dominions to the pope, and received them back as a tief of the Holy See, together with absolution from his engagements. Then supplying himself with foreign mercenaries, he attacked the unsuspecting barons, burned their castles, and laid waste their territories. The barons, enraged, offered the crowm of England to Louis, the son of Philip Au- gustus of France, w^ho entered England with an army. But on the death of John, many of the nobles withdrew their support from Louis, and proclaimed Henry HI., the son of John. He being a minor, the earl of Pe3ibroke, a wdse and upright states- man, was made regent. He conducted the war against Louis, and compelled him to renounce his claim to the crown of England. 5. Henry married Eleanor, the daughter of the count of Provence. That portion of France became early polished in manners •, and those of her countrymen who followed the queen, made themselves agreeable to the king, and received his favors; while they looked superciliously dowm on the offended nobles of England. Henry applied to the parliament for money to enable him to invade France. The barons first demanded the confirmation of the charter, which w'as granted. The inva- sion was fruitless ; meanwhile the spirit of disaffection spread throughout the kingdom. The great charter 7cas again re?iej"''d by Henry with the most imposing ceremonies; but he aftei wards disregarding it, a parliament icas sjimmoned at Oxford, wh'ch confirmed and extended the rights of the people. 6 At the head of the party opposed to the king, was Simon DE MoNTFORT, earl of Leicester, who by his talents and add) ess 3. What ecclesiastic of England here favored the cause of human ri glitg as well as_ English liberty? For what were 25 barons selecied / What are the main points for which the charter stipulates ? — +. What conduct of John showed him not to have been in good faith when he made the engage- mentsofthe " Magna Charta?" To whom did the English baron? offer the crown, and what was the consequence ? What occurred on the death of John respecting the succession and the regency ? What war did eari Penj broke finish, and how ? — 5. Who was Henry's queen ? What was the con- duct of the French who accompanied the queen ? For what did Henry ajjply 4<) the parliament ? How was his application met by the barons ? Where and iu what assembly was the great charter finally renewed? THE FIRST HOUSE OF COMMONS. 250 had insinuated himself into the confidence of the people. .\ civil war ensued. Leicester obtained possession of the person of the king; and for two years exercised the regal power in liis name. Euward, the eldest son of Henry, who had at (irst join«;d the party against his father, now took, the comi land of the loyalists, and by his energy and valor, he obtained a vic- tory over the forces of Leicester at Evesham, where tint cele- lirattd earl was slain. Although the reign of Henrj' is nut con- fiidored a glorious one, yet during its long continuance his kingdom was less oppressed by exactions than in the times of more warlike sovereigns. It increased in wealth, and extended its commerce ; the rights of the common people became more re- spected^ and for the first time they were represented in parlia- ment. Y 7. His son and successor, Edward, in the period which in- tervened between the battle of Evesham and his father's death, went, at the summons of the pope, accompanied by his queen, Eleanor of Spain, and a few military AjUov. ers — not so much to aid the cause of the Christians, as to behold their defeat in the Holy Ixind. Yet he found various occasions for the display of bravery and sagacity. He came near falling the victim of an assassin. An infidel stabbed him in liis tent, with a poisoned weapon. The affectionate Eleanor sucked out the poison nursed and tended him, and he slowly recovered from its efiects. 8. Edward returned to England on the death of his fiuher, and having regulated the affairs of his kingdom, his aspiring mind con- c-ived the design of uniting in his own person the dominion of the v.hole island The fVelsh, the ancient Britons, now under their king Lewellyn, struggled bravely to retain their indepen- dence, but were conquered. Lewellyn was slain in battle. His bro- ther, prince David, was made prisoner by the English, tried as a traitor, and executed with a barbarity not unfrequent in that cruel age. Tradition saj's that Edward then assembled tlie leaders of the \yelsh, and told them he would give them for their sovereign, a prince, with whose manners no possible fault could be found, a Welshman by birth, who could not even speak a word of English ; and amidst their acclamations and promises of obedience, he produced his infant son, born in Wales, in the castle of Caernarvon. This was h's second son, but the oldest dying, the " Prince of Wales" became thereafter llic title of the heir of the monarchy. 9. Events transpired in Scotland which gave to Edward tlie desired opportunity to interfere in the affairs of that kingdom.. Alexander IH. died, leaving no other descendant than a grand- XidJlf rihl PERTfil) V CIIAP. VI. HJi^l. Prince Eu- ward (le- fcals Jiiid eliiys .Simi.n dc MoritfortT e.".rl of Lci- cei-ter. 1265. The firtt le- guldr purUa.' Between 127© and 1274. Prince E(.- '.vard joins the E:^IUh Crusade. 1272 Edward I 1282. F^dward conquer'* Ori^n o! the title " Prince cS Wales " 6. Who was Simon de Montfort, and v/hat part did he act ? Who set the royal party free from him, and at what battle ? What may be said of Henry's reign ? When was the first regular parliament called ? Of what representatives .Hd it consist ? — T. What crusade did prince Edward join? What happened to him in the Holy Land? — '^. On what occasion did he return ? Give an account of the conquest of Wales, Of the origin of the title applied to the eldest son of English kings. — 9. What is paid of Alex- ander 'II. I 260 KUVVARD I. — WALLACE. Mid du Hist, (laughter, Margaret, then about three years of age; the off- rERioi) V. spring of E/tic king of Norway, and Margaret, daughter of CHAP. VI, Alexander. She was affianced to Edward, the young prince of Wales, son of the king of England ; and she was taken from her home to be there educated. The delicate little " maid ol Norway" withered like a transplanted flower, and died at the Orkney Islands, on her passage to England. Thirteen claimants to the Scottish crown appeared, but all were soon dismissed, except Joh.v Baliol and Robert Bruce. They were both descendants of tlie earl of Huntingdon, third son of David I. king of Scotland. BalioPs claims would at this day have been acknowledged without controversy, as he was de- scended from the eldest daughter of the earl of Huntingdon, being hei grandson ; but he was one remove farther from the blood of the Scottish king than Bruce, who was the son of the second daughter of the earl. 10. Henry H. had compelled William, king of Scotland, whom he had taken prisoner, to do homage for his kingdom. Richard I. renounced this claim. Edward renewed it, nor dared Alexander 111. refuse compliance.* In virtue of being lord para- mount, Eilward, on the death of Margaret, summoned the Scot- iiiteis the tish nobilily and clergy to meet him at Norham, on the south Lie°";lf No'r- ^""'^ bank of the Tweed ; where, by his address, he succeeded *iaii). in inducing them to recognise his supreme authority, and leave to his decision the question of right between Bruce and Baliol. Both the competitors also gave their solemn assent to his arbi- Deci,i..s ii: trr.tion as sovereign lord of Scotland. After calling much f^^'"f I''" learned council to his aid, Edward decided in favor of Baliol. Baliol, however, soon found the English yoke galling; and his haughty temper being wrought upon by his nobles, he con- cluded an alliance with Edward's enemies, the French, and ob- tained from the pope a dispensation from his oath of fealty. 11. Edward invaded Scotland at the head of a powerful army, I'296 crossed the Tweed, defeated the forces of Baliol, and carried iiia'k"s\ii- bim prisoner to England. William Wallace now rose from liji prisoiioi obscurity. The fame of his brave and successful exploits drew William multitudes to his standard, and at length placed him at the head Wallace, of a considerable army. He defeated the English governor, near Stirling, made himself master of that fortress, and laid * On his knees, in presence of the English prelates and barons, he said, " I Alexander, kin" of Scotland, become the liege man of ihe lord Edward, kng of England, against all men." This may serve as a specimen of what is meant by the phrase " doing homage," so frequently occurring in the liis- tory of the feudal times. Several conditions, such as supplying a certain number of troops, &,c., were generally annexed to this acknowledgment af paramount authority. 1). Who was the " Maid of Norway," and what was her fate? ^Vhnt account can you give of the claimants to the Scottish throne ? — lO How did Edward I. get up a claim to arbitrate in the affairs of Scotland? What question was left to his decision' How did he decide? What is further Eaid of Baliol ? — 11. What measures did the kin" of England take ? Give an account ol the first public ivM of William Wallace ? ROBERT BIIUCE. 261 waste the country to Durliain. Edward, \vl o liail concluded a peace witli France, nirncd now his whole strength upon Scot- land ; defeated the Scots at Fullcirk, proceeded to the northern parts of the kingdom, and for a time, again suhjected it to his ",T\\(T. Wallace slill niainlained his inck'jiendeiice, hut was at Icnj^th betrayed to p^dward by his pretended friend, Sir John Montcilh,and sufiered, on Tower Hill at London, the cruel death of a traitor. 1:2. {'onf.nr Bruck was grandson to the competitor of Da- liol. His father, in [lopes of obtaining from Edward the Scot- lish crown, had joined the English army. After the battle of Falkirk he held a conference with Wallace on the banks of the Carron. But instead of being persuaded to submit to Edward, the undaunted patriot indignantly upbraided Bruce with having, for ambition, basely abandoned hif, native land, and sacrificed her independence. Bruce fell his reproaches so keenly that he sickened; and with his dying breath he exhorted his son to make atonement to his suflering country. On the death of Wal- lace, young Bruce fled from England and ofl:ered himself as a leader to the Scots, who burned with rage at the base execution of their hero. He was jat- tle," on beholding the army in this posture of supplication, ex- claimed joyfully, " they crave mercy." " It is from heaven, not from your highness," replied Umfraville, a Scotchman in the English service ; " on this field they will either win or die. ' His prediction was fulfilled ; the English were defeated, and driven into their own kingdom. 15. After this unsuccessful campaign against the Scotch, the peace of England was again disturbed by the animosities of the nobility against the favorites of the king. Hugh Spencer was now the object of the royal favor, and of the nation's jealousy This favorite, and his father, were banished, but were sliortly after recalled; and a civil war ensued, in which the earl of Lan- caster was taken by the king and beheaded at Pomfret. A truce was concluded with Scotland for thirteen years, and the queen Isabella, the beautiful but unprincipled sister of the king of France, returned to her native country to settle disputes which had arisen between her brother and her husband. In France Isabella united her influence with the members of the Lancas- trian faction, with whose chief, Mortimer, she carried on an in- trigue. She conspired against her husband, and re-embarking for England, landed at Orewell in Suffolk. The disaftected ba- rons of England flocked to her standard, and Edward found him- self nearly deserted. The Spencers were made prisoners and 13. What was the character and conduct of his successor? Who waa Piers Gaveston? What was done by the nobles? Wiiai two measures were taken by Edward to restore himself to favor ? — I'l. Describe the bat- tle of Bannockburn ? — 1.5. What favorite again provoked the barons to re- bel? What betel the earl of Lancaster ? VVlio was (|ueen Isabella? Fo) wliat did she go to France? With what nobleman did she form a consp; rucy against her htisband ? When she landed in England How Tvas she re (U'ived i KDW ARD 111. INVADES FRANCE. 263 cxccuttd. The queen summoned a parliament which depossd j^ Middit HUt Edward, on the ground of incapacity for governing. peiuod v 16. His son, Edwaud HI. was placed upon the throne; and i^^i'ai'. vi. the legency committed to the queen. The deposed monarcli wae ca/ried from place to place, till at length he was confnied in Berkley castle. The vassals one night heard dreadlul shrieks from his apartment, — the next morning his death was announced, and no one doubted tliat he had been murdered. The nation was not lonff deluded by tlie pretences of Isabella and Mortimer. (Isabella u who .stdl kept the young prmce under their control. A con- ,,„£[ Gray, spiracy, to which he was privy, was formed, which succeeded 'j.';!^;""',^j'^ in dehVering him from the power of the regency, Mortimer was Udien and executed. Isabella was spared from regard to her rank and sex, but remained a prisoner. She was held in contempt for her vices during the rest of her life-, but received in her confinement annual visits from her son. 17. ftleantime Scotland had passed from the vigorous hand of Robert Bruce, to his son David 11., a minor. Sir James 1329. Douglas, who was at one time the support of the throne of ^p.'^'i'i^g Bruce, was absent, and the regency v/as committed to RaiXdolph susourwitii eaul of Murray. Edward Bai.iol, son of John Baliol, took "Brucefto this opportunity of advancing his claim to the Scottisli throne, tarry it to which was supported by the English. He collected an army Land, but in which defeated that of Bruce at llalidon hill. David was forced -iiiauiowitii ,, , , the Moors i)i to take refuge in France. A Scottish parliament was called, who s?pain, is recognized Baliol as their sovereign, and some of the nobles '""'^'* ^ took the oath of fealty. Soon, however, the attachment of the 1333. Scots to their former monarch, and their inveterate animosity {hai-wom- towards the English, by whom Baliol was supported, revived Edward'sa- the party of tlie son of Bruce, and a second and a third invasion 'p|^^fj'\y." I-.y Edward of England, failed of establishing Baliol on the throne. 1339 18. Meanwhile the English monarch assumed the tide of king Edwa'rd iii. of France, and with an army invaded that kingdom by the way ^^j.^^^^;^ of Flanders. He obtained an important naval victory near He J- 1346. veot-Shiys. after which he returned to England, to make more Gains the <• ,1 rill ■ 1 victory of vigorous preparations lor another war. 1 his proved success- ckessy. ful. The srreat battle of Cressv was fought, and Calais taken. '^'"=^,Vjf During this war, David Bruce had returned irom h ranee to henna, tiio Scotland, and having raised an army, he carried his arms into '^'rotiie'r''' the north of England, where he was defeated and made prisoner o.oookniftht* by an army led by the queen, Philippa, of Ilainault. ^mcn^and' 19. At the expiration of the truce which succeeded tlie sur- 3o,m so!- render of Calais, the war with France was renewed by Edward, 16. Who was placed en the throne? What became of the deposed king? What was done by the yount; prince ? How was Mortimer treated ? How was Isabella? — 17. What were the circumsiant^es which led to the battle of Halidon-hill ? How did this battle terminate, and wiiat followed it ? What opposition did Baliol find ? — 18. Give an account of Edward's first invasion I'f Frnnce ? What great victory was subsequently gained by his army? What c'ty taiiea? What loss did the vanquished sustain? What success was iu the meiintime gained against the Scots ? 264 rHE DEATH-SCENE OF A KING. He dies. Alice Per- rars. 13?t Death of Edward III. (Maiiufac- lure of woo introduced from Flan- dero.) the valiant prince of Wales, already so much distinguished as " the Black Prince." At the battle of Poictiers, he defeated a French army greatly superior in force, and made John, the reigning king, prisoner. He was sent to England, wliere the king of Scotland was also a captive. Another truce of two years followed this battle, when the monarchs entered into a ti-eaty, by which Edward HI. renounced his pretensions to the crown of France, but obtained the full sovereignty of the ancient English possessions, and recent conquests in that country, to- gether with a liberal ransom for the French king. 20. The differences between England and Scotland were set- tled by the death of Edward Baliol, and the recognition of Da- vid H. by the king of England. The Black Prince received from his father the sovereignty of Aquitaine and Gascony. Hia chivalric spirit led him to Spain, to reinstate upon his throne "Peter the Cruel," whose daughter Constance, his brother, John of Gaunt had married. But his health failed, and he returned to England, to die a lingering death. After his return the French renewed the war, and recovered, by the valor of the constable Du Guesclin, all the cities which the English had owned in France except Bordeaux, Bayonne, and Calais. After the death of queen Philippa, Edward kept about his per- son one Alice Perrars, to whose care and mercy he was aban- doned when a mortal disease was upon him. She removed him to Shene, and the morning before his death, robbed him of the very ring upon his finger, and departed. The other servants left the helpless man to plunder his house ; and he who had been the most powerful monarch of his age, would have breathed his last sigh alone, had not a priest chanced to come in. He admonished him of his situation; Edward thanked him — wept — and expired. 21. This king improved England in its legislation, police, and especially in commerce and manufactures. The magnificent castle of Windsor was built by him. But his foreign wars had drained his kingdom. His successes were but a dazzling show; the evils that followed were a sad reality. CHAPTER VH. The war of the Roses. 137'?. ^- Richard H., son of the Black Prince, at the age of twelve, Br.hard 1' . succeeded his grandfather. On account of his minority, the 1!>. Give an account of the battle of Poictiers, and mention how long it •was after the battle oF Cressy. What were the conditions of the truce which followed? — '-JO. How were the differences with Scotland adjusted? Give a furt'jer account of the Black Prince. Of his father. — 21. What was the character of Edward's reign, as to his manaarement of internal affairs ? Chap. V J. — 1. Who succeeded Edward III.? What was his age J WICKLIFFE THE GREAT MAN OF HIS DAY. 265 administration was intrusted to his uncles, the dukes of Lan- •^'^' ^ bjsl CASTER, York, and Gloucester; the latter of whom had a pEnoDV. controlling ascendancy in the government. A state of gloomy cmr. vii. discontent pervaded England. Not oidy had the foreign w^ars ^^ */-^w' of Edward drained the kingdom; but the galling servitude of feudalism, amounting to personal slavery, was yet unbroken, and worse than the tyranny of lords temporal, was that of the lords spiritual. Besides tithes and rich perquisites, the clergy oicned^ at. this time^ more than one half the landed property in England. A great man now appeared as a reformer, — John .jfl-e" WiCKLiFFE, born in 1324. He was educated at Oxford, and ''o'" there received distinguished honours. As early as 1370 he bn- *'*'^'*' gan to speak openly of the corruptions of the Romish church, and to charge the pope with claiming usurped powers. Edward ill. invited him to court, and gave him the living of Lutterwordi. The pope commanded the English clergy to seize the arch-here- tic; but John of Gaunt favored him, and he eluded their utmost his ap- vigilance. He then came boldly before parliament, with a se- i^Jiia" vere paper against the papal infallibility, and in favor of the meut. scriptures being iised in the vernacular tongue. This he did 53^4 preparatory to publishing a translation of the Bible. Wick- Trans-- liffe was alterwards persecuted ; but he lived to old age, and died ''^cfijig'* of disease; and though his bones were afterwards exhumed and burnt, yet his doctrines, w'hich had gone into the minds of men, there remained and germinated. 2. The discontent of the people broke out in Dartford, fifteen miles from London. A tax gatherer insulted the daughter of a blacksmith ; the enraged father slew him by a blow with his ham- mer. To shield their townsman from the consequences of the act, and to avenge their own cause, his neighbors rallied around him. They took their way to London, and their numbers increas- ed as they went on. They entered the city, burned the duke of Lancaster's palace, pillaged others, and murdered those of 13^1. the higher orders who fell into their hands. At Smithfield, 'n^'"- Richard, then in his seventeenth year, had a conference with of wat Wat Tyler, of Maidstone, whom the insurgents had placed at ^i'''''' their head. Signs of an intention to stab the young king were ehown by Wat. Walworth, mayor of London, thrust a small sword into his throat, and he fell. The archers drew their bows to avenore his death. Pachard rode intrepidly up to them, and spoke like a king; "What are you doing my lieges; Wat was a traitor : come with me, and I will be your leader." The rabble, disconcerted and overawed, followed him as he rode off the field. The nobility had been meantime collecting with tlieir f.>llowers. The insurgents, on their knees, implored the king's mercy ; and, influenced by the wishes of the royalists, 1. Who formed the regency during his minority? \Vi,jt was the sicitc of the public mind in England ? What causes of'di<>conteni had the peo- ple ? What did the clergy receive, and what own? Give an account of the English reformer -3. Give an account of tlie insurrection of Wat Tyler. Of the hehaviodr of Richard 11. on that ocf-aGion. 34 2Sb HIGH STATION DANGER0U;3 TO YOUTH. Middle HUt. Richard granted it, and tliey retnrned to their homes, only two PERIOD V. ^^ the leaders being executed. CHAF. vn. 3. From tliis period, when the warm-hearted and elegaiit >-^~v'-^-' young king had given such happy presages oi' a good rtign, we see him by degrees become the victim of a situation which, however desirable it may seem, tends to ruhi the character, and bliglit the happiness ot" the individual. Richard's ambitious uncles, desirous to keep him tVom politics, that they might rule unchecked, placed around him gay young men, and encouraged the disposition to pleasure natural to his age. When he became attached to these youthful companions, and granted them favors and emoluments — and when his pleasures became expensive, they charged him with favoritism and extravagance. They fomented discontents againsi him, and raised a powerlul party, who deprived liim of all his friends, — some of whom were sen- tenced to death, and executed. Richard leai-ned dissimulation, and quietly remained a mere cypher, while tlie duke of Glou- cester and his party governed in his name. 4. hi the meantime the excitement subsided. Some of the ^ ^ adherents of Gloucester privately offered their services to the J**,^*; kincr, and Richard again extricated himself bv a bold sti-oke. Richard ^ ^ as- hi a great council held at Easter, he unexpectedly asked his the'go- "iicle his age. '' Your highness," said the duke, '' is in your vern- twenty-secoud year." '' Then," said tlie king, '• I must be old porson. enough to manage my own concerns ; I thank you my lords for your past services, but do not need them longer." He im- mediately demanded the seals from the arch-bishop of York, and the keys of the exchequer from the bishop of Hereford, and proceeded to appoint new officers. Gloucester was obliged to yield, and Richard continued for several years to govern with discretion. At length, forgetting the lesson taught by adversity, Giou- he gave himself up to the gratification of revenge and avarice, cester Jealousies had alwavs existed between him and his uncle Glou- murder- - , , , , , ->, i • ed. cester, who was now suddenly arrested and sent to Calais, where he was secretly murdered. 5. Xot long after the death of Gloucester, Henry, duke of ^pal'of" Hereford, son to John oy Gauxt, (or Ghent) duke of Lancas- Ha'")"" ter, was ai-rested on the chai-ge of holding language disrespectful birth to to the king, and sentenced to banishment for ten years. On i',u./T,! the death of the duke of Lancaster, Richard imrighteously 0!uMit.) seized his immense estates, the rightful propeity of his son. The nobles wrote to Hereford at Paris. He took advantage of Richard's absence on an expedition into Ireland, and landed in England ; where he was joined by m;iny of the most power- ful barons, and soon collected a large ai'my ; his ostensible 3. Give an aocouut of the manner in wliicli liis uncles corrupted Ms mind, and destroyed his { eace. — 1. How did he m:\uage to ^et the government into his own hands i How did he irovern at first i Wliat laults did he af- terwiirds commit i What did he in regard to his uncle Gloucester i — 5. What unrighteousness w;i3 he guilty of in reg:u-d to tiie son ol" his uncle J olin of Gaunt i " PKINCK HAL BECOMES HENRY V. 2G7 objpcl being to claim his inheritance. The duke of York, who •^^"^'«« «"<■ was regent of llie kingdom in the absence of Kicliurd, joined period v. Henry, now duke ol Lancaster, who thus obtained possession chaj-. vu. of London. The ministers of Richard were imprisoned, tried ^-^^""^-v by a military court, condenmed, and executed as traitors. "] ?, 6. When Richard learned the news of a general in.surrection 13{JJ|. > in hih kinjjdom, he was overwhelmed with jj^rief. He landed ir: '"■'^''" I "^ Wales, where he remained some time without fc .'ces suflicient of i,:in to coi)e with his adversaries. At length, under pretence of ^'t^^^i' ;j. lU'goliation, Fiichard was made prisoner, and tak(n by Henry to Vork ^ London, So fallen were his fortunes, that as he passed through the streets, " no man cried GoJ save him." He renounced the crown, whether voluntarily or not, is uncertain. The parliament deposed him for tyranny, and decided that he should be kept a prisoner. He died in the castle of Pontefract. 'I'he circum- ^'jy"'' stances of his deaih are not known, though there are grounds posed, for suspicion that violence was used. 7. 'I'he duke of Lancaster was now seated on the throne, 1399. under the title of He.nrv IV. His reign was soon disturbed by ^'jv"^^ the insurrection of the Percies in the north, and of Owen ^'Iffj/P" Gle.ndower, in Wales. The northern insurrection was quelled Henry by the balde of Shrew.«!)ury, in which the revolters were de- fJais feated ; and Percy, (called Hotspur, from his fiery temper,) the """); son of the earl of Northumberland, was killed. The valorous Owen Glendower so long maintained the contest in Wales, and with such imequal force, that he was suspected of being a magician. The uncertain title by which Henry IV. held the throne was calculated to make him pay court to parliament, and their privileges were enlarged during his reign. In this reign - .^- the first laws were passed for punishing heretics by death, p^i, jy William Sawtry, a Wickliffite rector, was burnt atSmithfield ; ^, the first Christian in England who was put to death, by men \'*> professing to be Christians, for alleged errors of opinion. i no ' ^ 8. Henry of IMonmouth, was made prince of Wales, and ng^jy' ^ duly acknowledged as heir to the crown; to which he sue- v. ceeded, on the death of his father, under the title of Henry pea?e'V V. The youth of this prince, with the exception of occasional ''^.'^j",^* flashes of valor, and a few acts of wisdom, was spent in frolics sir wii- and dissipation, amidst dissolute companions. On his accession g^'"_ to the crown, the idlers who had surrounded him, expected to goine, be promoted ; and the wise, who had rebuked his youthful justice, follies, to be persecuted. But the man saw with difi'erent eyes ''aJ from the bov, and while he dismissed the former, he advanced com- the latter. — ^Laws were enacted against the followers of Wick- "'.'"«'' i liffe as heretics ; yet the sect uicreased, and under the name of prison.) -■ ^ 5. Give an account of the progress of Henry of Lancaster, until he ob- tains possession of London. — <>. Where was Richard? Give tlie final iiistory ot this uniortunaie king. — 1. Of what house, or family, was Rit-li- ard's successor ? VVhai insurrections were there ? VViiat battle occurred ? FTow \v:is it wiih the parliament ? — 8. How had Henry V. spent his youth? Hmv aid lie c jiidiict when he became king ? 26S MARGARET OF ANJOU. MiddU nut. Lollards, tliey formed an extensive party in the realm. The PERIOD V. proceedings against them became so severe as to drive them CHAP. VII. into open rebellion. They were dispersed, and their leader, *-''''~''^'''**' Sir John Oldcastle, lord of Cobham, a most worthy gentle- man, was cruelly executed. 9. Ilenry now renewed the claim of the Plantpgenets to the Henry ^rc>^^'" of France ; the distracted state of that kiiigdom; under invaiies Charles V. ollering a prospect of success. At the head of a ""'^'^' powerful army he invaded France, laid siege to ^ar^ewr, which he soon reduced, and terminated liis first campaign by the .sg'v?" memorable victory of Agincourt. Through the success of Henry ^^^^ arms, and by treaties with the Bargundian faction, Henry V. de- 7nade himself master of Paris, and of a large portion of French!' France. He then married the princess Catharlne, daughter of the French king, and loas acknoioledged heir of that monarchy. Charles was reinstated on the throne, but he was merely a no- minal king, while the real aiithority was in the hands of the English sovereign. Catharine, after Henry's death, married Owen Tudor, of Wales ; and from the connexion sprung the house of Tudor. 1421. 10. Henry V, died in France, — his son Henry the VI. being ^^v7^ yet an infant. Before his death, he appointed hi^ brothers, the 1444 dukes of Gloucester and Bedford, the former to the regency of Henry Eiiijland, and the latter to that of France. The decay of the ni3.rrics. ... English power in that kingdom, connected with the story of the vv'ai'ter " ^^^^^ ^^ Orleans," has already been related. Henry VI. was Scott free from vice, mild and forgiving; but he was destitute of ca- ChaHos pacity. At the age of twenty-five, on the suggestion of his the Bold council, he bethouarht himself of marriage; and his bride was "Had' I Margaret, daughter of die good Rene, patron of'' the joyous yoked ^^1^"^^" of the troubadours, — titular king of Sicily, and duke a' "with Anjou. Margaret was beautiful in person, and had she found a '^rePi protector in her husband, (to whom she appears to have been could ever an affectionate and faithful wife,) she might, perhaps, have drawn been feminine in character. But she was obliged to be the sup- 'r'^.ike^ porter of one whose mind, naturally weak, sometimes sank my neck into Utter imbecility ; and history presents her as a masculine think of woman, coping with the most able politicians and commanders L it.") of her day. 8. 455. ^^' ^^'^^'^ Henry IV. succeeded to the sovereignty on the deposition of Richard 11., who died without issue, there were still living some of the descendants of the duke of Clarence, elder brother of John of Gaunt; and whose claim was, conse- quently, superior to that of the Lancastrian family. Their 8. Give an account of the VVickliffites. — 9. Give an account of Henry's invasion of France. What is related of the princess Catharine? — lO. Whom did Henry appoint regent for England ? Whom for France? Whai was the issue of this great English invasion of France? What was the character of Henry VI. ? Whom did he marry? What description of person was she? — II. How did Richard of York derive a claim to the crown i Wi\ll OF THE ROSES. 2C9 right hud now descended to Richard, di.ke of York, through iiis mother, the last of the descendants of Clarence The op- position to the queen and her ministry, had procured from par- liament the appointment of this nohlenian as regent, or protector of the kingdom ; but tlie transient restoration of the king aga'*r transferred the power to the queen's party. The Yorkists look up arms, and a civil war began, which, for thirty years, deso- lated the land. This was krmrd *•' t/ie tear of the roses,''^ the Lancastrian party assuming l/ie red, and the Yorkists the white rose. Tliis war comprehends one of the most disastrous pe- riods of English histor}^ By repeated battles and executions, the kingdom was deluged with blood, and some of the noblest families in the realm were exterminated. 12. The first battle fought between the rival parties was at St. Albans, where the Yorkists were triumphant. They ob- tained possession of the person of the king, induced him to grant a general pardon, and to reinstate the duke of York in office. A change, however, was again effected by tlie manage- ment of the court party, and York was dismissed by the king. Three years elapsed before hostilities were renewed. The peace-loving king made an etTort to reconcile all differences. With his whole court he went in procession to the cathedral of St. Paul's, and at his desire, the duke of York walked with the queen. But though peace was on their tongues, hatred was in their hearts, and cabals and stratagems again led to war. A battle was fought at Bloreheath, in Staffordshire, in which vic- tory declared for the Lancastrians •, and the duke of York was compelled to take refuo^e in Ireland. 13. iMeanwhile the earl of Warwick, who was governor of Calais, espoused the cause of Richard, and with an army landed m Kent. Advancing towards the capital, his forces augmented. lie entered, and took possession of London, and of the person of the king. A parliament was summoned, which decided that Henry VI. should possess the crown during his life, but that the duke of York should succeed him; and in the meantime, be intrusted with the administration of the government. The queen, with her young son, had retired into the north of the kingdom, where she had gathered a considerable army. York inarched against her, but was defeated and slain at W^akefield- orocn ; and his principal followers were taken and executed. 11. Edward, earl of March, the son of York, inherited hi;' tide, and prosecuted his claim. He was victorious in a battle foughi between his forces and the queen's anny, at St. .Albans. Margaret, who was now joined by her husband, re- Middle IlitU PERIOD V. CIIAI'. VII. 1459. BI.ORK HF.JITH. The red rose party prevai'. Earl of Warwick 1460 IVJiKE- FIF.LD. York Je- 'eateii and t-lain. Second battU uf ST. ML- B.SNS. VorkisiB, ol white roseh victoricroi. 11. How did he come to be appointed regent? How did he lose his power ? What was the civil war which ensued called ? What was the ciiaracter of this war? — 12. Where was the first battle between the rival parties? Wjiat was its result ? What was attempted by the king; ? Re- late the battle of Bloreheath. — 13. What success now attended the York party ? Where did the tide of fortune change ? What was the result of ilic battle ? — 14. Who -was now the representative of the ho is*" of York 7 270 WARWICK, THE KING-MAKEK. Middle Hist. I'ERIOI) V CHAl'. VI r. Edward IV. of- fends earl War- wick by marry- ing the widow of Sir J. Grey. 1471- BAR. J^ET. The queen's party defeat- ed, and War- wick clain. tired into tlie north of England, where her greatest dtreiigih lay and Edward IV. was proclaimed king in London. The wai now raged with dreadful violence. The armies of Edward and Margaret soon met near Towton, a few miles from York, where was fought the most memoralile battle which had yet occurred during the contest. The forces of Edward amounted to40,0!>3. while the Lancastrians numbered 60,000. The fight continued at intervals during three days, and resulted in the entire diii- comfiture of the Lancastrian army, and 36,000 Englishmen are said to have fallen in that battle. 15. Margaret fled with her husband, and her son the young prince, to seek friends in Scotland. She next sought aid from Louis XI. of France, and after an absence of two years, returned with a small body of French, which was augmented by her Scottish allies. At the head of these forces, she again met her enemies, but was defeated at Hexham near the Tyne, and, with her husband and son, again compelled to flee. Henry, after being a while secreted in the borders of Scotland, was made prisoner, and confined in the tower. Margaret and the young prince Edward, made their escape to the continent. The Lan- castrians without a chief, and every where defeated and hum- bled, were incapable of offering any effectual resistance, and Scotland and France manifested a desire of reconciliation with the ruling monarch of England. 16. Edward had now the misfortune, or the indiscretion, lu ofi"end his most powerful adherent, the earl of Warwick ; styled the " king maker." While the earl was on the continent, ne- gotiating a marriage between him and the princess of Savoy, sister-in-law of Louis XI., Edward accidentally meeting with the lady Elizabeth Grey, of the family of Wydeville, was so pleased with her, that he privately married her, and soon pub- licly acknowledged her as his queen. The earl of Warwick highly resented this conduct, which interfered with the negotia- tion in which he was engaged. The promotion of the queen's family to places of honor and trust, still further alienated tlie mind of this haughty noble, as well as others of the king's former friends. They conspired against him, and Margaret and Warwick, from being the most implacable of enemies, became friends. 17. Warwick left Calais, of which he was governor; landed in England, and produced so general a revolt, that Edward was obliged to flee to Holland. With the aid of the Flemings, how ever, he returned and encountered his enemy at Barnet neai London, where a battle was fought, in which the aimy of War- wick was defeated, and himself left dead on the field. The same day Margaret, with her French forces, arrived in England 14. Describe the course of the war through the two succeeding battles. — 15, Relate the further misfortunes of Margaret. — 16. How did Edward now offend the earl of Warwick ? What was the consequence of Warwick's resentment, and that of other nobk-s ? — 1 T. Relate the battle of Barnet. Of Tewksbury. TEIVTCS- nuit i: ^% RICHARD, THE DETESTED. 271 and another battle was fought at Tewksbttry, where she was ^''^'H' ■^«>t entirely defeated. Her son, prince Edward, was made prisoner, peiuod v and brutally murdered by some of the highest nobles in the chap. vn. realm. This battle closed th^ bloody war, and wliile it secured the crown to Edward, restored tranquillity, at least for a time, to the kingdom. Tlie husband of Margaret, Henry VI., who J**^ ;i!id never been more tlian a nominal king, expired in the tower istR i^vcn after the battle of Tewksbury. His death has been charged pr?v^a"i" upon Richard of Gloucester, the only surviving brother of the king. The resolute and persevering, but unfortunate Margaret, was kept for years a prisoner; but at length slie was ransomed by Louis XI., wlien she returned to the court of her father. 18. Edward next prepared to invade France. A treaty ad- vantageous to England was the result; for Louis XI. never suf- fered his subjects to fight, when his own false promises could (One of avert a war. The profligacy of Edward, during the last yeai's uesses' of his reign, hastened his death. His son Edward, a youth of "'"'^ thirteen, was declared his successor; but his immediate coro- Jane nation was postponed through the intrigues of his villianous, ^,^^o^p^- hypocritical uncle, Richard of Gloucester. A large party of the risiied ancient nobility had manifested a jeslousy of the rising fortunes ,iitch'*in of the Wydevilles, the queen's relatives. Of this faction, Richard J-o"- now availed himself for the execution of his sinister designs. On the death of his brother, he hastened to assume the title of protector of the kingdom. Having made himself master of tlie young king, he next lured, by fair pretences, his younger bro- 1-4S3. ther, the duke of York, from the arms of his weeping mother. v. He then removed all the nobles who were likely to prove an obstacle to his usurpation. The earl of Rivers, and the Wy- devilles, Lords Stanley and Hastings, were executed on the same day, and without the form of trial. 19. The obsequious parliament then declared the young princes illegitimate, and proclaimed Richard king. The two royal boys, who were confined in the tower, now disappeared. *.««> No inquiry was made concerning them, but all supposed that uidiard they were murdered by Richard's commands.* The duke of "i- BucKixGHAM, who had been an instrument of Richard's eleva- most ac- tion, perceiving the general detestation with which his crimes ^^f't^, inspired the nation, turned against him. Henry, earl of Rich- Rinssof mond, of the family of Owen Tudor and the dowager queen of ,^nj" Henry V., was, on his mother's side, descended from John of Gaunt. In the general destruction of the Lancastrian family, • By (he confessions of the assassins afterwards made, it appears that tlieso two lovely boys, of the ages of thirteen and eleven, were strangled in their bed, as they were sleeping together, in a room in the tower, and their bodies buried under the stairs. The wooden chest containing their remau's was afterwards discovered. l"?. What became of Henry? Of Margaret and her son f — 18. What happened in relation to the invasion of France ? Relate what occurred in regard to the succession. What measures did Richard take to make his usurpation secure? — 1». What was the fate of the two princely boys? What competitor for the crown was now set up by the disaffec.ed ' 272 THE TIME OF THE CABOTS. jmddieHis.. he remained the only surviving ciiief, and though he was now PERIOD V. ill fexile on the continent, yet the Lancastrians formed a con- ciiAP. VIII. spiracy to dethrone the usurper and confer on him the crown ^^.^^''•^^'^^ Richard detected the plot, seized the duke of Buckingham it* head, and executed him, with some of liis accomplices. Having defeated this design, he summoned a parliament, who acknow- ledged his title to the crown ; to strengthen which, Richard took measures (his wife being yet alive,) for marrying his niece, EuzAEETH, sister to the murdered princes. 8.4S3. 2^- Meanwhile, Henry of Richmond embarked from Harfleur Bos- in Normandy, with 2,000 men, and landed at Milford-Haven in Henfy ^^ales, — where he was gladly received by the Welsh, inany of VII. de- whom joined his army. Richard had been energetic in his Richard measures for repelling the expected invasion, but he could place ^''•'. no reliance upon his disaffected subjects, nor even depend upon killed, the fidelity of those nobles who appeared in his cause. The c?own^- adverse armies met at Bosworth-field, where the wicked usur- ed upon per was defeated and slain. Henry was crowned on the field, and saluted kiivg of England. The subsequent marriage of Henry with Elizabeth, united the house of York with that of Lancaster. Henry VII. is the founder of the dynasty of Tudor. (Eliza ^^' H^^iy '^^'<^s subtle, penetrating, — and vigorous in his mea- beth did sures for defeating the designs of his enemies. But the leading a^happy Mature of his character was avarice ; and to obtain money, he life, for often stooped to falsehood and low artifice. During his reign mak" 'he iraposter Lambert Simbiel appeared, pretending that he ''^-^'"'''^~>w first settlers of our own repuhlic: and a new destiny was the ^iie Sa- consequence oi a renovation in character. 1 he baracens mean- of i^pam time, under the mild and peaceful rule of the Onimivades, cul- i*'ei-ost , . , ,. ' . , . . •' ,' learned tjvated science and literature, — agriculture, navigation, and com- people of Eu- rope. inerce; and precisely at the time when the rest of Europe was in the deepest gloom of the dark ages, Saracenic Sj)aiii was most ...^ enlightened. Averroes, of Cordova, made a translation of Aver- § Aristotle, and introduced it as a study into his native city, and Jl>i!); ' o among the JMoors of Africa. Algebra was invented, and arilli- "" ' \% luetic much improved, in the Aiab or Saracpn schools, while [ I^ many of the first nobles of Christendom could not even read. But ^ the Saracens became more and more luxurious and enervated. 1 2 At length they quarrelled among themselves; while from the 1282^ north the hardy Asturians came down from the mountains, and ^he-**" took from them town after town, and province after jirovince. sieged. In 1282, the Castilians under Althonso VI. and his great cap- -.os^ tain Hoderigo Diaz de Bivar, the (iiinous Cid, readied the Tagus, xoiedo aiid after a three years siege, took Toledo. taken. 2. 'I'he Saracens had applied for aid to their Mahometan [jrethren of Morocco. The Moors came to their assistance and 1282. stayed the progress of the Christians, by defeating them in a xt^^Mo'onT great battle, but their leader, Ycssef, by perfidy and violence an<;sara- seated himself upon the tlirone of the caliphs, and founded the 'ihe''chii vince?. The 4th kingdom of the peninsula was the Pyrenean district of Navarre. The early internal police of Castile pre- sents much popular liberty. The first legislative body, or cartes, in which the commoners were represented, was held 3. How did some of the provinces obtain pre-eminence i Which wais looked up to by ail the others, and on what account ? What union aad conquests were effected by Ferdinand III. ? What by James I. of Arra- £jon ? What by Alphonso XL of Castile ? Observe on the map what must now be the extent of Castile. What of Arragon. — l. Who was the successor of Alphonso XI.? What enemies did his crr.elties raise up against him ? Who took his part ? Was it right and wise to shed blood to force a bad king upon unwilling subjects ? Did Peter long keep the crown f What parts of Spain were ruled by the descendants of Henry of Trasta- mara ? — 5. Between which kingdoms was Spain divided n the middle of" the fifteenth century ? TUn SANTA HH:KM.AXDAb. -2 < in 1109. Rut it was only the people of the cities who had -W'M/e mn. tin's privilege. 'I'he nomination of the one ref resentative to period v. which each city was entitled, was at first vested in the sepa- <^"ap- ''in. rate lifuseholder?, l)ut afterwards in the municipality. The.se '-^^/-"v^ representatives assembled in the same chamber with those of the nobles and clergy, but they could, of themselves, pa.ss laws (get- 1 res- binding on the cities, without the concurrence of the . What was the condition of tlie ciliee of Arra^on ? IIow early had Arragon a written constitution 7 What is related of the nobles ? What of Peter I V. ? Of what branches waa 'be cortes of Arrat'on composed ? 276 SAB ELLA. MtdJh hist, ticuhirly wortliy of remark, haronial heiresess might also vote PEUioD V. i" the Cortes by proxy ; thus was extended to females a prin- CHAF. VIII. ciple for which men have so often contended, that taxation ana ^^\-'-\>^ representation should go together. 7. John II., of Arragon, married for his first wife, Blanche, the heiress of Navarre; but with the condition that her children should inherit that crown. On her death he manied Joan Henriquez, the daughter of a nobleman, a woman of higli ambition, who became the mother of Ferdinand. Joau wrought on the mind of her husband against the children of Blanche, to the prejudice of their rights of succession in the kingdom of Navarre ; and after a life of trouble, Carlos, the eldest, sank to an untimely grave. Navarre went to his sistei i Casiie. Leonora, wlio had married the CouNT DE Foix. Ferdinand, now "jy ^' the only son, was acknowledged the heir of Arragon. In Cas- tile Henry IV. rendered himself odious by his effeminate aaid 145-1. voluptuous life. His subjects rebelled, deposed him, and pro- Aiphon- claimed his brother, Alphonso. Alphonso dying, Henry wa.s l-ls*) compelled by his subjects to sign a treaty, declaring his noblr Isabella, sister, Isabella, heiress to the throne. 8. Isabella was possessed of a saintly modesty, of great fore sight and prudence — and, though but eighteen, she had already . given indications, not only of unswerving rectitude, but of a dauntless spirit.* In person she was majestic and beautiful. Of the many suitors for her hand, she chose Ferdinand of Ar- "er/J[i"^'- ragon. By their union the two principal kingdoms of Spain Isabella were united ; and thus that country was eventually raised, to be ^fl'ji^'T'^ one of the most powerful monarchies of the world. By the articles of the marriage contract, the rights of the sovereignty of Castile were wholly vested in the queen; and through her lat'es t'lie'af- life she preserved them entire. Her first care, on her full acces- u'l? wW"h' ^^"^'^ ^^ ^^^ throne, was to heal the wounds of her kingdom, ^.ad suHe -od which had long been bleeding by civil war, misrule, and anarchy. "^vuios!"' 'T'o curb the lawless arrogance of the great nobles, she revived and cherished the " Santa Hermandad," and committed to regu- * Isabella, at the age of thirteen, had been trafficked away by her brother to the king of Portugal. She refused to marry hiin, alleging, though so young, the sound reason that the infantas of Castile could not be disposed of in marriage without the consent of the nobles. At sixteen her brother gave notice that she must marry an aspiring nobleman, every way her inferior, and the object of her dislike. She shut herself up, wept, prayed, and took her resolution — then said to her female friend, " God will not permit it neither will I,'' showing a dagger, which she kept in her bosom, vowino to plunge it into the heart of the unworthy man if he dared to approach her ills death saved her the trial. T. What information do you get from this paragraph of John II. ? Of Blanche? Of Joan Henriques? Of Carlos? Of Leonora? Of Ferdi nand ? What is related of Henry IV. of Castile / On wliat occasion was Isabella declared heiress of the tirst monarchy of Spain ? — S. What wag the character and appearance of Isabella ? Whom did she marry ? What was the consequence to the Spanish monarchy of this connexion ? What rights were secured to her by her marriage contract ? Did she preserve them? What was her first care on fully possessing the throne? Wha> measure did she take to curb the lawlessness of the nrbles ? 11474. She regn- THE INCtUISlTIOX. 277 lar ofTicers of tlicir borly fie police of the counlr)'. Slie rode ■^'id^i" OJit- on horseback from place to place, and with the m >st feirless pkkiod v. inirepidity superintended the administration of :he la\v>-, and the miai'. vim. punisiimt-nt of crime : and no rank or wealtli could phiehJ the ^-^~^^>*.^ ofiendcr from her even-handed justice. Thus were inlcrnal ^Fpnilnand peace and coiifiiience restored, the noble.s checked, llie royal tiH«e mea- ainhority established, and the art.s of peace so cultivute 1^ thai j,',\7,?(;,?clfi wtailh and j)leiity took the place of poverty and want. iiuprovt;. 9. One dark shade falls upon the lovely character of Isabella— "^rT^lu) die wa.s superstitious. The deep piety of her youthful mind had been Uunpered with by her confessor, ToiiquKMAiM, and she had been wrougiit up to make the promise, that if she ever came to the crown, she wcjuld " extirpate heresy." Through ,„ , this |)romise, a reluctant consent was wrung Irom her, by her Hiciiytrac«o husband, and the priesUs, to sanction the Inquisition; wliich, "'t'jon'from" altlifjugh carried to iLs greatest enormity in Spain, bei^an in "": Aimii?a- France. Innocent 111. had, by his influence, sent crusading ihrouKiTtho armies, who had swept through the south of France, putting ^'J^'','.'"'"^'" to the sword tens of thousands of the fValdensas and Jl/J/i- i'.ik iindniii senses. Ca.ses occurred, where some court seemed to the '"i",!"^ fanatics necessary to decide whether persons apprehended were, David:) or were not heretics, and whether heretical principles might not be charged upon some who went at large. At Toulouse, Inno- cent established such a tribunal, witli inquisitorial powers. The Dominican fri;irs, with their founder, Dominic, iit their head, were the first iiuiuisitors. 'i'he inslitiiiion was soon adopted in ''**'?• ,-, , ', ,,,, r I I- ■ I llf|illHlllon Uermany and Italy. Lhc use oj Ike Scriptures v:as uL the .same begtno. time fdrhidden. In Germany the In(|uisition was soon and finally discontinued. 10. The Infjuisitif)!! in Spain was first established at Seville. Nov. i. Pope SixTts VI. sent over a bull to authorize it, at the request ^^'^^^: /•I I- ri I -i 1 Tfl" P"P<-' s of three ecclesiastics, of whom the principal was Ai.phonso imii autiio. DE Ojeda, Dominican prior of St. Paul's, in that city. The i'i;f:!"fi{ju° sovereign united in ibis request. Tlie pope would, by means rcrcirc-d. of this tribunal, fix his dominion by such an utter subjugation of the spirits of men, that they, and all they possessed, would be his, whenever he wanted their property or their services; and his agents shared the dominion, and the spoils. Df the latter Ferdinand v/as to have a large share. The Jews existed in great numi)ers in Spain, and had much wealth, which they often foolishly paraded. The jealousy of the nobles and the ciij)idity of the king were thus excited. To make them hated, so H. For what purpose did she fearlesBly ride from placf; to place ? What o!»jcc!(^ did hf;r arrangements and energy efl'ect ? — *). What bietiiish is there on liie lovely fharacier of queen Isabella? Who was 'I'orqueniada ? What did he lead hir to eanciion ? 'I'o what time and pl.ice is this tribunal traced? What led to it in the first instance? Into what countries was it carried? In what discontinued ?— lO. At what place in !-^pain was ihe In- uuieitioii first established ? What pope gave his sanction ? By whom was the neiition for it made ? In what respect would such a trib jnal give power to tfiu pope ? What is said of the Jews, and of their cond jet in regard ta their wealth? 2.' a J5ARBAR0US TREATMENT OF THE JEWS. jiiuid'.e f{ht. (\y^^ tueir destruction should not cause " an uproar among t/ie PERIOD V. people ;-' witnesses, whom v/e cannot doubt were false, were ijHAP. viii. brought, who testified that they were in the practice of sarri- ---«i>'~v^»»^ ficing Christian children at their feasts. On one occasion, CTi^^-^pt'y twenty -five knights swore that at their passover they had ciu- iiesssacri- clfied a Christian boy. But in this age falsehood, as well iced vise sa j^g flcrhtinQT for tlie church, was esteemed meritorious service, vior, by o o ■* ^ false wii- Yet the common people did not know this. They believed "poiishY ^^^ reports, and persecuted the Jews unto death thronghouf all Europe. In Spain they had flourished; their genius had aided the Saracens in the revival of letters, and having remained among the Spaniards after the conquest, their industrial pursuits had made them, not only the wealthiest subjects of the mon- archy, but the creditors of most of the improvident nobles. To ,, c -77 destroy the Jews would be to cancel these debts, and to con- ite inquisi. vert their property to tlie use ol the cniirch and the state, r or 'biished^" these objects the Inquisition was first brought into Spain. It? Sept. 17, office, called by a misnomer little short of profane, the '•'• Holy 14S@. Office," was opened at Seville, Sept. 17, 1480. 11. The inquisitors immediately published an edict, requiring "■ all persons to aid in apprehending and accusing all such as they might know or suspect to be guilty of heresy." All modes of accusation, even anonymous, v/ere encouraged, and the in- quisitors, of whom Ojeda was chief, had soon so many vie- tims, that they removed their sittings from the monastery of St. Jan 2° Paul's to the fortress of Siana, without the city. Jews were Lustomsof convicted and punished when it was found that they wore bot- made^uie ^Q^' clothes On Saturday, the Jewish sabbath, than on other days ; ground of jf d^Qy turned the face of a dvins: man to the wall, or used their de- "^ ^ <--. ^ ^ struction. Warm Water in the post-mortem ablution. Four days after the c^d b'een^sa- ^^^^ sitting, six victiir.s were consumed by fire ; and before the .".rinccd. end of I^ovember three hundred, save two, had been sacrificed The Inquisition sat upon the dead as well as the living, an.l condemning those who were in their graves, their menials di.g them up and burned the decaying corpses. But it was the wealthy, whether living or dead, who were condemned ; and the confiscation of their property, was a well remembered part of their condemnation. 12. Seville by the hand of divine justice lost 15,000 iniia a4§3. bitants by a plague. The inquisitors removed their tribunal for Smtiil°Un- ^ time, and went on as before. Two thousand ^vere burned qaisition es- in Andalusia within the year. The pope, on the representation uii^Qur'Tor- of the Jews, rebuked the inquisitors; but he afterwards exerted qvituiada. himsclf to quiet the uneasy scruples of Isabella, and proceeded lO. What measures were taken to make the people desire their de- struciion ? — il. What edict was published? What kind of accusations were received ? On what sort of facts were Jews condemned and executed ? How many were burnt from Jan. 6th to Nov. 4th ? What became of tho property of the persons condemned ? What strange and shocking trials are related? — 12. To what place, and on Vv-hat occasion did the tribunal ro- niove ? What double-dealing appeals on the part of the pope 1 THE SPANISH INQUISITION. 2T9 lo invest ToRQUEMADA with the office of inqu.silor-general ■^/''^a^<' ti^^t of Caslile and Jirragon, with full poioers to form a neio period v consUUiUon. From this period is reckoned the origin of the chap, vm lernble Spanish Inquisition. During the reign of Ferdinand v-^-n^-^*-^ and loabellu, there were in difiercnt parts of the two kingdoms _ tliirteen (jifitrent branches, or inferior courts. "auiode 13. "^J'lie new constitution provided that on tlie first Sundays ^''''fj^u\°' in Lc?it, edicts should be proclaimed, ordering ah persons who 14S4, knew or suspected any to be infected with heresy, to lodge in- n tjcviiie- formation against them ; — ministers must refuse the consolatory ollices of religion to any one, however true himself, who I'ailed to inform, though it should be against a parent, a child, or a wedded compajiion. All accusations, signed or unsigned, were admitted — the names of the witnesses being mentioned, their depositions were taken down by a secretary of the office. The unconscious victim was seized in some solitary place by armed menials of the Inquisition, and conveved to its dark subterra- "^'"^ unfair- 1 • r -1 1 ^ • / 1 1 1 I 11 iiessofthe neous prison ; — his lamily and friends knew only that he iiad inquisitoria; disappeared, but they might not inquire, or even weep with tni^unai- safety. In his dungeon the prisoner saw only spies of the tri- itg utter bc- bunal ; and all its servants were bound by oath and by fear to a "^'^'f secrecy not to be violated by a look. When at length called before the inquisitors, the accused neither saw his accuser nor was suffered to know him or his witnesses. If he refused to confess his guilt he was put to the torture, by rack or fire, in itsdiabon- the depth of vaults where no pitying ear, save God's, could hear '* "^'-^v his cries. If pain extorted from him the confession of his he- retical opinions, it was expected, if he survived, that he would (Torque- repeat this confession the next day. Should he refuse, his mada eight 1 . ,. • I • I 1 -11 years m of- aching form was again subjected to the torture, now still more licc. 100,000 agonizing. Should he, through all diis, aver his innocence, it ^"o".?o^ was not even then considered as established ; and nothing was burnt, the before, him but a painful death, or a life of poverty — with a body mutUat'ed' mutilated, and a character branded wiUi an infamy, which .by law and dis- vvas to descend, — blighting his posterity. graced.) 14. In the year of the discovery of America, Ferdinand and Isa- bella were persuaded to pass an edict to banish all the Jews who f 4qi'Ji, the last duke of Milan of that name. On his death, Sforza contrived, by arts which soiled his Giir fame, and by the aid of his friend Cosmo de Medici, to ob- tain the sovereignty of Milan, which continued for a considera- tl'j time in his family. 7. The temporal sovereignty of the pope was at this time fully established over Uie dominions belonging to the Ro- man see. The emperor liodolph, of Germany, giving up his claim, the pope now held the relation to Italy formerly claimed *t>iyq; by the emperor; but the city of Rome itself often revolted from sovercien'ty his government. The remembrance of the glory of their an- "f fit pop-j. cestors at times enkindled the spirit of freedom in the breasts of the degenerate Romans ; nnd it had often burst forth in resist- ance to the power of the pope. Several times the " holy father" was expelled from the city. During the residence of the popes at Avignon in France, no authority of sufficient power existed at Rome to curb the licentious citizens; and disorders of every kind were frequent. At different periods, individuals arose who roused the jjopular feeling by eloquent harangues, in wliich they depicted the blessings of libcrt)', and recounted the glorious •«f>. Who was the founder of the Sforza family ? Who was his son ? — T. What was the condition of the pope in regard to his temporal sovereignty i Wliat in regard to the people of Rome? What occurred during the resi- dence of the popes at Avignon ? Give an account of Arnold of Brceciii. — ^. Giv'j the his'ory of fTicholae di Rienzi. 284 NAPLES AIND SICILY UNITED. JUiddic Hist. PERIOD V. cii/.r. II. 1261. Genoa ficurishes- obtains Pcra. Venice grows rich by the cFusadcs. Venice at- tains her highest ele- vation in the 13th century. 1160. House of Normandy uziite Na- plen and Eicily. UOUEC of Sw aiiia. and re-established the authority of the pope. Rieiizi, bamshed from the city, wandered among the mountains of Hungary and Bohemia, and was at length made prisoner and sent to Innocent Vb, at Avignon. He not now fearing him, sent him to quell popular disturbances in Rome. No longer buoyed up by youth- ful hope, and virtuous enthusiasm, Rienzi no more possessed the power of swaying the multitude by his eloquence; and though at first the populace received him with marks of affec- tion, they, after four months, barbarously took his life. 9. Genoa, in the beginning of the thirteenth century, had attained considerable importance, and its commerce was in a flourishing state. Its prosperity was greatly increased by the settlement of Pera, in the suburbs of Constantinople, which the Genoese obtained from the Greeks, in reward of their ser- vices in the recovery of that city. Genoa maintained frequent wars with Pisa, and with Venice, its rivals in trade. Its internal history is marked by frequent contests between its leading fa- milies. After several changes of government, it submitted to that of a duke, or doge, and was finally placed under the pro- lection of the king of France. The assistance which the re- public OF Venice had given to the crusaders in conveying them to Palestine, was rewarded by a rich commerce ^vith the east. But the commencement of its prosperity and splendor was in the thirteenth century. Having sustained an important part in the conquest of Constantinople by the Latins, it obtain- ed three-eighths of the city, and of the provinces, as a reward. The government of Venice was administered by a doge, or duke, who, as early as the eighth century, exercised the power of a king. Subsequently his authority was limited, and at length it very little exceeded that of the other nobles ; and the government became^ in the thirteenth century^ an oppressive aristocracy, in the fourteenth century, Venice was engaged in wars with her neighbors, which proving generally successful, her prosperity increased. During the fifteenth century, the most splendid period in her annals, she extended her dominion over Padua and Verona, and obtained from the duke of Milan, the city of Vicenza 10. KINGDOM OF NAPLES.— After the extinction of Robert Guiscard's posterity, the son and successor of his brother, Roger of Sicily, added to his dominions the Norman possessions of Apulia and Calabria; and subdued the republics of Naples nd Am.alfi, and the city of Cepua. In this new kingdom of Naples he was succeeded by his son, William the Good, the last of the Norman princes. At his death, the crown of Naples and bicily passed to Henuv VI. of Germany, son of 9. Give an account of Genoa. What part of the spoils of Constantino pie did Venice receive at the time it was taken by the Laiiiis ? What is related of its goTornment ? What was the most flourishing period of Ve- nice ? What places were conquered ? — lO. What prince united Naples and tlie adjoining provinces to Sicily ? Who was the list king of the Nor- man line ? THE GREEK EMPIRE IN DECAV. 2So Frederic Baibarossa, wholiad married Constance, aunt of Wil- '^'tliman I. 1236. Orchan and Solyniaii obtain jtcr- manent footing in EUKXIO. Auiurith. man power. His death left the empire a prey to civil commo' tious. 13. John Pal.eologus reigned thirty-six years, daring wliich the distress of the nation was continually augmenting. At the instigation of Amurath, the Ottoman sultan, he put out the eyes of AxDRo.Mccs, his eldest son, and of John^, his grandson,— - imprisoned them, and made Manuel, his second son, his heir His discontented subjects removed the two blind princes from theii- prison to the throne. The emperor, with Blanuol, made his escape from Constantinople, and thus civil war was again added to other disasters. A reconciliation between the contending princes was at length eflected, by the partition of the remaining possessions of the Greeks ; Constantinople beicig assigned to Manuel and John Palaeologus, (who died shortly al^ter,) and all without the wall to the blind princes. The Ottoman sultan, Bajazet, threatened the city. A truce was eflected, by the pro- mise of an annual tribute from the Greeks, and the toleration of the Maliometan religion. Bajazet soon violated this truce, and again laid siege to Constantinople, under pretence of vindi- cating the rights of John, the blind prince, filanuel was con- strained to flee, and sought aid from France. Meanwhile, Bajazet restored John to the throne ; then, claiming the city for himself, he continued the siege. Constantinople must now have fallen, had not a threatening power in the east demanded the imme- diate attention of Bajazet. 14. THE OTTOMAN TURKS.— On the destruction of tlit- Seljoukian kingdom, by the descendants of Jenghis Khan, many of the Turkish chiefs retired among the mountains, and estab- lished small principalities. Of these, the Ottoman was destined by Providence to exercise a wide and important intluence upon the nations of the earth. It was founded by Othsian ; — his reign of twenty-seven years was one of war and conquest. Prusa, near the sea of Marmora, was made the capital of his kingdom. He was succeeded by his son Orchan, who con- tinued his encroachments upon the Grecian provinces, conquer- ed the whole of BUIujnia., and obtained a victory over Androni- cus the younger. Solyman, the son of Orchan, with several thousand Turks, crossed the Hellespont in the civil wars of the Grecian princes. They took possession of the fortresseo of Thrace, and the Grecian power being insufficient to expel them, they obtained a permanent footing in Europe. 15. Orchan and Solyman both dyhig, Aimuratu, the son of Orchan, succeeded. He pushed the Turkish conquests in Eu- rope, subjected nearly the whole of Thrace, and made Jldria' nopte his European capital. He then attacked the w-arlike tribes between the Danube and the Adriatic. In a battle with these 13. Of John Palaeologus? Of Manuel? Of the two blind princes ? Of Bajazet ? 1-1-. What occurred when the kingdom of the Seljoukians wtis destroyed? Who founded the Ottoman sovereignty? What was his capital? What was done by his son? What by hisgrandscn? — 15. Givi^ £Ui account of Amurath. T.AMERLAXE. 2S7 nation^, m Sen'ia, although victorious, he fell by the hand of a -VidJU nut. Sen'ian soldier, \\ ho starling up from among the heaps of slain period v. upon the battle-field, slabbed this destroyer of his country's in- chap. i-s. dependence. Amurath established the janizaries^ the praetorians of the Ottoman empire. They were selected from among his ciiptives, educated in the religion of the Moslems, — trained to tie exercise of arms, and consecrated by a dervish. Amurath was succeeded by his son Bajazet, the rapidity of whose ^^J^^*^- marches and conquests procured for him, among his country'- men. the name of Ilderim, or the lightning. He extended the .v/cor&- empire of the Ottomans in Asia ; and in Europe he subjected the lis. remaining parts of Thrace, 3Iacedonia, and Thessaly. He car- foKous'/v*^ ried his arms into Hungary-, and defeated at Kicopolis a confe- s^ici^nund derate army of French and Germans. ^ uneary. 16. The interference of Bajazet in the affiiirs of the Greek princes, and his siege of Constantinople, have already been orTiinur-' mentioned. From this siege, he was recalled by a JMogul irrup- (Ximur the tion under Tamerla.ne, to defend hLs Asiatic dominions. Ta- laioe.) merlane was a descendant, in the female line, of Jenghis Khan ; and from being the chief of a small province of Transoxania, he raised himself to the sovereignty of the 3Io^gui empire, in a 1399 campaign of one year, he made himself master of Delhi, passed Tamerlane the Ganges, and penetrated to the Burrampooter, when intelli- '"ouomaiT* gence of the conquests of Bajazet, induced him to return. After empiroi conquering the Christians in Georgia, and one city in Anatolia, Tamerlane left for a time the Ottoman dominions. At Aleppo, the capital of Syria, he conquered the Turkish emirs ; but at DamcLscus he met a temporary- check from the ^ramelukes* of Egypt. 17. The time occupied by Tamerlane in the Syrian con- I-I02. quest, gave to Bajazet an opportunity to prepare for the coming -^xgora. contest. At Angora was fought between them the memorable defeats na- battle in which the Turks were completely vanquished, and the —i^"'- , , . , % •_ J ■ T% - (This man, sultan made prisoner. I amerlane at first affected to treat Bajazet one of t.he with much consideration, and made to him moralizing speeches ; "qa^,ora°" but afterwards he put him in an iron ca?e, in which he was ff meiimM carried about to grace his triumphant marches. The mvasion human of Europe was prevented more by the want of a fleet to con- ^V^J^ '? ^ Juct the forces of Tamerlane across the Hellespont, than by the in Vans— suppliant embassies of the Greeks and the sons of Bajazet. tob'epoTnd Tamerlane next projected the conquest of China, where the dy- c-d to death nasty of Jenghis had recently been overthrown ; but death pre- ,'ion"o • The ]\rr.mtlukes were originally elaves, purchased from the shores of li'C Caspian, and first organized as a body guard by the renowned .Saladin, jol an of E^vpt and Syria. Their numbers were I'rom time to time aug- mented, nniil they became the most powerful military force of Egypt, and at length gained a supremacy in the government. 15. Of his successor. — 16. What called Bajazet from the siege of Con- fetantinrple ? Who was Tamerlane ? Give an accoKnt of his conquests. 17 Give an account of the contest between Bajazet and Tamerlane How was the vanquished treated by the conqueror ? LADiyLAUS AND JOHN HUNNIADES. Middh Hist. rERIOD V. CHAf. IX. Mihoniet I. cud Auiu- latli 11. Pope Euge- uiiie urges a crusade. 1443. iVf a r .,V/SS.-?. The Chris- lians viclo- rious. (Thf culo- lirnted Bc.iiiiierbe£;, allorwariis cliief of Al- bania, was in this battle.) 1444. .•\.!iiuratli de- feats the Christians, and estab- lishes the Turkish power. 10,000 Chris tians slain Nations who a few centuriea before had raised such vast armies to invade the inlidels now stupid ly sutfored them to come to llieir own doors. vented the execution of liis plans. Thongh the strength of the Ottoman power was for a time suppressed, yet the sons of Ba- jazet were left in possession of the diflerent provinces of his kingdom 5 and discord and destructive civil wars followed^ which ceased only with the death of all, save Mahomet I., under whose sway the unity of the empire was restored. Ma- homet was succeeded by i\iMURATH II., who renewed the siege of Constantinople, but was recalled by a revolt in his own do- minions. IS. The revival and spread of the Turkish power in Europe, awakened Pope Eugenius to a consciousness of the danger, not only of Constantinople, but of all Christendom. He wisely sought to form a league among the Christian powers against the intideis. The Hungarians and Poles, under their monarcli La ci&LAUs, in whom the government of both kingdoms was united, undeitook the war. His army was augmented by many soldiers from J'rance and Germany, and strengthened by the counsela and conduct of the pope's legate, cardinal Julian, and the brave liungarian general, John Hunniades. The Christians, in two successive battles, humbled the Ottoman power, and drew from Amurath an oftfer of peace, by which he was to withdraw from their frontier. The lemonstrances and intrigues of the cardinal prevailed against the advice of Hunniades, and tJie Christians violated the treaty. With an army diminished by the departure of the French and Germans, (volunteers, who on the first sound of peace, had hastened to their homes,) Ladislaus marched to encounter Amurath. The Turk, irruated and incensed by the bad foith of his opponents, hastened to avenge himself On the field of Varna, the armies were drawn up in hostile array, and a most sanguinary conflict terminated in the triumph of the i\Ia- hometans. Ladislaus signalized himself by daring feats, but at length perished on the field. 10,000 Christians were slain, but so great was the loss of the Turks, that Amurath declared another such victory would prove his ruin. The valiant Hun- niades survived, and for many years defended the Hungarian frontier from the arms of the infidels. 19. Mahomet II. succeeded his father on the Ottoman throne. While he was making professions of friendship to Coxstantine, the last of the Greek emperors, he was secretly maturing a plan for the conquest of his capital. He erected a fortress on the European side of the Bosphorus, which gave him the command of the streets, and in spite of the supplications of the Greeks, prepared to besiege the city. The winter preced- ing the siege, was one of distress and dismay within the capital. Constantine, with a spirit worthy of the best days of the em pire, endeavored to animate the fainting hearts of his degenerate IT. What happened in the Ottoman empire after the capture of Bajazet? Give an account of Amurath II. ? — 18. What was done by pope Eugenius ? What army was collected? What military movement favorable to tho Christians occurred ? What bad conduct followed? Give an account of the great battle of Varna. What account can you give of John Hunniades J END OF THE GREKK EMPIRE. 289 subjects, to (juell iheir divisions, and to inspire them with heroic •^''^^ •^^"" ardor. He conveyed the intelligence of his distress to the period v. Avestern monarchs, and solicited the aid of his Christian brethren, chap. ix. But amid the din of arms and petty contentions which re- v.^'^s^™^-/ sounded through the western nations, the petitions of Constan- tine passed unheeded, and their own danger from the Turks was blindly disregarded. Constantine next attempted to effect a reconciliation of the churches, which might enlist the pope in his cause; but the attempt only brought upon him the wrath of the Greek churches, and involved the city in new disorders. 20. Meanwhile Mahomet continued his active preparations for the siege, which early in the spring he opened by sea and land. The spirits of the Greeks revived when a small fleet of five ships, furnished by Sicily, the Morea, and some of the islands of the Archipelago, triumphantly entered the harbor, after obtaining a splendid victory over the Turkish fleet which guarded the Bosphorus. Mahomet now devised a plan, by which his fleet obtained possession of the harbor, the entrance Mahomci » to which was guarded by a chain, and defended by the Greek feat^e^d "^^Hc vessels. He caused a passage of nearly two leagues to be dug transporu over land, lined with planks, and smeared with grease ; and in ove/iand the space of one night, by the help of engines, and a prodigious number of men, he drew a fleet of more than a hundred vessels across this passage, and launched them all in the harbor. The city, after enduring a siege of fifty-three days, was taken by as- sault. Constantine, the last of the Caesars, perished bravely fighting, while multitudes fell by his side. The city experi- 1453. enced the horrors of sack and pillage, heightened by the ani- p'^p^lukeo mosity which the Mahometans felt towards the Christians. by ihe Mahomet now established his throne in the capital of the east, and the remainder of the Greek en^pire soon fell before the arms of the ]\Ioslcm conqueror. A succession of able princes filled the Turkish throne, under whom the empire became consoli- dated. 19. Relate the operations of Mahomet II. Of vjonstantine. — 20. What circumstance cheering to the Greeks occurred f How did Mahomet remove his ships ? Relate the final fall of Conataiitinople and the Greek empire, and the estabhshinert of the Ottoman. 37 r. <- l.A\' Si:..\"''^',,o'}'\'.^'''''' i ' I J.SXoung Sc. MODERN HISTOM FROM THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA- Return of Columbus. PERIOD T THE DISCOVERY THE TREATY OP CHATEAD CAMBKESIS TO 1 1559.^ OF AMERICA, wnicn ESTAB- LISHES FROTESTANTIPM CHAPTER 1. General view of Europe. 1. At the commencement of this period of history, we find the nations entering upon a new order c^ things. Indeed, the student of univer.'^al history may say this ni every age ; and he wlio should have expected the state of the world to continue un- changed, or who should have believed that in the mirror of the past he could see the future, would have been mistaken. Theo- ries whose basis is analogy, often mislead the student; and no where more than in history. It has been said that nations are Modern History. — Period I. — Chap. I. — 1. What do we find on com- mencing the present period ? Do we in a'^y twr ae;pe find the stale of the wuld alike ? 291 Moaern Hie A fallaclouj analogical reasoning 2S}'^ THE DAWN OF A NEW HISTORIC DAY. M)deii) livi ii]-(, individuals, and therefore must have their growth, niaturi PERioi/ 1. ty, and decay. This is no better reasoning than it would be to CHAP. I. alKrm that nations, being; like rivers, composed of aggregated '^'^''''•''^''*^ particles which change as they flow, must by the laws of nature flow on while time endures. Nations are unlike in(li\a- duals, because there is no physical necessity for their decline, They are unlike rivers, because their particles are intellectual and moral agents, amenable to a righteous God ; and their pros- perity or decay will be according to their own conduct, and his Providential appointment. 2. But aUliough the world is ever changing, tlie period now A gie;it under consideration is in this respect altogether remarkable ; it cUange. j^g j^ jv^^^ ^j^g dawn.ing of a new historic day. The crusades, although undertaken in the spirit of a fanaticism, at war with iK causes. (2;i^j.igij;jiij(y_^ mjd carried on with a great and criminal destruc- tion of human life, had yet benehcial effects on European civilization. They brought distant nations together, who thus each learned mucli from the others, and returning to their homes, they there improved political and social relations. They acquired a taste for articles of convenience of which they had sadcsoV'he ^^^ before known the use, and learned where their wants migh' i-2thand be Supplied", and wliere their own surplus productions might riep. find sale. Tlius an impulse was given to trade, manufactures, and arts ; and European Commerce began soon after the commencement of the crusades. Venice led the way ; Con- . , stantinople, Genoa, and Pisa were among the earliest commer- marts. ciai marts. London obtained its tirst charter, with power to elect its sheriff, from Henry I. \ — its first trading company was formed in 1319. Florence, under the Medici, was the empo- rium of trade, as well as arts. London was of little mercantile importance, when Bruges ana Ghent, and afterwards Antwerp, 1236 were tlie centres of European commerce. Paper money was in- raper troduced from China into Italy, in the thirteenth century. In "' "'^^' the fourteenth, lanks existed in Genoa and Florence. 3. This was an age of /HrP-H/io« and discovery. The art of First prhi't- i"''"''"^' 'was invented, and the poJarUy of the magnetic needle insbvKos- (Z/scorf rf f/, by which navisation was improved and new re- Chrnnoiott gions made known. By these arts, knowledge took wings, cai Table.) fy^d bccaiiie SO widely spread, that no barbarian burner of li- ari!n:n'ii*i'n'ii hraries could again deprive the world of its intellectual riches. unviiia'icn X/ie Bible was vrinied; — the human mind, wliich had beffan to fliffuse KIlO wiedge. Pxpnnd, thus received an impulse, that prepared the way for 1. Suppose in this free country persons should say that it does not matter how ruler.< atid people conduct, things must take their course, because na- tions are like individuals — what reply would vou make? — '». What efl'ect had the crusades in ushering in a new historic day ? What account can you ^ive ol' the introduction of commerce ? What city led the wav in commerce ? What others are among the oldest commercial cities? What acco-int can you here give of London. Of Florence. What other cities are named? — jj. What great inventions and discoveries were made in the arts, which fa- cilitated the spread of knowledge ? — What is remarked concerning the spread of .*^ ft j^ave the invaded advantages over the invader; thus lessening llie prohaltilily of settler! nations being a^ain overrun, and bringini( tbe chances o*" war more within the scope of calcula- jr.vftnttjD" tioru These circumsl^mces, combined with the introduction of P'mpowder, diplomatic ar^ and with the practice which now prevailed of a'.d'i^j'. emplovinfr and pavini; re"-ular armies, instead of tie feudal sc- in^armii-n, . ' "^ I - "5 o , ' . 'liaiii't;H tilt' vice, greatly ameliorated th.':: condition of Europe in respect to ' character war. When immense masses of barbarians were moving over "^war- and prostrating the settled nations, Ik", fiudnl mjslpm seemed necessary to fix them. This mission was now fulfilled, and the system was passimr to decay^ or changing its form. The prin- cipal thrones of Europe had been simollaneously filled with kings who had, with great talent and deep policy, depressf'd t/ie nobles and slrenglhened the royal aidfiorijy. The princi- pal of these wf;re Louis XI., Henry VII., and Ferdinand, the Catholic. At the same time Isabella of Castile, and John II., of Portugal, by their patronage of navigators, added vast regions by discovery. The practice of sending diplomatic agents or ambassadors from nation to nation, arose in this age, and was t:,^cat!io'ii& said to have commencefl v/ith tlie Spaniards. Diplomacy wa", '^^j^^^/,' however, ''a knavish calling," as these national agents were bv matic' order of their kings, to whom the whole foreign department of a2'-'"'s-> each country belonged, watching to take unfair and flishonest advantages; caring nothing for the rest of the world, if their own master's power was advanced, and not scruplm^, for sel- fish purposes, to stir up bloody and causeless wars between other nations. Posts for carrying dispatches were about this time introduced. 4. A highly important feature of the present period, was the revival of learning. This may in its beginnings be traced to the brilliant genius of Charlemagne; he having founded the first mchj,, umi university in Europe, that of Paris. His friend and preceptor ''^\y"/^yf'^ Alcci.v, was its brightest ornament. Alfred of England founded ihs uni^or- the second university, that of Oxford. He was himself a Jl^'V^' scholar, and one of tbo.se to whom the English language owes its formation. The Scholastic Philosophy, heQanwith Jltcuin. and continued to be regarded as the highest pursuit of acute minds through five centuries. The grand object of inquiry amom; thi; 3. What effect had the discovery of giinpowaer ? What other circum Stances contributed to change the state of Europe respecting war? VVhai Lb here said of the feudal system ? VVhat three kings are named, and for ^'hat are they remarkable f What two sovereigns were the most remarkable for patronizing discovery? What can be said of diplomacy at tha' pe- riod I. What great convenience to the world originated about this time ? — 4. What important feature of this period is next iioticed ? What pan had ; Charlemagne in this movement? Alfred of England? Which of thc3« monarchs was himself a scholar ? What is said of the .Scholastic Philos<> phy f What account is given of Alcuin ? 29-1 UEMVAL OF LEARNIN<}. Modem uij. schoolniciii or scholastic philosophers was, " M'hat is the objecS PERIOD 1. of our ihoughts when we employ general terms."* The school- cHAr. I. men at first united in opinion tl at there were in the mind real v,>'~\'-">»-'' idtas^ or existences, corresponding to general terms, and hence were called Realists. For two centuries Realism prevailetl ; but (Srotiaiui in the course of the discussions much freedom of thought oij coni'lnd for "i^^^tiil operations was elicited by the writers, among whojn his birth, may be named John Scotus Erigexa, who taught at Oxford, xHhp'dScn- ^"^i Gereert, who became pope under the name of Sylvcste? tut! Eri- ][. These wore opposed by RoscEr.i.iNUst c>f Compeigne, and ^^"' after him, bv Peter Abelard oi' Paris, who maintained that general terms are like algebraic signs, — themselves, in their compound signitication, the objects of thought when employed £130. by the reasoning faculty, which without such aid, could not on Abeiiini. general subjects perform its proper fimctions. This doctrine ot words or 7/fl/Hes, was called '■'' J\'(.)»j/««//s?«." The acute reason ere who maintained it, were led to some inferences concerning sacred things which alarmed the church. Duns Scotus, one of the Oxford scholastics, called the "• subtle doctor," was so much admired that it is said he had 30,000 students to attend his lectures. He was invited to Paris and there excited equal attention. Me was the author of a theory respecting the birth of the Virgin, called the ''' Immaculate conception," Avhich he brought two luuidrcd argiimciils to prove, and which was after- wards the cause of persecution in the church. 5. Ancient manuscripts which had been kept for ages care- fully preserved in monasteries, — their only safe depositories through the dark ages, began now to be examined by the monks, ?cot!'^up- who alone possessed sufficient learning. From another source posed by the the aucieut lore of Greece and Rome was introduced. The beawi- Cordovan Averroes had translated Aristotle's works, and RIi- *\vaiter'^ CHAEL ScoT had rendered them from Arabic into Latin. Aris- Scotfi) totle now enjoyed a literary supremacy in tlie several universi- last Min! ties wliicli at this time existed. The works of the Arabian si'if^v) AvicENNA were also translated and introduced into the schools. From the Arabians too, proceeded algebra, that powerful engine ' Tlie avtihor of this work, in 1S3'2, published an ariicle on this memora- ble question in " the Journal of Science,'' in wliicli she undertook to prove that it could not he answered in the terms proposed, because the question it. self contains a latent fallacy. tRoscellinus taught the doctrine of the Trinity in such a manner, that ho was charged with 'I'ritheisrn, and was obliged to flee from persecution for heresy and sin against the Holy Ghost. 4. What Viras the ^rand question which so long occupied the schoolmen ? What was their opiinon at first? For how long a time did realism prevail? Did some menial improvement result from these metaphysical reascriers? Who amouir them are mentioned >. By whom were they opposed? What doctrine did their opponents maintain ? With what heresy was Rosccllinua charged ' Give an account of Duns Scotus. — 5. Where were the remains of ancient learning preserved? By whom examined and brought forth? Who were the only learned men ? What Arabian authors were now studied ? What au'hor was now regarded as of s-ipreme authority in the schools ? PIlOfiHRS.S )!•' hAS(iV.\ the reformer, had sliown its powerful energy in prose. The imprisoned monarch, James I., of Scollarul, had woed the muse in the deep solitude to which his youth was barbarously con- demned, and he became not only the most Ifarned man, but the jooo best poet of his age. In Germany the vernacular tongue early The iNiho- produced good histories and excellent poems; one of which, j^.I]^''^ called the Nibelungen-Lied, bears some striking resemblances to author im- the Iliad, and is yet unequalled in the German language for the .schi"ge." simple pathos of its narrative. 7. Architecture. — Among the wonders of the dark ages, we are struck with the fact, that they produced, apparently all at once, n species of architecture unrivalled for blended majesty 5. Gire an occount of Ro^er Banon. Of William Occam. What phi- lotiophy was now opposed to that of Arisfoile ? What effect had the taking of Constaniifiople by the TiirkH on the iiteraiurc of Europi; ? — . (Ilightrpru- tensioim thin any other sane men ever set up, and which no church extant will presume to justify.) 1200. Auricular confession. Penanc*; Indutgeuoe* Mauset for the tlCHd. lO. \Vhat is said of the papal dominion ? How did the Roman church preserve unity? What decree is mentioned? Who were under vows of obedience and celibacy ? What in reo^ard to country was the consequence of their not being allowed to have families? — 11. What advantages did the popes gain by auricular confession ? How was conscience put to rest on the part of the persons confessing ? Whose favor would they naturally seek to obtain ? 38 2^8 RELIGIOUS TOLERATION UNKNOWN. Modern His. PERIOD I. CHAP. I. 9€3. Canoniza- tion. Tbe Inquiti- ♦ion. ^I!;I)gIand and all the countries t'rom wliich our republic is peopled, were of the Roninn church, li«nce these remarks ap ply to our progenitors as well as others.) Henry VII, A prulcut but iivari- £iuuD hiug for, by the peoplo, to take their dead relatives from purgatonr and send them to heaven. They made laws respecting marriage and divorce, such as the Creator never made, but which tha pope could remit for a consideration • and they taxed the 'ove of fame, by the profane mockery of canonization, which au thorized men to worship what God has forbidden. This bagan as early as 993, where in a council at the Lateran palace, in Rome, John XV. declared that " Hilderic, bishop of Augusta, might be worshipped as a saint reigning with Christ in heaven." This practice was continued, and men of shameless lives might hope to be canonized; if they proved the devoted servants of the hierarchy. The church, by these and other means, grew rich ; and the priests, in many instances, rioted in luxury and ill-con- cealed voluptuousness. But if men had accusing thoughts, they must not breathe them to the winds ; the Inquisition had its se- cret agents at every turn. That of Spain alone had 20,000 officials. 12. The monarchs of Europe Avere allowed peaceably to ex- ercise their political functions, provided they gave no offence to the church, whose interest it was to keep its votaries from weak- ening each other, and lavishing their treasures in war. Many honorable exceptions to this character of worldly ambition with which the Roman hierarchy is chargeable, appear, especially in its earlier day. While they did but what all are apt to do, seize advantages and keep them ; they little thought what a tremendous engine they were constructing, [t would be un- just to brand them with all the evils which mankind have suffered from religious persecution. The principles of tolera- tion which teach that religion is a matter between man and his Maker, and not subject to human authority, were in those days unknown. Force and fraud were the engines employed to govern mankind. The first was mainly depended on by the kings and nobles, and the last, in this period of the world, by the church. Bad as were these methods, they were better than the absolute anarchy and barbarism which prevailed after the downfall of the empire of Charlemagne ; — when ancient civiliza- tion was broken up, and modern had not begun to exist. 13. England, under Henry Vll., had been far more pros- perous than under her more warlike sovereigns. By degrees, the disorders and insurrections which attended the commence- ment of his reign were quieted, many good laws were passed, commerce and industry were encouraged; and though his ava- rice led him to make oppressive exactions, they were counter- balanced by these advantages. The parliament at this period had little independence, but gave its sanction to such acts as 11. What means were taken to draw money from the people? What tribunal took charge of any who might complain ? — 12. Was the papacy generally friendly to peace ? Should we make religious persecution a com- plaint against the church solely ? What may be said of the earlier popes f What were the two main engines used against the violence and anarchy which prevailed alter tht death of Charlemagne ?— 13. Give an account of England. STATE OF EUROPE. 290 were' most agreeable to the king's will. Scotland at this f e- riod, flourished under James IV., one of the greatest of her kings, who held the marauding nobles in check, and protected commerce. He married Margaret, the daughter of Henry VII , and by this marriage tlie Stuarts afterwards filled the Eng- lish throne. 14. In France., all the great feudal nobles had been brought into subjection to the monarch. Charles VIII., who succeeded hii* father. Louis XI., had by his marrisige with Anne, the heiress of Brittany, re-united that hnportant province to the crown of France. In Ger?7j«n^, the emperor, Frfideric III, was succeeded by his son ^Maximilian I. The low countries and Burgundy had been annexed to the einpire, by his marriage with Mary, daughter of Charles the Bold, and the heiress of these pro- vinces. His hereditary possessions were also increased by the (heath of his cousin, the arch-duke of Austria, to whose domin- ions he succeeded. The empire became better organized by the establishment of imperial courts, and a division into circles. Mary of Burgundy died, leaving the emperor a son, Philip, and a daughter, Margaret, who was affianced to Charles VIII., and ?ent to France to be educated. Maximilian made suit to Anne of Brittany, and was accepted. Charles VIII. supplanted him, married his espoused, and sent home his daughter. Hence, hatred arose between Germany and France. Portugal., under the sway of John I!., had commenced a series of successful naval enterprises, which extended her commerce and power, and made her respectable among the nations of Europe. 15. Spain, by the territory and talents which were united in its joint sovereigns, was taking the lead in tlie politics of Eu- rope. Tlie eldest of their children, who bore her mother's name, became the wife of Emmanuel, of Portugal. By the con- dition of this marriage the Jews were banished from that king- dom. John the second, the amiable heir of Spain, received for a bride, Margaret, that daughter of the emperor Maximilian who had been educated in France ; while Joan.va, their third child, married Philip the Handsome, the emperor's son; and their youngest child, Catharine of Arragon, was affianced, and after- wards married to Arthur, the heir of England. Scarcely had his marriage festivities ceased, when John died with a fever. Isabella, the queen of Portugal, soon after expired in her mo- tlier's arms. Such repeated trials of her maternal heart, af- fected lier health ; and queen Isabella's days were overcast, and arew to a close. But the affectionate mother survived to sus- tain another trial not less severe. Her third daughter, Joanna, had accompanied her husband to the Low Countries, and having at Ghent given birth to a son, afterwards CniRLES Modem His. Churlca vm. Maximi- lian I (Anne of Brittany es- poused by proxy to Maximilian, marries Charles. She prefers Louis of Or- leans to either.) John II. Patron of discoverers Ferdinand and Isabella- Isahella their daugh- ter, iiiarrit'a the heir of Portugal. 14 »3. (March 15. Columhuo arrives at Palos on his return ) Charles V bom at Ghent 1500. Isabella di,-s 150f 13. Give an account of Scotland. — 14. Of France. Of Germany. Of PortUEjal. — 15. Which was now becoming ihe most prominent power in Europe ? What marriage connections did the .Spanish sovereiirns make for their children ? What family misfortunes sunk the health of Isabella ? 300 A MONUMENT. Modem ffis. .VOA'.-J T. The Swiss defeat Cliaiies tho Bold. On the field of Morat tluy erect r.ii instruc- tive monu- ment. I'TOBjierous period of the Italian republics. Europe to IXJCOIIIO 3 oonfodc - Tor.y. v., she returned to Spayi to be acknowledged with her hus. band, as next proprietor of the crown. The tVivolous cliasacter of PhiHp, and the jealous fondness ol Joanna, made them both intractable. Philip had little attachment to his wife ; and soon left her to pass his time in Flamlers ; when Joanna became in- sane, and continned so throughout her life. 16. Switzerland had come into collision with Charles the Bold, who thought that war with so contemptible a foe would be but amusement. The Swiss defeated and cut up his army in two erg-agements. In these, as well as at Morgarten, they demon- strated the superiority of infantry. The skeletons of the Burgun- dian soldiers who fell were collected, and on the pile of human bones the Swiss placed an inscription, "Charles the Bold invaded Switzerland and left this Monument." Thus cautioned, the neigh- boring monarchs permitted the hardy mountaineers to perlect their free institutions in peace. Their enterprising youth found employment and reward in foreign service, being esteemed the best and most faithful soldiers in Europe. They would, how- ever, engage in no wars but such as the j^^ believed to be just; and they were always noted for their attachment to the mountain ous haunts of their boyhood. 17. Italy remained divided into independent states. Genoa was prosperous ; Venice had become possessed of the isle of Cyprus and continued to monopolise the commerce of the Me- diterranean, and of the Indies. Her merchants outvied in wealth and splendor, the monarchs of the most mighty nations. Mihni was governed by Ludovico Sforza, called " the jMoor," who luid usurped the ducal honors. JVajiJes was under the sway of ;::i illegitimate branch of the house of Arragon. Florence was go- verned by the family of the Medici, hi Rome, the papal throne was filled by the infamous Alexander VI., who was seeking to extend the papal territories, and establish his wicked son, Ccesar Borgia, in a principality in Italy. The Ottoman throne was at this time tilled by Bajazet II., a mild, yet courageous prince. lie made war upon the Mamelukes of Egypt, and subdued Uiat kingdom. Russia, Srcede?!, Denmark, and Poland wcie be- hind the other European nations, and a considerable })eriod elapses before their history becomes much connected with the politics of Europe. 18. Before closing our remarks on the general state of Chris- tian Europe, we will hazard an hypothesis, which, though it should be regarded as visionary, will yet help the memory, by giving a common bearing to many otherwise unconnected facts. It is this : Europe is destined to become a grand coNFEDEiuct, 15. How long did she live after the hirih of her giandson Charles V. f- 16. Give nn account of the invasion of Switzerland by Charles the Bold / What very appropriate monument did the Swiss erect on tlie field of Rlorat I What was the condition of the Swiss at this period? — It. What were the principal states of Iialv at this period ? What was the condition of Genoa ? Venice? Milan? Kaples? Florence 7 Who was the Ottoman sultan? Who was the pope, and what was he seeking to do ? What w said of the other European n itiono ? COLUMBUS. 301 uidf at il*e end of llie fifteen tJi century, it began to verge to- •*^'*^" wanis lim point. But llie li/xjiti* of liie ffcderalive power were ill- peeioD L defined; and therefore could not be rightly understood and duly «-a^^- '^ fccknowledged by the individu;il «tate«. 'I'here lia» been no reg^ular rtpre»eniation of the several states in one general congreKs ;* DO boundaries fixed to each etate. to which all liave been obliged Uj agrefc. and no piescribed force to carry into effect laws for tlie common good of the whole, or to protect trie weak frim la^f^ani the airrressionii of tlie strong. But the idea of a balance of Auttri^ut^ jtoncf.r^ which about tliis time F>egan to be contendeo £ir. .'it doe* not say A//ic lar,; we will all wr^t^.-, is-* interfere to check you. The wara of Europe from tliLs |x;riod wJ/t^To-' of histor\% liave been either tlie struggles of individual ambi- ^''^''^t^ lion against ihi« undefined federative power; or tlie jealousy of « * rji^'or nation*, tlial some king or dynasty would become so strong as ^jtt^^ijXr to endanger the unwritten federative constitution erf Europe, uixvuiL » CHAPTER IL Discovery of America. 1. The discovery of America is the most important event recorded in profane hlston.'. The extraordinary man by whom it wa*" accompILfhed, was Chejstopher Ojlcmbus. a native c»«i of Genoa. Like many of his counirj-mea. he early engaged in 'i^^Stfc'' navigation. HL^ attention to astronomy, and hLs knowledge of •■eeitaia. the figure of tlif: earth, led him to believe tlial there in'vgriX l>e vast countries still uaA\sicrj\fAti\ ; and that by sailing west, he might find a passage to tlie Ea.st Inrjies, of which Marco Polo, a Venetian traveller, luuJ given glowing descriptions. His first tpplicatioa for aid in his project, was made to his countr)'- men. Tliey regarded his theory as a chimera of a visionary en- thusiast. He next turned to Portugal ; John II. rejected his ser- f 4:^ i-ice^, but sent out shifjs privately to avail himself of tlie plans ayybee ta communicated by Columbus. He failed, and Columbus quitted cSSTf*? his court in disgust To Henrj- VM. of England, he had fruit- »«»i.Bii«- kesly applied, through his brother Bartholomew, while he '^g^sM. made personal ap;4icati(Hi to Ferdinand and Isabdla. After eight * The oongreaa of sov^etgiM makes aootber Wjiproach to an organized e>:t fc d e r aej r. 18. Wbatmaj it be nppoced that Cnopeia destined to become? What frlxii li.i begao to be eooiended ibr ? In what ligbt maf that be eooideted 9 Cbat. IL — 1. What led Colorabos to beieve there were aoifiseorered rezionsf What paaaaee (fid be beieve ndgfai be foimd bj aaihs^ wcet? Of %rfaat poivera did he vaialy soGdt aid t 302 A NEW WORLD. Modern Jlis. laabolla patronizes Coluuibua 149a August 3. Columbus setB Gail. Oct. 12. E^aud (lisco- v«red Landing of Columbus on St. Sal- vador. Cuirti and Mispaniolh Jterovercd. years, passed in indigence, and in repeated applications to that court, Isabella at length became so far satisfied of the soundnesh of his views, that she determined for herself, and the crown of Castile, to become the paJron of the enterprize. 7'he monarcK'? were at this time at St. Fe, — Grenada having just surrendered , and so completely urained were her finances by the Moorish war, that the queen had no resource to raise the necessary funds but the sale of her jewels, which she cheerfully oflered, Bu{ Sr. Angel the receiver of Arragon, loaned her the money. 2. The armament, when fitted out, consisted of only three small vessels^ manned by ninety men. With these frail barks, Columbus sailt-d from Palos in Spain, August 3d, 1492, and committed himself to the mercy of an unknown sea; nor is it wonderful, that tlie superstitious crew, uninspired with the en- thusiastic hopes of their commander, should have regarded the enterprise with feelings of awe and terror. After sailing many days, discovering nothing but a boundless waste of waters, — where no human being had ever before penetrated, their hearts misgave them; and they proposed to put to death their obstinate commander, who resisted all their solicitations to return. The genius of Columbus prevailed over the spirit of sedition ; yet he was compelled to promise, that if, after three days no land should be discovered, he v/ould abandon tlie en- terprise. Within the time specified, a little after midnight, on the 12th of October, the joyful shoui of land ! land ! was uttered from the masthead by Columbus himself. As the glad mariners approached the shore, which proved to be that of one of the Bahama islands, they beheld it crowded with the gazing natives, who pressed v/ith eager curiosity, to view the wonderful machines which were about to visit them. 3. Since the time when Noah left the ark to set his foot upon a recovered world, a landing so sublime as that of Columbus, had never occurred. His majestic person attired with splendor his more majestic mind deeply penetrated with religious grati- tude, — he led forth his officers and men ; and he was himself the first European, v/ho trod the American soil. His first act was to prostrate himself, and return devout thanks to that Being who had guided and preserved him. He next erected a crucifix, and took possession of the island. — which he called St. Salvador, — for th*e crown of Castile and Leon. The innocent inhabitants received the Spaniards with joy, as superior beings. From St, Salvador, Columbus visited several of the islands adjacent, and discovered Cuba and Hispaniola. Arranging, with the free con- sent of the inhabitants, to leave a garrison of his own men on 1. Who was the only so\ereio;n to cotnprehend and aid him ? Why were the Spanish revenues at this 'ame exhausted ? How did the queen propose to raise the money ? — 2. W .at was the size of the fleet with which Columbus sailed ? From what place did it depart, and when ? What were the circumstances of the voyage? What land was first made, and when? — 3. Give an account of the landing of Columbus ? What discoveries did he next make 'I What preparation make (o-k his return ? <;OLUMBUS SECOiND VOYAGE. 303 the Island of Cuba, he took a few of the natives, and what J^odernBie gold he could obtain, together with specimens of the produc- tions of the country ; and on the 16lh of" January, 1493, he set Bail on his return, and arrived on the i5lh of March at Palos, from whence he had departed seven months and eleven days 1493. l^^i^^f^- Sctaaailou 1 flis success spread his renown ihroujjh Europe The in- hisrctunu habitants of Spain crowded to behohi him. Tlie sovereigns Arrives iu received him with the most distinguishing marks of favor. A Spain. new spirit was awakened, and multitudes were now ready to em- bark in an enterprise, which promised them wealth and honor. Ferchnaiul and Isabella, agreeably to previous stipulation, ap- pointed Columbus admiral and viceroy of all the countries -pjie pope discovered. The sanction of the pope was solicited, and Alex- E'vcn away the G3.rlii ander VI., in virtue of his authority as viceregent of God, and therefore supreme lord of the whole earth, gave to the Spanish monarchs the sovereignty of all the countries which their navigators should discover to the west of a meridian, 350 leagues westward of the Cape de Verd Islands. To this arrange- ment, Portugal, which was to possess all discoveries on the other side of the meridian, was indebted for the kingdom of Brazil. 1493. Columbus set forth on his second voyage with 17 vessels. Columbus' On his return to llispaniola, he found that the Spaniards whom ^^"^"aggy"^ he had left, had been massacred, and their fort destroyed. „ , . . c , , « , . , .... . •' He lands in Alter the departure 01 their commander, their licentiousness nispanioia. and rapacity had known no bounds ; and the kind-hearted na- ^^'- Domm lives were at length aroused to madness ; and destroyed, in self defence, the abusive intruders. 5. Columbus now made choice of a healthy situation, where Isabella the he founded a city, which he named Isabella. During a short America ' absence of Columbua, the Spaniards, disobeying his commands, irritated the natives by new excesses ; who, assembling in vast numbers, sought to drive from the land these terrible invaders. Columbus having returned, attacked them in the night, and so alarmed were they by his fire-arms, and other weapons of Eu- ropean warfare, that they fled without resistance ; and he at length subjected the whole island to the Spanish government. f^,°"7^' The unhappy natives next attempted to destroy their oppressors natives of by neglecting the cultivation of the maize and cassada which .'^'''*^"''"* furnished bread. They were themselves, however, the greatest sufferers. The Spaniards received supplies from Europe, while the Indians, having retired to the mountains and wooded parts of the island, and subsisting upon the spontaneous productions 3. IIow long was his homeward passage? How long had been his ab BCnce ? — 4. IIow was Columbus received ? Whai nppiieation was made to the pope, and what division thus sefled, as the boundary between the Spanish and Portuguese discoveries? How large an armament had Colum- bus on his second voyage ? How had the Spaniard* ctmducted during the absence of Columbus, and what had been done by the natives? — 5. What city was ft unded ? Relate the further particulars of the coiiqucBt of St. Doniin;{o. 301 THE OCEAN CHIVALRY. Modem Tits 149S. Third voy- nge of Co- Uimbua. DiscovcrH Trinidad and tlm contiiienl. 1491, The Cabota the iirf.t discoverers of the con- tinent. Amerigo Vospucio giver name to the con- tinent. 149S. Vasco de Gauia dou- bles the Cape of Good Hope. 1499. Cabral. (The Cape discovered ly Uartholo mew Dias, 1486.) Bad charac- ter of the colonists. Columbno fUsely ac- cujod. of the soil, died with lamiiie and disease ; and in a few months, more than a third part of tlie inhabitants of the island perislicd. G. Columbus leaving the government of the colony to hia faithfvd brother, Bartholomew, again returned to Spain, whe'^e his enemies were undermining liis interest with the king. He was received witli seeming favor; but the delays atteudaaf on the litting out of another expedition, and the preparations for makhig the colony perim\nent, detained him two years. In his third voyage, he proceeded farther to the south, discovered the mouth of the Orinoco, and landed on the continent. John and SEBASTIAN Cabot, sailing under the patronage of Henry VH., had the year previous discovered the continent at Labrador. On his arrival at Hispaniola, Columbus found the colony in a sutlering state. The insurrections of tlie natives, and still worse, the mutiny of the Spaniards, had reduced his brother to the greatest distress. Private adventures from Spain began to be attempted. Alonzo de Ojeda sent by the merchants of Seville, followed the track of Columbus, having obtained his chai"ts and journal. Amerigo Vespucio, a native of Flo- rence, accompanied this expedition; and by publishing a work on his return, descriptive of the country and natives on the coast of South America, he came to be considered the discove- rer of the continent ; and thus fraudulently deprived Columbus of the honor of giving it his name. 7. Meanwhile the Portuguese had pushed their discoveries in the south and east. A squadron, under the command of Vasco de Gama, had doubled the Cape of Good Hope, and thus discovered the passage to India. The following year, another expedition, sent to the East Indies, under Cabral, steering west to avoid the winds and calms off the coast of Africa, discovered by accident the coast of Brazil, in South America, and took possession of the country. As it was found to be on the Portuguese side of the pope''s line, the right of that monarchy to the country was not disputed. This accidental discovery proved of more value to the crown of Portugal than all its East India possessions. 8. Many of the colonists whom Columbus had carried ov^er were of the very dregs of society — criminals, who were re- leased from prison to plant colonies in the New World. His attempts to enforce discipline among this licentious mass, ex- posed him to their hatred ; and they made false accusations against him, which reached the court of Spain. There he had active enemies; for envy, which ever follows and seeks to de- preciate superior merit, had been awakened, by witnessing his 6. Give some particulars of the visit of Columbus to Spain. Of hiti third voyage. Who had discovered the continent before Columbus ? What account can you give of Ojeda' Of Amerigo Vespucio? — 1. What im- portant discoveries were made bv the Portusuese? — S. Of what character were many of the Spanish colonists ? How did Columbus suffer on account of thip both in the colony and in Spain ? COLUMBUS IS CH.'.IXa. 305 cpiendid tsuccenne*. In one reupeci hw con/luct lia4 lai'J Mm -**»*'» w^ open Uj mwrepr'; ' ' ' >» i. of the- natives. ^ '- hei wwhes ; but cj.'CL.;a..;i.'.%>, lorce-I ;.;ra t'> ai- - -^ ' 's-* of servimde almost arrjourjiinj? to jshvery. 'nil's cotirt, with tx^^j(f:r4'AonJi. Isabella, thou^ «be fia/i iO.iV /, iia- vtood these calurnrii':", at la«l yiel'Je^l to theii influerj'y;, and ^^'r- licvcd Coliimba=< i/^i be frithy of oppression to the imutcent ivx- Uve^, ror whom her kind h';art was warmly intereste'L 9, Tfitfcis DJi Ijovaoili-a was now apjxjinte^J t/'^ procee^l to f;tQQ. Ilufjianiola, with power to examine into the arjministration of tt^^iMU Columbus, and if necessary, to Buperserje him in the govern- •*«*-^«'- meuL On his arrival, the inland >iad i>een reduce*] by Colum- baa to submission, and all dlsfcnsion* composed. Bova'JilU, ho\rever, at once assume*! the government, and eenl Coli^mbas *^*?*j^ in c/kujm to Europe. Ferdinand, as^iamed of tills inja«tice,f^vc 'cImms.' ' order; on his arrival in Spain, thiat he should be rejea.*e*i, and inviieil to court. The cold and calculating monarch received (B*raiiw» him v/ith civility ; — Isa}>ella. with such temJemess, that r>»Iurn- » is**, bus k'lelt at her feet and wepl. He related to hi« (K>vereigns to^uunti his tn-iLs, his efforts, and his injuries. Buu •' la ^»««*»««* was r*Tnove*l from the government and recall'.- . ^.s wiUi hn not reinstated in his rights, now so exten.sive as vo .v'; a;i ooject u'^m*^./ of jea'ou«y to the court. On the ontrary, Nicholas de OvAVt'O was appointed governor of St Domingo. 10. r>jlurnbii-s felt keenly thia new injury; and he re- raaine'j two year< an uns!icc^i«sful suitor at the court of .Spairx. Fin'Jiri;^ it rain to solicit redress from an ungrateful monarch, l'^C>ti— !>. he offeied to conduct another voyage of dlscoverj-, to seek a foii^ud new f^'^sage to the ImYvM. which he expec«:d to fiml some- •** vojra^e vrYitT^. near the Isthmas of D'dLncn. Ferdinand, hoping to reap farther advantages from his geniiis- furnished him with four email ^2ii94^*L* ships, ami Columbas, at an zflvunced age, again went forth to me^awoaij seek lew countries. This voyage was (Ksastrous; after sailing u»titevee1S[ along the coa.st a coasiflerable ering a strait, Vrio wa« 2?" •^"* ''^*'' l^f 'I** Spankh toteragna, ■-. -i« ponT'^ri ? In wriai iitate <&] be nod the wbuH ? What bow' / ? How did the •overeifiw tieal CofauabM ? Who wa» «em present, a mock sun of burnished gold — a moon of massy silver, period i. and rich mantles, curiouslv wrought of the many-tinted feathers chap. ii. of th"ir l>riirlit birds, — with fruits and (lowers; but the emperor ^^^'^v**w forbade their approach to his capital. This present excited MfintRrniiia t.'ieir avarice, and lessened their fears. Cortez told tlie i\[exicans ic^nis rnaa the Spaniards wanted ffold ; they had a disease of the heart M'^^.''^" 'o which notiiing else would relieve ! To keep his followers from ard^ ontv looking back, Cortez burned his fleet. Fertile in mental re- ""^^' sources — sleepless in vigilance, and staimch in determination, he then swept through the country with an army of about 600 men ; sometimes fighting against odds which would be quite in- credible, but for artillery^ of which the Mexicans liad no pre- vious knowledge, and cavalry^ which equally surprised and frightened them, they supposing that the horse and his rider were one. 14. .Arrived at his capital, Montezuma came out to meet the Sjianiards; — received, fed, and lodged them, as the descendants of gods. But Cortez believing tltat he was plotting to destroy them_, took advantage of the frank courtesy of the sovereign, — seized his person, and conveyed him to the extensive building as- signed to the Spaniards. The Mexicans were horror stricken ; for with tlieni the person of tlieir emperor was sacred. Cortez through liim, held them for a time in clieck. But at length, as (f'*jf,^" the king appeared upon a balcony to say what Cortez liad dictated, te/^uni.i re- they attempted to kill him. He then died voluntarily.j Gl-.\- "^"^.'.'I'^^l've' TAMO z V, his nephew, succeeded him ; and had the natives been iiii'!'-<;ii'ipi« united, his talents and devotion would have saved his country, '^proilaiiiy'' 'jut they fousfht against each other, and the .Spaniards took their dieii soonei sovereign prisoner. To make him discover mto what part ol of his the lake his riches were thrown, they stretched him, witfi a fliith- w"""'*^-) ful adherent, over burning coals. He turned to his master a be- seechincr look, and Guatamozin replied to it — " Am I diking „ l'>^^- my pleasure." Not being able to shake his constancy, Cortez to simin. took the sovereign from torture, but afterwards hanged him. 1«'>40. Having fully subjugated tlie country, he returned to Spain, spaiiiioriiie Charles V. sent him over again, but with diminished authority, ii^-t J'"""-. .11 I ■ 1 • 1 1- • 1 11- 1 ii' biesUicreui Although in his declining years the emperor treated him coldly, 1547. vet he ennobled his posteritv. 15. Fra.xcis Pizarro, who went as a soldier of fortune to the West Indies, having obtained some knowledge of Peru, re- 1''>2J) turned to Spain to solicit authority and means to undertake its ,.iL't^^ori7..M! conquest. He obtained the authority, but could not procure the t-takeiuiu 13. What present di(] he send ? What effect had it ? What disease did «tem of diplomacy next produce? What battle occurred in consequence ? What conquest was made by Ferdinand of Spain I CHARLES V. ;ii conqaered from John d'Albret, a nobleman of France, in alli- ancR with Louis, who became sovereign of that kingdom by marriage with its heiress. G. The death of pope Julius, at this period, changed the aspect of tilings. His successor, the accomplislied Leo X., of the hoi:se of Medici, showed himself friendly to France. The death of Louis XII. occurred shortly after that of pope Julius. Leaving only a daughter, the crown of France descended to his cou.sin, FuAxris 1. 'I'iiis popular prince was distinguished for l!ie manly beauty of his countenance and person, the suavity of Ids maimer, his valor and ambition, ratlier than for the sound- ness of his mind. Bent on the recovery of Milan, he assem- bled a large army, and led them in person across the Alps. At Marignan he encountered the Swiss in the service of the Mi- lanese, fought and won a bloody battle. 3Vw duchy of Milan suhmitted ; and its duke, Maxi3iilian Sforza, abandoned his claim to its sovereignty, and in exchange received a pension from Irance. Leo X. now made peace with France, and Eu- rope for a short season enjoyed a general tranqujllity. 7. The death of Ferdinand, king of Spain, was followed by the elevation of his grandson, Charles V., then sixteen years of age, the son of Philip the Handsome, and the unfortunate Joanna. From his maternal grand-parents, he inherited Spain and JYavarre ; from his paternal, Auslrla and the jVelherlands. About two years after the elevation of Charles to the sovereignty of Spain, the death of his grandfather, the emperor iMaximiliau, left the imperial tin-one vacant, and presented a source of com- petition between Charles and Francis. Both ofTered themselves as candidates. The electors very naturally preferred the claims of Charles, who was a prince of German origin, and heir to the Austrian possessions, to those of a foreigner, who was not even acquainted with their language. At another period they might have been jealous of concentrating so much authority in one man ; but at this time they felt the need of a powerful so- vereign to defend them from the alarming power of the Turks. Charles, therefore, was elected emperor of Germany. 8. It was not long before the disappointed Francis found pretexts for hostilities. He presented claims to Naples, and required the restoration of Navarre to its hereditary prince, as an ally of France. Charles, on the other hand, revived his claim upon Burgundy, which he averred had been unjustly wrested from his grandmother, Mary of Burgundy, by Louis XI.; and he claimed Milan as a fief of the German empire Both monarchs made preparation for war, and strengthened J>/i/.>rn Hia PianciR U 1515. JYVJA". Francis I defeats Ibo Milanese and reco- vers Milan. 1516. Charles V. 152«. Charles elected cm pcror Rivil O. Who succeeded Julius 11.? Who Louis XII. ? For what was he dis- tinguished ? What success did he obtain ? — 1. Who succeeded Ferdinand the Catholic ? Wiio were his parents ? Whowcre his father's parents, and what possessions did lie inherit from them ? Consider the preceding hiw- tory, and relate also who were liis mother's parents, and what he derived from tlem. What two ootnpetitors had the electors to decide between, in their choice of xa emperor, and how did they decide ? — 8. Wiat clainv^ were now set up 'jy the two rival princes, Charles and Francis? 312 THE TRAITOR BOURBON England ap- l)ealed to. Francis re- leased by the Treaty of Madrid. 2d "Holy League" asainst Charles V. (V/hen the duke of Bourbon vi- sited Spain Charles V. desired one ofthc nobles to accom- niodate him. He said, •'certainly, Sire, but you must not be enrprized if I b;irn my castle as Boon as the traitor tenvee it.' J themset'es by alliances. The Frencli were imsjccessful, and were expelled from Milan. Francesco Sforza, brother of the late duke, was raised to the dnchy, which he held as a fief of the German empire. Francis was meanwhile perplexed by the defection of one of his most important subjects, a man of splendid talents, as well as of powerful connections. This •was Charles, cuke of Bourbon, constable of the kingdora ; wha^ from a quarrel with the queen-mother, abandoned the service of his country, and in a spirit of revenge, entered that of tho emperor. 9. The French king, having successfully repelled an invasion of Provence by the forces of the imperialists, marched in peison at the head of an army into Italy ; and besieged Pavia. A division of the opposing army, under the duke of Bourbon, attacked, de- feated, and made him prisoner. Francis wrote to his mother, " Madam, all is lost but our honor." France was filled with dismay, and the other allied powers with surprise and grief. Francis- was conveyed to Spain. His reception in that kingdom gave to Charles the character of an ungenerous and unfeeling rival. Henry Vlll. of England, who had previously been in alliance with Charles, now entered into a treaty with the queen- mother, Louisa of Savoy, who was regent of France, by which he pledged himself to a defensive alliance with that kingdom, and to the exertion of his power in procuring the release of the captive monarch. Charles at last became thoroughly alarm- ed by the discovery that Francis had resolved to resign his crown, and was taking measures to carry his purpose into effect. He then negotiated with his prisoner the peace styled " the Treaty of Madrid," by which he was released ; but the condi- tions were hard; and, as Francis had planned, the states refused to ratify the treaty, and the pope absolved the monarch fronj his oath. 10. Leo X. Avas succeeded by Clement VJI., also of the house of Medici. I'his pope, the Venetians, and the duke of Milan, now formed a league with Francis against the emperor, and. induced, Henry VHL, of England, to become its protector This was termed a " Holy League,'''' the pope being at its head. The duke of Bourbon again received the command of the imperial forces in Italy, and before the arrii'al of reinforce- ments to the confederates from France, he took Milan, plun- dered and overran the territory, and advanced upon Rome. The pope, alarmed, shut himself up in the castle of St. Angclo, Bourbon prepared to storm the city, but while mounting the S. What was done at Milan? Which of the generals of Francis row turned traitor to him ? — 9. Relate the op evations of P'rancis in Ita y. The battle of Pavia and its consequences. How was Francis treated by Charles? To what power did Louisa the qeeen regent apply, and what alliance whs formed ? By what treaty, and on what kind of terms was Francis liberated ? How did he fulfil them ? — lO. Give an account of the Holy League. Who headed its forces ? What reply did one of the erandees of Spam make to .he sovereigii, when asked to lodge the duke de Bourbon ? (See side note.) What ■bo'd measures were immediately taken by the emperor's loiccs? •' LA PAIX DES DAMES." 313 wall was slain. His ainiy continued the assault, took Rome, J^o'^'rn His. and a scene of pillage, bloodshed and rapine succeeded, un- period i. ec]ualled even in the conquests of the Goths. The imperial chap. in. army remained in possession of the city two months, retaining --^n/^^w' the pope a prisoner. Charles, with characteristic dissimulation, nfferted the utmost sorrow at the captivity oi' the '■'holy father," Bad ordered a general mourning upon an occasion at which, in Lis heart he rt\joiced. 11. Meantime, tlenry VI II. of England, again alarmed, was excited against the emperor by the continued successes of his |.5'->5. arms, and by the indignity offered to the pope; and he was en- ("enry viii. couraged in these feeUngs by the famous cardinal VVolsey, who 'stdes^.) believed hiniielf to have been excluded from the pontificate by (Writea Charles. Henry, therefore, now joined the Holy League, and I'is book was complimented by being made its protector. LAUTREc,com- "fher^and (uander of the united armies, made himself master of Genoa and I''*' P"P.e Pavia, and from thence advanced towards Home. On the ap- " Defender proach of the confederated army, the emperor liberated tiie pope, r"'' V'^n Lautrec then invaded tlie kingdom of Naples, and besieged the city with every prospect of success. 12. At tliis juncture, the French king, by some regulations Andrew Do likely to affect ihe commerce of Genoa, oflenrled the commander p,^Jh'^r'o','i^j„ of the Genoese fleet, who was blockading Naples. This was Country." Andrew Doria, called " the Father of his Country," for his dis- 15'2J)- interested services in changing and improving the government of "TIlC Genoa; thus encountering personal danger, and refusing reward Ifldil'S' or pre*"3rm8nt. Doria drew off the Genoese fleet, leaving the Peace, port free, when fresh troops and provisions arrived in aid of Cambrayi" the citizens, and Lautrec was compelled to raise the siege. In (Margaret the north of Italy, similar bad fortune attended the arms of the sisierof I'h'- confederates. By this time, both Charles and Francis were I'P.ofAiis- J ' . . . tna who weary of war. Charles had dilliculties to contend with in his married German dominions, which demanded all his energies. The gp,"i|J" hj^ monarchs, therefore, gave their sanction to peace, called " The 'ps I'een Ladies' Peace," it having been negotiated at Cambray, by two ^ctMriU^ women of much ability, Louisa, the queen mother, and Margfa- '^''•i- *^''«' r I ■ I /•/^iii-.i- T-i- was now ret oi Austria, the aunt of Charles. By this arrangement, b rancts the widow relinquished a claim upon the sovereignty of Flanders and Artois. 13. The Reformation had spread extensively in the empire, and threatened to subvert the authority of the pope. Charles, n^g R^fj^ tliough a bigoted adherent of the Roman church, had been com- muion. Itelled, by the war with France, to leave the Germans in the lO, Relate the capture of Rome. What happened to the pope, and what did Charles in consequence? — II. What part was the king of England tiking; in these continental aflfairs, and by who.^e itisti.^alion ? Whatnew 'roaty was formed? Who commanded the confeeh'rated armips of France Hno England? What was done by tlieiii ? — I'i In what manner did tho French king give ofiTence, and to wiiom ? What hinurable title did Andrew Doria obtain, and for what services? How did Doria resent the injury done his country by the French ? What effect had this on the arms of the cou- lederatetf f What peace was now ni^orotiaied, atui by whom ( 40 of the duke of Savoy.) 314 PIRATICAL KINGDOM OF THE BARBAROSSAS. Sii^asion cf iie Turks. Charles goes ajraiiist the Barbary states. Re- leases 20,000 Christian slaves. 1533. Marriage of Henry II. Francis re- news the war and taKCG Ra%oy. € xercise of their opinions ; but he was desirous of interposing his authority for the suppression of lieresy. The empire vas in great danger from the Turks, who had already invaded Hungary, and now menaced the Austrian dominions. To ob- tain the assistance of tlie protestants against the Turk>, Charles aflected great moderation. Solybian", the Turkish sultan, en* tered Hungary at tlie head of 300,000 men. Charles assem* bled from different parts of tlie empire a well-disciplined regular force of 90,000 foot, and 20,000 horse, besides many irregulars. The emperor himsell', for the first time, took the command in person. No batUe was fought ; but after manceuvring through a summer campaign, Solyman, overawed, relinquished his pio« posed invasion, and retraced his steps to Constantinople. 14. Charles now returned to Spain, and prepared for an ex- pedition against' the Barbary states. Aruch Barbarossa and his brother Hayraddin, from being commanders of a fleet of pirates, had made themselves the terror of all the countries on the shores of the Mediterranean. They ravaged the coasts of Itah^, and invaded the kingdom of Tunis, ichich they conquered, and drove away its king. The exiled prince applied to Charles for aid, and tlie emperor gladly entered upon a war which might rid him of piractical neighbors, and in the eyes of all Christen- dom be, in truth, a holy expedition. He collected a veteran army, and with a fleet of nearly five hundred vessels sailed for Africa. Aruch being now dead, Hayraddin put himself under the protection of the Turks, drew together the Moorish and Arabian forces of the different African princes, to whom he re- presented the invasion as an attack upon all Mussulmen. Not- withstanding this formidable resistance, the expedition of the emperor proved successful. The conquest of Tunis, the release of twenty thousand Christian slaves, and the check given to the piratical power, were truly glorious to Charles ; and called forth the applause and admiration of the civilized world. 15. The absence of the emperor in Africa, seemed to Francis a fit opportunity for renewing the war. The trial and execu- tion of his envoy at the court of Milan, for the murder of one of the duke's domestics, afforded a pretext. Having obtained the countenance of the pope by the marriage of his son Henry, with the niece of the pontiff, Catharine de Medici he dispatched an army into Italy and took possession of the territories of the duke of Savoy, an ally of the emperor, almosl without opposition. The death of Sforza without heir<^, now occurring, Francis renewed his claim to the duchy of Milan. Charles, in the meantime, returned successful from his African expedition, and flattered himself that he might add France to his other conquests. He invaded it, and was pressing forward 13. What afTairs pressed upon the emperor at this lime? Relate the movements of the Turks? — li. Who were the authors of the piracies of the Barbary states ? Relate the emperor's expedition against thein ? — 15. What was done by Francis to strengthen his cause with the pope ? What in reference to Milan ? Whf t measures of retaliation were taken by Charles T THK PEACE OF CUESPl. 315 with vigor. Francis prudently resolved to maitiiain only a de- •' "^ii-Jt^'x- ^^" i'ensive warfare. He directed his general, jMoxtmorenci, who peuiod i. conunaiuled in the south of France, to lay waste the country chap. iv. on which the emperor must depend lor subsistence. By pursuing --^^^-.r^*^' this Fabian mode of warfare, he rendered the attempts of the Charles Ui imperial forces entirely unsuccessful. iiauc'^. 16, Francis, in the meantime, gained a temporary advan- 153(5. fage, but ultimately hurt his cause, by negotiating with the Ot- £^,',1,'^^ toman sultan, and tims putting all Christendom in jeopardy, league wit liiilyman dispatched aji army into Hungary, which defeated the "^^s":/^.^ Germans in a great battle at Essek, on the Drave, and sent his TheTinkfl fleet under Barbarossa to the coast of Italy; — the Turks landed Germans! near Tarento, ravaged the country, and retired. The feelings of all the Christian powers were outraged by this union. Ten years' Most creditable efforts were made by the pope to effect a peace, i"""" '*«- Both monarclis greatly desired it, yet the terms could not be chnries and settled. At last a truce of ten years w-us agreed upon. Fraiicu. 17. During tlie period of this truce, Charles wished to pass through France to the Netherlands, to suppress an insurrection of the citizens of Ghent. He liesitated whether he should trust himself 'o the power of the French king. The generosity of .a second Francis' i haracter, and his chivalnc notions of honor, induced theVifatus. him to ma'te the trial. He was received v/ith regal hospitality, and conducted safely through his rival's dominions. Charles suppressed the insurrection, and inflicted rigorous punishments upon the inhabitants of Ghent, his native city. During this year, he made a second expedition against the pirates, which ,,- , « was disastrous and unsuccessful. Meantime, his obstinate re- rip' „,, „f fusal to grant to Francis the investiture of Milan, caused the pl,^,,: truce to be broken. For two years, war raged in France and Heiween Spain, Italy and the Netherlands with all its concomitant hor- cimries and rors, but without any decisive result. A treaty of peace was closes their at length concluded at Crespi^ in which Charles made several ccmenuon concessions. 1541, Charlesgoea CHAPTER IV, The Reformation. 1. The corruptions of the Romish church, and tiie despotic power which the popes exercised, had frequently produced 15, W'liat course was directed by Francis, and what was the resuh ? — 10. What very reprehensible measure had Francis taken? What was done by Solyman ? What by the pope? What arrangement was all that could be effected ? — 17. W'hat example of chivalric honour is here related '/ What acts are related of Charles f i'ell where were two years of war and bloodshed, and tell if you can for what ? In what year waa peace inado, and where ? 316 MARTIN LUTHEi?. Modern His, controversies between the pontiffs, and tho difftreni sovereigns PEBIOD I. of Christendom. In many instances, individuals too, of un- CHAF. IV. common penetration and courage, remonstrated. An instance of this, within the church, was given by Roger Bacon's friend, whom, he said, was the most learned man in Europe, Robert Grostete, (or Greathead,) bishop of Lincoln. Innocent IV. !ho valleys commanded him to give an office in the church to his nephew'; the follow- a child, five years old. This zealous and honest Christian v/rote "^^Wasdo^^' to the pope, " Tliat when the benefices intended for able pastors found lone were given to those incapable of performing pastoral duties, it church'ls' was a crime hateful to God, and hurtful to men, and if com- with the niitted by the Holy See, would forfeit all its glory, and plunge the'ir guide, it into the pains of hell !" The pope, on reading the letter, ex- with which claimed, '' How dare this doating old fool to write thus to me . lesced. Is noi bis master, the king of England, my subject, or rather "^vaUMis's*^ '^y slave r" Such, however, was the weight of the bishop's maintained character, that he was not molested ; and on his death bed, he faitiihadde- declared his belief, that the reignmg pope was antichrist. When sceiiricd such discontents were among men whom the church exalted, Uie%imi" nuich morc were they found among tliose, who, without any ^^^rt^Jlf'^ favor, were trodden down by its gigantic power. The Wal- joiin Huss denses, Wickliffe, Huss, and Jerome of Prague had b rne their and Jerome testimony, and although they had passed away, the ieaven of rague. ^^^•^^^. ^loctrines was still working in the public mind. The re- vival of letters had awakened a spirit of enquiry, and the influ- \ ences of the art of printing began to be felt. Nov'^io ^" Martin Luther was destined to exercise an influence on human opiniun almost miraculous, in destroying the curse of Ai Eisieben, g^ soul-bliffhting despotism. To his mother, Luther attributed Mansfeld ^ ^ A . . . fiiectorateof his early bent to religious devotion, by which, though educated sasony. f^^y ^ lawyer, he became an Augustine monk. He had a friend struck dead by lightning at his side, which also affected his mind. In the spirit of his order he wrought in menial occupa- tions ; and even begged through the streets of Wittenberg in Luther finds Saxouy, with a bag at his back. He had never, at this time, "iffissi"*''^' psi'^^^d the Scriptures ; but finding a neglected Latin copy in the library of his convent, he read and studied it; and his soul kindled with new energies, as he saw how truth had been wronged by ignorant piety, and hypocritical infidelity imUii^eii- Indulgences, when first they were sold to raise money for the cesEoidto crusades, were but the commutation of prescribed penances; fair the cru-- now they implied a release from the guilt of sin, and the ven» "•'"^'''' geance of Heaven ; and Leo X. employed the sale to raise money to pay a debt, and to complete the mighty edifice of Si. Chap. IV. — 1. Did the corruptions of the church, and the despotism of the pope pass unnoticed ? Give some account of Robert Grostete, bishop of Lincoln. Who are mentioned as having borne thf:ir testimony and pa&sed away ? — 2. What is said of Martin Luther? I'o what did he attribute tho bent jf his mind towards a rehgious life ? What further excited iiini ? How did he spend his time in his convent? What is said concerning hisacquain tance with the scriptures? When were indulgences first sold? What did they unpiy at this time ? For what purpose, and by svhom were '.hey sold J THE FIRST SOUND OF THE UEFORMATIOX. iiii Peter's church. Tetzel, a Dominiciai. friar, impudent, from •^t"'^>-" ^m. the inquisitorial power of his order, employed his ensnaring period i. eJoquence to persuade the people to purchase indulgences. ciiAr. iv. Luther had prepared himself to deliver a course of leclures on '^-''"^^■^w Scripture repentance, which led him to examine and detect this '{"J^g" mystery of iniquity ; and he took ground against the Domini- ground can. Tetzel threatened him with the inquisition, and, with a ^/ctzeV. word, he miglit then have delivered him to its tires ; — but Luther had a work to do and he was preserved. He had acquired such reputation tliat he was made i)rofessor of theology, in a university which llie Elector of Saxony had founded at Wittenberg. He applied liimself more and more to scripture studies, and wrote " Ninety-five Propositions," after the scholastic forms, denounc- ing the doctrines of purgatory, penance, and indulgences; — himg them on a church door in Wittenberg, and iiwited a pub- Hi3 famoua lie disputation. His challeno;e not beinff accepted he published npety-five I'roDosi— his " Propositions?'' Thus went Ibrth to the world, the first uono soimd of the Reformatjon. 3. So wonderful was the effect produced on the public mind tuo begin- in Germany, that Tetzel now found himself in a condition "llfornia- rdther to fear force than to use it ; for the hearts of tlie peo- »««»• pie were witli Luther. To recover his ground with the public, Tetzel published an answer to Luther, in one hundred and fifty-six propositions-, but as they were based on the infallibility of the pope, while Luther derived his proofs from Scripture, the question was still left open. Tetzel, in an assembly of Monks, burnt Luther's book ; — the students of the university of Wit- tenberg, took public ground in the contest, by burning Uiat of Tetzel. The court oi" Rome became alarmed, and from thence- forth used its mighty power to crush Luther, and were unable. v'^|i» Cardinal Cajetan was sent to Germany, and gave money to August 7th, the needy Maximilian, who publicly requested the pope to ex- i-'it'iersuir tinguish the new heresy. Luther was forthwith summoned to Uomo Rome. Delivered, as he now was by the emperor, to papal vengeance, he became as a thing accursed by the church and the stale. But he had friends in his God, and in liis own genius, and lie did not desjiair. His keen understanding pointed to him Frederic, elector of Saxo.w, as a protector. The elector's vote was important to the wishes of Maximilian, in fiwor of his grandson Ciiarles V. as his successor to the empire; and Luther sought and obtained his protection. Instead of going to Rome, he was allowed, at the elector's request, to appear for trial be- fore a council at Augsburg. Finding his destruction resolved on, i''*' "^ ,ne c?t,aped from his enemies, and returned to Wittenberg. 2. How did It providentially occur that Luther was prepared to detect and expose this wickedness? What was Tetzel's power, and how did he threaten Luther? What did Luther in respect to his I^ropositions?— .'J. How was Luther's p»ibiication received ? In what situation did this phice Tetzel, and what course did he take? How did the stuaents of Witten- berg; take ground in the contest ? What was done by ilie pope ? How uU cardinal Catejan succeed with Maximihan ? What was Luther's condi'ion and his course I To what pUce did he go, and whence return ? Auj^sburi; 'diS DIET OF WORMS. Modern His. PERIOD I. CHAP. IV. Asseubly of t^e princes (oalled E 1521. Luther ap- pears before tlie Diet at Worni9 1521. Luther in Wanburg caetle, near Eiijenach, in Timrinsjia. (Luther wears the habit of a tiiiighL ami dates his writincs from Pat- 4. After this Luther openly propagated his opinions. The pope published against him a bull of excommunication. ' Luther had a pile erected^ on wluch he puhlicly burned it ! His in- trepidity proved his safety, and that of his cause; for com- mon minds confide, where great courage is displayed. Charles V. succeeding to the German empire, he convoked an assembly of its princes, the first ever held, to meet at Worms, in ordej to put down the new doctrines. Before this august tribunal where the stern emperor himself was to preside, Luther was summoned •, — and to this, in spite of the remonstrances of his friends, he said he would go, " though there were as many devils in Worms as there were tiles on the houses." The elec- tor had procured for him the emperor's safe-conduct for a cer- tain number of days. Luther's entrance into Worms showed the intense and favorable interest he excited. The papal throne and the German empire was, — so God appointed,— shaken by the one mind enshrined within that monk, whom a dense and almost impenetrable human mass were straining to behold, — as bare-headed, and in an open carriage, he rode into Worms. Luther appeared calm and respectful in the presence of his judges. " Are you the author of these books," he was asked. He replied, " 1 am." " Will you," Avas the next demand, " re- tract the opinions herein expressed." To this he answered, that he desired time for consideration. 2\fter two day's re- flection, he again appeared before the princes and firmly gave his negative. "Unless, said he, I shall be convinced by S<:rip- ture, (for i can put no faith in popes and councils, as it io evi- dent that they have frequently erred, and even contradicted each other,) imless my conscience shall be convinced by the word of God, I neither will, or can recant; since it is unv/orthy of sji honest man to act contrary to his own conviction. Here I stand; it is impossible for me to act otherwise — so help nic God." 5. His boldness was taken by Charles as an affront ; and the ban of the empire was added by the emperor to the excommu- nication of the pope ; so that Luther Avould be an outlaw the moment his safe-conduct should expire. The elector Frederic caused him, as he was returning to Wi.tenberg, to be seized by armed men, and forcibly conveyed, as a place of conceal- ment,, to the castle of Wartburg. Luther here performed the great work of translating the scriptures into the German lan- guage; and through his amiable friend, the elotiucnt MelajVC- 4-. Having escaped from Augsburg, what did he do at Wittenberg ? What was next done by the pope ? What did Luther? On the accession of Charles V. what measure was taken against the Reformation? What was this assembly called ? (See side note.) Could Luther's friends dis- suade him from obeying the summons oi the emperor ? Give an account of his entrance into Worms. Of his appearance before the tribunal. What was the first question and reply? What was the second, and the reply to ;hat ? — 5. What effect did Litther's boldness prodjce on the t-mpero'- ? What measure was taken by the good elector to b&v^i thi life of Lv.ihPJ" ' What did he accomplish during his concealment t THE REFORMERS ARE CALLRD TROTESTAN'TS. 319 TiioN, lie communicated many treatises for the public press. •''^^^'^'""" ^^"- iV'liile Luther was still under a sentence of death, which anv period i. one who met liim was at liberty to execute, he sallied forth chap. iv. from his confinement, — returned, and was joyfully received at ^--''■'>^^>-' Wittenl)eri2:. where he exerted himself to compose the differences ('" '!?^.P^* 1 ■ 1 1 1 • 1 r ■^ n \ Trt r tie of Wurt- winch had arisen among the triends ol the Keiormation. bur?, inthc 6. Adrian VI. who succeeded Leo X., published a declaration, ,[^.^'"h^Lu* ill whicii, — hitending to reform the church, he says, " many abo- ther, is minable acts have been committed for several years past in this fniTspot'on li^Iy cliair; and we shall endeavor that our court, from which, ihewaii, perhaps, all this evil has proceeded, shall undergo a speedy re- been m^de form." The German princes, some of whom were Catholics, , ''y.*^'". . drew up a list to be transmitted to liome,of the iniquities of the inkstand at priesthood, and the evils of the church system; and requested, ''"vliicifh!"* for the purpose of adopting measures of reform, the calling of a ("ancied general council. These public documents contained the avowals ' him.T of friends, — nay, the confession of the papacy itself; and thus 1523 confirmed what had been asserted by the reformers. Adrian Adrian, for- was, liowever, the stern foe of Luther's doctrine, and was fully charies v., bent on his destruction. He soon died, perhaps by poison, and ""(■'■■'takes was succeeded by Julian de Medicis, under the name of Cle- the ciiurcii. MENT VII.; when the object of the papacy was, as before, not 1523. to reform, but to aggrandize. ^^vn^"' 7. For the eight years succeeding the diet of Worms, Charles was fully occupied by his contests with Francis. In the mean- time, the sentiments of the Reformers continued to spread ra- pidly. In Switzerland, two or three years before Luther com- menced his career, ZuixVGlius, a priest of Zurich, entered on a similar course, and the Swiss generally embraced his opinions. ^. *• But a minority opposed them by an armed force, and Zuinglius killed, was killed in battle. His principal friend, CEcolampadius, died with grief. Erassius, the most learned man of his age, who had native of chosen a retirement in Switzerland, gave his influence ao-ainst Kottordam, ^ ~ c (lien nl the abuses of popery, if not warmly in favor of the reformation iiasie) From Germany the new opinions extended to France, the Low Countries, and England. In the meantime, the peace of Cambray 1529. liberated Charles from the French war, and he summoned a diet I''?' "' at Spires, to settle religious controversies. The decree of the diet confirmed that of Worms; and forbade any further innovation in religious aflfairs. The elector of Saxony, with other princes of neforinera ihe empire, and the deputies of fourteen imperial cities, pro- Pfo^s'tt'iita iesled against this decree^ and hence the reformers received the name of Protestants. 8. The emperor summoned another diet at Augsburg. Luther 6. Un(3er what circumstances leave it ? — G. What declaratioti was pub- Lahed by Adrian VI. ? Whnt list of grievances was by the German princes sent to Rome? How did these publications serve the cause of the reforma- tion ? What occurred on the death of pope Adrian ? — 7. How was Charles V. employed? Who was Zuinglius, and when and where did he stand for the reformaiion ? Who was his friend ? Who was Erasmus ? What coun- tries did the ne\v opinions extend to ? Give an account of tlio proceedings of the diet at Spires ? How did the reformers get the title of protestantR }" 320 RISE OF THE JESUITS, PEraoD I. CHAP. IV. 1531. League of Smalkald 11540 Ignatius Loyohi founds the Older of Jesuits. (Clement KIV. in 1773 suppressed the Jesuits. ISM, Pius VII restored them.) Luther's coarse rebuke- 1524. Rise of the inabaptists. 1534-5. was not permitted to attend, and Melancthon drew up the pro tesLant confession of faith, which was presented to the diet; but all efibrts at reconciliation were fruitless. A more rigorous decree was passed against the protestants; who now formed the league of Sjnalkahl, in lohich the protestant states pledged them- selves to defend each oilier against all aggressions. They also formed e secret alliance with Henry VJll. of England, and with Francis, the constant enemy of Charles. From this neriod, 3531, to the peace of Crespi, 1544, the emperor, occupied Dy his wars with the French, and the Turks, and by his expedi- tion to Africa, left the protestants free to promulgate their opinions. 9. While the papacy was thus losing on the one hand, it was gaining on the other. Ignatius of Loyola, an elegant young knight, was fiercely fighting at the siege of Parapeluna, when he received severe wounds in both his legs. As he lay confined, a book of saints and martyrs was put into his hands ; and when he arose from his bed, he laid aside his mili- tary honors, and practised the most abject and painful mortifi- cations. He then went a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, and became imbued with a belief, that he had a special call to found a society for the conversion of those who sat in darkness. The pope gave his sanction, and the society was founded, and is still known by the name of the Jesuits. This society has pro- duced a Xavier, a Marquette, and a host of others who zeal- ously labored in heathen lands. The Jesuits afterwards became corrupt; and their union, their secrecy, and unprincipled acts performed under the base maxim, that " the end sanctifies the means," made them the dread not only of protestant, but of catho- lic countries. The cause of ihe reformation was also wounded by its friends. When Luther first returned to Wittenberg, he found among them, those who were setting aside all rule. Asserting a baptism from on high, they called themselves ./ina- haptists. Their leader telling Luther they needed not the Scriptures, they were guided by a spirit, he impatiently replied, " i slap your spirit on the snout .'" The result of their move- ments, showed that Luther had discerned its nature. Munzer, the chief leader, after making many proselytes, led them forth in armed masses, ranging the land and committing excesses, in order to drive out "the Canaanitish nations." No less than 50,000 persons are supposed to have perished. At length Muhl hausen, in Thuringia, became their chief seat. Munzer as- sumed the sole power, and no crime was' too shameful for him and his followers to perpetrate. At length they were defeated in battle, and Munzer was slain. 10. When relieved from his cares, Charles leagued with tht 8. What occurred at the diet of Augsburg? What league did this lead to? What obliged Charles to leave the prorestants for a time at liberty ? — ■ 9. Give an account of the founder of the Jesuits. Of the society of the Je- Buits. Of the anabaptists. What was done after they ranged in arms with Munzer at their head f MAURICB OF SAXONY. 321 ()ope to extirpate heresy. They convened a council at Trent. -^" ^^ ^^ The protestants refused to submit to its decisions. Considering period i. its doctrines as abhorrent both to reason and Scripture, they chap. n-. resolved rather to resort lo arms. Charles, uiiprepared for im- mediate war, had recourse to his usual arts of mtrigue and ne- gotiation. He won Malrice, a [ rince of the Saxon family, by pr.imising to give him the possessions of the elector of Saxony. While the emperor and princes of the league were thus negotia- ting, LuUier died-, and the protestants were subjected to all the evils arising from divided councds. Maurice invaded Saxony, ™,jg ^^^^ defeated the troops of the Elector, and made himself master of cii of Trent almost the whole electorate. The dislieartened confederates ch^u"i',Vu*i sued to the emperor for peace: but the conditions he imposed f^iiihiiity— I , .1 , • 1 rni • sanctions were so rigorous, that they were at once rejected. 1 heir army, the ahusee meantime, verv imprudently separated. This was no sooner "^ ''"',,''*''*■ done, than Charles look measures to procure the separate sub- nounces mission of the princes. All but the elector of Saxony, and the 'I'^^^li landgrave of Hesse, yielded. The former returned to his elec* against a!i torate, which he recovered. The death of Francis, relieving "^ uien^o'*'' Charles from fear of France, he carried the war into Saxony. ,k^«, Tlie elector was defeated and taken prisoner, 'l^he landgrave Francisdi^T ulone, was now in amis, and the emperor, by artilice obliiined possession of his per«on, and detained both him and the elector in rigorous captivity. The league, so formidable at first, was thus wholly disper?.ed. 11. At a diet held in Augsburg, there was presented by the emperor's orders, a system of doctrine called " the Interim," because it was to be binding only until a general council should i.^ le be called. This system, although relaxed in one or two points, "The intc- was decidedly again;;t the protestants; and did not satisfy either ''""•" them or the catholics. In the meantime tlie emperor manifested a desire to make the imperial dignity hereditary in his family; and hence he sought to procure his son, Philip, to be elected (Ferdinand, emperor, to the prejudice of his brother Ferdi.va.vd, who had second sun already received the tide of king of the Romans. These, with lunklomei other measures, alarmed the German princes. The electors re- »"<• .inanra, e 1 -111- 1- • • nr • /• o *''^ Indtne.) lused to yield to his solicitation. Maurice ol Saxony now se- cretly became his enemy, and with consummate art, set himself to countermine his plans. He obtained of Charles the command of the imperial army, and was employed to compel the citizens Maurice of M;\gdeburg to submit to the Interim. After accomplishing '''chafit:!;"'^ Uiat object, he delayed, under various pretexts, to disband his army. He next obtained the support of Henry II. who had suc- ceeded his father in France. At the head of 20,000 foot, and lO. What council was convened, and by whom ? What did the protest aiita think of its decrees, and what prefer to receiving them ? Who wau won by Charles ? In what year did Luther die? What was then the con- diiioii of the protestants? What course was pursued by Charles, and how far did he succeed in breaking up the ieawiie of Smalkald ? — 11. V/hat was the scheme called the interim, and how did the protestants receive it ? \V hat other measure did Charles pursue displeasing to ihc German princes ? W!iat course was now taken by Maurice ? 41 322 CHARLES V. ABDICATES. JHodam flis. PERIOD 1 CUAF. V. 1552. i'eace of Passan. Eetablish-'s piotestam- ism. 1556. Charlee ab- dicates 5,000 horse, he now published a manifesto against the emperor, boldly stating the reasons of his taking arms. Chai-les, out of health, and not suspicious of ill, was, with a few soldiers, at Innspruck. Astounded at the news of the defection of Maurice, he had no resource but flight. Unable to travel in a carriage, the sovereign of half Europe was hurried over the Alps in a litter. He arrived safely at Villach, in Carinthia, where he re- mained till matters were settled with the protestant princes. 12. Maurice finding the pursuit fruitless, returned to Inn- spruck. The council summoned to Trent, had been removed on pretence of an epidemic, to Bologna, and they now separated in consternation. Meantime negotiations commenced at Passau, which at length terminated in a peace, styled " the Peace cf Religion." Its principal stipulation was,_ that the liberties and rights of the protestants in Germany should be secured. The French king had no part in this treaty, so that Charles still had a war upon his hands. The Turkish fleet again made a de- scent upon Italy, and ravaged the coast of Naples ; while, in Hungary, the imperial arms were unsuccessful. Charles, wearied with tlie cares of royalty, now abdicated his crown; resigning the sovereignty of Spain and the Netherlands to his son Philip. His brother Ferdinand was chosen emperor by the electors of Germany. In order to leave his dominions in quiet, he made a truce with Henry II. of France, for five years. He tlien re- tired to a monastery in Spain, where he passed the two remain- ing years of his life, with no amusement but that ol making watches. CHAPTER V. England. — Scotland. 1. Henry VIII., on the death of his father, succeeded to the throne at the age of eighteen. Handsome, generous, and a Jroii 1509. in martial exercises, his accession to the throne was hailed with '^.'L?'v ^'P' a joy the more sincere on account of the unpopularitv of his father. His first step w^as to secure the alliance ot Spam by a marriage with Catharine of Arragon, the widow of his brother Arthur. He retained in his service the counsellors c>f his father, and assisted in their deliberations, that he might learn to His tally protnise of 60on tligUled. 11. What was now the situation of the emperor? — 12. To what placf; was the council of Trent removed ? When and where was a peace con- eluded? Was the empire of Charles wholly in a state of peace f Give an occount of his abdication and retirement. Chap. V. — 1. What was the first appearance and conduct of Henry VTII of England, after his accession f THE REFORMATIO^; I.V SCOTLAND 3?3 FLOIJ- r.nnduct public afliiirs. Rul he liaJ within him tlie germs of M-Avrnji^ violent passions, which, nursed in the hot-bed of unrestrained PEiiioD i Hflf-indulgence and (lattery, attained at lentrth an enormous '-''■'^''- ^'• ^rowtli. The adulation which he received on account of liis feats --«'~v'"''v. Scottiju 3. James V. was only a year old at the time of his father's ^he king death. Henry intrigued to get the administration placed in the and noijies hands of his sister, queen Margaret, mother of the young king. Between her and the duke of Albany, a nobleman in the interest Jamps v. „,„, ,.■'. ,,.,.. Alrjaiiy ru- of the trench court, constant dissensK)ns arose. Hosiuilies ^,-a\\. with the English continued, with no important results. Jam«s assumed the administration at the age of seventeen. He made (The Uonj peace with Henrv ; but espousin'r successively two French '•"*<''* '" prmcesses, the last of whom was Marv oI duise, ttie bcottisti 'TiieyniKi monarch became closely united with tlie French. Scotland, as "'" "^""i- -' 1 1 1 ■ ■ 1 r» tons wa^'e well as England, had become imbued with the prmciples of the leuaai war.) reformation. James, however, adiiered zealously to liie religion \7t\'i,. of Rome, and persecuted the protestants. This was another luinno.v- source of enmity between him and the king of England, and sco'tc Ei-.r,-- another war ensued. At Haddonrig, the Scottish arms triumphed '••'•^sf"'; '"'• over the English. Shortly after, James having assembled an sui.HJiY army of 30,000 men, their feudal leaders refused to advance moss. into England. Afterwards another army was collected, and (\vh«n loi.i when news arrived of their disgraceful flight on the western of «'" iii» after her death with tears.* 7. T'iie execution of Sir Thomas More, chancellor of the kingdom, who is said to have resembled the ancient sages more than any man who had appeared in Europe for centuries, awa- kened tiie indignation of all Christendom. He refused either to affirm or deny the validity of Catherine's marriage, or the ciut-d, aivo supremacy which the king novvf assumed in matters of religion ; ^l^l..a^ although he declared himself ready to swear that he would support the succession to the crown, established by parliament. Tlie despotic Henry and his obsequious ministers pronounced liim guilty of treason. Bishop Fisher also suffered death for dcjiying the king's spu-itual supremacy. 8. Three years after his marriage with ^nne Boleyn, Henry, Henry's whose aflections had afT'^in wandered, caused her to be beheaded wivck, Ca- 1 /vii II 1 11 e -T tliaiine, on the scaifold, and the next day married the new favorite, Jane AnneUo- Seymour. She died after giving birth to a son, afterwards Ed- ^^y^ffuT ward VI. A marriage was then negotiated with An.ne, dutchess Anne of of Cleves, which ended in a divorce ; and was succeeded by one ^harini^^" with Catharine Howard, who was brought to the scaflold. Howard, He was then married to Catharine Parr, who survived him. paVr 9. The war with Scotland continued. Henry desired to pro- cure the hand of the young queen, Mary Stuart, for his son Mnry siu- Edward, and thus unite both crowns. Tlie French party pre- anaffiaiued ponderated in the Scottish councils, and Mary was affianced to (siic is sen* Francis, the dauphin. The war, although sanguinary, resulted toFraiicu.i in nothing decisive, and at length a peace was concluded. Henry's last days were much occupied in ecclesiastical affairs. He was acknowledjjed supreme head of the church, suppressed (Cardinal the religious houses, turned out the monks and nuns, and took of Henry, possession of the church property; but he favoured the doc- "'''" ''■?"•'» * . X I ,' > ri:OHt prince trines of Rome, and burned at the slake those who denied them; as ly i.e.irinc, he, did also those by whom they were maintained^ if Ihey dis- \\l^^^^li^' puted his supremacy. At times, however, he seemed to lean to my pan .>r the side of the reformers of Germany, whose opinions were, will', ne'wui certainly, making silent progress in England; but in church endanser . o 7 tlif* orie half and state, he was the most despotic tyrant that ever swayed the of hi? kinc- Enjjlish sceptre. dom.") 10. Henry, by his will, left his crown, first to his son, Ed- 15.17'. WARD VI., the son of Jane Seymour, next to .Mart, daughter F.duari \i of Catharine of Spain, and next to Elizabeth, daughter of Anne Boleyn. Edward was but nine years of age at the death • The king ordered his servants to dress in mourning for Catharine ; but Anne appeared on that day in a robe of yellow silk. Henrj', alter he had brought Anne to the scaffold, shed no tears. 7. Give an account of the chanr ellor. For what was he condemned and executed ? Who else was executed for ine same olTenoe ? — S What was the fate of Anne Boleyn ? Mention Henry's succeeding wivti*. — f). How did the f>ench interest thwart the views of Henry in Scotland ? How were Henry's last days occupied ? How did he deal with the monasteries ? How did lie manifest his capricious and cool tyranny ? What was his character i lurgy. 326 THE LADY JANE GREY. Modern iiu of his father. The government was committed to a regency at the head of which was his uncle, Henry Seymour, earl of Hertford, now created duke of Somerset. He, adopting iht opinions of Luther^ established a church, with the aid of learned, pious, and judicious men; not only independent of the see of i549. Home, hut dissenting from it i7i doctrine and practice^ and using Eiigiish Li- special precaiilions that it should never coalesce. During this reign, a liturgy in die English language was adopted, and the church of England established on much the same foundation as that on wliich it now rests. 11. The health of Edward failed, and the hopes derived fiom his amiability of character and attachment to the protestanl cause were about to be blighted. The duke of Northumber- land now sought to prepare the way for the ele%'ation to the throne, of his son lord Guilford Dudley, who kad married the L*(f- J ' ^'^^y^ Jan'e Grey, granddaughter of Mary, youngest daughter Grey. of Henry VIJ. The attachment of Edward VI. to the lady Jane, who was about his own age, and who had been, under after the ' the celebrated Roger Aschaini, the companion of his studies, Anne of together with her piety and sweetness of character, rendereil Hriianny, the young king accessible to the reasonings of Northumberland ; Lo'uiJxu. '^^'"-^ without the knowledge of Lady Jaue, he declared her his of France, successor. When, on the death of Edward, the tidings of her married tiie elevation were announced to her, she fainted with surprise and cI'tT-s S^*"^^^' ^^"^^ ^" ^^^'■" recovery, she sought to escape the unwel- Bra'ndon, come dignity, urging tlie prior claims of Mary and Elizabeth. Suffoik*^ But in an evil hour she sulfered her scruples to be overruled by graudfatiier her ambitious relatives, and she was proclaimed queen. A contest ^"jaiie.) ensued bet^veen Northumberland and the partisans of Mary, in which the latter were successful. The duke was impeached for treason, and beheaded. The innocence of lady Jane, and hei husband, lord Dudley, procured them a short respite; but at length, they too were condemned, and suffered on the scaffold. 1555. 12. The leading partisans of lady Jane were next tried and ttueenMavy executed; and the Catholic bishops were restored. Nejjotia- Philip or tions were shortly after conmienced for the marriage of the Spam. qxieen, which, notwithstanding the remonstrances of her sub- tWhen Eli- jects, resulted in a treaty with Charles V., who had proposed I'ciu dTier " ^^"i^" ^^'i^h his son Philip II. An insurrection, headed by BLKterMary Sir Thoiuas VVyatt, and the duke of Suffolk, showed the dis- ^"Sho^\vas tiii''^ed state of the public mind. The conspirators had urged iitowardut- the princess Elizabeth to assume the crown, which, with ihe ;iiie ' ) characteristic prudence she refused. lO. Who succeeded Henry ? Give some account of the political events of his reign. What was done in church affairs ? — 11. How was Edward tampered with, in resjard to the succession, and whom did he appoint ? \S'ha! were his reasons lor appointing this lady ? How did she receive the news of her elevaiioii ? What was the result? — VZ. What was done with the adherents of lady Jane? Whom did que°;i Mary marry? What insur rection was the consequence of her marrying a strict CatholiCj she 'being flic iiersclf ? What was offered to Elizalie'h ' succeeds Mary. THE FIIkES of SAIITHFIELD. 327 13 Sliorlly after the arrival of Philip in England, the realm •'^^'' ^'"'" ■^" was, with great ceremony, re-united to the Roman church, and pekiodi absolved by the pope's legate, cardinal Pole,* from the sins of chap, v heresy and scliism. At Rome, this event was celebrated with siffcat joy and splendor. This reconciliation was the signal for lighting up tlie tires of persecution in England. The first mar- tyr was John Rogers, who was burnt at Smithfield, March 4th, 1535. The bishops Latimer, Ridley, Hooper, and Cran.mer, fatliei s of the Englisli church, also sufltsred martyrdom. '1 'he num- (Cai vin, bcr of those who were put to death for conscience sake, during about ims, i ' ^ c ;i u s e (I S p r* d'is short reign, is estimated at 400, of whom 290 were burned vetus to b.; alive. 3Iany of the protestants fled to foreign lands. Joh.v '^he"etf/)* Calvi.v was teaching with great reputation at Geneva, and there many of the persecuted found repose. The death of Mary, 1551^ v/hich occurred not long after, was followed by the accession Elizabeth of her sister Elizabeth to the throne. The following year, ilie wars which had so long agitiited Europe, were composed by tlie treaty of Chateau Cambrcsis, which procured a general 1559 peace. 14. POLAND, auciendy inhabited by Vandals, was, in 550, 550. made a duchy. About 300 years afterwards, Piastus, a peasant, Po'^n^ was elected duke. He lived to the age of 120, and made so duchy, excellent a sovereign, that the Poles called his successors, when "^^• . A kin'T- native princes, Piasts. Christianity was introduced about the domun- time that Poland became a kingdom, under Boleslaus HI. A •|'^'' i*»- succession of civil wars followed until 1178, when Casimir in. the Just restored order. From Andrew II. the Poles obtain- ^'^'^'^ ed a great charter, which laid the foundation of their national charter freedom. Looking back to the early history of this country, f;'|'^g ' Cardinal Pole was by birth an English nobleman, and allied to the royal Bu.I." family. Early in the reign of Henry VIH., his piety led him to take orders in the church. When tiiat monarcli sought to be independent of the see of Rome ibr the iniquitous purpose of obtaining a divorce, Pole had the firm- ness to oppose him, which changed the love, the king had borne him, to hatred. Forced to leavo England, the pope and emperor of Germany es- poused his cause, and he received high honors in the church. Henry, in revenge, put to death several of his relatives, and among them his aged mother, the countess of Salisbury. On the accession of Mary, he was re- called. Had his mild counsels been followed, insiead of those of the cruel priests, Gardiner and Bonner, the blood of many martyrs who perished in this reign, miurht have been spared. In regard to the personal character of Mary, much allowance should be made lor the errors of her government, from the pec'uliar circumstances of her childhood, as well as the influence jf l.er husband, to whom she was faithful a.id devoted. The blood shed by Mary in England was little in comparison to that which flowed in Spain by the inquisition, allowed by her grandinoiher. Yet Isabella is lauded, even by protestanf.s, while her granddaughter is called " 'I'he Bloody Mary." Times had changed, but Alary, brought up in seclusion with her wronged and unhappy mother, had not changed with them, i;j. What was done ^con after Philip's arrival? Who was firot put to death? Where did he suffer ? What others are mentioned ? Who suc- ceeded Mary ? Whaf occurred the following year ? — 1-1. By whom was Poland anciently inhabited ' When was it made a duchy ? From whom were the early pri.ces called Pias's? Under what sovereign, and when did Poland become a kingdom ? What is said of Ca.simir the Just f What was done m the reign of Andrew W. f 328 POLAND INCLUDING PRUSSIA. Modern Hi s. -^^Q 866 nol why, had the Poles been united, and judicious as PERIOD I. well as patriotic, they might not have been at this day one of the CHAP. V. first powers in Europe. But the practice of choosing foreign v-ic-N/-"*^ sovereigns early began. In 1370, Louis, the able sovereign of ;i3th centu- Hungary, was elected king of Poland: and he ruled a domain, /V SUCC6S* (~i J ' o J f Bive irnip- parts of which touched the Adriatic, the Black sea, and the """terrible'^ Baltic. Lithuania, though often at war with Poland, had till Mongols this period preserved its independence, and was the last portion '"and."* of Europe unchristianized. Louis had sought to secure ihe succession of Poland to his eldest daughter Maria and Sigis- MUND, elector of Brandenburg, to whom she was betrothed ; but the Poles preferring Hedwige, the younger daughter, she j'lS8S. ^yas married to Jagello, duke of Lithuania, and he was elected laus I. under the name of Ladislaus I. He was baptized, and his peo- ^"^kff" P^^ received Christianity; and he became the founder of a dy- Poiaiid nasty, under which Poland saw her best days, thulnia ^^- P'^'^ssia was Conquered by the Teutonic Knights, an united, order of military monks, who, returning from the crusades. Lad. II. i" 1225, obliged the people, at the point of the sword, to sub- ^ ^° ^ mit to their government, and receive their religion. By their Lad in. barbarities they almost depopulated the country. Casimir IV., chosen of Poland, took up arms for the oppressed people, and long and Hun. bloody Vi'ars followed, in which the knights were, in 1466, t4C5C». overcome. Albert, the grand master of the order, then re- ?>' /v.Ton- ii«^^i'"ced the Catholic, and embraced the Reformed religion, and qiiers v.as made duke of east Prussia, as a vassal of Poland. Albert founded the University of Konigsberg. The first diet of Po- land was in 1468. The reigns of Sigismund I., and of his son and successor Sigismund II., form the brightest era Diet, of Polish history. The reformation was received, and Po- sigiR. land was the first of the nations to declare religious to- "^V"'!^^- leration. The death of Sigismund J I. terminated the male 15% 2. i'li^ of the Jagelions, and, unhappily, foreigners were af- La^i of terwards elected by the contentious nobles. The frame ot Jafjei- society and government had now lost its balance, the aris- loMs. tocracy having reduced to nothing the power of the people, and of the sovereign. (Poland was the ancient Sarmatia, ana during the last poTtian of the middle ages, the principal of the Slavonic Nations, so called from the Slavi, a barbarous and peculiar people, who once wandered over ito fer tile regions, which extended from the Euxine to the Baltic. The Polep were originally divided into small republics, under chiefs elected for life called palauns or vaivodes.) Prussia. 146§. First 14. Give an account of Louis. Of the extent of his empire, What occurred respecting the succession? What is rerrJirked concerning the dynasiy of the Jagelions? — 15. By whom, and wnen was Prussia con- quered ? By whom, and when were the Teutonic Knights reduced to sub- iiiibBJon ? What was done by Albert ? What occurred 1468 ? What reigns form the brightest era in Polish history ? When were the Jagelions ex tinct ? THE BRITISH ISLAiNPS E:^1iihitiiig' tke Principal Bist orical Occiurences liiv rm '. , , , , ^ „ v(> — U>erdeeii sio« ^ i oiiduiiili ri\ q^ „ M arru k £ '^^Miiri "^ ^ Ff«(^ Jones' \pUmcas.\et LMia-stoti .Um>r\ ii. 7T/Y/>rr 777.« \;7;.5— leeds^A-— IIiiJ''<,-^ ^^"^'"'^'^....;, Lincohi \ T^ahia-ff. , ^Ns /^ < jLiverpoa ^ ~0^ 1 J Bostou'M ^ f ~ Oiaiigrare Fidd - , '■--— -^'''^'''^-v^ / Ngsdnny „i/SaenOal;^ " ^7i .Si'diieiiwor Lj ^ Hasbii;._ , / 8785 i T) . ^ ,1 PeiTllsd .'^'Ta ■^ X IhiuK.iilh i Spaui.^lL^lnuailii ./ Guerii ^i»w > I S Lcmgili ide West from Greenwich .^ t. Loris' Eaat J.aXmmy Sc Patent given in 1578, by Q. Elizabeth to Sir 11. Gilbert. PERIOD II. THE TREATY GENERAL PEA THE ASSASSI- NATION OF .ce3 c RAMBKESIS, Chen IGIO. RY IV., FRANCE. CHAPTER I England and Scotland. I After Charles V., the main light of the historic picture falls upon Elizabeth of England ; as being the most powerful, sagacious, and politic sovereign of the time. Though she suc- ceeded to the crown without opposition, her claims were every where disputed by the Catholics, on tlie ground that the mar- riage of her father, Henry VIII., to her mother, Anne Boleyn, was not valid ; the pope not having sanctioned his divorce from Catharine of Arragon. The pope accordingly issued a bull, de- claring her illegitimate, and absolving her subjects from their oath of allegiance. Her cousin-german, Mary, queen of Scots, was esteemed by the Catholics, the lawful heir. She had re- 3iained in France, been educated to extensive knowledge of languages, general literature, and elegant accomplishments; and was now married to the dauphin, afterwards Francis 11. By the adAice of the duke of Guise and the cardiival of Lon- rai.\e, the brothers of her mother,'tshe assumed the arms and Jitle of " queen of England ;" this giving just occasion of alarm Perico II. — Chap. I. — 1. What may be said of Elizabeth of England 03 to her merits as a sovereign? What cai!'=fis of annoyance had she? Where was now Mary queen of Scots? Who gave lier bad advice, and what did she in consequence ? 42 329 Modern His PERIOD II CHAP. I. Elizal)eth. fTliese twu lirothers, anil after- wards their nephmv, thf duke of Maycnne, were the heads of a powerful fa- mily caUeil "i.'(« Gut' ses,'' ami eometiines the "Prince uf Lor- raine" doU INTOLERANCE OF THE PROTESTANTS. Model n }As iq Elizabeth, although no immediate measures were taken to sup PERIOD II. port her claim. Meanwhile Elizabeth strengthened herself in CHAP. I. her authority, by choosing and sustaining able counsellors, and wi^^y'"'^- adoptmg prudent measures ■, while with mingled courtesy and dignity, she made herself as a mother to the lowest of her sub- jects ; never refusing to receive their petitions, and judge between them and their most powerful oppressors. But, like her father^^ she had an indomitable will, a disposition to control unchecked all afiairs in her kingdom, both secular and ecclesiastical. Hence her reign procured England prosperity and peace, but neither civil or religious liberty. 2. In Scotland, the reformation had made great progress, (j'o'i" Rno^ The heads of the protestant party, the principal of whom was under Cai- JoHN K.\ox, jealous of the influence of the Guises over the ^'"'^olfth-'" queen-regent Mary of Guise, had associated as the " Congre- coiitiiieiit^ gation of the Lord." The papists, alarmed, resorted to persecu- \e' wrote'^^ tiou. The regent at one time was in favor with the protestanis, and sent but she forfeited their esteem by her duplicity; and rebellion ^entitled cnsued. The protestants applied to Elizabeth, who sent an "The First army to their assistance. The queen regent, though she re- Trumpet ceived troops from France, retired to Leith, where she was be- Monstrous ^i^ged. Here she died ; when the Guises dispatched envoys from Regiment of France to Edinburgh, and a treaty was concluded with Eliza- m^a'amng beth's ambassadors ; by the terms of which, the French forces Mary of were to be withdrawn from Scotland, and Francis and Mary to Mary of abstain from assuming the title of king and queen of England. ouiBc.) The rights of the protestants were secured by the treaty, which provided for a regency of twelve persons to be chosen jointly by the queen of Scots and the parliament, to govern the realm during her absence. After this, the French and English armies both left Scotland ; but Elizabeth held a controlling influence. 3. The protestants, still headed by John Knox, now perse- cuted in their turn. Worship according to the ritual of the Romish church was utterly prohibited by law, and the third offence of this kind made punishable by death. Meantime the Guises, although compelled by the disorders in France, to yield for the present, did not relinquish their design of establishing their niece, Mary, upon the throne of England. Influenced by -„^4j them, Francis II. and Mary, now king and queen of France, re- Thc anib'i- fused to ratify the treaty which their ambassadors had made in lion of the Edinburgh, and continued to assume the title and arms of mon- again mis- archs of England. The sudden death of Francis left the beau Liece *'''"^ Mary, now no longer queen of France, at liberty to return lead tlieii to Scotland ; and a deputation of her subjects arrived with a 1. How did Elizabeth strengthen her authority? How did she gain the love of her people ? — 2. What was the state of the reformation in Scotland ? Between what parties was there contention ? What foreign influerce guided tKe councils of the queen-regent ? Whom did the protestants call to thtit aid, and what was done ? VVhere did queen Mary die ? What events fol- lowed her death? — 3. By what was the protestant cause now disgraced? How did the Guises and their niece conduct in regard to the treatv ? THE (lUEEN OF SCOTS 331 ] ressing invitation tliat she should assume the government. She •'^^'^'^'"''* ^"'' complied, and bade adieu to Fiance with tears and lamentations f'eriod n. "Farewell! dear France, — farewell!" she said, as the receding chap. i. vessel carried her from its beloved shores, to a land around -^'n/-'**-* which clustered dark forebodings of the future. 4. On hfcr arrival she was received with joy, and by her first measures she acquired the confidence of the protestant party. Mary, hjwever, was a papist; and her adherence to the regular celebraliou of mass soon awakened the jealousy, and at length ,^^^** , alienated the affections of those of her subjects over whom iho'^qucGPo/ Knox held a controlling influence;* and she thenceforth re- scou. ceived from them abusive treatment, and on some occasions, outrageous insult. There was now peace between England and Scotlaiul ; and apparently cordial friendship between the rival queens. 5. Among the aspirants for the hand of the fair queen of Scots, was her cousin, Henry Stuart, lord Darnley, eldes-t son of the earl of Lenox, his mother being Margaret Doug *'2®^' ^ . Mary LAS, niece to Henry Vlll. Darnley was elegant m his person, marries and after Mary, next heir to the English crown. Him Mary i>'"niey- married, and by tliis measure excited the jealousy of the vigi- lant Elizabetli. Darnley proved not only weak and vain, but st?Js\'ll'Mhe savage in temper; and he soon ceased to pay to the lovely Mary protestaiua the homage her heart demanded, and to which slie had been Mary;thea accustomed in France. The favor she showed to David Riz- disowns it.) zio, an Italian musician, whom she had made her private secre- tary, excited the jealousy of Darnley, who, with some of his ^^^^'^ frier/ls, entered the queen^s apartment, dragged the Italian from ' Hizyio. her presence, and murdered him in the room adjoining. The birth of her son James soon followed this tragical event. 6. A few months after, the house in which Darnley slept was «jtj.« destroyed by an explosion of gunpowder, and he was killed, nlpburn. The earl of Bothwell was supposed to be the author of this EariofBotu atrocious deed ; and rumor attributed to the queen a share of the jers Darn- guilt. Bothwell, after a mock trial, was exculpated from the 'fn^arr"^ ohargo of murder. The queen exalted him to high honors and Maiv. offices, and about three months after the murder of her hus- band, she married him. An attempt of Bothwell to get posses- sion of the infant James, drove the indignant nobles to arms, Mary also assembled forces ; but on witnessing the reluctance * A table is now shown (the fragmeiita having been collected) in Holy Elooii house, at Edinburgh, on which stood an image of the virgin, which John Knox, intruding himself into the private apartment of his sovereign, dashed to pieces in her presence. ;j. Wlmt change now took place in the condition and location of Mary ? — I. How was Mary received ? How treated by the protestant leaders ? Were her relations with Elizabeth amicable? — '*. How did she excite Elizabeth's iealoasv ? Who was lord Darnley ? What kind of man did he prove to be ? VV'hat shocking ouirasie was he guilty of? What occurred soon after? 6. How was Darnley killed ? What was believed concerning the murder- ers? What was the conduct of Mary towjri? Bothwell? What was now tiie position of Mary ? 332 A POLITIC STATESMAN. Kiodei-n His, pf Jigj. troops to fight in defence of Bothwell, and receiving as. PERIOD II. surances from the confederated lords, of their willingness to CHAP. 1. submit to her government, provided Bothwell was banished '""'"'"^■^'^'-^ from her councils, she dismissed him, and he fled to the Ork- Mary, apri- neys. Here his piracies raised him new enemies, and he was castle in finally captured, and died unpitied in a prison in Norway The inverncGs. q^gen herself was treacherously kept a prisoner in the castle of Loch Leven by the confederated lords, who to(.)k uj)on them-- selves the administration of the government They next com- ■ pelled her to resign, and then proclaimed her son king, under the title of James VI.; making the earl of Murray regent of 15'-'"• ''"ic 10. Elizabeth was fully awake to the emergency. She su- squadron in perintended the military preparations herself She mounted ^^'^]]oi^^''' her horse, rode forth and inspected her troops at Tilbury, — (The pope awakened their hopes, and aroused their energies. " I will," •''■"' !-''ven * o ^ Ell II land to said she, " fight at your head, for though I have but the arm of i'"i]iiii a woman, I have the heart of a king ; and 1 am ready to pour out my blood." The Armada, from which such mighty achieve- ments were expected, was attacked in the channel by the Eng- I'sh under Howard and Drake, several ships taken, and others 1''>SS. sunk, or damaged; so that the Spanish commander, the duke of the "in- CF Medina Sidoxia, was obliged to return to Spain for repairs, vinciiiie Ar- The winds proving contrary, he sailed north to make the cir- cuit of the island. Off the Orkneys, a severe storm dispersed ^^Jp^r^,"^^^ and wrecked the fleet. One half of the vessels, and a still known aisj greater proportion of the seamen and soldiers were destroyed. derFanfcs"") Thus ended this formidable invasion, whose destruction proved the commencement of the maritime supremacy of England. 11. The parliament during this reign, as in the preceding, generally displayed the most abject submission to the will of the sovereign. On one occasion they demanded liberty of speech ; the queen peremptorily refused, and they submitted', f ,'>'^*2 But towards the close of the reign they took a bolder tone ; and sir Krancis the queen showed her policy in granting with a good grace, |.*jn|^,|av7." what she «avv she could not safely refuse. In this reign Sir gates the Francis Drake circumnavigated the globe; an exploit which ^^^I'^i ti ' flit iljt: inic. 8. Concerning the queen of Scots what part was taken by Philip, and what hostile measures towards England did he pursue ? — 'i. What great enterprize had the Spaniards now in hand ? What appears to have been their expecta- tion of the result o\ the invasion ? — lO. How did the queen of England meet the emergency? Describe the operations and fate of the armada? What did the destruction of this amament prove ? — 1 1. How was it with the par- liament dtiring this reign ? Vhat was do le by Sir Francis Drake i 234 ATTRJMPTS TO COLONIZE AMRRIC \. Modem His PERIOD II. cirAP. 1. 1559. Philip per- secutes iierctics. The Nether- leudsr»ivolt. filled Europe with astonishment. Commercial relations were entered into with Russia and Turkey. Elizabeth gave, in 1578, to Sir HrMPHREY Gilbert, the first patent to lands in the new world to which the royal signature of England was affixed. Gilbert lost his property and life in vain attempts to settle the country ; when the Queen tr;insferred the patent to his half- brother, the scientific and courtly Sir Walter Raleigh. The navigators sent out by him discovered a fair coast, which the virgin queen named Virginia, and which Raleigh was at much expense to colonize ; but his attempts to plant permaoent set- tlements were disastrous failures. Elizabeth* was not particu- larly liberal to men of genius ; yet her reign produced William Shakspeare, the prince of dramatists. 12. SPAIN AND THE NETHERLANDS.— The treaty ot Chateau Cambresis being concluded, Philip, after endeavoring to quiet the Netherlands, returned to Spain. Plaving encountered a severe storm at sea, on his first landing, he threw himself on his knees, and in gratitude for his own preservation, vowed to devote the remainder of his life to destroying heretics ! His ut- most efforts, aided by the tortures of the Inquisition, Avere now exerted for their extirpation, and he gave the monstrous order, that all heretics in Spain, Ilaly^ the Indies, and the JVetherlands, should, forthwith be converted to the Catholic faith or put to death. The Netherlands had received the doctrines of the re- formation. They had become wealthy by their commerce and manufactures, and the free government of their cities had con- tributed to foster a spirit of liberty. The persecution of Spain now drove them to revolt. 13. The cruel duke of Alva was sent by Philip, v.dtii a large body of Spanish and Italian soldiers, to reduce the Dutch to submission. He caused the counts Egmont and Horn, who had taken the lead, to be executed. William of Nassau, prince of Orange, who succeeded them in command * In speaking of Elizabeth, it is the common place remark, that " though she was an indifferent woman, she was a Jlrst-rate ruler." 1'his is one of those many expressions, by which ordinary women, who are influenced by them, are made through their lives a species of larger infants ; and queens, should any read them, must be led to suppose that queen-craft requires, or excuses vice. Will the Almighty make such distinctions? Elizabeth was a human being placed in authority. Did she do best, tlje best things ? That was wise, and some indulgence should be shown for her iiregnlarities of teinper, when she gave her thoughts to the anxious cares of her higli voca- tion. Did she indulge in violent outbreaks of temper ? That is disgracefui in man or woman. Did she dissemble and act a double part ? That is wrong in woman or in queen. Isabella of Spain, who but for her bigotry would have been a better queen, never was insincere, although she had the example of a beloved husband. 11. With what nations were commercial treaties made ? What was done hi regard to colonizing America? — 12. Give an account of the movements of Philip of Spain after the treaty of Chateau Cambresis ? What dreadful order did he give ? tV hat tribunal had he to aid him ? What was the coc dition of the Netherlands? What effect had Philip's persecution? — li*. What commai». unai>le to bring Alva to an engagement, and possessing no for- period ll. tified place, he was compelled to disband his army. Executions chap. i. now were numerous, and many of the Dutch (led and took *«-^^*'^^* lefuge in England. Their privateers, which had disposed of prizes in the English ports, were on the remonstrances of the Sjianish court, excluded. This compelled them to seek a bar- 'tor of their own ; and they seized and fortified the Brille, a port lU lloliand. The spirit of the Hollanders revived, and many towns took sides with the prince of Orange. Alva, fore- seeing the length and probable result of the war, petitioned to be recalled; and he returned to Spain to boast, that during the five years of his command in the Netherlands, 18,000 heretics had perished by the hands of the public executioner. 14. Rkquesens, the Spanish governor who succeeded, tried the efficacy of mdder measures ; but the disease was past reme- dy, and the inhabitants, smarting under their recent oppressions, continued the war with various success. A detachment imder Louis, brother to the prince of Orange, was defeated and slain |ni» a by the Spaniards, v/ho next laid siege toLeyden ; but the Dutch Ley'don be. dreaded the Spanish rule more than death, and they opened sieged, their dykes and sluices. A powerful wind impelled the waters with fury against the works of the besiegers, and compelled them to retreat. The Dutch offered the sovereigntv of the Low Countries to Elizabeth, but she prudently declined it, though she aided them with men and money. At length a 1576. treaty, called //te pacification of Ghent,, was concluded, by which "deification it was stipulated that all foreign troops should be expelled, and the inquisition of the Netherlands abolished. Requesens died ; — Don John of Austria, who succeeded, violated the treatv, and the war was renewed. Unhappy divisions between the states had prevented vigorous efforts against the common enemy. The prince of Orange exerted himself to produce a union, and pro- 15T9. cured a meeting of deputies at Utrecht, from Holland,, Zealand,, ^llf o^il'ou* Utrecht,, Friesland,, Groningen, Ooerys^el and Guelderland,, '^"<' ^om- who signed the articles called the union of the Seven United ^\\9V\\\nn Provinces, Thus commenced the Republic of Holland. ^r j^|,p 15. The DUKE OF Parma, one of the most accomplished Spyfu PfQ. generals of the age, now connnanded the Spanish forces. The yiiipfs states doubting their ability to withstand the power of Spain, again offered the sovereignty to Elizabeth ; and on her second rejection, to the duke of Anjou. The duke, by an attempt upon the lil)erty of the states, lost their confidence, and was o:;liged to return to France, where he soon after died. The 13. What was done in respect to a harbor? What further can you relate of the duke of Alva? — 14. Who succeeded A!va. and in what temper did he find the Dutch ? What singular measure did tlie Dutch take at Leyden to rid themselves of their besiegers? To whom did the Dutch offer the sovereignty of their country ? Relate the time and place of the meeting of the deputies — the number of states composing the Republic. — 15. VVhat commander now appears on the side of the Spanish ? Who on the side of the Dutch comes at their invitation ? How did he lose their confidence ? 336 THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR OF HOLLAND. PERIOD II. CHAP. I. 15S5. Eiizabeth aidK the Dutch. (.Viva re- r.riis, 1673.) 159-1. TUR.V- HOUT The Dutch defeat tlie Spaniards. BSY OF c.iniz. Knglish and Dutch de- feat the Spanish 160O. jVIE o- PORT. Dutch and English do- /eat the Aiistuans. command of tlie confederates devoh'ed upon the prmce of Orange, who, through his whole life was faithlul to the liberties of his countrymen ; but an assassin, whom a reward offered by Philip had instigated to the ruthless deed, took his life. The states appointed his son Maurice to succeed him in commanci. 16. The duke of Parma, having reduced Ghent and Brussels^ besieged Antwerp, the richest and most populous city in the Netherlands. The inhabitants made every effort to save the city, but were at last obliged to capitulate. At this disastrous juncture, when the provinces were ready to sink under con- tinued efforts, Elizabeth finding her interest now united with theirs, embarked heartily in their cause. Her favorite, the e.vrl OF Leicester, was dispatched thither, with six thousand En- glish troops, while Sir Francis Drake was sent to attack the Spaniards in the West Indies. Leicester, having failed to render any effectual assistance, was recalled, and lord Willoughby appointed to the command of the English forces. 17. The duke of Parma was obliged to lead his army into France in aid of the catholic party, and he was also required to direct the operations of the " Invincible Armada," and thus ob- liged to neglect the concerns of the Netherlands. On the death of that able commander, Mansfield was appointed to succeed hhn. Maurice now took Breda, and with the aid of the English, under Sir Francis Vere, made himself master of Gertruyden- berg and Groningen. At Turnhout, in Brabant, they obtained a complete victory over the Spaniards, hi 1597, the Dutch and English squadrons made a joint attack upon the Spanish fleet, in the bay of Cadiz ; destroyed it, and took the city. Philip now began to think of peace ; but as the states would hearken to no terms which did not recognize their independence, he chose rather to transfer his dominion over the revolted pro- vinces to his daughter Isabella, who was afBanced to Albert, duke of Austria. 18. Albert, after his marriage, endeavored to prevail on the United Provinces to submit, by promises of lenity. They dis- regarded his advances, and resolved upon liberty or death. Albert then issued a decree, excluding them from all intercourse with Spain, Portugal, and the Spanish Netherlands. This, though designed to injure their commerce, had a contrary effect, and changed the current of their trade, without lessening its profit. The hostile parties now strengthened their armies. Prince Maurice enlisted bodies of Germans, Swiss, and French, The arch-duke received supplies from Spain, Italy, and Ger- 15. What further can you relate of the prince of Orange? Who suc- ceeded him ? — 16. What city was now besieged ? What course was now taken by the queen of England ? Whom did slie send ? How did Leices ter succeed? — 17. E.xamine the operations detailed in this paragraph, and say which has the advantage. Why did the duke of Parma neglect the affairs of the Netherlands. What engagements are related ? What city in Spain is taken? What passed in respect to a treaty of peace? What transfer was made ? — 18. What measures were taken by Albert to induce submission ? How did each nartv strengthen it.s army ? PORTUGAL TTXITKD TO SPAIN. 'S's: many. A sanguinary battle was fouglit at N ieuport, neai Ostend, in VVe'^t Flanders, in which the Dutcli and English obtained the victory, 19. Albert soon took the field with a powerful force, and sat down before Ostend. After a inoniorable siege of tliree years, wliieh cost the archduke the lives of 70,000 men, Ostend ca- pitulated. Prince Maurice, meanwliile, had reduced seven towns, which more tlian balanced its loss. After prosecuting the war two years longer, the court of Spain retaining posses- sion of the ten provinces, treated with the seven who had ac- ceded to the union as an indrpcndcnl nation A truce of twelve years was concluded, during which their civil and re- ligions liberties were guarantied to the states. Through the energy and persevering industry of the Dutch, their commerce was extended and their wealth increased. Tlie East India Com- pany was established during this period. 20. While Philip 11. had lost the Netherlands, he had ac- quired Portugal. Don Sebastian, the sovereign, under the in- fluence of the Jesuits, attempted an invasion of Morocco. Sailing for Africa with an army of 20,000 men, liis forces were defeated, and he was slain in battle. He was succeeded in his kingdom by his uncle, cardinal Henry. On his dying childless, the line of succession was broken, and many claimants to the crown arose. Philip, although not possessed of the best right, was the most powerful ; and he was accordingly crowned king of Por- tugal. The whole Spanish peninsula, now united under one monarch, was, on the death of Philip II., transmitted to his son, Philip HI. JHudern His 1608. rndepend- eiice of Ho •• land(one y«ar hefori' llie first ef- fi'itiial sei- tiement of the old 13 U. Slates.) 1580. Porlii- pal uni- ted to Spain. riiilip II. I'liilip II. CHAPTER II. France. 1. Francis I. dying in France, his son Henry 11. succeeded him. The death of Henry II., shortly after the treaty of Cambro- sis, left the throne of France to his son, Francis M. This king- dom was now a scene of contention. The protestant religion had taken a deep hold of the affections of the French people, and numbered among its disciples the prince op Conde, admiral CoLiGNi, and many other important personages. The Guises 15-17. Ilpniv 11. Francis II and Mary quet'n of 8cot?, IdiiP ind mieen of Fiiiiipe. 18, Where was a battle fought, and with what result f — 19. Give anac- i;ount of the siege and capture of Ostend. What had prince Maurice gained ' What is said of the measures of the court of Spain ? What treaty was made? What did the industry of the Dutch effect? — 30. What accessioK Iiad Phihp of Spain received ? Who were the last sovereigns ? Why was Philip made king ? Chap. II. — 1. Who succeeded Henry II. of France? Who was now queen of France ? What was the state of the kingdom f Who were the Protestant leaders ? 4a 33S CATHARINE DE MEDICr Modern His, were at the head of the Catholic party; and in fact, through PERIOD n their influence over the young and feeble Francis, they Avere at CHAP. ji. this period at the head of the whole French nation. Swayed '-•^^''^^*-^ by a furious zeal against the Protestants, and not satisfied with Pe^ecutioi influencing the councils of the young king, they plotted to gain protestants. possession of his person, and force liim into all their measures. The queen-mother, Catharine de Medici, more from ambitioE than maternal regard, opposed them. This led them to the adoption of milder measures. Conde, who had been made pri- soner, was released. Shortly after, the Guises recovered their influence with the court. 2, The see of Rome had a powerful support in tlie Jesuits. When Loyola threw himself with all the intrepidity of his en- thusiastic character into the formation of this order, both the The Jesviis. pope and the inquisition opposed him ; but subsequently they adopted the society and turned it to their purposes. Paul III. confirmed the order in 1540, and the next year Loyola was created general, or grand master of the society, with powers (Thp spread Subordinate only to the pope. Its seat was at Rome, whence oftiieso- niissions were sent to every part of the Old and New World-, suits was which, in reference to this society, was divided into twelve pro- InTov^fa's '^'i"ces. After Loyola's death, which occurred in 1556, the order lifethev WHS in a degree remodeled. Its main object then became, to de- iST'oUeges. fsnd the supreme authority of the papacy, and for this purpose inieostiiere to Control public opinion; — to work by good or bad means, as 10,581 Je- would most effect the downfall of its foes, or the elevation of its ■-nits.) friends. The Jesuits by private tokens knew each other ; but minffling^ in all the walks of social life, thev were not known to the uninitiated, who were thus surrounded by spies. Monarchs, whom they daily approached as confessors, were blindly wrought upon to do the will of this dark and dangerous order; and their secret councils were too often betrayed and transmitted to Rome. 8560. 3. The sudden death of Francis II. transferred the supreme CatiiariiiG authority to his mother, who exercised the office of regent dur- 'psreiit. ing the minority of her second son, Charles IX. Catharine sought to render her own power paramount, by balancing opposite factions, and steering a middle course between them. De l'Hopital, whom she made chancellor, was an upright and honest man; and notwithstanding he was a catholic, he in- fluenced the queen to show some favor to the protestants. A meeting of catholic and protestant divines took place at Poissy, where the cardinal Lorraine, on the part of the former, and 1. Who the Catholic, and what was their influence and power? Who was Catharine de Medici, and what part did she take ? — 2. By whom had Loyola, in the first founding of his society, been opposed ? Whal did these parties subsequently do? When and liy whom was the society confirmed? What success had Loyola as regarded his socielv, during his lifetime ? There appears to have been a change as to the objects of the so- ciety after his death, explain what it was. — S. What event placed Catha- rine de Medici in power ? What policy did she pursue ? What counsellor had she, and how did he influence her ? Wiere did the two partiee hold a conference ' TtlE HUr.URXOTS. 339 TuEODORfi Beza on that of the latter, held a theological di.-i ^^■'^'■''■^ ^^"; nnte, but without coming to any amicable uiKler.slauding. Mean- while, a deputation from the didferent parliaments of the king- dom, published an edict granting toleration to the protestants, or Huguenols as they were called, and permitting them to assemble *br worship wUhnnf. the walls of towns and cities. The G lises hft tlie court, indignant that such a favor should be granted to rieretics. But during tlie absence of the queen and court from Paris, the duke of Guise returned thither, and upon his arrival tiie populace rose in his favor, and evinced great zeal in the catholic cause. 4. The protestants prevailed in the south and west of France, and, under the prince of Conde, made Orleans their head quarters. The catholics entered into a league with Pliilip of Spain, and England ♦he protestants with Elizabeth of Enjrland. Havre de Grace was ^."'} ^i'*'" yielded to Elizabeth, and a body of 6,000 troops furnished by her. The catholics besieged Rouen, which, after a bloody de- fence, surrendered. Anthony of Rourbo.v, king of Navarre, who had at first favored, hut afterwards abandoned the protestant . !:^„„ I III- T •> . 11 '^^ ^ f^-* • cause, was here slam. His queen, Jeanxk n'Ar.nRET, with her giUsc and young son, afterwards the gallant IIf.nkv IV., still adhered to the ^XfeatTi'ie protestants. The first important battle was fought at Dreux, protestmts where the prince of Con(l»kjv/s the pope for carr}ing the designs of the leaguers into efiecU Ti's liefe.iV The protestants under Conde and Coligni, again resorted to ''>« I'l-ox^si. arms; a battle was fought at St. Denis, five miles north of Paris, 3. Who were the chief speakers? Was any good done? What edict was published ? What persons were offended, and why? What is further Bfiid of the duke of Guise ? — 4. What part of France favored the protestants ? VVh-,1 commanded, and where did they make their head-quarters? What foreiirn powers were now interested in the dispute ? What place yielded to the English ? What happened at the siege of Rouen ? What parlies were opposed at the battle of Dreux, and what were the results? VVhat assas- sination occurred ? — S. What engacjement was made to the protestajits, and how was it kept ? As the league here mentioned was important, be particu- lar in relating who formed it, — when it was formed, — where,- -and what was its object ? Where was the cardinal Lorraine ? Relate the battle of St, Dcni^ ? 340 THE MOTHER OF HENRY IV, Mode rn His j^ vvliicri thc aged Constable, Montmorenci, commander ot the PERIOD II. catholics, was slain. The protestants, however, were at length CHAP. II. driven from the field. They next laid siege to Chartresi; during '-''^'^^'—^ which time, Catharine \vith Jier usual artifice, betook herself to Tlielamf negotiations, and another treaty, called the "Lame peace,'' was Peai!8. concluded. 6. This was soon infringed by an order, dictated hy the , double-dealing Catharine, to arrest Conde and Coligni for trea- son. They, having kept themselves on their guard, escaped-, B5r»i> ^^"-^ again placed tliemselves at the head of the protestant forces. jaRh'-Wc At Jarnac they met and were defeated by Henry duke of An- ^.lefuated'^ jou, brother of the king. Conde fell in the battle. This de- feat, and more especially the death of their commander, threat- ened ruin to the protestants. Many of the officers refused to obey Coligni, and dissensions ran high in their ranks. At this juncture, the intrepid, Jeanne d'Albret, queen of Navarre, stepped forward, animated the dispirited protestants by her zeal, and furnished them with funds. " Despair not," said she, pre- lienry de senting her young son, " behold the new chief whom heaven has Bourbon, gg^j- ^^j command you." From this time Henry was acknow- '"varre, ledged as their leader, although the more experienced Coligni tiien 16. yg^ guided their councils. He strained every neive, in again pre- paring the troops for action. Poictiers, commanded by the young DUKE or Guise, was besieged, but an epidemic disorder in the camp compelled Coligni to raise the siege. _^j,jj 7. Henry of Anjou now appeared in the field, and Coligni, ji'oN'- ' urged by his troops, many of whom were German auxiliaries, cojv- anxious to return to their homes, hazarded a battle. The plains Henry of of Moncontour nov/ Avitnessed the entire defeat of the protest- Anjoude- jj jg Coliffni, though severely wounded, was soon in the field teats the o i o iii ti- i-i protestants, at the head of another formidable army. Havmg obtained some "isTo^owr successes which inspirited his troops, the court commenced ne- gotiations, and a treaty highly favorable to the protestants was ri^^Me"id! concluded. Liberty of worship in their towns was again tiie person!- granted ; and their well-grounded fears of treachery were lulled the ualian by their being permitted to garrison four strong places, Rochelle, state Trafr Montauban, Cognac, and La Charte, as guarantees that the con- ur Machia- ditions would be observed. But the most horrible perfidy was tyl'srcawed meditated. The design of the court was no other than to lull from Ma- the fears of the protestant leaders, draw them to the capital, and \vho doe's Other cities, and then massacre them all. but pive itc 8. On various pretexts, they were induced to come to Paris. Coligni, ever true to his country, was incited by the prospect of commanding in a war with Philip of Spain, for the recovery 5. What peace was next made ? Have you read of any peace made by that bad woman which did not prove a " lame peace" to those who put any faith in her engagements? — ii. How did she infringe this treaty ? What oc- curred at the battle of Jarnac ? What was done by .Teanne d'Albret ? How was young Henry regarded ? — T. What parties engaged at Montcontour? What was the result? What did Coligni? What treaty was now made? What was the design of Catharine and her part-" ? — 8. How and where were the leaders of the protestants collected ? rule,*,) THE M.\SSACRE OP ST. BARTHOLOMEW. 34l M"6trn His, of Flanders. Ifc wiis received with the most devoted respect, ;^' consulted on evciry occasion, and addressed by the youn^ mon- pEMon ii :nAi'. arch with the tide oi' father. The virtuous queen of Navarre came with Henry, her gallant son, then seventeen. A marriav'''^> had been proposed for him, with Margarrt, the sister of the king; but the suspicious eye of maternal afiection s;:w treacl>ery in the caresses of Catharine ; and she withhold her consent. She j-.}.* died suddenly, probably by poison. The negotiations for the .A'.igust"lV. marriu/Te proceeded ; and the leaders of the protestants tlirouo-h- M-iffiai'o o« out France were summoned to Paris to celebrate its festivities. Margaret. Tlie wedding took place on the 17th of August, and Paris re- sounded with mirUi and revelry. 9. -At the stillness of miduiglit, on St. Bartholomew's eve. August 24th, the tocsin bell of St. Germain L' Auxerrois, awoke tlie mhabitauts of Paris. It was the signal to begin the dread ful massacre; and the morning light looked upon more tlian ten au;;. 2J. thousand bleeding corpses of the protestants, strewed through- g.'^'j.'"^'!? "' out the streets, and within tlie houses and sanctuaries of the iomew. city. Warriors, women, infants, and old men were slain, hi other parts of France, there were put to death sixty thousand more. Mor« than The catbolic family of Montmorenci gave funeral honors to the snored!'^* mangled remains of Coligni. Pope Pius V., on hearing of the massacre, was affected to tears; but Gregory X 11. who at this time succeeded him, insulted the majesty of heaven by return- ing public thanks for these atrocious cruelties. 10. The king was, meanwhile, seized with all the horrors of remorse. VVhen the assassins, who had acted by his authority, came to relate, and make a merit of their bloody deeds, the spectators beheld iiim shuddering as if with cold. He hated from that time his wicked mother and the Guises. " I know a^/JJ'"?.*',.' not," said he to his confidential physician, " what has happened ctiiiries ix. to me, but in mind and body I am shaking as in a fever. It ^fti^eiifoir/)*^ seems to me every moment, whether waking or sleeping, that mangled bodies present themselves to me with hideous faces, and covered with blood." No earthly medicine could reach the seat of his disease ; and he died at the chateau of Vincennes in the most agonizing tortures, and bathed in his own blood, which oozed from his veins. 11. His brother, Hknry of Ax.rou, was proclaimed as Henry HI. He was not at the time in France, but in Poland, where lie had been electee' king. The catholics, two years after his accession, ybrmpc? the celebrated league for the defence of reli- 'tIiV gion^ at the head of which was Henry, duke of Guise. War [,eaffue. was declared against Henry, king of Navarre, who had escaped the massacre of St. Bartholomew ; and, after having been kept thfte years a prisoner of state, had regained his liberty. The (tTliees 8. Wliat marriage had been proposed for Flenry of Navarre? What ^^^'^ were happened to his mother? When did ihe marriage lalie place? — '>. Give an however, account of the massacre of .St. Bartholomew. — 1<>. Of the remorse and callea^tlie dearii of Charles IX. — 1 i. The war which followedtwas callf.d the war of wars ui t>.« Uu; three Henrys — who were the three ? league.) ID'S 4). Henry III 342 THE WARS OF THE LEAGUE- Modern }i,s. i^jague {lad in the field two armies, each 20,000 strong, while PERIOD II. the khig of Navarre could raise at the most, only 5,000 men ; CHAP. II. yet his valor and abilities, and that of his few followers sus- '^■"^'^''^^'''-^ tained him. At Coutras he encountered an army of the royal- ^ii^m^tt ^^^^' '^hich he defeated, but was unable to reap the advantages Navarre de- of victory; for he had no means of paying his troops, and a h'i^lgnsrs. gi'eat part of thera left him soon after the battle. 12. The designs of tlie league became apparent. Guise was openly solicited to dethrone the king of France, and take the sceptre into his own hands. This he dared not do ; but he in- stigated the Parisians, who had organized a military force of Dc:ithoftiie 20,000 men, to seize the person of the sovereign. The Pari- th ■' niass°- ^'^"^ failed in their attempt, and Guise proceeded to Paris to ac- c-eofsi. complish it himself; but the king escaped, and took refuge sA ^"ievv.°" Rouen. Guise, finding many difficulties in the way of his usur- pation, entered into a compromise with the king of France, and was appointed lieutenant-general of the kingdom. Henry, how- ever, felt himself unsafe upon his throne, while his rival was in being ; and Guise was assassinated by his orders, as he was en- tering the council chamber. His brother, the cardinal, was sem to prison, where he was shortly after slain ; and about this time died, too, that faithless queen, and wicked woman, Catharine de Medici. 13. The pope now denounced the king of France as a here- enne tic, and the partisans of the league, incensed against him for the head of assassination of their leader, placed the duke of Mayex\ne, the League, survivuig brother of Guise at its head. In these circumstances, Henry of France leagued with Henry of Navarre, who, at the Hoiiry head of their united forces, marched to Paris, and invested if, sassina'- The French monarch retired to St. Cloud, where the dagger of te*i- a monk, suborned by the duchess of Montpensier, sister to the duke of Guise, accomplished his death. When dying, he nametl Henry of Navarre his successor. He now claimed the throne of France, and assumed the title of Henry IV. The duke oi o Mayenne caused the cardinal Bourbon, to be proclaimed undej the name of Charles X. ; but he being a prisoner at Tours, May- enne took the whole command of the war. 14. Henry met the veteran army of the league at Arques, with a force not one quarter of their number. Hard pressed, his little a; my overpowered, Henry rushed into the thickest of the battle, and exclaimed, " Are there not fifty gentlemen to die witih their king .'^" The faltering troops rallied; renewed the fight ; and became masters of the field, Henry sooi) after re- ceived reinforcements from England, while Mayenne obtained II. Give a more particular account of Henry of NavaiTe. Of the bat. tie of Coutras. — 12. What were thfi designs and the conduct oi' Henry of Guise in relaiion to the sovereignty of France ? How did Henry of France keep the treaty of peace? What other plotters of the great massacre died about this time? — !3. What was now done by the pope and the partisans of the league ? What by Henry of France ? What by Henry of Navarre ? What was done by the ageucy of the duchess of Montpensier ? Whomdit] Henry lU. declare his successor 1 — 1*3. Relate the battle of Arques. a; IV. iJS fc) o Ol i AR. ^UES Henry Jeto.itu 'r, May- enne. HE.VRY IV. 343 supplies from Sjiain. Disastrous was now the civil war which •'^^'•'^'" "" ^^*^- wasted the fair fields of France, where brothers and former ptiRior n, friends were shedding each other's blood.* On the plain of Ivry "-iiap. ii. another battle took place. Henry, in directing it, said to his troops, '' If you lose your standards, follow my white plume ; you will find it in the way to victory and honor." His predic- tion was accomplished, and his enemies defeated. 15. Henry had invested tlie capital, and while his warlike altitude made him feared, he showed the kindness of his dispo- sition, by using every effort to induce the Parisians to submit; irqi* but they refused. His heart was pained to witness the distress nenry be- to which they were reduced by fiimine, and he suflered those sieges Paria, , • , , , 1 ■ -^ 1 • 1- • r 1 w'>"^^h IS re- wJio wislied to leave tlie city to pass his lines in safety; and lievedbythe even, — although blamed by his officers, — granted a passage to '"^'unJ}'"**^ several convoys of provision, destined for the city. Mean- ranna. while the duke of Mayenne, who had been to Flanders, returned reinforced by Spanish troops, under the duke of Parma. Henry was compelled to withdraw his forces from the siege, to oppose the Spaniards ; whom, however, he was at last unable to bring to a combat. Their object being the relief of the city, when that was accomplished, they withdrew from France. 16. The cardinal of Bourbon was now dead. The exploits of Henry had filled Europe with his martial fame. The strict- ness with which he kept his faith when once plighted, and the 1594. constancy of his attachment to his friends, made him confided iienry is re- ni ; and he had displayed a benevolence, w hich should have R'o"ine'and touched the hearts of the people. But worn out as France was ?^jf^j"'ji, with the wars of the league, still such was the bigotry of the pans.entera times, that Henry was convinced that he could not obtain the ^^ '""^' crown unless he became a catholic. The protestant divines counselled him rather to renounce protestantism, than to con- tinue the war. He accordingly did so, and was received into the bosom of the catholic church. By this measure, the league cTnutloru received a blow from which it could never recover. Paris ca- (^^ measure , , 1 Ti • 1 • , I • 1 • r <1oul)tfuI III pitulated, and Henry was received into the city as king of morality France. The provinces gradually followed the example of the ^'"^ IV)** capital, until at length the whole nation submitted. Mayenne, supported by the Spanish interest, continued for a time in arms ; * It was during these wars that the marquis of Rosny, afterwards ihe duke of Sully, and ever attached to the fortunes of Henry, hearing that his wife was dangerously ill, went in disguise, with a few followers, to Ins castle, to visit her. His brothers (catholics) had taken his castle, and deaf to his earnest pleadings, refused to admit him to visit his dying wife. The daring Rosny prepared to attack his own castle, when his brothers, rather from fear than from pity or affection, permitted him to enter. 14:. What foreign nations furnished troops, and what was the character of the war? Relate the battle of Ivry. — 15. How did Henry conduct the siege of Paris ? How was he compelled to withdraw his army from the siege? — 10. How was Henry situated in 1594? To what was he coun- selled by protestant divines, and what did he do ? What was the effect of his recantation on Paris? On other parts of Fiance ? Whal did the duke q( Mayenne ? 344 ilDICT OF NANTZ. Modern His. PERIOD 11. CHAP. II. Amiens re- covered. 1598. Edict of Nantes. Peace of Vervins. Duke of Sully. (Sully was not a syco- phant. On one occasion Henry con- sulted him respecting a paper by (vhich he was about to bind him- self to a foolish en- gagement. Sully tore it, — and Henry for- gave him.) Henry's plan for abo- iishine war, by uniting Europe in a grand con- federacy. out after the pope had absolved Henry, this. officer made his submission, was received into favor, and ever after remained a firm friend to his sovereign. 17. The opposition of the protestants, whose suspicious began to be excited by a delay in securing their rights, and by the dis- posal of all the great offices to the catholics, prevented ileniy from carrying on vigorously the war against Spain, The Spaniards took Calais and Amiens, and it was with difficulty that Henry could, in the exhausted state of his finances, raise an army to withstand them. At length, at the head of such forces as he could assemble, he advanced to Amiens, which ho invested, and compelled the city to surrender. He next came to an accommodation with the protestants, granting them, by the celebrated edict of JYanf.es, the enjoyment of their religion, and admission to public offices. Ambassadors now met at Fer- vi7is, where a peace xoith Spain loas concluded, on terms favor- ahle to France. 18. Although policy compelled Henry to grant most of the high offices to catholics, yet his chosen friend and counsellor, from the beginning to the end of his career, was a protestant. This was the wise duke of Sully. The economy and discreet management of this minister, brought the totally deranged finances of the kingdom to order, and soon placed at the dispo- sal of his beloved monarch, a well furnished treasury. Henry, constantly seconded by Sully, followed the bent of his benevo- lent heart, in studying to promote the welfare of his kingdom. Commerce, agriculture, and manufactures, all received a new impulse. Nor did he limit his desires of doing good to his own subjects, but he conceived the hold design of banishing war from Europe, by uniting the great powers in one confederacy ; establishing a grand council after the model of the Jlmphicty- onic, to which all the principal states of Europe should send their delegates, and refer their differences. Sully at first op- posed his views as visionary, but afterwards entered fully into them. Elizabeth of England, for whom Henry had a high re- spect, was also a party to the scheme.* It was the opinion of these sovereigns, that the house of Austria must first be hum- bled before this project could be carried into effect. The death of Elizabeth was deplored by Henry ; yet he proceeded to make * This is stated on the authority of the duke of Sully — see his " Memoirs."' yome writers have treated Henry's great design with levity, considering it as a mere covering to his views against the house of Austria. The charac- ter of Elizabeth makes it not improbable that this motive was predominant with her ; but Henry had a groat and benevolent heart as well as a fertile mind, and he was not a man of pretences. IT. With what were the protestants displeased ? How did the war vinth Spain proceed ? By what edict were the protestants quieted? What treaty was made with S>pain ? — 18. Give an account of the duke ofSuHy ? What did he in regard to the finances ? In what did he aid his friend and sove- reign ? What bold and philanthropic design had Henry formed? Who en- tered into his views ? VVhat was believed must be done before they Jould he accomplished? ASTRONOMY CULTIVATED IN GERMANY. 345 vast preparations foi the accomplishment of his design ; but he •^"'^'"' ■^'*- was cut off in the midst of them, by the dagger of Ravaillac, an period il. obscure assassin. The French nation wept for him as for a chap. n. father. The vile assassin, — whose name the afllicted Sully '-^~\r^s^ never would pronounce, — suffered a terrible death 1610. 19. Henry IV. as has been related, married at an early age, gassiuaied Margaret, sister to the king of France. He afterwards divorced (hy the insti- hcr, and married Marv de Medici, a weak and pashiohate je8u^"»°who woman, whom he too often irritated by his prominent fault, a ^f^ oftended want of conjugal fidelity. She on her part, incapable of appre- o/JVon/i.) elating tlie noble energies of his character, or seeking bv discreet measures to win his wjtndering affections, did but make herself disagreeable by continual reproaches, and by keeping around her, Italian favorites, whom he particularly disliked. 20. GERMANY. — Ferdinaxu !., the younger son of Philip 5554^ die Handsome, and the insane Joanna, succeeding his brother FcrdU Charles V. as emperor of Germany, occupied his short reign "='"^1. in honest endeavors to compose the religious differences which agitated the empire; and in prosecuting claims to the crowns of Hungary and Bohemia, which he derived by his marriage with the heiress, Anne, daughter of Ladislaus. In these countries PcacC the Turks resisted him and made conquests. In the diet of of Rc- Ratisbon, assembled soon after his accession, the " Peace of ligion. Religion" was confirmed. The council of Trent was reassem- bled in 1562. The whole body of protestants rejected its dogmas, and denied its authority •, as did a portion of the catho- lics. It is memorable as being the last called a general council. 21. Maximilian II., son and successor of Ferdinand, was early in his reign engaged in war with Solyma.n I., with whom i^GA- his father had unsuccessfully contended, and who was now minan bent on the conquest of Germany. The success of the imperial "• generals checked the progress of the Ottoman arms, and on the death of Solyman, his son and successor Selim II., concluded a peace of twelve years. 3Iaximilian was succeeded by his son RoDOEPH II., during whose long reign, the empire continued «;:•'« almost undisturbed by intestine broils. He was himself of a ro. peaceful temper, and devoted much of his time to the study of doiphii., astronomy, in company with Tvcno Brahe and Kepler. His The two brother Matthias conducted the war with the Turks, who had greatest a*. invaded Hungary ; and the renown and influence he acquired of iho ""c. by his success, enabled him to obtain the crown of Hungary, and make himself master of Austria and Moravia, all of which 18. What hindered liis attempting to accomplish his great and good plan ? .-lO. What account can you give of Mary de Medici? — 20. Who was FerJifiand I.? To what part of the honors of his brother did he succeed i How was his reign occupied? What was done by the diet of Raiisbon f What account can you give of the council of Trent? — 21. Who succeeded Ferdinand? Who was his and his father's adversary, and what was he' grasping at? How did the Turkish war terminate? Give an account ol the next emperor? What great astronomers were his contemporaries. What kingdom did his brother obtain ? 44 34b CYPRUS CONaUERED BY THE TURKS Modet a His PERIOD II. CHAP. II. (fThese knights sveie an or- der of reli- gious war- lors formed in the timer, oTlhe cru- sades.) Solyman dies M. 70. SeUm, iiis son, suc- ceeds. 15'S'l. Turks con- quer Cy- prus. LEPAJVTO. The allies defeat the Turks in a memorable Laval battle. Turks lose 30,000 ; Christiana 10,000. Turks and Christians make peace. Rodolpli confirmed to him, rather than his own peace and that of the empire should be disturbed. 22. THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE. — The sultan Solyman, be- sides the war which he carried on with the German empire, durinof the reign of Maximilian, had despatched a fleet and army to reduce the island of Malta, lohere the knights of St. Johtfhad been established, and still maintained themselves. The Turkish general, Mustapha, besieged the island ; but the governor of Sicily coming to the aid of the knights, the Turks, after a siege office months, were obliged to abandon the enterprise with the loss of 24,000 men. 23. Selim II. after having concluded a peace with Germany, turned his arms eastward ; but failing in his attempt to reduce Persia, he invaded the island of Cyprus, which belonged to the republic of Venice. A league was formed between the pope, Pius v., the king of Spain, and the Venetians, for its defence. Their forces failing to arrive in season, the Turks conquered Cyprus, and subjected its inhabitants to the most inhuman cruelties. They extended their ravages to the coasts of Italy, Dai- matia, and Istria. The pope, the Spaniards, and the Venetians, assembled their fleet, and a naval engagement between them and the Turks took place in the gulf of Lepanto. For duration, fierceness, and destruction of human life, it was at that period unequalled. The Christians, commanded by Don John of Austria, were at length victorious. The following season, however, Selim equipped another fleet, which again spread the terror of the Turkish arms. Philip soon found his attention drawn to the Low Countries ; and the Venetians concluded a treaty, by which Cyprus was left in possession of the Turks. Tunis, which had been taken by Don John of Austria, was re- taken by the sultan. The three sovereigns who hnmediately succeeded Selim, did not extend the Turkish conquests. 22. Give an account ot the siege of Malta and its result ? — 23. Of the conquest of Cyprus i Of the battle of Lepanto ? Of the Turkish deiDreda- tions? The Pilgrims in llie Cabin of the May-Flower, 1620. PERIOD III THE ASSASSINATION > KJIO. ^OF HENKY IT. THE EX CU ARLES 1. 5 * ^ OF ' THE TREATY WESTPHALIA. CHAPTER I. The Scandinavian Nations. — Germany. 1. The Scandinavian Nations are those west of the Baltic. Denmark^ JVonray and Sweden. T'heir history during the dark ages is that of unprincipled freebooters, — bloody pirates. — who 1( oked upon the more peaceful and wealthy, as the wolf upon the well-fed lamb. We have seen how, under the names of Sea-kings, Danes, and Normans, they ravaged and conquered England, — and caused Charlemagne to weep for the miseries which he saw that these, the only barbarians of Europe unsub- dued by his martial genius, would yet inflict upon his people. We have seen them, under Kollo, overcome and give their name to the west of France, and thence through William the Con- queror, Robert Guiscard, and his brother Roger, give law to England, Naples, and Sicily. In the great movement of the crusades, some of the most distinguished leaders, Boiiemond and Tancrrd, were of this stock. The abandonment of their barbarous and sanguinary customs was owing in part to their intercourse with more civilized nations; but chiefly to Chri.s- Modem His. PERI'D HI CHAP. I. (820, Tho fiist conv'jit Harold a Danish irince, bajx- ized 'xl In« gelheiiu Part III. — Chap. I. — 1. Which were called the Scandinavian nations ? What were the people during the dark agers ? Whit in the coirse of the history has already been related of them f !'> what causes was the change rn their barbarous customs owing ? 347 348 AIARGARET OF WALDEMAR. TERl'D III. CHAP. I. FALCO- PIMG, in Gothland. Margaret defeats Al burl (The Union of Calmar was re- nounced in 1449.) 1513. Christian II. the Wicked, (marries Isabella, the sister of Charles V. grand daughter of Isabella (><■ Spain.) 1523. Ib expelled i'oni Swe- den by Gus- (i»uu8 VaBU. tiaiiity which was introduced into Denmark in the nintn century, into Norway in the tenth, and into Sweden in the eleventh. 2. The union of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden under Margaret of Waldemar, "the Semirainis of the North," greatly contributed to their common advantage. She was the daughter of VValdemar 11., king of Denmark. By her talenl^s and address she obtained, on her father's death, contrary to tlic Salic custom of the Danes, peaceable possession of the sove- reignty. On the death of her husband, Haquin, king of Nor- way, she in the same peaceable manner, in the face of custom and prescription, made herself queen of the admiring Norwe- gians ; and such was her fame for wisdom and energy, that Avhen the Swedes were oppressed by Albert, a German con- queror, they invited her aid. She went with an army, defeated Albert in battle, and made him prisoner. After seven years of war, occurred the " Union of Calmar," by which the three nations formally united in a confederacy, each having its own legislature, but under the same monarch. They elected Mar- garet. She established many wise regulations, and during hei reign great advances were made in commerce and the arts. But she was absolute; and when the nobility reminded her, that they had records of her oath to observe restrictions, she replied, " You had better keep them, as I shall the castles and cities ol my kingdom, and all else pertaining to my dignity." She had no child, but adopted Eric, a grand-nephew, who proved a weak prince, and unequal to his station. 3. A period of war and confusion succeeded, when Swe- den had a separate king, hi 1513, Christian 11., called the "Nero of the North," was king of Denmark and Norway. Sweden was divided into two paities, and Troll, archbishop of Upsal, encouraged Christian to invade that kingdom. He killed the king, Steen STURE,in battle, a>nd was acknowledged by the diet, tie then made a great feast, and treacherously slew his guests, — ninety-four nobles and bisliops, — after which he let loose his troops upon the people; and Sweden bled at every pore. Gustavus Vasa, the son of a nobleman, fled and con- cealed himself among the mountains of Dalecarlia, whence he issued with a resolute band. All his countrj^men rose at his signal of revolt, against the man whom they all hated. They expelled the Danes, and placed Gustavus on the throne. lie encouraged agriculture and commerce, impi'oved the Swedish jurisprudence ; — and on the breaking out of the Reformation, he, with the Swedish people, received its doctrines. It was in 2. What union contributed to advance their prosperity ? Whose dnughter was Margaret, and what throne did sh > ascend on his death ? Who was her husband, and in what manner did she succeed to his authority ? What were the circumstances of her becoming the sovereign of Sweden ? What particulars can you give of the Union of Cahnar? — 3. What was the con- dition of these nations in 1513? What account -aa yoi give of Christian JI. I Of Gustavus Visa ? THE THIRTY YKARS' WAR BEGINS. 349 defence of these that we are soon to see his descendant, the ■'"°<^" ^"- great Gustavus Adolphus come forward as the hero of his peri'D in. age. With him to command her armies, and his able minister chap. i. OxEXSTiERN to manage her revenues and internal police,Sweden rose, in this period, to a first rate power. After the dissolution of tlie Union of Calmar, Norway became again confederated willi Denmark, each of the two states having its own assembly, but both under the same king. 4. At the death of Rodolph, the imperial throne was given 1612. to his brother, the archduke Matthias. Tbe protestant ^'.=*^" princes of the German confederation had formed a league called "The Evangelical Union." iVIatthias had hitherto shown him- m. self friendly to them, but they now pressing him for an exten- p sion of their privileges, he resisted their demands, and they „„i-». i complained that he encroached upon their rights, and took up jt„'-„ arms. This proved ihe beginning of the thirty years' war. f„rn,ed Matthias procured the crowns of Bohemia and Hungary for his I6O8. cousin Ferdixand, the duke of Styria, whom he designed for his successor in the empire. These measures alarmed the Hun- garians and Bohemians, who took part with the revolted princes 1619. ' 2 of the Evangelical Union. Amidst these disorders Matthias ^'^',*^|' ' ^ died, and Fkrdinand \\. was raised to the imperial throne. The (duke of Bohemians continued their revolt, deposed Ferdinand, and p^ede-^ elected to the sovereignty of that kingdom, Frederic V., elec- ric v. . tor palatine of the Rhine, who had married the daughter of James I., reigning sovereign of England. Besides the support of the protestant princes of the empire, Frederic received the aid of Bethlem Gabor, the chief or vaivode of Transylvania, (Frederic a tributary of the grand sultan; a body of 8,000 troops from anceMor^'Ji the Low Countries under Henry of Nassau, and 2,000 Eno^- theiiouseoi 1- , 1 TT- • 1 • 1 ^ Uanover.) lisn volunteers. His preparations were, however, madequate for the war, in which he had to withstand the united strength of the house of Austria, — the emperor, the king of Spain, and the arch-duke of Austria. Their army being commanded by ^^n^i Tilly, defeated that of Frederic at Prague. The imperialists pragu'e. drove him from his palatinate, and degraded him from his T*'?^'"'?^" electoral dignity, which was conferred upon the duke of Ba- derTiny'i't^ varia. Frederic's father-in-law refused in this extremity to gfecVor'^- cid bi.m, much to the annoyance of his subjects ; the English latiue. considering that their king showed himself, by this neglect, false to the protestant cause. 5. Ferdinand, after crushing a league of the northern powers, ^ 3. Of Guslavus Adolphus ? Who was his minister ? — *. Who succeed- ed Rodolph in the German empire ? What league was formed by the pro- tcs'ant princes? By what actions did Matthias manifest a grasping dispo- sition ? What proved the beginning of the thirty years war ? Who joined the pnnces of the EvangeHcal Union against the emperor? What account can you give of his successor ? Give an account of Frederic V., and ob- Ecrve particularly whom he married, as it is through this princess that queen Victoria and her immediate ancestors hold the throne of England ? VVhat princes are mentioned, belonging to the house of Austria in^Gcrmany arid Soain ? How did James I. treat his son-in-law ? 350 GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS. Modern His. PERI'DIII. CHAP. I. 1632. LUTZEJ^. The Swedes victoriong^ but tlieir tcing slain. Sweden ably go- verned at the head of which was Christian IV., of Dennark, aspired to establish a despotic power in Germany, — to reduce the princes to the rank of nobles, and to revive the imperial juris diction in Italy. His first attempt upon the protestant princes was made by an edict requiring them to restore the church landi and benefices which they had possessed since the peace of Passau The princes remonstrated, and urged that the edict was illegal, Ferdinand persisted, and the prat est ants formed a secret alliance with Gustavus Adolphus^ of Sweden. This monarch had already shown his valor in war, and his wisdom in peace. He was a zealous protestant, and he deemed it policy to unite him- self with those powers who sought to weaken the dreaded in- fluence of the house of Austria ; and furthermore, the emperoi had incurred his displeasure, by assisting the Poles in their wars against the Swedes. The alliance was extended to the court of France, where the cardinal Richelieu was the prime mover, and he sympathised with Gustavus in the desire of curbing the Austrian power. Holland also came into the alli- ance ; and Charles I., now king of England, furnished the allie? with 6,000 men. 6. Guslavus entered Fomerania, and made himself master o) many important places. At Leipsic, he obtained a completr victory over the imperial forces, under the command of Tilly who was an able general. All the members of the Evangelical Union now joined his standard ; and he possessed himself of the whole country from the Elbe to the Rhine. Tilly having been killed, the renowned Wallenstein succeeded him. To him Gustavus offered battle at Lutzen. The contest lasted frr.in day-break till sunset, when the obstinate valor of the S^ve(les at length triumphed over the superior numbers of the enemy ; but Gustavus perished. When wounded on the field, and asked by an enemy who he was, " 1 am," said he, " the king of Sweden, and I seal with my blood the protestant religion, and the liberties of Germany." 7. As Gustavus left but one child, Christina, a daughter of six years of age, the government of Sweden was held by the able statesman Oxenstiern, who was made regent. The war was conducted with vigor, and officers formed in the school of Gustavus sent into Germany. The imperial general, Wallen- stein, being assassinated, the command was given to Ferdinand, king of Hungary, eldest son of the emperor. The acces.'^ion 5. What league did Ferdinand crush ? What did his ambition next aspire to? What new league was formed against him ? What account is given of Gustavus Adolphus? What motives operated with him in torming the league? Look over your map, and point to the countries subject lo the different branches of the house of Austria, (the whole Spanish peninsula- Naples and Sicily, Flanders, Germany, Hungary and Bohemia,) and now point to the nations leagued against them. — ii. What battle was fought, and with what result? Who succeeded Tilly in command ? Where did Gus- tavus give htm battle, and with what result? — 7. Who was heiress, and who regent of Sweden ? ^Vhat was the fate of Wallenstein ? Who suc- ceeded him in command ? GENERALS FORMED BY GUSTAVUS ADOLPIKS. 351 of the dukes of Lorraine and Bavaria, with a reinforcement of Spanish troops, at this time, strengthened the imperial party. The army of the confederates, under the command of general Horn, and the duke of Saxe-Weimar, encountered the forces of the king of Hungary at Nordlingen. One of the most bloody battles recorded in history ensued, it ended in the toLil defeat of the Swedes. The emperor now negotiated with ;he Evangelical Union the treaty of Prague^ by which lie left the protestants in possession of the church property, and per- mitted the free exercise of their religion throughout tlie em- pire, wi'h the exception of the kingdom of Boliemia, and the provinces of the house of Austria. 8. A new alliance was formed between Sweden and France, and the latter kingdom now openlv participated in the war. In upper Germany, the elector of Saxony was defeated by the Swedish general, Baxnier, in a battle fought at Wittstock Flrdlvanu 111., on the death of his father, succeeded to the im- perial throne, and continued the war against Sweden, Francf, and the protestants. The duke of Saxe-Weimar defeated the imperial army near Brisac, and reduced this with many other to\rns. The Swedes were triumphant in Pomerania. Bannier crossed the Elbe, entered Saxony, obtained advantages over the imperialists in several slight engagements, and near Chemnitz, gained a complete victory. He next invaded Bohemia, and at Brandeiz fought the imperialists, under Hofskirk, and, again victorious, he pursued the retreating army to the walls of Prague, and took the imperial general prisoner. 9. Balmier next formed a plan of attacking Ratisbon, during the session of a diet, which the emperor had there convened. Joined by the French army under Guelbriant, he crossed the Danube on the ice, captured 1,500 of the enemy's horse, and seized the equipage and advance guard of the emperor, who himself narrowly escaped being made a prisoner. An unex- pected thaw saved the city, and compelled Bannier to recross the river. A powerful imperial army now assembled under general Piccolomini, and the archduke Leopold. Bannier marched through Bohemia, followed by the imperial general, but before any decisive action could take place, death deprived the confederates of the great Swedish commander. Torsten- SON, another general who had served under Gustavus Adolphus, was sent from Sweden by Oxenstiern, with a strong reinforce- ment of troops, and a large sum of money. Before the arrival of Torstcnson, Gaclbriant had led his forces to battle, and de- T. Who commanded the army of the allies ? What battle was fought, and wit n what resuh ? What arrangements were made by the treaty of Prague? — 8. Wliat new alliance was formed? Trace through this para, graph the victories of the Swedes under their great general Bannier. Who succeeded Ferdinand II. in the empire? What victory did the duke of Saxe-Weimar gain over his troops ? — !>. What bold plan was formed by Bannier ? Whose assistance had he in its execution ? How far did it suc- ceed t What change in the Swedish commanders now took place ? What had the French general Guelbriant done before the arrival of Torstenson t Modern His. PERI'D III CHAP. I. 1635. Treaty of Prague. 1636. IVITT- STOCJC. Swedes un- der Bannjei victorious. 163T. Confede- rates nndei Saxe-Wei- nier victo- riouo 164 O. CHEJI- J^ITZ. BH iJ\r- D aiZ. Swt lep vie t rioua (Arch-duke is the title o the heir ip parent of Austria.) 1641. IVOLFEJV- BUTTEL. Guelbriant with hib Frencli forces de- feats Uie iiD r?rialia'.a 35'4 THK THIRTY YEARS* WAR CONTINUES. Modern His. featud the imperialists near Wolfenbiittel. After his arrival, the PEUi.D iii_ French and Swedes separated. Guelbriant entered Westphalia, CHAP. I. and Torstenson, Bohemia. ■--i'^~N/-^w' 10. In the ensuing campaign, Guelbriant defeated the imp> rial general, and made himself master of almost the whole elec- torate of Cologne. Torstenson obtained two victories over the imperialists, after which he reduced Leipzic. The court of Vienna, in dismay, commenced negotiations, which were, how- ijostiiities ^y^j. retarded by the death of Louis XIII., and of cardinal S'lveden and Richelieu. During these conferences, Torstenson invaded Hol- Ucnmark. g^^j^^ . ^j^g king of Denmark having exhibited evidence of hos- tility towards Sweden. Christian IV., the Danish king, now implored the aid of the emperor, who dispatched one of his generals to withstand the army of Torstenson. The mediation of France soon produced an accommodation between these northern powers, and enabled Sweden to turn all her energies against the empire. ir45 ^^' France and Sweden also entered into a treaty with THABOR. George Racoczi, the X'aivode of Transylvania, who, by invad- '^anrt'^the'" ^"& Hungary, divided the forces of the empire. Torstenson in- Swedes de- vaded Bohemia, and after an unsuccessful attempt at surprising *periaiists!" Prague, drew the imperialists into an engagement near Thabor, where he defeated them with great slaughter. Many towns "^^"^DM^^' J^o^^ submitted to the conquerors, who became masters of the The imperi- Danube on the side of Moravia. In the meantime, the impe- Tiirenne rialists, Under the elector of Bavaria, met the French, now and the under the command of the marshal Turenne, and defeated them on the plains of Mariendal. 12. Turenne, however, made a successful retreat, crossed the Maine in safety, and soon after received a reinforcement of j^RD- S^OOO men, under the duke d'Enghien, afterwards the great LiJfOE> CoNDE.. At Nordlingen he encountered the imperialists, and and cond-t' '^'^^^ ^^^^"^ victorious. The success of Turenne spread terror victorious, through the provinces, and induced the electors of Saxony and Ba'raria, and the German princes, to renounce the alliance with the emperor, and make a truce with France. The following year the elector of Bavaria, by the armistice of Ulm, induced 164T Wrangeu, the Swedish general who had succeeded Torsten- ZUMMER- son, to abandon Bohemia. The treaty was violated, and the next "^le aifi^ spring, Wrangel, joined by Turenne, fought the imperialists and defeat tho defeated them at Zummerhausen. Konigsmark, another {mpeiiaiists. Swedish general, surprised the new city of Prague, and made himself its master. 13. The emperor now sued earnestly for peace, and the ne» lO. What defeats did the imperialists next experience ? What retarded negotiations with France? What northern powers became embroiled? Wnat nation mediated between them? — 11. What ally did France and Sweden gain from the east ? What further success had the allies ? Who was commander of the French ? What battle now occurred, and with what fesult? — 12. How and where did Turenne retrieve his loss? What are tho principal events noticed in 1647 ? CLOSE OF THR THIRTY VKAUS' WAR. H5'3 gotialions resulted in the Treaiij of fVcsfphalia, signed October •^^"'^•'^' f^'^ 24, 1648. This highly important treaty constitutes an approach pciil'D III. to confederation among the contracting powers ; — it has served chai-. i. as a basis for the future treaties, — most of the succeeding wars ^-^v"^/ having had reference to the balance of power. Its conditions showed that the pride of the house of Austria was humbled. To France were granted Alsatia, Brisac, and the sovereignty of Melr, Tonl, and Verdun ;— to Sweden, 5000,000 crowns, 164S. with Upper Pomerania, the Isle of Ilugen, and a part of Lower Treaty of Pom crania, Wismar, Brcmar, and Verden, to be held as fiefs of WfSlpba- the CTipire. The upper palatinate, with the electoral dignity, Ua. was continued to the duke of Bavaria, while the lower palall- uatetcas restored to Charles Lovis, son of the deposed elector; an eighth electorate being established on his account. Switzer- land a:id Holland were declared to be free and sovereign states, and " //te three religions, Catholic, Lutheran, and Calvinistic," were each admitted to the free enjoyment of their several tenets. Thus ended the thirty years' war, which, though destructive, shows improvement in the state of the world; as it was not so much a war of conquest, as of principle ; — protestantism, as in Sweden, determining to defend itself against ecclesiastical ty- ranny ; and nationality, as in France, fearing tlie grasp of the giant strength of the House of Austria. The ends oi' the contest were accomplished. The thirty years' war broke the power •>f the pope, and humbled the House of Austria. 14. SPAIN. — Philip HI. was a prince of little ambition, and governed by his ministers und the priests. After the peace which he concluded at tlie Hague, with the revolted provinces Ifill. of the Netherlands, he turned his attention to the extirpation of l^^^Jyl heresy in Spain. The Moriscoes, descendants of the ancient led. Moors, were ordered to leave the realm within thirty days, on penalty of death. They resisted the cruel decree, and vainly attempted to establish an independent kingdom. They were, hoM'ever, banished ; and thus Spain, deprived of nearly a million of industrious inhabitant*, fullered a diminution of na- tional strength, greater than any foreign enemy had ever caused. The succeeding monarch, Pliilip IV., became more closely p^ijip united with the German branch of the house of Austria. Philip iv. and his ambitious minister, Olivarez, at the expiration of the mice, renewed the attempt to bring the Netlierlands into sub- jection to the crown. But Spain, now on the decline, was at last obliged to acknowledge in full the independence of the 13. What important treaty was made? To what does this treaty 'o;i- etitiite an approach? For what has it served as a basis? To what have most succeeding European wars had reference ? What did France obtain ? What Sweden? Wliat was done in regard to the palatinate respeciini^ which the thirty years' war began? What smaller countries had their inde^ pendcnce guarantied ? What arrangement was made with regard to reli- gion? what remarks are made respecting the thirty years' war? — II, What was the character of Philip III. of Spak ? What cruel expuls.on marks his reign ? Relate some of the events of the reign of Philip IV. 4>5 354 THE HOUSE OF BRAGANZA. Modern His. United Provinces. In Italy, her affairs were going to nun, and PERi'D III. ^^^ h^^ ^ ^^^^ with France upon her hands. CHAF. /:, 15. PORTUGAL, during this inefficient reign, struck for her independence, and placed the duke of Braganza, whose title was superior to that of the king of Spain, upon the throne, under the name of John IV. All the Portuguese settlements in Asia, Africa, and the islands, expelled their Spanish governors, 1G4§. ^"^ Brazil was recovered. Catalonia also revolted and placed itself under the direction of France ; but after some years of war that province was reduced by the Spaniards to submission, CHAPTER II. France. I6iO 1. On the death of Henry IV., his S'-n, Louis XIII., bemg only nine years old, his mother, Mary ae Medici, was made re- Lou^' gGiit, by those who expected through her to govern France. XIII. She was unfit to hold the reins of government, and especially Mary de at a time when they required a firm and vigorous hand. The Medici, powerful arm of Henry IV. had scarcely restrained the nobles, who aimed at independence, and always furnished leaders to the malecontents of the kingdom. Mary soon departed from the line of policy pursued by her husband ; and dismissing Sully, trusted the management of affairs to her Italian favorites, Leo- 1614 ^^^^ Galigai, and her husband, Concini. Upon these, and Last other favorites, she lavished the wealth which Sully by his pru- § "Iffth"^ dence had accumulated. The catholic party under thei? aus- states pices, reassumed the ascendant. A union with Spain was the general, consequence, by which Louis married Anne, daughter of Philip The II. But misrule had brought confusion and distress. The marrfes powerful nobles meditated revolt. A meeting of the states' Anne of general ivas called, memorable as the last of these national aS' semhlies previous to the French revolution^ but this mea^uie was productive of no effect in removing the giievances of the *• kingdom. <* Called 2. The young king, iinder the influence of De Luynes, his olBO, mar- ^ . -' ° P' , ■ 1 I I- Bhai lavonte, was now stirred up to resentment against the Italian •"Aur.rcj.) favorites of his mother. Concinif was arrested when proceeding 15. What was now done in Portugal ? How was it with the foreign pos sessions of that kinedom 1 What was done by the inhabitants of Catalonia? Chap. II. — 1. Who administered the government of France after the death of Henry IV. ? Was it well administered ? Who were the queen's favorites? How did she treat her husband's friend and wise counsellor! What is here said of the catholic partv and their doings ? What of the meeung of the states' general ? — 2. What was done by Louis under the in ■ fluence of De Luynes ? RICHRLIEU AGOK.UVDIZES FRANCE. 355 t J llie council chanibor at ihe Louvre, and on pretence of resist- •'^°'^'-^^ ^^'^ ance, shot. Leonora was tried for sorcery; and when asked by pEurD iiL her accusers, by what process of the black art she acquired such chap. u. influence over her mistress, she boldly replied, " Simply by tlie ^-^'-"''''^^ po\ver wliich a strong mind has over a weak one." But she 14»1'?' was burned as a sorceress, and the queen regent exiled to Blois ; M^ary'e while De Luynes continued to control Louis. Richeheu, i'-''an bisliop of Lugon, and afterwards cardinal, effected an accom- 'it«!<. modation between her and her son. The bold, aspiring genius of this priest made her the tool of his intriguing policy ; and with her aid he raised a powerful opposition to Louis, and his worthless favorite. 3. The Huguenots, displeased at an attempt of the king to es- ^t^n, tablish the catholic religion, culled an assembly at Rochelle, in- civii ' tending, as is supposed, lo establish a republic. The command ^"^'^ of the royal army was given by De Luynes to Lesdiguieres, ihe riu- a Huguenot who had embraced tlie Romish faith. The northern ^"j'g" provinces which liad followed the doctrines of the reformation, were reduced ; but at the siege of MonUmban, the royalists were r.qu- defeated witli the loss of a great part of their army. De Luynes ^-^JV- died of chagrin ; and the following year a treaty was concluded nots ' between the monarch and his protestant subjects, which placed success their affairs as they were before this war. 4. On the death of De Luynes, Mary procured, though not p^n. without difiiculty, a seat in the king's council for Riclielieu. j«cts of Thenceforward the genius of the cardinal obtained an entire i'je!i^" ascendancy over both monarch and ministers, and he became in "'•'" fact, master not only of France, but in a measure, as we have liie' seen, director of the destinies of Europe. The aim of his policy jf[,^"'^. "tvas to elevate the monarchy of France; and to this end, he tiier wished first to destroy the power of the Huguenots, whom he 'gao'/of disliked as heretics, and whose assemblies he regarded as the France, prolific source of sedition and insurrection ; second, U< humble the high nobility; and third, to check the grasping power of the house of Austria. 5. He concluded an alliance with Ensrland. by the marriacfe of Henrietta, youngest daughter of Henry IV., to Charles, iienri- (he prince of Wales. He shortly after infringed the treaty last ^"^'j. concluded with the Huguenots, and having provoked them to ciiarieg rebel, while unprepared for war, defeated their plans; and at last ,'^0™^ made an accommodation with them, favorable to the crown, ciiiriei To humble the House of Austria, he formed first a secret alliance 58. Give some account of the trial of Leonora? What was done with the q leen-regent ? 'I'hrough what remarkable person did she regain some de- cree of inllueiice ? In what condition did the cardinal place the king and his favorite 1 — 3. What was now done by the Huguenots? What is it supposed they intended ? What measures were taken to oppose them, and with wiiat success ? — 4. To whom did Richelieu owe his election to a seat in the king's council? What did he soon become? What was the aim of his policy? What three impediments did he wish to destroy as being in the way of t!:o Bcgrandizement of the French crown ?^-5. What marriage was negotiated? How did Richelieu treat the Huguenots ? i--' 358 ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND UNITED. jtiodfrn iTis. ^yj^h GustaA'us Adolpluis, and afterwards, at the death of tliaf PERi'D HI monarch, as has been stated, he openly joined the Swedes. Had cHAr. 11. his abilities been more under the direction of that benevolence ■^■^if^i'"'*^ wiiich loves all mankind ; or even of that justice which refuses to injure one class to benefit another, France would have had more cause to bless his memory. As it was, his talents were 16 33. ejnployed to crush the rights of the people. He laid the foun- ■"'■^u'h'xin ^tition of the grandeur and absolute dominion of Louis XIV., and, in the reaction, that of the bloody French revolution. 6. ENGLAND, SCOTLAND AND IRELAND.— The his- tory of England during this period, is memorable for that strug- gle between the parliament and the monarch, which, beginning in the reign of James I., became more violent in that of his suc- cessor; and at length ended in limiting the royal prerogative, and establishing the rights and liberties of the people. On the death of Elizabeth, the crown of England passed quietly from amcs . i^i^g house of Tudor, in which it had remained since lienrv VII., to that of Stuart. Her successor, Ja3if,s 1.* of England, and VI. of Scodand, son of the unfortunate Mary, was, as our his- t^or'V"" ^°^T ^^^^ shown, great grandson of I\Iargaret, the eldest daughtei theceie- of that monarch. The accession of .James was hailed by all Gew-'e classes of the English with enthusiasm. By profession a pro- Buciia- testant, and accustomed to the rigid and austere notions of the Scottish church, he was peculiarly acceptable to his protestanl subjects, while to the catholics, he was endeared by the remem- brance of his mother's claims and injuries. The pride of the Scots too, was gratified in giving a monarch to their haughty neighbors, who had for ages been seeking their subjugation. 7. On the arrival of James in England, his manners. — conceited, careless, good-natured and pedantic, soon began to be unfavor- ably contrasted Avith the royal dignity and courteousness of The Pu- ^^*^^^ of Elizabeth. Some disafli^ction was also caused by his ritans profuse liberality to his Scottish courtiers, though he left the "^'fiedT' gi'^'^t oifices of state in the hand^s of Elizabeth's ministers. Sir made KoBERT Cecil, the sccoud SOU of Cecil, lord Burleigh, was his by the prime minister; a more shrewdly cunning, but less honest man famous than his father, and therefore a less sound politician. The ence at PiirUans^ an order of protestants who regarded the ceremonies "um-^' and discipline retained in the English church as an approach to iM'uri poperj', had not yet openly separated frojn it, expecting, that on the accession of James, these usages would be abolished ; and * The reign of James I. comnienced seven years before the death of Henry IV. It was jud3:ed best in th.s, as in some other cases, to admit of some irregulariries, rather than to break the thread of the iiisiory at an inconve- nient place? 5. What measures did he take to humble the house of Austria? What remarks are made on Richelieu's services to his country ? — H. For what is this period of English history memorable ? What change of dynasties now occurred? Who was Elizabeth's successor ? How was his accession re- ceived by different classes? — 7. What comparison was mads between his manners and those of Elizabeth ? What disaffection was there respecting his Scottish courtiers? What sect ot protestants is here mentioned? THE GUNPOWDRIi I'LOT. 357 they j)Clitione(l lliR king accordingly. James liad in his early ■^^' ^'"^ ^^ youth imbibed tiieir notions ; yet, in his mature years, he prri'D hi. feared llis; republican tendency of their principles. I]is maxim ouai-. ii. was, " No bishop, no king." He called a conference at Hamp- ^-^^^''^i^ lon-coiirt, for the purpose of hearing the arguments on both sides, and at its close he declared, that " he would have one doctrine, one disciiiline,one relij^ion in substance and ctrenionv;" ,,. . and ho therefore enjoined t!ie puritans to Cf)nform to the estab- H.moftiit lisl'.ed worship. lie shortly after made arrangements on a large ?oa,p|\p^ scale for the accurate translation of the Scriptures ; to which we '« icn.i are indebted for our excellent version. 8. The memorable "• Gunpowder Plot," was concocted by William CATEsiiV, and his chief accomplices were Sm Eve- igo."*. HARD Dicnv, and William Tresiiam; — zealous catholics — The Gun- men of character, who believed that the act they meditated would '^pyo" he acceptable to God. The purpose of the plot was to destroy the king and parliament. One of the conspirators hired a coal eel- (xhejpsuiu lar, under tlie buildinjj where the house of lords met, and there "^. charged 1 • 1 1 • • 1 1 r 1 1 • I 1 With heing deposited tliirty-six l)arrels of gunpowder, which was to be ex- attiiehot- ploded on the first day of the meeting of parliament, when the ^'^"""•''his kin«r, queen, and prince of Walesf would be in die house. The secret, which had been in the keeping of at least twenty persons for more than a year, was discovered by means of a letter writ- ten to dissuade lord Montkagle, a catholic nobleman, from dos^son'of poinij to the house on that day. Monteagle communicated the J^'"", an letter to the king, who, on the evening previous to the meeting, ami higiiiy caused search to be made, when the whole plot was developed. prj^,'^!^.'^djrd Guy Fawkus, an officer in the Spanish service, was found in I612, ^e. lat the cellar with a matcli in his pocket. The other conspirators were also discovered, and all consigned to punishment. Tor- ture was used to extract confessions. 9. The most politic and commendable measure of James I., was the progress which he made towards the settlement and jamos pro civilization of Ireland. He abolislied certain customs which !""t.«s the I'll 1 CI 1 I • I I 1 I I • I 1 • civilization supplied the place ol laws, and which had kept that island in a of Ireland, state of barbarism and disorder. Among others, was that called the Eric, wherein a price was set upon every man, by the pay- ment of which, his murderer would escape unpunished. The English law? were substituted, and regular courts of judicature established ; while, for making such new laws as might be ne- cessary, an Iri.'ih house of commons was regularly constituted, Ulster was colonized by Scotch and F'nglish prolestants. James recommended a union of the English and Scottish parliaments, and took the title of "King of Great Britain." He encouraged llio colonization of America. T. \\ hat measure did he take to settle the minds of his people on reli- gious subjects? What was the kind's language and decision? — "S. Who were the principal persons concernea in the trunpowdcr-plol ? What was Its desif^n ? How was it discovered ? What circumstance respecting their pani.shment marks a barbarous age ? — ft. What may be .«aid of James' con- duct ill rejiard to Ireland ? 'V'hai other jrood measures did he eucourage ? 358 PARLIAMENT ASShRTb ITP RIGHTS Mmler r Ifis PERl'D HI. •' HAT. H. (James wishes his Scottish brethren to learn the '' sweet ci- vility" of lieir neijrh boTS in reli- g!0!]3 mat- ters.) Parliament t'lgiiis to as- sert its rigiits. {Pt/vi and otlmrs in parlia- ment takf a Koble stand in defence of tlie rights of parliament.) Duke of Bucking- ham. ;Thc tempei if the com. mons to- wards the catholics was to per- secute, but \'ie lords re strained them. ?anies sane tioned the burning t>i rvs-o men for 10. The attempts of James to introduce the customs, rites, and discipline of the church of England into Scotland, were mel with decided opposition, — produced popular tumults, and drew upon him the enmity of that kingdom. Jn his latter years, to(», the farlianienls of Ungland assumed a determmed tone in re^jari) to the measures of the court. The house of commons re- monstrated against the intended marriage oi the prince of Wale ■ with a catholic princess of Spain. They besought the Ling to unite with Sweden in war against the house of Austria for the recovery of the palatine for Frederic, his protestant son-in- law. James resented this interference of the commons, and commanded them not to presume to meddle with any thing thai regarded his government. But they boldly presented still another remonstrance, claiming, that they were entitled to inter- pose in all matters of govei-nment, and, that freedom of speech in public debate, was their ancient and undoubted right. The king replied tkat their pretensions were what their predecessors had never, during the weakest reigns, presumed to urge ; and insinuated, that their privileges were derived from the roval favor; but they remained firm and resolute. 11. Negotiations for a marriage between Charles, now prince of Wales, and the infanta of Spain, had been commenced, but were broken off through the intrigues of the unworthy fa- vorite both of James and his son, the duke of Buckingham, and an unfortunate war with Spain ensued. An alliance with Fi'ance and the Low Countries, for restraining the power of Austria, which met the entire approbation of parliament, was formed. A marriage was also concluded between the p"ince of Whales, and Henrietta, sister of Louis Xlli. As the princess was a catholic, this match, although more acceptable than the Spanish, was by no means agreeable to the nation. James died in the fifty-ninth year of his age. His unwarlike disposition belter suited the interest, than the inclination of his subjects ; and England, under his government, was prosperous, (After the death of Cecil, who was made earl of Salisbury, .Tames ft!! under ihe dominion of unworthy tavonies. 'I'lie first who ruled liim wns Thomas Carr, earl of Somerset ; the spcond w;is George Villiers, whom he created duke of Buckingham, nnd made liim his < hief counsellor, for the wise reasons that he was handsome and of a pleasing address. Ue iiad learr;ed to deal with .Tames so as to carry his point; an.d he behaved lilie a petted and spoiled child — gettinij his way someiimes by whinino; and coaxing, and sometimes by bullying and threatening the indulgent and timid king. Lord Clarendon gives a lively picture of the mannf^ in which he wrought upon James to sanction the visit of himself and the prince of Wales to the infanta of Spain, to whom Charles was betrothed. During that visit, Buckinghatra disgraced the prince by his pvanks. The Spanish minister said, the infanta intist curl) the favorite after she was married. Buckingham, displeased, opposed the mtitch, broke it off, and then told the parliament lying stories, iuyiiig the blame upon the Spaniards.) 10. What tyrannical at tempts of the king in regard to church matters met opposition? What was the temper of the parliament? — II. What nego- tiations of marriage were broken oT, and by whom? What connexions were formed with France ? What is remarked of the unwarlike Jispositiou of Jamep ? o ^^ o Co 2 S3 CHAllLER I. CONTENDS WITH PARLIAMENT. 359 incrcat-ing in wealth and national power. The great BACONt -'^fo'i''"' i ^j^. honored tliis reign by his philosopliical researches, but unhap- peiu'd ill pi)/ disgraced it by corruptly receiving bribes, while lilling the ciiaf. n. high judicial olhce of lord chancellor. IIeuvev discovered the ■--^^/'^^^ circulation of the blood, which, opposed by his cotemporarics, Karon, r.orii made him poor while he lived, but gained him posthumous fame. comJJ,o|2y 12. Charles 1., who was twenty-five years of age when he called Lord succeeded to fhe throne, had spent much of his youth with the )'625")' dissolute young Buckingiiam ; and he was ignorant of the state cinries' of the nation, ilis measures were of course ill calculated to (nu heal divisions, of whose existence he wa.s little aware. Ilis first ,'J^"''|^, act was to summon a parliament, to obtaui the means of paying ed to the debts contracted by liie crown, during the preceding reign, po"'[|'Js^ and to enable him to prosecute the Austrian war. The parlia- ihecom- ment granted a small sum, madequate to tlie wants ot the nation, prantrd Their object was, by withholding supplies, to obtain from the i45,ooo.) monarch some new security for their liberties. The contest between the prerogative of the king, and the rights of the com- mons, now fairly commenced. Charles, inheriting from his father lofty ideas of the royal prerogative, and regarding this con- atterapt to circumscribe his authority, as litde less than a con- tests be- spiracy against his throne, dissolved the parliament. To supply ti,c king his nect^ssities, he resorted to illegal methods of taxation, which |',3f„''.'"t" had been practised by the Tudors. 13. Having, by strenuous efforts, succeeded in fitting out a fleet, the command was given to lord Wimbledon, a favorite of the duke of Buckingham. This officer sailed to Spain, mis- ribi" managed matters, and returned. Charles was obliged to sum- pi-isuf: ° . 1- 1 . ■ 1- mi rages in mon another parliament to obtain supplies. 1 he commons Lon- granted the money, and at the same time, requested the king to ^'^^■^ remove the duke of Buckingham from his counsels. Charles rejected the petition, and again dissolved the parliament. 14. A war with France., undertaken at the instigation of Buckingham, was now added to the alarming list of evils. Nothing was left to Charles, hopeless as that measure seemed, but again to summon a parliament. This body now resolved to provide some security for their rights and their liber- lies, so often violated. They determined to furnish a fresh supply to the king; but before passing the vote, they appointed Petition of a committee, who prepared a bill, declaring the illegality of the ciiaifMact- measures of the court, and securing their liberties from future wuh dupil infringement. This bill, called a "Petition of Rights," passed both houses of parliament, and required only the royal 11. What is said of Lord Bacon? Of Hervey?— 12. What was the position of Charles I. on coming to the throne ? VVhat his first act ? What did parliament, and what was their object ? VVhat was the contest which had now began ? How did the king view the question of royal prerogaiive ? What did he in regard to the parliament and his needed supplies I — 13. What was done in relation to the Spanish war? What was Charles obliged again to do to raise money ? What was the result of the parliament's meet- ing ? — 11. Wiiat new war had Charles the folly t ) undertake ? What did the parliament which the king now calleJ, and wl at did they obtain ? CUV- 360 JOHN HAMPDEN Aupust 23, Bucking- ham assas. einated. 1629. Contests be- tween the king .inii parliament continue. DeMzil, (af- terwards lorrtlloUip.) "vas one of the two men w)io iield the speaker in thecliair. Of the nine members committed he is tirst tamed.) JohnHamp den loses his suit 163S. (Puritans persecuted, Prjnne loses his laTS, Lei);h- icn, fallier of the arch- Iiishop, inu- tilateii an J imprisonr-rt (br ■years.) assent to become a law. Charles gave it his sanction in the usual form, but with such evident tokens of unwillingness, ag made his sincerity distrusted. The supply which had been voted to the king, v;as eventually granted. Parliament was proceeding still farther to reform abuses, it'Aen it was prorogued by the king. 15. Shortly after, Buckingham, while preparing with a flee, to go to Rochelle in aid of the French protestants, was as sassinated by the deliberate stroke of Felton, a religious en» thusiast. The expedition to Rochelle failed; and while Charles had expended in preparations for its success, the subsidies granted by parliament, its failure served only to inflame the dis- content of his subjects. 16. The next parliament renewed a claim to the right of regulating the mode of taxation ; they also complained of grievances in matters of religion. Charles, irritated at the conti- nued attempts to limit his prerogative, again determined to dis- solve the parliament, liit when ike speaker of the house of commons was about to rise in order to signify the king'^s inten- iion, he was forcibly held in the chair, until a remonstrance was drawn up and passed. The enraged monarch, committed to prison and fined the leaders of the parliamentary party, who, by this prosecution, only acquired an increase of popularity. Charles now resolved to govern by his prerogative, and for tu-elve years there ivas no parliament. Being unprovided with means for continuing the continental war, he made peace with France and Spain. He extorted money-gifts from his sub- jects, under the name of loans and " benevolences," and claimed a legal right to levy taxes for the support of a navy, calling these taxes ship-money. John Hampren refused to pay his assessment, of twenty shillings. He M^as a man of commanding abilities, of popular manners, unblemished honor and patriotism ; and he thus boldly and openly set the example of braving the power of the crown, in behalf of the legal rights of the people. Though the court of exchequer decided against him, giving many reasons for their decision, yet the people, as Hampden had foreseen, perceived the weakness of the royal ] retensions, when tried in the balance of justice ; and became more and more determined not to submit to such unreasonable exactions. 17. The mutual hostility of the religious parties became more inveterate. The puritans, now a numerous body, jusily complained of the rigorous measures taken by the episcopacy to enforce conformity with the rules of the established church* while the church, under the control of the bigoted archbishop liAVt), increased their causes of complaint, by introducing 15. Give an account of the death of Buckingham ? — 16. What was done in the next parliament ? How did Charles determine to govern ? IIow long a time intervened without a parliament ? What means did he use to get money ? Who resisted his will ? — 17. What was the state of the country in regard to religious parties ? THE LONG PAllLIAMENT. 361 new and more ofTensive ceremonies, and shownig a manifest •"fo'^gy -atj tendency towards the catholic forms and faitli. peri'd ill 18. Charles made a journey into Scotland, where his cause -hap. ii. had been favored, for the p-urpose of bringing the Scots to con- ^-^^^^^"^^ form to the customs of the English church. This united that nation to oppose him. An outcry was raised against popery, and I)oth the clergy and people entered into a bond of union, pledging themselves to resist all religious innovations, and to ICSS^' support each other against all opposition. ^I'his was termed The ScOl- '•The Solemn League and Covenant.?'' The covenanters pre- tish C0V6 pared to maintain their rights by military force. Cliarles, on nant his part, raised an army to punish their refractory zeal. Afraid to hazard a battle, and sensible of the disinclination of his Eng- lish troops to tlie war, he endeavored to negotiate ; but as he would not concede all that the Scots required, the war was re- newed. The advantage was now all on the side of the cove- nanters. During the pacification, Charles had disbanded his army, and though he again collected a body of troops, he had no means of paying tliem. 19. In this dilemma, he was obliged to resort to the humilia- 1640. ting expedient of again calling a parliament. He obtained no V3.r\i^Hit\i\ aid, and dissolved it. — The army of the covenanters advanced into England. At Newcastle-upon-Tyne, they encountered a Q^fj-^'f;, detachment of the rov-al forces under lord Co.vwav, and de- upoj^ feated them. In their march into England, the Scots mainliiined cnvcnan- the most exact discipline, paid for tlieir provisions, and made ters defeat protestations of loyalty to the king; wishing otdy to obtain ac- aUsts' cess to the royal person, and the redress of their grievances; and Charles was again obliged to make concessions, lo obtain a ces- sation of hostilities. 20. Another assembly was now convened, which obtained the name of the Long Parliament, and proved the most remarkable \q^q of all the parliaments of England. Its chief leaders were John Nov. 3. PvM, John Hampdkn, and Dknzii. Holms. The vofnger J^l\\tmlu\. Vane, now just returned from New England, where he had been made governor of Massachusetts, was, from his character and family -connexions, very mfluential. A week atie\- this parlia- kov. ii. meiit convened, Pym carried up to the house of lords an im- p>"" ^arrjci pcjichm.ent of iiigh-treason against Thomas Wentworth, earl rorfi's i:i>- of Strallbrd, who was committed to the tower. Wentworth had, »'<'a-i:m'"''- at the beginning of this contest, occupied tlie same ground in the patriot party, as Pym and Hampden ; but the king bought {its services, and repaid him with riches and an earldom ; he having become tlie adviser of Charles in his most illegal stretches of power. It was by his counsel that Charles had fust taken up 18. What was done in Scotland ? What was ihe leazuc called ? What was the kind's position in Scotland after this? — V-i. What was he agaia obliged to do? What'mihiary operations occurred ? — 2(>. Wliat was tho parliament called which now convened, — and what did it jirnve to be ? Who were its principal leaders ? What waa done by Pym ? Give some account of We'iiworth. 46 ;562 REFORM BECJMES USURPATION. Mofiern Bis. amis. He had ruled in Ireland, repressing disorders, bikt giving PERi'D III. offence by his tyranny. Now, the icpresentatives of the king- CHAT. II. dom joined to impeach him with the design of altering the ^.-f^.."**-. constitution from a limited to an absolute monarchy. lie ap- peared with great dignity before the house of commons, wliere he made a mo.st able defence; but the extensive mischiefs trace- able to his ill advice and illegal rule, were by his judges con- 1^41. sidered as proving his offence, and worthy of death. Straflbrd traifbrfi'b,^ had hopes from Charles, to whom he had affectionately written headed nu to do as he judged best for himself^. The king took him at his 'ff;^W.' ' word, and signed Strafford's death warrant; not believing him to have been guilty, and contrary to his promise. When Strafford knew this, he exclaimed, "Put not your trust in princes!" and resigned himself to his fate. 21. In tlie meantime, other high-handed measures of reform were going on. Denzil Holies impeached archbishop Laud, who was sent to the tower; as was Sir Robert Berkeley, the judge who gave the decision against Hampden in the case of the shipw money. The prison doors were opened to the incarcerated pu- ritans; and the tribunal of the "Star Chamber," by which tlie last kings, with a sliow of law, had oppressed the people, was abolished. By a still bolder measure the commons attacked aions of the the Other branch of the legislative body, and declared thai ment'exer^' l^isliops sliould iiot sU ill the Jiousc of lords ; and by another act^ ciseofthem- they, ill effect, made their own sitling perpetual. At this time fimcIioVs'of a mysterious rebellion broke out in Ireland, in which more than aavereigntj . 10,000 protestants were massacred by the catholics. The king among others, was suspected as having been one of its plotters. Parliament granted money to suppress it," but not in such a way that it went directly into the king's hands. But now that pre- cedent, and law, and order were set aside, every thing was tur- orlgin ofthe j.j^qj| ^j-jj confusion. lusolent bands of apprentices patroled the term Round- ^ -r i i . i • i ■ j head Streets of London, who, wearmg their hair cut round, captain Hyde drew his sword, and said he would ''crop the ears of the round-headed dogs," and from hence the parliamentary party were called " the Roundheads." 22. Charles now meditated a bold stroke to restore his an- ihoriiy, but it proved its final subversion. He caused Jive of 164'2. ^/^g members of Parliament to be impeached for treason., and vThii^'Sf. despatched a sergeant-at-arms to the house to demand them; tempis to he was sent back Avithout any positive answer. The king un- Hampden, wiscly proceeded in person, with armed attendants, to the house ; ^"s^k ^''^ ^^^ ^^^^ ^^'^ members were gone, and as the king withdrew, the jyiwieWfand Cry which greeted him as he retired, was not " God save the S'.roud. J. jj.,g .53 but a privilege ! — privilege of parliament !" Tumults suc- 20. Of what crime was he impeached? Relate the course of his trial and execution.— 21. What other bold measures were these reforming poli- ti'iians ne.xt engaged in ? What massacre occurred in Ireland ? What was the state of things now that law and order were set aside? What is the ongin of the name Round-Heads ' — 22. Relate the event which proved the foal subversion of the king's authority. CHARLES I. OVKKPOWfc.llKI). Siid ceeded, and ihc royal family xoire. obliged to Jlee from London. Both parties now raised troops, and prepared to decide the con- test by the appeal to arms. Charles raised his standard at Nottingham. On liis side were most of the nobility, and llie highest rank of the gentry, with their dependents ; but he was destitute of arms, annnunition, and money. On the side of the parliament, were not only the main body of the military force of London, but most of the great corporations, wilii the seamen. A battle, not decisive, was fought at Edgehill, in which Charles commanded in person, aided by his nephew, prince Rupert; while iiis opponents were headed by tlie earl of essex. At Lansdown, a battle was fouglit without any decisive result. At Stratton and Round way Down, the royalisLs were victorious. 23. In a skirmish on Chaliirove-field, the patriot Hauipden was slain. The royalists made themselves masters of Bristol, and laid siege to Gloucester. The parliament commanded tlieir army under Essex to march to the relief of Gloucester. The king was compelled to raise the siege. The armies fought at Newbury. Neither side could claim the victory, but both sustained great loss. 24. The Scots nojo united with the parliament., while tlie Irish dispatched succours to the king. At Marston Moor, a bloody battle was fought, and lost by the royalists. Fifty tliousand troops were engaged — a larger force than v/as em- ployed at any olJier period during this war. The parliamentary cc»mmanders were Sir Tiiojmas Fairfax, and Oliver CroiM- WELL. The royalists v/ere led by the Marquis of New Castle, and prince Rupert. At Naseby was fought his last and fatal battle, in which Charles commanded in person, and displayed " the conduct of a prudent general, and the valor of u stout soldier." After the loss of this battle, he retreated to Wales; but finding himself unable to retrieve his fortunes, he resolved to throw himself on the generosity of the Scots. He arrived at their camp at Newark, and was at first received with marks of respect; but he was detained a prisoner, and at length delivered to the English, for the consideration of 400,000 pounds. He was conducted to Holdenby,* where he was de- tained a prisoner by the parliament, until a change of events took him out of their hands. 25. Between the opponents of the monarch there now existed conllicting interests, and hostile feelings, ^^nother religious * Clarendon relates in a touching manner the great satisfaction which the Uing fult that hischihiru -vere permitted to come and spend a day with him. I'hosc were his younger v,fiildren. His oldest son was with his mother in France — learning of her doubtless some of those lessons in dissoluteness und double-dealing, which lie afterwards practised. ti'i. What followed Chartes' un*" iriunate visit to the house of commons? Where did Charles erect his standard; and who were on his side? How was it with the other parly ? Give some account of the battle of Edgehill. What other battles were fought in 1G42?— 23. What in 1643 ? In which of these was Hampden killec ? — 2-1. G ve some account of the battle of Marston Moor. Of Naseby. Modem His. PERl'U III CHAP. II. 1614. J\MRSTOJV MOOR. The royal- ists deleat- 1645- JV./JSEB Y. Charles coiiimands, and is de- feated 164'5'. Charles a prisoner. (The ScotcSi gave up the king for 400,000 pounds paid liy paT» liameni.) SG4 CHARLES I. EXECUTED. JUodcm Ilis. sect had arisen, who maintained among other opinions, thai PERi'D III right of freedom for all, in mMters of religion, which at this day is so extensively acknowledged. These were the inde- pendeMs, at the head of ichorn was Oliver Cromwell. They were opposed, not only to the king and prelacy, but also to the presbytery. This party professed the desire of establishing a republican form of government. Cromwell, by his real, oi pretended zeal for reli^n and liberty, had gained the entire confidence of tiie army. He sought to obtain possession of the king's person, and privately dispatched a party of five Jojrce seizes hundred horse, under cornet Joyce,* who seized him at Ilolden- tLeKiiig. by, and conducted him to the army. Cromwell now marched at the head of the army to London, where he gave laws to the parliament, — which had become extremely unpopular with the nation. At the same time he paid great court to Chaiies, whom the hostilities of these two parties seemed again to bring into (By the Old some consequence. Even at this time the king rejected over- *^imn cafen^" tures for a reconciliation, refusing to relinquish his high preten- "^'ii'-JtiKypar sions, and allow the people tliat share in the government which "25th of they claimed. Cromwell and his adherents established him ai ''*the^Ne\v^ Hampton court, where he lived for some time with the appear- styie, or ance of freedon). i^e'^y^eaVbe- ^^- ^^^^^ situation of the king, however, soon became un- pins the 1st pleasant. The visits of his friends v/ere denied him, and angry anuarj. jjjenaces were throwu out agaiust him by the people. Charles ■^^""^jy.,^^' at length made his escape from the palace, and remained awhile 011I stySo'ni concealed at Litchfield ; but was soon compelled to place him- Jar.uary 30, self in the keeping of Hammond, governor of the Isle of N^w'ltvio ^'^'ght. He was here detained a close prisoner, until at length Trial and' his Opponents, fearing for their own safety in case of the revi- ^amries"!?'^ val of his party, brought him to a public trial for treason, on the ground of levying war against the parliament ; illegally con demned, — and unjustly executed him on the scafiold. 27. European Colonies on the coast of ,IYorth America.- - James Cartier, as early as 1534, discovered the bay and river of St. Lawrence; and in 1-541 he built a fort near the site of 1565." Qu^iec. In 1565 St. Augustine was founded by Pedro Me- st. Augiif. LENDEz, a Spanish bigot, who cruelly put to death nine hun- dred French Huguenots, that under Coligni's patronage, had * The cornet, who had formerly been a tailor, catne into the king's pre setice armed with pistols. You must, said he, go immediately along v.'itti me. " WhiiherV" asked the king. " To the army " " By what warrant ?" demanded Charles. Joyce pointed to his soldiers, tall, handsome, and well armed. " Your warrant," said the king, " is in fair characters, and legible." 25. What division arose among the anfi-royalisfs ? What was the new Feet called, and who was at its head? What was Cromwell's positioni Wiiat measures did he lake to get the king into his power ? Does it appeal that Charles might yet, by concessions, have been reconciled to his people? Where was he kept by Cromwell ? — 2t>. Give the sequel to the history of Charles I. — 2T. What discovery was made by James Cariier? For whom? When? What city did he found, and when? Bv whom and when was St. Augustine founded ? What massacre is related ? tine iouniyrlc3 11. proclaimed king of Rcnland revolted from the Swedish 3''oke, and, assisted by the Russians, Danes, and Germans, expelled the Swedes. Charles now turned his arms against Denmark. His death, which occurred while he was engaged in the siege of Copenhagen, left the throne of Sweden to his son, then a minor. A treaty of peace was con- cluded at Oliva^ in West Prussia, by which the Danish and Polish monarch each made some sacrifices to Sweden : and John Casimir was restored to his throne. 7. ENGLAND. — After the execution of Charles I., the com mons passed an act, abolishing kingly power as useless, bur- densome, and dangerous. They also abolished the house of lords, and committed the great seal, the form and inscription of which they changed, to a certain number of persons, who were styled " the Conservators of the liberties of England." The proceedings of the Long Parliament in respect to revenue, de- prived them of the favor of the people. At first the civil w"ar had been carried on much by voluntary contributions on both sides. The sacrifices made by individuals are almost incredi- ble. The MARQUIS OF Worcester gave to Charles 100,000 pounds, and the marquis of Nev^^castle his whole estate On the side of the republicans, men often gave all their plate, and women all their jewels. But after the king's death the parliament devised new methods of taxation, and drained the people. And although at first they were self-denying, at last they appropriated in one way and another, large sums to them- selves and their relations. But their power was upheld by a standing army of 45,000 under Cromwell, fie, however, saw the growing discontent of the public mind, and shaped his course accordingly. Laws were made, meantime, of great strictness. Under one of these a man "["was burnt at Winchester for being a popish priest. Cromwell was appointed by parlia- ment lord lieutenant of Ireland, and at the head of an army he entered the island where the earl of Ormond, an adherent of Charles f., vv'as still in arms. Cromwell reduced the Irish to suhnission., and established the authority of parliament. The marquis of Montrose, attempting to raise troops in Scotland for the king, was taken and executed, with forty of his fol- lowers. 8. Meanwhile the Scottish covenanters, though little attached to the royal family, resolved to support the monarchy, and raised an army oi' 36,000, — the command of which was given to Gew. Lesley. They then proclaimed Charles II. king of Scotland. {t Mr. 6outhworlh a veneralile catholic clercvinan, aged 72. On I he scaffold hereproach- •-•d his perse- cutors, and justly, for tiieir incon- sisitmcy.) 6. Did Poland continue in subjection? What country was Charles at. tacking wlien he died ? Give an account of the peace of Oliva. Who su";. ceeded Charles X. ? — 7. What act was now passed in England by the com- mons ? How did they deal with the house of lords ? Who were the keeDers of the great seal? What was the cause of the public disaffection to tho Long Parliament? How was money raised to carry on the civil war? What was done after the king's death ? What part was taken by Cromwell f With whom did he contend in Ireland, and with what result ? Give some account of the marquis of Montrose? — 8. What was done by the Scottisu covenanters ? THE PROTECTORATE. 371 Cliarles, who liad sought reluge in Holland, embarked for Uiat •^^"'^^'''' ""• country ; and on liis arrival, before he landed, he signed the pEuru iv. covenant. Parliament now recalled Cromwell from Ireland, C'l^"'- ^• made hin" captain-general of all their forces, and sent hin> against the Scots, lie defeated them at the battle of Dunbar, gaining the victory mainly by his own regiment. He then made Idm- iclf master of Edinburgh and Lelt/i. In the meantime, the Scots, though weakened by divisions among themselves, and in?.s3,oook, • 1 /■ 1 I . 1 '1 ■ 1 . .• I 10,000 pii. jealous of the prince they supported, (havmg kept a national gonors. fast for his sins and those of his family,) had, notwithstanding, 1651. assembled an army, with which Charles entered England. ,^Y;iicls- Cromwell followed ; and a year after the battle of Dunbar he ter. defeated the royal troops at Worcester. Cliarles was obliged to "^a^aTn* (lee. After more than a montli's concealment in difierent places,* defeats the and under different disguises, he landed in Normandy. army 30,000 9. The authority of the " Comjionwealth" was now ac- 3,{j)o'\'|'|^eg knowledged througliout the whole extent of the English pos- 6 or 7,000 sessions. Cromwell took care to keep in his own hands the 1653. entire control of the army. The parliament now distrusted cromweii him, — of which he was aware. Takinor a file of soldiers, he V"'"^ *]■" entered the Parliament hall, commanded the speaker to leave ment called his chair, and told the members they had sat long enough, un- icj{„^|'ppar less they had done more good. Then, with his thick and con- liament," fused utterance, he addressed individual members — telling Sir remamsof Harry Vane he was a juggler — Chaloner, that he was a drunk- ''"'.''""? ard — and in short, charging some with breaking one command- ment, and some another, and telling the whole, '•'You are no longer a parliament; I say you are no longer a parliament." Cromwell now, v/hile the name of liberty was upon his lips, became a military despot. By a council of his officers, he was (Caiicd "BHrebonc's the title of " hislmess." He next summoned a number of men iiiont,"rroir, a meinbo appointed " Protector of the Commonv/ealth," and adih-essed by ,,^^11-1 from the tiiree kingdoms, who, having assembled at Lo'.uion, he '^I'aXd ' pronounced them a parliament; but did not allow them to sit Praii^e-co.i long, for they showed too much the character of honest patriots ■"^' '" ^'' to suit his views. 10. Jealousies arose between England and Holland, and a \v„r with naval war ensued. After several undecisive engagements, the ""= f/'Kch English fleet under Blake and 3Ionk, engaged the Dutch, un- * At oriR time he concealed liimself among the thick branches of an oalc trre. While the peisons in pursuit of him passed underneath, he heard them "express their desire of seizing and delivering him to his father's murderers. At another tiine he rode two or three days journey with Mrs. Lane, the v^ife of one of his adherents, on a pillion behind him. She told her cousins where she stopped at nisrht, that the yo\ing man was one of her neighbors — that ho was out of healih, and begged they would send hitn directly to bed. In this way she kept him out of sight. 8. What by Charles II. ? Whom did parliament put in command against the Scots? Give an account of the battle of Dunbar? Of Worcester? What was now the situation of Charles ? — ?). What was the situation of the Ccmraonwealih ? Describe the manner in which Cromwell turned out t!\e remaining part of the long parliament ? What title did he now receive ? Whom did he cause to assemble ? — lO. Give an account of the war with the Du'ch? %372 THE COLONIAL SYSTEM. Modern His, (jf-., Van Tromp and De Kuyter, off Portland. The battle PERi'D IV ^'^'as fought with obstinacy for two days ; the third the Dutch CHAP. I. were forced to yield, after which they sued for peace. England, now- under the energetic government of Cromwell, rose to an importance among the nations of Europe, which had been un- known since the days of Elizabeth. The Spaniards and Fror.ch, the Venetians and Swiss, courted the alliance of the protector. He formed connections with France, and engaged in the Spanish war. Besides the forces sent to the continent in aid of France, a naval armament was dispatched to the West Indies ; and Ja- IG55. maica, one of the Spanish Islands, was conquered by admiral conquered Penn, and retained by the English. The settlements in North iiy adinir&i ^nierica h.ad been favored bv the Long Parliament. From 1 enn, the • ^ , . ,'atiierofthe Cromwell they had a severer blow than they had ever received l^ennsyi-^ from the Stuarts, in the "Navigation Acts," by which he intro- vaiiia. duced a restricted system of trade, prohibiting the colonists from using their own ships, and tluis obliging them to sell their pro- ducts to the English, and from them to obtain their supplies. 11. Cromwell's domestic government v/as perhaps as mild and equitable as his dangerous situation would permit, beset as he was by enemies who conspired against his life • yet it was rigorous, and he was guilty of some acts of tyranny and injus- A 11 "'list 12. tice, on which Charles had never dared to venture. He died ijeiiiii of five years after he obtained the protectorate, and was succeeded by his son Richard, whose mild and unambitious disposition, so unlike that of his father, took alarm at the turbulence and cabals which surrounded him. lie resigned the protectorate, and retiring, first to the continent, and afterwards to his estate in tht country, he lived unmolested and unoffending. The nation was now divided into many parties and sects. The people be- came weary of confusion and change, and desired in their hearts the revival of the monarchy. 1®60. 12. General Monk^ an able commander, both by sea and '^Mo'^"' ^^"^^1 ^^'^^ ^^ ^he head of the army in Scotland. He now march- rcstnres cd iuto England, and advanced to London, where he proceeded tiia:!e= {^ execute a plan he had formed for restoring Charles II. to the throne. Disguising his designs under the appearance of zeal for the commonwealth, he procured the dissolution of the par- liament then in session, and the assembling of a new one ; and succeeded in securing the election of friends of the monarchy as members of the new parliament. On its assembling, a mes- ^ I senger, bearing a l?!,ter from Charles to Gen. Monk, was intro- o duced. The prince offered a general pardon, promised liberty g of conscience — assured the soldiers of their arrears^ and sub lO. What was England in regard to foreign respectability ? What war did Cromwell maintain? What island did admiral Penn conquer lOr the English? What is said of the North American setilemenis? — 1 1. What was the character of Cromwell's domestic government ? Give an account of his successor. — 12. Who was Gen. Monk, and what did he do? What plan had he formed? What measures did he cause to be taken in reference to a parliament ? What letter '.vas read ? fe CHARLES II. RKSTORKD. 373 1061. Mt'asurp.8 Cliailes raittcd all grants to parliamentary arbitration. T'hc house of •'^^'"^'^'"" ^^*^' peers now took tiieir share in the government, and both lioii.ses i'eui'D iv. attending, Charles !!. was proclaimed king. Sir Matthew chaf. i. IIaf.e, the. distinguished chief justice, aided l)y Prv.\ne, wished ^«*»'^'^""*— ' to have limitations imposed upon the royal authority; but these important suggestions were, for sclllsh ends, overruled by Monk. Cliarles sailed from the Hague, — was met at Dover by general ?#l(mk, and conducted to London. His return was hailed with jov by tiie nation. 13. Cliarles thus restored to his throne, everything conspired (ij.^.i^r to promise a popular and prosperous reign. But the character cf Ui&iica of the monarch socni blighted the hopes of the nation ; and proved that even the school of adversity docs not always teach wisdom. His agreeable person, and easy, engaging manners, made him liked by all who approached him, even by those whose judgments most strongly disa[)proved the unblushing profligacy of his life. Thus his vicious example became par- ticularly dangerous to his subjects; and licentiousness quickly spread from the court to the extremes of the kingdom. His (irst measures were mild and popular, but his people soon found that his engagements weighed little. Notwithstanding he had sworn to support the covenant, and to protect the rights of conscience, he re-established episcopacy as the exclusive religion; restored the bishops to their seats in parliament, and tlie inferior clergy to their benefices. Tlie disappointed puritans had a still more galling demonstration to encounter in the '' Act of Uni- formi:)'." By this it was ordained that every minister, school- master, or fellow of a college, must declare his consent to every thing contained in the book of connnon prayer; and tiiat all ministers should be ejected who had not episcopal ordination. By this oppressive act two thousand ministers, in one day, were driven from their livings. 14. Prosecutions were commenced against tliose concerned {Edward in the deatli of Chailes I. Some v/ere executed, and some lied w'anisVtrd to foreign kingdoms, where, imder tlie name, '■'regicides," ciarcmiur., they were hunted. Three of these judges, Goffe, VVhallev, reiioranti and Dixwele, concealed themselves in New England. Fears P'''!"5 "''" . ' . S! mater.) fif popery existed, and were increased by the marriagt of the king widi Cathahine of Portugal, a catholic princess. But although the amiable character and manners of the queen gave general satisfaction, the king treated her at first with coldness, iht^n with insult, and finally with neglect. 15. Charles engaged in hostilities with the Dutch on false 1664. pretcnres, hoping by means of involving himself in a popular ^^f M^^'iJ* 12. What aiiempt was made by Sir Matthew Hale ? Relate some of the circumstances oi Chark-s' return. — l.'J. What blighted the hopes of the English nation respecting their monarch ? Ilow was he faithless lo the co- venanters? What was ordained in the Act of Uniformity ? How did this ['.ffeet the rlerj^y who could not conscientiously conform? — II. Wliat ac- ronnt can you give of the regicides, as those were called concerned m the death of the late king? Who was queen, and how was she treated by llie kinjr ?- -l''>. Give an account of the war with the Dut^^i. J74. THE ENGLISH TAKE NEW YORK. Modsm Ills ^^ar^ to obtain money from parliament, and regain the good I'ERi'D IV. will of his subjects, whose jealousies were aroused by the i;> CHAP. I. terference of the Dutch in their foreign trade. He wished als j ■-*'~N/'*"%»^ to restore to his nephew, William Jll., the dignity of stadl- I'Connecti- holder, whicli had formerly belonged to the familv of Oranae. C"jt SCIKIS III . .' O ' 1G6-2 tiie but had been recently abolished by the Dutch. Holland vva.s Wimiuop, I'low, from her commerce, wealth and industry, a first rate power. ho pleases JoHiV DE WiTT, who was at the head of the republican party, anii*obtafii3 ^'^^^ before entered into an alliance with France. The English an excel- dispatched squadrons to Africa and America, and in both, they f.Vconn.) took possession of the Dutch settlements. It was at this time that Col. Nichols took JVeio Amsterdam^ from the Dutch go- 1664. vernor Stuyvesant; and in honor of James, duke of York, taken Trom ^^ whom his. brother, king Charles, had patented this country, the Bistcb. it received the name of New York. lIsSS. 16. A naval engagement took place off the coast of Holland^ DumciRK between the Dutch fleet, under the command of the admiral Erigiishrte- OpDAJM, and the English, under the duke of York, which 'Sitch!^ ended in the defeat of the Dutch. Louis XIV. now sent out a fleet to aid them. The king of Denmark, also, jealous of the ^'pen^wfs"" naval power of England, came forward to their assistance. In cousin to the following year a sea-fight took place off Dunkirk, tlie beinsTbe English being commanded by Monk, now duke of Albemarle, f']"°|j^''' and PRixcE Rupert ; and the Dutch by De Ruyter, and the uio elector youuger Van Tromp. It lasted four days, Vi'ith alternate snc- Paiaime.^ C8SS, when at length the arrival of another Englisli squadron' compelled the Dutch to retire. 1S'S5. ^^- ''^ London a dreadful plague hroke oxil^ and nearly one Fiaciie in hundred thousand perso?is fell its victims. ^2 terrible fire burned ii^"/q°<^* foii-T days., and consumed thirteen thousand buildings. Charles, S(? t 9to*6 ''^^'^"o^^ generally selfish, showed on these occasions, a fatherly <;reat fire, solicitude for his subjects. This was particularly the case in the activity manifested in extinguishing tlie fire, and providing for the suffering population, who were exposed unsheltered to 168"?'. ^'^^ elements. A Dutch fleet, under De Ruvter, entered the Peace of Thames, and burned several British ships of war. Shortly Brti'il. lifter this, a treaty of -peace was signed at Breda. England retained possession of JYew York, and ceded to Hie Dutch Surinam. 18. Charles gave to his fiivorites large tracts of land in Ame- iG67. rica. To lord Clarendon and others he made a considerable taroiiiias, or,-ant, which he extended. Sfivins^ in 1667, to lord Shaftes- ac ^T*aiiie(J. ^ . b ri^ ? nuRY and others, a territory comprehending the whole southens section of the American Republic. For this new country, Shaftesbury, with the aid of John Locke, the great writer on 15. What place on our coast was taken from the Dutch ? What chans^c of name occurred? — 16. Give an account of the naval engagement off the coast of Holland. What nations aided the Dutch? What battle took place off Dunkirk? — IT. What calamities now visited London? What was the conduct of the king on these occasions? What was done by a Dutch fleet ? What was gained and lost bv England at the peace of Breda J TIME OF THK FOUNDING OF CHARLESTON. 'dl 5 the " Human Understanding," attempted to form such a conslitu- lion as should realize their beau-ideal of political wisdom. This peui'U iv. turned out a complete luilure; but the settlements in the Caro- '^^'^f- "• Unas grew, and grverneil tlieuiselves much after their own will. *<-*''~^^'""'*>' The proprietors, iiowever, sent governors, of whom, Savle 16S0. founded Ckarlcslon. In the wars between Spain and England, fomidtcT*^ tliei;e provinces came into collision with the Spanish province of Florida, in Virginia, which was at that time a loyal state, ifi'J'G. the misrule of governor Bl:kkeley produced a disastrous in- Uaron's r,>. surrection, headed by Nathaniel Baco.v; and a bloody civil virg°"La" war ensued,— which was (juieted by the death of the leader, and the submission of his followers. CHAPTER H. Europe during the Wars of tlie Spanish Succession. 1. While England and the United Provinces had been weak- ening each other by mutual hostiliiies, Louis XIV. was matur- 1665- ing plans for the aggrandizement of the French monarchy by projects of taking from Spain her provinces on his northern frontier. The ^°^^^ ^*^ death of Philip IV., had left the throne of that kingdom to be filled by his son Charles II., a sickly indmt; and the re- gency was committed to the queen-mother, a woman of little ability. Notwithstanding the renunciation of Louis on his mar- riage, he took advantage of the time to bring forward claims, in right of his queen, to the country which he meant to conquer, and entered the Spanish Netherlands at the head of 40,000 troops. The Spaniards were unprepared for the invasion, and town after town fell before the French. The rapid successes xhe Triple of Louis alarmed the other powers, and the English, Dutch, and aiiianca. Swedes, united against him in a league, called " the Triple Al- liance." Louis was now willing to negotiate ; and at JJix-la- 16<»S- ChapcUe the ambassadors of the difierent nations met, and "C^C6 01 formed a treaty of peace, which left to the French monarch the AlX-La- conqnests he had made, but compelled him to relinquish all vliapciift other claims upon the Spanish provinces. 2. Louis, however, determined to take a future occasion to levenge himself upon Holland for the share she had taken in obstructing his ambitious views,- and he also sought to detach 18. To whom liad Charles given lands, and where ? What was done in rccard to a constitution ? What place was founded ? Wiiere was a rebellion ? Crap. II. — 1. What advantage of the weak state of the Spanish monarchy was the king of France preparing to take ? Relate his first invasion of the Spanish Netherlands. What nations were alarmed at his grasping spirit? What alliance did they form? What peace succeeded?— 'i. Did the king of France make this treaty in jjood faith ? 376 WARS OF TU.^; SPAXISIl SUCCESSION. Charlt:< gets tromliis par- liament a large supply to aid tlie Dutch, and uses it against «iieni. William, Prince of Orange. SOLB.iY. Naval Liatlie between the Dutch and English and French. 16-! 2. French conoMcsts. England from llie triple alliance. The wants and weakness of Cliarles. led him to the shameful measure of a secret treaty, by which he agreed to assist the king of France in the conquest of the United Provinces, and the Low Countries ; to embrace pub- licly the catholic faith, and to establish it in his kingdom; and in reward of tliese services, he was to receive from Louis the sura of 200,000 pounds, besides an annual subsidy ; and in case o( rebellion in England, a military force. 3. While the Dutch were flattering themselves with the hope of a long peace, Louis, at the head of an army, invaded and conquered the duchy of Lorraine^ in order to furnish himself with an easy passage into the United Provinces. He had found measures to detach Sweden, as we'l as England, from the triple alliance ; and to bring some of the German nobles into the French interest. This extensive confederacy, and the formid- able military and naval preparations, threatened the entire over- throw of the republic. Charles, keeping the treaty he had formed a secret, obtained from his unsuspecting parliament the largest supply the commons had ever granted to a king, in order to enable him to sustain the engagements under whicli the triple alliance placed the English nation. He then, acting according to his secret treaty, ordered an attack upon a Dutch fleet from Smyrna, valued at two mdlions sterling ; and shortly after, on frivolous pretexts, he declared war against Holland. The com- bined English and French fleets amounted to more than a hun- dred sail, while the army collected by Louis numbered 120,000, commanded by the ablest generals of the age. 4. The Dutch, relying on the faith of treaties, ■were not pre- pared with a sufficient military force. The strength of the re- publicans was also weakened by dissensions among themselves. William, prince of Orange, was appointed commander in chief of the army. De Witt, whose authority was now declining, sought to recover it, and to inspirit the states to some great naval operation. He equipped a fleet, which, under admiral De Ruyter, came up with the united fleets of ihe English and French, as they lay at anchor in Solbay. De Ruyter attacked them, but obtaining no decisive advantage, he retreated to the coast of Holland, whither he was pursued by tlie English admiral. Meanwhile the French king, assisted in his command by Tu- RENXE, moved northward at the head of a large army, and reached the Rhine almost without opposition ; took JYhtiegueji, Arnlicimi and invested Utrecht. The prince of Orange, with his small army, retreated before him ; and in a h\v weeks, all the 2. What treaty was made by him with Ciiarles II.? — 3. What was the first hosiiio movement of Louis ? What nations were now united with Louis against the D\iiL"h ? Wiiat double-dealinii did Charles praciise with his par- liament? What attack did he order? What fleet and army was collected asanist the Dutch ? — 4. Wliat was now the condition of the Dutch ? Who was made commander of the army ? Relate the naval operaiions. By whom was Louis XIV. assisted in command? What successes did they obtain I What provinces were left to die Dutch? TllK DUTCH WnilSTAXD 'CUE FRE.VCn 377 provinces except Holland and Zealand, had submitted to the •^fe'torn au. conqueror. peri-d IV. o. This crisis roused the cilizeris of Amsterdam and of the chap. ii. whole province of tloiland, and every hand was nerved. The v-.^^/'-x-/ populace were Uikcii into pay. Ship.s were .stationed in llie harbor, and the Dutcii consigned tlieir fertile fields and flourishing vil- Dutch pa- luge.s to destruction, opening the sluices of their canals, and inur- '"o'tani. dating tlie country to save the city. Yet while they prepared to resist, they sought for peace, but their overtures were re- jected ; and the resolute Dutch determined to leave their native land, if they could not defend it, and settle in India or .America In the frenzy of the times, the people, feeling the necessity of ffjfs. an acknowledged sovereign, and blaming the two De Witts, by The two Do whose influence the office of stadtholder had been abolished, wutskiDed. now rose in furv, imprisoned and put them to death, and invested the prince of Orange with that dignity. The united fleet of the confederates about this time advanced towards the coast of Holland, having on board the army which was designed to complete its conquest. The Dutch thanked an overruling Pro- videuce when it was carried back to sea, and prevented by se- vere stonns from landing the army. G. The emperor of Germany, the king of Spain, and the elector of Brandenburgh, now awoke to the grasping ambition of Louis, and were ready to lend the States their aid. '['he prince of Orange retook .Yaerdeii, and joining his forces with those of the emperor under Mo.nteclccli, they besieged and 1(573. took Bonne ^ and subduing the principal part of the electorate Dutctisuc of Cologne, interrupted the communication between France and '=•^8^*^ the United provinces. The French were compelled to evacuate their conquests and retreat The following year the parliament of England compelled Cliarles II. to abandon his shameful French alliance, and make peace with Holland. 7. The efforts of the French monarch to sustain the war were unremitting. He brought, this year, four armies into the field, and commenced the campaign by marching in person into Franche Comnte, and subduinjr the whole province. Conde, at 1674. the head of another army, encountered the prince of Orange at VLOofj mpn Senel'fe in Brabant, and a bloody battle ensued, where twenty k'lied with- thousand were left dead on the field, without any decisive vie- civivcrj- fory. On the side of Germany, the French were succes.sful, foi **^- there Turenne commanded. He conquered the Palulinale, but sanctioned cruelties, Louis began to fear the result of the com- bination against him, and bribed the king of England to prorogue his parliame nt, lest it should compel him to unite in the con- federacy. a. \Vliat was now ihe conduct of the ciii7,r-"s of Am-t^.'-darn ? Which ■ >f their ov/n patriots did they dcs'roy ? — ii. Who row aided the Dutch? Relate the military operations of the Dutch and their allies? To what did the Eiislish parliament compel the king? — "J. Relate the progress of the French in the north. In Brabant. On ihc *ide of Gcrn)?r:v. For what did I-ouis bribe Cfaarles? 48 378 JOHN SOBIESKI CHECKS THE TURKS. Mudern His- PERI'D IV. CHAT. II. Death of Turcnne. Peace of imcffuen. The Jesuit mission- aries in the early stage uf the Jesuit uociety. 1673. Marquette discovers the nioutlis of the Mis- souri, Oliio, and Arlvansas. Turks aid the rebel- lious Hun- garians. 16S3. yiEJ\rM-ji. John So- Lieski de- feats the Turks. (John Sobi. eski is reck- oneii ; second Charies Mattel ) 8. In the next campaign the imperial general, Montecuculi was opposed to Turenne, and by his skill prevented the progress of the French. The death of Tnrenne, who was killed by a cannon ball while reconnoitering the enemy, was an irreparable misfortune to Louis. On the ocean, the French were victorious chiefly through the skill of Du Quesne, wlio yet held but ac inferior rank in the navy. Several battles were fought, in one of which De Ruyter, the Dutch admiral, 'was killed. Negctis' tions for peace were entered into at JYimeguen^ in 1678, t/ie Dutch retaining their for iner territorks. 9. In the meantime, France gained by the efforts of the Je- suit missionaries^ the prospect of a great empire in Ameiica. \n 1640 they founded Montreal^ to gain a starting point for their great effort to convert and subjugate the natives. These resolute and self-denying soldiers of the cross, carried their dis- coveries up the Ottawas, the St. Lawrence, and the great lakes; till Anally Father Marquette, with but one com.panion, era- barked in a little boat on the solitary Wisconsin ; and, with a courage not less remarkable than tliat of Columbus, the daunt- less Jesuit floated seven days with the Wisconsin, tlien reach- ing the object of his searcli, the great Mississippi, he followed its course, discovering the mouths of the vast tributaries, Mis- souri, Ohio, and Arkansas. La Salle, an enterprizing French- man, undertook to colonize these regions, and was the first European who, embarking on the upper Mississippi, folio v.-ed the river to the ocean. In honor of his master, Louis XIV., this extensive country was named by La Salle, Louisiana. 10. In Germany, the emperor Leopold was alarmed by a rebellion of the Hungarians, aided by the Turks. Mahomet IV., then on the Ottoman throne, invaded the empire with the most formidable force which the Turks had ever sent against Christendom. His army entered Germany, and laid siege to Vienna. The suburbs were destroyed, and nothing less than the surrender of the city was expected, when the renowned John Soeieskf, king of Poland, whose alliance the emperor had obtained, joined by several of the German princes, arrived before the Turkish camp. A battle ended in the precipitate flight of the Turks, and the relief of the distressed city. Among the spoils of the Turkish camp was found the celebrated stand- ard of Mahomet, which was presented by the captors tu the pope. In other battles the Turks and Hungarians were de- feated, and Hungary was restored to the empire. 11. Louis XIV., having raised the navy of France to a degree of consequence unknown before his reign, various ports were 8. Relate the principal events of the next campaign. By what peace was thiS war closed ? How did it leave the Dutch in point of terrilory ? — ii. Wiiat city did the Jesuit missionaries make their starting point ? Wjiat ri- vers did they explore ? What was their object ? Relate the voyage of Fa- ther Marqueite. Who was La Salle, and what did he do? — lO. Who was emperor of Germany, and what cause of alarm had he ? Who was the Turkish sultan ? What success had the Turks gained ? Relate what was done b / the king of Poland 1 ""hat was presented to the pope ? LOUIS XIV., THE GRKIT. 379 constructed at great expense. His squadrons commanded the •''^■^'^^'•" ^^"- Mediterranean, and in some measure stopped tlie depredations peri'd iv of tiie Barbary pirates. He caused Algiers to be bombarded, chap. ii. and obliged the Algerines to release their Christian captives. ^-^^^^^^-^ Louis in resentment towards the Genoese, who had assisted the Spaniards, ordered their city also bombarded, and compelled the 16S4> doge to implore his clemency at Versailles. 'I'h.'s was the name CeiK.a bom. of a palace which he had erected at enormous cost, and where he ke])t his court, with a degree of expense and splendor pro- bably not equalled by any other monarch of Europe. 12. At this period, he lost his great minister, Colbert whc by liis patronage of manufactures and commerce, and his skill in managing the revenue of the kingdom, had enabled his mo- narch to maintain such expensive wars, and erect such magnifi- cent edifices. Colbert had protected and patronized the Hugue- nots. Louis was himself a bigot, and he was now encouraged by Louvois, the successor of Colbert, to commence a religious IfiSft. persecution, in the course of which, he revoked the edict of yokes the JS'antcs^ passed by Henry IV. The protestants were ordered to ^S',''^^ °'' declare themselves converted by a day appointed. Of those who were refractory, the leaders were broken on the wlieel, while the /jia„y jju. common people were hanged. The penalty of death was also gncnots at enacted against all who attempted to emigrate; — yet, notwith- camo°to standing, 50,000 fltmilies abandoned their country. Louis thus America, stained his character, and gready injured France; for by means soine of our of these emigrations, the French skill in manufactures was car- best popuia- 1 • 1 •! rill- tion.) ried to other countries, while a great amount of wealth and in- dustry was lost to their own. 13. From this period the power of Louis began to decline. The French protestants carried with them a hatred of their king, which they infused into the hearts of their brethren in the neigh- *«»^w- boring kingdoms. A league of the princes belonging to the ^ '^"jr German empire was formed at Augsburg^ for preventing the fur- ,f^,„^'J,j^' ther encroachments of France ; and with them, Holland, Spain, gp^in and and, finally, England united. Louis exerted his utmost vigor in '^"^•^."f preparing to withstand his numerous and powerful enemies. France. The French were first in the field. The dauphin led an army 16SS-9. to die Rhine, and laid siege to Philipshnrg, which fell before nate/a^'pMi- his arms. The French overran the Palatinate, where, by order testant of the king, they destroyed the great towns, and spread desola- "^populated.* tion dirough tlie country. This barbarous warfare served only Worms and to render the enemies of France more inveterate, and the cam- f,^// 1 1. What had Louis XIV. done in respect to a navy for France ? What in respect to the pirates and their prisoners? How did he humble the Ge- noese ? What account can you give of Versailles? — 12. Give an account of the arrangements of Colbert ? In what respect was Louvois difTerent, and what did the king in pnrt through his influence ? What cruelties were now exercised atrainst the Huguenots? In what respect did these enorm.ties in- jure Louis and his kingdom ? — 13. Had the revocaiiun of the edict of Nantes ai;d the persecution a permanent effect on the power of Louis? What league was now formed? What was now done by the French, and how did it af- fect tlu^ir cause ? 380 PEACE OF RYSWICK. Modern ihs paign was, on the whole, against them. The following year I'ERi'D IV. Louis dispatched an army into Italy, undei Catinat, Avhich was victorious over the forces of the duke of Savoy at Saluces. Luxembourg obtained a victory over the Dutch and Spanish on the plains of Fleurus. The naval operations of France were also prosperous. Admiral Tourville defeated the combined Ffencirvlc" squadrons of the English and Dutch, off Beachy head, and even lorioiis. Off made a descent upon the coast of England. HEJiD. 14. In the succeeding campaign, William, prince of Orange, Tourville ^iQ^y i^ji^nr of England, who at the commencement of the war Ensiish and was engaged in settling the affairs of that realm, resumed the ""'•''''• command in Flanders. Louis took Mo?is, and the French arras ^ were successful on the side of Spain ; yet this year, no decisive Off LA advantages were obtained by either side. The following spring, noouE. Louis besieged and took JVamur^ while Luxembourg was sta- ^kirk' tioned so as to prevent the king of England from bringing re- Eiigiish vie- lief to the besieged town. But at sea, the French, under the tonous. command of Tourville, were defeated off Cape La Hogue by the English ; and at Steinkirk, William attacked and defeated their army. „ ^ 15. At Widdin, the pki.vce of Baden, who commanded the wiDDiJf. iniperial forces, obtained a complete victory over the Turks, French and with whoin the French klvg was now in alliance. The follow ■ feated. " ing year, however, a new vizier, of more military skill, changed the face of affairs. During the absence of the prince of Baden, „^ , . ■ who was settling disturbances in Transylvania, the Turks re- it \lrKS laKe ^ _.^_ ^ .' n n Belgrade, took H iddin and made themselves masters of Belgrade, and all Upper Hungary. Meanwhile the French general, Luxem- MEER- bourg, surprised king William, who, with his army, occupied the i.uxem- ' village of Neerwinden. The conflict here was long and obsti- bourg de- nate, and though victory at length declared for the French, il kingofEng- was dearly bought. Luxembourg afterwards took CharleroL land. jj^ Spain, the mareschal de ]SroAiLLES,and in Piedmont, Cati- nat, prosecuted the war with success. During the three re- maining campaigns of this war, no event of consequence took place except the conquest of JYannir by king William. The parties were at length desirous of peace, and a congress under 169% the mediation of Charles XL, now king of Sweden, assembled reace 01 ^t Ryswick to settle the terms. The basis of the treaty was liyswiCK. the restoration of all places taken during the war. France acknowledged William as king of England. 16. Soon after the treaty of Ryswick., a battle took place at Zenta, between the imperial forces under prince Eugene of Sa- ZEJVT.i. voy, and the Turks, under the command of the sultan Musta i'nnceEii- pn a II., in which prince Eugene obtained a decisive victory The Turks,^ 20,000 Turks were left dead on the field, besides prisoners and lo'cm 't)"cn ^'^°^*^ drowned in attempting to escape. The pavilion of ilie sultan, 13. Give some account of the campaign of 1691. — 14. Of that of 1G92. 15. What important baltle was fought in 1693? Relae the batile of Nrer- windeii ? What is said of ihe ihree last campaigns of ihis war? Give an account of the peace of Ryswick. — IG. Relate the oaitle of Zenia, DEFKATS OF THE COVRXANTEKS- 3S) Uie greai seal of tlie empire, and llie immense stores of the •'^"'^"^ ^" lirmy fell into the iiantb of the victors. This event produced peri'D iv, a peace between the German and Ottoman empires, which was chaf. hi. signed at Carlowilz. and which restored tranquilHty to Europe. ^--»'N/'*'W<' Charlcp !l. CHAPTER III. England. 1. Charles II. again outraged the feelings of English patriots, by the sale of Dunkirk to the French, for the sum of £400.000. His brother James, the duke of York, declared himself a con- chariern vert to the catholic religion, and the evident prepossessions of ^*''{fir^"" the king to llie same faitli, awakened anew the fears of popery, witli its inquisitorial horrors. Charles, though he often offend- IdTl't-G- ed his subjects, yet by liis insinuating manners and scheming pemdor brain, could ever find ways to recover their favor. He proposed kin^i'iuiip'o for this object, a marriage between the princess AlAriv, eldest biooda-si of daughter of the duke of York, and William, prince of Orange: /'" ^'\':I"", •3 ' ^ r _ ^a 7 Qinn wars o( which, in spile of the remonstrances of James, he carried into New Eng- effect. On another occasion he obliged his brother, who was '*" "* much disliked by the people, to retire to Brussels. Great dis- IGYJ). orders arose in Scotland, in consequence of the arbitrary mea- j^^"j^J/. sures of the English ministry, in the establishment of episco- clog. pacy in that kingdom. Dr. Sharp, archbishop of St. Andrews, *^rrdefrai was murdered in his coach bv Balfour, and eleven other co- Graham of ' Claver- venanters. Graham, of Claverhouse, was defeated by the co- hous;-. venanters at Drumclog; but the duke of Monmouth conquered o"^^.?,^' them at Bothwell bridge. Monmoutli behaving with great well- lenitv to the prisoners, he was recalled in distjrace, and the duke J^^i^ff'^ 1 ' . ^ , . Are defeated of York, who had returned, was sent by his brother to admin- by the duko ister the government of Scotland. He cruelly persecuted the momii' covenanters, seeming to enjov their sufferings. 2. The court party, during the last years of Charles, gathered strength, and tyrannical principles were advanced, and gained p'-ound. A conspiracy was formed to oppose the succession of viour of llie duke of York. Among the conspirators was lord Russkll, LadyRiispei IV ho was tried and executed. Another conspiracy, called the band's trial Rye House Plot, was headed by the duke of Monmouth, a na- admiTcd'i tural son of Charles, which contemplated raising him to tiie 16. What was the consequence of the treaty of Carlowitz ? Chap. III. — 1 . How did Charles further offend the English ? What was dor.o by his brother ? What measures were taken by Charles to keep his people in good humour ? \S'hat troubles arose in Scotland ? What account can you give of Dr. Sharp — his murder and murderers ? Who was sent ogamst the covenanters, and where were they defeated ? — 2. What party , and principles gained ground, and when ? What cni'piracv was detected, and who was made the victim ? HYPOCRISY AND TYRANNY. Mcdem Hh- I'ERI'D IV. CHAP. i:i. James II. Executions of Mon- moutli and 6revle. (Wm. Penn founds Phii- odelphia.) throne, and assassinating tlie king. Charles pardoned the otience. Algernon Sidney, an ornament to mankind, was ap- prehended on a charge of high treason, for having been tlie author of a treatise, in which he asserts tliat power is originally in the people, and delegated by them to the parliament, to wdicm the king is amenable. For these opinions, written, but not published, did the infamous Jeffries, his judge, condemn to deatli this friend of himian rights, and "he rejoiced to die for the good old cause." 3. Charles was succeeded by his brother, the duke of York under the title of James IF. Assembling his council, he de- clared his determination to maintain the established government both in church and state. But his conduct in sending to make submission to the pope — going in state to high mass, which by act of parliament was an illegal assembly — levying taxes with- out consent of parliament — and advancing catholics to office while he displaced episcopalians, soon convinced the people of the hollowness of his professions. Insurrections broke out; one in Scotland, headed by the duke of Argyle, and another in England, headed by the duke of Monmouth. Their forces were defeated and scattered, and the leaders executed ; — Argyle at Edinburgli,and iMonniouth at London. But these successes, instead of consolidating the power of the king, in consequence of the bad measm-es which followed, had a contrary effect Military executions of tht prisoners were frequent, and some- times attended with circumstances of horrid cruelty.* Jeffries, who was chancellor of the kingdom, received from James a special commission to try the rebels; and to be tried by this cruel and unjust, judge, w'as to be condemned and executed. 4. By upholding such cruelties, the monarch made himself hated by his people. At the same time he made great preten- sions to zeal for religions toleration ; but it was because he wished to bring forward the Catholics. William Penx, tlie celebrated quaker, who had returned from the colony of Penn- sylnania, which he had founded in North America, was mucli in company with James; his father, admiral Penn, having been a personal friend of the king. Penn was deceived into a belief that this bigot and tyrant had good designs respecting liberty of conscience. But his intentions were inanifestlv to break * After the battle of Sedgemoor, near Bridgewater, in vdnuh IMcnnioutli was defeated, lord Feversham, who commanded against him. ordered a num- ber of the prisoners to be hanged without form ot' trial. Col. Kirk did the • same at Bridgrewater, and when he saw iheir feet twitching, as they wors struggling in death, he ordered the band to play a hvely tune, saying, " v-'ill give them music to their dancing." 2. What account can you give of ' the Rye House Plot?" Give an pccount of the the trial of Algernon Sidney ? — 3. Who succeeded Charles? What were his professions, and what his conduct ? What insurrections broke out, and with what resuhs ? What measures followed, and how did they affect the stability of James' power? What is said of Jeffries? 4. What is said of William Penn ? In what year did he found Philadelphia ' A WROXGF.D PKOPLE RIGHT THEMSELVr.!?. 383 down the free portions of the English constitution, antl bring •''^°'^""" ^"- every thing into subjection to iiis own arbitrary M'ill. To tlie perfd iv New England stales, who had been flourishing under their chap. m. charters, derived at different times from the British crown, he ^-'^'''■''^*>-' sent over his minion, that coxcomb of a tyrant. Sir Edmund ^. ^"^.^^ <■ ' "^ C hiirtef of Andross, who took away the charters, and assumed absohite Comiecticui HiUhority. To the clergy of the established church, the king ^y heing^'hUJ became particularly obnoxious. He not only depriveS9. May 26. TilLLIE- CR^J^'KIE. Duiiflpc vic- torious—is slain- J©§9. July 1. BOYJs'-E. William de- feats Jam.'s- Those wlio adliered to James are pro;)er!y :alled Jaco- bites.) fAftcr Wil- Jiani's deatli was found tied to liis arm, a ring containinj; Mary's hair.) hut he sent them word tliat he would not accept of a powei which depended on the life of another; and if they concluded on this plan, he could render them no assistance. Mary se- conded his views, and the prince and princess of Orange were jointly declared king and queen of England. This event, called in English history the Revolution, is one of the most singular and important on record. It was accomplished almost without bloodshed ; and in its course tlie principle was acknoicledged, thai the people had by their representatives a right to elect their sovereign. No king could thenceforth assume, as their former princes had done, that the whole kingdom was his; he deriving from God, and the people from him. This relic of the feudal system M'as, in England, left behind, when James, for his attempts upon English constitutional liberty, was ejected ; and William of Orange, by the pleasure of the nation, was made king. 7. hi Scotland a powerful party held out for James, headed by viscouxT Dundee. At KiJUecraiikie., tliis brave and popular chieftain gave battle to the forces of William, under M.ickay, and obtained a victory, but fatally for the cause of James, he fell in the engagement. James, on his flight from England, had been hospitably received by Louis XIV., and lodged at St. Ger- main en Laye. Having now collected a few hundred of his own subjects, and some French officers, he embarked for Ire- land. The EARL OF Tyrconnel, who commanded ihere, re- maining faithful to his interests, had assembled an army of 40,000 men. James was received v/ith enthusiasm, and entered Dublin amidst acclamations. The Irish protestants. however, resisted with intrepidity, though at times reduced to the utmost distress. William, who for a time had been compelled by the disputes which agitated the English parliament, to leave the Irish war to liis lieutenants, now proceeded to that kingdom in person. A batde was fought on the banks of the Boyne, in which the monarchs were each at the head of their respective armies. V^ictory declared in favor of William ; James again fled to France, and Ireland soon after submitted to the power of the conqueror. 8. Though the reign of W^illiam was often disturbed by the Jacobites, yet the majority of the nation supported him in his measures. While he was personally engaged in the conti- nental wars, Mary, whose manners were popular, exercised with ability the office of regent, although, when her husband was in England, she was the most submissive of his subjects. Her death was deeply lamented by him, and by tlie people. Wil- liam died at Kensington, by a fall from his horse. This monarch ruled with ability, yet not well. Ambition was in \m t». What ia this event called in English history ? Why is it singular and important? — 1. What distunance occurred in Scotland? What in Ire- land ? Relate the battle ot the Boyne ? — S. What circumstances are mentioned of the life and death of William and Mary ? ENGLISH NATIONAL DEBT BEGINS. 335 heart; and this was not rnodilied as it slioukl have been, by a regard to the good of mankind, and especially to that of the f>eople whom he governed, lie determined so to sway llie po- itics of Europe, " that not a gun should be tired without his con- sent." Hence he augmented the disturbances on the continent, sent forth his armies to shed the blood of distant unoflending per pie j and to maintain these armies, he commenced the system of borrmolng money, which has in its consequences, accumulated the enormous national debt that has brought England to the. verge of destruction. 9. hi America " King William's War" reached the people of New England, where the French and Indians from Canada, came stealthily upon them — roused their slumbers by the war- whoop, and waked them to behold their infants dashed against the wall, and tlieir dwellings in flames ; — themselves reserved for scalping and tortures. Thus were surprised Schenectady in New York, Salmon-Falls in New Hampshire, and Casco in Maine. \n American legislation, some of the measures of William HI. showed that he believed the free institutions of that country were tending to independence, and that he endeavored to bar their way. Puritan New England had re- joiced in his accession, and he recalled their petty tyrants, and suflered the smaller states to go quietly back to their charter democracies ; but to the people of Massachusetts, the larger and leading state, who had shown the most determined self- will, Wniiam would not restore their former privileges, but compelled them to receive, with a new charter, royal governors. Disputes between these governors and their constituents began dt once, which were never settled but at the war of the Ameri- can revolution. To carry his measures in parliament, William resorted to the dishonorable and demoralizing plan of bribing the members of that body and other persons of influence, both at home and abroad. During his reign, "an Act of Settlement" was passed, notwithstanding the opposition of the Jacobite party, which secured the crown of England to Sophia, duchess dowager of Hanover, and her descendants ; they being protest- ants. WUliam was succeeded by A.we, (married to George, prince of Denmark,) sister of Mary, and second daughter of James II. She continued tlie alliance with the house of Austria; and it was during her reign that the victories of the duke of Marlborough reflected such lustre on the British arms. Mode ia His. I'KRIl^IV. CIIA ?. Ul. 1690. S( licnec- tady and other places destroyed. Indian mode of warfare in America (Sophia vvaa the youngest d. of Eliza- beth, d. of James 1., and the un- fortunate elector. The claims of an older branch were set aside be- cause they were papists.) 1702. Anne suc- ceeds \VU. liam HL 8. What is remarked concerning the reign 01 this monarch ? What bad oystem did he commence ? — t). How and where did the effect of his wars reach America? \Vhat did he comprehend respecting the American insti- tutions ? How did he proceed with them ? What demoralizing plan did he adopt in order to carry his measures in parliament ? Give an account ol the ' Act of Settlement." Who was the princess Sophia? (See note.) 49 CHAPTER IV. Europe. — Thirteen year's War of the Spanish Succession. iicdm-n uis . I The peace of Ryswick had scarcely composed hostilities Eiu'Div between the European powers, when jarring claims and in- trigues, concerning the succession to the Spanish crown arose, wliich e\ entually produced war. Charles II., the reigning mo- narch cf Spain, had no children ; and the feeble state of his health gave reason to expect the immediate vacancy of the throne. Louis XIV., the emperor Leopold, and the elector of Bavaria, each possessed claims to the succession on account of descent in the maternal line from the royal family of Spain. The balance of power in Europe it was said, required that neither the house of Austria, nor that of Bourbon, should obtain such an accession of strength, as the acquisition of the Spanish mo- 169'?'. navchy would give. A trealy of partition was therejfore for77ied Treaty of ^-^ England , France^ and Holland^ dividing the territories of Pirtition. ^'"^ Spa7rtsh monarchy among the different claimants. This treaty, which the framers designed to preserve secret, became (William kriowu in Spain, and justly displeased both the king and the III. of Eng- nation. Charles immediately made a will, excluding both the ^"ofthis"'^ house of Bourbon and that of Austria, and bequeathing his league.) crown, with all the Spanish possessions, to the elector of Bava- ria. The death of the elector, which occurred soon after, again renewed the intrigues of Louis and Leopold. The king of Eng- o i' land continued to interest himself in the negotiations, and a se- Trpatv nf ^""^ treaty icas formed between England, France, and Holland, Partitinn ^^ which a neio partition of the Spanish dominions was made.. To this partition also, the emperor refused to accede. ^ (- 2. The intrigues of the clergy, and the influence of the pope, whom Charles consulted, and who feared for his own territo- ries, in case of a union between Spain and Austria, drew Charles ch ^^' ^^^'^ ^^^^ Austrian interest, and induced him to make a secret ii. will, in which Philip, duke of Anjou, second son of the dau- ^^\V\^^ phin, was declared his heir. The death of Charles, and the crown publication of this will, caused a powerful sensation throughout ^°v. a'** Europe. The desire of aggrandizing his family, at length over- Dour- came every other consideration in the mind of Louis. Ho ac- cepted the will, and conveyed the duke of Anjou, his grandson. to Madrid, where he was crowned as Philip V. 3. England and Holland, though highly dissatisfied by the CtAP. IV. — 1. What dispute now arose ? What three claimants were there to the Spanish succession ? What partition treaty was made ? Dms it not seem very wrong for nations to interfere in this manner with the in- ternal concerns of other nations ? What effect did the knowledge of this treaty produce in Spain ? What left he way again open to the intrigues of Louis XIV. and the emperor Leopold ? What new league was made ?•— 3 How did Charles II. of Spain finally leave the succession, and what fol lowed ' 386 o a; aj o o WAR OF TIIR SPAXISH SUCCKSSIO.V BRGIXS. 3S7 want of faith which Louis had displayed, did not consider it for '^^'"^"'" ^^ their interest to engage in war, and rehictantly acknowledged perpd iv ^he title of Philip; but the emperor of Germany prepared for chap. iv. immediate hostilities, and despatched an army under prince En- ^-■'^V"^-' gene into Italy, to enforce his claim to Milan. Here, through Jx'[^g"j'|]er-' the treachery of the duke of Savoy, who pretended to be in the many, ac- French interest, tlie imperialists obtained repeated advantages, [jp'^ sHcres- :ind made themselves masters of the country betiocen ths Jldig''- s'oi- and the Adda. 4. During this time, England and Holland were attempting to negotiate with France, and produce an amicable adjustment ol" the Spanish claims. All efforts proving vain, they entered amf** into a treaty with the emperor of Germany, called tlie " Grand mi.p Alliance," whose objects were to prevent the union of the «r|.o|,(i French and Spanish monarchies, to procure for the emperor the Aiij^nnp* Spanish possessions in Italy ; to recover Flanders as a barrier to Holland, and to secure the English and Dutch commerce. On the death of James II., which occurred at this time, at St. Ger- James, the main, Louis acknowledged his son as king of England, and gave Tr.iiieVrsi; him the title of James III. William at once recalled his am- ,^'l!^.^'!^\l,\ bassador from France, and his sul)jects seconded with ardor his the cheva- preparations for war. In the midst of them, William died ; but George.) An.ve, who succeeded to the English throne, continued the same measures of foreign policy. Eriirland, Holland^ and the lllO'i- German empire declared war against France on the same day. ^li^,^e'ii'e. The German princes generally toere in the league. Frederic, ciarewar THE ELECTOR OF Brandenburgh, Had been loon by receiving i.'ram'o from the emperor the title of king of Prussia. This is thf^ first acknowledgment of Prussia as a kingdom. 5. During the^r.s< carnpaign., operations were not on a great scale. In Itfily, and on the Upper Rhine, the Frencli arms were successful ; but in Flanders, the allies, commanded by the DUKE OF Marlborough, make themselves masters of several places. Their naval operations, also, were fortunate. A French fleet, which had just arrived in the harbor of Vigo, having in EnsUsii and charge an immense treasure which it had brougrht from America, i>iitch cap- turp l1 was attacked by the English and Dutch, the vessels captured or prcuciiflept destroyed, and a great amount of wealth taken. The king of Portugal and the duke of Savoy now openly espoused the inter- ests of the Grand Alliance. 6. In the second campaign Louis exerted himself to the ut- most, and the electors of Bavaria and Cologfne, enffa^ed with zeal l'?03. in his cause. The former carried on the war in Germany, and stadt. in union with mareschal Villars, the French commander, ob- French tamed a victory over the imperialists on the plains of Hoch- " allien. 3. What course was taken by the nations in reference to the accession of the Bjurbon prince to the Spanish throne ? — 4. Between what nations wa? tiie Grand Alliance formed? What were its objects? What event has tened the war? What change of sovereigns occurred in England? What nations were now united against France? — 5. Give the principal events of the first campaign? What year was this? — 6. Tell the year and thee'cnta of the second campaign ? ass MARLBORO UGH AXD EUGENE. Model-n His. PERI'D IV. CUAP. IV. 170-1- Tlie third a\n)paign (Duke of Marlbo- rough, the most suc- cessful of English ronirnan- dcrs.) Jh!KLV. Marlbo- rough and Eugene victorious. Loss of the eneniv 10,000, with all their 'irtiliery and .Hores. Eng. loss 500 k., £000 w 1705. The fourth campaign. Joseph, emperor of Gcrniony stadt. In Alsace and Italy, also, the French arms were success ful. In the Netherlands, the tide of fortune changed, and the^ arras of Marlborough triumphed ; yet the general result of the campaign was favorable to Louis. 7. The following year Marlborough was early in the field, having planned with care and secrecy to relieve the empe-or, whose capital was threatened on the one hand by the Hunga- rians, who were in a state of revolt; and on the other, by the French and Bavarians, whose successes in the preceding cam- paign had put tliem in possession of Augslurg^ and opened the road to Vienna. He designed to march into Germany, and de- ceiving the French by a feint, succeeded in crossing the Rhine^ the Maine, and the Neckar. Having united with the imperial- ists under the prince of Baden, he compelled the elector of Ba- varia to retreat from Donawert, which he took. 8. Soon after this, prince Eugene imited his army to that ot Marlborough, and a great battle was fought between the allies^ and the French and Bavarians, near the village of Blenheim. The hostile armies were nearly equal in strength, each number ing about 80,000 men ; but the superior military skill of Marl- borough and Eugene, gave them the victory. This success relieved the emperor, and put the allies in possessioji of the country from the Danube to the Rhine. The conquerors fol- lowed up this blow by recrossing the Rhine, and obtaining pos- sessiorr of some important places in Alsace. At sea, the confe- derate fleets of the English and Dutch attacked Gibraltar, and the English seimen made themselves masters of that almost im- ■pregnable fortress. The operations of the French, however, were successful in other quarters. In Italy their arms triumphed; and also in Portugal, where the war on the part of the allies was conducted by tlic archduke Charles, who had assumed the title of king of Spain. 9. The ensuing spring, Louis had an army of 70,000 men, under mareschal Villars, in readiness to oppose the duke of Marlborough, who was thus prevented from penetrating into France. The most important events of this campaign were transacted in Spain, where the arms of the confedei-ates met with signal success. The principal places in the province of E.stre- madura were reduced ; — nearly the whole territory of Va- lencia, and the province of Catalonia, submitted to the arch- duke. The death of the emperor Leopold, which occurred this year, placed his son Joseph upon the imperial throne, but did not affect the policy of the court. 10. In the next campaign, Marlborough, at the head of the Engli.sh and Dutch, obtained at Ramillies an important victory over the French, under mareschal Villeroy. This victory en- 7. The year and events of the third campaign to the battle of Blenheim. — IS. Relate that battle ? What important acquisition was made by the English on the Mediterranean ? Where had the French been successful ? — 9. Detail tJie principal military events of the fourth campaign, or that of 1705? What change of sovereigns occurred? — lO. Relate the battle of Rnmillies? FRANCE EXHAL'STED BY THE WAR, 389 a1)led Marlboroui^h to conquer Brabant., and almost all Span- "^"'^"'" ^'" ish Flanders. The duke of Vendome was recalled from rERroiv Italy to oppose Marlborough. Prince Eugene had already i^hai-. iv. crossed the Po, and carried on a successful warfare in that >-^"-/'"v^ quarter. Joining the duke of Savoy, their united armies at- ItOCJ. tiicked the French before Turin, and completely routed them, rn.- duke &• In Spain, also, victory declared for the confederates. P/titip p''*"*",'^ was obliged to leave Madrid, 7o}iich the English and Portuguese rr-attitV entered. Charles, the archduke of Austria, was declared irencu king, under the title of Charles ill., but did not himself ad- vance to Madrid. Piiilip collected another army, and recover- ed his capital. 11. Loui-s XIV. now perceiving the distress to which his i'^'OT great expenditures were reducing his kingdom, made proposals Sixth ciin-.- of peace to the other powers, which, chiefly through the ambi- P^'?"- tion of JMarlborough and Eugene, were rejected. The war there- fore continued, and Louis, though greatly embarrassed, prepared to carry it on with vigor. Several armies were collected, and reinforcements sent into Spain. In Italy, continued misfortune attended the French and Spaniards ; the whole kingdom of JYa- pks tiuis reduced by the allies, aiid the territory of the duke of Savoy entirely recovered. Here, however, the success of the allies, for diis campaign, ended. In Flanders, the duke of Ven- dome prevented Marlborough from performing anything of im- portance. In Germany, mareschal Villars had obtained consi derable success, and penetrated to the Danube. The Hunga- ^, ,,^^ rians continued to distress the empire. In Spain, the confede- z.4. rates met witli a memorable defeat at Almanza, where the Bj,^".'[rk"'^at duke of Berwick commanded the French and Spanish. After the head oi' this, the French and Spaniards, under this able commander, and French, recovered the whole kingdom of Valencia for Philip. An at- defeats lUe tempt of prince Eugene and the duke of Savoy upon Toulon, (Uukeof was successfully repulsed by the French. The advantages of Berwick a • , , ■ 1 r n natural pnn this campaign were mainly on the side of France. of James lu 12. During the next year, the English were roused to more vigorous exertions, by an attempt of Louis to convey the pre- tender, James III., to Scotland, but the vigilance of admiral 17O8 Byng prevented his landing. Marlborough was now in Flan- .seventh ders. At Oudenarde, a battle was fought between the forces ^'^qu/je- under him, and the French army under the duke of Vendome, jv.^rde where again the confederates were victorious. Soon after rough dc- this, prince Eugene took the city of Lisle, which he had be- ^='t*' ^'c»- piegod two months. Ghent and Bruges, of which the duke of Vendome had obtained possession in the early part of the cam- 10. Relate the course of the victors— the circumstances of the next bat- ilf. What occurrerl in Spain? — 11. In the sixth campaign what successes nad the allies ? What the French and .Spanish ? In the licixinning of the campaign what did the kins of France desire ? Which sido had on the whole the advantage? — 12. What attempt was made by Louia XIV.? Relate the battle of Oudenarde. The remaining traneac ions of tl.c cam- paign. 390 WAK OF THE SPANISH SUCCESSION CONTINUES. Modern IHs. PERI'I) IV. CHAP. IV. •eighth cam paign. Allies re- ]ieac3. MO.\'S. Marlbo- lough and Eugene ob- tain a hard fought field /■romVlllar?. Ninth cam- paign. ALMEKJi- RA. Charles de- ftats Philip. Ciarlea eii piTor of Ciiirjiny. paign, were now recovered by the confederates. At sea, they acquired the command of the Mediterranean, and achieved tlie conquest of Sardinia and Minorca. 13. Louis again made liberal proposals of peace, Avliich were again rejected. Not only were his armies unfortunate, but hie subjects were suflering under a grievous famine, and hisiinancf;s exhausted. This monarch, by his regal munificence, and his imposing qualities of person and character, was the idol ol" bis subjects, to whom they willingly sacrificed their blood and treasure. By his patronage of literature, he had the talents and genius of France in his interest. Hence, when the rejection of a proffered peace left him no hope but in the successful prose- secution of the war, France aroused to new and extensive preparations. To mareschal Villars, he gave the command of his armies in Flanders, where Marlborough and Eugene acted in concert with a force of 100,000 men. The confederates having reduced Tournay, besieged Mons. Villars encamped his army a short distance from that city, where he was attacked by ]\Iarlborough and Eugene, and after a fierce and long-contested battle, he was compelled to retreat from the field, and abandon Mons to the allies ; yet he could hardly be said to have lost the victory, smce the number of slain in the army of the con- federates, was double that on the side of the French. Villars held them in check, and prevented their entering France, or gaining any other important advantage. At the close of this campaign, the French king renewed his solicitations for peace, and negotiations to that effect commenced at Gertruydenberg. Louis was willing to make ample concessions ; but the demands of the allies were so exorbitant, as to preclude all hope of re- conciliation, and the negotiations were broken off. 14. In Flanders, several places of importance surrendered to the allies, hi Spain, a battle was fought at Almenara, in which the two competitors for the crown, Philip and the archduke Charles, appeared at the head of their respective forces. The contest was decided in favor of Charles, and Philip was again compelled to flee from Madrid, of which Charles took posses- sion. The Spaniards, however, continued faithful to Philip's cause, and the duke of Vendome, who received the coniinand of the French in that quarter, soon retrieved their afiiiirs, and recovered Madrid. 15. About this period, two events took place, which tended to produce a cessation of hostilities. The emperor Joseph dying, his brother, the archduke Charles was raised to the imperial dignity; and as it was inconsistent with the avowed object of the Grand Alliance, to permit the throne of two nations to be occupied by one monarch, Charles was now considered as dis- qualified for the throne of Spain. A change had been effected 13. What remarks are here made concerning Louis XIV. ? Relate the battle of Mons, with its conseq-jences. What was done concerning nego tiations for peace ? — 14. Relf *°. the principal events of the nimh campaign -•i5. From what two evints was peace expected? WAR OF THE SPAMISH SUCCESSION CLOSED. 391 in the British ministry, by which the tories had acquired the ascendency in the court of Anne^ and a change of measures might speedily be expected. MaHborough was indeed conti- lumd in office, but it was evident that his influence was on the decline. Negotiations were the next year entered into between ilie English and French courts ; Marlborough was recalled and dismissed from his offices. 16. Conferences were opened at Utrecht^ and treaties of peace were signed by all the belligerent powers, except the emperor and the king of Spain. By the terms of these treaties, Philip V. was secured on the throne of Spain, on condition of his re- nouncing, for himself and descendants, all claim upon the crown of France. The heirs of the French monarchy were also to renounce all claim upon that of Spain, so that the two kingdoms should in no case be united. Sicily was given to the duke of Savoy, in addition to his hereditary dominions. The Italian possessions of Spain and the Netherlands, were relin- quished to the house of Austria. The Rhine was to be the es- tablished boundary between Germany and France. The right to both sides of the river Amazon in America, was confirmed to the king of Portugal. The title of Anne to the throne of England, and the eventual succession of the family of Hanover to that throne, was to be acknowledged by France. Gibraltar and Minorca were to remain in possession of the English. Hudson's bay and straits, the town of Placentia in Newfound- land, Nova Scotia, in North America, and tlie island of St. Christopher in the West Indies, were also to be ceded to that government by France. Luxembourg, Namur, and Charleroy, were given to the United Provinces ; and Lisle, Aire, Bethune, and St. Vincent were restored to France. 17. As the emperor refused his assent to the treaty, the war between the empire and France continued. Turning all their strength against Germany, the Frencli were now successful in their operations, and the following year, Cliarles VI. was forced to conclude a peace at Rastadt^ on le^.s favorable terms than had been offered him at Utrecht. In New England the French and savages made destructive night attacks. The settlers never retired to their rest free from fear; for when the Indians came, they started up like a satanic creation of the night ; — did their deadly errand and were gone. Thus, in the depth of winter, was Deerfield surprised by a party of French and Indians, under HuERTEL DE RouviLLE, a Frenchman; and the whole setde- ment destroyed. Modem IJia. Peace of Utrecht. (The Eng- lish, as a pre liniinary, agreed to give the queen dow- ager of James II. a'; annual al- lowance oi £60,000.) (England received from Si)aii. the privilege of furnish- ing the Spanish West Indies 4,800 negro slaves a year > 1714. Peace of Rastadt. Queen Anne's war in New England. Midnight raids of the French and Indians. 1704. Dcerfield destroyed, 47 killed, ISO ma*\e capli*es. IG. (Examine the maps in learning the conditions of the important treaty of Utrecht.) Wisat conditions were made by the Spanish and French Bour- bons ? What part of the Spanish possessions were given to Germany? Of wha", was the Rhine to be the boundary ? What condition respectinK the EngUsh throne was made ? What accession of territory did England receive? What was confirmed ? What did Holland gain ? — IT. Between what powers was the treaty of Rastadt ? How did " (iueen Anne'e war," es it was called in America, affect the American provinces? CHAPTER V. Poland, Russia, and Chini Mjdtm Bio. to John Sobe- Iski — brave, virtuous, and generous. 1697 to Frederic Augustus of Saxony. ri462 Ivan I. the Great. (tJohn Basilo- witz.) ^ < o 1 (Nearly 200 years the Rus- sians under Vribute to the khan of Khapt- sliak.) 1 . POLAND. — Sigismund II., dying without issue. the throtie was afterwards disposed of by the nobles, who held their elec tions in the open air, armed and on horseback. The principle that the majority must govern, was repudiated by them; ami to make the election unanimous, the majority often fell upon the minority and slew them with their swords. Seldom agreeing on one of their own number, they, with a policy suicidal to their country, offered their crown to foreign princes, who hence learned to interfere with the affairs of Poland. John Sobieski, the hero of Polish history, was, however, a native Poland er; and was made king after he had defeated the Turks in the great bat- tle of Choczim. He had before risen by his public services to be grand marshal of Poland, and palatine of Cracovia. After his elec- tion, he marched to the relief of the emperor of Germany, the Turks having besieged his capital. He compelled them to raise the siege of Vienna, and to flee with precipitation. By stopping the progress of the Mahometans, he merited the title of a second Charles Martel. On the death of Sobieski, the Polish electors chose as their king, Frederic Augustus, elector of Saxony. 2. RUSSIA. — The greatness of Russia began, 146.2, with Ivan VASiLOVicH,|of the family of Ruric. Up to this period many petty chiefs, of different degrees of authority, ruled the different parts of those vast regions. Ivan had, physically, the size and strength of a giant, with ambition and mental energy in proportion, and he centralized the power of Russia, by sub- jugating contiguous provinces. Since the time when the de- scendants of Jenghiz Khan overran the country, the Russians had been under the galling yoke of the " Tartars of the Golden Horde." In 1395 Tamerlane had devastated the country from Azof to Moscow. The Russians after this were undei tribute to the horde of Khaptshak. These Tartars quarrelled and divided into four portions, — the Tartars of Crimea, of Khasan, of Astrachan, and of Siberia, fvan took advantage of their disunion, refused the tribute, and made war upon the Tartars. He was naturally ferocious in temper ; but his cha- racter was modified by that of his wife, an accomplished Greek princess, Sophia, niece of Constantine, the last empe^ Chap, V. — 1. What ideas had the Polish electors respecting majon ties? _ What was their mantier of holding an election? What bad prac- tice did they fall into respecting foreigners, and what was its consequence } Give an account of John Sobieski? Who was chosen to succeed him ?— ", With whom did the greatness of Russia begin ? What had been the state of the Russians in respect to government ? Give an account of Ivan the Great. Of the Tartars, and their irruptions? To what khan were the Russians under tribute ? How had they divided ? What did Ivan? By whom was his character modified ? 392 FORMATION OF TIIK RUSSIAN EMPIRE. 393 n.ir ot Constantinople. By this connexion he took the title of '^fodern His . Czar, (Caesar,) and claimed the throne of the ancient Gr tek (;m- peri'd iv piie. He fortified the Kremlin or citadel of Moscow ; and by chap. v. sevrro despotism at home, and successful war abroad, he ef- '^^w^^^ fectevi the consolidation of the Russian power. 3. Ivan IV., (the Terrible,) formed a military guard, called SVr<'/^7z(r'5,(shooters,)which were the first regular Russian army. 1546 This sovereign conquered the Tartars of Khasan and Jlstrachan, '^i^n ^v. 4 reduced the khan of Siberia to tribute, and subjected fhe Don be'c^Hnesa Cossacks. Afterwards, the Swedes warred upon him, and he ^^"^jan"*' made peace by relinquishing Carelia and higria, and all the Russian possessions on the Baltic. After his death occurred a period of anarchy within, and the ingress of hordes of Tartars m. Ro- from without. At length the Russians with one accord rose up, "J'^^^q and rejecting the competitors ot the iiunc family, elevated to to the throne, Michael Romanoff. He restored peace, and re- 1645. claimed some of the alienated provinces. He was succeeded by his son Alcxis, a wise and powerful sovereign. He reduced the Cossacks nf the Ukraine. By his direction the laws of Russia 1(545 were revised. He mingled in the politics of Europe, sending to ministers to France and Spain, but refusing to receive an am- 16'3'6. bassador from Oliver Cromwell. 4. Alexis was succeeded by his eldest son Theodore H. On fg<^@ the death of this sickly prince, Ivan and Peter, two young to sons of Alexis were declared ; but their sister, Sophia, by the *^^'** force of her talents, and ambitious intriguing mind, had made dore 11., herself the virtual head of the nation; notwithstanding the laws weakly. .')f Russia which doomed her, as an unmarried daughter of the gj^^p". Czar, to perpetual confinement in a convent. She managed to ter, 10 get the control of the strelitzes; and made a powerful Boyar, ^p,j" (Russian nobleman,) prince Gallitzin, head of her party. Ivan was feeble of mind and body, and Sophia had no difficulty in rulinof him: but Peter, though but a boy, manifested so much J'*^.^' •1 PI 1- • ^ 1 i>opnia, decision and energy of character, that she is said, not only to his sis- have neglected his education, but purposely to have put him in ["-ou'"' the way of criminal pleasures, that lie might thus ruin his mental More and physical constitution ; but divine Providence suffered it not f,,!^^ to be. By the help of the strelitzes Sophia afterwards con- good- epired against his life. He escaped, and received the undivided sovereignty wliile she was imprisoned in a convent. Peter, after taking a terrible vengeance on the conspirators, set himself alone. to the task of ruling well the vast country which he had inhe- 1689. rited. Indeed the desire to improve and civilize his people, and procure for Russia the advantages of commerce and navigation, 2, What title did he take ? What is farther rclnted of Ivan Vasilovich ? — 3. What is related of Ivan the Terrible ? What occurred afier his death ? Give an account of Michael Romanoff. Was he the founder of a new dy- nasty? Give an account of his successor. — 4. In what order did the sons of Alexis succeed him ? Give an account of Sophia ? What was her con- auct towards Peter? A conspiracy is related wiih its results — what were they ? What became the ruling passion of Peter ? 51 > ;9-i LE FORT OF GENEVA. Modern His. (The knout somewhat resembles the cat-o'- nine-tails, but is far more se- vere.) became the ruling impulse of one of the most laborious lives on record. 5. Ill the suite of the Danish ambassador was a young man, elegant in appearance, but modest and retiring. Peter invited hiin to enter his service, but Le Fort said he owed gratitude to the Danish ambassador for aiding him in his necessities, and he was useful to him ; he therefore declined so much as asking his benefactor to part witli him. Peter, struck with his self-sa- crificing faithfulness, asked the ambassador himself; and he was delighted with the prospect of greatness, which Peter's favor opened before this young Genevese. Peter made him his in- structor and friend, and eagerly listened to his accounts of the more civilized nations of the south. He asked Le Fort's opin- ion of his troops. " They are," said Le Fort, " well-made men, but neither their dress or discipline fit tliem for action." Peter desired to see the military costume of the south. In two days Le Fort appeared before him in the German uniform. Peter was delighted, and wished a company to be dressed in the same manner. Le Fort selected fifty of the tallest and most symmetrical of the strelitzes, and before the Czar believed it possible, they were paraded in full uniform, practising their newly learned evolutions beneath his window. Peter, to show his young nobility an example, himself enlisted in this com pany, — and here began his military career, by faithfully perforin ing service as a drummer. 6. In favoring and increasing this new corps, Peter had in view to supplant the dangerous strelitzes. He had foreign offi- cers in his service, especially the two Scottish Gordons, but he wished for more. " Your majesty," said Le Fort, " cannot command such services, because your finances are in no better condition than your army ; your impost duties are so high, that the merchants practise frauds to get rid of paying them." On this, Peter changed the ten per cent, duties to five, made strict regulations against smugglers, and his receipts were soon doubled. Peter exercised at times the most barbarous severities. With his own hand he sometimes knouted, and sometimes de- capitated offenders. Without severity he could not have main- tained his authority; but he was subject to fits of ungovernable rage. Le Fort, moved with pity, would offer his own bared shoulders for the cruel knout, or his head for the block ; then Peter would frequently relent and spare the offender. 7. The want of shipping and seaports occupied tJie czar's mind. He began to learn the construction and management of vessels from a small one which he procured to be built on lake Peipus. He then took the extraordinary resolution to go to Holland and learn ship-building. But when he declared his intention of go- 5. Relate Peter's first acquaintance "ivith Le Fort ? Wliat liappened be- tween tliem in relation to the military ? What example did Peter set to his young nobility ? — 6. VVhat occurred, in respect to the finances ? How did Le Fort save the lives of many Russians? — T, What subject occupied the Czar, and what did he begin to learn I PETIiR OK RUSSIA IN HOLLAND. 395 ing abroad, tlie liussiaii clergy, already much scandalized be- ''^loden iiv cause iheir monarch had impiously, as tliey contended, planned pertd iv. a canal, thus setting up to make a river where the Almighty had chap. v. made none, now again were shocked at the idea of a Russian, v,^-v-^««»/ and a Russian sovereign, leaving that first of lands to go and (At this time abide in another. They formed a conspiracy, in which Sophia fcttVu'^a" agahi figured. Peter detected it, and punished the conspirators '^^''•^ ^ in a shocking manner, lie then not oidy went abroad, but (SnphiawiB compelled large numbers of the young nobility to go also, that '.'°'' ''°"'- Ihey might bring home improved customs. aeuth.) 8. Passing ihrousjli Riija and Hamburjj, Peter went to Amster- dam, travelling as a private man in the suite of Le l*'ort, who went yl'^-, ill the character of ambassador. Here, sternly refusing to be Peter'sets made a show of, to amuse the idle, he put on the clothes of ""ttotrave. a common laborer, used the ship-builders adze, and insisted on being treated like his fellow laborers. " Peter Roma- noil^'^' said the master of the yard, " why do you sit there.'' help to carry that log," and Peter put his shoulder beneath it. j^^.^ ^^ When the time for paying the men came, Peter took his wages, work. He and once he bought a pair of shoes •, and showing them after- pleasure of wards, " These," said lie, "• 1 purchased by my own labor." using his After he had learned ship-building, he passed over to England, ""I'ng""" and was suffered, by William 111., to take his own way in visiting Buch objects as he could turn to the improvement of his people. While lliere, William Peiin, who had already founded Pennsyl- vania, visited, and made for himself and the sect of quakers a 169S. very favorable impression on the mind of the Czar. Peter was ^'" pon!^ called home by an insurrection of the strelitzes, which was, however, quelled by General Gordon. The dreadful execution ^JsI^s'mou-' and destruction of this corps signalized his return to Moscow, ley, gave L« He then began to force the people to put in practice what he character: had learned abroad ; — correcting the dress, manners, and laws ."."'* '^^^ of the Russians. Le Fort assisted him; but in the midst of his ed. humane, usefulness he died. Peter mourned and wept aloud, — calling ^ge'lg^rou"' on him by the names of father and friend; and making for and^^ him the most sumptuous burial which Russia had ever wit- '"*^''- nessed. 9. Peter now turned a covetous eye upon the provinces which Russia had once owned upon the Baltic, but ceded to Sweden. Charles XII., at the age of fifteen, had succeeded liis father, Charles XI., in that monarchy; and not only Peter, but other surrounding sovereigns had believed that this would aillm^cr^' be a favorable moment for grasping its possessions. Peter pmpcee. leagued against Sweden with Frederic iV., the reigning sove- 7. What resolution did he take? What causes of disafTection did the Russian clergy avow, and what did they attempt ? What did Peter ? — 8. Hew did he travel? Describe Peter's belia/ior at Amstprdam. Where did he then go, and how was he treated by the king? How did he hko William Penn ? How was he called home, and what happened on his re- turn ? What did Le Fort and he do? What then occurred? — ^9. What did Peter now covet, and why did he and the neighboring kings think 't would be a good time to get what belongei to another country ? 396 CHARLES XII. OF SWEDEN JVodt H Hii ttoo. Cliarlos makes peace with tlie Danes. lYOl. y-ARVA. Charles XI [ defeats the army of Peter. (Peter was not yet, however, noniinally a general.) JVpar the D irAV.3. Charles XII- defeats Au- gustus. GLISSAU. Charles XII defeats Ait- austus. (The Poles iiere desert tbL-Sasons-) reign of Denmark, and Augustus of Saxony, now raiseil to the throne of Poland. While Peter desired some of the provincee of Charles which would give him a port on the Baltic, Augus- tus wished to obtain Swedish Livonia; and Frederic IV of Denmark, had a grudge against Charles of Sweden, on account of his taking part with his enemy, the duke of Holslein Got- torp. The Danes invaded the territories of the duke, who \y;is brother-in-law to Charles, and who was vigorously supported not only by him, but also b}- the English and Du^ch, with whom he liad formed an alliance. Charles carried the war into Den- mark, and besieged Copenhagen. The Danish king, reduced to great distress, obtained the mediation of England and France, and a peace was concluded between Denmark and Sweden, highly honorable to the latter. 10. In the meantime, the Russians had commenced hostilities, and laid siege to Narva. Charles now advanced to tlie defence of that part of his kingdom, and although the Russian army numbered 80,000 men, he, with 8,000, attacked their camp, de- feated them, and relieved Narva. Peter, who was not in the battle, but was at the head of another army of 40,000 men, after learning the result, retired to his own dominions, exclaim- ing, "" 1 knew that the Swedes would beat us, but in time they will teach us to beat them." In the meantime, Augustus hat^ invaded Livonia, and laid siege to Riga. After the victory at Narva, the season was too far advanced to permit Charles to carry his arms against Augustus, but early in the ensuing spring he appeared in the field against the Poles and Saxons. The army of Augustus was stationed on the banks of the Dwina, where Charles, after forcing the passage of the river, encoun- tered them, and obtained a complete victory. ^Vith rapid strides he then marched through Courland and Lithuania. At Birsen, the town in which Peter and Augnstus, a few months previ- ouslv, had planned his destruction, he now formed the resolu- tion to dethrone the king of Poland. Augustus governed the Poles with the same arbitrary sway which he had been accus- tomed to exercise over his Saxon subjects, and the nobles who elected him were chafed and indignant ; and Charles perempto- rily declared he would never grant them peace until they chose a new sovereign. 11. The hostile nionarchs met at GUssau, and die heroin Swede, though with but half the number of troops, defeated thfj king of Poland. Cracoio surrendered, but Charles being wounded by a fajl from his horse, a few weeks were thereby afTorded Augustus to rally his supporters. Charles being now recovered, 9. What three powers leagued asrainst Sweden ? What two were aiding Charles XII. ? What did Charles'iii respect to the Danes?— lO. Whai, happened at Narva? Where was the czar Peter, and how affected by the defeat of his army ? What had been done by the liing of Poland ? liow was he met by the Icing of Sweden ? W'hat resohition was made by Charles ? How did a portion of the Poles stand alTected to Aiigusttif ?- B 1. Relate the battle of Glissau PETER THE GREAT. 391 niarched against the remains of the Saxon army which Iiad been defeated at Glissau, dispersed tliem, and tlien proceeded to invest Thorn, whither Augustus had retired. He escaped, and fled to Saxony. Charles assembled a diet at Warsaw, which^ luulcr his influence, deposed Jluguslus.) and elevated Stanis- lAcs Leczinski, an accomplished Polander of noble birth. Augustus received supplies of Russian troops, and he had still adherents who joined his standard ; but Charles and Stanislaus obtained repealed victories over separate hands of the Russians^ and at lenglh drove them from Poland. Charles penetrated Saxony, and at Alt Ranstadt Augustus, driven to extremity, subscribed a disgraceful peace, by which he not only renounced all claim to the crown of Poland, and acknowledged the title of Stanislaus, — but he wrote him a letter of congratulation. The worst feature of the treaty was, however, his giving up to Charles, colonel Patkul, a noble-minded Swede, whom that hot-headed king had banished, for having spoken to him with an honourable plainness; and who, having entered the service of the czar, was sent as Russian minister to Augustus. He now basely surrendered him, — and Charles cruelly slew him. 12. The czar Peter, in the meantime, had improved the disci- pline of his armies, increased their strength, and he had con- quered Ingria, Livonia, and the city of JYarva. In the newly conquered country, and on a desert island, which the long winter of that climate rendered almost inaccessible, he had laid the foundation of a new city, designed for the royal residence; and to this he had transported, in less than five years, 300,000 inhabitants. 13. Poland being subdued, Charles, confident of success, and resolving to attack his Russian enemy in the heart of his own dominions, directed his march to Moscow ; but the roads, by Peter's order, were destroyed, and the country desolated. — Finding himself obstructed on the route first attempted, and re- ceiving a promise of succor from Mazeppa, the chief of the Cos?acks, Charles next endeavored to penetrate to the capital of Russia through the Ukraine. lie also ordered his general, Levvenhaupt, to bring him a reinforcement from Livonia. He entered the Ukraine in September, and overcoming every ob- stacle, advanced to the river Dwina, where he expected to be joined by Lewenhaupt and Mazeppa. The former was en countered by the Russians and defeated ; the latter failed of his promised succor. Still, Charles, with a dreary winter before * Mazeppa wns a Pole, brought up as page to the king. Afterwards an injurevi liusband liad him tied to the back of a wild horse, which carried hinj to his native woods among the Cossacks, who made him their hetman. Modem /lis. PERI'll IV CHAP. V. 1706. Peace of Alt Ran- stadt, between Charles XII and Auguivi tus. Charles obliges All (.'UStllS to write to Stanislaus. Great things done Iiy activity and energy. i-sos. Peter founds Pe- tersburg. Treachery of Mazepim hetman of the CoB- BatUs * il. What was next done in regard to the Polish election ? How was Augustus situated ? How was it with the Russian invading troops? What oicurred at Alt Ranstadt ? Relate the account given of colonel Patkul ? — 1 2. What had the czar Peter done in the meantime in respect to his army ? What conquests had he made ? Wliat city had he founded, and what num- ber of inhabitants placed in it ? — 13. Describe the course taken by Charles XU. ; What is said of Lewenhaupt' Df Mazeppa? 398 CATHARINE SAVES THE RUSSIAN ARMY. Conse- quence of Cliarles' de- feat. Charles in- cites the Turks acrainst the Russians. Mav21. THR PR urn. Peter in dansrer. (Catharine was a poor orphan girl, out attrac- tive, and above all, good tem- pered. She was taken prisonei by j> Russian army; and from such beginnings rose to ne Hinpress of nussla ) him, and with his army suffering from fatigue and famir e, madly persisted in his march. At Pultowa, he engaged the Russian army, consisting of more than 70,000 men, under the eye of the czar. Charles, so often the conqueror, here suffered an entire defeat. With only 300 guards, he escaped, wounded, from the field, went to Bender, and put himself under the protection of the Turks. Great was Peter's joy at this success. He advanced officers, and rewarded soldiers; and as for himself, having, in the heat of the battle, taken prisoner a Swedish commander, and having had a ball shot through his hat, he, for these demonstra- tions, promoted himself to the rank of major-general. 14. Augustus had declared the treaty, which Charles had ex- torted from him, void; and renewed his claim to the crown of Poland. The czar supported his pretensions, entered Poland with an army, and reinstated him in the regal authority. Den- mark declared war anew with Sweden; Peter laid claim to seve- ral of its provinces, and the king of Prussia to others ; and nothing but the interposition of the southern powers of Europe, prevented its dismemberment. 15. Charles was received by the Turks with great hospitali- ty, and employed himself in seeking to engage the Ottoman Porte in war with Russia. The Porte showed their disposition to gratify his wishes, by imprisoning the Russian ambassador. Peter, when informed of this, advanced upon Turkey at the head of 40,000 men. Cantimik, prince of Moldavia, had vainly promised to aid him, and he marched into his country Near Jassy he discovered an army of 200,000 Turks, and soon after a considerable body of Tartars. He fortified his camp on the banks of the Pruth, where he lay besieged by the two hos- tile armies. The Turks now attacked him, and for three days kept the Russians fighting. Their numbers had wasted by nearly one-half, — their provisions failed, — and Peter retired in despair to his tent, forbidding any one to follow him. The czarina Catharine, with the wives of several of the officers, had ac- companied the Russian array. She bethought herself of a last resource. The Turkish vizier might perhaps receive offers of peace if a suitable present could be made him, — without he could not be approached. She bought of all the ladies their jewelry, on pledge of future payment, and to these added her own. She then approached the irritable Peter, who seeing a gleam of hope, was pleased and grateful. The vizier received Catharine's messenger, and sent back an answer of peace; anil Peter and his army were saved ; he giving up his ports on tlie sea of Azof 16. Meanwhile the affairs of Sweden continued to suffer B3. Relate the battle of Piiltowa. What is related of Charles XII. afier the battle ? What of the czar Peter ?— 14:. What was the consequence of Charles' defeat in Poland with other powers? — 15. What was done by the instigation of Charles, in Turkey? What was done by the czar in conse- quence ? Describe the situation of Peter at the Pruth. How was he re. hpved, and his army saved t RETURN OP CHARLES XII. 399 The refusal of Charles to subscribe to a treaty which the em- •^°'^"^ ^'* peror and maritime powers had formed, kept alive the war in peri'd iv. Sweden. The Danes, Saxons, and Russians, continued hostili- chap. v. ties ; and the Swedes, though reduced to great distress, persc- veringly resisted. Charles was troublesome to the Turks, who, Uiough they desired not to violate the laws of hospitality, yet requested him to leave their dominions, and at last resorted to tit'^fies, in » . ' . . passing tlio lo/ce, but Still Without eflect. At length, receiving intelligence Turkish vi- liiat the Swedes were urging the regency of the kingdom upon ""i;e"vVih* his sister, with a view of forcing her to make peace with Den- ''i^ spur.) mark and Russia, he was induced to return to his kingdom. 0,^^*3 rV- He arrived at Stralsund in Pomerania, five years after the battle turns to ofPultowa. ^^^'^'^''"• 17. The czar, whose navy had acquired considerable strength, commanded the Baltic, and now besieged Cliarles with a small caries in army which he had collected, in Stralsund. The place was iiis last days taken by storm. Cliarles escaped in a small vessel, passed safely ^^^,^^11.)! through the Danish fleet, and landed in Sweden. Fifteen years had passed since the monarch left his capital, bent on the con- quest of the world. In his humbled fortunes, he did not choose to revisit it, but passed the winter at Carlscroon. Undaunted amid all his reverses, and unsated with blood, he still thought but of war. While his numerous enemies had made themselves masttrs of all his provinces, and threatened to destroy Sweden itself, Charles invaded Norway, and made the useless conquest t^v^a of Chiistiana, which he was soon forced to abandon. However, Death of he a second time invaded that kingdom, and while watching the ^-'haries. attack of his soldiers upon Fredericshall, he was struck on the ppofo gf head by a cannon ball, and expired without a groan. The Swe- ]Vvsjn.U dish senate took immediate measures for settling the govern- i^nvLtn' ment. Ulrica Eleonora, sister of Charles, was raised to the ^a^ifnui'" throne. Treaties with the difl^erent powers were concluded, in sians. whicli, by ample concessions, Sweden obtained peace. The Jh(^'swJ!ies" czar, her most powerful enemy, was the last pacified, and then, «« indpmni- 11 1 . • • .1 • ♦ * ■ I' r ■ • r- ,7 • «v. 2.onn mt: only by obtaining the important provinces 01 Livoma^ Kslnoma^ 'of dollars Ingria^ and CarcJiu. 18. Peter had married, when very young, the daughter of a Russian nobleman. After a few years he put her way, for no '''"' ^zaro ■' wit7« Hip alleged cause, and confined her in a convent. Yet Alexis, the worthless Hon whom she bore him, he designed as his heir; but the youth fiafj^'ul?]^ f ften s,aw his mother, and he grew up undutiful and intractable (iiaractfi towards his father, — making game of his improvements, and prac- tising petty deceptions to escape, when the czar wished him to attend to matters of importance. His marriage witli a lovely ;uul amiaiile princess, but made his hopeless intemperance and la. IIow was Sweden at this lime situated ? What was .iie conduct of Charles towards the Turks? What induced him to return to Sweden ? IT. What happened on his return ? What course did he taRC after his es- cape from Stralsund ? Where and how did his death occur ? Who was made queen ? On what conditions did Sweden obtain peace, especially from the czar? — 18. What was the character of the czarowitz Alexis ? How hfid Peter treated the mother of Alexis ? 400 THE CELESTIAL EMPIRE. Modern His. PERI'D IV. CHAP. V. I'eter takes a new title. 1725- Death of Peter the Great. (Called by the Chinese the Celestial Empire.) Kublai. to 1360. Marco Polo in China. (See history of Colum- bus, Vasco de Gama, the Cabots, Verazani, &c.) 133§. Dynasty of Mins. 164?. Dynasty of Tsing. profligacy the more apparent ; and the neglected and ill-treated wife died of a broken heart. Peter then threatened. His son escaped to Vienna, telling the emperor his life was in danger. Peter invited him to return on the pledge of safety ; but he brought him to trial, and the nobles and clergy pronounced hiin \Aorthy of death. The evening before his execution was to have taken place, he died in his bed, doubtless by poison. After this, Peter took the title of " Emperor of all the Russias," which has been retained by his successors. He made an excursion to the Caspian, intending to attack Persia; but returned aftei having founded a city. His wife, Catharine, was crowned empress dur- ing the lifetime of her husband, and on his death she succeeded, by his will, )o the government of the Russian empire.* 19. CHINA. — In 1719, the czar Peter, sent an embassy across Siberia to China; and in 1737, Russia formed a treaty of friend- ship with that power, and sent an envoy to the court of Pekin. China is interesting from its great extent and population, but materials for its history are scarce. Before the Christian era, from 1776 to 1122, three dynasties reigned; after which, until 250 B. C, there is utter historical darkness; owing, it is said, to the destruction of the Chinese records by Schi-ho-ang-ti; who became the founder of a prosperous dynasty soon after the erection of the great wall, about 300 years before Christ. Through the middle ages China makes no figure, until Kublai Khan, a grandson of Jenghiz, conquered the country; founded Pekin, and made himself Great Khan of China. During liis prosperous reign, Marco Polo, a Venetian traveller, visited his kingdom. Publishing his travels on his return, his descriptioE of the riches of the " East hidies," the name given to the re- gions of the east, so inflamed the minds of the Italians, tha< they became a nation of discoverers ; their great object being to find a passage by sea to these rich countries. The race of Jen- ghiz lost the supremacy in 1368, being then supplanted by the dynasty of Ming. This was driven out in 1647, by the Man- chew Tartars, whose dynasty, called that of Tsing, has since continued to reign. The Chinese reckon this dynasty to be their twentieth. In the seventeenth century they received the Jesuit missionaries ; but early in the eighteenth, they drove thero out, and persecuted their followers. * We have continued this account of the northern nations beyond the peace of Utrecht, for the purpose of bringing to a close the career of the two prin- cipal actors, Charles XII. and Peter the Great. 18. Did marrying an interesting woman reclaim him? Relate the re- mainder of his history. What new title did Peter take? What excursion did he make ? Who succeeded him ? — 19. What embassy is here men- tioned? What treaty? What remarks are made concerning the Chinese history before the time of their historical darkness ? What from that time to the reign of Kublai Khan ? What during his reign ? What after it ? The Cz:. PERIOD V VHE TREATY OF UTRECHT, ?jyj3 ^ THE WAK Of THE SPANISH WHICH CLOSES $ C SUCCESSION, TO ▼SE TREATY OF AIX-LA-CHA- § If 4g CtHE WAR OF THE AUSTKIAX PELLE, WHICH CLOSES ^ ' ^ SUCCESSIO.V CHAPTER I. Invasion of the Turks. — Eight years war. 1. The peace of Utrecht had produced a considerable change ■Vi ■ 1 ■ U » I toGernimy, o\ errun tne Morea. 1 heir army, under prince Eugene, attack- and there ed and defeated the Turks at Zenta, at Peterwaradin, and '"'5' h*!""^ raoril Plktod V. — Chap. I. — 1. What changes were produced by the treaty of U'.recht ? What new kingdom arose ? What two nations were not parlies to the treaty of peace? What encroachments Ivad the Turks recently made ? Give an account of the commander sent against them. (See note ) What signal victories did Prince Eugene gain over the Turks ? 403 404 THE PR.VGMATIC SANCTION. modern H^s. again at Belgrade. A peace was soon after cone hided, at Passa- PEniOD V RowiTZ, in which Turkey ceded to Austria Belgrade, paii of CHAP. I. Servia, and Wallachia. Venice retained part of Dalmatia^ ha ^•'^'^^^^''^ surrendered to the Turks the Morea. 2. While Austria was employing her forces in the east, Spain, under Philip V., was concerting measures for renewing hostili- ties, with the design to recover possessions, which the treaty of Utrecht liad given to the house of Austria. The Spaniards i-mjects of made themselves masters of Sardinia, and a great part of the ai-nister' Island of SicUy. Aleeroni, the minister of Philip, had also & beroni. concerted measures to procure for his monarch the regency of France, (liis grandfather, Louis XIV., being now dead,) and fv)r placing the son of James !!., called " the pretender," upon the throne of England ; but another, and leading object of the court, was to recover the Spanish possessions in Italy, as a portion for the children of Elizabeth, the queen of Spam, au Italian princess of the house of Farnese, and heiress to tlie duchies of Tuscany, Parma, and Modena. These designs of the Spanish court aroused the jealousy of England, France, Austria and f5jg. Holland; and they formed a league for the preservation of the l|l!Pidriiplc peace of Utrecht, called the "Quadruple Alliance," which Alliance provided that the emperor of Germany should renounce all between claim to Spain and its colonies : and that the king- of Spain En"'land, . . . . a i France." should give Up his pretensions to the provinces already ceded. ^HoManit'''^ it Stipulated also, that Do.\ Carlos, son of Elizabeth, should against' eventually succeed to th.e duchies of Tuscany, Parma and Pia soain. ceutia ; and that the duke of Savoy should exc/tange Sicily for Sardinia. The Spanish court refused the dictation of the -'Al" liance," and a declaration of war was made by England and France against Spain, when PhilipV., alarmed at the consequences of resistance, disgraced his minister Alberoni, and acceded to the terms of the *•' Quadruple Alliance." 3. The emperor of Germany, Charles VI., who had no sons, desired to secure the succession of the Austrian territories, his PTHgmajic hereditary domain, to his daughter, Maria Tiieresa. With this tJancti.in, (a yjg^y jjg p^j forth his " Pragmatic Sanction," securing the suc- law emaiiat- . r _ to . , , . , ^ ins t'rfiin iiie cession of female heirs ; having previously obtained the assent i^padviceof of the hereditary states of the empire; to which he now sought tu'!D()-inse).) by negotiation, to add the approval of the other European powers, and which he finally obtained. f 1733. 4. I'he throne of Poland becoming vacant by the death of Au- c ll'jyf. gustus, Stanislaus Leczinski, whom Charles Xfl., of Sweden, ^ j '.isii S2IC- had formerly elevated, was now chosen king by the Polish elec o ! lTc)4 ^^''^^1 aiiJ received the support of Louis XV. of France, who to had married his daughter. The sovereigns of Russia and Aus- i'dOS. uia opposed his election, and compelled he Poles to a second Staisis- ' ^ ^ Leczin I . What changes of territory were made at the peace of Passarowiiz ?~ - ski. jj What places were taken by Spain ? What designs entertained ? What was the course of Spain in regard to the Quadruple Alliance? — 3, Wha'. v/as done by Charles VI. to secure his daughter's succession ? — 1-. By whom 'Ji-as Leczinsjci chosen, and to what sovereignty ? WAR OF THa rJLlSH SUCCESSION. 405 choice, when Augustus, sou of the deceased monarch, was ^''^" rfem His raised to the throne. The king of France resenting this treat- period v nient to his fiither-in-law, formed an alliance with tlie kings of chap. i. Spain and Sardinia, and commenced liostililies. The war was ^-^"^v^^ carried on in Italy by the allies, who made themselves masters IfOJJ "j of most of the Austrian possessions in that country TKp J1J33 ' German empire was attacked by the French, and Phi/ipshurg aii?us. 1 ^ was taken. Tlie losses of the emperor, and the pacilic dispo- Vj^ ''' y"^ sition of CARDINAL Fleurv, who was at the head of the French sian in- ministry, caused a peace, — which, the succeeding year, was set- '^',5^"-^^ tied at Vienna. By this treaty the French guarantied the " Prag- 'inmi- matic sanction." Stanislaus renounced his claim to the Polish "'"^''•^ ■> throne, and received in compensation the ducliy of Lorraine, 1735. where he passeil his days in study and philosophic repose ; PfilCC of the former duke receiving Tuscany in exchange. Don Carlos Yicuiia was acknowledged king of the Iwo Sicilies^'f and the king of Sar- ,^!^,"'nf the dinia received some accession of territory. Polish suc- 5. The emperor, Charles VI., believed that he had secured to "'="■"'"• his daughter his rich Austrian possessions, including the crowns ti. «. Napien of Hungary and Bohemia. But the Pracmaiic Sanction, which ^'''^ ^"^''y• they had guarantied, proved a feeble barrier against the selfish- ness and ambition which ruled in the hearts of the neighboring monarchs. The death of Charles was immediately followed by claims from tlie elector of Bavaria to the kingdom of Bo- hemia, of Augustus, elector of Saxonv, now king of Po- land, to the whole Austrian territories, and by other antiquated ITiH. demands. Nevertheless, Maria Theresa to^k possession of resa'lcaiied her inheritance, and received the most tlatterinsj homao-e ; par- t'l*' 'I'leenoi ticularly from her Hungarian subjects, with whom her digni- 1740. fied and conciliating manners had rendered her extremely po- Associates pular. She had married Francis of Lorraine, grand duke of i,er hurband Tuscany, and she greatly desired his elevation to the imnerial Fr^^'cis <>f •z ^ o J 1 Lorraine. throne. 6. Prussia had now become a kingdom of considerable strength and importance. An immense treasure amassed bv the ^Vamftno parsmiony ol its hrst king, 1' rederic Uilliam, and an army auccessioa. of sixty thousand men, had passed under the control of his sou Frederic II., who was now eager to employ t!ie power and wealth of which he was master, to enlarge his territories. His i,ie coi'Xcf heart was chiefly bent on obtaining Silesia, which belonged to "f i^'j^i-'f « Maria Theresa, At the head of a powerful army, he marched into the territory, and then offered to support her claims in 4. Observe and relate what nations are now interfering in the imernal aflairs of Poland. What kinjjs support Leczinski ? What wm the course and termination of the " War of tlie Polish succession?" What chanjrcfl u'ere made by the treaty of Vienna ? — 5. What dominions did Charles VI. leave his daughter? Why did not the Pragmatic Sanction insure her a peaceable succession? V^'hich of her siihjocts seemed most attached? Whom did she marry ? -i>. How did Prussia become strong in her army and treasury ? Who was Frederic William's successor, and on what wat) he bent ? What was his conduct in respect to his unoffending fellow- sovereign, Maria Theresa? 406 WAR OF THE AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION jijude>-7i i..ts Qt|-jf,j. quarters, 0.11 condition of her peaceably relinquishing to I'EKiOD V him Lower Silesia. She rejected his offer, and prepared to re- cHAr. 1. sjgt }jig usurpation. Their armies met at flioliwiiz; the Prus- ^-s'''^\'-'''^>-'' sians obtained a victory, and the whole province of Silesia snb- l"5'4i. niitted to Frederic. "^niTZ. ^ His successes awakened the ambition of the French court, Ipc1£I36 of -^ treaty was formed between Louis XV., Frederic of PrussiE., I'mssla ^"'^ Charles, elector of Bavaria, by which it was agreed to FnilU't; divide the Austrian inheritance, and place the elector of Bava- fjlld ria on the imperial throne. The Bavarian and French forces BiiVana, entered Upper Austria, and advancing upon Vienna, compelled ag.-\inM Ma Maria Theresa to retire to Hungary. The generous Hungarians, in iiere=f; Q^oused by the wrongs of their sovereign, swore "We will die for our queen, Maria Theresa." From the other parts of her dominions also, powerful armies rallied to her standard. The -ij«^ov5 elector, on account of the lateness of the season, and the At iTii^'f, strength of Vienna, turned towards Prague, which was taken, the ekctor gj-jf} j^g was there crowned kinu of Bohemia. Proceeding: to Wing of Bo- Frankfort, he was, in that city, elected emperor of Germany, Frankii.n ""^'^i" the title of Charles Vil. An army of the queen now eciperor. invadcd the Bavarian territories. 8. Frederic, regardless of his allies, entered into a treaty with Ptace of Maria Theresa at Breslau. She granted him Upper and Loiver Breslan, Silesia, the object of his desires, and he engaged to remain Pru^'-^a'^'^mii ''^'J^i'^l- The neutrality of Poland was also purchased by a Austria, grant of new territories. Meanwhile, the French army in Bo- hemia was reduced to the necessity of acting on the defensive. That portion v/hich Avas in possession of Prague, was at length compelled to retire, but through the skill of their commander, Belleilse, tliey effected a safe retreat. Louis, now deserted by Frederic, offered proposals of peace, which Maria Theresa rejected. George II. of England, sent to her aid British and '^7'^^\ Hanoverian troops, and in the next campaign the French were ^gej\\' di'iven from Bohemia, and the emperor was reduced to distress. Ays!ri;iii9 At Dettingen, the British, Hanoverian, and Austrian troops, un- uj'itier'the' '^^r the eye of George H, maintained a sanguinary contest with king of t}jg French, and defeated them. The king of Sardinia now be- defeat the Came an ally of Maria Theresa. tI"^'}^'' f ^' '^'li^^e successes of the queen, and the haughtiness with tieaij OJ \v1,[(.1j si^e rejected every proposal of peace, led to a new I'OIuain- coalition against her. Louis XV. renewed his alliance witli Spain at Fontainhleaii, and declared war against England ; and G. How cid she receive his offer? What battle followed, and wliat was its result ? — T. What treat)' was now formed against Maria Theresa ? How did the allies commence hosiiliiies? Relate the movements of the elector of Bavaria till he became emperor. Where, in the mean time, was Maria Theresa, and what attached subjects did she find ? — ?^. What were the parties in the treaty of Breslau, and what its conditions? Whom besides Frederic did Maria Theresa buy to be neutral ? What was now the condi- tion of the French in Bohemia? Relate the battle of Deiiingcn. What ally now joiued the cause of the queen ? — 9. What led to a new coatitinri against Maria 1'heresa ? llcan. THE EIGHT YEARS' WAR 407 from this period these two powers may almost be regarded ine principals in the war. By the Influence of France, — Prussia, Sweden, and some of the German princes, were at length in- duced to arm in defence of the emperor. The king of Prussia invaded Bohemia. His successes at hrst were rapi^l, but he was soon compelled to surrender his conquests and retire. The emperor vvas in danger of being driven again from his capilal, when death put an end to his hopes and fears. Maximilian, his son, now entered into a treaty with the queen of Hungary, by which he agreed that her husband should be made emperor; she engagmg to put him in possession of his hereditary estates. Francis of Lorraine was accordingly elected emperor at Frank- fort, under the title of Francis ]. 10. The armies of Prussia continued tlie war in Silesia and Bohemia \ but after Frederic had obtained two decisive and bloody victories, one near Friedberg in Silesia, the other at Sorr in Bohemia, a treaty of peace was made at Dresden^ by which he acknowledged the validity of Francis' election, and was con- fir?nc'l in the ])ossession of Silesia. The French maintained the war with obstinacy in Flanders. Saxe, who commanded the French army, obtained a victory over the English and Hano- verians, under the duke of Cujiberland, at Fonlerioy^ and re- duced Brussels and Brabant. The duke of Cumberland vvas recalled by the progress of the young pretender, prince Charles Edward, whom the French had encouraged to make a descent upon England. The Austrians were left to maintain the contest in Flanders, and marshal Saxe obtained a victory over them, at Roucoux. 1 1. Maria Theresa having made peace with Prussia, was ready to turn the whole force of her arms against France and Spain. The king of England, incensed at the support given to the pretender, only waited to suppress the insurrection which his presence occasioned, to engage with new zeal in the conti- nental war. In the succeeding campaign, the Dutch took an active part against the French. The duke of Cumberland, after having defeated the pretender's adherents in the battle of CuUoden, and disgraced himself by the barbarities committed after it, returned with a reinforcement of British troops. An in- decisive, but bloody battle was fought at Val, after which the French invested, and finally, to the great consternation of the Dutch, made themselves masters of Bergen-op-zoom^ the strong- est fortification in Dutch Brabant. At sea the British flag was triumphant. PERIOD V. CHAP. I. It45. FRIED- BEROand SORR. Frederic de- feats the allies. (In America Louisbur^ is taken by tlie Englisli colonists under Pop- pcrell.) ROU- COUX. French de- feat the Auslrianfi 1746. CULLO- DEJ^. In Scotland 1747. French vic- torious. Th«y take Beratn-i'iv y.-iora. 9. What powers made a league at Foniainbleau ? What other powers were induced by France to unite asiainst Austria ? — iO. By what peace did Frederic again desert his allies? Did he serve his own purposes by gaining the province he desired ? What victories did he first gain ? What fortress was taken in America ? What generals were now in Flanders, and what battles were fought ? What called the English commander away ? — 11. What battle did he fight in Scotland, and who were defeated? What bottle was fought during the last campaign of the eight years' war? Whiit is said of Bcrgen-op-zoom ? 408 PACIFICATION OP ETTROPE. PERIOD V, CHAP. II. i'y4§. Peace of Aix-La- ilhapelle. closes the '.silt Years' " War. 12. Louis now turned his thoughts towards peace, which the situation of his Icingdom, notwithstanding his late victories, rendered necessary. A congress was opened at Aix-la-Chapelle, and a treaty formed, on the basis of mutual restitution. The queen of. Spain obtained for her second son the sovereignty of the duchies of Parma and Placentia. The king of Prussia was guarantied the possession of Silesia. The right of Maria Theresa to the hereditary possessions of the house of Austria, with the exception of such portions as were already ceded to other powers, was acknowledged, and guarantied anew. That England should return her conquests, was subject of severe mortification to the people of Nev/ England ; who had mani fested their loyalty and courage by the remarkable siege and capture of Louisburg ; then the key of the French possessions, and the strongest fortress in America. Thus was closed, " The Eight Years' War •," during which blood flowed freely to gratify a few crowned heads ; who sent armies to be slaughtered, with as little compunction as they would have moved the pawns upon a chess board ; and often for purposes worse than idle. This war began with Frederic's desire to rob a young queen of her honest inheritance, which he had engaged to respect; and end«;H with his consummating the robbery. CHAPTER II. England. ri'YOG. Union of the Scotch and English parlia- ments. (tin all taxes on land, Scot- land is to raise one- six'h, England fivc- lisihs.) 1. The union of the legislative powers of England and Scotland, is the most important event of the reign of queen Anne. The bill proposed allowed the Scots to send to the Bri- tish parliament sixteen peers and forty-five commoners, with reciprocal rights of trade. It was violently opposed in the Scot- tish parliament, on the ground of inequality of representation ; but was finally accepted, on the parliament of England paying 398,000 pounds sterling as an equivalent.! It diminished the political importance of Scotland, but secured its tranquillity England was weary of the long and sanguinary wars of the Spanish succession, and intrigues were set on foot against the duke of Marlborough. Queen Anne, when young, had formed an intimacy with the witty, sprightly, but high tempered Sarah Jennings, afterwards married to Col. Churchill, who rose by his great military services, and by the affection of the queen for 12. Where did a congress assemble ? What were the conditions of the peace ? Why were the people of New England mortified that the English should give up their conquests ? What remarks close the chapter? Chap. II. — 1. What was the most important political event of the reign of queen Anne ? What plan was proposed ? How were difficulties finally adjusted 1 Give an account of queen Anne's female %vorites. TKE HANOVERIANS SUCCEED THE STUARTS. 409 his wife, until he became duke of Marlborougli, and received •M''J"^ ^" ihe splendid estate and pahice called from one of his great bat- period v. ties, '" Blenheim." The duchess introduced to tlie service of ihe queen, one Agxes Hill, a weak but cunning sycophant, who supplanted her in Anne''s affections, and afterwards became ^TUE LADY Masham." The duchcss had become presuming and imperious ; and when she found that the queen was grow- I'ng tired of her sway, she gave loose to her fiery tongue, and irritated Anne by continual reproaches. When affairs came to ibis pass among the women, then the enemies of Marlborough, the lords Bolingbroke, Oxford, and others, by paying court to lady Masham, brought the queen to treat the duchess with cutting neglect, and strip die duke of his offices. The duke in his political and pecuniary operations, had laid himself open to censure. After this, die treaty of Utrecht was negotiated, and ft brief pacification of Europe ensued. 2. Queen Anne survived this event but a short time ; for her ministers no longer occupied witli a foreign war, broke into fu- rious quarrels with each other. With all the energy her gentle nature could command, the queen sought to direct afHiirs, and i^yis. settle difficulties; and to that purpose she attended a long con- (Pope, ference and dispute of her cabinet council. Her feminine mind gon!" was overwhelmed with this strife of masculine passions ; slie Swi/t, declared she could not outlive it, — sunk into a lethargy, and now after lingering two days, expired. The ministers, when they ,^|""j') j found that the queen must die, roused to a better spirit; and by their wise and rapid measures, placed the kingdom in a condi- tion, which secured the peaceful accession of the Hanoverian line, in the person of George 1. 3. The three great factions who now divided the nation, were Line of the lohigs, lories^ and Jacobites, of which only the latter were ^shn!' opposed to the king. It was his policy to conciliate them Jamesi. all ; instead of which, he lent himself completely to the whig ^''J^u" party, and was guilty of flagrant injustice to the leading tories ; m.tothe taking away their estates, and in some instances procuring their '^ll'i^^l' execution. Henry St. John, lord Bolingbroke, ami the earl I'ne. of Ormond, who had stood high in queen Anne's favor, were Sophia, attainted of high treason and deprived of their estates. The heires?, aged earl of Oxford was impeached, and thousrh sufferins with 'V,,'!'.?' disease, so that his physician declared imprisonment would tus, t'ndanger his life, yet the king unmercifully kept him confined o^f nan- in the tower. The principal crime alleged against him, was o^'^''- that of having led queen Anne to make the peace of Utrecht. j^('|"i"A That such allegations were but mere pretences to commit legal kin? of . Eng- l. What political chantre occurred when the lady Masham's influence herelu- a-Q3 completely established ? — 'i. Relate the circumstances of queen Anne's tary death. What at the last was done by the ministers of the queen when she elector was near death?— 3. What were the three political parties? Which were of Han- opposed to the accession of George ? What was the conduct of the king over, towards these parties? How were the ministers of the late queen treated, the earl of Oxford in particular ? What was the accusation against him, and what did the people believe ? 62 o 410 SOUTH SEA SCHEME. Modfni ms. murder oij men whom the king, and his unprinci^»]e«.l and artful PEiaon V. minister, Sir Robert Walpole, wished out of their way, tlie CHAF. IT. people believed ; and hence hatred arose in many minds ^^^'^r^^i^ 4. The Jacobite party gained ground ; — the leaders pro- r jected a rebellion, and the pretender was invited over. Loui? I XIV favored, though not openly, his cause; the earl or M,\r, j !«.-•(- aided by many of the Scottish nobles, took arms ; and the ear? fre's- oi-' Derwextwater put himself at the head of a force in the ro.v north of England. While the pretender was preparing to en> defrrit bark, Louis XIV. died ; and the duke of Orleans, the regent of 'te^nder" ^"^"'^"^6, did not favor the enterprise of the Jacobites, though he amused and deceived them by false pretences.f The troops of George I. totally defeated lord Derwentwater, at Preston , and on the same day anotlier army, under the command of the RIFF- duke of Argyle, gained an advantage over the earl of Mar, at "^^^n^f' Sheriffinuir. After these transactions, the pretender arrived in "ii.iiio-' Scotland, and was proclaimed king by his adherents ; but find- defeats ^"o ^^^^ cause desperate, and knowing that a heavy price was set Ma7..Ta- upou his head, he returned to France. Some of his adherents CO "''• lied, — some submitted, — and some were apprehended, and treated with unsparing cruelty. Lord Derwentwater was beheaded on Tower-hill. i(Bo- 5. This reign was the era of the famous speculating project, broke, C'^H ^'^^ "' South Sea Scheme." The " South Sea Company" row in ■was formed on some pretence of securinsr advantages in the was ill South Sea trade, but with the real object of obtaining the public theinte- gtock, and becominor the sole creditor of the nation. An enor- the pre- mous amount ol South Sea stock was created in the first place, ten er.) ^^-ji^j^Qyj- gj;,y actual Capital. Of this, a large amount was given 1^20. in bribes to insure the co-operation of persons, influential in the ^Sea'* view of the speculators. They succeeded, and the holders of Scheme, a considerable part of the public debt were induced to exchange their securities for this stock ; and it rose in the market at one time to 400 per cent, above par. The whole nation seemed seized with the South Sea mania. The government and the Bank of England, as well as innumerable individuals, became deeply involved. At length the bubble burst. The stock sunk \.^\^' to rise no more ; and individuals -who had raslily parted with 6ion"in their real property to purchase nominal, found themselves in a land" destitute and forlorn condition. The bank of England was in ^ imminent danger of failure, and public credit, of extinction. George I., who had gone on a visit to his Hanoverian do- minions, was called home in haste*, and he and his parliament succeeded, after great difhculties, in allaying the evil, and setting ■i. What was done by the Jacobite party ? By whom \s'as the pretender tavored ? Give an account of the battle ot" Preston. Of SherifTp.iuir. What is related of the pretender ? Of his adherents ? — 5. What speculating project was now set on fool ? What account is given of the South Sea Com- pany t Of the stock issued by this company? How far did the speculators succeed? What parties became involved? When the bubble burs' what happened f TUK VOUNO PHKTEXDER. 411 the wheels of commerce again in motion ; hut many ikmiliefi •*<^'^'^ ^^- were irre!ri<;va,hly ruined, and the national credit and rtsources peri'U v v.ere, (or fiome Vf-arx, impaired. >.uht. u. 6. George II., a« ha» heen related, (tn^h'ticA in aWtancAif. Miih '^•^^''"^••-^ Frodfric the Great, of Prussia, and .Maria Therena of Austria, ITl'-iK- 1 and sent an army against the French under the duke of Cum- '"7*' ' berland. Another attempt wa« mare the Stuarts. 'I'he I74d. CHKVAI.IKK Charf.ks »>'vard, son of the preu^nder, encou- '''^^^ raged by the Jacohiies, landed in Scotland. Tfje Hij^hland chief- p.asts. tains and some lowland nobles joined him .vjth their retainers. ;." 1 ^ troops at Preston I'ans. Parliament, alarmed, recalled the duke ^^^'^f' ^ of Cumberland from the continental war, and put him at the kiii*ok the town of Carli^e«L set upon his head, wandered for five months under various di-s- gnises. lie was pursued and hunted from place to place; suf- fering extreme hardships, yet experiencing the attachment and fidelity of the iiighlanders, the poorest of whom would not be- t!ay him for money. At length he procured a passage to Prance, The cruel battle of Culloden crushed for ever the ho[)es of the unfortunate Stuarts. O. What hsB already been related reRpecting the foreign alliancea and wars of GeofHC II. ? flelate the progreaa of the young preterifier up to the tirnc of . U-camc of the young pretender after tLit I PERIOD VI. THE PEACE OF AIX-LA-CHAFELLE THE DECLARATI OF INDEPENDE ? Ills 5^^"'Cn CLOSES THE ,3 't EIGHT YEARS WAR,* rioN ') .\CE,3 TO 1T76. BY THE REPUBLIC OF AMERICA. CHAPTER I. The Seven Years' War. 1, A\ awful visitation of Almighty God was manifested at -lifodern iits. this period ; a dreadful earthquake levelled the palaces of Lis- peri d vi. bon in the dust, and cruslied its inhabitants beneath their ruins, chap. i. Tlie earth opened and swallowed tlieni up, and the sea over- ^-^~"^^*w flowed them; so th 30,000 perished in an hour. But the 1755. rulers of the^'iiations were bent on again preparing for their peo- ^aYusbo^^ pie the more destructive evil of war. 2. Austria formed an aUiance with France^ Russia, and Swe- * This war mi£;ht properly be called the Silesian war, as its cause was the desire which Frederic of Prussia had to possess the province of Silesia. It 5s often quoted in European history as liie War of the Austrian Succession. In America it was called the Old French War. Period VI. lated ? -Chap. I. — 1. Wnai ,' cipal occurrences of tbj first campaign. — 3. Relate the first events of the se- cond campaign. (1757.) Wh'it was the situation of Frederic in respect to in- vading armies ? What were his arranufcments ? In what battle was he suc- cessful, and whom did he defeat? Wiat reverse did he meet, and how many men did he lose ? — t. Relate the last events of the second campaign, including two battles. THE SEVEN YEARS WAR. 415 tlie Piussiau army, which had been opposed to them, being left •^■^'"^^"* ^"' at lilxTty, turned against the Swedes, and recovered many of peri'D vj. their conquests in Pomerania. chap. i. 5. The king of Prussia in the next campaign besieged 01- ^■^'"''^"^^ nuitz; but after four weeks, turned his forces against the Rus- 1158. gians, who had invaded Brandenburg. He obtained a victory dorf. over them at Zorndorf, and compelled them to retreat into Po- Frederic di land- Frederic was afterwards defeated at tlochkirchen, by the Russians. Austrians ; but he still retained Silesia, and prevented them from iiochkir deriving any important advantage from their victory. He next ^uiu\Ins marched into Saxony, where the Austrians had besieged Dres- defeat Frc den and Leipzig, compelled them to raise the siege of both cities. Thus ended the campaign with the triumph of the Prussian arms. The British had in the meantime been successful at sea. 6. The succeeding campaign opened upon Frederic with a reverse. The Russians again advanced upon Silesia, and made themselves masters of Frankfort upoji the Oder. The Prus- 1759. sian monarch marched against the combined Russian and Aus- cuj^- trian force, under general Laudon, which was posted at the ^oS^-" village of Cunnersdorf A most sanguinary battle ensued. Not- Russians withstanding the almost incredible exertions of Frederic, the su- tr?a"ns defeat perior numbers of the Russians and Austrians prevailed, and the Fiederic, I X ' Wiio loses Prussians were defeated. At one period of the battle, victory Ui.ooo. seemed to have declared in favor of Frederic, who at the mo- ment wrote a congratulatory note to his queen, " We have driven the Russians from their intrenchments — expect within (in America, two hours to hear of a glorious victory." His triumph Avas ^=""^°*'^* .short, and in a few hours another note conveyed to the queen ofarra the orders, " Remove the royal family from Berlin — Let the J''^'^^-^ . T-» 1 rtw 11- Death of archives be carried to Potsdam — 1 he town may make condi- woife, and tions with the enemy." Yet so skillful were Frederic's ma- ^"quJIJI")"' noeuvres, that the Russians did not hazard the attack of Berlin, and he soon appeared again in the field with a formidable force. 7. Meantime, prince Ferdinand, with the British and Hano- mijvdejv. verian forces, drew the French into an engagement at Minden, ji"fs"^Ife'ai and completely defeated them. A Russian army was to join the French, the Austrians in Silesia. To prevent this junction, was now ligjvitz. the object of Frederic, and at Lignitz, he drew the Austrians into Frederic de- a battle, before the arrival of the Russians, and defeated tnem Ausniana- The Russians on learning this, repassed the Oder, but sent a strong detachment into Brandenburg, where they joined the Austrians, and made themselves masters of Berlin. Frederic torqua passed into Saxony, and at Torqua defeatetl the Austrians under ^^.^^isThc^ marshal Daun. This victory resulted in the recovery of nearly Austnans. 5. Relate the principal events of the campaign of 1758. or the third. — O. Give a particular accoutit of the battle ot C\innersdorf. Did Frederic give u[) in discouragement oecause he was unfortunate ? What imporiant event occurred in America this year ? — T. Wlrat other three battles occurred in Europe? Relate the battle of Minden. Of Lep"iitz. OV Torqua. What was new Frederic's position ? ^i6 CLOSE OF THE SEVEN YEARS' WAR. Mo dern iiis. ^j^g ^^,\^q\q ^f Saxony, where the Prussian king established his PEiii'D VI. winter quarters. cuAP. I. 8. The death of George II., wliich occurred at this period, did not afiect the relations of England and Prussia. George III. continued in the same line of policy, being detennined to preserve his German possessions. A change had taken place l?i>0. "^ '^^ Spanish councils; — Charles 111., brother of the late ] oui.s XV. monarch, Ferdinand VI., having ascended the throne. The miiy uea^y" success of the British arms in America now caused to be form- "i''!* ^^ ^ Ffl?;u7j/ Compact between the Bourbon kings of France and iviiig'of ' Spain ; the result of which was war between England and ^N.r^iie"'^ Spain. Portugal became also involved in this war, by refusing to join in the compact against England. The king of Prussia Fifth ram- continued the war in Silesia; and his brother, prince Henry, paigii. in Saxony. In 1761 the Russians and Austrians took Berlin. Frederic's measures were throughout tliis campaign, wholly ltd. defensive. At sea, the British flag was still triumphant. Besides stxih cam- ^^^^ Capture of some vessels, this campaign was signalized by paign. the conquest of Belle-Isle.) on the coast of France. 9. A sudden and unexpected event occurred at this time, in the death of Elizabeth, empress of Russia, which relieved l'?6tJ. Frederic from a dreaded and inveterate enemy. Her nephew, KKindson'of P^'^^^ ^^'-5 succeeded, who allied himself with the hero of Peier the Prussia, now Called '^Frederic the Great." Russia and Sweden Great. ^jg^ entered into alliance with him; and the Prussian king found himself at liberty to turn his whole strength against the Austrians. But another revolution occurred in Russia. Peter HI. had, by his nimierous innovations in the internal adminis- tration of his kingdom, as well as by his alliance with Frederic, occasioned great discontent in his empire. Domestic dissen- ■mt^fn sion was added to tlie evils which surrounded him, and his CatheHiie impress Catharine, headed a conspiracy of the disaflected II. his among the clergy, nobility, and army. Peter was dethroned, im- prisoned, and probably murdered ; and Catharine was invested Avith the supreme power. She did not, however, resume the policy of Elizabeth, but while she recalled the Russians from the service of Frederic, she preserved the nation in a strict Price of ^^' Frederic continued the war with increased energy ; re- p • covered Sdesia, and invaded Bohemia and Franconia. The between British had been successful at sea, and in America. Negotia- l^igiandaiui lions had been in progress between England, and France and Spain. Spain, and a peace was now concluded at Paris. Here was 8. What is here related of England? Of Spain ? Between whom was a Family Compact made? What other powers became involved in war? What account can you give of the 5th and 6th campaigns of the seven years' war? — 9. What sovereign of Russia had carried on this war against the Prussians ? Give from the side note the succession of Russian sovereigns f When Peter III. succeeded Elizabeth what change occurred in regard to the relations of the northern powers with Prussia? What counter move- mcnte took place in the succeeding reign? — lO. Who were the parties to the peace of Paris ? A NATION A.WIHILAIKD. 417 ceJcd to Great BiiUiin, Canada, in its utmost extent, all the -^rodernma western side of llie Mississipj)!, cxcc^)! Now Orleans and it» i'kiwd v{. lorritoricti, the islands of St. Fierre and Miiiuelon, and Flo- ciiap. i. rida.t Great Britain made some concessions to France in the ~--^'-v— ^^ partition of the West India Islands. Shortly ai'ler the coiicln- PcdCR of bion of this treaty, another was made between Prussia, Austria, lluljCflfi- und Saxony, at JJuhcrta/jiirg^ which closed the "Seven Years' hlirgi U'ui " Silesia was finally ceded to Prussia; all con([ui;sls (f Florida, wcrti restored, and eacii j)ower returned to the bounduries it HiMinio j).)eses'sed at the openinjr of the war. This war had not oidy Knaiand, devastated the fair plains of Europe, and drunk tlie blood of sioreii iii myriads of her sons, but it had spread destruction throuirh her ^""^^ dependencies, in Asia and America ; thus stretching over more than half the circuit of the globe. And this destruction of the human race was made, because monarchs, with already much more of the world than they could enjoy, coveted still greater territories ; and their thousands tamely followed tliem to be slaughtered. In pity to their fate, we Ibrbear to say they de- fcierved it by tlieir folly. 11. PAKTITION OF POLAND.— We have seen how in I'oland the error of electing a foreign monarch had led the way to a system of foreign interference Ai;Gt;s'n,s II., elector of Saxony, had triumphed over Stanislaus Leczinski, by the aid of lUissian and Austrian arms. Still there existed in Poland a powerful party who deprecated foreign influence, and desired a Polander for their monarch. On tlie death of Augustus, Ca- THARixK of Pvussia turned this sentiment to the advantage of Stanislaus Pomatowski, a native, whose personal appearance ^mpa ^ and prepossessing manners, had procured for him her I'avor; but catimrinn' whose character and halhts uiilitted him for the station. He r"^'-ifi'i uw having been [)roposed by the empress, to lill the Polish throne, docistanm Russian soldiers, sent to enforce his election, surrounded the '^''" •'"^'^^ senate-house where the diet was assembled. Mai.achow- i>Ki, an aged patriot, and marshal of the last diet, entering the assembly, where only eight-senators out of fifty appeared, ex- claimed witii a loud voice, " since the Russian soldiers hem us in, J suspend the authority of the diet.'" The soldiers ordered him to resign the marshaPs staff, and threatened him with ven- geance. .Malachowski intrepidly replied, ''You may cut ofT my hand, or take my life, but I am marshal, elected by a free people, and I can only be deposed by a free people — 1 shall rotirr>.'" 12. The partisans of Poniatowski, supported by the Russian anns, proceeded to an illegal election, and the minion of Ca- tharine was maje king. After the coronation, she maintained lO. AVhat were its conditions ? V^hat other treaty soon followed T Who were ihfc pnriifs and whit ihe condi'iotia ? — li. What great mistake had (he Pohsh electors been guilty of? What did it produce ? How did Auwiia- tiw 111. prevail over Stanislaus Leczinski? Were all the I'oks satisfted ^ What was dune by the empress ot Russia? What was done by tae aged Mar^^lial ? — 12. Who was made king, and by what means was his election curried 1 53 4 is polAJ^o ruled by foreign power. j usisin His, an ambassador -at Warsaw, by whose means slie governed the rERi'D VI. monarch, 20,000 Russian troops being scattered over the CHAP. I. country. The patriots who left Warsaw before the election, '^-^'""*'"^*«' had attempted to form confederations in different provinces of the kingdom. They were now permitted to return, and did not immediately offer any opposition to the government. Tlie fav^r of Catharine was shortly withdrawn from the king of Polandi and she fomented the dissensions which existed between the dissidents (or protestants,) and catholics, until the unhappy na.- tion was involved in the miseries of a civil war. The leading patriots were now arrested by the Russian soldiers, and trans- ported to Siberia. Catliarine offered them liberty on condition of their submitting to the authority of Russia, but they all re- jected the disgraceful offer with contempt. 13. The Poles next solicited and obtained the aid of the ^j. Turks. The Russian empress declared war with the Porte, and Turks In ai- ^^cr Jleet sailed through the Mediterranean to rouse the Greeks liaiicc Willi fQ arms, but owino" to dissensions amon^ their commanders. the Poles . . . ^ . . ' invaded hv nothing decisive was effected. Two Russian armies, however, tiieRus- entered and overran a part of the Turkish dominions. This was discouragmg to the rcles, whose army did not exceed 8,000 men, but they had seized the strongest posts among the mountains, and, under their general, Pulaski, kept the field, and occasionally annoyed their enemy, hi the following year, the advantages of war still remained with the Russians ; and a short period of alternate hope and fear was all that was now allowed for the little band of Polish patriots. They soon learned that I'??! a league had been concluded between Maria Theresa of Austria, partidonof Catharine of Russia, and Frederic of Prussia ; and that these Poland, royal thieves had taken the greater part of their country, and divided it among themselves, annexing their several portions to their own dominions. The contemptible Poniatowski, who was entirely under their control, was by them made sovereign of the remainder. 14. Some of the Poles raised their voices against these ini- quitous proceedings. The patriot Reyte.v, finding that all was lost, was driven by grief to insanity. Protestations were sent to the other powers of Europe, but were unheeded, The pa- Fuiaski was iriot chiefs being obliged to flee, Pulaski crossed the ocean and Sa'jannah. sacrificed his life in the cause of American independence. Tlie Oc'.^ r79 partition of Poland has found no justifiers, even among those who have considered the many wars in which Europe has been involved, as being defensible, on the ground of maintaining the balance of power ; a phrase which, as settled by the pra.uiccss 12. Who was virtually the sovereign of Poland ? How svere the i)atriotg treated ? How was a civil war produced ? — 13. What occurred wiih regard to the Turks? What was the situation of the patriots and their leader? Wlio were the royal robbers here spoken of? What did they take towh'.ch they had no right? Who was sovereign of the remainder? — 14. What particulars are mentioned of the acts of the patriots? Where was Pula?Li liilied ? {.See note.) Has the partition of Poland been justified ? PITT, AFTt:RWARDS LORD CHATHAM. ^ 41 9 wlucli have grown out of it, seems to mean a combination of a •''^"'^*''" ^^- ibw fiiinilies, to maintain each other in their hereditary autiio- peupd vi. rity ; thus making Europe a grand aristocracy, the members of chat. ii. which are called kings instead of nobles. 'J^hc great plan of ^-«»' v^/ lienry IV. of France, had it been established, would not, like the American constitution, have guarantied to the people their fig! ts of self-government, but it would have given them much aCiUiily against the horrors of war, and saved the blood of coiiiillcss lliou?and«. Ctl AFTER n. England and France, and their Colonies. I. The domestic history of England during the reign of ^p^^p vTeorge II.. is a catalogue of the political knaveries of the min- i. ister, SiK Roberi' Wai.pole, who made no scruj)le to spend l''^'* the public monej', and increase the national debt, that he miglu i^'^?. practice every species of I)ribery and corruption which was cal- (;r«at- culated to keep himself in power. At length he became odious ^!^il"io to the nation, antl changes in the ministry occurred ; but the J^^'^si- course of politics was not yet reformed. About this period, '.he war against France, carried on in America, commenced. At llrst it was managed vvilhout spirit or success. At length, to prop Up dieir sinking credit, the ministry called to a seat in the ^•'^'^''^"'^ cabinet, William Pitt, a leader in parliament, distinguished for t'i'iH his high powers of eloquence; but to their surprise, ihcy found , Ji^^ he had accepted a post of honor to serve his country, and lliat neither office nor money could tempt liim to countenance mea- sures wliich he did not approve. Rather- than do this, he re- ^igned his offices and reiired. The nation were clamorous in his praise, and petitioned the king to recall him. Pitt was re- called and made prime minister. From this period. Great Bri- ','^^^^' tain rose rapidly. Men were appointed to ofiice, not because in. J they were the creatures of those in power, but because they fi^itG- were suited to the service, and were true friends to their coun- prj^iJ'SJ'f]". try, France and England during tliis period, came into colli- •'^'pr- "«= " fcion from difficulties commencing in their distant colonies of ma'tiTa'prfi India and America. ''Vl'.l'r,''"/' 2. INI) J A. — The fabulous computation of time contained in cru.nh'oo II. What meanincr seems now to attach in Etirope, to the phrase, bal- ance of power ? W hai ia said of the plan of Henry I V. ? Ciiir. II. — Learn troin tlie side note who were tlie three first sovereiE;n.q 111 the iiduse of Hanover, and the time of the accession of each ? — 1. What may be said oi ilie dotiiestic history of England at iliis time ? What accoutU can yon give of William Pitt? Of the ef!'ect of his ministry? In whaC places did iht English and Erench come into collision ? r;; 420 BASER, THE FIRST GREAT .MOCJCL. PERI'P VI. CHAP. II. ?M4. »>' fd klian 152S Baber. 1530. Hii- iOj mayun. s 1556. Akbar. •^ f. liS»5. (Slmh y jeh.in, « son of c Akbar, b] has four sons. &: the l.ist, Aurens;- Zeb, de- stroys tfrj oUvp^: U)e sacred books and traditionary accounts of India, go back tn ages fai beyond those indicated either by Scripture, or by the coui-se jf profane history. Then, say they, the immortal gods dwelt on the earth. Their reign was immediately succeeded by a dynasty of mortals descended from the sun, and more re- motely by a family from the moon. Krish.va, a derai-god, the author of the Vedas and other sacred books, lived in the time of the lunar dynasty. After this they had earth-born kings, of whom PoRus was on the throne when Alexander of Macedoa invaded India, and Saxdrocottus became the ally of Seleucns. Fifty years before Christ, was a reign distinguished as an era, on account of the encouragement given to literature, when nine writers iiourished, called *■• the nine gems," one of whom wrote a lexicon of the language, and another a grammar. At the Christian era, India was divided mto four kingdoms, and subse- quently into a greater number. In the tenth century the Ghaz- nevide sultans, supplanted by the Turks, invaded India ; and in the next century, Baiiram established a kingdom whose seat was Lahore. Jenghiz Khan passed over India, and added it to his conquestS) 3. The Mahometan kingdom of Delhi was founded by a Turkish prince, v/ho overthrew the kingdom of Lahore. This empire was subverted by Tamerlane, who took and plundered Delhi. Sayid Khan ruled at first as his viceroy, but soon be- came independent and founded another Mahometan di/nasti/, called the J^ffghan. Baber is, however, regarded as the foun- der of the wealthiest, and most powerful dynasty which has ever reigned in India. He was a descendant of Tamerlane, who having been driven from his kingdom at the north, invaded India, exp>elled the Aflghans, and foundetl the Tartar dynasty of the Great Moguls. Akbar, the grandson of Baber, raised the empire to great prosperity by his wise government and judicious patronage of the arts. In 1600 tliere iirere English traders at Surat. 4. Shah Jehan, the successor of Akbar, was governed by the sultana Nourmahal. In 1602, the "Dutch East India Com- pany" was formed. In 1609, adjiiral Hawkins, their iirst en- voy, procured for the English Company some important grants. Aureng-Zeb, was noted for his energy and his cruelty. The empire of the JMoguls was in his day one of the richest in tlie 2. What computation of time ia found in the sacred books and tradi- tionary accounts of India ? What do these say concerning the inhabitants of the earth in that remote antiquity ? What is said of Krishna ? What of tiie liings after him ? What occurred fifty years before Christ ? What at the Christian era respecting the division of India? NV'hat occurred in the tenth century? Where did the Gliaznevides establish a liingdon>? Who con- quered India, and at what time ? — 3. What empire was founded by a Turkish sovereign? What was done by Tamerlane? By Sayid Khan, and of what dynasty did lie become the founder ? Give an account of Bii- ber. flow did Akbar raise the empire to prosperity? How early do you hear of the Englisli in India, and at what place ? — 4. What do you learn of Shah Jehan? At what time was the Dutch East India Company formotU What is said of the Erst Epghsh envoy to the court of the Great Mogui t THE BRITISH EMFIRK IX INDIA. 42J world ; its revenue being ^232,000,000. But lie pcrsecul'.d tlui ancient inliabitaiits who refused to embrace Mahoinelanistn, and by losinjr their good will, he lost the cement which bound to- gether the great empire of the IMoguls ; and after his death, one jvrovince after another fell away iVom his successors. Tiu-ir iu(h)lence was Uixed witii the loss of their power by the na- bobs, on whom tliey devolved tlieir duties; aiui in a few years, the Grand Mogul was but a stiite-pup])('t, moving as he was moved. At Uiis time huHa was invaded by the powerful Nadir SiiAii of ['ersia, who took. Delhi, and carried away a great booty m money and jewels. 5. The Mahratla-^, an active and energetic people, heretofore but little known, conquered, in 1668, a part oi' the IJeccan, and, under Sevajek, established a kingdom. This kingdom they continued to extend during ihr; next century. Tlie French, under Labourdonnais, governor of the isle of P'rancc, made an attack on the English trading settlement at Madras, and took the place, but restored it at the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. The Frencli having possession of Pondicherry, Dupleix, its commander, seeing tlie divided state of the country, attempted, by taking part with one of two rivals, to seize the Deccan as if for the other, but in reality for tlie F'rench East India Company, ""['he other party was Maiiomf.t Ah, who appealed to the English. The French had the advantage, until Ci.ivE, who came from England as a clerk, having manifested military talent, was made a captain. He took Arcat, and won the battle of Arni ; after which a truce was made. 6. The English at Calcutta, were now suddenlv attacked by SuRAJAH DowLAH, the sovereign of the province of Bengal, at ihe head of 50,000 men. The governor vainly resistetl, and then escaped on shipboard, leaving behind oni; hundrcJ and forty-six of the garrison. Tliese were conlined in a room not twenty feet square, in a hot night in June, with no water and scarcely a breath of air. In vain they shrieked, for the tyrant had no pity. In this " Black Iloleof C;Ucntta," one hundred and twenty-three men died in the course of tiie night. India has paid dearly for this cruelty. Tlie company at Madras sent Clive at the lii'ad of a small army, who retook Calcutta, and reduced Snrajnli to terms. The seven years' war now breaking out, the Frciudi were again active and Snrajah united wiih them. Clive met bin army at Pla^sey, and with only 1,000 E:iglisli,aiid 3,000 natives, defeated 70,000. Surajah was taken and |)ut to death, and the British became virtually masters of his lerriiory. Tlius hrsrnn t/ie Brilish empire in India. Its permanence was secured when th? liritish having increased their concjuests, the Great Mogul 4, Oive an account of AiirfiiL'-Zeb. How did ho prrparo the wny for the diH'liiic of the empire? What happened alicr his death ? What tax do yoii find liiai indolent sovereigns who devolve their own duties upoii their ser- vants have to pay? Give an account of the Persian invasion. — ."i. Give an account of the Alahr.iltas. Of the proceedincs of the Frencli. — O. Of tho cruel proceedines of Sainjnh Dowlnh. How did the En^rlisli C'impaiiy ro- mcvc their affairs ? Rekuc the important hati'e of Ptassey. PEuru VI. CIIAI". 11. itaa nso. Tlicso eviMiiyj led to w.r lu'- twei'n I'ni; laiiii atiil France. Clivn (akp.i Arcot. Ilii; capit.il (if till' C.ir- ridlic. Cliv.- viclori- Oil» "Ttie BlaoK Hole." liJ (lie. (Clive, af- terward:) Lord Clive, becomea iinmetiBfily ricli. C. where he was impeached by the eloquent Edmund Burke ; and exciifed^ being tried before parliament, he was defended by the idol of ihenai.ob (lie whig party, Charles James Fox, the witty Sheridan, and irom debts Others. The trial lasted eight years, and the accused was rtnallv to the com- acquitted. Williabi Pitt, the younger, now prime minister t>aiiv, on his ,- V i i ^ ^ •*' i i i i- !seizing lor oi England, proposed, and carried tlirough parliament an mi- fv'ssessiofis pi'oved system of government for British India, under the direc- of two Be- tion of a "-Board of Control." ifiaie^sove- S. AMERICA. — We have seen that the English discovered in reigns,) and America the Atlantic coast: the French, the St. Lawrence and uavinff /;im . i ,- i , tit- • ■ ■ mi i- £100.000.) Its waters, and aiterwards the upper Mississippi. I hat disco- very gave the right of soil none disputed ; but the boundaries of the counfiies claimed on accormt of these discoveries., were trJioUt/ indefnitc, and each nation was ambitious of possessing large territories. Hence, they took care m granting the letters indefinit P'^^^i^'' ^o their Subjects, who were disposed to colonize the claims of country, to make their claims suflicienily extensive. Thus se- EnaEngiisti. ^'^^'^^ ^^ ^l^^ English patents which bounded east on the Atlantic, gave the patentees the country as lar west as the PaciJic; while the French, in some instances, gave patents running from tho St. Lawrence, indefinitely, south. While the settlements kcjn along the shore of the ocean, and the valley of the St. Law- rence, they caused no dispute; but now the English, having extended themselves to the west, and (he French to the soulii. their claims interfered. The English jealousy was also awak- ened by finding a line of posts extending from the mouth of the St. Lawrence to that of the Mississippi, projected and partly 7. What is pair] respecting Hyder AH ? Respecting the French? Tic ppectine Tippoo S;iib ? Warren Ilastincrs ? Who impeached him? Who det'ended? Learn from the side note what formed the capital article in liis inipeachmcni. What hill did Mr. Pitt procure to be passed? — 8. What have yoti learned from tlie previous history concerning (he English am! French discoveries? What right was supposed to be given by di^icovery ? What source of contention existed with regard to boundaries? What kind of patents were granted by the Riiglish ? By the French ? What rircuni- stanc^s alarmed the Erglish svith rega'-i to the great extent of the French olaiirs n America? M .» ; II W A a I / 1 .\ GTO N'. 423 irijulchy llic rrf;iir:li ; wfiirli, if compW;U;(J, would ost'tblish llioir ^^ authority over tlir; j.^rf;;it valley of the west. Tliis was porn- I'Kiiri) vi, [joij^ly (;xliil;ilO(l in tjic larj^e maps of JJb Lfsr.K, the royal aoo- <-"*''• "■ gra(»li»j!r, an a j)art of JVkw Fka.nck. l»y these maps, the Alle- "-^"^/"^-^ (.'liaiiy mouiitaifis were removed from their place, and set near ^Ji^H!^'.^!^,*^ the Atlantic ; the strip of land between them and the ocean, in Maine,' h(ing all that was allowed to belonij to the Knj^lish ; while 'i'hVK"nnc- Nkw Thancr stretr;he'""«w/a-A and impri- i"^*="'«'-> soned those who had erected traditi«r-houses on these lands. I)i\vv'MM;iE, the Knylish (Governor of Virginia, sent, tfiouf/h in ,,, , . the dead of wniter, a young onicer of twenty-two, across the crooffuUu- wilrlerness of the Alleghany mountains, to bear despatches to aiI'-s''*"'*-'"- the French commandant. This young man was Gkorcr VVasiii.voto.v, destined to become the " Father of liis Country," ,., . , and one ol the cliiei lightM ot history. iMajor Washmgton »n!nt a((ain..t fuKiiied his trust, by conveying to the French commandant in '"'* ^"'"'^^' th( vicinity of lake Erie, Dinv/iddie's summons to rjuit the ter- ritory. The French not obeying this mandate, Dinwiddle sent Washington, with a regiintnt, to enforce it. AltJiough his con- duct was gallant, his force was inferior, and he was imsuccess- ful. Till; French now proceefled to the erection of a fort at the jimction of the ."Vlonongahela and Alleghany rivers; to which ihey gave llie name of iJii Qiiesne. 1754. 10. The Jirilish cabinet recommended to the colonies to cul- ^-^"'•f"*' •*» tivate iriendship with tfie most powerful tril)es of the savages, (Franklin i.i i'.rid lo forma union ammii' lliemsc IvPH. Accordinely, a congress 'ii.''t""«""{''- of delegates from the cfdonies of New England, rnet at Albany, io«o(ii»«;r, f^'r with those from New York, Maryland, and Pennsylvania; and y'^rt'ilTi on the 4ih of July, ]7o1, Bk.vjami.v Fra.vki.i.v, of Pennsylva- elect ricity. nia, drew np a plan of union, which being approred by the uilTmoW^ conjjress, copies were transmitted to the several colonial tfo- "nivemai I I /• /-. T. • • I • . 1 e':niili)(i« of v:;nnnent.s, and to the court of Great Britain. It suited not the hijtioiy.i W. ])chct\\)H the rnap of Df Lisle, mentioning who ho was. On what {'rounds was the valley of ihc ,Mol)il(; claimed by France? — !>. 'VVhat was Gorif l>v pa.'liameni in order to fci up counter claims and re.'iiat those of France? What wa.^ done hy the ()U'\o Company? By the I'rench TJo- verrjor ? Mention his name. Who was governor of Virjjinia ? What meaHiirrs did he ^ike ? What is here said '!sieged. .1ii!y 6, taken. 1759. Ticonde- roga, Crown Point, and Niagara taken. (Pri- deaux killed at Niagara.) HEIGHTS OF ^BRA- H.IjM. Wolfe de- feats tlie French, and Quebec sur- renders. 1764- Lord Gren- ville. (His minis- try con- linues from 1703-65.) 1765. Btamp Act Lo go inlii ef- fect Ngv 1. men, a much greater army than had before been employed in this country. Louisburg was a strong fortress, which com- manded the entrance of the gulf of St. Lawrence. In the last war the colonists had themselves, with singular bravery and much good luck, taken it from the French ; but the British had restored it at the peace of ilyswick. Admiral Boscawen now besieged and took the place with 7,000 prisoners. The other important events of this campaign, were the taking of foit Fron- tenac, by colonel Br.idstreet, and that of fort Du Quesne^ by GENERAL FoRBEs, assisted by Washington. That fort re- ceived at this time, the name of Pitt, which is still preserved in that of Pittsburg. 16. During the campaign of 1759, general Amherst captured Ticonderoga and Crown Point; and general Pride aux, fort Niagara. But the most difficult part was assigned by Pitt, who was the soul of these enterprises, to James VVolfe, a young officer, whom he took the responsibility of sustaining, against the prejudices of the king. With an army of 8,000, Wolfe landed on the island of Orleans, with the formidable task before him of reducing Quebec, the strongest fortress in America. On the night of the twelfth of September, he scaled the heights of Abraham, a rock deemed inaccessible, — and his army follow- ing their daring leader. The marquis Montcalm saw. by the morning light, his enemy upon the elevated plain in order of battle. Victory declared for the English. Wolfe, mortally Avounded, rejoiced in his country's success ; and Montcalm, in dying, was consoled, that he should not witness the surrender of Quebec. The garrison of that city were panic struck, and surrendered a post which they might have defended. Ail Canada soon submitted to the British arms; and its possession was confirmed at the peace of Paris, in 1763. 17. In 1784, lord Grenville brought into parliament a bill for taxing the colonies. The next year, the " Stamp Jicl'''' was passed by the parliament, notwithstanding able remonstrances on the part of the colonies and of the London merchants. The Stamp Act was framed with an intention to suspend the opera- tion of the laws in the colonies, and dissolve the bonds of go- vernment unless complied with ; for it decreed, that no deed, note, bond, indenture, or other covenant, should be legal, — no process, not even against a criminal, could be issued, unles.s written on the stamped paper which the English should send over to certain officers, called Distributers of Stamps, and which must be purchased by the Americans at such a rate as to give tlie British government a revenue from the proceeds. The Ame- 15. What had been done in the preceding war respecting Louisburg? What was done in 1758? What are the other principal events of this cam paign ? — 16. What was done by general Amherst ? What by geticral Pri- deaux? What is here said of James Wolfe ? Give some account of his opf! rations. Relate the battle ol the Heights of Abraham. What were its re- sults ? — 17. Relate the first attempt in the British parliament to lai America. Give an account of the Stamp Act. TBc REVOLUTIONARY WAR BEGINS. 427 ricans regarded this as an attempt to take from them tlieir just •''^"'^'"' ^' lights. Most of the colonies elected delegates, who met in perpd vi. tiongress in the city of New York, in a formal "Declaration chap. n. of Rights," the congress asserted that they were entitled to all the rights and privileges of natural bon subjects of Great Bri- tain, — in particular, tliat of not being taxed except by their own representatives. They prepared a dutiful address to the king, and petitions to hoth houses of parliament. A systematic and uniform opposition was made to the Stamp Act. The peo- ple not only refused to purchase the stamps, but so treated those who took the offices of distributors, that they were forced to resign. 18. The English government, thus foiled, changed their mil - istry and rejtcaled the Stamp Act ; but parliament declared their «. '^^T " right to bind the colonies in ail cases whatsoever." A new tempt to t\x project for taxation was soon got up, with the appendage of America, sending troops over to enforce it. Duties were laid on tea, Etc. Tea was sent over, — and at Boston, men, armed and disguised, ,!f '^i- went at night and threw the cargoes of three vessels into the overboardaj sea; — for wliich parliament shut up their port by law, and sent i^osion. over general Gaoe with an army. Non-importation agreements were entered into by all the colonies. 19. Gen. Gage had been sent to Massachusetts in the spirit 1'775. of hostility to that province. The people viewed his move- ^^x/jy-r?. ments with jealousy and alarm; and preparing to resist, had col- toj^. /ccted warlike stores in diflerent places. In an attempt of the "sLd?** British troops to take possession of the magazines at Concord^ Rr. loss, 273, in the neighborhood of Boston, hostilities commenced, and the first blood was shed. The militia rose, and although they could not prevent the destruction of the stores, yet they drove the British back to their strongholds in Boston, with loss. But this first blood was like the spark which ignites the magazine. ^ had hCed" The indignant country took arms; and in a fsw weeks twenty it.ooohos- thousand militia were assembled in the neighborhood of Boston. ^ The British army was largely reinforced by troops under gene- ral Howe. 20. The " Continental Congress" assembled at Philadelphia. Washington They took measures to raise men and money, and conferred the gioiied,/ure command of their armies on Washington. The militia, to '^"'_ drive the BritisK troops from Boston, look, in the night, posses- ^^buj\'- ' sion of Bunker's Hill, a position whicli commanded the town, kkr's- As soon as they were perceived, general Gage sent a force to nr. ^ain the drive them from the entrenchments which they were throwing ,^^^''j|j"]. — the Am. 4^ 17. How did the Ainericans regard it? Where did. the congress first moot ? What acts of theirs are here mentioned ? What was done in rela- tion to the Stamp Act? — 18. What chanije was made by the British go- vernment? What was don^ in parliament? What was done respecting tea T Who was sent over to Boston ? What agreements were entered into ? 1!>. Describe the occasion and place of the first battle, and its result ? Wh:ii rffecl did it produce? —2<). What occurred at Ph.iladelphia ? What is the difTerenco in time between \Vashin2ton's commission as commander in ch'cf, and the bat;Ie of Bunker's Hill ? (See n ite.) 428 THE BRITISH EVACUATE BOSTON. Modern His. PERl'D VI. CHAP. II. fiiBiiccess- ful attempt upon Can.ida. March 17. Gage evacuateo BOHtOU. up. Under cover of their ships lying in the liarbor, and of the flames of Charlestown, which they had fired, three thousand of the British troops ascended the hill and attacked the Americans, who were commanded by coi.O-Vel Prescott. The result of the day was honorable to the republicans, although, from the failure of ammunition, they were obliged to retire. 21. Gex. Mont>omery and Col. Arnold were despatched a1 the head of separate armies for the conquest of Canada. Mon- treal, and the fortress of St. John surrendered to l\Iontgomery Advancing down the St. Lawrence, — at Quebec, he met Arnold, who had taken the direct route through the woods. In the depth of winter their joint forces attacked that fortress ; — Mont- gomery fell, and the enterprise failed. 22. Washington, at the head of a formidable force, had, thft preceding season, appeared before Boston, — taken possession of the adjacent heights, and invested the British forces. He con- tinued the siege through the winter, and on the 17th of March, Gage was forced to evacuate the town. The enemy, taking to their shipping, commenced a marauding warfare, and burnt Falmouth, Bristol, and other towns on the sea-board. Wash- ington entered Boston in triumph; but he afterwards established his head quarters at New York, — stationing a part of the army, under generals Putnam and Sulliv.\n, at Brooklyn. 20. Relate that battle. — 21. Relate the attempt upon Canada. — 23. The operations in and about Boston. What was don-e on the 17th of March? V/hat afterwards by the B.ntish? What was done hy Wash H. KinnersUj Washington assuming the command at Cambridge TERIOD YII. ■iHE DECLARATION BY CONGRESS THE CORONATION ? ,.»^. C OF AMERICAN IN! l^T'^"l PENDENCE, TO i 1804. k OF NAPOLEON. CHAPTER 1. Kepub'ic of America after the Declaration of Independence, to ine aoop- lion of the Federal Constitution. 1. The 4th of July, 1776, is the birth day of our Republic; which is remarkable, not only as the oldest civilized nation of the western continent, but for the extent of its territory, the rapid increase of its population and resources, and especially for its political institutions, wliich have exhibited, in practice, a government of natural justice, and equal riglits, heretofore re- garded but as the vision of the enthusiast. On that meu.oid- ble day, the American congress, still environed with difficiiities, took, with solemnity, the bold measure of declarinjr thai, "America was, and of right ought to be, free and iXDcrEND- ENT." The most disastrous defeat of the war followed hard apon this declaration. That division of the army commanded by Sullivan, on Long Island, was surprised and defeated with grcU loss. Wai^hington, threatened in New York, retreated into the interior. 'I'he British generals, Howe and Clinton, follow- ed him to White Plains, where an indecisive engagement took place. But at Fort Washington, which was commanded by Part VII.— Chap. I. — 1. What is the hirih-day of the American Re- ptibhc? For what is this Repiihhc remarkalilc ? Why is the 4th of July. 1776, called the birth-day of this nation? Relate the most disas-iroiis de- feat of the war. What was done by Washincion after the battle of Lont, Island ( What occurred at White Plains? At Fort Washington ? 431 Modem Ht) 1776 .Inly 4. Derlaratioi of Aiupricur Indeppiid- ente. August 27 BHOOE- I. YJV. British de- feat the Anieriranb, li.sr '2 000, 432 BURGOYNE S INVASION. Modern His. PER'D VII. CHAP. I. Washing- ton's re- Niglil of Dec. 26-27. TREJV- 7'OJV. Washington surprises and takes 1,000 Hes- sians ; Am. loss i, 2 frozen to death. January 3. PRIjVCE- TOJV. Br. loss 100 k., 300 pris.; Am. loss 70, Gen. Mercer liilled. Sept. n. BRAJ^D Y- WIjXE. Br. victori- ous ; Am. loss 1,300, Br. 500. OERMJlJV- Sr. victori- ous ; Am. loss k. 20(), w. 600, pri- soners 400. July 7, nuB- BARD- TOJ\r. American lose 1000. Auffust 16. BKJ^- Am. victo- rious, Br. ioss 600. Sept. 19. STILL- WATER. October 7. S/IRATO- OA. Bureoyne defeated by ttie Ameri- CanB, seveie Kwa on both sides. Col. Magaw, the British took the fort with 2,000 prisoners. Howe was now commander-in-chief of the British forces. 2. The garrison of Fort Lee evacuated that post, and, uAder Greene, joined the desponding army of Washington, who crossed the Hudson, and retreated into Njw Jersey, his forces greatly reduced, and in want of almost everything necessary for a winter's campaign. He continued to retreat before his vie torious enemy, who tracked his bare-footed army by their blooQ left on the projections of the frozen ground, till he had crossed the Delaware into Pennsylvania. On the stormy night of tlie 26th of December, Washington re-crossed the Delaware amidst floating ice, and attacked 1,000 Hessians stationed at Trenton, and made them prisoners. Then eluding the pursuit of the British army, he fell upon, and surprised another division sta- tioned at Princeton. These brilliant successes, following such a train of misfortunes, like a sudden light amidst darkness, re- vived the drooping spirits of the Americans. They were cheered also, by the arrival of the young and generous La Fayette, who had left, in France, all that, to an ordinary mind, makes existence desirable, and brought to lay upon the altar of riglit and justice, his life, his exertions, and his fortune. W^ashing- ton received, and ever loved him as a son. 3. France, Spain, and Holland, now began to regard the cause of America with favor; and negotiations were commenced with these powers. General Howe, approaching Philadelphia by tlie way of the Chesapeake, defeated Washington at the Brandy- wine on the 11th of September, and entered the city. He was again successful at German town on the 4th of October. Gen. BuRGOYNE, with a formidable army, made up of British regu- lars, and [ndian and Hessian allies, had made a descent from Canada. He opened a communication above Lake Champlain, and took Ticonderoga. General Fraser, who was despatched in pursuit of the flying garrison, came up with their rear at Hubbardton, and after a sanguinary conflict, the British obtained their last victory in that quarter. Shortly after this battle. Co- lonels Baum and Breyman were detached by Burgoyne, with a corps of Hessians, in search of provisions, and ordered to ad- vance upon Bennington. Tiiey were met near that place by general Stark, a militia oflicer, and totally defeated. After encountering severe losses, and great hardships, Burgoyne ar- rived at Stillwater, upon the Hudson. Here a battle occurred, in which he was defeated by the Americans, under gener4.l 2. What was done by general Greene ? Relate the situation and move- ments of Washington and his army. Did he sit down in despondency ? (See for an answer what he did on the cold and stormy night of the 26th of December, and ten days afterwards.) What change in the tone of public ieeling is noticed ? What arrival of a foreigner added to the public saliKfac- tion ? — ■'$. What foreign nations now began to regard favorably the Ameri- can cause ? Relate the successes of the British in Pennsylvania? Begin the history of Burgoyne's invasion. Relate the battle of Hubbardton. Of Bennington, Of Stillwater. Of Saratoga. What important event fullowed the battle of Saratoga ? UEVOLUTIONARY WAR C0\T1\UES. 433 Gates. The British commander found retreat impossible, and on the 17 1 h of October, he icas compelled to surrender his whole army prisoners of loar. This expedition cost tlie Ijrilish, in killed, wounded, deserters and prisoners, an army of 9,000 men. It inspirited the Americans, and ihsposed the European nations to favor their cause; and a treaty of alliance tvith France tvas entered into on the 6th of February., 1778. 4. Washington being- now re-inforced, compelled SirHexry Clinton, who had succeeded Howe, to evacuate Philadelphia ; and pursuing him on his retreat, he came up with him, and de- feated him at Monmouth. Clinton now turned his chief atten- tion to the conquest of the southern states. He sent a detach- ment of troops under colonel Campbell, who, on the 29th of December, took Savannah ; the garrison and stores falling into his hands. The British authoriiy was now extended over Georgia. To Charleston, in South Carolina, Washington had sent general Lincoln to the aid of governor Kutledge. hi April, Clinton, with a force of about eight thousand men, laid siege to it, and on the 12th of May, the city was sur- rendered, with the artillery and garrison. Clinton organized a royal government for Carolina; and distributed 4,000 troops in different garrisons; then leaving lord Cornvvallis in com- mand, he returned to his head quarters in New York. 5. General Gates being sent to stop the progress of the Bri- tish army in the South, was defeated at Camden by lord Corn- wallis. The baron De Kalb, a gallant German volunteer in the American army, was slain. After this disaster, general Greene was appointed to the command of the southern armies. At Gudford, he skilfully contended with Cornwallis, and though not victorious, he retired from tJie field in good order. Corn- wallis retreated into Virginia, leaving lord Rawdon in Caro- lina to sustain the royal cause, now on the decline. Becoming discouraged with fatigue, loss of health, and the obloquy he had incurred by the execution of colonel Hayne, a native Carolinian, Rawdon returned to England ; when the command devolved on colonel Stuart. Greene, in the meantime, having improved the discipline of his troops, sought the enemy, and fought and defeated him at Eutaw Springs. 6. On leaving the Carolinas, lord Cornwallis entered Virgi- nia, threatening chastisement to *' the boy." So he termed La Fayette, who, having been by Congress made a major general, now commanded the small body of American forces assigned for the defence of that state. But he showed himself a veteran Mil aim Hie. PER'I) vn CHAP. 1. Treaty Willi France. June 28. MOJV- J)IOUTH. Americana victorious, Br. loss 700. Dec. 29. Savannali taken by the British. itso. May 12. Cliarlestor. taken. CJJMDEJV. Lord Corn- wallis de- feats Gates. ITS I. GUIL- FORD cn. Greene meets Cnni- wallis. Br. keep the fielii ; Am. loss 1.300. F.UTAIV SPRIM'OS. Americans victorious ; Br.lossl.OOC Am. 600. Cornwallis checked h/ La Fayetto, in Virginia. 3. What great results were produced by this signal success ? — -i. Who had succeeded* Howe in coinmand ? What was he compelled to do ? Re- late tiie battle of Monmouth ? What occurred on the 29th of December? Relate tlie capture of Charleston. The subsequent arrangements of Clinton. — 5. What is here said of general Gates ? Relate the battle of Camden. As Gates was unsuccessful, who was sent in his place? Relate the battle of Guilford Court House. What change of commandants occurred in South Carolina? Relate the battle of Eutaw Springs. — C. What occurred ii' Virginia ? 5fi 434 AMERICAN REVOL JTION CLOSES. Modern Hu. j^ couragG and skill; not only eluding the pursuit of theBritisli PER'D VII. general, but finding means to harrass his outposts incessantly, CHAP. I. and to hold him in check, until the plans forming by VVajrhing- ton for his destruction, should be matured. 7. Washington had, by a well managed feint, deceived Sii Henry Clinton into the belief that New York was his desig- nated point of attack. Admiral de Grasse, with a lormidable French fleet, was ordered to block up York river, so as to pre- vent reinforcements reaching Cornwallis who was posted a? Yorktown. In the meantime, the American commander, having formed a junction with a French army, which had arrived the year before, under count Rochambeau, arrived, by forced marches, at Yorktown, and invested the British army bv October 1-9 ^^"d- Cornwallis made vigorous efforts to extricate himself, YORK- but in vain. The chivalry of America and France were upon Corm^ims him, each vieing with the other in feats of intrepidity. The Btirrenders Bi-itish general had sustained himself in the belief, that timely '^-''ncKj.' succor would arrive from New York. This hope now failed him ; and to prevent a general assault from the combined French and American armies, who had already destroyed his defences, he offered terms of capitulation. On the 19th of October, 1781, the army, consisting of 7,000 men, were surrended to the Ame- ricans ; and the fleet, consisting of two frigates and twenty trans- ports, with their convoys, to the French. 8. Thus ended the active operations of the most disastrous war in which England was ever engaged. That nation even for a time lost her wonted ascendency on the ocean. Tho fleets of France and Spain sustained themselves with bravery, in many conflicts ; and the province of Florida, which Great Britain had received from Spain in 1763, was retaken by that power. A war so wholly unsuccessful and disastrous, drew upon the English ministry a large share of public odium. They were assailed by the press, and by the people at large , and compelled to resign. A new ministry was formed, of men favorable to Great Britain's acknowledging American Independ- ence, since her efforts to hinder it had, though attended with so _ much expense, proved unavailing. This was therefore doni5 by |) i the treaty of Paris, Sept. 3d, 1783. By this treaty. Great Bri n„«j„ tain lost Tobago and Senegal, ceded to France; Minorca and Florida, ceded to Spain; and the United States of America", mode independent. But she, as has been related, had gained an emf ir.g in India. 1783. 9. The British armies having been withdrawn, those "jf tho Amy di&- United States were disbanded ; not, however, without danger to the peace and liberty of the country. This danger Wash- T. Relate the operations of Washington until he arrived at Yorktown, By whom were the British invested by sea? What was the result of these combined operations? — S. What other disasters did Great Britain meet? What was done in regard to the ministry ? By what treaty did G-etit Bri- tain acknowledge the American independence ? What territorieo aid Grea» Britain lose by this treaty ? — 9. Did the American army disband withouv any danger to the country ' wavxe's war — jay's treaty. 435 ington quelled by his influence, — frowning with severe disdain ■^q'^"-^ g" on intimations of making liim a king. He then presented his per'd vir accounts to congress, detailing with exactness his 'jxpenditures; chav. i. but refusing for liis personal services to accept an} tiling, eitJier 's^~v">^ for himself or his relatives. Having resigned his oliices, and ^?^'''"f,' given a farewell embrace to his officers, he retired to the liisimereej seclusion of a happy home. The articles of Confederation, edncbs. which liad bound the states in war, were now inadequate to their GTovernnient. A convention met, and made Washinp^ton its presi- „*''^^T' . . . Convention detit; wjien the present constitution of the Republic was framed, at riniadti it was adopted; and Washington was unanimously cliosen -..J'ifQ to be " the lirst in peace," as he had been " the first in war." wastiinpton JoH.\ Adams was elected vice president, Thomas Jefferson fic^ed pte- 1 i' rr meet? What was the hearing of the third estate ? What point did they make and how suc- ceed in carrying it ? Who was the leader, or liead of the coinmons ? What, according to M. Thiers, was the object of the clergy in consenting to sit in the room with the commons? — 1. What was the assembly engaged in do- ing ? What military corps was formed ? By whom did the people fear that the assembly would be overawed, and wha' d.d they do? What day was tlie Bastile destroyed and what occurred two days after? 438 THE MOB AT VERSAILLES. Modem uio of jhe excitemciit and agitalion, all of which had been con- I'ER'D VII. ("ealed from hini he visited the assembly, tlirew himself upon CHAP. II. its protection and ordered the retreat of the troops. He nexl *~«"'''~'"^"'**^ visited Paris, where he was received with demonstrations of at- r tachment; which he strengthened by conlirming the ap]>oill^ ments made by the assembly. I jji^yj. 5. The king and royal fiimily gave a splendid fete at Ver bailees sailles, on the tirst day of October. This was told to mothers^ 5u/of whose children were suffering with famine ; and on the moni- October, ing of the fiftli, a multitude of women in Paris rose, and set up the cry of bread! bread! and demanded to be led to Versailles. The rising became general, and arms were seized. La Fayette. (This unable to stop the mob, accompanied them to Versailles, at the honor- ^^"^^ ^^ ^^^^ national guards. The women went first — the able as crowd surrouuded the palace;— the king appeared, and gratified "a Fay- them by promising to go to Paris. The queen was menaced otte, is dnrino- the day; but at evening, thousrh the mob were at Ver- told l)v • o' 3 many sailles, all seemed quiet. This, La Fayette reported to the king writers and queen, urging, hov.-ever, the placing within the palace of ad- to' cast ditional guards. The queen refused; — blindly distrusting him. for his ^^^ ^^^^^ retired for a short repose. During the last hours of iiavins the night, some of the more violent of the mob found an un- tcfsleep. guarded entrance into the palace, — sought the queen's apartment, M- and would have murdered her, had she not escaped to another, in his' La Fayette, informed of these disorders, which would have '^'^''^ been prevented, had he been permitted to station the guards sets the within the palace, threw himself among the infuriated mob, ii"hi'^) '^"^ saved the body guard, whom they were about to massacre. He next sought the queen — persuaded her to go with him to the balcony, where he bowed to her, and kissed her hand with profound respect; and the changeful multitude seeing his devo- tion, shouted " Vive la Heine." The royal family removed to Paris ; the National Assembly followed ; and its presence, with the exertions of La Fayette, for a time calmed the tumults of the populace, and restored a temporary quiet to the city. B'YOO- 6. Jn the National Assembly were men of noble motives, and tionai disinterested conduct; but while they proceeded with the work Assem- of uprootiuor aucieut usajjes, thev somelime.s destroyed too bly loriu . ~ ^ o ' ^ * aconsti- unsparingly the good with the bad. The remains of the old feudal system were cleared away ; the lands belonging to the religious houses were converted to the use of the nation \ and the estates of those who fled from France on the repeal of the edict of Nantes, were ordered to be restored. With the vast landed property of the church, which fell under the control of 4. What further occurred in resard to foreisn troops ? What pop'.ilar measures were now taken by tlie kins:? — 5. Relate the disturbances of'tlie fifth oi' October. — The occurrences of the niglit. The conduct of La Fay- ette. VVliat removal was made by the royal i'amily ? — 1». What is here re- marked I))' the National Assembly, (called also the Constituent Assembly,) and of their acts ? How did ihey f rovide the fund for carrying their objects into efTect 1 1^ timon. K.SCAI'K AM) CAITUKK OK 'JlIK ROYAL FAIMIKY. 43^ the assembly, and with llu; coiirisciilcil (Kniiains of the ciiiiiJiiaiit -^/'"/"i " //»■ nolilily, llicy ccuistiUitud a ruiul lor llio iiiilioiial use; and on i>r,K'» vn. lliis basis, issued llicir |mp(;r sciniritics, wliicb passed ciiiiciil, (iiat. ii uiid recu^ived die iiaiiu; of dssigiuils. Hut wldle llie assembly ^■^'"v^^w was laboriuij; lo comiileU! ihc eoiislitulion, tlie kiiij*' asseulinir to '''i""'' their acts, various eomil(;r movements were in operation Marie nrtii.. Anlciinette neither loved nor trnstiid the rreneh peo|)le. While '^A"?!,"' thia btuHitilnl and aceoni|)lishe(l woman was liie idol of tln^ court, nciMiiiy. >hc was censured by tin; nation lor her exlravanance and levity; m^^fJJ,. and charged wuh mon; erinu^s than she had eonnnitted. The me ''['''",','' loo stronir lor them to coj)e with, and lln;y, dc'sirous to escaj)e, I'rami) were in corresponchMice with die emperor of Austria, and ex- "uiIh" pccted an armed l'orc(! to come to dieirassistance. The catholic '"'"'■ clergy were seeking ;it honu', by base means, to destroy the new order ol" things. On tin; oiIku* hand, among the revolu- tionisls, cltihs were formed, (imoiig whieli was llml of the Jaco- bins, who stirred up the j)eople to censuri; the measun^s of the new governiuent, as too uioderute, and too lenient to lh(! prin- ciples of monarchy. 7. Meantimi! the crowned heads nf Kiu'ope, alainird at die (TIm* prevalent^; of princij)Ies which tencUnl to disoigani/.(! their own a^mmi! slates, now threatened to interfere for tin; purnose of restorinj«: My Um] the autliority of liouis. On the north an Austrian army was "(-rcu approaching !■' ranee, command(!d by the (hdu; of liuuNsvviCK. "y''- It was soon known that its ()l)ject was to allord protecMJon to wonlH" the royal fanuly, who escaj)ed at inght from I'aris. Incenscul 'j[|^/j'[,'|," at their (hslrust and intenlion of joining their enemies, tin; peo- way in pie ])ursu(;(!, — arrested the royal fuj^itives at Varennes, and car- „,',] \\. ritHJ them back to the capilal. 'J'/ie srnsr (f jiersonol dmif^er '"r'y. arising irom the near approach of a hostile army, with whom pcoiii.! their own sovereigns were in league, roused up tin; [)(!oj)le Jjl^''."'. to an agony which hid to horrid (Useds. Paris becanu! a <:iit mo- scene of tumult and uj)roar, and Uie whole kingdom was con- ,'),"[.„ vulsed. In the assend)ly, viohMit discussions arose. Some with maintained, that Louis had, by his (light, abdicated the throne ; u,'^","\- and the more violent demanded his execution. The new con- '''J';*^" stitution being completed, September 29th, 1791, the Constituent ii^Ot Assend)ly declared its l)usiness accomplisJKul ; and not oidy dis- <'"iihii. solved, but decreed, with more magnanimity than wisdom, that A«'«r'ii- no member of its own body should be eligible to a re-election, '''y '''",■ O. VVIiat movuim Ills coiinler lo the Naiioiiai AsKcriibly p Tiannlcd from iho court? Wliut Iroiii thn nohiliiy? VVlial from the CH!r;;;y ? What •'.niont; iho rcvDiiiiioiiiHiH ? — 1. What daiiK'T llir(!ai(;n«!(l iho rL-vohiiioniMlH from liio Hiirri)iiii(liii^f liiii^'H ? Wliat armed lor in wim on iIk; north? l''or what purpose; (hd il iipproacli tin; ('((iiniics ol l''raii('(), and what wan ijoim hy Iho royal lamily ? What wa.s the rcHull ol thiH iiilcmpt toeBCapo? Whul ivuij doiio by liio Natioiiul Coiiblilueiit ABbciuMy t MU PMUKXSY OF THE REVOLUTIONISTS. Modern His g. Deputies being chosen, the '•'•Legislative JissemMy^'''' coia- PER'D VII. posed of men ignorant and violent, convened October 14{h. CHAP. II. Roland was now minister of the interior and Dumourier for ^■^'''^^"*°^ foreign affairs. Francis II., emperor of Austria, imperatively f'^t^ad' demanded tlie restoration of the old order of things, and was vocaies preparing to enforce his demand by the sword. On the 20th fut^onai ^^ March, the assembly declared war against him. Marechal nio- Kochambeau, La Fayette, and Luckner, commanded the French narc ly ) ;j^j.j-j^jgg . j^^^ j^^-^gj, ^j-, unsuccessful invasion of Belgium, then under the Austrian yoke, their operations became merely defensive Their want of success is ascribed to the malignant influence of tlie factions in the army which were opposed to the Assembly. La Fayette was at the head of the party, in favor of a constitu- tional monarchy. He wrote to the Legislative Assembly, find- ing it departing from first principles. Members threatened bis royal life, — when suddenly he appeared at the bar of the house, lie bu™iy conjured the deputies to respect the constitution, and warned spurn them of the danger arising from the Jacobin chiefs. He also frieiid^ appealed to the national guards, by whom he was gready be- who loved. The court, which he wished to save, unhappily still have distrusted him ; and thus, themselves defeated his measures for ihenf '■heir preservation ; and La Fayette returned in despair to the army. 9. Prussia had joined Austria, and the combined army, amount- ing to 115,000 men, advanced and entered the French territory; when the duke of Brunswick published a manifesto, threatening the assembly with the loss of their heads, and all Paris with destruction, if the slightest insult was offered to the royal family. Such insults had already been offered. The revolutionists grew Th^*^ frantic. Destruction must do a work, — and they naturally sought tenth of to scrccn themselves, by turning it upon their enemies, domestic a fatal' and foreign. In Paris all was uproar and agitation. Tlie tocsin ^^^Yte^ was sounded, the drums beat, and armed men assembled, — or- royai ganized and united ; and early in the morning they besieged the ami y 'i^yi^gj.jgg^ Louis with his family, once more beheld its beau- tiful garden, as they passed to enter the house of deputies, and claim the protection o^ the assembly. After the king left the palace, the rioters massacred the Swiss guards. They then sur- rounded the assembly, which yielding to their demands, passed a vote to detlirone the king. The Luxembourg was first as- signed him as his residence ; thence he was transferred, a pri- soner, to the Temple. 10. After these events. La Fayette, ever true to constitutional liberty, seeing that it could no longer be maintained, attempted, 8. What assembly next convened, and when ? Who were now the king's ministers ? What was done by the emperor of Austria, and by the French in consequence ? What miUtary arrangements are here noticed ? What was done by La Fayette? — 9. What army was advancing upon Paris? Wh^i declaration or manifesto was published by the duke of BrunswicK.? What was now the situation of the revolutionists and their conduct? What was that of the roval family ? •"J EXECUTION OF LOllS XVI. 441 u'llli foui of his friends, to escape to America; but they were •^^"'^'""" -^^ made prisoners by the Austrian?, and contrary to the laws of per'Ovil nations, immured for four years in the dreary dungeons of chap. ii. Ohnutz. France was now divided into violent parties, hi the ^-^""V^*-' Legislative Assembly were the Feuillants or Constitutionalists, ^„^^Jgl the Girondists, who were not ill disposed towards the king, and offered s Ihe Jacobin or Mountain party, so called from their occupying '["^^gy" S the highest and central seats in the chamber of session. The if he g Jacobins were blood-thirsty agitators, and they held their clubs leuact '^ in Paris, which were presided over by Danton, Robespierre, ^}^ ^^n- ^ and Marat, afterwards called " the Infernal Triumvirate." in favor l^ 1 1. The combined army made themselves masters of Longicy "[.f/'il"" and Verdun. The conmume of Paris, when informed of this, beny.) gave orders for the general massacre of the royalists. About three hundred murderers were employed in the horrid service, l'V92. and three days were devoted to the inhuman butchery. The S'^p^' 1 1 1 1 ■ • 1 ■ • 1 Massa- assembly and the mmistry attempted m vam to arrest the mas- ere of sacre ; the soldiers who guarded the prisons were unable to af- 'a^is°s^' ford their unhappy iiunates relief. The Legislative Assemblv closed their career, and were succeeded by an assembly still more violent, called the '•'• JValional Convention.'''' The regal poicer ^^- ^''• u-as declared to be abolished and a republic established. Vio- public, lent contests occurred in the assembly between the factions of the Gironde and the Mountain; the former reprobated the mas- 17'93. sacre, and wished to save the kino-, — the latter ffloried in their •'?"• ^'- deeds of blood, and determined to destroy not only the king, but xvi. all persons who were opposed to their own violent measures, jjeaded The Jacobins prevailed. Louis was tried, condemned, and on the twenty-fifth of January he was brought to the guillotine, an innocent victim of the crimes of his predecessors. 12. The execution of the king rendered parties irreconcilable, l'Y93. and called down upon the nation the vengeance of monarchial 'irsi Europe. England put forth her energies, and through her toall- money and influence The First Coalitton was formed against tlOIl. France, in which all the European poicers united., except Sioe- den, Denmark and Turkey. Before the trial of Louis, Du- niourier had been placed at the head of the French armies, and (There sent against the Prussians. At Vahmi he obtained some advan- ^coaiu" tage, and the Prussians retreated. The French next recovered 'J"."^, Verdun and Longwy, and finally achieved the conquest of Bel- France' g'mm. Dumourier now invaded Holland, took Breda and Ger- ^J",^" truvdenberg, but was recalled to the command in Belgium, time to • o 7 1815 where the Austrians had, in their turn, been successful. He jnciu- hazarded an engagement at JVeer- winden^ and was defeated. ^'^'^O lO. What was the course pursued by La Fayette when a peaceful revolution chansfed to violence and outrage ? Give an account of the principal parties in France. — 1 1. When informed ihat dansjer was threaten- ing Paris, by the approach and success of the invading army, what horrid massacre was perpetrated? What contention arose among the factions? Which prevailed, and what was done ? — 1.^. What immediate consequences resulted from the exerutiin of the king ? Relaic some of the mihtary ope- rations in the north. 56 i o o 442 THE INFERNAL TniUMVERATE. Modern Jlis. PER'D VII. CHAP. II. (In the war of La Veii- deo, says Mr. Alison, oerished fJDfiOO men, 15,000 wo- men, and 22,000 chil- dren. The executions ordered in Paris, Nantes, and I>yons, about 60,000.) fl^94. (.Madam Tallien person- ates the goddess of Rea- § son.) Death of Marat and Robes- pierre. r (Abbe Sieyes influen- tial in forming ^' the c; third o consti- tution.) g^ 15 K ?« ^ i-yss. Napo- leon Bsna- parte.) 13. Meanwhile an insurrection liad taken place in La Vendee, which held out for the king; and the most heart-sicTiening scenes of destruction and carnage, want and destitution there occurred. This and other events increased the rigor of the con- vention, and the hatred of the parties. The Girondists were overthrown ; — the Mountain faction obtained supreme authority, and the "• Reign of Terror" began. The once gay, and still beautiful queen, after having suffered for tlie necessaries of life in the gloomy prison of the Conciergerie, was condemned and executed. The leaders of the Girondists were also put to death, and Danton, Robespierre, and Marat, in the name of the republic, exercised with arbitrary despotism, cruelties the most barbarous. Licentiousness and profligacy walked forth un- veiled : even the forms of religion were destroyed ; and Ciiris- tianity was declared a nullity. The Sabbath was abolished; and one day in ten set apart, not for religion, but for idleness and licentiousness. The goddess of reason, personilied by a naked prostitute, was drawn in triumph through the streets of Paris ; and the municipal officers of the city^ and the members of the JS'ational Convention of France^ joined publicly in the impious parade. 14. Of the three despots, Marat was assassinated by Char- lotte CoRDAY, a young girl, self-devoted to the good of her country. Danton was condemned through the instrumentality of Robespierre. This atrocious man, for a time, maintained the sway alone ; but at last, deserted by his associates, he was con- demned by the convention ; and the guillotine, which had, during his reign of nearly two years, shed the innocent blood of thou- sands, for once let fall the sti-oke of justice, and delivered the earth from a ferocious monster. 15. Meanwhile, the republican armies under Jourdan and Pichegru, had retrieved the honor of the French; and in the Netherlands and elsewhere achieved many conquests. After the fall of Robespierre and his associates, the revolutionists began to see that, if blood continued to flow, their own must soon swell the tide. The constitution was remodelled, so as to be- come less democratic, and the executive government was in- trusted to a Directory .f consisting of five persons. The legisla- tive body was formed of two councils, that of the " ancients," of two hundred and fifty, and the " council of five hundred." All laws were to originate with the five hundred, but not to pass without the sanction of the ancients. Some of the provisions of the new constitution oflended the Parisians and the National Guards, 30,000 of whom rose in arms. Barras, one of the 13. What is said of ihe war in La Vendee 1 (Examine also the side note.; Wliat party or faction now gained the ascendancy? Who was now sacri- ficed ? Who were the "Infernal Triumvirate?" What impious declara tion was made ? What infamous rites were celebrated, and who joined publicly? — 14-. What was the fate of Marat? Of Danton? Of Robe8- pierie? — 15. Under what generals were the French armies? Were they successful ? How was the government now remodelled ? Did this third constitution pass without tumult? What occurred? NAPOLEON BOr^APARTE. 443 directors, brought forward and placed at the head of the regular -'^'>'itT<* ^"- troops, a young Corsican ollicer, who promptly reduced them to i'er'd vii. order. He had distinguished himself at the siege of Toulon, cuap. in. He was Napoleon Bonaparte. v.i^~v^>ii.» CHAPTER HI. Victorious Career of Napoleon Bonaparte 1. Austria and England were now the only powers of the l'?95~6. first order engaged in the war against France; the others having (Uonu- withdrawn from the coalition. Bonaparte was raised to the MngniVmob rank of general, and intrusted by the directors, who medi- reconimend- tated the conquest of Austria, with the command of the army Directory, of Italy. MoREAU led the army of the Sambre and Meuse, brou"ii"hiin which was to press forward on the eastern frontier of Germany ; forwani.) and Jourdan commanded that of the Rhine. A junction of these three armies was desicjned to take place at Vienna. Mo- reau and Jourdan crossed the Rhine. The Austrian generals *^^'»- were unable to withstand them, and all Germany was filled with consternation. The imperial forces at length united, and under J""r'ia" ^e- r o ' fe^lPQ nv the die ARCH-DUKE Charles, they attacked Jourdan and defeated arcnduke. liim. By this event, Moreau, who had advanced 200 miles, Moreau'? 1 celebratei f\nd had the defiles of the Black Forest in his rear, was placed retreat in a dangerous position. His safe retreat, made under the most ""''^'jFV*'" embarrassing and dangerous circumstances, is considered a great Foiest military exploit. 2. Bonaparte, meanwhile, advanced into Italy, passing round the soutliern extremity of the Alps, and keeping near the shores jtwjv-TE- of the Mediterranean. At Monte Notte, he encountered the ■N'ottk. Austro-Sardinian army, and here obtained his first victory. He j^j^^^^ssi cgain defeated his enemy at Millesimo, then at Mondovi. In mo. less than a month, he had gained three battles, destroyed 25,000 isth. of the enemy's forces, and made himself master of the mountain "Bo^l^Tianc^ passes. Pressing forward, he crossed the Po, and attacking ^^st victo- with desperate bravery the Austrians, at the bridge of Lodi, he 'AuMrfana.' forced their general, Beaulieu, to retreat upon Mantua. Milan May ii. submitted to his arms, and ikose powers of Italy heretofore neu- ^o^^'- iral or interested in the Austrian cause, iioto sought the friend- Chap. III. — 1. What first-rate powers were engaged in war againot France in 1795-6 ? What conquest did ilie directory now meditate ? Who led the three armies provided, and what was their destination? What success had the two armies sent against Germany in the first instance? What was afterwards the position of Jourdan ? What was then done by Moreau ? — 2. Describe the course of Gen. Bonaparte until after his first and second victory ? R-jlatc his third. Wnat imporfant city submitted to him ? 444 BONAPARTE'S GREAT ITALIAN CAMPAIGN. Modern His. I'y96. ■ Auc'ist CASTI- iiLIOJ^E. TIED OLA. Bonaparte victorious over Wurm- ser and the Austrians- September. ROVERE- DO. Bonaparte defeats Da- vidovich. BJiSSAJ\rO. lie defeats Wurmser. CALDIE- RO. Bonaparte repulsed by Alvinzi. Nov. 15 16 and 17. ARCOLA. Bonaparte defeats Al- vinzi. ship of ihe conqueror The dukes of Parma and ModeiVa, the grand duke of Tuscany, and even the pope were compelled to purchase his favor, — not only with money and provisions, but with their finest paintings and statuary, which were transported to Paris. 3. Mantua was now the only place of strength which re-- mained to the Austrians in Italy; and to this Bonapaite laid Siege. To defend it, 80,000 Austrians were despatched into Italy, under the command of Wurmser. Learning thai the divisions of this army had unwisely been so far extended a,3 to prevent easy communications with each other, Bonaparte left Mantua, and advancing unexpectedly, defeated one division at Lonato, and another at Castiglione. Wurmser, on learning this, advanced with his main force ; when, at Medola, victory again declared for the French. These three defeats had destroyed nearly half the Austrian army. 4. Bonaparte now resumed the siege of Mantua, which had in the meantime received supplies of men and provisions. Wurmser, who had retreated to the Tyrol, having been re-in- forced by 20,000 men, left Davidovich in command of a strong force, and himself moved again towards Mantua. Bonaparte waited only until Wurmser had entirely separated his two divi- sions, when leaving a small force at Mantua, he proceeded rapidly towards Roveredo, attacked and defeated Davidovich. He then, with astonishing celerity, marched upon the advance guard of Wurmser, attacked and defeated it; and the next day obtain- ed a decided victory over the main body, under Wurmser, at Bassano. This general, as a last effort, succeeded in throwing himself, with a remnant of the Austrian army, now reduced to 16,000 men, into Mantua. 5. Another Austrian army, under Alvinzi, was sent to re- lieve that city. Bonaparte met him at Caldiero, and was re- pulsed ; but at Areola, where he fought three days, he was again victorious. Thus closed the wonderful campaign of 1796; — which the minister of war reported thus to the direc- tory, " Italy has been entirely conquered — three large armies entirely destroyed — fifty stands of colors have been taken — forty thousand Austrians have laid down their arms : — all has been accomplished by an army of thirty thousand Frenchmen, commanded by a general, scarce twenty-six years old." About this time, Corsica, the native land of Bonaparte, was, by hia 3. What was the result of this brilliant success ? Which of the sove reigns of these states made their submission, and with what were they com- pelled to purchase the favor of the conqueror? — 3. .Vhat strong fortress lield out for Austria? What was done in reference to it? By what army did the Austrians attempt to defend it ? How did Bonaparte destroy nearly half this army? — 1. Relate Bonaparte's three next victories. 'I'o what number was Wurniser's army reduced, and what, as a dernier resort, did he do? — 5. What general was next sent by the Austrians? What battles did Bonaparte fiaht with this army, and with what success? What did the French minister report to the Directory cciice'-Ziing this astonishing cam paign ? What is said of Corsica PEACE OF CAMPO FORMIO. 445 agency, reunited to France. The destructive Civil war of La •^^'"^e'-» Hie Vendee was ably and iionorabl)' brought to a close by geneual per'd vii. HocHE, at the head of 100,000 men. ' "^hap. m. 6. The i^ustrians reinforced the army of Alvinzi. Bonaparte, **^~^^^*«-' at !\Iontebahlo, failed of his usual success; but, in a desperate 1797. bailie at Kivoli, lie was again victorious, when Mantua surren- ^'^Io'^^te- dered, and Italy was conquered. Bonaparte now advanced to- baldo. wards Austria. Vienna was in alarm, and the humbled court repui'sed.* now consented to negotiations, which were opened at Idem- \^I^y^?i berg on the 9ih of April. While waiting for authority from Uonaparte the Directory to complete the treaty, the young conqueror sate victorious. down at Monlebello, in the vicinity of Milan; where ambassa- peac"of dors from Germany, the popedom, Genoa, Venice, Piedmont, p°'^,'"f'"^ and the Swiss Republic, gathered around him, each seeking his lease of La favor. On the 17th of October the treaty was concluded at f^^^'H^o^ Campo Formio. 7'o France was ceded Flanders, Savoy, and the extension of its boundary to the Rhine. 7. Austria was to be indemnified by receiving a part of the territories of Venice. An insurrection in that city, with the murder of some of the French soldiery, during the absence of Bonaparte, afforded him a pretext to conquer that republic. The Austrians took possession of some of its provinces, and ,j*7^^r the French the remainder, with the capital. Naples was form- publics ed into a Parthenopean Republic The Cisalpixe Repub- ,[°J"a^; Lie was formed of the French portion of the duchy of iMilan, buriesquwi and several other Italian states. The constitution of Genoa used'toTe- also was changed, and it received the name of the Ligurian signate a Republic. About the same time Holland was conquered by '^pm'vince Pichegru, and the Bataviax Republic there established. An ,"r"!^n""''' insurrection took place in Rome, of which the French troops ment.) taking advantage, occupied die city, subverted the papal govern- ment, and established the Roman Republic. French influence also produced a revolution in Switzerland, where the French arms, after several battles, triumphed, and the Helvetian Re public was established. Geneva was united to France. 8. In the meantime the English, now left single handed to contend ivilh France, had maintained their superiority at sea, and in successive engagements, defeated the French and their (Enpiish allies. The Directory of France, victorious on the continent, ^i/rmedata but disturbed by factions and disorders at home, — perhaps un- prospector willing to retain in Paris a general, who possessed ambition, ^^^"[011,)'* 5. What of the disastrous war of La Vendee? — 6. Relate (he battles foughi in the beginning of the year 1797 between Bonaparte and Alvinzi. What was the consequence of the victory of Rivoli ? VVhat course did the French commander take after the conquest of Italy ? When and where did negotiations begin? Where was now the young conqueror, and how surrounded? Give some account of the peace of Campo Formio. — 7. Relate the iniquitous proceedings with respect to Venice. Enumerate the burlesque republics which the French now formed of their con- quered provinces. Show on your maps the location of each. VVhat city was united to France ? — 8. What had been the fortune of war on the Bcae? 446 BOXAPARTK IX EGYPT Modern His, -^^j unlimited power over the troops, now planned a new and I'ER'D VII. singular enterprise, — tlie conquest of Egypt. The preparations CHAP. in. were made under pretence of an expedition against England, --"'''N/''"'*"^ and the command was given to Bonaparte. He embarked at Sonaparte Toulon, and on his passage he achieved the conquest of Malta , '^ " and though pursued by the British fleet, he arrived in safety at A'n'^r- Alexandria. He ascended the Nile, and near Cairo, in sight of RAMiDS. those monuments of antiquity, lie gained the sar»guinary battle iiefeai's^he "^^ ^^e Pyramids, over the Mamelukes, under Murad Bey, whose Mamelukes, cavalry had been regarded as invincible. Cairo surrendered , t^M era Egypt. Egypt was conquered, and the remnant of the Mamelukes dis persed and fled. l'^9S- 9- Admiral Nelson, the hero of the British navy, commanded oj^ THE a fleet, which followed the French to the bay of Aboukir, near Neisoii the mouth of the Nile, where their vessels were moored; and gains a great ^fter a bloody battle, entirely defeated them, and nearly destroy- Bi^iao" ed their ships ; — thus rendering the English masters of the Me Feb. 11. diterranean, and placing the French army in a perilous situation (Bonaparte Learninor that the Turks had assembled two armies for the de- is euiitv of 3 111 1 • 1 destroying feuce oi Egypt, Bonaparte traversed the desert which separates atjaffa4,ooo Africa from Asia; and entering Palestine, he defeated anothei prisoners bod)'' of Mamelukes, and took Gaza and Jaffa. Bent upon the down their conquest of Syria, he invested Acre, but receiving a repulse arms under fj-Qm the English, under Sir Sydney Smith, he was compelled njgQiTg^ re- o ■' ^ • ^^ ^ J. ceive°(i from to raise the siege, when he retired into Egypt. A Turkish army his oiiicers.) ]-^ay[i^.(j landed at Aboukir, Napoleon advanced against it, and Bonaparte obtained another decisive victory. Intelhgence iron Europe entirely de- ^ow iuduced him to abandon Egypt; and leaving his army un- sirovs 3, ^"^ ■*■ . ^ Turkish der Kleber, he returned to France with secrecy and despatch, '^o'ooo"*' O'^ ^^^ ■''^^^ °f December, 1799, died George Wasihxgto.v^ the father of his country, whose death filled the American peo- ple with unaffected sorrow. 179S 10. While Bonaparte was engaged in Egypt, a reverse of Second fortune had taken place in the French affairs. A " Second Coa- Coalilion. lition" had been formed against France, composed of England, Russia, Naples, the Ottoman Porte, and Austria. The Austrian vrar had been renewed. The archduke Charles having won two battles over Jourdan, had penetrated Switzerland. The Russians and Austrians, under Suwarrow, had defeated the ^Rufsfa'ns'' French at Cassano, and madg themselves masters of Milan and tinder Su- Turin. In short, repeated defeats had deprived the French of feat the ^^^o^^h ^^^ their conquests in Italy. In other quarters, the arms warrow de- feat the French, of France were more successful. Under Massena, they defcatfid 8. What new project was got up by the Directory ? Give an account of Bonaparte's expedition against Egypt. — 5>. What important naval iiattle was fonght, and what were the results ? Relate the circumstances of Bona- parte R invasion of Syria. What bad action was he guilty of at Jaffa ? (See note. What battle did Bonaparte gain after his return to Egypt ? Whither did he go? Whose death occurred, and when ? — lO. What nations were parties to the second coalition against France? What had been done by the Austrian armies in Italy? How liad the French sicceeded in other quarters ? BONAl'ARTE S SECOND CAMPAICiN IX ITALY. 447 a Russian army in Switzerland, and took Zurich. A combined •"/'■> ^"-n Uis Englisli and Mussian army, under the duke of York, which had per'D vii. invaded Holland, was, alk^r some partial successes, compelled lhap. in. to retreat. ^^^-\^*»^ 11. France was torn by factions, which the directorial go- 1799 Nov. 11. govern- ment modi- fied. Bona- parte First Consul. 3 ISOO. Bonaparte crosses Mt St. Bernard June 14. MJiREJf- GO- vcrnmcnt could not manage. Bonaparte, with the Abbe Sieyks, ^Zncix planned another revolution, in which he took care to be ap- p tinted to the command of all the military in Paris. The legislative body, (met at St. Cloud,) like Cromwell, he ex- pelled from their place of session, at the point of the bayonet, 'i'hree Consuls were appointed, of wliom Bonaparte was first. Placed now at the head of the French nation, he made earnest overtures of peace to England^ hit they were haughtily rejected. Faissia, however, abandoned the coalition. 12. Moreau had now the command in upper Germany, and Bo- naparte invaded Italy with 30,000 men. He crossed Mount St. Bernard, through passes heretofore deemed inaccessible, sur- prised the Austrians, conquered the country to the Po, and re- stored the Cisalpine Republic. Melas, the Austrian general, had left what he deemed a sufficient force to guard the passes of the Alps, and with the main army advanced upon Genoa. Leaving there a besieging force, h-e marched towards France, encountered the French, under Si:chet, and compelled them to retreat. On the eve of invading France, he received the as- tounding intelligence of Bonaparte's passage over iVTount St. dJfeat'^rtho Bernard. Melas turned back, and on the plains of Marengo, ^'JJ^^'^J^'p^^"^ the hostile armies met. The shock was terrific •, but the fierce ue\as and bloody encounter left the French masters of the field. This jj^("^'jj;^, battle restored to France almost all she had lost in the preceding lim-j/ej^ campaign; and was followed by an armistice, which extended '^'^J.f,s",he'' to the armies on the Rhine. Moreau had crossed the Rhine, Austrians. penetrated Bavaria, and gained the battle of TTohcnlinden where jj'jl^^l^ry i he took 10.000 prisoners, and entered Austria. Negotiations pcagg of for peace were now opened at Luneville. The several repub- lics founded by the French were acknowledged •, and the Rhine was made the boundary between France and the German em- pire, A treaty of peace vvas made, at Florence, with Naples. The naval war had meanwhile been to the advantage of the English, to W'hom Malta had surrendered. 13. In the north of Europe afiairs wore a new aspect. Paul, now emperor of Russia, won over by the policy of Bona- parte, evinced a hostile spirit towards the English, and laid an embargo on their shipping. He also engaged Denmark and liincTille with Aus- tria. Peace of Florence witli tr.e Italiai\n. 11. What did Bonaparte find to do when he returned irom Egypt? Who aided him in changing the government? How was the new revolu- tion effected? What were the three first magistrates caller], and who was first of the three ? What did the First Consul in regard to England ? What nation abandoned the coalition ? — l?i. Relate Bonaparte's second invasion of Italy. The movements of Melas. The battle of Marengo. What ar- mistice was made ? What in the meantime had been done by Moreau ? What treaties of peace were now made ? What is said of the naval war ? 13 Who was Paul, and what was done by him? 44S BONAP.\RTE FIRST CONSUL. Modern His. PER'D VII. CHAP. III. lS02. Peace of Ajiiiens. (England agreed to restore Malta.) Bonaparte first consul for life. (Jonaparte's bad treat- jient of the negro great uian, Tons- saint Lou- vertii'e. ^England refused to restore Malta) The young ^ duke D'Bngliien sbot. Sweden in an ^^ Armed JYeutralUy,'''' the object of vvhidi was to injure England. The English despatched ships to the Baltic took possession of the Danish feet, and attacked Copenhagen, thus obliging the Danes to sue for peace. The death of Paul produced another change. His son, Alexander, by mediating between England and France, effected a peace between them. It was favorable to France ; England restoring all conques*' except Trinidad and Ceylon. Peace was also concluded be tween France and the Porte. The English and Turkish army had defeated the French forces in Egypt, and restored that country to the Turks. Bonaparte was now consolidating his power, by seeking the favor of every class. He re-established the Roman catholic religion, revived the priesthood, re-orga- nized the national institute, permitted the emigrants to return, and pleased the officers of the army, already devotedly attached to his person, by creating the " Legion of Honor," a military aristocracy, of which himself was chief. He ivas declared by the seriate first consul for life. 14. In the French island of St. Domingo the negroes had risen upon their masters, and massacres succeeded. The Eng- lish invaded the island. The French colonists and negroes made peace, and together expelled the common enemy. Although still tributary to France, they adopted a new government, and Tous SAINT L'ouvERTURE, wliif, though a negro, possessed dis- tinguished talents and virtues, now held the first station on the island. The French attacked the islanders; Toussaint was treacherously made prisoner and tajcen to Paris, where Bona- parte disgracefully permitted the sable patriot to suffer and die in prison. The islanders resisted the French successfully, and maintained their liberty. 15. A year had not elapsed since the peace of Amiens, before Oie refusal of England to fulfil the treaty, produced a renewal of tlie war between France and that power. The Freiich seized the electorate of Hanover, and a British squadron block- aded the mouths of the Elbe and the Weser. It was at this period that Bonaparte stained his name by the murder of the duke D'Engh^ien. He had been accused of favoring those who conspired against the life of the first consul. He was arrested, and, after the form of a military trial, condemned, and shot in the trench of the castle of Vincennes. The obsequious senate now offered to Bonaparte the title of Emperor; and he prepared for the coronation of himself, and his consort, the charitable and elegant Josephine. 13. How did his hostility to England affect Denmark? Who was Paul' successor, and what is the first act related of him ? Give an account of th treaty of Amiens. In what was Bonaparte now occupied, and what mea sures did he bring to effect. — 1-1. What had been done in St. Domingo ? What oppressive act is related of Bonaparte? — 15. What caused the re- newal of war between France and England ? What possession of the Eng- hsh was seized by the French? What measure of retaliation did the British take by means of their navy ? What was done by Bonaparte in relation to the duke D'Enghien? Corontion of Napol<>on and Joseplune. PERIOD VIII. FROM THE COKONATION > 180-I < OF NAPOLEON. TO THE BATTLE J- I8I&. -5 OF WATERLOO. ;| 1815.^1 CHAPTER I. The Great Empire of Napoleon. 1 Napoleon was, with Josephine, vested with the imperia! dignity on the second of December, 1804. The pope, recon- ciled by the establishment of the catholic religion, assisted at the splendid ceremonial ; — crowned and anointed him, in the church of Notre Dame. Those stale;? which had been called republics, were now to be remodelled, and the Cisalpine and Liijuriaii were formed into the kingdom of Italy, of whicli Na- {^oleon was crottncd king at Milan Tims a second Charle- magne had arisen to restore for a brief season the empire of the first. 2. r.iifriar 1, with the inrtnence sh.e used, and the money witli Vi'iich she subsidized Hnssia snd Austria, now formed with them & Third Conlilion. Spain had already allied herself to France. P«apniton with his attached soldiers, — rapid as a mountain U'frent,-— iTossed the Riiine, — took prisoners an Austrian army p'R'D vm, CHAP. I. CaaliUcsL T EnioD VIII. — Chap. I. — 1. What account can you give of the coronation •^'.CTitioned ? What other coronation besides tha' of Paris is related? To lA ham may Napoleon be coiiipared,in respect to the empire which he ruled ? —'i. What powers now coalesced no-ainst France? What nation was with France? Give an account of Napoleon's iiivasioi; of Germany. 451 4.52 THE AUSTRIAN EMPIRE SUPERSEDES THE GEIIMAIV ^hdern Fhs at Uliii, 311(1 while Fraiicia and liis eourt fled to Hungary, en- o'R'p viu. tered his capital. At Austerlitz, on the anniversary of his coro- ^HAI^ I. nation, he met the united Austrian and Uussian irraies. From sunrise until evening, the battle was holly waged ; when the genius of Napoleon again prevailed, and the allies were citm- pelled to retreat, leaving to the French 30,000 prisoners, and an immense quantity of artillery. The successes of Ulm aud Austerlitz were followed by the treaty of Presburg, Austria now ., . deserting the coalition. scaeeoi g^ j^^ 1808, the ambitious views of Napoleon became still »' more apparent. Holland had, the preceding year, been formetl a8©6. jj^fQ ^ kingdom, of which his brother, Louis Bonaparte, was r*! . cuts UD O ' ^ ' nis "repub- made king. Naples was now given to Joseph Bonaparte, the k[n"d'o'ins ^Ider brother, who was also invested with the title of king for his reia- of the two Sicilies. Several provinces were constituted diiclueo, ''^'^^' or grand fiefs of the empire, and given to the emperor's relations and favorites. His sister, Pauline, was made princess of Guas- talla ; his brother-in-law Murat, grand-duke of Berg and Cleves ; while Eugene Beauharnois, the son of his empress Josephine by a former marriage, was sent viceroy to Italy. Fourteen princes in the south and west of Germany, were formed into the " Confederation of the Rhine.'''' They were separated from the Germanic body, and recognized Napoleon as their head, ^^kTrfonlll" ""der the title of Protector. The German empire now ceased Rhine. to cx'ist ; Franc[s II. laying doivn th-e title of emperor of Ger many., and assuming that of emperor of Jlustr'ia. Switzerland was also brought under the dominion of France, Napoleon de- claring himself its "■ ]\!ediator." 1SI>S. 4. Frederic William of Prussia, who had heretofore beers Fourth neutral, this year engaged in the war against France. The main Coalition, origin of his enmity was the duplicity of Napoleon, who ha;! Prussia eucoufaged the Prussians to seize the electorate of Hanover, fcoins En"- . . land. ° and who had since, in negotiating with Great Britain, offered to JEJ^-Ji. restore it. The Prussian army, Vv'ith their allies, amounted to tiie Prus-^ 110,000 men. Napoleon met tliem at Jena, with 150,000 and sians. obtained a complete victory. The different bodies of the Prus- ti'^s-p'ieii"" ^''^'^ army were, one after another, obliged to surrender, and in Dec. 2(i. little more than a month, the French took 140,000 prisoners, great numbers of standards, large quantities of artillery, and 'Berlin JccrCE. ' made themselves masters of the principal towns of the kingdom. ihswereifby ^i**^'" Berlin, Napoleou issued his famous decree, declaring the Uie British islands of Great Britain in a state of blockade, and prohibiting 'TfluiiuH.'M '^l^e countries under his government from all intercourse with '£. Of the battle of Austerlitz. What treaty followed this great battle ? — 3. Let the pupil study with the maps, and show upon them the new king- doms, or what would be much the beiier way, sketch on a slate, black- board, or paper ceniral and southern Europe with the new divisions. As the change in Germany bas remained, be particular to remember if. — 4-. Whr.t power now joined England in a fourth coalition against France ? What had provoked the king of Prussia ? Relate the military operations of the Prus- sians and b' reach with the Prussian losses. What system did Napoleon commence, and what decree issue from one of the capitals o. Prussia ? PEACE OF TILSIT 453 tnal Ration. He next detached Saxony from Prussia ; conferred •"/"■^^'-n JJia. upon tlie elector the dignity of king, and brought him into his p'r-d viu. alliance. The Prussian provinces on the lower Pihine were re- cuaf. i. iluced by an army from Holland, under Louis, — and Silesia, by a ^-^^"^^^^^-^ French army under Jeho3ie Bona.parte, a younger brother of Napoleon. 5. Russia became now seriously alarmed, and her armies ad- iJ^Of. vanced to protect her empire. At Pultusk, a battle was fought PULTuts between the French and Hussiaus, without any decisive result. ■x^^^'vrVmh Again at Eylau, from three o'clock in the afternoon until the next iiKiecisivc. night, the two armies fouglit, — when, about twelve o'clock, Feb. 8. the carnage ceased, the French keeping possession of the ^^'('f^' Held. The armies now, for some time, remained inactive. In tiie Rur- May, the French besieged and took Dantzic. The June follow- ^"'"^" ing, a decisive battle was fought at Friedland, where the ilus- i'un:i>. sians were defeated, and compelled to retreat with great loss, laj^d. This battle was followed by the capture of Konigsberg, and Pnopp r.9 by a personal interview between Alexander and Napoleon, who i{\\s\\ met on a raft in the middle of the river Niemen, for neither of these potentates would go to visit the other. The peace of 7'ilsit (Jerome had was concluded. Napoleon made hard conditions with Prussia, Mi"s'['am-r- stripping Frederic VVdliam of one-third of his dominions. Tlie son ocuuiti- brotliers of Napoleon were acknowledged in their dignities; and ins "low am- another of the family, Jerome Bonaparte, provided with a king- [','is'bni'i'iicr''d (lorn in Westphalia. i^ido, sem 6. Deimiark having manifested signs of hostility towards die America.) English, that government, fearing that Napoleon would possess himself of the Danish navy, demanded of the Danes to deposit iSOT- ,. ,. f. , ,. . ■ T-.--1 nil 1 1 'I'f I'.Iielisll tiieir ships oi tl;e Ime m some British port. 1 he haughty de- lake posscs- mand was refused. A British fleet was despatched to the Bal- J^'"" "'l""-' i-iic iT-v-i Danish flft't tic, conveying land forces, which defeated a Danish army, and invested Copenhagen. The city capitulated, and the shipping C"pp"i">^''n and naval stores were delivered up to die English. The Danish government refused to ratify tlie capitulation, and declared war against England. 7. Napoleon now turned his ambitious eye towards die south, coveting the peninsula of Spain and Portugal. He made a se- cret treaty with Charles IV. of Spain, bv which he was to send f^-"''">' ",''- French troops through the Spanish dominions, — take Portugal, maty he and then divide it with Spain. The French army, headed by France an.} JiTivoT, advanced towards Lisbon; and Napoleon declared that !*p.iin,ati.i the family of Braganza had ceased to reign. Under these cir- caiind "ti.o cumstances, the prince regent, (John VI.,) and royal family re- p','"'"'',"'^ solved to remove the seat of government to Brazil; and they 5. Relate the military operations of the Russians and French. What fol- lowed ihe baiile of friedland ? What conditions did Napoleon make wi;li Prussia? What new kingdom was made, and for whom? — O. Give an Dccount of the contest between the Danes and the English. — 7. What ad- diiion to his dominions did Napoleon now covet ? \Vhat treaty wae formed between him and the Spanish sovereign ? How did Napoleon contrive to gci an army into Spain i \Vhat declaration was made by NaDolcon 1 What was d.iiio by the royal family of Portugal ? ■t54 NAPOLEON AT BAYONNE — LA FAYETTE. Modiini ua. hag|iiy embarked in a British fleet, which had blockaded ihf. P'n'DVUi. city, and which now afforded ihem protection trora the French, CHAP. I. who soon after entered Lisbon. ^~*''~^^^**^ 8. The court of Madrid was agitated by the most violent lac tions, arising from the discords of the royal family, — no doubt 1S0S. fomented by the emissaries of Napoleon. ]n March, 1808, Frtncii^ Charles IV. abdicated tlie crown in favor of his son FERD!.\A^"D, cupy°Ma- VIII. Murat, with a French army, took possession of Madrid, (iud. Under these circumstances, Charles and Ferdinand, with the Ferdinand loyal family, were induced by Napoleon to go to Bayonne, °"aT!iie'!ite.''' where he compelled Ferdinand to abdicate, and the younger members of the family to renounce all claim, upon the Spanish crown. Pie retained them prisoners, and issued orders for an assembly of notables to meet at. Bayonne, to settle the govern- Bonaparte ment. No Spaniards, except the partisans of France, attended, king of Joseph Bonaparte, who resigned the kinffdom of Naples to MuRAT, the husband of Caroline Bonaparte, was here made king of Spain. Napoleon's base treachery towards Spain was, perhaps, his first fatal error. Ttie"Code 9. During this year a new system of French jurisprudence (four" years was published, Under the title of the " Code Napoleon." The In forming.) ablest jurists in France had been employed by the emperor in its formation ; he gave much personal thouglst and labor to it. and it now remains as his best title to future fame. Soon after the publication of this code. Napoleon established A univer- sity for the superintendence of national education. Nor did he entirely overlook the education of the female sex, though flimpan '^^ ^^''^ ^^^ ^''*^™ regarding the subject in its true light. The was the institution which he founded, and placed under the celebrated KeneJt" vveH ^J^^DAM Campan, was designed rather as a means of encouraging known in the military, than of elevating the female mind and character; history.) it being made for the daughters of the "Legion of Honor," especially those whose fathers fell in his service. 10. From Napoleon, let us turn for a moment to a less daz La Fayette, zling, but a more worthy character. La Fayette had for four years inhabited the gloomy dungeons of Olmutz. The empe- ror of Austria, appealed to by Washington in behalf of the -American people, and by other friends of justice and humanity, offered him his liberty if he would abjure his principles. No less the votary of truth than the friend of human riorhts. La Fayette would not tamper with a lie to save himself, or even SeitPDber ^^^^ dearer family, who had, with the generous devotion of truly 1797. noble French women, immured themselves with him. By the Ln Fayette treaty of Campo Formio, he received his liberty, at tlie instance from of Bonaparte. He retired to the chateau of La Grange, having oiEiutz, ijgen reinstated in that portion of his paternal inheritance. Na 8. Relate the coarse of events by which the kings of Spain, father and aon, became the prisoners of Napoleon. What new arrangements did ho make with his kings? What is remarked concerning Napoleon's conduct towards Spain? — IP. What is here said respecting the " Clodo Napoleon ?" What did Napoleon to encourage education? — lO. Give an account of l^a Favette since iiis capture by the Austrians WAUS OF THE SPANISH PATRIOTS. 455 pel eon sought to draw him thence, and make him anotlier sat- •'t/o'^ern mj. tellite m his system; but the patriot, though grateCul for his p'R'dviu. release, rejected every situation by which he wouhi have coun- chap. i. tenanced the military despotism to which his country was sub- ^■"^"•^"^'■'^ jected, and quietly gave himself to agricultural pursuits. 11. Spain, though believed to be degenerate, had yet her wars of the patriots, who would not tamely relinquish her national inde- p[7iktlr pendence. They roused to arms, although not less than 100,000 French troops were dispersed throughout the kingdom. The Spaniards were, indeed, enervated by that luxury, which the gold and silver of the Avest had brought in its train, but not to much, the peasantry, as the nobles. Provincial assemblies were formed, acknowledging the authority of Ferdinand Vll. ;and orders were issued for raising volunteers, and organizing ar- of cadiz. mies. The French fleet in the harbor of Cadiz, was com- f^''feaf J{|e pelled by its patriotic citizens to surrender; and a French army, French, near Almanza, was almost wholly destroyed. At Valencia too, jh.maj^- tliey learned Uiat the Spanish people, though destitute of regular f -'^Vpf " troops, would defend their soil. At Saragossa they were again saragos. repulsed with the loss of 12,000 men. In Andalusia, the French j, ^^/^j^ general, DuroNT, was defeated, and compelled to surrender his patnois d^- army. These victories placed the southern parts of the king- French^ dom entirely in the hands of the patriots. King Joseph mean- while arrived at Madrid, and assumed the reigns of government but learning the successes of the Spaniards, he retreated from the capital. 12. George III., of England, became insane; and his son, af- terwards George IV., was made regent. He formed an alliance with the Spanish patriots, and witli diose of Portugal, — who, following their example, now rose in arms against the French. *crt« The British despatched an army under Sin Arthur Wem.esley, riMFjRA which landed in Portugal October 12th, 1S08; and obtained, at Ens-'iish un Vimeira, a victory over the French under Junot, and compelled ley defeat them to evacuate Portugal. Another British army landed in ti>e French' Spain, under the command of Sir Juhn Moore. 13. Napoleon now took upon himself the command of the Spanish war. He defeated several patriotic armies, and advanced upon JSladr'd. which, after a weak defence, surrendered. Sir IS09. John Moore, who had proceeded to Salamanca, retreated, closely j\rA. followed by the French, who overtook him at Corunna, and French de- iiltacked him as he was about embarking his army. The En- English, glish gained their ships, but not without loss. Sir John was D^athof fli killed, — and his officers, before their departure, snatched a few JohnMoore dangerous and sorrowful moments to bury him on the shore. 14. Piussia and Denmark, now in the interest of France, made war upon Sweden, which favored England. The Swedes 11. Give an account of Spain, and the exertions of the patriots. — 12. What occurred in England? "What alliance did the English now form f Relate the battle of Vimeira, and the events which followed. — 13. Relate tiie course of events in the peninsula, from the time of Napoleon's .aking command, till after the battle of Corunna ? 456 WAGRAM 1"R'D VIII. CHAP. I. 1§09. Fifth Coalition. England, Austria, pain, For- tn!;al, fee. April 10. ^BEJVS. BERO. 21. LAJ\rDS- HUT. 22. KCK- MUHL. Napoleon victorious. SSFERK. ESSLIJVa. Austrians defeat tlie French. July 6, IFA ORAM. Napoleon defeats the Austrians. Peace of Vienna. (The grief of Josephine on learning that she was to be di- vorced was overwhelm- ing. She did not believe the act would be for Napoleon's good, for "mine," Raid she,"iB the star of the eni- yiro.") were beaten, and Finland was added to the Hussian empire GusTAVus IV. was deposed by the Swedes, on pretence of his incapacity for governing; and the duke of Sudermania elected king, under the title of Charles XIII. British vessels were now excluded from the Swedish ports. 15. While Napoleon was busy settling his brother Joseph's kingdom in Spain, where he abolished the inquisition, Austria was raising and disciplining great armies. The Tyrolese rebelled, the WestphaUans expelled their Icing Jerome ; and Prussia and Italy were ready to avail themselves of the first adverse circum- stances to burst the chains by which the despot of Europe had bound them. Napoleon returned to France — then led his armies across the Rhine ; and after successfully fighting the archduke Charles at Mensberg, Landshut, he obtained the brilliant victory of Eckmuhl, which opened his way to Vienna. Francis fled, — and the French, after entering his capital, proceeded down the southern bank of the Danube, — the archduke having collected his scattered army, and taken a position on the northern bank towards Presburg. At Aspern and Essling, the French attempted to cross the river, but were driven back with great slaughter, and compelled to recross to Lobau, an island in the river, from which Napoleon had erected bridges for conveying his army to the opposite bank. After remaining several weeks on this island. Napoleon deceived the Austrians with regard to his contemplated point of attack, caused a bridge to be thrown over the river, opposite to a wing of the Austrian army, which was stationed at Wagram. One night sufficed for its completion, and the following morning the sur- prised Austrians beiield the French army ready to attack them. The battle began at sunrise, and at night the French had con- quered. 16. The Treaty of Vienna, which was signed by Francis and Napoleon, was less unfavorable to Austria, than might have been expected from her almost ruined condition. The cause was not long a secret. The fair Maria Louisa, eldest daughter of the emperor of Austria, was cast into the balance, to be given in marriage to Napoleon. Accordingly, after his return to France, he divorced Josephine, — thus violating the laws of God, — severing from his side, and breaking the heart of the best of his friends, — while he took in her place the daughter of his arcicnt enemy. 14. What had been doing in the north of Europe? — 15. What diJ Napoleon in Spain? What in the meantime had happened in Germaiiv? Relate Napoleon's camoai^n of 1809. — IG. What is remarked concern njj the peace of Vienna ? What did Napoleon on his return to France ? CHAPTER II. The decline and fall of Napoleon's Empire. 1. The British invaded Holland with a fleet, bearing an army Modem BU of 40,000 men, under the earl of Chatham, and made thomsolvps masters of FhisJii7ig. A French army was sent against them, nnder Bernadotte. The British took possession of the island of VValcheren, with a view of blocking up the Scheldt ; and 1S09. being kept by their leaders in that unhealthy spot, many fell Mjperabif' victims to the pestilential atmosphere of the marshes which waiciieren surrounded them. The remainder returned ; and the enter- prise, to the grief and mortification o^" the English, entirely failed of its object. 2. The peninsular war had been prosecuted by the generals of Napoleon, while he was occupied M'ilh the Austrians. Saragossa.) after a vigorous and determined resistance, in which 20,000 of its defenders perished, fell before the French, under Soidt; whose army then entered Portugal, but was forced by Welleslev to retreat. Efforts, more united, were now made bv the English and Portuguese. Their armies entered Spain, and ^^. at Talavera, they achieved a victory over the French, com- Weiiesiey manded by king Joseph in person. A reinforcement from French.'' France, under Ney, arriving, Wellesley was compelled to re- „„ .j^, treat into Portugal. At Ocana, the French, under Joseph, ob- French and tnined a complete victory over the Spaniards ; and at the y^"^^"' j*^', termination of this campaign, the cause of the unfortunate seph, defeat patriots seemed desperate. ""^ English. 3. The ensuing winter the French made themselves masters of Malaga, and completed a line of posts from the bay to the Mediterranean, intersecting the whole of Spain, through its capital. They took Seville, and commenced the siege of Cadiz, g,^],^!. The strong fortress of Ciiidad Ttodrigo was carried by the Seville. French ; Portugal was invaded, and Almeida taken. Wellesley now adopted the Fabian policy, and harrassed his enemy, avoid- ing general actions. At the pass of Busaco, the French, under Massena, attacked him, but were repnlse vml 7. Napoleon, on the 17lh ofAuf^ust, aUacked the main lUis- '-haj'. ii sian army al Smolensko. 'I'he liusKJans, ader a valiaiit contest, v^^-v— s*^ n-tired; but the French, on entering the city, founrl it in flames. 1S12. Tin; Russian army now retreated to a position near Moscow, %j^oipjf. wiicie KuTusoFF was called to the command. The French *^o. rame up with the JUissians at Borodino, where a desperate ^.'''"- ''• 1/1 11 11 I- 1 ' I JiijRO- ly\\uc wa:j lou;/ht, winch conlmued witli great lury through a iji^ro. whole day, and left the French masters of the bloody field, on '^'fi'aMhe which lay 10,000 of their own dead. The Russians acknow- RuBuiaiia. iedged a loss of 2o,000. 8. Kutusofl^', unable to withstand the invaders, retired with his army to the provinces beyond Moscow. On the 14th of September, the French entered that venerable city, but found it deserted by its inhabitants and on fire. Napoleon was alarmed, for he had intended to winter in Moscow, — and he made strenu- ous eflorts to save it, but in vain. For one fire extinguished, ten were set. Women as well as men with blazing torches were seen madly running from hou.se to house, — till their incen- diary work was done. Napoleon speaks thus of the horror of f''-i"- '■*• . • ,, , , 1 r 1 1 -11 r I- Tlie iHjrniiiB the scene — '• It was the spectacle ol a sea and billows of fire, a of Mo-jcow. sky and clouds of flame ; iiiountaina of red rolling flames, like innnense waves of the sea, alternately bursting forth and elevat- ing liiemselves to skies of lire, and then sinking into the ocean of flame l)elow."' The destruction of the city which precluded tlie possibility of mriking it his winter quarters, and the assem- blages of Russian troops around Moscow, induced the French emperor to offer terms of peace. The reply was, that no terms could be listened to, while the enemy remained in the country. 9. Napoleon lost some weeks in awaiting answers to des- patches which he had .'•ent to Petersburg. No alternative but wdi nmeJ retreat was now left, and humiliating as was the measure, he taln'N'ajw. embraced iu Dividing his forces, he directed jMurat and Beau- '«""• harnois. witfi a detachment of 50,000 men, to attack the grand >,^poi'eon Russian army, while he led the remainder on the route to \>K^\n* \i\a Minsk. Murat and Beauharnois met with a severe repulse, and Tetreat!* the whole Frencn army continued its retreat under the most dis- „ , "^ f J O^'PP of trussing circumstances. The cold which now came on with the Fn^nch: unusual severity, destroyed immense numbers, and unfitted the /i" of'J,^'.'^ survivors for vigorous exertions; while the hardy Russians pur- cold and fa- sued close upon their heels, and slaughtered them at every turn j"oooo; At the passage of the Fjcrezina, Napoleon, to save the main body pn^-ncn, of his army, ordered the bridge on which they had crossed, to jgn.ooo. om be blown up. But a portion of the French were still on the /*"■* '-^{^^*h 1*1 1- 1-1 11/* pf'iiffrflis Aj other side. As they were rushing towards it, driven by the fire standards of their pursuers, they heard a crash, — and the bridge blew 'ar''tn"ery/ up. Uttering a shriek of despair, numbers plunged iiito the 9-iy(ii^<^. T. Whit happened at Smolensko? At Borodino? — 8, Relnte the srenes of Moscow. — 1>. Give a rcia'.iori of the retreat of >ka[)oleoirs army from Moscow. The riiif- l>v 460 PRUSSrA .\X13 AUSTRIA JOIX RL'SSIA. Utdern Jhs stream, and simlc amidst lloatiiiflf ice, while the remainder weie i'Tv'i) viii. butcliered by the Russians. When the army reached Wihiii, CHAP. 11. Napoleoij gave the chief command to Murat, and himself has- v>>^v"^»-' tened to bear to France the tale of his misfortunes. I\larshal Ney commanded the rea'r, and that 2:enerous soldier was him- self the last man to quit the hostile frontier. Thus was de- stroyed the most formidable army of modern times. Out of tlie •500,000 men who composed it, not more than 50,000, — one in ten, recrossed the Russian frontier. H'^.IS.^ 10. THE SIXTH AND GRAND COALITION.— The al- T!lP Sixlll lic?s of Napoleon, whose friendship was founded in necessity, (.'oalltioil. and the nations whose submission to France had been obtained at the point of the bayonet, now showed their readiness to emancipate themselves from its yoke. Prussia gave the signal of detection, and early this year leagued witli Russia and Eng- land. Sweden, already in the interest of Russia, soon joined '•The Sixth Coalition."" (Maipt's 11. On the return of Napoleon to Paris, his genius ap dotp^i'tcd ait P^'ii'sd invested with new splendor; and the hold he possessed Paris, uii- upou the affectious of the French, seemed strengthened bv mis- ' of ha\-f ns "^ fortune. Though all France was thrown into mourning, the ipariied the nation responded to the call of their sovereign, and new levies, poicnii, he to the amount of 350,000 men, were made early in the spring =H"in"^he *-*'^^ IS 13. The wreck of the grand army with which Napoleon pnvf^rn- had entered Russia, had been placed in the fortresses occupied '""'"■^ by the French in Prussia. 12. The Russian armies nou' advancccU and the inJiahilaufs. of Ike countries t/irough which they passed^ every xrhere joined them ; and the French were compelled to abandon their for- tresses and retreat. Alexander and Frederic fixed their head quarters at Dresden. Napoleon advanced at the head of his (r'-'^V '^^"' recruits, and at Lutzen tlie French met the army of the al- lies, and after a bloody conflict, remained masters of the lield. }}^X}^- Unable to maintain themseh'es on the Elbe, the main army of i/:A-. the allies retreated from Dresden, (which Napoleon took.) ^'^'^"ue/""" to Bautzen, where another battle Avas fonglit with great A.rn\istire of loss ou both sides. The French again conquered, — but the PlfS\ritZ allies retired in good order. An armistice of six weeks tool; place. 13. Napoleon might now, by the surrender of Ids conquest-s, have negociated ; but this, in an interview with the Austrian 9. Who carried the news of these disasters to Paris? What 's paid ot Ney? What remarks are made concerning the army ? — lO. 'I'o what had Napoleon owed tlie t'ricndsliip of his allies ? What nations now IeagU3i against him, and what was the league called ? — XI. What is said of Napo Icon's demeanor on his return to Paris ? What was the conduct of the people of France 1 What was the nuniher of the new army ? Where was the wreck of that with whicli Napoleon had invaded Russia? — 12. \^'hal is related of the RusK^ian and Prussian armies, and of their sovereigns ? Relate the military operations till after the armistice of Pleswitz. — 13. Willi v,'hom did Napuleon have an interview, and what opportunity did ho let eiipf DOWNFALL OK NAPOLEON. 461 raiuistf r, MtTTERMCii, lie refused, and Austria joined the al- •'*^"'^'-'" '^"' lies. Hostilities were renewed in Aiif^ust, when Napoleon had, p-ii-DViii. in vari<;us ptosis in Saxony and Silesia, 2o0,000 rnen. The ' "ap. ii. allies attacked Dresden diirinj^ the ahsence of Napoleon in Si- ^-"^^''^-^ lesia, "out his raj)id return defeated their plans, lie saved the citv, and killed and made prisoners 2o,000 of their troops. Al C'uhn, the allies obtained a vicU^ry over the French general '/"^{^ Vamiam.me. 'I'he Prussian general, Bluciier, was victorious hjicji. at the Kalzljach, and in other (inarlers the allies gained advan- '^i'" '""'■ .^~v~^> with a few attendants, arrived, at full speed, in an open car- riage. He leaped from his vehicle, and threw himself into their IS15. ^rms. Their hearts melted; and tluis. the proudest of his vie- March 20. lOries, Napoleon won the last army which Louis could bring '^"parls. into the held. On the 20lh of March, Louis again went into Kapoieon enters* e\iie, and established his little court at Ostend. 19. When the news of Napoleon's debarkation from Elba was made known to Uie sovereigns at Vienna, they burst into a laugh ; but they soon found occasion for more serious proceed- ings. Scornfully rejecting the proflcrs of Napoleon for recon- ciliation, they issued their manifesto, declaring that he had for- feited the only legal title to life, and "that he was a disturber of the public tranquillity, and without the pale of civil and social relations." Great Britain, Russia, Austria, and Prussia, re- ,^ , ^ assembled large armies. England gave not only men, but money u 11 millions pounds sterling, which was paid in subsidies to gubs-jV^y the allies. The whole fortitied frontier of the Belgic provinces aii the aiiu-d on the side of France, was occupied by strong garrisons, chiefly po^^ers.) of troops in British pay, of which Wellington took the com- mand. The Prussian army, under Blucher, advanced to co- operate with him. The allies had in arms, in their various positions, upwards of a million of troops, to make war, as they declared, upon one man ! 20. The eflbrts of Napoleon were unremitting and gigantic. 1S15. Ele raised an army of 200,000 men; a force, which, though ,j|^"^i/i. vastly inferior to that of the allies, was yet formida!)le. On the loo. 16th of June, Napoleon obtained, at Ligny, his last victory, in fini'i'ivd'e" which he compelled the Prussians to retreat. On the 18th, was feated by fought the ever memorable battle of Waterloo. The Prussians under Wei- were commanded by Blucher; the English by Wellington; and j,l"s^^f"j, the French were for the last time under the eye of Napoleon. French The battle was long and obstinately contested. It ended in the aliieTabw complete triumph of the allies, — and the sim of Napoleon now set forever. 21. He returned to Paris, and there found that he had no <,^,'.',^,i""/^'|^/ longer the confidence of the nation. Some proposed that he i,aFayeuc# should dissolve the legislative chambers, and assume the die- "^"^nf'j^iVj'" latorship, La Fayette, then a member of the body, came for- scene.) svard, made and carried a motion that all attempts to dissolve the assembly at that important crisis, should be high treason. 18. Relate the occurrences to the 20th nf March. — If). What effect did t}ie news of Napoleon's return produce on the sovereigns at Vienna? What manifesto did they issue? What nations took up arms again? What di'" England give ? What troops were on the northern frontier? — 20. Whav. ormy was now raised by Napoleon ? Give a sketch of his short ciimpaign till after the 18th of June. — JJI. What occurred alter Napoleon's return to Paris ? What was p"oposed in the assembly by L" ^ayetie ? 464 THE LAST DAYS OF NAPOLEON. JHodem His. " France," he said, " had shed blood enough for the ambition of one man. Against the force in arms it was vain to attempt resistance." Napoleon abdicated, recommending his son; but the assembly made no pledge. Napoleon then taking a sorrowful larewell of his army, went to Rochefort, designing to embark foi America. The harbor was blockaded by a British squadron. He went on board one of the ships, and surrendered himself to the commander, clauning, as he was self-delivered, the hospitality of the British nation. They sent him to St. Helena, a rock in the ocean. He died, — and in a little grass-grown nook, two weeping willows marked the grave of Napoleon. But the everlasting mouniains above, and the perpetual sea below, were regarded by the passing mariner, as emblems of his genius and his fame. CHAPTER HI. 1S02. English provoke a liCW war. May 18. Great Bri- tain de- clares war against France. Third Coalition. England de- clares war with Spiin. Great Britain and Americaa 1. T.^e terms of the Treaty of Amiens were mortifymg to England. She had surrendered all her conquests, except Trini- dad in the West Indies, and Ceylon in the East. Some public rejoicings were held in London, but the people generally were by no means satisfied. And when it was seen that Bonaparte not only maintained his military armaments, but made new attempts to aggrandize France Great Britain violated the treaty by refusing to give up the isiand of Malta. France then seized Piedmont; when the British recalled their minister, and declared war. Bonaparte then not only deprived them of Hanover, but made vast preparations for the invasion and conquest of the British islands. The English spirit rose with the crisis, and Napoleon was deterred from the project of invasion, and obliged to march into Germany, to combat the Third Coalition that " British gold and hatred," to use his words, had raised against him. 2. In the meantime the English continued the war in the East Indies, and acquired large territories from the native princes. They were triumphant over the French by sea, and captured their East India homeward fleet. England now declared war against Spain ; that power being subservient to the views of Napoleon, and employed in increasing and strengthening her naval armaments. The French fleet, under admiral Ville A'EUVE, formed a junction with that of Spain, and both num 21. Relate the sequel of Napoleon's history. Chap. III. — 1. How did tho people of England view the treaty of Amiens ? How did they violate it, and what was done by France ? When die England declare war, and what further was done by the two belligerents ?— it. What was done in Asia ? What did the English capture at sea? What is here said concernins; Spain ? AMERICAN COMMERCE DESTROYED. 465 !>ering thirty-two t-ail of the line, were attacked ofl' Cape •*^"'^^'^ -""^ Trafalgar by the British fleet, consisting of twenty-seven sail, p-r-d vut nntlcr lord Nelson. The combined fleets were conqnered, and chap. ni. nearly destroyed ; but Nelson, with 2,000 llritish seamen fell <^,^'>y'~>^ in the battle. William Pitt, the energy of whose character 1S05. !iad so long controlled the nation, sunk under the weight of his ^^"';^^^|.' cares in the beginning of the next year; and his rival jVIr. Fox, hJiLQAH. appointed his successor, died also before its close. During the de'rNeiBon administration of the latter, the Cape of Good Hove was con- an.i CoiiniK- quered by tlie t>ritisli. theFrpiuij 3. Napoleon, iiaving, by the great battles of Austerlitz and pp""-'^,, Jfiia, reduced the continent of Europe to fear, if not to sub- 3S0(>. mission, atteaipted, in 1807, to compel the people, by what he ''C'"'" of called his 'Miis continental system,"" to prohibit British com- yox. nierce. To retaliate upon France, the English ministry had 1S07 issued orders for blockading that large portion of the western .^^' ','"'.'^"''''' coast of Europe extending/rom the moutk of the Elbe to Brest, ciee" reta- These and other measures of France and England nearly anni- '"*p,^g^i^si\'"' hilated the commerce of the American republic. Mr. Jeffek- "orders in SON, then president, caused an embargo o he laid on Jimerican ^^^'ivL shipping ; but proving extremely unpopular, it was repealed, AmericiiH and a non-intercourse with the two oflending nations substituted, emii^rgt. Great Britain made open pretension? tc the supremacy oi the ocean, assumed the right to search neutral vf^sels, and to take from them, not only such articles as the offi»'ers of their ships judged contraband, but also her native seamen. Under this pietended right she had grossly insulted the American flag, having taken native born American sailors, and pressed them into her service; yet England had, at this moment, some apo- logy, in standing alone to set bounds to the ambition of Na- poleon. 4. The venerable George III. having, in 1809, attained the 1809. •}Cth year of his reign, his subjects kept the anniversary of his ^^L^of coronation as a jubilee. His general health was good, but his jui)iie.€ kept mind was borne down by a severe domestic affliction, in the atthe^coi"' sickness and death of his favorite daughter Amelia, — and his pi«-ti<'n "f I Ti- ^ t • r iiT 1 the •>""^ reason was lost. His son George, the prince of Wales, was year of the formally invested with the regency of the kingdom. The com- q^^'/"'",, |\'i merce of the Americans, continuing to be crippled by the restrictive systems of tlie two belligerent powers, they consi- dered that both had given tlicm just cause of war; but before I81«J, putlmg forth a declaration, they offered peace to tliat power America do- which should rescind its measures. This was partially done by acaiiTt France; whereupon the republic declared war against England. E'lf'^f"!' 2. Relate tiie battle of 'I'rafalffnr. What deaths occurred the next year? \V|;ai conquest of the Rriii«h is mentioned? — 3. What was done by the 1" lench and English auihorities, which nearly annihilated the coninierce of Aiiiorica? What measures were taken by president Jcflerson ? What were till! pretensions of Great Britain with respect to the ocean ? — ■4. When, and un what occasion did the British keep a jubilee? What was done by the Anuricans previous to iheir declaration of war? When and against whom wau that mjide I 59 46(3 AMERICA AT WAR WITH ENGLAND. Modfni His An trust !G. Hull sur- roiirlors De- UjitaiiillSOC laen. Oct. 13. QUEEMS- To;vj\r. Ilritish de- feat the Americans. Am. loss nliout 900 k. and prison- ers. Jan. 22. J\IassaCTe of FREJ\rCH- TOIVM. Am. loss 1,000. April 27. YORK. IBritish loss •ibont 1,000. Sept. 10. Perry's vic- lory on lake Eric. October 5 J^ear the THAMES. BritiLili de- feated. 1S14. July 5. CUIPPE- iVJi. Julv 25. BlilDQE- ll'MTER. iiiifricaiio viLto ir>u3. o. General Hull, on the part of the Americaiis, invaded Upper Canada, but soon retreated. The British general Brock, pursued him to Detroit, and there caused him to sur- render his whole force. At Queenstovvn occurred another aflair between the American troops and the British. The American militia, unused lo war, did not perform in a soldier-like manner. A small body of regular troops, under captain Wool, repelled an attack of the British, led by Brock, in which that commander was repulsed and slain. The American honor was well sus- tained at sea. The British frigate Guerriere struck to the frigate Constitution, commanded by captain Hull; and the frigate Macedonian was captured by commodore Decatur, command- ing the frigate United States. In several other naval actions die Americans were also victorious. 6. General Winchester was defeated at Frenchtown ; and by the treachery of the British commander, colonel Froctok, 522 Americans were massacred by the savages after their sur- render. But York, the capital of Upper Canada, surrendered to the Americans, under general Dearborn. Ge^yeral Clay was defeated at the rapids of the Miami. Fort George was taken by the Americans ; and tb.e British squadron on lake Erie cap- tured by COMMODORE Perry. On lake Ontario, a strong naval armament was kept up, without any decisive superiority, li^ the meantime, a British squadron entered Chesapeake Bay, and committed depredations on its shores. The Chesapeake, an American frigate, too hastily fitted for sea, surrendered to the Shannon, a British frigate of superior force, off Boston harbor. 7. Lake Erie being now commanded by the Americans, an army under general Harrison, was landed in Canada, v/ho pursued the forces under general Proctor, and the famous In- dian chief Tecumseh, and defeated them on the Thames. Commodore Chauncey having obtained the ascendancy on lake Ontario, an army under general Brown crossed the Niagara river, and aided by the militia under general Porter, captured ybri Eric. This was the first of a brilliant series of victories obtained by tlie American generals, Porter., Scott, Ripley and Brown, on the Niagara frontier, over the troops who had fought under Wellington in Spain. Tlie most bloody of the 60 conflicts was the night-battle of Bridgewater. 8. Sir George Prevost, the governor of Canada, being re- inforced by Wellington's veterans, at th.e head of 14,000 iror^jW) invaded the American territory at Plattsburgh, where were sta- tioned about 4,000 American troops, under general Macomh. A British flotilla on lake Champlain, under captain Downie, reached Plattsburgh bay at the same time, and attacked tlie American squadron, conmiar ded by commodore IMacdonougu. S. What is said of Huil and fiis invasion ? Of the affair at Queenslown* Of the successes this year at sea? — H. What account is given of tlie aflair at Frenchtown ? What are the other events by land and sea, of »iie cam. paiijn of 18f3 ? — T. What occurred on the Thames? Or the Niagara fron. tier^La 1S14 ? — 8. Whal occurred at Plattsburgh, and on lake Champlnin i AFFAIR AT PLATTSBURGH. 467 A severe conflict ensued in the harbor of Plattsburgh, which ■'"■I'Jfn lUs. ended in the total destruction of the British flotilla, and the fall p'lrD \m. of Downie. The commander-in-chief of the British forces chap. m. saw this unexpected result with dismay. The militia of the adjacent states of New York and Vermont, by a general rally, were jmshing forward by forced marches to succor Macomb ; the outposts of the British were attacked, and Sir George Pre- vost ordered and executed a retreat so hasty, that his camp under Mac- equipage and military stores were abandoned. feTuhl^'iin- 9. In the south, a barbarous predatory warfare had been tish flotiiu. waged by admiral Cuckburn. Nor was its character much changed, on the arrival of GENERAL Ivoss. This oflicei landed Q force from the united fleets of Cockburn, Malcolm and Coch- Gen. Uosj rane, and proceeded to Washington for the avowed purpose of pu"j,1"c* g^^. burning and destroying the public edifices and works of art at fires of that place. This object being effected, the British commander ^'Jon'.""' made a hasty retreat, and re-embarked his troops. The next ftttea^ipt of general Ross was against the city of Baltimore, 'unsucceio- which was ably defended by a corps uitder general Sjiitii. fuiauackon While advancing to the attack, Koss was met by a detachment General" of American riflemen, and fell morta^Uv wounded. By this ^°'^* '^'"*-''' time the defences around Baltimore assumed so formidable an appearance, that the British commanders, both of the navy and army, judged that the prospect of success was not equal to the hazard, and the invading army withdrew. 10 Admiral Cochrane went to the West Indies. Being re-enforced, his fleet now consisted of thirteen ships of the line with transports, in which he received Sir Edward Packenham. and an army of 13,000 eflicient men, destined for an attack upon New Orleans. Well grounded fears being entertained for the safety of that important city, general Jackson was charged Avith its defence. The British troops efiected a landing on the 23d of December, and took a position nine miles below New Orleans. Gen. Jackson had taken his position with judg- 1815- ment, and fortified it with care. On the 8th of January, Sir "x^'Xv^' Edward Packenham attempted to storm the American entrench- -'an. 8ih. ments. A deadly fire from their batteries, and entrenched rifle- jackson, de- men, overwhelmed and threw back the British divisions, as '^^'?^!."'®jP''' often as they w^re brought to the charge. Packenham was .oss, 2,6oo'i killed, and the second and third in command wounded, when at ^e'w ^'* length the British were driven from the ground. Their loss was 2,600, while of the Americans but seven were killed, and six wounded, a disproportion of loss not recorded of any other battle. Thus closed the military operations on land. At sea there had been spirited engagements, in which the American naval character was proved to stand a comparison with that of the British. 11. Peace had in the meantime been concluded between the 9. Relate the operations of general Ross, and the events in conncEion. lO. Relate the invasion and dctence of New Orleans. 468 PEACE NEGOTIATED AT GHENT, Modorn Bis. two nations, bv a treaty negotiated at Ghent. Cliangcs in Eu- P'R'D VIII. rope had done away that part of the subject of complaint on the CHAP. III. side of the x\mericans which related to commerce; and the ques- '^-^'"^''^^-^ tion concerning the claim of the British to search neutral ves- 1§15. sels, for the purpose of impressment, was waived. But the Peace of Americans had shown the British, that it could not with impu- Ghent. nity be exercised on them. Before the intelligence of peace ^°"?"^.''i^ could be communicated to the naval commanders on distant restored. Stations, Other naval actions were fought, which terminated m the triumph of the American arms. Peace with America, was (This peace at this moment fortunate for England ; for Napoleon, her old ted b™Aiexl and most dreaded enemy, soon after broke loose from Elba, and ander of repossessed himself of the throne of France. Upon an emer- gency so unexpected, all the energies of the British empire were needed, and, as we have before seen, put in requisition. We have also seen the result. Napoleon delivered himself to Eng- land, declaring that he considered her the noblest ot his foes, 11. What treaty was made? Were the points m dispute arning&t! Why vrcs peace favorable to Eii^land i Tho Battlo of Waterloo. PERIOD IX. TUK BATTLE ) Jnno, i [1815,] OF WATERLOO Xjre KXTKXSION OF THE AM. j KKrUBLIO BY THE TREATY OF ( Feb. GUADALUPE, AND THE DI8COV- ( 1§11§. RRY OF GOLD IN CALIFOllNIA, J AND THE DOWTiFAtL OF LOUIS-PHILIPPE BY THE FRENCH. KEVOLUTIOX. Modern ni.x IX. PERI'D OHAP. 1§I5. Brazil Inde- ppnrient of Por- tugal. "1 CHAPTER I. Brazil and Portugal. — Revolutions iti America and Europe. 1. The removal of John VI. of rortuiral, and the Portuguese government, in 1808, to P>razil, was the beginning of that great South American empire... Tlie MraziHan government open- ed their ports to all friendly nations ; abolished the Inquisition and the slave-trade,* and entered into an advantageous treaty of alliance and commerce with England. In 1815, John VI. re- turned to Portugal, and his son, Pedro, administered the gov- ernment. The Brazilians now a.sserted their independence, formed a constitution, and elected that piince emperor, under the title of Pedro I. Portugal acknowledged the independence of Brazil, and the emperor exchanged ministers and treaties with Pedro L j ^ foreign nations. 2. John VI. died in Portugal, March 10th, 1826. By the constitution of Brazil, Pedro the emperor, to whom the crown * Yet many slaves are to this time carried annually to Brazil. 1855. Pehiod IX.— Chap. I.— I. Who was sovereign of Portugal at the time of the government's removal to Brazil? V'lien did the removal occur! What were the first acts of the goveriimeut? What occurred in 1815 ? 469 iTO CIVIL WAES OF POETUGAL AKD SPAIN, Modmf, Eis. PEPvFD IX CHAP. I. I §31. Pedro II. ilis father returns to PortueaL 1§S2. Civil war in Portugal. 1§33. July 4th. Lisbon sur- renders to MariiL 5834. Qu'drupic Alliance. (Maria was married in 18.S4, to a son of Eugene Beauharnois, and soon after his death, 1836, to the diike V Saxe Coburgji 1833. Isabella BncceedsFei liinand VIL 1§36. "^10 convent interdicted. of Portugal now belonged, could not leave the new empire ; and he resigned Portugal to his young daughter, Maria de Gloria. Miguel, brother of Pedro, contested her right, and was aided by the nobihty and the priests. The constitutionalists and pa- triots were in favor of Maria. In the mean time, the Brazilians demanded reforms, which were by no means agreeable to the Portuguese. Pedro wavered between the pajties. Both the armv and the people were against him, and on the 8th of April, 1831, he abdicated in favor of his infant son, Pedro II., a native of Brazil ; and having established a regency, he embarked with !Maria, and the rest of his family for Portugal. 3. Pedro having entered his hereditary dominions, summoned his brother to surrender to the queen, his daughter. The cruel- ties of Miguel, had already arrayed against him the liberal party, who now rallied under Pedro. The Portuguese clergy branded them as heretics, with whom no faith was to be kept ; and thus was civil war sharpened by religious persecution. The fleet of Miguel was captured, Lisbon surrendered, and the usurper fled to Spain. The populace rallied, proclaimed Maria, broke open the prisons, and liberated 5,000 prisoners. The queen's right was acknowledged by the high powers of Europe ; the clergy were humbled, the convents were suppressed, and their property confiscated to the state. Miguel, however, still kept up a cruel partisan warfare ; when, on the 24th of April, 1834, a quadruple alliance was signed between the powers of Portugul, Spain, France, and Great Britain, which guarantied the throne of Portu- gal to Maria II. An adequate force was sent fi'om England to maintain her authority. Under these circumstances Portugal was of course ruled by that nation. — Spain had, by a singular coincidence, its young queen Isabella II., daughter to Ferdinand VII., whose claim was upheld by the liberal party, and a usurper- uncle, Don Carlos, who was sustained by the royalists and clergy. The Qiiadruple Alliance also guarantied the claims of Isabella against Carlos. In 1836, three years after the accession of Isabella, her mother Christina being regent, liberalism was for a time in the ascendant. The order of Jesuits was suppressed, 900 convents were interdicted, and their property confiscated. These violent proceedings strengthened the party of Don Carlos, and renewed for a time the horrors of civil war. 4. THE AMERICAN COLONIES OF SPAIN.— The jealous policy of Spain had led her to suppress, as much as possible, all 2. How was Pedro situated on the death of his father, and what course did he take ? Give an account of Miguel. What occurred in Brazil, and what new arrangements were made ? Who went to Portugal ? — 3. What was done by Pedro, and who rallied under his banner? Who were against him aixi his daughter, and what was tl"»3 condition of Portugal? What successes had Pedro against ]\liguel? What number of prisoners were liberated ? Who acknowledged the queen's right ? What was done with respect to the convents ? What powers formed a quadruple alliance i What did the alliance guarantee in respect to the government of Por- tugal ? What in respect to Spain ? When did Isabella succeed her fa- ther? Who was regent? What was done in 1S36 ? What was the con- ecquencc ? MIRANDA AND BOLIVAR. 471 intercourse Ijctween her extensive American colonies ami the ¥o'^<'''>^ i'>->^ rest of the world. Wearied with despotism, and disgusted with peki'd ix. the quanels and crimes of the reigning family, these provinces ''"^'"' '• took advantage of the mvasion of Spain by Napoleon, and as- wrU'A their independen ^e. This opened an intei'course between them and foreign nations, and their histoiy thenceforth began to be known. 5. In 1806, GENERAL Miranda, a native of Caraccas, who igOO. had served with reputation in the armies of republican France, Movemont made a generous, but premature attempt to liberate his native America. coiuitry. But in 1810, the i)atiiots ro.se again, and although GENERAL MuRTLLO, wth 10,000 troops was Sent from Spain, yet the Spanish authorities were deposed, and a new govern- is-jjx ment organized, under the name of the "Confederation of Vene- Venezuela zuela." A congress asHemhled^ independence was declared, and a dominion established. But they seem destined to be rent bi '-ippiiy. t^ij domestic fixctions, and the lawless desire for power, of ambitious stiutrne.) military chieftains.f 7 AfEXICO. — While under the government of Spain, ^lexico was a viceroyalty ; the viceroy having all the powers of a king. The Mexicans declared independence in 1813. Iturbide, an 4. What policy liad Spain purcno.d with regard to her American colo- nies ? With what were their people w".aried and disgusted ? What cir- ctimstnnocs did they take advantage of. a;id what do ? — 5. Who made the first attempt to tree a Snanisli coloiiv, — when was it made, and Low did it Fuoceod? What was done in 1810? What occasion was seized by the ' priest.'', and what did they do? — 6. By who.ti was Venezuela finaijv "^man- cipated ? What is related of New Granada ? Ot Buenos Ayres ? Of Chili ? Of fei-u and Guatimala, or Central AmcrKH? .t.t ^.■hat b.ittl? wu.^ the Spanish power in America entirely broken?— T WL<<.t "•'as Mexico wLUe under Spain ? When did Mexico declare iudepcndoacc*? Give fiomp »©- connt of I'.urbide. 472 TEXAS DECLARES INDErEXDEXCE. Modem uia. ambitious Mexican, at first opposed the revolution. In 1815, PERi'D IX he desti'oyed or drove to the mountains, all the revokitionaiy CHAP. 1. (jjiiefs, except Guerrero; and in 1822 he restored the vice- royalty. Iturbide then raised his own standard, and caused himself to he proclaimed emperor, under the title of Augustine I. The populace shouted him, and di'ew his carnage througli the streets of Mexico. But a powerful party, headed by Vit- 1§23. TORiA, Guerrero, Santa Anna, and other distinguished military Compelled men, opposed the new government, and after a bloody struggle, the emperor was, in 1823, compelled to abdicate; but he was ita t ■» allowed to take refuge in Europe on a pension. In 1824 Itur- luirbido's' bide returned ; and as soon as he stepped upon the shore of his deatb. country, he was arrested and shot. 8. In 1824 Mexico adopted a free republican constitution. \f,^^* Struggles for the Presidency arose. In 1828, Santa Anna, being adopts a head of the army, subverted the government by using military ''*^'^tiori'^'*"' force to establish Pedraza, his candidate. From this period until that in which the Mexican history became almost identi- fied with the American, Santa Anna remained in the ascendant • although, amidst the frequent civil wars of the period, he Avas sometimes displaced. Subsequently, he changed the Republic 1§33. from a federal, to a central system. Anai'chy and misriile, inse- Asiatic choi- curity to life and property, prevailed. The Asiatic cholera in ico. 1833 added its ravages, and destroyed in the capital alone, 22,000 persons. 9. TEXAS, in extent of tenitory, was one of the most consid- erable states of Mexico. Being contiguous to the republic of 1§21. America, it was filling fast with enterprising citizens, who be- jcfnTe'"^'"" lieved that Mexico would adhere to republican principles. They Is founded by belonged to that Puritan race, which the old Spanish stock had Austin and & iiii/.-ii i i tis compsmy. not lorgotten to hate ; and they had lailed to observe the com- pact by which Austin, the American founder of Texas, obtained the territory — that the Catholic religion and the Spanish lan- guage should be taught in the schools. A quarrel soon gi'ew up between them and the Mexican government, which resulted in war. Santa Anna despatched general Cos, with a strong force, to the mouth of the river Brasos. General Houston assumed the command of the Texan forces. He took Bahia, the fort of Goliad; and finally, with severe loss on both sides, he conquered the Alamo — the name given to a fortress in San Antonio de Bexar. 1S3S. 10. On the 2d of March, 1836, a convention of delegates drew MftTcb 2. yp ^Q^ published an able Declaration of Independevce. Santa laration of -A^°Q^» o^i the 6th of March, arrived at the Alamo, with an army Independ- of 4,000 men. That fortress, defended by 180 Texans, under ence. 8. What was done by the Mexicans in 1824? What was done by Santa Anna in 1828? What afterwards? What disease prevailed? When? To what extent did it prevail in the capital? — 9. Give some account ot Texas: of its inhabitants. Who was the American founder of Texas? What compact is spoljen of? Did the Americans on tlieir part fulfil it? What next occurred,?— 10. What was done on the 2d of March, 1836 J KEVOLT OF THE GREEKS. 4T3 command of colonel Travis, lie assaulted at midnight. At ^todem n is. dawn only seven men of the garrison were found alive. They peki'D ix cried for quarter, and being lefused, renewed the battle, and ^^'^^' ^ fought till every man was slaughtered. More than one thousand ^ '* "^ of the assailants are said to have perished. ^pue' 11. After the fall of the Alamo, general Ilouston, with about „^^'^^^^-, 1000 men, fell back upon the Colorado. Colonel Fanning, cruelty; with a garrison of 400, was left to defend Goliad ; but, inferior '^^^ ^Me'L in force, he evacuated the fortress. Santa Anna pursued, and cut otF his reti'eat. Fanning surrendered upon the faith of being oqual,. treated according to the rules of Christian waifare ; but Santa Massacre of Anna caused him and his men to be cruelly })ut to death. Ela- niV? with ' ted and confident, he then hastened to engage the main body of ^^^ ™®°- the Texans, encamped upon the Brasos, whom his cruelty had wrought to fury. Ilouston, bearing down upon his enemies, thrice his own number, brought them to action so close as to be j %^q within half rifle distance; and in less than thirty minutes com- April 21. pelled them to flee. Among the prisoners was Santa Anna, jacinto who, as first magistrate of Mexico, entered into a treaty which Houston and recognized the independence of Texas, and the Rio-Grande as its detVat^alit^H boundary. Tliis treaty, when returned to Mexico, he repudiated. Anna, and A constitution was adopted by Texas, and general Houston was dependence elected president. 12. THE GREEK REVOLUTION.— The desire of liberty among the people, and a more just appreciation of human rights, i§20-'>1 distinguishes the nineteenth century. In 1820-21 it manifested stru}ririer..f itself, not only in the rising I'epublics of America, but in Spain, ''»'^ people. Portugal, Naples, I'iedmont, — and lastly, in the Turkish empire, where in Gi-eece it produced permanent eflecfs. 13. Russia, as we have seen, had often in her employ able foreigiiei's. Such were the Greeks, count Capo DTstrias, Al- oreek revrv. EXANDER Ypsilanti, and others. Their hearts were set upon iiii-iont>eg!ua the release of their country ; and the Russian authorities, willing to weaken the I'orte, that they might take its provinces, encour- ag<>d them by hopes of aid, to raise the standaid of revolt. They foimed a tecret society, called " the Iletaireia," who were bound by oath to stand for each other, and for the liberties of Greece. They then openly revolted. The Turks, of course, made war upon them to reduce them to submission. Russia having thus divided the Turkish empire against itself, treacherously with- held her promised aid, and left the Greeks to fight their own battles. The struggle with them was now, not for liberty only, but for life ; and there is nothing in the history of ancient Greece to compare with the fierce valor with which the mod- 10. Describe the military operations till after the full of the Alamo. — 11. From the fall of the Alamo to the battle of San Jacinto. Eelate that battle and its consequences. — 12. By what is t'le nineteenth century distinguished? How did this spirit manifest itself in the years 1820-21 ? To what empire did Greece at this time belong ? — 13. What Greeks were in the service of Russia, what did they desire, and what encouragement did they have? What did they then do? What part did Kus.-sia now take ? What'wafl Uie "jharacter of the struggle in which the Greeks were now engaged i 60 iTi REVOLT OF THE GREEKS. Modern EU. gj.^ Greeks resisted their oppressors. Even their women tools PERPD IX arms. ciiAP. I. 2_^_ Turkish vengeance attacked first the Greek clergy; and Gregory, the venerable patriarch of Constantinople, was bar- barously slain, at the door of his sanctuary. This act roused the Greeks, and appalling horrors were perpetrated in the conflicts which ensued. The Greeks were without a government, and without support, except what they received from charitable asso- 1S22 ciations in Great Britain, France, and America. Yet they pro- Greeks form ceeded, in 1822, to form a union under an independent federa- ^ ui'en™' ^^*'^ government. The Persians having now invaded the Turkish empire, the sultan was obliged to send a poweiful army to the Euphrates ; and he also placed a strong military force upon the Danube, to watch certain hostile movements of Russia. One of his own vassals, also, the bold and desperate An Pacha, of Albania, was in open rebellion against him. These troubles compelled him for a season to relax his operations against the revolted Greeks ; but having at length purchased a peace with Persia, beheaded Ali Pacha, and entered into friendly relations with Russia, he was again ready to prosecute the Greek war. Scio. Pop. 15. Fifteen thousand of the most barbarous of the Asiatic ,^}-'^^^}\ Turks were let loose upon the beautiful island of Scio. The The Sciotes ^ . ., ^ iii-ti massacred, bciotes resisted ; but were overpowered, and then- little paradise laid waste, — and 40,000 men, women, and unresisting children were massacred, while 30,000 were carried into Mahometan They are Captivity. The Turkish fleet now took on board the murderers ..veiiged by -^vho were prepared to desolate the Morea. The Ipsariotes, with tllC pGd]')!© of • . , ipsara. the courage of desperation, grappled their fire-ships to the ship commanded by the Turkish admiral, which blew up, destroying three thousand men. receiving this just (;laim, they combined, and in the summer of Greek c«n- ] 843 compelled Otho to grant them a constitutional government, s-titntiou. 1§16. Kntlondi CHAPTER 11. The British Empire. 1. Until the close of the wars of the French revolution, the attitude of Great Britain had been warlike. She had stood the bulwark of Europe agiinst the encroachments of Napoleon, but ^^'^^ in so doing had subjected herself to immense sacrifices. Her * Owinof to this sympathy in relig'ion, the Greeks are in ftivor of the Kus- g'iins, wliile the reniembranoe of past wrousrs sets them against the Turlcs, as in the war now pending (1854) they have manifested; and they have therefore been checked by England and France, wliich are now allied against Kussia. 17. What power now interfered, and what treaty was made? "What notice was given to the Turkish authorities, and how did they receive it? Relate the battle which followed, with its results. — 18. What government had the Greeks chosen ? What form of government did the allied powers Impose upon them, and whom give them for a king? What is said of re- ligion and education in Greece ? What has lately taken place in Greece in respect to a constitution ? Chap. II. — I. What was the attitude of Great Britain durir.g the wars with Napoleon? 170 KADICAl, EEFOKMEES. Modern bis. ^Q\y\^ amounted to more than the whole resources of the kingdoin, PERi'D IX if applied to no other purpose, could pay in forty years.f As usual, war had been a season of excitement and intoxication ; and peace, like the sudden withdrawal of a fever, left the nation lan- guid and exhausted. Hundreds of thousands had been provided for, who were at once thrown out of employ; the nation expending funded, less by £50,000,000 annually, than in the years of the war. omloo Want bred discontent and murmurs. America, the bett custo- mer of England,* was suiFerinor a similar depression, so that last foreign trade failed to aftbrd relief. Seasons were unfavorable, years of and harvests scanty ; wages low, and provisions high. Laborer's G. Bri- pressed by necessity, combined to extort higher wages. Masters ^ri'naiT' ^'^^^^'^ §'^^^ ^'^ more, and discharged their operatives. Writers expend- took advantage of these disafifections to sow disorganizing princi- ^£109,-* pl^s; and the faults of the English government, real and imaginary, PW';"oo. became the agitating theme of her discontented people. Vast flVe assemblages met in the open air, whose orators harangued them years of qq tl^eir poverty, contrasted with the luxury of those, who, doing £64,- nothing, rioted in the nation's wealth. But they chiefly fixed on gjnpe' ^^^ gi'ievance of the unequal representation in the house of com- stiii less.) mons. — by which Manchester, with 187,000 inhabitants, and ("Rot- other large manufacturing cities, had no representative in parlia- ten bo- j^ent ; while the borough of Old Sarum, with only twelve inhab- places itants, and fifty others similarly situated and called ^^ rotten lince boroughs" were each represented — and by the creatures of the the time ministry. The cry of these pec-ple was for a radical reform of the rep- these abuses. Hence they were called " The Radicals." resenta- ^ flggj- ^j^g gg,-,^ j-q Algiers under lord Exmouth, who put an tion was . . °/. 1 » 1 ■ 111 appor- entire stop to the piracy ot the Algermes, — a good woi'k begun hotCde- by ^^^ Americans. After the city had been bombarded by the ciinedin English, the Dey bound himself by treaty to deliver all Christian tion.) slaves, and no more to make Christian captives. 2. In 1819, disturbances became more alarming. Both in England and Scotland, vast field meetings were held ; and the throne and the houses of parliament were overwhelmed with pe- 1§19. titions. The more violent were preparing by secret organization ''^"m ^^' ^"*^ nocturnal trainings, to raise the standard of open rebellion. Meet- On the 16th of August 50,000 people of all ages and both sexes, *Man-° "^6iit forth fi'om Manchester to hold a meeting in the fields, with Chester, banners, where floated the characters "Liberty or Death," "An- nual Parliaments," " No Corn Laws," &c. None wore an oflen- * So much the best customer, that when in 1836 all the exports from Great Britain to every part of the world, including her own provinces, amounted to £53,368,000, those to our republic were £12,425,000, — nearly one-quarter of the whole. 1. What do you learn of her national debt in 1816 ? What was the firet effect of peace ? What was the difference of the national expenditure dur- iug the last years of the war and the first of the peace ? What was the actual expenditure in each? (See side note.) Describe the progress of dis- content among the people. What grievance was cornplained of? Describe the origin of the term " the Radicals." What did Lord Exmoutl accom- plish?— 2. What was the state of things ia 1817-18? i i I CATHOLIC EMANCIPAITON. 477 sive weapon, and the speaker was just expressing his confident ^c^f^ -^'^ hope of their quiet demeanor, wlieu suddenly a body of cavalry peei'D ix. cauie upon them, dashed through their thickest ranks, trampling "°'^" "• them to death, and cutting them down with sabres ! Thus more ^~^^^^ Z'' than 400 peaceable citizens were massacred. This severe mea- ere, or sure was followed, Nov. 13th, by ''The Six Acts," which em- j^"^'^'^ bodied stronaf measures for preventinij riotous assemblages, — cuUon" empowering magistrates to enter houses to search for arms by day or night. These measures produced quiet, but not content. 3. On the death of the aged and insane monarch, George lU., j§20. the prince regent, now George IV., was invested with full sov- Jan. 29. ereignty. He was an immoral man. No cruelty, exercised on ^y°l^l. the mind and character, could exceed that with which he had ceedshis treated his wife, Caroline of Brunswick. She was a woman of >high spirit, and being made unhappy in England, she had been _ libroad for some years. She now came home to claim a part in j, ^g' the approaching coronation. Ller return was met by a prosecu- Corona- tion for breach of the marriage vow, instituted by her husband, Jera-go and odious to the nation ; as the prosecutor was notoriously iv. guilty himself, and had done every thing the opposite of afibrding her a husband's protection. After a trial she was acquitted by (^"^^fjUg the judges ; but she was not allowed to share in the coronation, was iio- This was celebrated with pomp, and at an expense of £202,000 ; '^"^^ notwithstanding it was a sejison of such distress in Ireland, that Brough- more than 200,000 persons were without the means of subsist- ence, and many were daily starving to death. 4. In the succeeding years, England sometimes took a ground with regard to the "Holy Alliance," which checked their tyran- 1822. nical proceedings. She caused the independence of Greece from "'^^['^^'' the Turkish yoke to be recognized ; but she united with the other Verona, nations in prohibiting a republican form of government, and imposing on that people a foreign king. 5. The catholics in Ireland had sutfered, since their conquest by William III., grievous privations; but their condition had gi'adually been made better. In 1778 a law was abolished by which children of that denomination wei'e deprived of the inher- Kii^slrs itr.nce of parents; and another which forbade a catholic to keep "Corpo- school on pain of imprisonment. In 1791 their places of wor- and ; ship and schools were tolerated, and they were allowed to prac- -^/jp. I tise law. In 1793 they were permitted to hold offices in the I army and navy. The catholic question was again agitated, and LORD John Russell introduced a bill by which the cathoHcs i were permitted to share in all municipal oftices of power and j 2. Kelate the occurrences of the IGth of August, 181?, at Manchester. What was done by parliament the November followini;:? — 3. Who became kinsT, and at what time? What was liis character, and his treatment of his wife? Who was she ? W'liat course did slie pnrs\ie ? What is said of tlie coronation as to expense? Wliat better use does it seem that the money might have been put to, as it respects tlie people of Irehind? — 4. What is said of the course of England as respects tiie Holy Alliance? — 5. Give an account of the progress of emancipation in Irekind up to thfl time of the Wellington i:iiuistry. its - ''the EEFOEil BILL." Modern Eu. trust. Biit thev vrere rex dissatisfied, and in Ireland, " The Ca PERrD IX tholic Association," at the head of which was Daxiel O'Coxxell, CHAP, n. contrived means to get so entire a control over the whole ^"'^"^^ catholic population, comprising the gi'eater part of the Irish '^c-^ - P^op^^! ^ to ^^^ ^ tribute ti'om them under the name of rent, Uc The duke of TTeUington became prime minister, and contrary patfoD " to expectation he made it his pohcv to settle tliis question by concession. He therefore, though with great difficulty, carried fe; through parhament laws granting the cathoKcs the highest ot- g ^ fices in the judiciary and the legislatm-e. O'Connell, however, ^ soon found other subjects of agitation, and contrived to keep and increase his authority over the people. His principle sub- Irish af- ject of complaint was the legislative union of Ireland with Eng- ^'H^ land, and the " R^^peaT' meetings held under his auspices, were attended by hundreds of thousands. He Avas apprehended, tried, and imprisoned, and although liberated, he soon after died. 1§3©. 6. William IV. succeeded his brother, George lY. The French Acce>-' r^^olii'^i'^Q of the "Three Days" brought afresh to the people sion of desires for the reformation of abuses, especially of the unequal ^IT?'" representation in the house of commons. The house itself was now favorable to the REFORii. The Reform Bill was brougrht in Jra T ^ LORD Broughasi, and after many struggles on the part of its Eoform friends, it passed to the great joy of the nation at large.* Old p!^c5. Sarum, and fifty-five other " rotten boroughs," whose members had been sent into the house of commons, either by the crown or nobility, were by this bill disfranchised ; and 42 manufactur- ing cities and flomishing places, were now fii-st empowered to send their representatives. In Haxover the people felt the im- pulse towai'ds an increase of politiciil hberty, and the English 1 §33. government gave them a new constitution, by which they have tiiavery a legislature of two branches. Some one of the royal family of sfiei England was to constitute the chief executive. In 1833, Great Britain abolished colonial slavei^y ; parliament granting £20,- 000,000 to remunerate the slave owners. Mr. "Wilbertorce was active in procuring these laws. T. In 1 S3 i, parhament passed "The Poor Law Amendment Act." The poor laws in England and Wales had dispensed large sums to the poor ; but great abuses had been reported to 1^3-1 P'irhament by pereons employed to investigate. Paupers were Poor law so provided for, that their condition was better than that of the ^ i ^ent" independent laborer, who had to sustain his part of the enor- ^ I mous expenditure. By the many officer's employed in dispen- g I * The principal snpporters of this bill, — ^lord Brougiam, lord John Eus- § sel, earl (jrev, and lord Althorpe, received presents of gold cnps purchased '■ by penny subscriptions, to wiuch 300,000 persons contributed. 5. "^hat policy did "Wellington pursue, and -n-hat carry through parlia- ment ? What subjects of agitation employed O'Connell and his party ?— 6. "Who succeeded George IV. \ What'do'you understand by the Eeform Bill, and what can you relate respecting it t What was done in Hanover i "What lavis did parliament make regarding slaver^- ? "What liberal suni ai- propriate = — 7. What is said of thcoperatioa of the poor laws i t5 S3 BRITISH EMTIKE IN THE EAST. 479 biug the fund a considerable part of it was absorbed. The ^^•"^^'''^ ni«. " Amendment Act" provided that the relief of the poor should peupd ix. be placed in the hands of three commisxioners, who are em- ''"'^''' "' powered to appoint their assistants. The great amount of pau- ^ ^^ j>erisiii led to the belief that the population was in excess, and .-^ the consequent encouragement of emigration to the United States, 18J51 ^i Australia, and the Cape of Good Hope. Lord Brougham brouglit _ '"l,. ^ ^ forward in the house of commons, a plan of popular education, and lord John Russell a project for the "Reform of Municipal Coi'porations," both of which passed into laws. ^ 8. After a short reiffn in which Eno-land had advanced in , „ ] j)olitical liberty, industrial arts, and mercantile enterprise, Wil- j„j,g2o. liara IV. died, and was succeeded by his niece, Victoria. On Victoria account of the Salic law she is excluded from a throne in Ger- w^maDi" many ; and Erxest, the oldest survinng son of George III., be- ^"• came king of Hanover. He dying in 1851, was succeeded by his son George V. — A rebellion in Canada, which Great Britain ruled with much moderation, now broke out, chiefly among the disaffected of the French population, improperly aided by indi\iduals of the United States. But it appeared, that, though the rebels showed fighting courage, they had neither n'onla well-digested plans, nor stiict concert; and the rebellion was Canada soon crushed. ' 9. THE BRITISH EMPIRE IN INDIA continued to ex- tend. In 1816 the isles of Mauritius and Bourbon were con- quered from France. In 1815, by a war with the natives, the English obtained Kumaoon and the mountain passes ; and the same year the native kingdom of Candy in Ceylon. In 1818, a last elibrt of the Mahrattas was quelled, and their whole countiy 1§25. subjected. In 1824, in a war with BiiiMAii, the British con- PcacC of quered its north-eastern states, which were ceded, together with Yiindilbll. an annual tribute in 1825, at the Peace of Yandahu. In 1814 J^'V""^ > 1 -ri r^ !•/• 1 1 • cedes livo the charter ot the East India Company wjis modified, and their provinces, monopoly limited to twenty years. At the close of 1833, the iKSi/o^KKi China trade being fi'ee to all British subjects, difficulties occurred yearly trib^ between the English traders and the Chinese, in regard to the sale of opium, which the authorities of that Empire had inter- ^^^. i,^^^^^ dieted as hurtful to the people. The English continued to bring interference large quantities ; the Chinese took piisoners the buyers, and go^vJrnmeLi compelled them to throw overboard the deleterious drug, to the value of £2,000,000. The English government took up the js^j quarrel, — attacked the Chinese, and obtained such military island of advantages, that the emperor made peace by submitting to pay gainf,]')roia the English Si 1,000,000, to throw open five of his ports, and China, cede in perpetuity the island of Hong-Kong. 7. Of their amendment? Of emigration? What furtlier laxi-s did tLis period of reform produce ? — 8. What is remarked coueerniiig the short rei^n of William IV. ? Who .sucoeeded liim ? Who became sovereign of Hanover? Give some account of the rebellion in Canada. — 9. Give an ac-c/jnnt cf the growth of the British empire in India. 4S0 THE FKEE CHURCH OF SCOTLA^TD. Modern ITi& PEEFD IX ciiAP. n. 10. Yet, witli an eiripire on whicli the sun never sets, tliere ai'e liome-bred clouds in the horizon of Great Britain. She has a great national debt. The ardent Irish are ruled by the catho- lics, and hence at enmity with the British government ; and now its all-powerful aristocracy have against them, in " the Free Church," the bone and sinew of the nationality of Scotland. When in the reign of Queen Anne, the Scots merged their parHa- ment into that of Great Britain, it was on the condition that their church should be left free. But the Bolingbroke ministrj- procured a law, giving to the aristocracy of Scotland a right to the disposal of the church livings. These lay-patrons, at fij'st, torebore to impose pastors on unwilling congregations. When they did attempt this legal abuse, a majority of the <«^eneral Assembly of the Scottish Church, with the venerable Chalmers at their head, refused to oi'dain. The lay-patrons, at- tempting coercion, carried the case before the British House of Lords, and there obtained a decision in their favor. At the next meeting of the Assembly, the moderator declared, that not being free, that body could no longer legislate for the Church. He rose — left the house, and 500 devoted ministers followed him , voluntarily relinquishing their right in 814,000,000 of church 10. In whose reign was the Scotch parliament merged into the English ? On what condition did the Scots give their consent? By what law wan this condition contravened ? What was at first the course of the lay pat- rons ? When they attempted to enforce tlie legal abuse, what was done by the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland? Who was the leading member? What course did the lay-patrons pursue, and what decision ob- tain? Eelate what occurred at the next meeting of the General Assembly. '-THE HOLY ALLIANCE." 431 property. But tlieir people gloried in the act, and larire vulun- 'forf«>-» Bu. tary contributions were soon ubtaincd fur " The Free Chin ch of I'KiiiD ix. Scotland." Five hundred new churches were built, and 8U0 cou- ^^''"^- "*■ cremations formed. ^^-^"-^^^-^^ 1843. CHAPTER III. France uui the Holy Alliance, includino^ a general view of Continental Europe, IVoui 1815 to 1844. 1S15 1. On the final abdication of Napoleon, the command of the juiy fi. French army devolved on marshal Davoust. By a military ■^""l^^ntJ/'^ convention with Blucher and Wellington, he withdrew his army Paris, behind the Loire; and Paris was again occupied with foreign .TuIv". troops, under whose protection Louis XVIIL, a second time, took ^^'es. "^^ possession of the throne. France was now compelled to surren- ,.,^,^ .^., 1 ,'1 , a ■ ^ • ■ ^ . . „ /. (15th, Nap" der some ot her most ilourishuig provmces, — to maintam, for five icon delivers years, a foreign army, in eighteen fortresses on the north and tho' En^lush ) east — to pay a tribute of 700,000,000 francs — and to restore the works of art to the nations fiora which Napoleon had taken them. Marshal Ney was condemned and shot, contiary to the treaty of capitulation. Murat, who had been deposed, made a foolish attempt to regain the throne of Naples ; but he was taken as he landed on the shore, and afterwaixls shot. Alexander of Russia, having assumed the title of czar and king of Poland, gave the Poles, by a charter, the semblance of constitutional liberty ; and appointed Constantine, his brother, commander-in-chief of the kingdom. IS 15 2. The grand league called the Iloly Alliance was now form- Sept. 26, »t ed at Palis, by Austria, Russia, and Prussia : and although with , ^'*^'*' , high pretensions of religion, yet its i-eal object, as interpieted by l,' ^ ., ■ its acts, was to crush the spirit of constitutional liberty, intro- .ii. • duced into Europe by the American revolution, and thus to quiet the monarchies in irresponsible absolutism. The origina- tors of this league were Alexaiider of Russia, and Clement, Prince ^hornu're' of Metternicii, the Richelieu of his time, who had already ambassador for ten years been the real ruler of Austria. As minister to 'to"France,' France, ke had by his seductive elerance of speech and manner ^?*"'' ""''.^ „ -ii />-KTi II 1 prime mini!<- nrst gamed tlie ear ot Napoleon, and then wheedled huii into the ter of Austria Austrian maniage ; — thus creating in him a false dependence on '" '''^'^'^ Austria, which, at a moment then anticipated by this wily states- man, was withdrawn, and Napoleon, as we have seen, ruined. 10. What did the 500 minister.^ relinquish ? "What is this division of the church called? (observe the quotation marks.) What followed i Cii.KP. III. — J. What occurred in Paris on tlie abdication of Napoleon? To what were the French compelled by the allies? What is related of MiirslnJ JS'ey ? What was tlie fate of Miirat? What was done by Alexan- der in respect to Poland ? — 'Z. What nations entered into a league ? What wa.s it called, and what was its reid character ? Who were its principal con- trivers? What was the eharac'.er of Metteruich, as shown by his "ourse with refptot to Napoleon? 61 482 METTEENTCH. Mot-. ern His, ^^lerever delegates of the allied powers were met to legislate, PEErD IX Metternich was President of the Congress ; and during its recess CHAP. in. jjg ^^jjg j^g Executive. This gave him the virtual headship of " ^' continental Europe ; and, contented with the reality of power Jftho^con- without its show, he retained it for more than thirty yeai-^L ff^"th*"n'f Sitting at Vienna, as the spider by his web, his Argus-eyes 'Miinnce." watched the feebler powders — and if any of their people pre- sumed to form for themselves free institutions, forth darted the Austrian troops — violated their nationality, and deprived them of their liberty.* 3. To produce the full calm of despotism, Metternich studied to learn what privileges the people could have, which would not interfere with his system, — and to forestall their wishes, as far as was consistent with absolutism. Hence ho patronized improve- ments in the arts, and in agi'iculture. Education, too, he fos- tered ; yet only so far as the divine right of kings was inculcated by the closely-watched instructors. The rights of individuals (+ Hence tho were systematically and most unscrupulously violated in the se- "'"^eauroan- cret government bureaux,^ especially by opening and taking notes, cracy.") ^f private letters sent by mail. — Towards Russia, the attitude of Metternich was always humble. England, ha^dng in her government a mixture of both abso- lutism and its opposite, if at any time her ministry were found too closely fraternizing with the League, then their more hberal co-patriots, armed with the eloquence of natural justice, called them, in parhament, to a stern account. Hence we find England * " With a ariffantic mind, he spread his toils over the whole continent — had his spies in all the capitals of Europe : in Portucral, he was with the Miguels ; in Spain, France, and in Italy, with the aristocrats and priests." "In the support of his system, nations and their rights became as chattels ' in his hands, which he disposed of at pleasure, where he could effect the greatest advantage. He sacrificed the Greeks to the Turks, the Poles to the Eussians, and the Italians to their oppressors. He occupied the States of the Church with Austrian armies upon the slightest disturbance." "Even as late as two years before he surrendered his power, he extin- guished the little republic of Cracow, the last refuge of Polish nationality ; and the very last year of his more than imperial sway, he opposed the lib- eral party of Switzerland, and supported their opponents, the Sonderbond, as is said, by the 'material aid' of a million of dollars." The favorite pol- icy of Metternich was " to govern through the DIVISION of the different nationalities of the empire." We make these quotations from Stiles' able "History of Austria, 1848-49." Is it possible to suppose that Metternich should have failed to embrace in, his all-pervading policy that nation, from whose lead in free institutions the ahsolutists of Europe had suffered most, a,nd had most to fear ? For the author's views on this subject, see her " Histc>ry of the Eepublic of America," especially the part beginning on p. 451. In 1831, Mr. Wheaton, then in Jjoudon on a visit, and after a residence in northern Europe;, asserted, in the author's hearing, that one of the meas- ures was to send here convicts, the sooner to bring us to ruin by anarchy The papers of the day (Jan. 1854) show late developments made in New York, proving the fact that this Metternich policy is still practised. 2. What gave him the virtual headship of continental Europe? How long did he retain his power, and why ? By what comparison does your author describe his operations? {For proof see note.) — 3. In what respect, and how far, did Metternich consult tlie wishes of the people ? In what respect were the rights of individuals violated ? What was the attitude of Metternich towards Eus.sia? How do we find England in respect to tlio Holy Alliance? USURPED POWERS OF THE HOLT ALLIANCE. 483 xoineliines acting -witli, ami sometimes against the " Holy Al- ■!^f<"^^>'nffii. liance." When at its first organization George IV. was invited perid ix to become a party to the League, he declined giving it his signa- *'"*''■ "'■ ture, ahliough he expressed liis approval of its principles. 4. At the coTK/ress of Aix-la-Chapelle, France became a, incm- hcr of the Holy Alliance. This congress established the princi- ple of an "armed intervention ;" or, in other words, the viem- hers of the Holy Alliance ayreed to assist each other with their whole military force, ayainst their subjects, in case of a re- volt in either hinydom. At tlie congress which convened at TroppaTi, these principles were still further extended, and the riyht was claimed to interfere by coercion in the domestic affairs of all other nations. This pretended right was exercised in rela- tion to the affairs of Spain, Portuyal, and Naples. The people of all tliese kingdoms had obtained better securities for tlieir lib- erties, by adopting free constitutions. Their resix^ctive rulers liad sAvorn to be govei'ned by them, and the citizens felt that they had secured the blessings of liberty to themselves and their pos- terity. But Metternicii, in the name of the " Holy Alliance," ^l^l;^:!^;^";;';^^ sent armies, broke up the domestic arrangements of the people, the iidiy abrogated their constitutions, and restored the sovereigns to ab- '""*''''■ solute power. These acts of gross violence against the sovereignty of nations 1823. were abhorrent to all conscientious and ealiglitened men, not T»,J^!\r„7;, . only m Europe, but in America. The government of the United Doctrine" States, through president Moni-oe, took solemn notice of them ; fnihi^af^m-ii and declared that such principles should not be extended to any messase to part of the American continent. ° 5. In France, the principles of the Holy Alliance created great excitement; and they were boldly denounced in the chamber of (May 9, 1S20, deputies. The ministi'v became alainied, and were proceeding '^^'/■"''""•'■ 1 11- • Till ''"" "'^ to extreme measures, when public attention was diverted bv the Charles x. death of Louis XVIIL His bi'other, the duke of Artois, a bigot ""Ehf'-,'!'"/'^ in politics and religion, ascended the throne, under the title of Charles X. As liberal ideas gained ground with the people, the government became more and more agitated with alaini. -gjj,^ The return of Lafayette, from a triumphal visit to the United i;pti~n oV States, was watched with apprehension. The arbitrary Villele Tj»tayftie was at the head of the ministry, and he had obtained a majority ''"'^""j^'^J"^' in the French chamber of deputies by controlling the elections. l)ut this short-sighted expedient only increased the general dis- affection. 6. Pending the struggle with Napoleon, tbe sovereigns of 4. TVhat principles did tlie allied mnnarclis adopt at Aix-la-Chapelle, with reofard to their own subiects ? What at Troppau in rcfrard to inter- ferinor with the domestic affairs of other nations? Wluit nations at- leniptod to make free grovernments, and were prevented ? By whom ? How? How did this violation of the sovereijjnty of nations affect the minds of conscientious men ? What was done in America ?— 5. How did \\.i FrencVi receive the doctrines of tlie Holy Alliance? What change of I'overeijriis occurred ? What is said in reference to Lafayette ? What iu naitl of Villele ? iSl COiniEECIAL LEAGUE OF THE GEEMAN STATES. Modojvi His. Qerinany liad promised their sul>ject3, -nliat, by tlieir progi-ess m PEKrD IX. intelligence tliey ardently desired, constitutional governments ; oiiAi>. nt |j^|. -wiigji tlie war was over, few remembered tlieir engagements, Tlie king of Bavaiia and the duke of Baden, however, in spite of the Holy Alliance, fuliilled theirs in good faith. These states and Prussia have given great attention to primary education. ^>e ^^i-man ^4 Commercial League, under the auspices of Prussia, was form- ed, connecting in a new bond almost all the states which former- ly belonged to the Germanic body. This league is called the " Zoll Vereinr 1§96. 7. On the death of Alexander I. of Eussia — which the ci^il- December. J2ed world regretted — Constantine, his brother, who had been Alexander, appointed commander of Poland, was declared emperor; but he ''^NkhoiL"^ renounced his hereditary rights in favor of his brother Nicholas, (Nicholas, ia '^^^ assumed the government, and dated his reign from the 1844, visited death of Alexander. He repelled an invasion of the Persians arrange, as under Abbas Mirza, and compelled him to cede to Russia large n1§4t''the territories on both sides of the river xirases. division of 8. Mahmoud II., the sultan of Turkey, took occasion fi'om an Turkey.) insurrection of the Janizaries, to attack and destroy the danger- ous power of that body, the prtetorians of Turkey. He modelled I§'2§. j^jg armies on the European system, and placed himself in a hos- Knssia .and tile attitude against Russia, then occupied with the Persian war. Turkey, rj-j^g Russian forces, amounting to 200,000, invaded his kingdom, and after numerous sieges and battles, in which victory repeat- 1§29. gjiy changed sides, at length prevailed. Having passed fhe 1 eace OI Balkan Mountains, the Russians occupied Aclrianople, the sec- iyrmn- ^^^ ^jj-y j^ ^j^g Turkish empiie, where, in 1829, they dictated Opi*^' the terms of a peace by v.'hicb they obtained the free navigation i§33. ^^ ^^^^ Black Sea and Dardanelles. Subsequently, by the treaty Peace of oi" Unkiar Skelessi, the Porte engaged to close those straits lllkiiir agiiiust any other nation, at the demand of Russia. This alarm- Skelessi. ^*i England, lest Russia should, by subjugating Turkey, get a preponderating power. . . The able viceroy of Egijpt, Mehemet I§3'2. ^Li, sent his son Ibrahim with an aiTuv, who overran Syiia, and ibr.ifiim dJ- defeated the Turks at the battle of Konieh. The English, fearing T*^^ k^ who ^^^^ Russia, already too powerful, should annihilate Turkey and "lose si),ouii. possess Constantinople, interfered, and obliged Mehemet to with- draw his forces, and still acknowledge his vassalage to the sultan ; 1§4§. but the subjection was rather nominal than real. M. hornet All g^ Egypt greatly improved in arts, agriculture, and commerco first bv his Under the direction of Mehemet x\li. Ibrahim succeeded him i:i '^beSy his" tlie ^-iceroyalty of Egypt in 1848. He died two months after- i'[iliew Ab- bos Pacia. 6. What is said of Germany in regard to its prosfress ? To the promises of the soverei.ffns and tlieir fulfilment ? To educat-'on ? The Commercial League? — 7 When occurred the death of Alexander? What is said oi Nicholas?— 8. What was done by Mahmond of Tarlcey? Give an account of the war between Turkey and Kussia. "What was obtained by Eussia at the treaty of Adrianoplc? Of Dnkiar Skelessi? What did the English apprehend? What occurred in Syria? What did Eiiirlaud oblige Mc- liemet to do ?— 9. What was the state of Egypt under Mehemet Ali ? What two persons succeeded him in quick succession, and in ^-liat year \ FRENCH ''REVOLUTION OF TIIK THREE DAYS." 485 ami was f-ucceeticJ by his able iK'])lie\v Abbas Pach v. . . ^''>''"' "" Jf>^ Abdl'l Medjid succeeded Mahinoud 11. as sultan of Turkey, rEUii) ix Julv 1, 1839. None of his predecessors have shown equal lib- *'"'^'' "'' eralitv in regard to reliirious toleration, civility to strano-ers, and ^ _ the improvement of his people. Knowledge is breaking in upon j^jji,nj'j„(i'i ^ the Tuiks, and even, in some measure, extending to the harem, succee-iod 10. After the coronation of Charles X. in France, the iiltia- ^M^^gla^ absolutists and Jesuits were taken into favor with the king. ^ They were opposed with great energy and boldness by the lib- ^yf^ ' erals. To take oti' public attention from their measures, and with make themselves pojuilar with the nation, the ministry made a ^''^'"^ war with Algiers. It was ably conducted, and ended in the I j^ subjugation of that country ; but the ministry obtained little ^ credit, and the elections were carried against them. This they J "^ attributed to the influence of " a free press," which, they said, " was at all times an instrument of disorder and sedition." On the 2Gth of July, 1830, they published tlie famous " Ordinances:' The first dissolved the chainbei- of deputies ; the second suspend- ed the liberty of the press ; while the third and fourth presented a new and arbitraiy law of election, to be carried into immediate TUJiEE execution. This was the sicrnal for '■'■The Revolution of the Three ^^ ^'':C i Days;" which, like the American, was a contest for principle, jj,,.. <,~' Under the guidance of the venerable Lafayette, "The stand- 2L^,!lu^l ard" around which the liberal French, as if moved by one spirit, involuntarily rallied, it was eliected dui'ing the 27tli, 28th, and 29th of July, with the loss of only l.UOO lives. Lafayette was again made coraniander-in-chief of the national guaids. Charles j^^.^ and the royal family escaped to Scotland. The chamber of dep- Philippe ^ uties, at the recommendation of Lafjiyette, made Louis Philippe, i\?a"ite, | 2 of the family of Orleans, " King of the Freu'-li." The late min- fi'jke or ^ isteis were tried and impi'isoned at Ham; but after a few years ' ^ eet at liberty by Louis I'hilijipe. Hereditary nobility was abol- J ^ ished, and the elective franchise extended. 11. The seveiity of the Russian government in Poland, with the loss of national existence, had ahvays l)een intolerable to that ancient |>eople. An extensive cons]>iracy of the youth of the tUeToies" first families was formed to liberate their countrv. Their onera- tions were at fii"st carried on in secret; but the conspira^'y wa» discovered, and the piisons were crowded with Polish victims. On the evening of the 19th of November, 1830, a young Polish 1§30, officer entered the miiitaiy school at Warsaw and called the Nov. lo. youth to arms. Accompanied by the. students of the university orvVurse*" ihey forced their way into the palace of Constantine, who escaped by a secret passage. The insurrection became general. Forty thousand Polish troops and citizens, having armed themselves !>. What change of sovereifrns oocm-reil in Turkey, and when? What Is the course pursued hv Abdul Medjid? — 10. Who were favored by Charles X. ? What was clone by the liberals ? What war was grot up, and how did it result ? What was enjoined by the Ordinances ? M'hat three days are mentioned., and wliat was done durin-j; the time ? AVho was the leader at tiiit) time i Who, at the recouiaieiulation of LaiaycUe, was made king! iS6 INDEPENDENCE OF BELGIUM. Jfodern His. PEEI'D IX. CUAl'. III. (May 1. Died the great aid good Ln- faycttc.) Pouits Sf j: ta St. Ec) -.r.a after the reniaind of Napoleon. Deo. 6. Napoleofi rt-iiiterred 'i\ Piria. from the public arsecal, expelled tlie Russian troops from War saw. A Polish diet was assembled, and independence declared. The emperor Nicholas issued a proclamation denouncing the patriots as rebels. A succession of sanguinary battles followed, in which the Poles were at first victorious , but single-handed, they were unable to resist the giant power of Russia. They concen- trated their forces around Warsaw, where, after several days of continued fighting, their armies were defeated ; Warsaw was takeii, its defenders slaughtered, and Russian despotism re-established. 12. The French revolution of 1830 was immediately followed by that of Belgium. The Belgic people, always French in their institutions and feelings, had been, at the congress of Vienna, arbitrarily annexed to Holland. They now seized the opportunity to sever themselves. A national congress was assembled, which declared the independence of Belgium, and in 1832 adopted a constitutional monarchy. The representatives of the five poweis, Britain, France, Austiia, Russia, and Prussia, assembled in Lon- don, arranged the boundaries of the new kingdom, and appor- tioned the national debt between Belgium and Holland. Leo- pold, of Saxe Coburg, the widowed son-in-law of George IV. of England, was made king. Leopold afterwards married Louisa, eldest daughter of Louis Philippe. The gTeat and good Lafayette died May 1, 1834. The people gathered in throngs to his buiial, and wept as for a Father.* 13. Repeated attempts upon the life of Louis Philippe were made the pretence for so strengthening his power and his military arrangements, that he wholly abridged the liberties of the French people, completely shackled the press, and placed Paris under military despoti-sm. He, however, bent in some things to the spirit of the age. His government patronized schools for the improvement of the common people ; and although his power promptly quelled their insurrections, yet he gratified the feelings of the French, by asking of tlie British, the remains of him whose conquests gave them, for a time, such a proud eminence among the nations. A warhke vessel was sent to St. Helena. The grass-grown nook was disturbed, and its willows no longer wave over the grave of Napoleon. Attended by six hundred thousand persons, — borne on a glittering car, the conqueror again enters Paris. But death has conquered him ; and it is but dust and ashes, which is borne aloft, in that pompous ceremonial. The spirit, which once gave such mighty eneigy, is gone — we know not whither. * So said, to the author, Nov. R, 1854, tlie superintendent of the cerac- tery of the Kuo Pecpus, wlio superintended his funeral, and buried liini there with his family, beside his wife, self-sacrificed for him. TheMont- niorencies, the Koehefoucanlts, the Polignacs, and a few other famiUes ot tlie old French noblesse, are buried in this small private cemetery. 11. Kelate the last valiant struggle of the Poles.— 12. "What account can you give of Belgium? When occurred the death of Lafayette? — 13. What has been the course of Louis Philippe ? In what respect did he bend to the spirit of the age ? In what particular did he gratify the French people ? 1-ieliite some particulars of the second funeral of Napoleon. CHAPTER IV. Moa^iru The Ecpubllc of America. PKRl'D IX. ClIAF. IV. 1. Iw the treaty of Ghent, between Great Britain ai.J the - _ - ^ - _ ^ United States, tlie contracting nations were, in regard to terri- tory, restored to their respective hmits before the contest. Great Britain had not formally relinquished " the right of seaix'h," but HJie had learned, that she could not exercise it on the Americans 1815. with impuuity. .. Commodore Decatur was dispatched with a cLastise'tto formidable naval force into the MediteiTanean, to chastise the Aigerinoh. piratical powers on the coast of Barbary. The Algerines were humbled. Their shipping was captured, their defences destroy- ed, and the terrified Dey, while his chief city lay exposed to the lire of Decatur's guns, consented to make compensation for his past injuiies to American commerce, and to withdi'aw his claims to the tribute, which the American republic, as well as Europe, had previously submitted to the disgrace of paying. Tunis and Tripoli wei'e also compelled to agree to humiliating terms of peace. 2. The efforts of congress were now directed to improve the (-vn'ashin.'- internal condition and prosperity of the Union. The Bank of ton, JefftT- the United States, which had been established during Wash- Monroe, and ington's administration, was re-chartered, with a capital of ^'**i\^,''°''^'"^'' o / ^ . -1 . ■^ liafl the pres- 35,000,000 of dollars; and a taritf of duties on foreign com- idency two merce was established, whose object was to secure some of the *then'pat-' more common domestic manufactures against a ruinous foi'eign rioucaiiy de- competition. . . James Monroe, a citizen of Viiginia, succeeded 'election^' Madison in the presidency, by a vote nearly unanimous. His I817. administration was distinguished as " the era of good feeling. . ." Mr. Monroo. The federal Union, enlarged by the admission of new states,! (tMichigan , , 1., . 1 ■, T. 1 1 was admitted increased steadily in general prosperity, its ocean bouuda- iniS37, nuv ly cm the southeast was perfected by the purchase of Flor- lilJSoubie^tho ida, from Spain, for §5, 000,000. All internal duties and taxes old thirteen.) were abolished ; and the surviving soldiers of the revolution were l§19-20 relieved from poverty by the grant of adequate pensions. ^ Fior^da."^ 3. By invitation from the American government, general La- fayette arrived in New York, August, 1824, and was met by a ^^^'*- warmth of national friendship and gratitude beyond his most fnyette.'"* sanguine anticipations. His i)rogress throuo-h the twenty-four ("^«"';''''!. , ° ,.1 II- ^ '^ . , .o *' . Lafavetto, states ot the republic was one continued triumphal procession, he now niad« In consequence of his services and expenditures, congi-ess made address':^ do- liim a grant of $200,000, and a valuable township of land in ciinin^his Florida. After having been present at tlie inauguration of the tiUe, ''tho \-oungei Mr. Adams, March 4th, 1825, he embarked on board '""'•I'^i^'^h,'* 1. What is said of the treaty of Ghent ? Of the war with Algiers? — U, Wliat two measures of coni,'ress are liere related? Wliat change ot presidents occurred ? What is here mentioned in the side-notes? \Vhat was tlie character of Mr. Monroe's administration, and the condition of the country ? — 3. Kelate the visit of Lafayette to America. What change of presideats was made in 1825 ? 487 i88 THKEATENED KEBELLIOjST OF SOUTH CAKOLIN^. Xodei-n His. \\^q jjg^- ft^jgate Branclywiue, and returned, to act again an im* PEEi'U IX. portant part on the theatre of France. CHAP. IV. ^_ Qj^ ^"l^g ^^j^ ^|- ];^,jj^,.(.ij^ 1829, GENERAL Jackson was inau- gurated president of the repubhc, and John C. Calhoun vice- president. .. In 1832, North America was visited by the fatal "Asiatic Cholera," which began in Asia about fifteen years before. It passed through Europe, then made its appearance in Canada; from whence it spread destruction over America, being chief! 7 fatal in populous cities... On the 4th of March, 1833, general j.^okson ami Jattson Avas again inaugurated president of the repubhc, and VanBiiren. Martin Van Buren was made vice-president. 5. The protective duties laid by congress, while they advanced the prosperity of the manufacturing intei'est of the north, increas- ed the price of commodities, some of which were especially need- ed at the south. Hence a violent anti-tariff party arose, chiefly 1 §32. i'^ South Carolina. After working themselves up by meetings, ' NuiMiica- speeches, and the press, to a high pitch of excitement, this party (resi'sted proceeded to declare, through a convention chosen for the pur- in congress pose, that congTcss, in laying protective duties, had exceeded its Webster, in just powers — that its acts, on this head, should be null and void ; '"pelcT' ^^^ ^^^^^ ^^ should be the duty of the legislature of South Caro- against Gen. lina to make provision to resist them by an armed force. The ayne.) legislature obeyed the ordinance ; and thus, for the first time, one of the sister states was in the attitude of rebellion against Jackson's *^® paternal rule of the general government. The president af- piociaiua- fectionately called on the wandering state to return to obedience, while he took such decided measures to compel submission, as i§S3. left httle hope that resistance would be availing. The nuUifica- ^Comprcf- ^^*^^ party then consented to a compromise, which was introduced mise Bill." into congress by Henry Clay. United states 6. The national bank had, with apparent satisfaction to the Bank. business community, afforded the facility of easy transmission. Opinion of and a uniform currency to every part of the republic. A party, Jackson however, arose, with president Jackson at its head, who opposed party. the bank, doubting its constitutionality and expediency. His Of tho J&ci.. opponents alleged that the directors had refused to permit its souoranti- offices to be made by the p'overnment the reward of party ser- bnnk party. . .7 to rk \ Vices ; as unhappily those ot the revenue and post-omce have, v/ithin the present century, been more or less made. The friends of general Jackson, on the other hand, asserted that the agents of the bank had corruptly used their great moneyed power against the supporters of his administration. However the con- Igjjtj test between the executive and the bank might have begun, its • 1 T mi • IT specie pay- travagance took the place of industry and economy. Ihis pubhc ment. fever had, in 1837, a fearful crisis. Before it, every one seemed growing rich ; after it, many individuals and families were daily reduced from affluence to hopeless poverty. The banks were obliged to suspend specie payment, and credit seemed universally at an end. But, by a return to the neglected virtues of industry and economy, and by the great productive powers of the labor, the soil, and the manufactures of the country, business revived. The banks of New York, in 1838, resumed specie payment, and (1S54. those in other parts of the country, which did not utterly fail, every^state' soon followed their example. State governments, and other cor- ^ut ""^ '^^^ , , if 1 • !• 1 I- 1-i made provis porations, had partaken the general mama ot dealmg upon credit, ion for pay- aud some of them w^ere unable to fulfil their stipulations in time ; ment) but none, we trust, will permanently disgrace themselves and their country by repudiating their just debts, especially ; while the fair expedient of direct taxation is before them. 8. A portion of the aboriginal Indian tribes remained on their reservations within the republic. Their settled practice of ma- _, ,,^ . . . ,■ ,■ 1 • 1 1 1 ■ 1 • 1 i? (Tho C hero king war, when, so tar trom having declared it, their siiow ot kees aro, we friendship was the greatest, made them dangerous and dreaded ^^^l^^;-^ ""y neighbors. The general government had become involved in an newspaper \> ag:eement with Georgia to extinguish the Indian title to lands established within its borders, as soon as this could peaceably be elfected. ^y t''p. 'j«"i!'^ Yet, in its northwesteiii section, the Cherokees, the most civilized jirincipai of the Noith American tribes, inhabited and refused to quit their ''^^['..f)''" ancient domain. The president believed, that if the Indians at- tempted to remain, mingled with the white population, it would but lead, as in former cases, to their own destruction. He there- fore proposed to congress that they should set apart a large ter- 6. What was Gen. Jackson's course in regrard to tlie secretary of tho treasury ? — 7. lielate tlie course of thiiijrs preeedinsr the revulsion. At what time did that occur ? What was then the condition of tlie country ? What causes produced a return of prosperity I — 8. ^VIlat practice of the Indiana Diiide it apparendy expedient that they should be removed i ."n what en- pasrement was the United States involved i AS'liat plan was proposed — by wiioni — and what occurred in consequence '. What is remarked concerning tlie Cherokees J 62 i90 THE FLORIDA WAE. Modern His. I'ERI'D IX. CHAP. IV. 1§37. March 4. Inaiia:uration of Van Buren ami Johnson. (Events of the French revolution, 184S. estab- lish the cor- rectness of Mr. V. B.'s priuciple.) Harrison's short presi- 'loncy. May 31. Congress convened. Angust IS. Mr. Tyler's first veto. Sept. 9. H is BecoEnL ritory in the west, and renaove tliem thither. Congress author ized general Jackson to cany out his project, and, one by one, the tribes have been sent to their destined abode. 9. The Seminoles of Florida, incited by their chief Osceola, refused to remove ; and a destructive war was carried on to hunt them out from the unhealthy morasses of that peninsula. One little army of 117 men, under major Dade, fell into an ambus- cade, and were all cut off. A year after, at lake Okee-Chobee, 138 were killed, among whom was their commander, colonel Thompson; and it was not until 1842 that the Seminoles were in any measure subdued. . . While the Florida war was in prog- ress, the Creeks attacked a steamboat on the Chattahoochee river and burned it ; — another was fired, and with all its passengers consumed. General Scott was sent against these Indians ; and in a few months they were reduced to submission, and sent to the west. 10. On the 4th of March, 1837, occurred the inauguration of Martin Van Buren, as president of the United States, and Richard M. Johnson as vice-president. Mr. Van Buren was unfortunate in the time of his accession to the presidency, as it was the year of " the revulsion," when there was so much pecu- niary distress. The whigs believed, that the government were bound to attempt something for the general relief; but the pres- ident and his party maintained, that the faults of individuals had produced the depression, and individual industiy and enterprise would alone suffice to restore prosperity. Meantime, as the banks where the government deposits had been kept, were not considered safe, he projected a plan for keeping the pubhc purse called the " sub-treasury scheme ;" which proving unpopular, the democratic party lost the next election ; which was by the ma- jority given to general Harrison, as president, and John Tyler, as vice-president. The benevolent and kind-hearted Harrison died in one month after he was inaugurated ; when, by the con- stitution, Mr. Tyler became president. 11. The whigs, flushed with their late victory, never doubted that their policy would be carried into effect by the man whom they had elevated. Mr. Tyler had, however, during a previous career of high office, sometimes acted with the democrats, and sometimes refused to hold himself amenable to any party. The question especially at issue was, shall the public money, as maiutained by the whigs, be kept in a United States Bank, or, as held by their opponents, remain in an independent treasury 'i President Harrison had called an extra congress to meet in May. When the delegates assembled, Mr. Tyler, then president, defeat- ed, by two successive vetoes, bills which the whigs passed to re- 9. Give au account of the Florida, or Seminole war. — 10. What change of presidents occurred, and when ? Why was Mr. Van Buren unfor- tunate in the time of his presidency? Who was Mr. Van Buren's suc- cessor in the presidencj^, and how lonfr did he remain? — 11. What did the whigs expect of president Tyler I What was the question at issue be- tween tiie political parties ? ANNEXATION OF TEXAS. 491 oslablish "'>'>'n i/i^ The able cabinet selected by Harrison had all remained in otHce l'Eiti'l> ix up to the time of the second veto, when all lesigned, exce})t Dan- *'"'^'"- ""• icL Webster, secret'aiy of state ; and he only remained until he had negotiated the Ashburton Treaty ; by which a very grave dispute with England concerning the boundaiy between )ilaine and Lower Canada was happily adjusted. Ue then resigned, leaving Mr. Tyler to work out the problem, whether the American government has the inherent stability to allow an administration to stand, unsupported by any party. Mr. Tyler's not only stood, but, by taking the initial steps in the annexation of Texas, it be- came the first mover in the chain of events, by which America acquired one-third of her present territory. CHAPTER V. "War between the American Eepublic and Mexico. 1. Although the United States and England had acknowl- •edged the independence of Texas, yet Mexico ever claimed the country as her own. On the ground of our peaceable relations witli that |»ower, and of the unsettled boundaries of Texas, Gen. Jackson, and, after liim, Mr. Van Burcn, declined her repeated overtures for annexation to the rejjublic. But a leport was now spread, that Great Britain was about to take Texas under her protection, and exclude slavery. The whole people of the Union were unwilling, that England should control a country upon its southern frontier; and the men of the south, of whose views Mr. Calhoun, now secretary of state, was the exponent, were alarmed by fears of the exclusion of slavery — they being desirous to in- crease the number of slave states. The immediate annexation of Texas, therefore, became suddenly popular; and in 1844, at the presidential canvas, Henry Clay, the gieat whig leader who op- ])Osed it, lost the election; whilst the democratic candidate, James K. Polk of Tennessee who fiavored it, was chosen. After his election, but while Mr. Tyler was yet president, Texas was an- nexed by a joint resolution of congress. Senor Almonte, the Mexican ambassador, declared it, casus belli, and immediately feft Washington. Thus Mr. Polk came into power expecting a war with Mexico ; — and he determined to make it available for the acquisition of her northwestern provinces. He sent, in March, 1845, overland to California, sixty-three able men, well armed,f 12. IIow did Mr. Tyler use the veto power? What effect had this upon his cabinet? What is said of the Asliburton treaty? What problem is worked out by Mr. Tyler's course, and how decided? Chap. V. — 1. On what ground did Gen. Jackson and Mr. Van Buren de- cide against annexing Texas ? What occurred to change the views of the Anierieans? Why did Henry Clay lose tlie election, and Mr. Polk obtain it ? When and how vas Texas a'luexed ? What was lone by the Mexican en^bassador i March 8. U. S. recoa:- nize Texan independ- ence; Enat- land does tJM same, 1342. 1§44. Annexation of Texas made a test question. Feb., 1845. Joint resolu- tion annox- 'Bg TexaSi 1 §45. March 4. Mr. Ptlk i > augurated. t(They h&vl Colt's newly. invontcd ru- volviT.^ 4:93 THE MEXICAiS^ WAE. Modern His, yg^ equipped as a scieutific corps, and under the comraaixl of PERi'D IX, the great explorer, captain John C. Fremont ; — and in the Oc- CHAP. V. -(-ober succeeding, for the same destination, he oj'dered a naval ^^ '' ' force with marines to proceed, under Com. Stockton, bv the way Oct, 1S45. t n TJ ' . .> Stockton sails ot Cape Horn, ^l^th^'^^'d ^' ^"^ ^^^ mean time, Mr. Slidell, a special envoy, was sent to orders), the Mexicans ; but they, with the hereditaiy hatred of the Span- f^/tfl ^^^ Catholics to the Puritans, refused, as was expected, to treat Mcwch s! for peace. On the 30th of July, 1845, an American force under Tayioi- en- GENERAL Taylor was Ordered to the mouth of the Rio Grande, camps oppo- . ■, , . i a i ■ -, i site Mataino- A Mexican army, under Arista, was on the opposite shoie ; and '"'^' a collision soon occurred, in which sixteen Americans were either killed or wounded... On the 11th of May, 1846, the president Thornton's announced that the Mexicans had invaded our territory, and that 'capture; first "the blood of our citizens had been shed upon our own soil." The American people had not till this moment suspected that a war was in progress. In astonishment and indignation, congress Palo Alto responded " that war existed by the act of Mexico ;" and they May 8 and 9. forthwith passcd laws for appropriating ten millions of dollars, forcefeS; ^^^^ enlisting 50,000 volunteers. But before any aid could reach it^'^T.^' Taylor, save 500 marines, he had twice fought and conquered a 400; Am. k!' Mexican force nearly the double of his own. Matamoras now ReTaca^de ^^^ ^'^^^ ^^® hands of the Americans. Formal declarations ol la jpaimu. war, fi'om each belligerent, soon followed. 3. The Mexican war is unparalleled in regard to the great re- sults, suddenly, and without previous preparation, etiected by the internal energies of a young and vigorous nation, put forth in a popular direction ; and also, in regard to the immense distances i§4@. to be swept over by sea and land, as embi'aced in the plan oi May 15. the Campaign, which, on the 15th and 16th of May, was formed the^campaisn by the executive, with the aid of major-general Scott. Its ™^'?®^'' object was to conquer California and the intervening territory for ' a permanent possession ; and so to distress the Mexicans in the heart of their country, that the government would peacefully yield these provinces. Vessels were to sail round Cape Horn to Cali- fornia ; — general Kearney, with the " Army of the West," was to go from Fort Leavenworth to Santa Fe,— conquer New Mexico, and thence proceed to the Pacific, to co-operate in the conquest of California ; — general Wool was to rendezvous at Bexar, in (+ Monterey Texas, and to invade Mexico through Coahuila ; — while general Not Munte^ Taylor was to advance, and capture Monterey.f To accomplish rey,asea- all this, the republic had, of regular forces, only 9,000 men, ^°forRia.) '' Yet these vast designs were carried into effect, and by an army of volunteers, formed on the spur of the occasion. 1. What appears to have been Mr. Polk's views ? What overland expe- dition did he send to California ? What naval expedition ? — 2. What is Baid of Mr. Slidell's mission? Where was Gen. Taj'lor sent, and what eon- sequence followed ? What did the president announce i How did con- gress respond ? Eelate the movements of Gen. Taylor on the Eio Grande. — 3. In what two respects is the Mexican war unparalleled? What v/as the object of the campaign ? What was its plan ? What army had the repub- lic? By what means were the vast designs of tl e car.puigu carried out'< CONQUEST OF CALIFOIiXIA. 493 4. Gen. Woo], wlio, during the sunimer and autumii, liad been ^^"dem ma. active in raising and tbrraiiig the vohmteer forces, having pro- peri D ix (;eoded ou his destined course :o Parras, in Coahuila, was called ^^'^' ^" to the aid of the army of Gen. Taylor ; which, after the faking of ^""T"^ ^i Monterey, was lying at Saltillo, and there threatened by the junctiouof main Mexican force, at San Louis Potosi, under the commander- ^'\gsYt"sTr- in-cbief. Notwithstanding their danger, the generals Taylor and tiiio. Wool were now obliged to part wath the most efficient portion of their small army, to go to assist Gen. Scott in an attempt ^^^ffj^ upon the Mexican capital. But at the mountain pass of Buena American Vista, they met, and bore back the shock of the finest army, whicii ''"^^°«^ ^^^^^ Mexico had ever brought into the field, — and commanded by San- times that ta Anna in person. This general, after his defeat, retired to re- Am'er. loss cruit his forces, anvent in tiie western continent occurred at the satne time? What cliange had taken place in France in regard to landed estates? and wliat las F'rance now in consequence? What was sanctioned by the Code XaiXH •conue ? {Set note.) 497 Modern Ola, PERIOD X. CHAP. I. (frnn "Ccle Nspoleonno" sanctioned tlie improv'il ctidition ■»1 landed tecurcfl ) 498 ELEMENTS OF A:!JAECHT. 2. But simultaneously a counter influence was forming. Tlie PERIOD X truths taught in later times, that the people have rights, and CHAP. L |.j^j^j. oppression and tyranny are their wrongs, had, by ambitious ^ 7'". "»■ demagogues and sensual enthusiasts, been carried out to an ex- oiffism, or*' treme of licentiousness, and thus, had given rise to the dangerous ivAitiiTianism, doctrines of socians?n, or communism. Althouo-h tlie views of and its dan- , •!• i i ^■ ■ ii p- gerous ten- the moderate socialist were less demoralizing than those or tno dency. ultra communist, yet they all acted politically together; aod they indiscriminately receive fi'om current historians either appellation. sOTiaiiste;— Their leading object was to bring forward a community of meu they Ere not and women, where, repudiatinof all law, human and di^nne, no (iflns. man should presume to claim as his own, either wife, or children. or property. They called themselves republicans — and li'om the color of the flag which they adopted, they were termed "red republicans ;" but in truth they were as different in their views from men of the stamp of Lafayette, as they were from absolutists. A strong undercurrent of socialism now pervaded, not only France, but otlier parts of central and southern Europe. 3. Louis Philippe, having manifested abihty in government, gained the support of men of property and business, and made himself respected by foreign nations. His Avife, Amelia of Na- ples, was one of the best of the queens of France ; and the royal pair were both examples of conjugal and parental affection. But he was ungrateful to Lafayette, and those who elevated him ; and in politics, he proved himself an absolutist. He sought the aggrandizement of his family, rather than the pubhc good ; and thus he made shipwreck of both. Instead of paying the enor- tiiy. mous debt, with which the Bourbons had left France encum- Oct. 10. bered, he increased it, even in times of prosperity. He offend- the Duke of ed the nation also by negotiating a marriage of his third son to°th*e's^ter'" ^^^^ ^^^ sister of the queen of Spain ; and thus, contrary to of Isabella of treaties, putting one of the royal family of France into the line Spain. ^£ ^j^g Spanish succession. In Algiers, the heroic Emir, Abdel- Kader, was bravely contesting the soil of his native land, when, deserted by his followers, he gave himself up to the French, on Abdei-KadT Condition that he should be permitted to go with his family irow^oneZ ^^ -^SJP^ *^^ Syria. Louis Philippe faithlessly imprisoned him at Ham. His minister, M. Guizot, shared the unpopularity of this act ; as also that of giving aid to the " Sonderbund," in Switzer- land, which was regarded as the party of the Cathchc priests 184§. against the people. Logins."" 4. Reform banquets in private houses had been held by the Feb. 22. liberals in various parts of France. One was announced to take ublique ;" and finally es- caped with her sons to Germany. 5. A republic was now formally proclaimed at the Hotel de Sfi-fl^. Ville. A Provisional Goveinment was formed, consisting of the rr7'^'°' ^i!i- ' ^ 1 lie repuDiK, venerable Dupont de l'Ecre the friend of Lafayette,* Lamar- The i^rovis- riNE the poet and orator, Arago the great astronomer, Cre- ment,?^xe?> MiEUX, and Ledru-Rollin. The last was one of the leaders of utiye com- the socialists, — this dangerous party being either not under- live stood, or too strong to be defied. Yet Lamartine spoke to them fearlessly. " You demand of us," said he, " the red flag, in- stead of the tri-color. Citizens ! I will never adopt the red flag. The ti'i-color has made the circuit of the world, under the I'epub- lic and the empire, — with our liberties and our gloiies. The red flag has only made the tour of the Champs de Mars, tiained through torrents of the blood of the people.". . . The Provisional „ .. (lovernment, during its forty days, reorganized the army, estab- govemnu-nL lished the freedom of the press and universal suftrage, declared ^'^ll^^'^ a law to abolish the punishment of death for political ofiences, and finally decreed a national assembly, to form a constitution on the principles of Liberty, Equaliti/, and Fraternity. The word "fraternity" was introduced by the socialists. * After the vilo iisajje by which the minions of Louis Philippe deprived Liifayette of the office of commander-in-chief of tlie National (iuards, the indifjtation iimong' tlie olhcors was (,'eneral, and tliey wished to resign, /xigoj i Lafayette would not allovv them. "The trood of France," he said, " must ^j ^ c'onVer-' be consulted." . . "I would permit none of them to resisrn on my account," gation held Wild he, to the author of this history,t " but my son, and my fkiexd Dupont in Paris, at DF. l'Epke." the "IFcte' de la Pais.'! 4. What was that measure of the liberals which first led to the revolu- ticu ? What was done by Odillon Barrot? What followed ? What occurred (nthe2:5d? What was the course pursued by the king? — the queen? — the Duchess of Orleans? — .5. What was done at the Hotel de Ville? Who r.omposed the executive committee ? What is related of Lamartine ? Whai tvcre the acts of the provisional government? 500 A BRIGHT DAY OBSCURED. Mpdern ffia. g. On the 23d of April, -vvas cho:;^!! the constituent, or national PEEiOD X assembly. The election showed that the middle class of property CHAP. I, holders were in dread of socialism, although not then developed. """" ■< "^ Lamartine, who had refused to adopt its iiag, became the idol of I§4§. i\^Q nation, and stood at the head of the poll; whereas Ledru- Meethig'of Rollin w;is the twenty-fourth on the list. . . On a bright and the corsnt- pleasant day, May 4th, the assembly met ; and such was the en- tiy. thusiasm of the people, that 200,000 gathered around the cham- ber, and mingled their shouts with the roar of cannon, as the tn-colored flag was unfurled. It was the boast of the new re- public, that no blood was shed to estabhsh it ; and now the as- sembly required no oath to support it. 7. This happy day was soon obscured. It had been proclaim- ed, under the word Fraternity, that laborers had a right to de- mand of government, work and pay ; and Ledru-Sollin had been Arnitiojs naade secretary of the interior, and thus encouraged to attempt a'.dfntprsjd- ois ruinous and impracticable schemes. He opened workshops, *'aue»^''d!' where two fi'anes a day were paid to those who could be em- ployed ; W'hile one franc was given to those who couid not. By these means the government became a great manufacturing es- tabhshment, which, though it was of necessity ill conducted and unprofitable, yet at the same time, competing with private indus- try and enterprise, it was fatal to those foundations of business, on which national wealth depends. Factoiies and shops were shut. Want and misery were on every side. The national as- ( + Such aa sembly could no longer pay the many thousand, who, according to Barbes, Con- the iuvitations of the plotting socialists,! had now flocked Ivjm ^Ledru^Eoi-*^ the country to Paris. Several thousands of their number were lin.) directed to return to their homes. This brought on the crisis ex- pected by the leaders of the red repubhcans, who now rose to take the property of Paris, — murder resisting citizens, — and estab- jiine23to26. lish their long-desired community. Instigated by them, the dis- Dreadfui in- warded workmen rushed into the streets, shouting, " Down with ihe socialists, the Republic !" Other workmen, and the low mob, full of in- ^variousiy* fei'nal passions, joined them. The friends of law and morals, stated flora and the owners of property, fought — women as well as men — for 1.V300. their homes and their lives. Gen. Cavaignac and other ofEceie ably headed valiant troops ; and after four days, this most bloody and disastrous of all the insurrections of Paris, was quelled. 8. Socialism was now put down. Its leaders either fled, or were, after trial, banished ; but enthusiasm for a republic had perished • too, and men's desires weie for security, rather than liberty. Gen. Cavaignac was the idol of the people ; and had he been other than a true republican and an honest man, he 6. What is said coDcerning the election of the constituent assembly? Describe the occurrences of tlie 4th of May ?— 7. What claim was set up in behalf of laborers? How was tlie scheme encouraged? What was done by the secretary of the interior? What was the consequence of (rovcrn- ment employing workmen? When the assembly could no longer pay the workmen, what was done? Give an account of the dreadful riot of June, 1S48.— 8. What was now the state of things in France? What i? eaid ol Gen. Cavaignac ' LOUIS NAPOLEON BONAPARTE, 501 might Lave been the military ruler of France. But tlie-e was -^'^^''^ ^^ now a second "mau of destiny" in the field, Louis Napoleon peiuod x. Bonaparte, nephew of the emperor, and grandson of Josephine, ^uap. i. Although his youth had been spent amidst the sti-uggles of pov- ^"TTC ^ orty, yet from the death of Napoleon's son, since called Napoleon neichsiaU: II. ,f he i-egarded himself as the representative of the Bonaparles, ^J^^y^^'^/J^ to whom, he was persuaded, the French people were at heart where it is devoted. In 1836, at Strasburg, he made an abortive attempt *'JJ"t"(j'f,,|;f* to raise an insurrection, and in 1846 another at Cologne. In hewaspois- both cast!S a handful of military followers shouted " Vive I'Em- at'theTge'of pereur," showing that his object was the sovereign power, accord- nineteen) ing to the model of his uncle. Escaped from the prison of Ham, J^^^js^^fapo. vo which his second expedition had consigned him, Louis Napo- leon makcvs leon was in England, watching events, when the revolution of J^^nslfmc- 1848 broke out in Paris. Ue hastened thither, but deferring to ti""- the advice of the Provisional Government, he again retired. Ke was, notwithstanding, elected a member of the national assembly. The question whether he should be allowed to take his seat, though debated with bitterness, was finally decided in the affir- mative ; but he waived his right, on account of his wish " to preserve the quiet of France." " The name I bear," he said, " is a symbol of order, of nationality, of glory. . . If the people should impose duties, I should know how to fulfil them." Immediately i§49. several journals adopted his name, as a candidate for the coming Pec. ic. presidency. The election took place on the 10th of December, eiectof^pros^ when the vote, now unquestionably free, showed that a majority iedition under gkxeral Oudixot, which the republicans ex{x;ct- s"iisfrom ed would aid the hbei'al party in Rome ; but which eventually France, crushed it, and assisted the pqpe to regain his supremacy... lands'stci- The assembly having passed an electoral law for choosing a legis- vitaVecchia. iative as.sembly, ended its long session on the 2Gth of May, 1849. Lel^Jiatho la a written message to the assembly, Louis Napoleon took a assorabiy u.l. statesmanlike view of the affairs of I ranee. lie evinced decision, i'^^'^ energy, and self-reliance ; and gained ])ublic confidence by his open opposition to the socialists. Lamartiue had, meantime, lost his g!'eat popularity by a contrarj' course ; although, he said, * It has been of late common to accuse Lafayette of liavins made a mis- tike in 1830, that he did not constitute France a republic, liimself at tho liead, rather than a limited monarchy with Louis I'hilippe — and that such was Win own opinion before he died. In November, IS.j-i, at Paris, I asked iiis noble daujjiitei -in-law if tliis were true. 8he said it was not. The general was aware that thk m.uohity ok the FutNcii i-kople did not wish roR A REPUBLIC ; and tliat altliough tiie Icatlers in J-'aris niiirht nialvC one, yet since the tastes and habits of the people were in favor of monarchy, it would not be sustained; and tliat, therefore, lie believed that the best he rould do for France, was to jirive her a limited monarchy. Lamurtine, Madame Lafayette said, had wrongjed the memory of her father-in-law ia tv/o of his books by incorrect statements of facts. E. W. 8. What is said of Louis Napoleon Bonaparte ? What two futile attempts did he make in France ? Describe his course after the revolution of Febrn- ary 24th. What is said of his election to the presidency ? — 9. What exp<»- diiiou was seut out under Ge." Oudinot ' TulO, THE FRENCH EMPIEE SESTOEED. ZTodeni His. ]yQ " niiiigled with that daik cloud, but as the lightning-rod min- PEKiOD X gles with the storm." Louis Napoleon, while he pushed himselt^ CHAP. I. g^gp i^y g|.gp^ yp ^Q ^l^g pinnacle of power, soothed with consum- ^—"'y-'^^ mate art, the pride of the people, by pleasant words. Said Vic- tor Hugo, at the tiibune — " Whenever the government forges a new chain, it is called liberty ; and whenever it decrees a pro- scription, it gives it the name of an amnesty." He lost no op- portunity of securing the favor of the military ; and when repub- 1§5©. lican officers showed their displeasure at the shouts "Vive I'Em- (JTbe patriot pereur," means were found to displace them.f The ministry gamier w.'M which he first foimed, with Odillon Barrot at its head, were ab- liiace'dT ^"P^-^y dismissed, because " they did not sufficiently comprehend that France needed a direction, single and firm." 10. As another election approached, Louis Napoleon applied to the legislative assembly to procure an amendment of the con- stitution, so that he might be a second time eligible to the pres- idency. This they not only refused, but were about to impeach ^^2 him, when he sprung upon them that political trap, called the Coup d'etat. " coup d^etat" by which he displaced in an hour the legislative ptTsonsYe^t assembly, and usurped the supreme power. Only the head oi into die the army and the head of the police, with one other person, were in his confidence. The leaders of the assembly, and the repub- lican high military officers, were arrested in their beds, at five o'clock, p. M., on the 2 2d of December; and each in a separate vehicle was transported rapidly from Paris. The remaining members of the assembly essaying to meet, were forcibly pre- vented, treated with gross indignity, and for a few days impri&- oned. Many of the best patriots of France, w^ere transported to the unhealthy swamps of French Guiana. Louis Napoleon now called on the people to vote, aye or no, to the question — " Do you desire Louis Napoleon to hold office for ten years V and, according to the returns, they voted aye, by a majority of about five-sevenths. " To vote for Louis Napoleon," said the statesman • ggej Montalembert, "is not to appi'ove of all that he has done. 1 Nov. 2i! seek in vain elsewhere for a refuge from the gaping gulf of so- Votesforthe sialism." In 1852 the dictator made the tour of France, and ho 7,824,000, won the people to restore the empire by the same process of voting. ^_'q1)o. As emperor, he was styled Napoleon HL He established the semblance of a constitution, with a council and a lower house ; but so entirely dependent on himself, as to strengthen, instead of dividing, or checking his power. The great estates of Louis Phi- lippe were subsequently taken from his heirs, on the pretence thai they became public property when he accepted the crown. 9. Describe the course of Louis Napoleon disring his presidoney. — JlO. For what did Louis Napoleon apply to tlje legislative assembly ? Whui was done by the assembly^ What was his coup d'etat? What was the conduct to which it led him towards the menibers of the assembly and others ? How did he propose to the people to vote ? What was the restilt ? "What was (vie reason why statesmen voted for him, as explained by Mon- talembert? When, and with what majority, was the empire voted for? {Se4 side-note.) What kind of a constitution has Najwlcon IlL given the Fro'ich people ? What was done with the esta' es of Louis Philippe ? CHAl^ER n. Germany. — Pr-issin. — Austria. — Italy. — Hungary. — Denmark. 1. TiTE Freucli ■•ovolution was to central and southern Europe, ' ^"^^" '^ as the subterrane'-us explosion, which causes the vast earthquake. I'ERion i In each state n^ Germany, the people, as they heard that Louis ^ ^^^^' riiilippe had f-A'ien, and France was free, rose as one man, col- '''^~ lected in mass^r.. and demanded of their several rulers, liberty of y^^ 24." the press, wntfr;a constitutions, and free suffrage. The French Revolution republic wa*^ pvoclaimed February 24th. On the 28th Stutgard rose, and petitioned her sovereign, the king of Wirtemberg. On the same 6 -Ay, Darmstadt, and on the 29tli, Mayence find Baden, and on the 1st of March the people in Hes!roken promises and a long delay, had given them, on the 8th of February, 1847, a constitution — not, however, satisfactory ; and the people of Ber- lin rose on the 13th of March. The king at first sought to quiet them by fair words ; but now they stood in their might, firmly iS'atBlrHn. together, and requir'ed deeds. The terrified monarch suddenly changed his tactics, and took the air of being himsrilf the leader March 18. of the revolution — the aggrieved instead of the aggressor. "We The king's demand," said he, in a proclamation, " that Germany be trans- lormecl from a contederation ot states, to one federal state. We demand a German federal flag — a Gennau federal tribunal ; and we demand that no barriers shall impede traffic from state to state, and cripple domestic industry. We demand, therefore, a German union of customs" (Zoll-verein). To this proclamation the king appended a decree giving full liberty to the press. The , feelings of the people at this unexpected demonstration were irie- J. tlO D6OD16 , i X J. oveijoyed,' pressible. They crowded around the palace, to vent their joy and "repulsed*'^ gratitude, in shouts and acclamations. A troop of dragoons rode The king's up and attempted to push them back. They resisted ; — fighting apo ogy. gijgued, and sixty persons were killed. The king took it in gnef, and not in anger ; humbly apologizing, in a sensible, though un- kingly style, to his " beloved BerUners" for the unintentional at- tack of the troops upon the people. He besought the inhabitants " of his beloved native city" to acknowledge their fatal error in violently repulsing his soldiers, who meant them no harm. " Their loving king, their trusting friend,*' enjoined them to re- turn to peace, and to remove the barricades from the streets; and they did remove them. 4. The students of the Prussian universities had exercised great influence in promoting liberalism. These the king molli- fied by humble protestations. " Mark me, gentlemen," said he, "take it down in -".Vriting — I desire nothing for myself; all I want is German liberty and unity. From henceforth the name of Prussia is fused in that of Germany." The sentiments thus 1§4§. expressed by the king of Prussia gave great and extensive satis- ylietin^'ot faction. The constituent assembly at Frankfort confidently ex- B constitiient pected that he would take the headship of thei general govern- "*j3Triin^. "^ mcut of Germany, to which, in consequence of these deceptive (tNationai or professions, he was chosen ; but he rejected the offer. On the f^embiy.isa 22d of May a national asserablyf met in Berlin, having been "^to formT ^^^'^'^ted to assist the king in perfecting a new and libei'al consti- ooniiitution.) tution, the outlines of which he had liimself promulgated. lie opened the assembly in person, saying to the deputies — " I wel- come you with joyful earnestness." — ^"The new constitution, 3. What were the movements of the liberals in Prussia? What part was taken by the king ? What was the date of the rising at Berlin ? How waa the occasion met by the king? What were the feelinirs of the people, and how shown ? What followed ? — 4. Wiiat is said of the Prussian universi- ties ? Of the king's course respecting them, and his latigua-ge? What blow waa given to the fiermanic union i y tliis insincere language? What ia here said of a constituent assembly ? {See side-nok ) ANAKCIIT — ^DESPOTISM, 505 w'hich v\-e are to unite in forming, will constitute a new era in ^Q'^^rn mc the history of Prussia and of Gei'uiany." And so it might, per- period x. haps, have pi'oved, but the people demanded the right to rule '^'^*^- "• both the assembly and the king. Instead of putting their wisest '"'■'""'' ' men m the lead, they followed the lowest of the mob; who were not only ignorant of the science of government, but who, being 1S-1§. imbued witli socialism, were not disposed to be satisfied wifh ^^yg^^^ any thing short of the subversion of the whole fabric of society, liberty. As the king made concessions, they continually increased their demands. Again and again, he changed his cabinet to graiify tli'^ir caprices ; until at length he could scarcely obtain for a rain- ist(jr of state, a man of character and ability. Because it was voted in the assembly that the events of March were not a revo- juno 16. hi^ion, the mob, in order to make one, stormed the public arse- BerUn— tho u?l, and took and distiibuted the arms — thereby converting free- arsenal tak'n. drm into a "reign of terror." 5. The class of citizens who ever constitute the abiding strength of society, convinced, that though liberty with law is a b'essing, yet without it, it is a curse, encouraged the king to with- draw to Potsdam, and to appoint as prime minister an anti-lib- eral, the able and unbending count Brandenburg. Gen. Van Wbangel had already been recalled from the war in Sleswick Ilolstein, and invested with the command of the troops in Berlin, gpp^^ 20. " How melancholy," said he to the people, " does Berlin appear ! Van Wran- No trade ; shops full, but no customers ; laborers without work ^of Borull. and without wages ! Your houses are empty, and grass grows in your streets. This shall be changed. I swear it! The king- has confided in me, and I will establish order." Aided by the minister, he accomplished his mission — though not at once, or without a struggle. A motion was brought forward in the as- sembly to assist the inhabitants of Vienna, now besieofed by the troops of their emperor; and the populace, impatient for its * yj*^;' speedy pa-ssage, rushed tumultuously into the chamber, and blood Count Braiy was shed in the riot which ensued. The king sent count Bran- t^^ekiifg's^ deubui'g to prorogue the assembly, requiring the members in- name, pro- stantly to disperse. "Never!" they exclaimed. "No — a thou- (^miiy^ sand times, no !" Gen. Van Wrangel sent men to force them out, but not to harm them. Some of the members were carried forth by the otalvvait arms of the soldiers, while sitting in their chairs. Thus the authority of the crown and the military was re-established ; and the storm of anarchy, sank, as usual, into the calm of despotism. 6. Austria. — There is in man a natural hatred of the oppres- sor's chain, although it may be concealed, as in Austria, by a silkea exterior. Abhorrent, too, to natural conscience was the 4. What was now the lan^uasre and conduct of the kincr ? "Why did his prophecy prove untrue ? What was the conduct of the people in reference to tlie king ? What was the cause of the riot of J une Ifith ? — .5. What class ot citizens now can.e forward, and with what cc iviction? What was done hy tlieir advice? What said Gen. Van Wrantrd of tlie condition of Berlin! What caused the riot in the assembly, April 20th, 134:9 ? What was done oa the occasi)n? " . o4 506 ATTSTKIAN KEVOLUTION. jfoderu Bi.% espionage, by which one half the people were paid by govern" PERIOD X. raent to find out and reveal in private the secrets of the remain- oii^p. iL ^gj, . ^^^ equally so, was the foul practice, kept up by the bureau ^~" ^ ' of state, of opening the private letters committed to the mail, and the'rcign of of employing clerks to copy them, to forge papers, and to swear ''''^T'^n't' f^^^sely. The knowledge of these and other atrocities rankled iu tornich, and men's minds. Already demonstrations had been made, and now, . its fruits, to gxcited by the revolution of France, the people of Vienna rose. 1§4§. The movement was led by the young students of the university, Marcii 13. -^yj^o rushed into the diet, then in session, and tumultuously de- r»»op!e at manded reforms. The military attempted to restrain them, and Vienna \,\qq^ -^yas shed. The burgher-guard joined the people. At first reasonable concessions would have quieted them ; but Metter- nich, who so well understood the baser passions, now stumbled in the dark over man's awakened conscientiousness and love oi liberty ; and when Ferdinand, the reigning emperor, wished to cede to the popular demands, he refused. Then arose from the (t Ho fled to thronged streets the resolute cry — "Down with Metternich ;" England.) ^^^ j^^ ^^^^ forccd by the royal family to resign.f 7. The emperor made every concession demanded ; and as he rode forth he was greeted with tears of gratitude. But the peo- ple became intoxicated with a sudden liberty, for which they were unprepared. Low-bred agitators from abroad, whose object was plunder — infidel communists, who wished to destroy not only all civil power, but also to abolish property and family order — now mingled with the better elements of the revolution. The freed press was not only made the vehicle of sedition, but of revenge, indecency, and blasphemy. Ferdinand, now, neither free nor May \i. safe, fled his capital, and went to Innspruck. But this monarch '"gors'tr"' was neither a great, a brave, nor even an honest man. He nei- innsiiruck ^her dealt firmly, nor in good faith with the people. The Vien- Ane. 8. nese, however, besought his i-eturn. He came, but not till after to vfennl^ he had made a perfidious arrangement with one of his subjects, Jellacic, appointed ban of Croatia, against the liberty of Hungary, which he had solemnly guaranteed : and by that arrangement, he, eventually, brought an army of Croats against his subjects of Vienna. The^enipcror ^- Subsequently, Ferdinand fled from Vienna, with his family, flees to to Olmutz ; where he drew around him an able and unscrupulous oimutz. (jabiuet, at the head of which was prince Swartzenburg. In (t.iune 2, at the name of the emperor, Vienna was now declared in a state of ineet^ns of'a siege. From the north, the army of prince Windisgeatz, which P*°;SUvonic -[^^ j^^jgj. quelled an insurrection at Prague,f bad met and joined luwed,onf.he 14th, hy ft ,„,.,., . , rict) 6. Austria. What, in the Austrian bureaucratic system, was wronar, and hateful to the people ? Eelate some of the circumstances of the rising of the people of Vienna : Of the course of the emperor : Of Metternich. — 7. What was done after the departure of Metternich ? What is said ol oommnnists ? Wliat, under such influences, was the consequences of the freedom of the press ? What was tlie condition and conduct of Ferdinand ? What qualities did he not possess ? What is said of him after he went tc Innspruck ?— 8. What measure did he take, October 6th? Wlio woii mado prime minister? LOMBARDIAN KL , uLUTION. 507 tlio army of Jolhicic, which had been defeated by the IInii,o-a- Modem m». rians; and it was not until after the terrible destruction of a five pkkiod x. days' attack and bombardment, that the two armies were able to enter the now desolated city. After order was restored, the em- peror, still at Olmutz, resigned the imperial crown to his young nephew, Francis Josetii, who declared that he willingly "enter- ed upon the path of a reformation of the monarchy ;" but he has brought Austria back to a state of military despotism.* 9. Italy. — At the period of the French revolution, some of the states of Italy were ripening for revolt ; while others, as Skill/ had actually revolted. The Pajxd Stales were regarded at that ^^.^ moment by the liberals with great complacency; cardinal junci4. Mastat, who had succeeded to the papal chair, under the name of Accession of I'lus IX., hanng made reforms and introduced modern improve- ments. Over each of lier two Lombardo- Venetian provinces, Austiia had placed a viceroy, and a mere shadow of a represen- governinents tative government ; while the real power resided in the bureaux "ternich!'" at the two capitals, Venice and Milan, which were wholly sub- ject to that of Metternich at Vienna, and formed on the same corrupt model. 10. In Milan, a duty having been laid on tobacco, a placard was posted up, stating that the American revolution began with the refusal and destruction of tea when taxed. The Milanese proceeded to take and destroy tobacco, wherever they could tind it. Marshal Radetzky, the Austrian commander, directed IS-^S. his soldiers to patrol the streets in squads, smoking cigars. The The tobm-c« people, attempting to take them away, were fired upon, and a "^j-^^^/g'^" bloody fight ensued. Soon came the electrifying news of the On both French and German revolutions, when the Milanese rose and pe- ^^"^^^goo. "^^ titioned for reforms, — which Radetzky lefused. Then, to expel the Austrians, they barricaded their streets — men with their costly carnages, and women with their damask sofas and rose- Avood pianos ; and from the tops of houses they threw down bricks and other dangerous missiles upon the heads of the sol- diers. Brave and cool, as was the veteran commander, the troops March 22. could not resist a v/ar from above, below, and on both flanks. ov*acuatM lie withdrew them from the city, but held, it in siege. The Miiim. * Mettcrnicli, who resided a while in Enghmd, returned to Vienna, thoijcrh not to mingle openly in the atfairs of government. But the artful double- dealing by which Austria has not only kept her threatened empire from dismemberment during the present Kusso-Turkish war, and has really done service to the czar, while pretending friendship to the allies, would seem to indicate that Metternich still rul'is her secret councils from the recesses of his sumptuous palace in Vien.ia. This I saw, October, 1854; and was told that he inhabited it; but uo one, not even a garrulous French gnide, seemed willing to say more. E. W. 8. What was done in regard to Vienna ? What change of emperors iB related ? What was the declaration of Francis Joseph, and what his cor- duct?— 9. Italy. What was tlie political condition of some of the states oX Italy, at the opening of tlie French revolution ? What particularly of tho two Austrian provinces? — 10. How began the revolution of Milan? What happened when the Frencii and German revolutions were known? Who was Radetzky, and what was done by him 3 Jiov; did the Milanese expel the Austrian troops 3 }08 CHARLES ALBERT AND EADETZKY. Modern His. PERIOD X. CHAP. IL Apri! 8. CSas. Albert drives Ka- fletzky across the Mincio. May 18 to 30, takes Pes- dioira, and is victorious at Gaito. June 3. Eadetzky drives the Sardinians towards Milan. r,T€hs. Alt>crt relied on a corps sent by the pope, but tlieir general played liilsc.) Aufr. 6. Kadetzky re-enters Milan. March 24. If!) VARA. The act of a patriot king. Milanese made their situation known by sending up small bal- loons which scattered handbills in neighboring cities; and bands of soldiers soon gathered to their i-elief. 11. Charles x\lbert, hiug of Sardinia, willing to become the head of an Italian confederacy, had justly gained the confidence of the liberals, by giving an acceptable constitution to his own subjects. He now appealed with an efficient army for the de- fence of Milan. Radetzky retired in the direction of Vienna, from whence he expected reinforcements. Charles Albeit pressed upon the rear of the Austrians, and by several victorious encoun- ters drove them from the Mincio to the Adige. . . Tl e Austrian government, alieadj^ overwhelmed with difficulties at Vienna, in Hungary, and no^v also in Venice, would, on the 24th of May, have made peace with the Lombardians on conditions nearly granting them independence. This was the culminating point of the success of the revolu' tionists throughout Europe. Besides the countries already men- tioned, they were in the ascendant in Tuscany., the grand duke having withdrawn, and left the government for a season in their hands. In Naples and in Sicily they were in arms, waging a bloody and, it then seemed, a successful war against their sover- eign, Ferdinand 11. 12. But although the hberals could pull down, they lacked leaders, wise to reconstruct, and firm to uphold. Said Lamaitice — " What is needed is a Ev.ropean Washington." And the peo- ple had no conception of that first principle of a republican gov- ernment, that the majority must rule, and the minority must submit. Their exhilarating prospects were, therefore, soon over- cast. Radetzky received the reinforcements which it had been the object of Charles Albert to prevent,! and the foitune of war changed. He defeated the Sardinians at Somma Compagna, followed them to the gates of Milan, and there entered into an agreement with Charles xVlbert by v.'hich the Milanese were left to the"ir fate, he returning to Sardinia. Radetzky re-entered Milan, but no bloody executions followed ; and the exhausted people, now in peace and security, could not but be glad of the calm which followed the storm, even though it was gained at the expense of liberty. The Austrians soon regained all Lom- bardy. 13. Charles Albert, having recruited his array, again advanced — and Radetzky left Milan to meet him. At Novara they fought, and the Sardinians lost the battle. The king relinquished his crown to his son, Victor Emmanuel, aware that he would obtain 10. How did the Milanese make tlielr situation knovi^n? — 11. What is said of Cliarles Albert? What was, till the end of May, the condition cf tli'i two armies ? {Ohserve the side-notes.) W hat, about tlie hxst of May, was tl 6 condition and prospects of Austria? Of the liberals ? Did tliey attain a liiglier point of prosperity ? Wliat were then their prospects in Tuscany r..id~Naples ?— 12. What was lacking on tlie part of the liberals? What jiow were the movements of tlie two armies? When did the Austrians re- f»Goupy j\li!an? What followed?- 13. What account can you give of tJ; c battle of Wovara? n.L TREATMEiST OF THE POPE. 500 for his coiml;y better terms of settlement. . . Ivadetzky next turn- J^^(?g'-" ni^ ed all his forces upon V'enice, already besieged by the Austrians peiuod x under gen. iiaynau ; but they refused to ca|)itulHte, although ^^^^- "• the kind old soldier entreated as well as threatened. At the call of ^--'^^^"'*-'' th(^ir leader, Manin, they not only gave their money, but brought to the mint their gold and silver plate. For five months, amidst disease and famine and bombardment, the sea-girt city held out. ig.j<> But at length licentiousness within, and force without, subdued Aug. 2s! her. Radetzky suffered the leaders to depart, and forgave the ^^^nf re- people ; whose fevered dream of liberty was for the time tbi'gotten enter Veuico. in the abundance and security, which, by the providence of their rulers, followed their return to Austiian despotism. 14. The year 1848 is known as the year oi revolution — that of 1849, of reaction. The Sicilians at Palermo, who had I'ejected , ^ -« a liberal constitution ottered them by the'r king through the Aprii22' mediation of British and French officers, wei'e finally subdued by Palermo t'a- his armies and obliged unconditionally to submit. In Home, as rnaifoieA!' couNr Rossi, one of that liberal ministry which the pope had appointed in May 1848, was alighting from his carriage to enter 184^. the chamber of deputies, he was fatally stabbed in the neck. Nov. ir,. The assembly continued its session without notice of the murder, ■^^'KoTsi'.'"' or effort to secure the assassin. The next day all the ministers resigned. A boisterous multitude assembled and demanded the pope. He had taken refuge in the palace of the Quiriual, with none near, to pity or support him, but his body-guard of 100 Nov. it. Swiss, and the foreign ministers. From his window he saw his ijouj"' own troops join the rioters, and advance with them upon the palace. They fired, and killed some of his servants. The pope then submitted ; but eight davs afterwards he escaped -from ^ ^""^- -•'*• Rome, m the disguise oi a servant ot the Bavarian minister, — by i»>i^e. whose aid he was conveyed to Gaeta in Naples. 15. From thence he issued his manifesto, repudiating all for- Dec. 25. mer concessions ; and, as in Rome the liberals proceeded to elect ^"^fost"!""* a constitutional assembly, which declared the abolition of the pope's temporal power and the establishment of a republic, he followed these proclamations, one by one, with his published ana- themas. The catholic nations protested. Even dormant Spain aroused, and proposed an armed intervention ; and an Austrian force under Gen. llaynau entered the Papal States on the north. A republic j An executive triumvirate was now at the head of the Roman ^'"°'*'' republic, the first man of whom was Mazzini, who was not im- plicated in the riots of April ; but he and his copatriots glowed with the true Roman love of liberty. Suddenly Gen. Oudinot, sent by republican France, appeared and landed with 6,000 men 13. Of the change of sovereigns in Sardinia? How did Kadetzky now employ his forces? Give some account of the siege of Venice. — 14. "What is said of two coiii^ecuti ve years ? W hat was done at Palermo ? At Rome, in reference to count Eossi? What was the condition and conduct of the pope? Give some account of his flight. — l.'i. What course ditl lie pursue at Gaeta' What was the feeline of the catholic nations? What was the Cf^iditiou ;f things at Eome ? What is siiid of Mazziui 1 610 NOBLE CONDUCT OF TEE HUNGAEIANS. Modern Bis, ^i Civita Vecchia. Mazzini and the Romans were not so delud- PEEIOD X. ed by his smooth offers of protection, as to admit liim into F3ome ; cuAr. iL jjQj, ^j^ ^ijgy i^y gjjy discourtesy give the French cause for a ^•^"^^"^'^ quaiTel. They ofiered them the choice of an encampment any- 7ui 3 * "^'^^®^'*^ except in Rome. But they insisted on entering the city Tiie Freiic'i — M'hich. atter twenty days of cruel bombardment, and the de- ciuer Home, gtruction of 400 of its brave defenders, they accompHshed. They then aided to destroy the repubhc, and next to persecute to A ri* 18 ^'^^^^T- ^°tiy tliougli they had the strength to pull down, they had not the ^'^"^J'" ^^f^*^' wisdom to reconstruct. Ilungary was the victim of imperial stiks' iiist. fraudf and foreign force. " of Austria.) 18. Those who had learned statecraft in the schoolf of Met- (^ ^^'*''''''",-^;] ternich were carrying out his favoiite maxim, "divide and con- existed in quer." The Hungarians had, in attempting to make the Magyar ^JJ^j"*!^ language the common tongue of all the Hungarian kingdom, knaveries of unwittingly offended the Croats and Sclavonians, who formed a '^pJfi^Tcy'" part of the Hungarian kingdom. Emissaries from Austria fanned ^ere tausrht their discontents, and an elegant and |)opulai' young demagogue men destined of the Ci'oats, Jellacic,* a former protege of the emperor, was, *° *^^® *^'"*'i*'- without the consent of the Hungarians, and therefoi'e illegally, made by him, ban or lord of Croatia. He took means to raise a j^^^ j(, revolt. The emperor, to delude the Hungarians, publicly de- Emperor nounced him as a traitor, and deprived him of his command ; jciiScic^ while privately, he received him in his palace at Innspruck. Prep- arations to attack the deceived Hungarians went on vigorously in Croatia and Sclavonia. Kossuth, however, foresaw the danger ; and moved by him, the Diet raised 200,000 men, pledging the credit of the state for means to support them. By the 4th of Sep- jeHacic^'in teraber, Jellacic appeared on the borders of Hungary with a lai-ge arms. army. The court of Vienna then threw ofi" the mask, and the emperor publicly proclaimed him reinstated in his office, and q^^^^^^' sent from Vienna count Lamberg to take command of the Hun- bergmurdt*. garian forces. He was murdered by the mob at Buda. The mobarBuda. whole kingdom was then declared to be in a state of siege, and Jellacic appointed royal commander over Hungary. The Hun- garians met and defeated him, and he fled in the night to Vienna. Attempts v/hich were then made to send ti'oops to aid the defeat- ed army in their march to Vienna, caused the bloody riot which occurred in that city on the 6th of October — the enraged stu- viennia. * More frequently spelled Jellachich, but quite unpronouDceablc to an nnpractiso-i English tongue. J lias the sound of Y. 17. What was accomplished by tlie deputation? Subsequently by the Diet? And after that by the emperor? What was then tlie state of Hun- gary '>. What can you say of the reverses of Hungary ? — 18. What appears to have been the first unfortunate step of the Hungarians ? What is said of tfellacic? "What was the conduct of the emperor respecting hinn? What was done in the Diet of Hungary ? What at the court of Vienna? What is Bsid of courit Lambei-g ? What followed his murder '. Oct 6. Riut at 512 KUSSTAN FOECE. Modern His. r]ents and liberals being determined that no troops should depart PEiiiOD X. for that purpose. The violence of that day led to the flight of CHAP. II. ^-^Q emperor to Olmutz ; and probably it was the web of duplicity ^'""'^"^^^^ ' in which he had thus involved himself, that led to his abdication. l§Ui>. 29. As soon as Vienna was subjected by the combined armies The Masyars /. i-t^- t , itii-ii i i ■vvprevicto- ot VVmdisgratz and JelJacic, both generals were sent to reduce "^'"'c^'neMr'*''^ Hungary. Count Batthyani resigned, and Kossuth was invested iihkuiez; with dictatorial powers. Efforts almost superhuman were now ^,^rAsih; made by all the Hungarians, from the highest magnate to the ena April 20, lowest peasant ; and after discouraging defeats, their generals, Dembinski, Bem, and Gorgey, led them to repeated victories. June and .Tn- Austria, of herself, was defeated. But by the treaties of the holy Iv, three Kus- -n • i i i i • • sian armies aluance, itussiawas pledged to an armed intervention, whenever '"^'^garv"^"^' Austria called for aid against her subjects. The call was made, Aug' 9. and the czar sent 130,000 troops, which invaded Hungary in "^^^iff' three divisions, and from opposite quarters. Already impover- Fiiiai defeat ished and desolated, the Hungarians could not withstand them. ^^-arsundS' Their last army of 30,000 men, under Gorgey, was by him surren- 'Bemand_ dered, August 13th, 1849, to the Russians; and despotism, with Anc 18 added cruelty, was re-established. The resistance of the patriots Surrender of was made their crime. Count Batthyani was shot, and many y.i? 'mmj '"ify Others peiished.f Kossuth, with a few friends, fled to Turkey, Gorgey. where he was magnanimously protected by the sultan, though oau^nreMdM f^<-'manded by the czar. The government of the American re- ovcrthe public, aided by England, negotiated his release, and he was "utfonf.T brought to New^York. 2®. Denmark. — On account of the revolationary spirit of Eu- rope, Christian VHL, king cf Denmark, became involved in a war with the duchies of Sleswick and Holstein — the former being the southern province of the peninsula of Jutland, and the - « as latter lying on its southern frontier. The liberals in these neigh- March 24. boring duchies held a meeting at Kiel, where, after resolving ^'^'^YK^-.r^* that they wou-ld no longer acknowledge the paramount authoiity of the Diet of Denmark, they proclaimed a provisional govern- ment, and also their intention to become ultimately a state of the German confederation about to be instituted. The Danish king held Holstein by a looser tie, and did not object to its joining the Germanic body, but Sleswick was an integral part of his he- reditary dominions, and he would not relinquish it. The people of the duchies, however, were determined not to be separated, but together to have a free government. Christian was warmly ^seconded by the Danes of the north, and a ruinous war ensued. 18. Wh-at was the cause of the riot of October 6th at Vienna? To what did it lead? — 19. What occurred after Vienna was subjected ? What was done in Hungary? Who were tlie Hunffarian generals? During what months were the Magyars victorious? (Observe tht side-notes.) In what months did the Russian armies invade Hungary? What was the conse- quence? When and wliere were the Magyars finally defeated? What army was surrendered, and by whom? What became of Kossuth? — 30. Denmark. Give some account of tlie Danish war of Sleswick Holstein. What part was acted by Pru>sia ? What was tlie consequence? What htw occurred iu Denmark since the war? THE BRITISH EMPIKE IN THE EAST. 513 Prussia here played a double game, pretending for a time to i^f^^^^L^'f favor the liberals by sending them troops to fight against Den- pekiod x mark, while secretly she wjis plotting on the other side, Van '" Wrangel, her ablest general, commanding the Danish armies. At length Prussia openly united with Austria against the duch- ies, and they were forced to submit. At first a constitution was granted, but the government of Denmark has since that period made itself absolute. CHAPTER m. Great Britain and her Dependencies, 1839. Af^hanlfitou 1. India. — The East India Company still have the monopoly of the trade and government of India, yet not exclusively ; for parliament appoints a joint power called " The Board of Con- troV Whenever the native chiefs rise against their authority, they send forth British troops, conquer them, and annex their territories. Thus, in 1839, Cabul and Ohiznee were taken, the _ _ chieftain Dost Mahomed was subdued ; when all Afyhanistan subdued. was annexed. In another war with Moolraj, a native chief, j S4§ Lieut. Edwards obtained a victory, and Mooltan was taken. Feb. 2. Lord Gough was afterwards victorious at Goojerat, when the ^ji^r'' whole of the Puvjaub was annexed. In this manner, the entire British forci-« peninsula of Hindostan has now fallen under British control. . . ^''^^^' In BuRMAH, Prome was taken, in November, 1852. The follow- 1§53. ing year, Mea-Toon, a chieftain of Ava., was vanquished, by Sir '^n'^^y^' John Cheape, and the king was obliged to cede to Great Britain Mea-Toon the free navigation of the Irawaddy. '^ °*^ 2. At the Cape of Good Hope^ the fierce and wily Kaffirs, under their valiant chief Sandilli, rnade a war of extermination upon the English settlers. In 1853, after a series of bloody con- 1850-51 flicts, Sandilli confessed that he had " no more strength." He g^ndiurt^ii. submitted to Gen. Cathcart, who sent him, with the Kaffirs, queie«.L 200 miles north from their country, annexing That to the British crown Great Britain has long been in the practice of export- ing her convicts to her distant colonies ; but the inhabitants of the Cape of Good Hope refused, on the arrival of a convict ship, Xo receive the criminals. Parliament wisely decided that their objections were valid ; and thenceforward determined to send no Chap. III. — 1. India. What is said of the East India Company? "What IS done when the native chiefs rise against British authority ? What ex- ample of this occurred in 1839? What is the next example mentioned ? What war was it, in which Lient. Edwards figured ? Wnere was Lord Gough victorious, and what was the consequence of this war? — of all these wars together? What was done in Burmah ? — 2. Describe the war mado upon the English colony at the Cape of Good Hope. What did the wli>- tuBte refuse ? What course did parliament take ? Go 514: GOLD m AUSTEALIA. Modern ffis. more convicts to colonies wliose inhabitants were anwilLng to PERIOD X. receive them. cuAp. III. 2, ISTew Zealand,! where, in 1815, the first missionaries found savage cannibals, was, in 1853, colonized by Britons from Aus- tralia, and is now a flourishing province. The natives are fast beci/ming civihzed and Christianized. . .'^ Hong Kong^ the small island ceded by China, after the opium war, is a place of great importance ; as it gives the British a footing in that most popu- lous and fertile of all countries. , „i^ . 4. In Australia,! Britain owns a continent; but it is a region (^Discovered naturally stei'ile ; — without the inlets of bays, or the outlets of Vy^^°>P'^i' large rivers. The first colony was made, 1787, at Botany Bay, the English, uow Sydney, by convicts transported from England. Although 1770. the British held the land low, and invited settlers ; yet neither ^ 'r*"k 1'^ ^^ character of the first colonists, nor the face of the country, was inviting. In 1853, Edward Hargraves made the discov- 1T§1. cry of gold, which was found, as in California, in great abund- couvictaf ance. Settlers came, as the news spread, from every part of the world ; and new cities sprung up, especially in the southeastern (tPopniat'n P^^'^-f Ih 1853, the Murray Hvcr was navigated by steam. But, 322,000.) ' as the new settlers were almost all young men, no family ties !§*?§ *^ould be formed. Mrs. Chisholm, an English woman of ability Mrs. Chis- and benevolence, returned from Australia to England, collected holm brings ^]^g means, and brought over from Britain to Australia virtuous over wives ' i ^ i i i • for the Aus- young women ; who tound employment, or became, at their Op- tra lans, ^-^jj^ wives to the colonists. 5. Canada, and the British Provinces in North America, have increased in numbers and wealth. They have shared in the emigration from Europe ; and, partaking of the progressive spirit of the age, they have connected by railroad and telegraph 1852-54 their own principal cities, and have also reached important points th'eu!'states. iu the United States. The British government have shown a (Lord Elgin, laudable desire to promote their prosperity. They have lately general, in- ratified treaties with the Ameiican Republic, by one of which the in obtainin'^ vexed question of the fisheries on the coast has been settled ; and thomfronT by another, called the Reciprocity Treaty, made June 5th, 1854, reciprocal trade has been established. 6. Jamaica and Guiana have, since the abolition of slavery, given parliament much perplexity. The blacks, natm-ally indo- lent and improvident, have refused to labor even for generous wages ; and, since idleness is the parent of vice, they have in too many cases retrograded into barbarism. Meanwhile, the once * The author has lately conversed with a Mr. Brown, an intelligent ScoJch resident of New Zealand, who, in 1854, visited England and America iu part to find the best systems for schools. 3. "What is here said of JVew Zealand ? — 4. "What of Australia, previous to the discovery of gold ? By whom was that discovery made? "When? "What was the consequence ? What service to the colony was rendered Ly Mro. Chisholm ? — 5. What may be said of the British provinces in North America? By what treaties has the British government sought to promota Uioir prospwity ? — 6. What is said of Jamaica Mul Guitma? England.; THE " CHAilTISTS." 615 ^^nhiablo estates of tlic jilanters having failed fur want of liands to ^roaem iiu. work them, have become of httle or no vahio. The repeal of the pehiod x. "corn laws,'' in 1846, operated against these colonies, and in- <^"*'* i-'^'- creased their distress ; while the reveal of the " navigation Imws," ' ^ iu 1849, gave them some relief* ?. In April, 1848, when all Central and Southern Europe was sluiken by the Fiench revolution, there weie in London luniors •-• of an extensive I'ising of the disaffected, hei'e called " chartists." laws" n?,-kS. But the great majority of tlie people, knowing that there was no adequate cause for rebellion, cheerfully aided the government; '^'""' ""■"■*" ists were fur- which, being fully awake, and on the alert, so completely and dicuiou't-a easily frustrated an attempt made on the lOtli of Aj.ril, that its t?"a',iirm™" leaders became the subjects of contempt and ridicule.f. . . But IminHif^n!". Ireland had, as we have seen, lier own subjects of complaint. )^\^^^'Z Iler potato-crop, the bread of her people, had failed ; and while oiine wfu many were dying by fiiraiue, othei-s were ripe for de«^ds of des- °"^'i'i"i«i''«'^' ' peration. The " Irish Association," with Smith O'Brien, a mem- """"'■^ ber of pariiament, at its head, and with other men of abilities as *84§. leaders, assumed for a time a threatening appearance. With but o-'ifrieM, slight resistance, however, their ill-appointed forces were scattered: and Mftciiii their leaders were taken, tried, and transported to Australia. "ent t.' Au=- 8. In 1851, pariiament was occupied in repelling the advances IwoV^u'^? made iu Britain by the Roman church ; there directed bv the •=«f"<"<^ *"* genius and ambition of Nicholas WiSEMAN,f who had 'been ^'"*'"*''''- made by the pope, archbishop of Westminster. " The Ecclesias- n^afuTsemL,;', tical Titles bill" was passed in 185 1, to prevent titles beino- given by a foreign potentate to British subjects. *' Ti*T' v'^- 9. In 1850, Prince Albert, the royal consort, as president of aBticai' TiliiJ^ "The Society of Arts, Manufactures,%ind Commerce,"! brought ^'"' forward a project, which, meeting with public favor, the oueen 1S50. issued a commission providing for "An Exhibition of the Works ^pjf^''^"'' of Industry of all iVations ;" whicli, accordingly, was opened in Aiben. _*The "corn laws " enacted in 1315, by iniposin? heavy duties on for- eisrn breadstutfs, liaJ favored the great landed proprietors of Endand and her dependencies, by keeping up tlie price of bread, thus opprcs^ino- man- ^n~. utacturers, merchants, and the poor. He " navigation laws," perfected bv ^ ''^^ Cromwell, were made to favor the raother-eountrv bv sacrifieino' the iiros- Navi-atv.L perityof the colonies-they being prohibited from being the "carriers of^^^^'^'^tti'^ their own produce. Cromwell. _ t The same society opened an educational E.^niBmoN at St. Martin's Hall 1 «r,^ in London on tiie 10th of July, 1854. Although considerable was done /„?,??;; to collect the various educational improvements of different nations, and to EaucitioniJ make each acquainted with the modes and facilities of the others ; still there exl ibitlon was not in it tlie same life and animation as in similar, thou"-h smaller edu- opened ut >^itional conventions in the United States. The people in London were L-J'>Jon. much oc^Mipied with the war. Among foreign delegates, Mk. Bak.vard, from Connecticut, and Un. .Seljestrom, from Sweden, were the mjst disl tmgnished. The author speaks from personal observation. 6 What effect upon them had the repeal of the " corn laws?"— of the na>igatjonlaws?" Give some account of these laws. (See note.)— 7. Who were the chartists, and what happened to them ? What was the condition of Ireland i \\ hat is said ot the Irish Association ? What happened to their i/-?? o*^^',''"'','®''"''','"''-^^- ^^"''"t occupied the British parliament in 1 \ }^'? brought forward the project of the World's Fair «— and what was the hrst step towards executing it ? What is said of the educa- Uor.-.il exlubition ? (^^ noie.) 516 " THE world's FAIK." Modern nu Londoc, May 1st, 1851. A million of articles, splendid or rare, A'EEIOD X. elegant or useful, were sent, fiom every part of the civilized CHAP. IV. ■^yQi.j(^_ They wei'e received by the commissioners, and systemat- ically and beautifully arranged in a vast and dazzling structure erected in Hyde Park, of glass set in iron, and called "The Crys- tal Palace." Such a " World's Fair" had never existed before on°c!^nai*of Moved by steam, neither oceans, nor continents, now bar the waj the "Temple of multitudes, who may wish to meet their antipodes. Assem which ft'jury bled at the Crystal Palace, each learned what were the produc- pf this Exhi- tious, the manutactures, and the improvements of others ; and I ition award- ' • i i i i i- i i t tit cd a medal— what commerce might be best established. It was the World s edl'^^Thein- INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL CoNGRESS, foreshadowing a Po- ries were of LiTicAL CoNGRESS of all civilizcd natious, which shall usher in men of differ- ,11 j> tt • 1 -r> eut nations, the dawn 01 Universal Peace. CHAPTER r^. The Eusso-Turkish War. 1 . Europe, after a peace of thirty-eight years, became agam involved in war. Its cause was the just dread, which England and France felt from the increasing power and encroaching spiiii; of Russia. Since Peter the Great, there seems perpetuated iu that mighty empire, as in ancient Rome, an intent to rule the world ; and Constantinople is, in this case, the anticipated capital. Vast ambl- Russia has been constantly spreading herself in every possible Eiissia. direction ; and within the last seventy years, has doubled her territory ; and she has fortified in the strongest manner her ex- Devotion of posed points, such as Sebastopol, the stronghold of her naval 8cfv^er^i'"*nrtoj power in the Black Sea. The ambition of the Russian sovereign the Eussiiui seems not for himself, but for his country, — and it takes in all ^*^**^^' future time; and hence his strategy in treaty-making, and in obtaining indirect advantages, which at some future day will be available, is to be dreaded, as much as his great force in war. Events have shown, that in the scheme of the Holy Alliance, while Austria was made to do the unpopular work among the nations, Russia was establishing a kind of protectorate; — which the czar Nicholas, after he had aided Austiia against Hungary, openly assumed in his diplomacy with England.* In this, he manifested that it was his design to overthrow Turkey and take * See the disclosures of Sir George Seymour, the British ambassador. Nichohis — speaking of Turkey " as a sicli man," just ready to die — said : 8. What was the number of articles exhibited, and their arrangement? Where were these articles-placed ? Of what use was it that people should tluis meet from opposite parts of the earth? AVhat other Congress doess this Industriid Congress of nations foreshadow? CiiAP. IV. — 1. What was the cause of the Ensso-Turkish war? In what respect is Eussia compared to ancient Eome? Wliat city does she intend to make the capital of her empire? What has Eussia been doing? Of what kind seems tlie ambition of the Eassian sovereigns? In what ro- Epect arc tliey to be dreaded? What was effected by the Holy Aliiauco J POLICY OF RUSSIA. 51? Constivntinople, and that England was the only power wh'u h he ^<>^^>^^^ felt it necessary to consult ; and her, he endeavored to propitiate tkriod x. by otieritig, as her share of the spoil, Egypt and Candia. Ijut *^"'^''" "'■ England (and France also) believed that if Russia was allowed lo "^ '^' ' establish herself upon the waters of the Mediterranean, she could at st^rrefeiii no lontjer be resisted ; and if thev did not intend that Euroiie ■"""'''"'l'''' 1111 ,^ 1 111 1 1 • 1- 1 tliBt In flltv should "become Cossack, f tliey must take an immediate stand, years KumiV 2. But here was a most embarrassing point. The governmeut (.ifjie" repnb- of Turkey, with its three millions of Mahometans — entering bv liran or cos- violence, remains but as an excrescence upon the body of Chris- tian Europe. Twelve millions of the sultan's subjects are Chris- tians of the Greek church, which is also the religion of Russia; anoeoftiu- and scorned by the Turks as " giours" and " Christian dogs," pop'/Jatl'm'iu they have suflered a persecution of four centuries. Although Turkey. the present sultan has ameliorated their condition, still the super- Their persp- stitious prejudices of the Turks are beyond his control. If a Moslem becomes a Christian, the Turks put him to death. To this day, no Christian in Turkey is permitted to testify in a court of justice. Nichol.'us knew that these wrongs were abhorrent to judioia,; .^» Christians everywhere, particularly to those of the Greek church ; sum.w ti.o and thus he could give to his aggressions against Tuikey, espe- tectoroni'ic ciallv in the eyos of his own subjects, the fflory of efforts for the persecuteii ,. V> ,• 1 /-I 1 /^ii • • 1 1 • 1 • • 1 Chnsimiis. leliet ot the Greek Christians; — and to his ambitious march to- wards a universal empire whose seat should be Constantinople, the air of a crusade against the enemies of Christianity.* 3. The Russian scheme of aggiession upon Turkey begun by caUiarinc Peter the Great, was eliectually continued by Catharine II. She, carried tii.' by the treaty of Kainardji, 1774, not only carried the Russian ' to the ' line to the Bog, but involved the Porte in an engagement to pro- ^n^;^^""" tect the Greek Christians, — not, however, making the Russian Aiexan.ior sovereign, the arbiter. Yet Nicholas led the way to the present XJ 'i>nuiK) war, by claiming, under this treaty, such a protectorate over the Greek Christians in Turkey, as would in effect dejwse the sultan, " All I want is a good understanding with England. We, having entire confidence in one another's views, 1 ear':; notliing for the rest." " Your Majesty," said Sir George, " hiis forgotten Austria." "O, you must un- derstand," said the eiar, "that wlien I speak of Austria, I speak of Russia ns well. What suits the one suits the other." Austria received, wlien tills conversation was made public, just cause of ofl'ence. , . , . .^ * We might suppose that this was the real spring of the condvct of the tbe'errifaji'i^i ''zar, but that his policy is shown in other directions. In soutliwestern ",f prisruiers, Asiii, he has encroached upon Persia; in the mountainous regions between ^f'ejj'.'i'iert to'' the Black and Caspian Seas, he, in ITt'S, conquered Georgia; and he has sciuimyi,— ever since made war to seize Circas.sia, but for twenty years, has there been '^«" educaied, lield at bay by SCHAMYL.t a native hero. In a direction approaching i"f "o^nfj^'^^ the shore of America, Nicholas has lately acquired the great valley of the in hu'micy.) Amour or Saghalieu Kiver. 1. IIow, after Tsicholaa had aided against Hungary, did he speak of Austria? {See note.) What was the belief of England and France? — 'Z. What embarrassing point was there in the case* What difl'erence is Jiere in the number of Mahometans and Greek Christians in European Turkey ? What is said of the efforts of the present sultan to ameliorate tho condition of tlic Christians ? ^Vhat advantage did these wrongs of the Christians put lato the hands of Nicholas? — 2. Why do we suppose that the .'•fial object of Nich(ila.s was other than his ostensible ? (.See note.)— 3. What iB ba i of I'eter the Great ? — of Catharine 11. ? 518 AGGRESSIONS OF EUSSIA. Modern El- j^y giving to the czar the allegiance of four-fifths of his subjects- PERIOD X. fu 1827, at the piece of Adiianople, Nicholas acquired a claim chap.it. ^q interfere in the affairs of Turkey through Molda^Ta and Wal- ^"^ »-"" ' lacihia, which are called the Principalities. 4. The occasion chosen by the czar to push forward his claims, was that of a dispute which arose between the ecclesiastics of the Greek and Roman church concerning the custody of certain 1§51. shrines in Palestine, called "the Holy Places." The quarrel about'the g'l'Gw fierce, and the Porte, decide as it might, could not satisfy Holy risces. parties who each claimed the same thing. La Valette, the minister of Louis Napoleon, took with violence the part of the Latin against the Greek Christians. The czar afiecting to beheve that in this case the latter were wronged, sent to Constantinople PRINCE Menchikoff, who at first arrogantly intruded himself asserts the i^to the presence of the sovereign, refusing to treat with the protectorate, vizier, — and afterw^ards sent him a note, in which the astoundiiig 1 §53. demand of the protectorate was for the first time put forth. It April 19. was mingled up Avith small matters concerning the Holy Places, prfnce Men- — which, hoAvever, the British minister (the French emperor con- chikoff. senting) had already brought to a satisfactory arrangement. The sultan of course rejected the protectorate. Prince Menchi- koif departed; and the czar having an army of 79,000 pre- pared for the occasion, immediately invaded the Principalities.! andVaUa- The Turks justly regarded this as a measure of hostility. Eng- ehia invad- land, France, Austiia, and Prussia, anxious that peace should be preserved, held by their delegates, a congress at Vienna. 5. By this congress, the "Vienna note" was drawn up, con- taining a plan of compromise for the two parties. The czar, (Conuining taking advantage of an equivocal expression, said to be a diplo- four points.) matic blunder,* by which the note, as he chose to understand it, Oct. 22. granted him the protectorate, at once signified his willingness to goes "to 01- accept its conditions. The Ottoman port>^ rejected the note, and Tibiy to 'c*^n>n the 5th of October declared war. On the 14th, the com- gratuiate the biucd fleets of the English and French which had been lying at FrTnds°Jo- Besika Bay, at the request of the sultan entered the Dardanelles. soph on Ms ^ -week afterwards, the emperors of Russia and Austria met at Olmutz. The Turkish armies advanced, and entered the princi- '"^^^'^ZA.^^' palities. Crossing the Danube in four different places, Omer Kjitijat, Pacha, the commander, defeated the Russians at Oltenitza, and * But was it a diplomatic blunder? Was it not rather an eq'uivoque con- trived by some Metternich (perhaps the veritable man), and designed for the purpose which it served — to outwit the allies, and afford the czar the means to put himself in the right, and his opponents in the wrong ? In Lis declaration of war against Turkey, his desire, he said, was for peace, while others forced him into war. 3. What connection had the treaty of Kainardji with the present war! "What is said of a treaty made in 1827 ? — 4. What occasion was chosen by the czar ? What personage did he send to Constantinople, and what was done by him ? What followed the rejection of the protectorate? What nation* sent delegates to Vienna, and for what purpose ? — 5. What is saiu of the " Vienna note," and its reception by the parties concerned ? When did Turkey declare war? What was done at the sultan's request? What happened :i week afterwards ? "WAR ON THE DANUBE, CI 9 obtained advantages over them at Kalafat and other i)]aces. T3i.t •^^"'^'"'" ^** the Russian fleet in the Bhick Sea, commanded by admiral peukjd X- Nashimoff, attacked the Turkish squadron at Sinope on the '^^^''' '^' 27th of November; and after a terrible battle destroi/cd the '^ ' whole Turkish armament, consisting of seven frigates, two war Russian vie- steamers, and three corvettes. ^"U- , "i]"""!^,* ^„' iT-iiixT 1,1,^ 1 • killed, 1,000. 6. Jb ranee and Jbngland, November 11th 18o3, entered mto a ■t*^'"i treaty of alliance to guarantee the integrity of Turkey ; and in -^'^^ \{^ March, 1854, they declared war against Russia. The other Eu- Alllailte ropeau nations at first took the ground of neutrahty. . . An between English fleet, which, under a(hniral Napier, w£us sent to the Bal- England tic, captured, August 16th, the strong fortress oi Bomarsund, and & France. Boon afterwards the island of Aland, But the czar's principal j ^54 fortresses iu the Baltic were found impiegnable. . . England and March 27. France next determined to attempt the destruction of the Russian e|1^1:eg'^v'ar' naval power in the Black Sea, by taking Sebastopol. On the ""'' on ti>o 14th of September, 58,000 of their troops, the greater part '" la'iui"^" P'rench, were landed at Eupatoria. Advancing upon Sebastopol, Sept. 14. the English under lord Raglan, an(i the French under mau- ■^*p^|.^*',f" 'BHAL Sr. Arnaud, they met a large Russian army, and defeated g^ j 20 it, in a bloody battle fouQ^ht by the river Alma. The allied ar- alma. mies were from time to time reinforced. w:'i,oi2. ' 7. The Austrians meantime, under color of neutrality, sent ^^- ^„?^'^' . • w. 1 0&7. their armies to hold the principalities, — pretending that other- Russian loss, wise there would be a rising in tavor of Russia among the Greek ^' g JjJ^'j ^^■ Christians. Thus they libeiated the Russian forces, who had been vainly besieging Silistria; and who in a victorious sortie Russians had been driven from that city by the Turks. These, with dny;«;» f'^'ia other Russian armies went to the Crimea, to reinforce the gar- 7^4/4 rison at Sebastopol, to which the czar was constantly sending klava. men and munitions. At Balaklava was a severe engagement, ^^rui'^hl^v- in which the British cavalry won much fame, but suffered fearful airy in tiio loss. At Irikermann the allies wei'e attacked by the whole gani- '^rj^pln'^ son of 60,000 ; but after a bloody battle, with heavy loss on both mann. sides, the Russians retreated to the defences of the city. These ^tatUes'tiw^ were so sti'engthened by Russian works daily going on, that al- aiucs imvo though the allies have been making counter batteries, and keep- ■sictory°biu. ini; up a feaiful bombardment, Sebastopol becomes more and ,™' ''^'^ =^" , ^ ',..,, , , „,, ii. 1 1 11 11 ford the loaaj more diihcult to take. Ihe aihes have not been able completely to invest it, or hinder the garrison from I'eceiving constant supplies. 8. So severely did the armies of the allies, especially the English, suffer, duiing the winter of 1854-5, from sickr.ess, 5. Who commanded the Turkish army? What advantages did he gain? Who was tlie Kussiaii admiral in the Black Sea, and what great victor^' did he gain? — 6 Wiiat nations, who have often been foes, now became allies? For what olyeot ? When did they declare war ? Where was the British fleet sent, antl what did it accomplish? What was determined on by tho allies? What was the number sent, and where did they laud? Givie an accoiiiit of tlie oattle of Alma, {See note.) — 7. What was now done by tho Ausirians? What is saitl concerning Silistria ? Balaklava? Inkermaim? Wliut wtts the condition of Sebastopol ? 520 "WAK m THE CEIMEA. irodernHis lounger, and unhoused exposure to the severity of the chmace, PERIOD X that far round the camp, the frozen ground was covered with the ^^^^' ^' unburied corpses of men, and the dead bodies of horses. The '^^ Y-~— ' heart of England — grieved for the sufferings of her brave sons, was indignant, that the comforts, which women as well as men, (tMissN. had hasted to send them, were by bad management scantily re- oncp "Willi ft . / »/ ^ o •/ party of at- ccived. FLORENCE NIGHTINGALE, an English lady of rank, who took^hwii '"'snt voluntarily to nurse the wounded and the dying, was often by force, at unable to procure the needed stores. , .f Parliament was about tc jn'^Souterio c^^l the ministry — at the head of which was lord Aberdeen — to a stern account. One of their number, lord John Russel, would not attempt to justify what he did not approve, and he resigned his office. A new ministiy was formed, under lord Palmers- ton. Lord John Russel was sent to represent England at an- other congress, about to meet at Vienna. 1§55. 9. Sardinia, which, under Victor Emmanuel, is blessed with February, constitutional liberty, has now united with the allies, furnishing joins tiie her quota of troops for the war. . . Austria, although threatened alliance, ^j^jj ^^ destruction of her Hungarian and Itahan provinces, has 1§54. yet been so shrewdly managed, as not only to escape injury, but Deo. 2. iQ occupy the proud position of being courted by all parties. Jreaiy OI q^ ^^^ 2d of December, 1854, she entered into a treaty of air iieiina. liance with England and France; but without guarantee to give any efficient aid against Russia, whose minister remains at Vi- enna. Another "Vienna note" has been sent to the czar, which he — at the same time calling out his whole military force — af- fects to accept as a basis on which to treat for peace. But the (tThis was world, with great confidence in the abilities of Nicholas, has little daj^before in his sincerity .f The note provides that the Christians in Turkey bearing of gh^H be protected, but that the protectorate shall rest, not with the azar s -r,.-S ^ • t ^ f I'l- death.) Kussia aione, but with the nve great powers combined, viz., England, France, Austria, Prussia, and Russia. Another point which the allies now insist on, will be more difficult to settle ; which is, that there must be an end to the Russian preponder- ance in the Black Sea. 10. Such was the state of affairs, when the great autocrat of g__ all the Russias was, by the King of kings, summoned fi"om the March % earth. He died on the 2d of March, 1855, and was succeeded Death of the by his oldest son, under the title of Alexander II. He has pledged himself to carry out his father's policy ; but what he will judge that to be, remains to be seen. The congress of Vienna aro April, 1856. earnestly endeavoring to make such terms of peace, as will gain the assent of all parties. 8. What was the state of the allied armies, especially the English ? What heroic English lady is mentioned ? What change occurred in the ministry ? Where was lord J. Enssel sent? — 9. What is said of Sardinia? What of Austria? What is said of the second Vienna note? — 10. Whose death is hore related, and when did it occur? Who is his successor, and what ooursc of policy does ho pledge himself to pursue! CHAPTER V Africa. —Sandwich Islands. — Chinese Kebellion. — Mexico, and South American Eepublics. — Kepublic of America. 1. Africa. — The inhabitants of the northern part, where an- MoJemniK cient civiHzation existed, are distinct fi'ora the various tribes of periodx,' negroes, — whom they hold in slavery,* and " regard as Httle ^^p- ^• better than brute beasts."f In Algeria^ and at the Caj)e of y—^-^ Good Hope, European improvements are extending, under the ^^^TavMc?^"' auspices of France and England.. . In Egypt ^ Ibrahim Pacha, "Journoy by his warlike son Ismail, conquered the nations up the Nile to IfriciL") the eleventh degree of north latitude; and founded, at the junc- tion of the Blue with the White Nile, tlie flourishing city of (tin N. Lat. Khartoum.,\ the great slave-mart for northern Africa. Ibrahim ^ g^ q^^''^- and his successors have improved the agriculture and commerce of Egypt; and they would have made it wholly independent of (^Forreasons Turkey, but that England interfered, to prevent the sultan being J^i»'°^ *''f. thus weakened.f The present pacha of Egypt (1855) is Mo- ishwariuvi HAMMED Said... The negro tiii)es inhabiting Atiica have never '^'^'jf ^?jT'' shown the same tendency to improvement, when left to them- selves, as other races of men ; but they remain stationary in a degi'aded barbarism, low, cruel, and obscene.§ 2. Of the ffreat island of Madagascar,! the Avahs, of an (tLength 93y o ^ ' I ' iDiles 1 op, olive complexion, and superior to the negro races, are the gov- 4,7ob,0(i(i. ' erning tribe. French Catholic missionaries who, in 1C12, sought poverecfby to convert them to Christianity, were cruelly expelled. In 1818 the Portn- the reigning sovereign, Radama, received English Protestant ^^'~**'> missionaries, and founded churches and schools. Through na- -y^glt j\,' live idolatrous priests, the queen, who succeeded him, expelled Enijiisii Prou the missionaries, and loaded their faithful proselytes w^th heavy ™'ss'o''a"';s- * Bayard Taylor, who, in 1852, visited the ShilIoolvS,+ a tall and athletic (fxhey live tribe, learned that the men freely sold their women and children, who were far up the bought by their northern neighbors — the price of a boy or girl being but White Nile.) twenty measures of grain. §Some tribes are cannibals, and many offer human sacrifices to their (+1S49. Geza bloody idols, and to the manes of the dead. Gezo, the king of Dahomey,t Lt^'Forb^s keeps a large army of women (said to be 18.000), officered by their own /^i,(, wrot(^ ( • ^ e (t Funds— ciety, J atiords such a prospect as has never betore existed oi dots African ci^dhzation.* Lately some The Sandwich Islands have bccu converted to Christianity beoomoX'- ty American missionaries ; who have introduced among them J'O'^-) the arts of peace, and aided in organizing their government.§ In Sandw'icii Is- Hayti, a negro empire was established in April, 1852, of which lands con- Faustin Soulouque is euipcror. verted. iif.ytieuem- 3. CHINA. — The present emperor, Hien FouNG,f so far as pii^e. j^ig government over the 350,000,000 of his subjects is concern- (fofthedy- ed, is but a puppet in the hands of miserable wire-pullers. Al- T-sing, or though hc is puffed up with the belief of his own " celestial" tars^ who, in origiii and power, yet his high officers rheat him, especially in thfd/nSty of Collecting his revenue. They in their turn are cheated by their Muig.) subordinates ; and although every officer has a spy set to watch him, yet the two combine ; while the people are on all hands robbed and oppressed. The Chinese, with the cold philosophy of Confucius, and their unregarded idols, may almost be said to have no religion. Protestant missionaries have of late laboretl ■s S''0 ^"^o"g them with some success. Rebellion 4. In 1850 a rebellion broke out in Kiang-se, a southwestern breaks out in mountainous province, where was a warlike race, secretly bound (torthe'King- ^7 ^^^ agaiust tlic Manchou-Tartar, or reigning dynasty. The PKcificator, origin and early proffress of this rebellion are mysterious. The said by some iirn ii • i ■ ^ ^ • r- to have been great leader lAE-piNG-WANGj has associated with mm tour eriB, an Am.' othcrs, ouc of whom is Said to have been a pupil of the Protest- sfoirnr™)^" ant missionary, Gutzlaft". The grand chief first brought forward 1854. * The legislative, jndicial, and executive officers of Liberia are all of tlio See speech of colored race. Pkesident Roberts commands universal respect. White Mr. Latrobe, missionaries, male and female, have, with martyr-zeal, aided in educatinfj Pres. of the ^ native Protestant ministry, and establishing schools and churches. Ad (l855)°of Mr .i^'^^'^'' tribes flock in, and unite their territori.es with Liberia. Thus the Gurley, the republic has extended itself 600 miles along the coast, and it has acquired devoted a controlling influence over 200,000 inhabitants. Thus far the traffic in agont slaves is prohibited by the Liberian government. § These islands might have been colonies, if colonization was approved by America. All she wants of them is their commerce and their friend- ship. Though she may generously protect them, yet she neither wants the obligation to defend, nor the troulDle to govern them. If Liberia and the Sandwich Islands were annexed, and became states, their senate-vote in congress would balance that of New York and Pennsylvania. 2. What was done by Eadama's successor, and through what influence I What nut a stop to persecution ? To what society is Liberia indebted for its settlers? Who were they? What prospect does this republic afford ? Give some further account of Liberia? (See n^te.) What is said of the Sandwich Islands? What is said of Hayti ? — of Liberia and the Sandwich jsiands, in regard to the United States? [See note.) — 3. What is the name and condition of the present emperor of Cliina? What is said of the Chi- nese people? — 4. What occurrecl in 1850? Where? What is mysterious? TAE-PING-WANG SANTA ANXA. 523 1 youtli, TiEN-TE, as the repiesentative of the preceding or Ming ^<^^bu. dynasty, of whose throne the Manchou-Tartars, he said, were period x. usurpers — hut he, by a divine mission, was to restore him to his *"'*''• '*^- lights. When, however, lie had obtained great successes, and ' "'^^ ' felt sufficiently strong, then he spoke and acted in his own name ; non'brnke" and foithwith Tien-te, like a Grand Lama no longer desired bv •'^^'j" "!i;jj" ji • !• 1 A 1 r-ii • • • • 1 1 '' «initv otTlii- tlie piiesls, disappeared. And now, Cnnstiaiis rejoiced to hear bct,"theseAt that the chiefs were establishing Christianity. They oveithrew "^rafr '^ The" pagodas, destroyed idols, and letjuired that Christ should be ac- gran i"/ broke off from Spain, they undertook to construct, after the model of our republic, constitutional governments, based on free suffrage. They recognized the doctrine of the equal rights of 4. What i3 said of the leaders of the rebellion ? What was the first measure of the grand chief? What was his account at that time of his mission? What became of Tien-te? Since the tactics of Tae-pinfj-wang resembled those of a priest of the Grand Lama, examine the side-note and see if you cannot find some other reason for conjectiirinir that such was hia former vocation. What was his course in respect to establishing Cliris- tianity? What farther is said of his party ? — 5. What was the condition of Mexico after the peace of Gaudaloupe ? What is said of Arista?— of Ccbatlos? — of Santa Anna? — G. What was undurtiiken by the Central ami Soutli American republics? CHAP. 52i AGITATIONS IN EEPUBLIUS. ifodern Bis. t|^e men of the superior or white race ; but the light to worship PERIOD X. God accordiug to the dictates of conscience was not allowed. Hence there were struggles and intestine di^asions, and at times a state of anarchy, which gave to ambitions men opportimities to push themselves into supreme power. Thus, in 1814, Dr. necessary to Fraxcia made himself dictator in Paraguay. In 1829, Rosas 'freedom!" became the tyrant of the Argentine Republic. He was, in 1852, 1§52. overthrown and succeeded by Urquiza. " But in these countries, Feb. 8. after poHtical stonns, the elements subside into republicanism ; 'eire fuunTed. Rocky Mountains, — and the Pacific empire was founded. . . Gen. S§4f>. Zachary Taylor, and Millard Fillmore of New York were, March 4. March 4th, 1849, inaugurated as president and vice-president.. ofT^aviofand The Indians having committed murders in Oregon, the people Fillmore, petitioned congress for a territorial government. It was granted thei^succeed- them. With a clause, introduced by northern members, forbidding mgyear.) neOTo slaverv. The South was indignant, and debates on the Oregon made & J . fe ' _ .1 territory, slavery question arose m congress, so violent, that m 1850 the 1§50. stability of the Union was endangered. Henry Clay, Daniel Mt^ionai de- Webster, and others in the senate, so painted the bloody civil struction. wars, and the humiliating foreign degradations, which must fol- 1§51. low disunion, that at length Mr. Clay's "compromise measures" Compromisft ^^^^Qxe adopted : the South consenting that California should be measures ■, • -, -i ••i-i iini adopted, admitted as a state with a constitution which excluded slavery ; and the North agreeing to a law for the rendition of fugitive ^' tcrrZy! "^ slaves. . . Utah, erected'in to a territory, 1851, was in 1 84 8 settled 1. §5-3-54 ^'y ^^® Mormons, a sect founded by Joseph Smith, and so called "Nebraska fiom the " Book of MoiTOon," produced, like the Koran, by pre- ■'^'"•" tended revelations. . .* In passing the law, 1854, by which Ne- * Fanatics, called Millerites, were then waiting' in tents for the Lord to Cause of the descend and take up his saints. Smith taught that his followers were the Mormonism ^""^^ latter-day saints — that the place of the second advent was to be the ■ Mormon temple, and that none would be saved but those who gathered 1849. there, bringing all their wealth. Many came, — some from the ditferent Nauvoo, in states of the Union, but more from Great Britain, whither the Mormons tV'''T?'h ^\ ^®'^* emissaries to make proselytes. They claimed in 1843 to have 200,i"i0(-i, ofThe upper °^ whom 10,000 were living at their principal seat, Nauvoo, where they ilississippi. h3," «»» eventually led to the extension both of the republic's territory,! lj""^j'i. and its commercial relations.... American sailors had been lardv Hist. ot cast away and ill ti-eated on the Japan Islands. Commodore ^j ^'Iv'*"* Perry was sent out to them with a squadron ; and after many Feb! i(i- delavs and ceremonies, duiing: which ttie commodore so played ^"™- ^^"l , . • .... ° ,,'•'. returns witii Ins part jis to wm tor his couiitiy the respect and conndence ot tiie Japan that singular people, he obtained a treat)-, by which those aL'o one frout wealthy islands, before closed to the world, were partially the Loo- opened to our commerce... Disregarding the proclamations Two Cuban' of presidents Taylor and Fillmore, two secret, illegal arma- expeditionii: ments from southern ports invaded Cuba. Their military cording to bands effected at each time a landing. The first invaders Ja'^SolTs^^'^ero escaped from the coast after a bloody skirmish at Cardenas; piifiticai. the second, proceeding into the interior, the inhabitants rose Crittenden, against them, and took them prisoners. Several were put to exe*'ut"(i'*b death, among whom was Lopez, the general, a patriot Cuban, the garotte and Crittenden, an enthusiastic young American officer. ^^' 9. The necessity of a transit to and from her Pacific em- pire, has brought our Republic into closer connection with other parts of the continent. By the enterprise of citizens 1855. of the United States, acting with the co-operation of the two istbmns governments concerned, a railroad across the isthmus, ^ai'ro^ ■ * n T 1 • * Dened FROM Aspinwall TO PANAMA, was opcned, whose runnmg time is but 3|- hours... The prospect that the navigation of the Amazon would be thrown open to international com- merce, has become a reality. 10. The peaceful increase of America, continue to exceed Foreign em- tliat of any other nation known to history. Foreign immi- igrants, gration in 1854, reached nearly half a million, and about (neariy'uaif seven millions more arrived after that, before 1881. A <^eni\ans). the saints; (xnd secret theft, rapine, and murder were rife. Public justice 1844. was either iniimidated or bribed. The people around liecame furious. June 27. .Smitli and his brother were murdered in prison, bv men in disi;uise. J- Smith and The Mormons sold Nauvoo, and, under Bkigfiam Yoing, went west and '""other mnr founded Salt Lake (Jity. Providence thus settled the wilderness, and '"""th-ie ""' made a half-way house for fami.shins: emiirrants to California. But iq,7"^»7 Mormonisin must become virtuous before it can truly prosper ; and 1 ''40-47. especially must it root out polygamy— by which men are brutalized, Mormons women degraded, and children "worse than orphaned. ^s^lTLnk 7. What fanatics were easily turned to Mormonism, and what further Recount can you trive of the Mormons? {See note.) When, and on what occasion was the line of nortli latitude, 36° 3U', abroffated lus the northern limit of slavery? When was it made so? (See side-note.)— K Give some account of the exploring c.vpeilition. f )f the obtaining of a treaty with Japan ? Of the two Cuban expeditions.— 9. To what lias the necessities of transit between us and the Califoniians jriven rise i What important rail- road is mentioned ? What rivers are mentioned, and what is sai i of tliemf »0. "\Vh'it may be said of the increa.se of tlie republic < 526 AMERICAN POSSIBILITIES. Modern Els, wbolesome fear of tliis vast foreign mass, some of wliom are PERIOD X. vicious, some ignorant, and some imbued with principles CHAP. V. antagonistic to American free institutions, begins to pervade ' Y^-~^ the country, — connected with the sensitive apprehension that ^^fear o*f^^ these are endangered by vice and disregard to law. Hence, crime and learning by the statistics of prisons, &c., that intemperance anarc y. .^ ^^^^ cause of the great majority of crimes, several of the States, following the example of Maine, have made stringent laws prohibiting the traffic in intoxicating liquors. . . Officers who faithfully execute the laws, especially in cities, where anarchy is most to be feared, are at this time praised and honored by all parties. 11. If, as we believe, they are wrong, who teach that it is the inevitable destiny of our Republic to fall into anarchy and thence pass to despotism ; no less do thej' err, who treat with levity every suggestion that such is our danger. In all the boasted political compacts of the founders of our govern- ment, the solemn obligation was entered into, to yield vol- untary obedience to the constituted powers. The conscien- tious respect to law in the hearts of the people, is that one virtue — the offspring and the parent of many others — which alone can sustain a republican government. This, with the continued smiles of the God of our Fathers, may preserve our noble political inheritance, — not only to bless our own posterity, — but to remain, a refuge, and a star of hope, to the oppressed of other nations. 10. What is paid of foreign immigration? — of the fears and apprehensions of the people ? What measure, in several States, has the just fear of crime produced ? What is now public sentiment concerning the faithful execution of law?— 11. How can the United States avoid the dangers which beset republics ? I 1 /I' r>^r The Great Eastern Laying the Atlantic Cable PERIOD XI. FROM ^^„ ^T,,— ^ . „ ^ . ^ ( MUT. 80, < AND THE TREATY OP THE cr.nn: AN war, [ i g 5 q/ -j r^i;,s, THE ASSASSINATION OF < Sept. 19, < AND TnE ACCESSION O? PRESIDENT a AHFIELD, ( 1881, } TKESIDENT A1:T1IUB. 1. The events that have occurred since the Crimean war arc so near our own time that they hardly fall within the scope of history, but a brief account of the progress of the world during the period will be interesting, not only because the events have been among the most remarkable of all history, but alsQ, because they are familiar to us, and in the midst of them many whom we know have been actors. 2. The Crimean war, wliich was still progressing in 1855, was ended by the fall of Tchernaya, August IG, and the taking of the Malaklioffi September 8, followed by an armistice, pro- claimed in February, 1856, the Treaty of Paris, March 30, 1856, and the evacuation of the Crimea by the allied forces, July 9, 1856. The war had caused the Russians half a million lives; the French had lost 63,000 ; and Great Britain Lad increased its national debt by more than two hundred million dollars, besides having sacrificed 20,000 lives. 3. ITALY.— At the l>attle of Tchernaya, Victor Emmanuel, King of Sardinia, was brought into 2"»i"oininence, and a friend- Bhip grew up between him and the Emperor of France. A daughter of Victor Emmanuel was, in 1859, married to Prip.cc Modem His, PEEI'D SI. 1856. End of the Crim'-an v/ar, Feb. 1§59. Marria^je of Prince Nancleon. 1 . What is the character of the events that occurred in the miarter-centnry after the Crimean war ? 5. When did the Crimean war end? \Vhat can you pay of the looses suffered by the dilfereut contestants ? Did Great Britain not greatlv increa'^e hor national debt i 3. Who was brought into proxoiutnce at the ba"ttle of Tchernxija? 528 the; " sevex'T weeks' wak." Modern Els. Napoleon, and finally an alliance was made between the kiap- PEEI'DXI ^^^^ *'^® emperor. Austria was at the time endeavoring to " strengthen herself in Italy, and Sardinia and France thus united to oppose her. In April, 1859, Austrian troops invaded Pied- mont, causing a general rising of the Italians v/ho recognized Victor Emmanuel as dictator. He entered the campaign in per- son with the French emperor. The struggle was vigorously carried on. The battle of Magenta occurred June 4, and an- ^^Vi?ia°* other at Solferino, June 24. Tlie peace of Villa Franca (July Fiaiica, 11) closed the war. By the end of 1860, all Italy, except the July 11. States of the Church, had come under the hand of Victor Em- manuel, and on the 5th of May, 18G1, he was decreed to be king Emmanuel o^ Italy. In 1865, the capital was established at Florence ; but king of there was a desire on the part of the people that Rome should Italy, be the centre of political action, and in 1870, Victor Emmanuel addressed the Poj3e a letter in which he threatened to enter the city. The Pope refused to consent to this proposal ; but his subjects were much excited, and an insurrection broke out at Viterbo, the people crying, "Vive le Roi D'ltalie ! " Victor Emmanuel hesitated no longer, but ordered his troops to ad- vance. After a brief contest with the Pope's zouaves, the Italian 1§'S'© ^r'"y entered Rome, and on the 2(1 of the following October the Rome en- Papal provinces voted, by a great majority, to be annexed to tared by Italy. In December, 1870, Victor Emmanuel entered Rome, manuel Dec ^hich has since been the capital, the Pope keeping himself a prisoner in his palace, the Vatican. Victor Emmanuel died Humbert January 9, 1878, and was succeeded by his eldest son Humbert ^- IV., who had been closely connected with the movements for the 1§'3'§. iiiiification of Italy and the reorganization of the two Sicilies. Pius ix! 4. Pope Pius IX. died February 7, 1878, and was succeeded on dies. the 20th of the same month by Cardinal Pecci, who assumed Leo xni. the title, Leo XIII. During the reign of Pius IX. the doctrine of Papal infallibility had been proclaimed (July 18, 1870), and tsRR ^^^ temporal power of the Papacy had been destroved. The "SeV- 5. THE " SE^^EN WEEKS' WAR."— Li 1866," Austria and en Weeljs' Prussia became involved in disagreements regarding their joint ^''^■•" administration of the affairs of the Duchies of Slesvig and Hol- stein, and the " Seven Weeks' War " broke out in June. The war was closed by the battle of Sadowa (Kciniggratz), July 3. The confederacy of the German States, which was organized in Eesnlts of 1815, after the fall of Napoleon I., was broken up. The Treaty ''^'^ ^^''''^" of Prague was signed by Austria and Prussia, August 23, and that of Vienna, by Austria and Italy, October 3. The disputed Duchies fell to Prussia, Venetia and the Iron Crown of Lombardy were given to Victor Emmanuel, and Austria paid Prussia forty million dollars. This is called also the " German-Italian War." Progress 6. PRUSSIA. — The progress of Prussia after 1849 (see page "' ''"""" 505) was rapid. After the trying days of 1848 and 1849, the 3. How did Napoleon of France ally himself with the king of Sardinia f How did the " ItaUan war" begin f What great battles occurred in it? What resulted from it in Italy? What peace closed the war ? When was the Italian capital removed to Florence ? When to Rome ? Who succeeded Victor Em- man iiel as king of Itiily? 4. What changes occurred in the Papacy? 5. What caused the " Seven Weeks' War?" How did the treaty of Vienna and Prague settle the disputes? By what other name is this war known ? 6. Has Prussia progressed since 18-19 ? of Prussia. FRASCO-PKUSSIAU WAR. 020 queen, wLose influence had always been opposed to the interests ModsmHis. of tlie people, exerted herself to repress popular liberties. pertdxT Much blood wiis shed, the power of the kiujx grew less and less, while that of the queen and her ministers increased. The peo- ^^ pie continued to suffer until 1857, when, owing to the mental igsy. alienation of the king, his brother, Prince William, was made Priuce Wil- regent, and Frederick William remained in obscurity until his ^i''™ m'"!*^ death in 1861. _ _ ■"^'S'^"^- 7. Ui3on ascending the throne, William I. gave assurances of ISC I. liberal policy toward the people. He soon appointetl as his William bc- minister of foreign affairs Karl Otto von Bismarck, now Prince '^'^^^^ ''°=- Bismarck, and to this has been owing most of the great progress of Prussia since. The idea that lie has iDroclaimed as the basis of his action is the union of all the Germans into one nation. 8. In 1883, Denmark issued a proclamation under which it I860. proceeded to treat the Duchies of Slesvig and ilolstein as under Hoist^in. its rule. This Prussia and Austria resented and war broke out, ending with the Peace of Vienna (1864), by which Denmark gave the Duchies up to Germany. On account of disagreement regarding the management of the Duchies, the " Seven Weeks " war followed in 1866 with advantage to Prussia. 9. In July, 1870, Kapoleon III. proclaimed war against Prus- 1, sia, on the flimsy pretest that the king of Prussia was engaged Prussian in an intrigue to place on the throne of Spain Prince Leopold war. of Hohenzollern, and thus to "surround France with enemies." The struggle proved to be as disastrous to France as it had l,>een foolish in its beginning. The French were tlefeated with great lossjs at Wortii (August 6j, at Metz (August 14-18), and Sedan,Sept. finally at Sedan (September 3j. At the last place the emperor ^• of France and 10t),000 prisoners were taken. The Prussian Napoleon army moved upon Paris, which was invested from September 15 Hi- ^ P"®' to February 1, 1871, when the long and disastrous siege ended °^^^' in an unconditional surrender. France agreed to give Prussia an indemnity of five thousand million francs, and to cede to Prussia the Provinces of Alsace and Lorraine. On the 18th of January previous, William had been crowned Emperor of Ger- nianempe'r- many in the palace at Versailles, in the presence of tlie German or crowned princes. On the 1st of March, hj reviewed the German army at Versailles in the Bois de Boulogne, and on the 16th of June the army made its triumphal entry into Berlin. Since this war llic efforts of William antl Bismarck have been directed to the administra- tion of home aftairs, and the establishment of the inliuence of Prussia among the German States. 10. FR.ySTCE. — The emperor of France found himself after Eoj-al visits the termination of the Crimean war, advanced chiefly in the acquaintance of the sovereigns of Europe. His relations with Victor Emmanuel had been made more intimate, and he had visited the Qusea of England and Prince Albert at Windsor 6. What was th^ spirit of the queen with reference to popular liberties? What became of Kin" Frederick William IV. ? 7. When did William I. ascend the throne? What idea dominated him? Who was his efficient minister? S. What can you say of the Seven Week^' war from the Prussian side ? 9. What was the ground on which Napoleon III. declared war apaiust Prussia? Wliat ^ya■^ A\e result of the war? What became of Napoleon III ? Where was Wil- liam I. crowned emjieror? What has been the policy of William 1. and Prince Bismarck since the French war? 10. How did the emperor of Franco licd himself advanced by the Crimean war ? 530 DEATH OF ilAXmrLIAN. Modern Eis. Castle. The queen and bar consort had returned the civility in PERI'D XI Septembei-, 185o, when the second " World's Fair " was progress- ' ing at Paris. At the same moment the last scenes in the war "" were being enacted in the Ciimea. On the 16th of March, 1856, 1^55 Napoleon HI. became the father of a son in whom he hoped to World's fair see his dynasty established. He was named ISTapoleon-Louis- at Pari*. Eugene-Jean-Joseph Bonaparte, Pope Pius IX. being his spon- sor. ^s-'iTb ^^- -"-^ 1859 the emperor opened the Italian war for "an The Italian icle^^?" namely, for the aggrandizement of himseli and France, war. He took occasion at the official reception, on the 1st of January, to say to the Austrian representative. Baron Hubner, that ne regretted that the relations of France and Austria were not as pleasant as in the past, which was understood as a j^rospective declaration of war, and efforts Vi'ere made by the other great powers to keep peace. England, especially, though sympathiz- ing with Italj', used its influence in this direction, but In vain. War was precipitated with the result that has already been mentioned. 1§6J. 12. In 1801 it became apparent that the Emperor of France esico. -j^^j formed the design of establishing a kingdom in Mexico. PlansofNa- England offered no objection to a design ostensibly intended poleon III. ^Q restore order in that disturbed country. England and Spain, besides France, had complaints against Mexico, and towards the end of 1861 they had all united in sending a force to settle their difficulties. England and Spain refused to support France in its designs upon the country, however, and almost as soon as the allies landed in Mexico, the others left France alone to carry out its designs. France supported the clerical party against Juarez, head of the liberal party, and caused Ferdinand Maximilian. Joseph ilaximilian. Archduke of Austria, brother of the Em- peror Francis Joseph I., to believe that he was desired by the people of Mexico as their ruler, and to leave his home on the Adriatic for the throne of the rent American empire. He ar- rived at Vera Cruz Mai'ch 28, 1864, and entered the capital on the 12th of June; but his efforts to calm the strife of faction proved abo]'tive. Najjoleon IH. had supposed that the United States The "Mon- ^^®^"*^ ^° thoroughly occupied with their civil war that they could roe doc- not interfere with his plans in Mexico, but he was disappointed, trine." j]e received an intimation from Washington that his forces could not be permitted to remain on the continent, and he promptly witiidrew them, thus depriving Maximilian of his chief support. The French army left Mexico early in 1867, Death of and Maximilian abdicated, but was captured, and shot by the Maximilian. f„j.ces of Juarez, June 19, 1867. His young wile had been in Europe going from court to court vainly endeavoring to obtain "Poor Car- aid for him, and she became a hoi^eless maniac at the age of lotta." twenty-six. French ^^- ^^ pursuance of an agreement made in 1864, the emperor troops leave of France removed the troops of France from Rome in 180G, Eome. 10. Give an account of the royal visits mentioned. When ivas the Prince Imperial bom ? 11. What was the purpose of Napoleon in bringini,' on the Italian war? With what feclinj^ did England sympathize? 12. Give some account of the interference of Napoleon III. in Mexican affairs? Who was loader of the Liberals in that country ? What can you say of the career of Maximilian there ? 13. What resulted from the removal of French troops from Some ? f FBANCE MADE A REPUBLIC. 531 depriving the Pope of the support that he had up to that time Modem His. enjoyed. The Holy See has since that time been the only por- peri'd xi tion of Italy not uuder the rule of the king of Italy, and since the removal of the capital to Home the Papal power has been ""'^ restricted to the palace of the Vatican where His Holiness con- The Pope a siders himself a jjrisoner. prisoner. 14. The Emperor Napoleon III. now seemed to rush to his destruction. He entered upon the ''Franco-Prussian war" '^p^'^^ap"" with haste, was captured, and imprisoned at Wilhelinshtihe, hi war. Cassel, and afterward went to England, a voluntary exile, where he died January 6, 1873. Upon the receipt at Paris of the news i fj^'f of the repulse at Sedan, a provisional government was formed Napoleon •witli Louis Adolph Thiers at its head. In March, 1871, almost ni. immediately after the conclusion of peace, Paris was for some weeks under the control of the "communists," and there were %^°^ revolutionary outbursts at Versailles, Lyons, and other places. The insurgents were mastered by Marshal MacMahon, after the Commun city had suffered a second siege ; but while his troops w ere ac- '" ^' tually entering the capital, the mad insurgents revenged them- selves by burning the Louvre, the Hotel de Ville, and other important buildings, and by murdering in cold blood the arch- bishop of Paris, the cure of the Madeleine, the chief judge of the supreme court of France, and more than fifty of their help- less companions. 15. The new government, under the direction of Thiers, who France a was made president, now entered with vigor upon a successful republic, effort to pay the great indemnity due to Prussia, and the Ger- man " army of occupation " was slowly withdrawn from French territory. President Thiers held his office until May 24, 1873, when he was succeeded by MacMahon, and the term of ofiice was determined to be seven vears. During his tenure of office, The French MacMahon opened and closed the Exposition of 1878. He *^ori8TO° resigned his office January 30, 1879, and was succeeded by Fran(^oi3-Paul-Jules Grevy, a statesman of long experience, who still (1882) holds the office. 16. SPAIN.- Ferdinand VH. died in 1833, and the crown j)^^ (j^^j^g^ was claimed by his brother, Don Carlos, under the Salic law. A strong party, however, sustained the right of his daughter, Isabella, then in her third year, and her young mother, Maria- Christina, became regent, the Cortes swearing allegiance to the qneen-regent and the infant queen, A war broke out between the partisans of the claimants, which was waged intermittently ^ ^^^' for many years. After it had l)een carried on seven years, the claims of the queiui were confirmed, and Don Carlos and his adherents were banished. At the same time the government Espartero was committed by the queen to Don Baldomiro Espartero as regent, regent while she retired to France. , ^±i 17. In 1843 Isabella was declared of age, and took her place leabellaH. among the reigning sovereigns of Europe. For political con- 13- How is the power of the Pope restricted? It. What can you say of the " Franco-Prussian " war from the French side? Who were the "commun- ists?" What did they do in Paris and other cities? 15. What can yon say of the French Republic and its i)residents ? Who was president in 1882 ? 16. What occurred in Spain on the death of Ferdinand VII. ? What was the cause of the Carlist v.'ar? Whither did Isabella retire in 1840? 17. Give some account of the state of Spain after Isabella was declared of age. 532 ASSASSIlSrATION OF ALEXANDER U. Modem Eis. PERI'D XI. 1§6§. Revolution. Flight of the queen. Leopold of Hohenzol- lern. Amadeo. 1§73. Castelar president. Coup d'etat. 1874. Don Alfon- so crowned. 1855. Death of Nicholas I. Alexander II. Progress. 1867. Alaska sold to the U. S. 1881. Alexander m. Nihilism. Victoria's ministry. siderations she was sacrificed to a marriage to her cousin, Don Francisco D'Assis, and never knew the happiness of wedded life. Spain rose uncier her rule to a fair rank among the powers of Euroj^e, and made rapid progress in internal affairs. 18. In 1868 a revolution broke out, and the queen was again forced to fly to France. Among the claimants tor the crown at the time was a new Don Carlos, grandson of the former pre- tender of the same name. General Serrano was made ]3resident. and General Prim secretary of war. In 1870 Prim urged as candidate for the throne Leopold of Hohenzollern, who was, as we have seen, opposed with much zeal by Napoleon III. His name was withdrawn by his father, and the Duke Amadeo, second son of Victor Emmanuel, was elected constitutional king. He arrived in the country December 30, and the same day Prim was assassinated. He found it impossible to rule the country constitutionally, and abdicated February 11, 1873, a republican goverament succeeding, Emilio Castelar being made president September 7, 1873. 19. Castelar's government was not i)eaceful, and ended with a coup d'etat in January, 1874. The reaction brought to the throne Don Alfonso, son of Queen Isabella, who was crowned December 31, 1874. Under him Spain is comparatively quiet, enjoying a hereditary, constitutional monarchy. 20. PiUSSIA. — Since the Crimean war, Russia has seen many and important changes. The death of Nicholas!, March, 1855, brought to the throne his son, Alexander II., who began his reign with promises of reform. He reduced the army to the lowest practicable limits ; emancipated twenty-three millions of serfs in 1861 ; raised the grade of the colleges ; and inaugurated elective representative assemblies in the provinces. In 1867 he sold to the United States the whole of Russian America, since known as Alaska, for about seven millions of dollars. Alex- ander n. five times was threatened with assassination, and was actually killed by the explosion of a bomb March 13, 1881. His second son ascended the throne as Alexander HI, and has been threatened, as his father was, by the Nihilists, an order of jjowerful revolutionaiy socialists who aim to destroy all existing laws, religions, and social and j)o!itical systems without giving the world anything in their stead. The rise of this secret and insidious body has been one of the most terrible facts of the century. It uses all instruments, shrinking at no inhumanity to carry out its views. The torch, the dagger, dynamite, and poison are among its instruments. 21. GREAT BRITAIN.— The reign of Victoria has been comparatively tmeventful during the last quarter-century. Lord Palmevston, Mr. Gladstone, Mr. Disraeli, and Earl Derby have been the chief ministers since the Russian war, and there has been a continuous struggle between the conservatives and 18. When did another revolution break out? What did the queen do? Wlio was one of the aspirants to the throne at that time ? What about Leopold of Hohenzollern ? Who was Amadeo ? Did he hold the throne ? Vv'ho became prcf^ident in 18T3 ? 19. What about the coup d'etat in 1874 ? Who was then Drouf;ht to the throne? 20. Have there been great change? in Russia since the Crimean war ? Who succeeded Nicholas I. ? What, did the new emperor do? How did his life end? Who are the nihilists ? 21. What has been the characteristic of the reign of Queen Victoria ? Who have been her most noted ministers ? THE SEPOY MUTINY, 533 reformers. During the admiuistration of Mr. Gladstone, the Modem His. act disestablishing tlie CImrcli of England in Ireland and the peri'dxi. " Irish Land act " have been passed. Thougli by law, since the act of union of 1801 (by which Ireland became a part of Great Britain), the Episcopal church has been the established church of Ireland, nearly eighty per cent, of the people have belonged to the Roman church, and were still obliged to sustain the es- tablishment. In 1863, on motion of Mr. Gladstone, the House of Commons voted to disesta!)lish the Church of Ireland, but the peers did not concur. In 18G9 Mr. Gladstone, being jjrime minister, was able to iniluence the passage of the bill, which was entitled '' a bill to put an end to the establishment of the Church of Ireland, and to make provision in respect to the temporalities thereof," Disesta!)lisliment was complete January 1, 18B1. 22. Before the Crimean war had closed. Great Britain had be- 1§55. come involved in a struggle with China, In October, 1855, War \vith several forts on Clinton River were taken by the British, and '^*°''" Sir John Bowring, tlie learneil translator and hymn writer, demanded free access to Canton for all foreign representatives. This having been refused, an attack on Canton was begun. On the 28th of December, 1857, the city was bom))arded, and was I85§. taken the next day. The treaty of Tientsin concluded peace '/ientsiu^ June 26, 1858. 23. The Sepoy mutiny in India was a much more serious 1§59. affair. It began by the mutiny of several regiments of Sepoys, ^^^^^"^ ™'^" when they were supplied with cartridges greased with the fat of cosvs, which were sacred to them, or of swine, which were an abhorrence. The Sepoy service was just one hundred years old. in 1357, when the outbreak occurred. The cartridges were first refused on the 25th of February, 1857, at Moorshedabad, about one hundred miles from Calcutta. Three days later the spirit of mutiny was felt at Vizlanagram, in the Madras presi- dency. A little later a plot was discovered for the utter exter- mination of the entire European population of India. It failed merely for want of united action among the leaders, but the most horrible atrocities were committed. The city of Delhi 'r'^^''_^°]^ °^ was sacked in May, its inhabitants being ruthlessly murdered ^ '" with the most dreadful atrocities. In the summer of 1857 mas- sacres occurred at Delhi, Jliausie, Lucknow, Agra, and Cawn- pore. At last General Sir Henry Ilavelock was able to enter navclocZ Lucknow and hold it until relief arrived from home, Delhi was retaken in September, and it was felt that the war had closed ; but there were many hard battles yet to be fought, and it was not until the beginning of 1859 that the rebellion was entirely quelled. In 1858 the goveniment of India was taken from tlie East India Company and vested in the crown. 24. In 1858 a project was formed in America for a "Fenian ' ?^.^' Brotlicrliood," for tne purpose of securing Irish independence, *^'i^'^i®°^- 21. Wliat notable acts were passed inidor the administration of Mr. Glad- stone? Ni'luit was the act to disestablish the Irish Church ? 2'2- Who was prominent in the Chinese war ? What city was bombarded by the British ? What tie.ity concluded the war? 23, What was thecanse of the " Sepoy mu- tiny ? " How old was the Sepoy service at that time ? Wlio relieved Lucknow ? What change was made in the government of India in 1;?58? 2-1. What waa the origin of the " Fenian Brotherhood ?" 534 OTHER WARS OF GREAT ERTTiinsr. Modern Eis. and a congress met in Chicago in 1883. In 1865 another con- PERI'D XI S^*^ss met at Cincinnati, and it is said that eighty thousand Irish " joined the brotherhood. The same year the organization was "^^ ^"""""^ formed in Ireland, and there were many riots in different parts of Great Britain. Canada was invaded in 1866, and President Johnson issued a proclamation against the movement. As late as 1870, Pope Pius IX. published a decree condemning it, and in October of the same year, President Grant made a proclama- tion against it. It was a part of the clisturDance in Ireland owing to hatred of British rule, or misrule. (See page 515.) Irish Land 25. The rise of the Irish " Land League " in 1879, was edgue. another token of the same kind. The great public distress of that year made it difficult for the tenantry to fulfill their con- tracts, and a great mass meeting was held in Hyde Parli, Lon- don, attended by more than one hundred thousand persons, to demand from the landlords a reduction of rents. The league Avas organized in October, by Charles Stuart Parnell, an agitator, who visited America to arouse indigcction against England. His course was disapproved ; but large gifts of grain and money were sent to relieve the necessities of the distressed. The United States frigate Constellation carried a cargo of this 5 §!»§. ^''^'^ over the ocean. Abyssinian 26. Besides the wars already mentioned. Great Britain has war been involved in the Abvssinian war (18G8), the Ashantee war Ash7nte°e (1^^^)' *'^" ^^^ "^ Afghanistan (1878-9), and the Zulu war in "wan 1879. The last was a war of conquest, the British wishmg to 1*»7§. possess the land of Cetywayo, king of the Zulus. When the Afgtianistan Orange Free State was annexed to the British dominions in 1848, ISYS. the Dutch Boers who left it, established a republic, called the Zulu war. Transvaal, the independence of which was acknowledged by the United States, five European courts, and by England itself in 1852. In 1873, England annexed the territory to its posses- sions and refused to listen to a commission sent to protest. The people of the Transvaal then took up arms to maintain inde- pendence. They attacked the British February 27, 1881, and killed the commanding officer, only about one hundred escaping out of nearly seven hundred officers and men. An arndstice then was agreed upon. A number of battles were fought in Cetywayo. the Zulu war, Cetywayo being finally routed, captured, and sent to England as prisoner. In this war the Prince Imperial of France, who had volunteered to help the British, lost his Victoria '^'^ ' ^'^ ^^^^' Qu^^n Victoria assumed the title "Empress of created em- India," in addition to those she had previously borne. Albert press of In- Edward, Prince of Wales, heir apparent, spent most of the sum- mer of 18G0 in visiting the United States and Canada, whei-e he Travels of was received with enthusiasm. In 1862, he visited Jerusalem o'/ Wales? ^^^ the East in company with Dean Stanley, and in 1875 and 1876, he made an extensive tour through India. In 1871, he had a severe illness that promised to close his life, but he re- 24. Who issued proclamations against it ? 25. What caused the rise of the Irish Land League ? Where was the greatest public meeting of modern history f What did Parnell do ? Where was the frigate Constellation sent ? 26. Men- tion some of the other wars of Great Britain. Who was king of the Zulus? What became of him ? Who lived in the Transvaal f 27. When did Victoria assume the title of empress of India '? THE UMTED STATES CIVIL WAR. 535 covered, and was able to join in the " Tlianksgiving service." Modern His. held in St. Paul's Cathedral, February 27, 1872. pfrt'D XI 28. THE UNITED STATES.— the hit^tory of the United States since 1855 has been of the most thrilling interest. There were at that time thirtj^-one States in the Union. There are now thirty-eight. ^linnesota was added in 1858, Oregon in 1859, Kansas in 18G1, West Virginia in 1868, Nevada iu 1864, Nebraska in 1867, and Colorado in 1876. 1§5§. 29. The repeal of the Missouri conijiromise iu 1854, made the Rui)cal of Territories of Kansas and Nebraska the centre of a prolonged ponflro^^'s" conflict between those who wished to extend the domain of Troubles in slavery and the free- State partisans; and this conflict, which ^1'?^-^^^"'^ almost amounted to civil war, was continued under other forms ^ ra^-a. until the frreatest civil war of modern times was actually brought upon the nation. Statesmanship and patriotism were auiowebb at a low ebb. and demagogues occupied themselves in increasing the misunderstandings that for a long time had cxistetl between the peoijle ol' different sections, trying to make them feel that their interests were not national but sectional. All dift'erences were by these men magnified, and all actual grievances were kept before the public mind, until at last the war spirit was fully aroused. iS'^ej 30. The torch was applied to the inflammable materials by joiniBrown John Brown, an ardent free- State partisan, who had been en- at Harper's gaged in the conflicts in Kansas in the autumn of 1859. He in- Ferry. vaded Harper's Ferry, Virginia, with the intention of arousing the negroes to rise against the whites in the South. He failed in his enterprise, and jiaid the penalty with his lii^e. The North judged the South by its citizens who made the most noise, the disturbers, and the South tliought that all Northerners were like the agitators who excited the northern States. The South deter- mined to "secede" irom tlie Union, and upon the election of -^^^ President Lincoln in 1860, South Carolina set the example Lincoln* December 20. Other States followed, and in February, 1861, electeii. the Confederate States of America were organized at Montgom- Secession. ery, Alabama. One month later. President Lincoln was inau- "states!** ^ gurated. He stated in his first address that he believed that he had no right to interfere with slavery, and had no intention of doing anything of the kind. War was begun by an attack ]$61. upon Fort Sumter, in Charlestcm harbor, April 12, 1861. It Sumter at- was closed, in 1865, by the surrender of General Lee to General tacked. Grant, Api-il 9; the surrender of General Johnson to General Sherman, in North Carolina, April 26 ; and the surrender of General E. Kirby Smith, at New Orleans, to General Canby. i§03. During the struggle, as a war measure. President Lincoln issued his Emancipation Proclamation, and slavery ended January 1, Emancipa 1863. """• 31. The South had been the scene of most of the actual fight- The Soutli. 27. What can you say of the Prince of Wales ? 28. How have the United Stale-! incriascd ? 29. What couii)romiFe was repealed in ll-'54 ? What fol- lowed in Kansas and Nebraska? Why did demagogues have an opportunity to inflame the people? 30. What did .John Urown do? How did the North judge the South ? How did the South judge the North? What followed the election of President Lincoln? When did en il war begin? What fort was attacked? How did the civil war close? Whv was emancipation proclaimed by President Lincoln ? What had President Lincoln said about his right to interfere with slavery ? 31. What was the effect of the war upon the South ? 530 PEOGRESS IN THE TOUTED STATES. IIodernEls. jng, and felt the war more than the other portions of the coun- PERI'D XI ^^^' ^^ ^^^® ^ long time before it began to recuperate from the ' effects ; but it has now entered upon an era of progress. Capi- ^^^ "^ tal is flowing iiito it, maaufiactures and agriculture are thriving, and the South bids fair to become the richest section of the United States. A=sa=sina- *^^- President Lincoln entered upon the first year of his sec- tion of Liu- ond term, but was killed by an assassin five days after the sur- coln. render of General Lee. Andrew Johnson, who had been elected President Vice-Presideat, immediately took his place and served his time Grant, out. He was followed by General Grant, who filled the office ^HayeT*^ two terms, from 1869 to 1877. Rutherford B. Hayes, of Ohio, !§§©. was President from 1877 to 1881. He was followed by James President Abram Garfield, also of Ohio, Avho was shot by an assassin Garfield, j^^j^ g^ 1881. For eleven weeks he Imgered, the whole world I§Sf. watching at his bed of suffering, and he died September 19, President Chester Allan Arthur, the Vice-President, taking his office with- Arthur, ^^j. digtm-bance. The elevated character of President Garfield and his patient sufTeiing on the bed of death caused the people of all nations to mourn his loss. At the same time it united the hearts of the American people so that when President Arthur entered upon his duties he was able to contemplate a people of fifty millions who felt that they were a united nation. Civil discord had been assuaged, sectional jealousy was calmed, and it seemed as if the nation had entered upon an era of good feel- 1§5§. ^^c? ^s '^^^^ ^s of material prosperity. TheAtlantic 33. During this quarter-century the Atlantic telegraph was telegraph. |jjj^]^ ^^jg first cable being opened in 1858, and now we have every morning in our daily i)apers the news of the whole world of the preidous day. The project for a railroad across the conti- nent to connect the East with the gold fields of California was formed as early as 1853, and in that year, under the direc- tion of Jefferson Davis, then Secretary of War, an expedition 1§69. '"'as sent out to explore the route. On the 10th of May, 1869, The Pacific the completion of the great work was celebrated with imposmg Raihva}'. ceremonies. The development of the territory between the Missouri River and the Pacific has since progressed with rapid- ity. Many thousand miles of railroad have been built in all parts of the land, and though there have been periods of com- mercial distress, the material interests of the country have im- proved with much regularity. During the w^ar the price ot gold had appreciated to such an extent that one dollar m coin 1S79. was worth \al most three in currency; and yet on the first of j^esumptmn January, 1879, currency and coin were again of thesame value, pai'mffnts. in spite of the occurrence of great financial panics in 1869 and 1873, caused by the dealings of unscrupulous speculators m the first instance, and by the failure of the banking-house of Jay Cooke and company at the second date. The invention of the telephone, an instrument for the transmission of articulate 3 1 . Where had the fightins: mo-tly occurred ? What resulted after the war in the South? 32. Wlien did President Lincoln die ? Who followed him? What other Presidents followcl ? Who was the second President to he assas- Finated ? How long did he sufter ? What was the feeling for him ? ^ hat re- sulted from the long svmpatliv felt hy people of all countries and all portions of our own country ? 33. What can vou say of the Atiaatic telegraph and the Pacific Puiilway ? When did the Americiu banks resume specie payment ? Japan. CniNA AND JAPAN. 537 StJunds, was invented almost simultaneously hy a scientist named Modern His. Gray, in Illinois, and by Alexander Graham Bell, of Massacliu- peet'd xi setts. The instrument was exhibited in 1876, and now it is u.sed familiarly in many parts of the world. ~" ^ 34. The invention of modes oC lightinif by electricity has made phone.^" great advance within a few years, and at the present time many The electric I)ublic and pnvate buiklings and streets are thus lighted with ^'*^'''^' great brilliancy. 35. CHINA AND JAPAN.— Not only in the western na- '^^Tlnf.f"'^ tions has there been progress during this period. China has opened herself to other nations, and has sent ambassadors to tliem. The emperor Hiln Fung (see page 522), who had reigned since 1850, died Au'jfust 21, 18i)l. The Tai-ping rebellion ended in 1864. From 1861 to 1873, China was ruled by two dowager emperors as regen^^s, but on the 23d of February. 1873, Tung-che was declared emperor. He died January 12, 1875, probably by poison, and was succeeded by his cousin Kwang-sen (Succession of Glory), then four years old, who still occupies the throne. Japan has done the same in a greater degree, and no nation in all history has made such remarkable progress in brief time as she has. Railroads, telegraphs, schools, newspapers, and many of the other enliglitening agencies of western civilization, are changing the ancient customs of that wonderful nation. 34. Mention Pome of the inventions of the period ? 35. What can von say of progress in China and Japan f What of the rulers of China ? 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