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Breeding of
Farm Animals

B, V

Merritt W; Harper

Professor of Animal Husbandry

in the New York State College of Agriculture

at Cornell University

NEW YORK

ORANGE JUDD COMPANY

LONDON

Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co., Limited
1914

- ^

Co^

ORANGE JUDD COMPANY

Entered at Stationers* Hall
LONDON. ENGLAND

Printed in U. S. A.

m 31 f9l4

©CI.A387300

PREFACE

This book is an attempt at arranging useful informa-
tion concerning the breeding of farm animals and adapt-
ing it to the needs of the farmer, breeder and student. It
includes a brief discussion of the fundamental principles
underlying animal breeding, such as development, selec-
tion, variation and heredity, together with the more prac-
tical phases of the work.

The book represents experience, both as a breeder and
instructor. It differs from other books on the breeding
of animals in that special emphasis is placed on the im-
portance of proper care and management of the parents,
together with the proper development of young stock,
as these are of the utmost importance to the practical
breeder, and in connection with selection give advance-
ment. An attempt has been made to direct attention
away from the speculations that characterized the earlier
books and to center interest in the more practical fea-
tures of breeding farm animals.

To get the essentials involved in animal improvement
clearly before us, extended use has been made of the
facts disclosed by the Advanced Register for Holstein-
Friesian cattle and by Wallace's Year Book for horses,
as the advancement gained by the methods here em-
ployed is significant. Because of the nature of the m.a-
terial it has been found necessary to present a few rather
long and complicated tables. These should be carefully
considered by the reader in order that he may learn to
analyze and generalize of his own accord. This will
stimulate interest and lead to closer observation of farm
animals generally.

To promote interest in correct type and breed char-
acteristics many photographs of the several classes of
farm animals have been used. Untouched photographs

VI PREFACE

have been employed, as they show type and breed fea-
tures to advantage.

Realizing the many difficulties that present themselves
in the breeding of farm animals, the writer will be glad
to correspond with those persons into whose hands the
book may fall concerning such difficulties and also to
receive suggestions that may make the book more useful
as a practical guide and text.

M. W. HARPER.

Cornell University,

Ithaca, N. Y., August 3, 1914.

CONTENTS

CHAPTER I

Page

Introduction 1

Farm animals provide labor, food and clothing — Num-
ber and value of farm animals — Human population in-
creasing, number of farm animals decreasing — Farm
animals costly — Relation of food to production — -Distri-
bution of farm animals — Improving farm animals — En-
vironment — Heredity — Selection — Propagation of animals.

CHAPTER n

Reproductive Organs and Germ Cells 10

Female reproductive organs — Male reproductive organs
— The cell — Cell division — The chromosomes — The germ
cells — The egg cell — The sperm cells — Chromosome re-
duction — Fertilization.

CHAPTER in

The Determiners of Heredity 21

Darwin's Pangenesis — Weismann's germ plasm — Op-
posite views — Approved practice not involved — The
hereditary bridge — The hereditary material — The enzyme
theory — The chromosome theory — Chromosome combina-
tion — Origin of hereditary material — Basis of controlling
determiners of heredity.

CHAPTER IV

Heredity in Animal Breeding 31

Brewer's fundamental propositions — Complex nature
of heredity — Offspring in general resemble parents —
Particular offspring unlike the parent — Some offspring-
higher and some lower than their parents — Medium off-
spring the most frequent — The high parent and his off-
spring — The high offspring and his parents — The law of
ancestral hereditv — Reversion and atavism — Blended, ex-
clusive and particulate inheritance.

vii

Vlll CONTENTS

CHAPTER V

Page

Mendel^'s Law of Heredity 42

The law when one pair of characters are involved,
Monohybrids — Dominants and recessives — The law when
two pairs of characters are involved, Dihybrids — Three
Mendelian principles — Creation of new forms — Applica-
tion of Mendel's Law — Transferring characters — Possi-
bilities of Mendelism — Mendelism and reversion — Limita-
tions of Mendelism.

CHAPTER VI

Selection in Animal Breeding 56

Objects of selection — Standard of excellence in selection
■ — History of the breeds — Breed peculiarities — Vigor, lon-
gevity and fertility — Large numbers promote uniformity —
The exceptionable breeding animal — Comparative value of
sire and dam — Influence of the sire — Suitability for mating.

CHAPTER YH
Unit of Selection — Character 65

Character defined — Germinal, acquired and congenital
character — Correlated characters — Limit selection to use-
ful characters — Base selection on limited number of
characters — Records of performance — Actual breeding
test valuable — Breeder's fancy points — ^Fashionable breed-
ing — Pasr" 5 fads.

CHAPTER Vni

Basis of Selection — Variation , . . . . 74

Variation general among farm animals — Variation basis
of improvement — Nature of variation — Non-inheritable
variation — Inheritable variation — Variations distinguished
from the nature of characters involved — ^Quantitative
variation— Qualitative variation — Functional variation —
Variations in pattern — Degrees of variations — Continuous
variations — Discontinuous variations — Mutations — Sports
— Abnormality — Malformation — Monstrosity — Study of
variation — Finding the type— Variability or deviation from
type — Plotting frequency curve.

CONTENTS IX

CHAPTER IX

Page

Some Causes of Variations 87

Some external causes of variations — Climate and local-
ity — Care and management — Food supply — Training and
developing — Use and disuse — Injuries and mutilations-
Chemical agents — Breeder's control of the external causes
of variations — Some internal causes of variation — Matura-
tion a cause of variation — Fertilization a cause of varia-
tion — Mendelism a cause of variation — Cross breeding a
cause of variation — Cell division a cause of variation —
Relative fertility and longevity.

CHAPTER X

Individual Merit and Selection 102

The breeder a judge — Types of animals — Utility of
types — Uniformity of type — Breeds of animals — Standard
of perfection — Value of breed characteristics — Age and
individual merit — Constitutional vigor.

CHAPTER XI
Pedigree and Selection 114

Form and contents of a pedigree — Tracing and writing
pedigrees — Comparative value of ancestors — Animal with
inbred pedigree — Pedigree with exceptional animal — Value
of family names — Significance of breeder's i ^le — Pro-
portion of pure-bred animals.

CHAPTER XII

Performance and Selection 125

Standards of performance — Trotting and pacing stand-
ard — Holstein-Friesian seven-day standard — Holstein-
Friesian, Jersey and Guernsey yearly standard — Ayrshire
yearly standard — Brown Swiss yearly standard — The_ ad-
vanced register record — Value of advanced register
record in selection — Exact measure of breeding capacity —
Vigor and performance — Meat, wool and egg production —
Value of show awafds.

X CONTENTS

CHAPTER XIII
Improvement Due to Selection Based on Performance

Page

137

Characters considered and methods of presentation —
Developing the trotter — Influence of time records — Breed-
ing of great sires — Developing the dairy cow — Influence
of butter-fat records — Breeding cows with advanced reg-
ister records — Holstein-Friesian cows with records as
breeders — Breeding of advanced register bulls — Registered
animals without registered parents.

CHAPTER XIV
Improvement Due to Selection the Result of Pre-
potency 152

Breed prepotency — Individual prepotency — Prepotency
among horses — The famous grandsires — Breeders of
performers and breeders of breeders — Prepotency among
dairy cattle — Sires of performers and sires of breeders —
Performers and prepotency— Famous Holstein-Friesian
cows — Prepotency in sex.

CHAPTER XV

Improvement Due to Accumulative Development 166

Modifying characters — Modified characters in heredity —
Accumulative development in the trotter — Accumulative de-
velopment in the dairy cow — Results accomplished — Im-
provement a slow process — Methods employed.

CHAPTER XVI
Systems of Breeding 176

Purposes in breeding — Pure-bred breeding — Grading —
Cross-breeding — Line-breeding — Inbreeding — Breeding
from the best — Co-operative breeding.

CHAPTER XVII
Formation of Breeds 185

Domestication a necessity — Evolution of farm animals
— Origin of breeds — Robert Bakewell — Bakewell's prin-
ciples — Influence of Bakewell's methods — Forming of new
breeds — Origin of the Thoroughbred — Origin of the
Shorthorn — Origin of the Oxford — Origin of the Hol-
stein-Friesian — Origin of the Standardbred.

CONTENTS xi

CHAPTER XVIII

Page

Improvement of Breeds 196

Origin of pedigrees — Eligibility to registration — Ad-
vanced register — Breed associations — Live st»ck shows —
British methods — French methods — Further improvement
needed — Need of extending improvement.

CHAPTER XIX

Building Up a Herd 207

The inevitability of the dairy cow — The use of pure-
bred animals — The use of grade animals — Foundation
animals — The first generation — Breeding the young heif-
ers — Continued judicious selection the means of improve-
ment — The Glista family — Advancement requires time —
Influence of sires.

CHAPTER XX

Community Breeding 219

Business of breeding — Expense of equipment reduced —
Uniformity of animals favored — Market facilities in-
creased — Disposal of surplus females — Cow-testing asso-
ciations — Advanced register testing promoted —Education
features — The young breeder.

CHAPTER XXI

Sex in Breeding 229

Equality in number of the sexes — Sex determination by
external factors — Time of breeding — Alternating ova —
Male and female testicles — Sexual excitement — Age and
vigor — Food supply — Sex determination by internal fac-
tors — Sex difference slight — Influence of fertilization —
Accessory chromosome theory — Sex limited inheritance —
Sex control not desirable.

CHAPTER XXII

Proi^ficacy in Breeding 237

Conditions that influence prolificacy — High prolificacy
desirable — Cumulative effect of prolificacy — Prolificacy in
horses — Prolificacy in cattle — Prolificacy in sheep — Pro-
lificacy in swine — Prolificacy in poultry — Prolificacy
hereditary.

XU CONTENTS

CHAPTER XXIII

Page

Sterility in Breeding 248

Prevalence of sterility — Causes of sterility — Idleness
and overfeeding — Overwork and adverse conditions — Ex-
cessive sexual use — Timidity, irritability and excitability —
Size of male and female — Hybrid among animals usually
sterile — Freemartin often sterile — Hermaphrodites — Cryp-
torchids — Diseases of the reproductive organs — Drugs as
a remedy for sterility — Dilation of the os uteri — Yeast
solution in vagina — Management of breeding animals.

CHAPTER XXIV
Conception and Development of Fetus 258

Estrum or heat — Ovulation— Conception — Artificial im-
pregnation — Formation of the embryo — Development of
the fetus — Position of fetus — Relative size of fetus — Intra-
uterine influences— Telegony.

CHAPTER XXV
Abortion and Premature Birth 268

Prevalence of abortion — Kinds of abortion — Accidental
abortion — Infectious abortion — Avenue of infection — Con-
trol of infectious abortion — Avoid using infected bulls — ■
Isolate infected covers — Use disinfectants freely — Age im-
munity in contagious abortion.

CHAPTER XXVI
Pregnancy and Gestation 277

Signs of pregnancy — Duration of gestation — The mare —
The cow — The ewe — The sow — Other animals — Poultry —
Number of young at birth — Poultry — Care of pregnant
animals — Signs of parturition — Preparation for parturi-
tion — Normal parturition.

CHAPTER XXVII

Ailments of the Dam 288

Difficult parturition — Wrong presentations — Eversion of
uterus — Retained afterbirth — Inflammation of the vagina
and uterus — Milk fever — Garget — Cowpox — Mammitis —
Altered milk secretions.

CONTENTS Xlll

CHAPTER XXVIII

Page

Ailments of New-Born 298

Asphyxia — Constipation — Navel infection — Diarrhea —
Infectious diarrhea — Sore mouth — Sore eyes — Chilled
lamb — Thumps — Umbilic hernia — Scrotal hernia — Castra-
tion of males.

CHAPTER XXIX

Development of Young Animals 306

Condition of parents — Feeding while young — Relative
development — Developing the young horse — Developing
the heifer — Developing meat-producing animals — Environ-
ment, development, selection and efficiency.

Appendix 315

Table showing types and breeds of farm animals —
Table showing period of gestation.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Page

The Shorthorn bull "Avondale" Frontispiece

Diagram showing principles involved in animal breeding 6

Reproductive organs of the mare 11

Diagram of a typical cell 13

Diagram illustrating cell division or mitosis 14

Diagram of the germ cells 17

Diagram illustrating maturation in the egg cell 18

Diagram showing maturation in both germ cells 19

Diagram illustrating Weismann's theory of descent 24

Shorthorn bull "Shenstone Albino" 26

Shorthorn cow "Maxwalton Missie" 29

Guernsey bull "Hayes Cherub 2d" 34

Guernsey cow "Dolly Dimple" 36

Cheviot sheep of good type 39

Black and white guinea pigs showing Mendelian phenomena 43

Diagram illustrating Mendelian dominants and recessives 45

Guinea pigs illustrating Mendelian phenomena 47

Percheron mares of excellent type 57

Shropshire sheep uniform in type 60

Brown Swiss herd true to type 61

Poland China sow of good type 64

Shire stallion "Lockinge Hingist" 67

Dutch Belted herd of excellent type and characteristic markings 63

Hampshire sow with characteristic markings 70

Hereford cattle with characteristic markings 72

Variation among light horses 75

Variation among heavy horses 78

Rambouillet ram "Ohio Boy." Fine wool type 81

Rambouillet ewe. Fine wool type S3

Plotting a frequency curve 86

Shropshire ewe. Medium wool, mutton type 88

Belgian mare "Bella" 91

Catalonian jack ==^^_^^ 99

XVI LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Span of execellent mules 100

Zebu cattle, native of Trinidad 101

Percheron stallion "Idlefonse" 103

Thoroughbred mare "Blue Girl" 104

Hereford bull "Point Comfort 14th" 107

Jersey cow "Bosman's Anna" xl 112

Poland China boar 116

Aberdeen Angus bull "Leroy of Meadowbrook" 117

Aberdeen Angus cow "Glencarnock Isla" 119

Dorset-Horned ram 121

Duroc Jersey boar 123

Standardbred stallion "Kremlin," 2.07^ 126

Berkshire sow 128

Dutch Beltqd bull "Auten" 129

Dutch Belted cow "Jennie" 134

Holstein-Friesian cow "Glista Omicron" 142

Holstein-Friesian cow "Glista Eglantine" 145

Holstein-Friesian cows with high records of performances 149

Standardbred stallion "McKinrjey," 2.11^ 155

Polled Durham bull "The Confessor" 160

Polled Durham bull "Sultan's Creed" 163

Suffolk stallion "Westside Chieftain" 167

Holstein-Friesian cow "Gl. Omicron" and daughter,"Gl. Eglantine" 170

High egg-producing hens _ 172

High wool-yielding ewe 174

Brown Swiss bull "Myone Boy" 178

Brown Swiss cow "Arlena" 181

Cotswold ram. Long wool type 186

Robert Bakewell 188

A prize-winning flock of Oxford sheep 193

Hereford heifer "Scottish Lassie" 198

Beef cattle parade on show grounds 200

Cheshire hog of excellent type 203

"Glista Ernestine" and her ancestors 212

"Glista Cora" and her ancestors 215

High-producing Holstein-Friesian cows 216

Southdown ewe lambs, uniform in conformation 220

Brown Swiss yearling heifers of uniform type 223

Ayrshire cows uniform in type and color 225

Berkshire swine true to type „^=, 227

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS XVU

Page

Jersey bull "Raleigh's Fairy Boy" 230

Jersey cow "Jacoba Irene" 233

Galloway bull, a prize winner 23'4

Galloway heifers true to type 236

Cheshire barrow of excellent type 239

Hampshire barrow, showing breed marking 241

Dorset Horned lambs 243

Southdown yearling ram 245

Red Polled bull "Teddy's Best" 249

Red Polled cow "Cosy 2d' 251

Berkshire sows at pasture 255

Poland China boar of good conformation 257

Ayrshire bull "Bargenoch Gay Cavalier" 259

Ayrshire cow "Kilnford Bell 3d" 263

Hampshire sow 265

Aberdeen Angus true to type 269

Large Yorkshire boar 270

Tamworth sow "Oakhill Fancy" 1 271

Percheron stallion "Imprecation" 279

Berkshire boar "Handsome Lee" 283

Normal presentation of young at parturition 286

Large Yorkshire sows 289

Belgian stallion "Polo Nord" 292

Group of Swiss Toggenburg does 295

Chester White boar 299

Hampshire ram 303

Duroc Jersey boar 304

Clydesdale stallion 307

Poland China barrows, grand champion pen 308

Percheron colt "Merlin" 310

Hampshire sow 313

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

The breeding of animals and plants is receiving much
attention from the practical as well as the scientific man.
This activity is due to a realization of the economic
importance of plants and animals on the part of our
foremost men of affairs. The well being, indeed the very-
existence, of man rests ultimately upon his ability to
produce cultivated plants and domesticated animals in
abundance. Possibly never before has any question at-
tracted an interest so universal as that of the reproduc-
tion of plants and animals, including man.

While man makes economic use of many species of
animals, this discussion is limited to that of breeding
farm animals, including horses, cattle, sheep, swine and
poultry, although other species occasionally may be
used as illustrations and examples.

Farm animals provide labor, food and clothing. — Few
realize the extent of our dependence upon farm animals.
The horse has fought our wars and won our battles and
is our principal beast of burden. In connection with
improved machinery, he has increased man's productive
power many fold. It is estimated that the horses of
the United States are equal in productive industry to
that of 100,000,000 laborers. In America, it is the horse
that enables us to make farming an attractive business,
rather than a peasant's drudgery, as in many of the older
nations of the world.

In the United States, approximately one-half of the
amount spent for food by the average family goes for the
purchase of meat, eggs and dairy products. Our stand-
ard foods are bread and potatoes, meat, milk and eggs,
1hree of which are provided directly by farm animals,

2 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

while the other two are largely dependent upon the
horse or ox to furnish the labor necessary for their prop-
agation and cultivation.

The wool of the sheep and the fiber of the cotton and
flax furnish the materials out "of which we clothe our-
selves. Again, the first of these materials is a direct by-
product of the body of one class of farm animals, and the
cultivation of the others is accomplished very largely by
means of horse labor.

Number and value of farm animals. — We possess a
greater number of farm animals than any other single
country in the world, although some nations, including
their dependencies, excel us in some classes, particularly
the British Empire in the case of sheep. Of all of the
farm animals in the world approximately one-fifth of the
horses, one-half of the mules, one-sixth of the cattle, one-
twelfth of the sheep and two-fifths of the swine are to be
found in the United States. This represents a vast

Number and Value of Farm Animals

Census

1900

Census

1910

Class

Total
number

Average*

value per

head

Total
number

Average

value per

head

Human population

Horses, mules and asses

Cattle, dairy

Cattle, other than dairy. . . .

Swine

Sheep

Poultry

75,994,575

24,752,436
18,108,666
51,227,166
64,686,155
61,735,014
250,624,038

$50.80

29.68

21.78

3.69

2.77

0.34

91,972,266

27,618,242
21,795,770
41,886,878
59,473,636
52,838,748
295,880,190

$111.72

34.56

24.50

6.88

4.44

0.52

Total value of farm animals

$3,03S,005,586t

$5,451,084,839t

Total value of farm crops . .

2,998,704,412

5,487,161,223

*Farm value, tlncludes goats.

INTRODUCTION 3

amount of wealth, as is illustrated in the foregoing tabula-
tion, which gives the total population for the United
States, both human and animal, and the average value
per head for the several classes of farm animals as given
in the twelfth and thirteen censuses.

Human population increasing, number of farm animals
decreasing.— While the average value per head of all
farm animals has increased immensely during the past
decade, the number has materially decreased. This is
significant, especially when compared with the increase
in human population. Exclusive of poultry, the twelfth
census shows that in 1900 there were almost three head
of farm live stock for each human inhabitant, whereas
the thirteenth census shows that in 1910 there were ap-
proximately two head of stock for each inhabitant. The
year book of the department of agriculture gives further
reduction in the number of animals on farms, particularly
cattle. It is important to note this decrease has taken
place in the meat-producing animals — cattle other than
dairy, sheep and swine. Horses, dairy cattle and poul-
try show increase about in proportion to that of the
human population. We may well inquire why this is
true and its general significance.

Farm animals costly. — Few persons realize the expense
of maintaining farm animals. We need but to reflect a
moment and the enormity will become apparent to us.
Practically every farmstead throughout this broad land
is devoting much of its energies to animal production.
Farm animals not only consume vast quantities of expen-
sive food, but require labor in caring for their needs as
well as shelter for themselves and their food. Further,
the loss from death among our extensive animal popula-
tion is great, running into many millions of dollars in
the case of swine alone.

An idea of the cost of farm animals may be gained from
the following tabulation, which gives the food of main-
tenance and production for the several classes of farm

BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

animals, as well as the approximate daily product and
total annual cost for each class :

Food of Maintenance and Production

Mainte

Daily food
lbs.

lance

Production

Animal
weight

Annual
cost*

Daily food
lbs.

Daily product

Annual
cost*

Horse
1,250

4 grain
18 hay

$47.45

15 grain
20 hay

Moderate
work

$91.25

Cattle
1,250

25 hay

45.60

30 silage
12 hay

8 grain

25 lbs. milk

or
2 lbs. beef

73.00

Sheep
120

3 hay

5.50

1.5 grain
2.0 hay

0.4 lb. mutton

9.15

Swine

100 to 200

1 grain
to

2 grain

3.65

7.30

4 grain

to
6 grain

0.751b. pork

to
1.50 lbs. pork

14.60

21.90

18 fowls
100 lbs.

3 grain

10.95

5 grain

8 eggs, 1 lb.

or
.75 lb. meat

18.25

*Because of the fluctuating price of feed, the cost is estimated with grain at $20
a ton and hay at $10 a ton. These prices afford a convenient basis, as they are easy
to add to or take from, according to local conditions.

Relation of food to production. — There are approx-
imately three pounds of edible dry matter in the 25
pounds of milk ; seven-tenths of a pound in the two
pounds of beef; one-eighth of a pound in the .4 pound
of mutton ; an average of two-fifths of a pound in the
pork ; one-fourth of a pound in the .75 pound of fowl
meat ; and approximately one-fourth of a pound of
edible dry matter in the eight eggs.

According to this computation, the following amounts
of dry matter in the food will be required by the several
classes of farm animals, to produce one pound of edible
dry matter in the product. Because of the variation
among the individuals of the several classes, this calcula-
tion is supplemented by data from Jordan's "Feeding

INTRODUCTION 5

Animals," which includes the digestible organic sub-
stance required to produce one pound increase in edible
solids.*

Relation of Food to Production

Dairy
cattle,

Swine.

Fowls

Sheep,

Beef

cattle,

milk

pork

eggs

meat

mutton

beef

Dry matter in the
food required to
produce one pound
of edible dry matter
in the product

5 lbs.

8 lbs.

14 lb?.

15 lbs.

17 lbs.

23 lbs.

Digestible organic
substance producing
one pound increase
edible solids

5.5 lbs.

6.4 lbs.

19.6 lbs.

23.4 lbs.

37.9 lbs.

36.3 lbs.

Since a pound of product in the shape of beef and
mutton costs three to four times as much as in milk and
pork, it is little wonder that beef cattle and sheep are
decreasing. It is evident that, with the increasing human
population, the time will come when it will be difficult,
if not impossible to support as many animals as we do at
the present. True, some classes of animals, particularly
fowls and swine, can be kept, in part, upon refuse,, but
an immense acreage of corn, oats and hay is necessary
to maintain our farm animals. Before long much of this
land will be required to support our increasing popula-
tion in a more economic manner than we have hitherto
been able to produce beef and mutton.

Distribution of farm animals. — The high food cost of
beef and mutton does not mean that such meat cannot
be produced at a profit. There are certain regions in
which both products make a liberal return on the invest-
'^lent, particularly when we consider the wool, the hide
and like by-products. As would be expected, because

*W. H. Jordan's "The FeedinK of Animals," p. 404.

BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

of the density of the population, we find poultry and
dairy cattle most numerous in the Middle Atlantic and
North Central states where food is high in price. Fifty
per cent of the dairy cattle in the Union are in the North
Central states. In like manner we find the meat-produc-
ing animals, particularly cattle and sheep, very numerous
in regions that are sparsely populated and where food is
cheap, although large numbers of meat animals, particu-
larly swine, are to be found in the Central states. This
is because of the abundance of meat-producing foods.
Thus 45 per cent of our beef cattle are in the South Cen-
tral states, 42 per cent of the sheep in the Mountain states
and 60 per cent of the swine in the North Central states,
while 54 per cent of the mules are in the South Central
states.

Improving farm animals. — Since our animals are very
costly, indeed so expensive that they are decreasing in
number, it would seem well worth our time to give serious
attention to methods of increasing their efhciency. While
there are many factors entering into the improvement of

farm animals, many of
which are little under-
stood, yet the experi-
ence of successful breed-
ers gives us abundance
of evidence to suppose
that environment, se-
lection and heredity are
by far the most impor-
tant means by which
farm animals are im-
proved, as they control
development, give ef-
ficiency and purify the
blood. (Fig. 2.)

Fig. 2 — Diagram Showing Relationship of linvironment. i nlS

THE Principles Involved in Animal Im- fgrm is UScd tO denote

INTRODUCTION 7

the conditions of life as a whole, both good and bad, into
which the animal comes and by which it may be eithei ad-
vanced or retarded, but with which it must live and compete.
The environment consists largely of food, shelter and care,
including training and developing. To obtain greatest
advancement the animal must be well fed at all times,
but more especially while young, since the individual re-
tarded at this age will never reach that degree of perfec-
tion which it otherwise would had it been properly
nourished during the days in which growth was possible.

The shelter required for advancement necessarily varies
much with the several classes of farm animals and with
the climate, but should be sufficient to keep the animal in
comfort. Exposure to very hot sun, as well as to cold
rains and storms, is especially harmful to all classes of
farm animals. The care should be such as to encourage
greatest development at all times. Many persons fail
in breeding animals by depending on heredity alone to
maintain and improve their stock.

While greatest advancement cannot be obtained with-
out suitable food and care, training and development are
even more important. There seems to be a tendency
on the part of some breeders to overlook this fact. It
must be remembered, however, no matter how suitable
the conditions, indeed no matter how pure the heritage,
maximum usefulness in many economic attributes or fea-
tures of farm animals cannot be attained without proper
training and development. This fact is well illustrated in
the case of Standardbred horses and dairy cows, the
only two classes of farm animals in which we have ac-
curate records of performance. We know exactly what
these animals can do and know definitely when progress
has been made. Further, we know positively that maxi-
mum efficiency depends upon proper training and de-
velopment, as such is necessary to bring out all of the pos-
sibilities of the individual.

Heredity. — This term is commonly defined as the tend-

5 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

ency of the offspring to resemble the parent. In the
main, therefore, the individuality of the offspring is sim-
ilar to that of the parent. Thus in common usage we
have the expression "like begets like," although in an
exact sense no animal is like either parent. The idea
of heredity signifies the transmission of the determiners
of individuality from parent to offspring. Walter briefly
defines environment as what the animal has, training as
what he does, and heredity as what he is, thus denoting
purity of blood. Further, he says that while what an
animal has and does are of great importance, especially to
the individual, yet what he is, is of far more importance in
the long run.* This is probably true, but we will never
know exactly what an animal is; that is, what his capabil-
ities are, unless the environment and the training have
been such as to develop all of the potentialities with
which the individual is endowed. Of course, it is recog-
nized that the animal must be capable of development,
or the effect of suitable environment and proper train-
ing will come to naught.

Selection. — Heredity does not distinguish between the
good and the bad, and so far as it is concerned the off-
spring may obtain either or both from the parent. Here
is where selection plays a very significant part in the
improvement of our farm animals. The successful
breeder selects and propagates animals with desirable
attributes, features or characters, by which is meant
detail of form or function, and eliminates those individ-
uals that fail to come up to expectation.

As suggested, not all animals are endowed with the
same capabilities for development, even under suitable
environment, as some individuals make remarkable ad-
vancement, while other individuals fail to equal their
predecessors. Here, again, selection proves the key to
efficiency, for all animals that fail to develop up to the
standard are disregarded, and only those that come up
to expectation are retained for breeding purposes. Thus

*H. E. Walter, "Genetics," p. 3.

INTRODUCTION 9

the average efficiency of the animals retained is su-
perior to the averag"e of those born into the herds. Since
the degree of selection employed in practice is the con-
trolling factor in the efficiency of our living farm animals,
it would seem well worth while to give careful considera-
tion to the methods whereby selection can be used more
effectively.

Propagation of animals. — So important are environ-
ment, selection and heredity in the development of our
farm animals that the influence of many factors operat-
ing to decrease the number of normal births, as well as
proper development while young, are often overlooked.
These very factors often are of greatest concern to the
practical breeder. The dairy farmer with a herd of 40
cows is more concerned in having his cows freshen regu-
larly and normally than in the individuality of the off-
spring. The same is true in breeding horses, beef cattle,
sheep and swine, with added interest in methods whereby
the many fatal diseases of the young may be avoided and
proper development secured. The proper growth of the
new individual, both before and after birth, is beset by
many difficulties. The number of animals that fail to
breed as well as those that give birth to premature young
is great. This is a source of immense financial loss in
dairy cattle and all pure-bred animals. Further, it has
been stated that approximately one-fourth of all the
young animals born die before they are one month of age.
Surely it is well worth our time to consider methods
whereby this great loss may be avoided.

CHAPTER II
REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS AND GERM CELLS

In sexual reproduction the formation of the new in-
dividual is the result of a union of material contributed
by each parent — male and female. A general knowledge
of the location and construction of the organs that fur-
nish this material, and in which the young originate and
develop, is necessary to an understanding of the condi-
tions which have to do with bearing normal young.
Further, a knowledge of the material itself is of the very
utmost importance, since it is the only part passing from
the parents to the new individual, and must, therefore,
contain the determiners of heredity.

Female reproductive organs. — The generative organs
of the female consist of the vulva, vagina, os uteri or
neck of womb, uterus or womb, Fallopian tubes or ovi-
ducts, and the ovaries, as well as of the milk glands and
udder. The vulva is the external opening of the female
reproductive organs. The vagina is the passage from
the vulva to the uterus. In the mare it is 8 to 12 inches
in length and capable of lateral distention to the full size
of the pelvic cavity. The os uteri or neck of the womb
projects into the forward end of the vagina as much as
2 or 3 inches in the case of the mare. Because of the
nature of its walls this neck is ordinarily closed except
when the animal is in estrum or breeding condition and
during parturition. It is very important that the open-
ing to this organ should dilate at the time of breeding,
as through it the material from the male must pass in
order to reach the uterus or womb. The uterus lies in
front of the vagina. In the unbred mare it is oblong,
varying from 5 to 8 inches in length and from lyi to 2^
inches in width. (Fig. 3.)

REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS AND GERM CELLS

The ovaries are the essential female reproductive
organs in that they produce the female reproductive
bodies commonly called ova or egg cells. The detail of
ova formation is known as oogenesis. The ovaries are

Fig. 3 — Reproductive Organs of the Mare

1. Left ovary. 2. Fallopian tube or oviduct. 3. Right horn of uterus. 4. Left
horn of uterus. 5. Body of uterus or womb. 5". Neck of uterus. 6. Vagina. 7.
Vulva. 8. Broad ligament. 9. Left kidney. 10. Urinary bladder. 11. Floor of
pelvis. 12. Abdominal wall. 13. Roof of pelvis (after Leisering's "Atlas of the
Anatomy of Domesticated Animals").

two in number, one being situated on the right side of
the body and one on the left. They are connected with
the uterus by the Fallopian tubes or oviducts. The
ovaries vary greatly in size and form according to age
and individuality. The ovary of the young mare, which
is the largest among farm animals, is usually 3^ to 4
inches in its greatest diameter, and weighs about four
ounces, while in the aged mare it may shrink to i^
inches in its greatest diameter and its weight to one-half
ounce. The normal ovary of the cow is much smaller,
being about Yz inch in its greatest diameter and weigh-
ing less than one-half ounce.

The udder and milk glands are essential organs of I'c-

12 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

production. They constitute a necessary source of
nutritive supply to the new-born animal. Under
domestication, the activity of the milk glands has been
highly developed, particularly in the cow and goat, as
they provide an important food supply for man. The
number of glands vary according to the class of animals,
thus the mare has two, the cow four, the ewe two, the
sow 8 to 12, and the cat and bitch 8 to lo each.

The milk glands consist of a cluster of cells about a
duct, much as grapes cluster about the stem. These
ducts unite and form larger canals which empty into
one, two, or more milk cisterns, from which the milk is
drawn through the teat by the sucking of the young or
by various milking processes. The milk is secreted in
the epithelial milk cells, and while, no doubt, some passes
into the cisterns, yet the major part is stored in the
milk cells. Under the excitation of milking or sucking
the milk flows freely into the cisterns and teats, and
thence is readily extracted.

Male reproductive organs. — In reproduction the male
reproductive organs are, of course, equally as important
as the female organs. For present purposes, however,
it is sufficient to know that the testicles of the male are
analagous to the ovaries of the female, and that they
produce the male reproductive bodies called spermatozoa
or sperm cells. The details of spermatozoa formation is
known as spermatogenesis. When discharged from the
body the sperm cells are contained in a white fluid which
is alkaline in reaction. This material is commonly
called the semen or seminal fluid.

It is noteworthy that both spermatozoa and ova are
products of metamorphoses taking place in the epithelial
structures, the former being derived from the spermato-
genic cells found in the seminiferous tubules of the tes-
ticles, while the latter come from the. germinal epithe-
lium of the ovaries.

The cell. — All organisms, both animal and plant, are

REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS AND GERM CELLS 1 3

made up of cellular units, much as a brick is the unit of
a wall. By a consideration of these units we can gain
a clearer idea of the part the sperm — and egg — cells
play in heredity as well as in forming the new in-
dividual. The size of animal cells varies to a consider-
able degree, although, with certain minor exceptions, the
sperm cells are the smallest elements, while the egg cells
are the largest. The form of the cell is likewise exceed-
ingly variable. Free living cells, where the form is not
determined by the environment, are usually spherical
or oval, as the egg cells show; while those united into
tissue may be pressed together into any shape and with
many projections.

A typical cell is represented diagrammatically in Fig.
4. Near the center of the cell the nucleus is shown

Ce// JV^//

Cyt oh/asm

— C<z,ntro3oi7J<z

''hroiTi^tJn 72<ztv\^orA

Fig. 4 — Diagram of a Typical Cell*

enveloped in the nuclear membrane. Because of the
behavior of the nuclear contents during cell division it
is considered of unusual significance. To add clearness
to the cell contents, when under examination, the scien-
tist stains it with a chemical preparation. When this is
done the nuclear material takes on a deeper and more
striking color than the other parts of the cell, indicating
a peculiar composition. For this reason the nuclear sub-

*Figs. 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 are made up from "The Cell," by permission of the
author, E. B. Wilson, and the publisher, The Macmillan Co.

BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

stance is called chromatin. Surrounding the nucleus is
the cytoplasm, in which is located the centrosome. The
nucleus and the cytoplasm are made up of living sub-
stance called protoplasm. Surrounding the whole there
is usually a wall which serves to separate one cell from
another.

Cell division. — Body growth consists of an increase in
the number of cells, and not of an increase in their size.
Large animals do not have larger cells than small

animals, but they
have more of them.
The ordinary proc-
ess of cell division
is termed mitosis,
and in animals is
made possible by
the material carried
to the growing part
by the blood. It oc-
^^ curs constantly dur-
ing growth. The
process of simple cell
division is shown
diagrammatically in
Fig. 5-

As division is
about to take place
the chromatin ap-
pears as a fine net-
work running
through the mass
of the nucleus,
. _, ,. „ o /- c , . u ,■ not unlike beads

A. The resting cell. B C. Early stages, chromaln

collecting into ribbons. D. Chromatin segmenting, strUng U p O n a

forming chromosomes. E. Chromosomes arranged , ? ,-p,, . ,

end to end along the equatorial pla.ie. F. Chromo- thread, i nlS nctWOrk
somes splitting lengthwise. G. Chromosomes emigrat- 11 1

ing to asters to form the new nucleus. H I. Cell wall USUaily COnuenSCS

becoming constricted to form new cells. J. New cells :„j-^ „ tlTi-<3Qr! /->r n'K

entering into resting stage. lUlU d. UU CdU Ui liu-

-DiAGRAM Illustrating Cell Division
OR Mitosis

REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS AND GERM CELLS 1 5

bon and then breaks up transversely into a definite number
of segments, known as chromosomes. In the meantime the
centrosome has divided, and the tv\^o new bodies thus
formed have migrated to opposite sides of the
nucleus, each surrounded by its radiating lines, known
as asters.

The chromosomes arrange themselves end to end
along the equatorial plane of the spindle, at right angles
to its axis, and each chromosome splits lengthwise, one
group migrating to each aster, forming a new nucleus.
The cell wall becomes constructed, dividing the cyto-
plasm between the two new cells, and the resting stage
ensues during which preparation is made for another
division.

The chromosomes. — In the process of cell division
which attends all growth there are three significant facts
established concerning the behavior of the chromosomes,
which are to play a very important part in our study
of hereditary materials. First, the number of
chromosomes is constant for all individuals of the same
species. In farm animals the number is i6. Second,
in all forms arising by sexual reproduction the number
is thought to be even ; and, third, cell division consists
essentially in a splitting of the chromosomes in
such a manner that each daughter cell secures
an exact equivalent of what is received by the other
daughter cell of the same division. Cell division is,
therefore, an exceedingly orderly procedure, whereby
each daughter cell not only receives its share of the
mass, but receives exactly the same number and kind of
chromosomes as that of the other cell of the same
division.

THE GERM CELLS

Not only is the individual composed of cells, but these
cells are highly dififerentiated according to the function

l6 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

they perform. In the study of heredity we recognize
two distinct groups of cells — first, the sexual or germ
cells of which the reproductive bodies and the organs
producing them, both male and female, are composed;
and, second, the somatic or body cells, of which the re-
mainder of the body structure is composed. The former
are capable of indefinite existence in a suitable medium,
whereas the latter are destined to die and disintegrate
with the body.

Castle and others have shown that the germ cells are
distinct from the body cells, although dependent upon
them for nutrition and growth. Castle removed the
ovaries from a white guinea pig just attaining sexual
maturity, and inserted into her body ovaries from a
black guinea pig not yet sexually mature. This grafted
animal was mated with a white mafe. Now, numerous
experiments have shown that white guinea pigs mated
with white, without exception, produce only white young.
In the course of a year, however, this grafted white
animal, mated successively with a white male, gave
birth to three litters of young which together consisted
of six individuals, all black.*

The egg cell. — Among farm animals the ovum of the
female is remarkable for its enormous size when com-
pared with the spermatozoon of the male or with body
cells generally. This is especially true in the case of
poultry. In structure the ovum presents the parts of a
typical cell containing a large nucleus, in this case called
the "germinal vesicle," with its chromatin network. The
ovum is distended with stored nutrients to which its
large size is due and upon which the young embryo sub-
sists for a time. The egg cells are discharged, either
singly, as in the case of the mare and cow; or in twos
and threes, as is frequently observed in sheep and goats ;
or in varying numbers, as in swine and carnivora.

The sperm cells. — The spermatozoa of the male present
a striking contrast to the ova of the female. The former

*W. E, Castle, "Heredity," p. 31,

REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS AND GERM CELLS

is very minute, many thousand times less than the bulk
of the latter. The sperm cell resembles a minute, elon-
gated tadpole, swimming very actively about by the
vibrations of a long slender tail. This locomotion is

Fig. 6 — Diagram of the Germ Cells

1. Egg cell. 2. Sperm cell size to compare with egg cell. 3. Sperm cell enlarged
to show parts. A. Apical body. B. Nucleus. C. End knob. D. Middle piece. E.
Envelope of tail. F. Tail piece. G. End piece. L. Nucleolus or germinal spot. M.
Nucleus or germinal vesicle containing network of chromatin. N. Cytoplasm.

necessary to bring the two germ cells together, as the egg
cell is practically stationary because of its great bulk.
In structure the sperm cell contains all the parts of a
typical cell, but arranged in a different form and con-
taining very little cytoplasm. The nucleus is the im-
portant part. The nuclear network is much more dense
than in the egg cell. While the egg cells are discharged
singly or in comparatively small numbers, the sperm
cells are discharged from the testicles of the male in
practically countless numbers, although but one is used
in the act of fertilization. This is due in part at least to
the distance the sperm cells must travel as well as to the
difficulty in reaching the egg cell.

Spermatozoa possess remarkable vitality, remaining
active in the genital passages of the female for days and

15 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

in some cases possibly for weeks. When mounted and
protected from evaporation, they have been known to
show vibratile motion after the lapse of nine days. Weak
alkaline solution renders them more active, while acids,
even very dilute, destroy them.

Chromosome reduction. — Since the number of chromo-
somes in a given class of animals is constant, and since
fertilization requires the union of a sperm cell from the
male with an egg cell from the female, each containing
i6 chromosomes, is it necessary that the number be re-
duced in the germ cells before fertilization, in order to

Fig. 7 — Diagram Illustrating Maturation in the Egg Cell

A. Initial phase. B. Formation of first polar body. C. Preparation for second
division. D. Final results, three polar bodies and the egg after maturation.

REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS AND GERM CELLS

prevent a doubling up in the new individual. This
chromosome reduction takes place during cell division,
and is termed maturation (Fig 7). In the egg cell the
process is known as oogenesis and in the sperm cell as
spermatogenesis. The mature Qgg — or sperm — cell, with
half its normal number of chromosomes is termed a
gamete, while the fertilized egg which is formed by the
union of two gametes — male and female — is called a
cygote, or yoked cell.

In the male this reduction process is continuous, and
mature sperm cells are stored in considerable numbers.
In the female, however, the reduction takes place very
rapidly and just prior to uniting with a mature sperm cell.
In fact, in some instances, it is known to have occurred
after the sperm cell has passed through the wall of the
ovum. A diagrammatic
representation of the
process of maturation
is shown in Fig. 8.

The number of chro-
mosomes (not shown
in diagram) undergoes
division, and thus re-
mains constant in num-
ber in each germ cell
until the maturation
division, or immedi-
ately before the forma-
tion of the mature
sperm and egg cell,
when they separate
into two groups with-
out splitting, each

group going into a different cell. In this way
the chromosomes are reduced to one-half the normal
number. It is noteworthy in the case of the female that
the mass of food is retained in the mature egg cell and

Fig. 8 — Diagram Showing the Essential Facts
IN THE Maturation of the Germ Cells

1. Sperm cell. 2. Egg cell. 3. Fertilized egg.
A. Primordial division period. B. Growth
period. C. Maturation period.

20 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

the other three cells perish, whereas in the male the four
mature sperm cells are similar in appearance and each
have the same possibilities.

Fertilization. — The mature sperm cell or male gamete,
by virtue of its power of locomotion, finds its way to
the mature egg cell or female gamete, their chromosomes
flocculate, thus restoring the normal number and com-
pleting the zygote, in this case the embryo of the new
animal.

During the act of copulation the semen of the male
is discharged into the vagina of the female, a part of the
fluid passing through the dilated os uteri or neck of the
womb. The spermatozoa work forward through the
uterus into the Fallopian tubes or oviducts. Here they
meet and surround the ovum from the ovary. Though
many sperm cells may attach themselves to the exterior
of the egg cell, but one penetrates to the interior. Which
one enters is simply a matter of chance. This union of
male and female reproductive bodies constitutes fertiliza-
tion. The fertilized ovum now migrates back into the
uterus, where with favorable conditions growth and
development ensue.

CHAPTER III
THE DETERMINERS OF HEREDITY

The resemblance between the new individual and the
parent is not due to a direct transfer of the characters in
question, but to some kind of "determiner" of heredity.
Thus blood relatives do not inherit characters in the
manner that real estate or personal property passes from
one generation to another.

There have been many theories advanced attempting
to explain the phenomena of heredity, two of which are
of special interest since they serve as the basic principle
governing animal breeding. It is only fair to v/arn the
reader that these theories are conflicting, and that the
principle involved has been the most discussed question
in modern times. The first of these theories advanced
was that by Charles Darwin, and known as Darwin's
pangenesis. The second was that by August Weismann
and known as Weismann's germ plasm.

Darwin's pangenesis. — Although not the first to at-
tempt a theoretical explanation of the phenomena of
heredity, Darwin set forth a provisional hypothesis which
seemed so probable a speculation that it attracted world-
wide comment. In view of the importance formerly at-
tached to this theory of heredity, the hypothesis is given
as stated by Darwin :

'Tt is universally admitted that the cells or units of the
body increase by self-division or proliferation, retaining
the same nature, and that they ultimately become con-
verted into the various tissues and substances of the
body. But besides this means of increase, I assume that
the units throw off minute granules which are dispersed
throughout the whole system ; that these, when sup-
plied with proper nutriment, multiply by self-division,

22 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

and are ultimately developed into units like those from
which they were originally derived. These granules
may be called gemmules. They are collected from all
parts of the system to constitute the sexual elements,
and their development in the next generation forms a
new being; but they are likewise capable of transmission
in a dormant state to future generations and may then
be developed. Their development depends on their
union with other partially developed or nascent cells
which precede them in the regular course of growth.
Why I use the term union will be seen when we discuss
the direct action of pollen on the tissues of the mother
plant. Gemmules are supposed to be thrown off by every
unit, not only during the adult state, but during each
stage of development of every organism, but not neces-
sarily during the continued existence of the same unit.
Lastly, I assume that the gemmules in their dormant
state have a mutual affinity for each other, leading to
their aggregation into buds or into the sexual elements.
Hence, it is not the reproductive organs or buds which
generate new organisms, but the units of which each
individual is composed. These assun:ptions constitute
the provisional hypothesis which I have called pan-
genesis."*

He later states : "I am aware that my view is merely
a provisional hypothesis or speculation ; but until a bet-
ter one is advanced it will serve to bring together a mul-
titude of facts which are at present left disconnected by
any efficient cause."

Weismann's germ plasm. — In view of the importance
of an intelligent idea of the source of the hereditary sub-
stance and its subsequent behavior the hypothesis is
given as stated by Weismann :

"According to my view, the germ plasm (the hered-
itary substance of a germ cell) of multicellular organ-
isms is composed of ancestral germ plasms or ids — the
vital units of the third order — each nuclear rod or idant

*Char1es Darwin, "Animals and Plants Under Domestication," Cliapter 27.

THE DETERMINERS OF HEREDITY 2^

being formed of a number of these. Each id in the germ
plasm is built up of thousands or hundreds of thousands
of determinants- — the vital units of the second order —
which, in their turn, are composed of the actual bearers
of vitality, or biophors — the ultimate vital units. The
biophors are of various kinds, and each kind corresponds
to a different part of a cell ; they are, therefore, the
'bearers of the characters or qualities' of cells. Various
but perfectly definite numbers and combinations of these
form the determinants, each of which is the primary con-
stituent of a particular cell, or of a small or even large
group of cells (e. g., blood corpuscles).

"These determinants control the cell by breaking up
into biophors, which migrate into the cell body through
the pores of the nuclear membrane, multiply there, ar-
range themselves according to the forces within them,
and determine the histological structure of the cell. But
they only do so after a certain definitely prescribed
period of development, during which they reach the cell
which they have to control.

"The cause of each determinant reaching its proper
place in the body depends on the fact that it takes up a
definite position in the id of germ plasm, and that the
latter, therefore, exhibits an inherited and perfectly
definite architecture. Ontogeny (development) depends
on a gradual process of disintegration of the id of germ
plasm, which splits into smaller and smaller groups of
determinants in the development of each individual, so
that in place of a million different determinants, of which
we may suppose the id of germ plasm to be composed,
each daughter cell in the next ontogenetic stage would
only possess half a million, and each cell in the next
following stage only a quarter of a million, and so on.
Finally, if we neglect possible complications, only one
kind of determinant remains in each cell, viz., that which
has to control that particular cell or group of cells."*

Opposite views. — According to Darwin, the deter-

*August VVeismann, "The Germ Plasm," Part I, "The Material Basis of Heredity."

BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

miners of heredity, the gemmules, are given off from the
body cells and dispersed throughout the whole system.
While some of these gemmules are active and when
properly nourished, multiply by self-division and ulti-
mately develop into cells like those from which they were
originally derived, other gemmules are dormant, and,
having a mutual affinity for each other, collect into the
sexual organs.

According to Weismann, the determinants proceed
from the germ plasm, the hereditary substance of the
germ cell. These determinants control development by
breaking up into biophores which migrate into the cell
body, multiply there by self-division, and arrange them-
selves according to forces from within. His idea of the
"Continuity of the Germ Plasm" regards the hereditary
material as passing from generation to generation with
the minimum of influence from, or association with the
body of the parent. According to this view the many
changes which animals undergo from time to time are
accounted for on the basis of selection. (Fig. 9.)

S \Lx/2e. of -stjcczss/o/j

^Jijne. of
*"^ jnhizritsncz

Fig. 9 — Diagram Illustrating Weismann's Theory of Descent

G. The germ cells, which by division give rise to the body cells (S), and to new
germ cells (G), which separate from the body cells and repeat the process in each
successive generation.

Approved practice not involved. — These are the two
main theories on the subject of heredity. Actual ex-
perimentation to determine the facts seems impossible.
The intense interest has arisen over the assumption that
if the hereditary determiners follow the Darwin hypoth-
esis it is easy to explain the possibility of acquired char-
acters being inherited ; whereas, if the hereditary bearers

THE DETERMINERS OF HEREDITY

-^j

proceed according to the Weismann theory, it is dif-
ficult to understand how a modification acquired by the
parent can be transmitted to the offspring.

This question is of vital importance to the student of
genetics and has been the object of much careful study.
No doubt it is one of the most discussed questions of the
present time, as scientific men are divided in their opin-
ion, many stating with much emphasis that under no
condition can a modification acquired by a parent be
transmitted to the offspring; while others are equally as
positive that such modifications may be inherited. In-
teresting as this question is to the student of genetics,
it is only fair, at this time, to assure the breeder of
animals that in actual practice it is of secondary im-
portance.

The hereditary bridge. — Having briefly reviewed the
major theories of heredity and the principles involved,
we will now pass to a consideration of the most approved
ideas, giving them in as much detail as possible in the
space at disposal. While little is definitely known of the
determiners of hereditary characters which appear in
successive generations, yet it is obvious that, in any
event, such determiners are obtained from the two germ
cells — male and female — and that they pass to the new
organism in the fertilized egg. This single cell is the
actual bridge between parent and offspring, and it is the
only bridge. The only actual fragment of the paternal
organism given over to the new individual is the single
maturated sperm cell which in fertilization unites Mnth
the maturated egg cell, the only fragment from the
maternal parent. The entire heritage is packed into
this single cell.

The matter appears all the more wonderful when we
consider the small as well as the unequal size of the two
germ cells, for it has been shown conclusively that the
egg cell and the sperm cell are equal in their hereditary
influence, even though the former contains many thou-

26 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

sand times the bulk of the latter. Thus the minuteness
of the sperm cell is apparent when we reflect that the
egg cell is about %25 of an inch in diameter. When we
recall the marvelous array of characters which make up
the sum total of what is obviously inherited, the am_aze-
ment grows that so small a cell can contain such an
enormous load.

The fact that the heritage is completed at the time of
fertilization is significant. Formerly there was much
confusion in this matter. The statement was often made
that the young animal's heritage was complete at birth.
Now we understand the heritage to be completed, not
at birth, but at a much earlier time, in fact at the time
of conception. True, the subsequent development of
the new individual may be retarded or accelerated by the
care and nourishment of the maternal parent, before
birth, as well as by the nourishment and training after
birth. This is a matter of environment and development
and cannot be considered as in any sense a hereditary
relation.

The hereditary material.- — The course of the hereditary

determiners from their
probable origin in the
reproductive organs of
the male and female to
the mature sperm cell
and egg cell respec-
tively over the hered-
itary bridge — the fer-
tilized egg — to the em-
bryo and thence to the

F.G. 10-Shorthorn Bull "Shenstone ^^^ individual, SCCmS

ALBINO '

clear and the route
easily followed. However, the material nature and phys-
ical make-up of these determiners is little understood
and probably exceedingly complicated.

It is conceded that there is something within the fer-

THE DETERMINERS OF HEREDITY 2/

tilized egg that controls the unfolding of the developing
organism. This control is complete with respect to both
quantity and quality, and governs the time and rate of
appearance of its various characters so that certain com-
binations rather than others shall come about in defi-
nite sequence. But just v^hat are the determiners of
these hereditary qualities? Can they be discovered by
the aid of the microscope, or are they chemical rather
than morphological in their nature, such as enzymes,
w^hich only the chemist can detect?

The enzyme theory. — It has been suggested that hered-
ity may ultimately be reduced to a series of chemical
reactions depending upon the manner in w^hich various
enzymes initiate, retard or accelerate successive chemical
combinations occurring in the protoplasm. Thus it has
been found that the blood of closely related varieties of
dogs is chemically different, although from a morpholog-
ical point of view it is apparently identical. Possibly
these differences extend to individuals of the same
variety.

The possibilities in this direction seem unlimited when
we reflect that an albumen compound having only 40
carbon atoms, a number by no means unusual, would
make possible millions of combinations of atoms. At
present, however, all that can be said for the enzyme
theory is that it is a bare possibility. It is suggested in
this connection with the thought that it might aid in a
clearer understanding of the possible nature of the de-
terminers of heredity.

The chromosome theory of heredity. — Since the nuclei
of sperm cell and the egg cell are the only portions of
these cells that invariably take part in fertilization, it has
been suggested that the entire factor of heritage is
packed into the nuclei of these germ cells. Although
not fully demonstrated, it is entirely probable that the
chromatin is the main seat of heredity and that the hered-
itary determiners are to be located in the chromosomes.

28 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

There are many reasons for this assumption, three of
which are worthy of consideration.

Notwithstanding the great relative difference in size
between the sperm cell and the egg cell, they are prac-
tically equivalent in their hereditary influence. This has
been repeatedly shown by making reciprocal crosses be-
tween the two sexes. The only features that are alike
in the two cells are the chromosomes. The inference is,
therefore, that they contain the hereditary determiners.

The process of maturation by which the number of
chromosomes is reduced one-half, as a preliminary step
to fertilization, at which time the normal number is again
restored, is just what is needed to bring together an en-
tire complement of hereditary determiners, out of the
partial contribution of the two parents. Since, in fer-
tilization, no other part of the cells plays so consistent
and important a part as the chromosomes, during this
series of complicated changes, it would seem very prob-
able that they contain the determiners of heredity. More-
over, maturation is practiced by germ cells only.

The fagt that certain chromosomes in the fertilized egg
have been identified with particular features or combina-
tion of features in the adult developing from that egg
lends favor to the chromosome theory. This is strength-
ened by the probable existence of an extra chromosome
in connection with the determination of sex, as will be
pointed out later in the discussion of sex in animal breeding.

Such evidence as the foregoing has convinced many
that in the chromosomes we have visibly before us the
carriers of heredity. In fact, the supposition that the
chromosomes, with certain chemical reservations, are the
physical carriers of hereditary determiners forms an
excellent working hypothesis. The determiners of
heredity have been given a variety of names by various
investigators, but it is sufficient for our purpose to con-
sider the chromosomes as the physical basis of heredity.

Chromosome combination. — Little is definitely known

THE DETERMINERS OE HEREDITY 29

concerning the makeup of the chromosomes or the dis-
tribution among them of the control of the various por-
tions of the body. Whether one chromosome could of

Fig. u— Shorthorn Cow "Maxwalton Missie"

itself, if necessary, direct the development of the entire
body, or whether the determiners of different parts or
organs are carried in separate chromosomes, is largely
a matter of conjecture. True, certain chromosomes in
the mature egg have been identified with particular fea-
tures in the adult, but this is by no means sufficient data
to warrant the general assertion that each particular
character in the body is always governed by a certain
chromosome in the mature egg. At present all we can
conjecture is that the combined chromosomes carry the
determiners of heredity.

In this connection the chromosomes that go astray in
maturation are significant. The possible chromosome
combination in the maturation of the germ cells — male
and female— as w?ll as their union in fertilization may

30 . BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

explain much of the chance that attends all animal
breeding.

Origin of hereditary material. — Little is definitely
known of the origin of the hereditary material. Men-
tion is made of it at this time to show the difference in
time of the development of the egg cells and the sperm
cells and to point out the exact place of origin. The egg
cells, we recall, are produced in the ovaries of the female.
They are formed from specialized peritoneal cells known
as germinal epithelium. In our domestic animals all
permanent ova or egg cells are formed during fetal life,
or very soon after birth, although they do not attain
sexual maturity for some time, the period varying with
the class of animal. The sperm cells are produced in
the testicle of the male. These cells are produced in
the specialized spermatogenic cells and are formed
continuously throughout the productive period of the
animal's life.

Basis of controlling determiners of heredity. — To ob-
tain the greatest possible control over heredity is the
aim of the breeder. But, if the hereditary bearers largely
are conveyed in the chromosomes of the germ cells, then
no degree of human influence is conceivable. To find
a basis of controlling heredity to improve farm animals
we must consider the source of hereditary determiners.
We have shown that whatever the determiners may be,
they come from the parent, although, as we shall ' see
presently, they are influenced by previous ancestors. In
animal improvement, therefore, we must concentrate our
attention and eft'orts upon the parents and the ancestors.
They should be carefully developed in order to bring out
their possibilities, and they should be of proven worth
as breeders. By the selecting of animals containing the
hereditary material with maximum possibilities of de-
sired features and the minimum of those undesirable,
we can achieve a general control over the hereditary
characters of the offspring.

CHAPTER IV
HEREDITY IN ANIMAL BREEDING

The behavior of characters as they pass from parent to
offspring has been the object of much careful study. In
considering the advisability of mating two animals it
is exceedingly desirable to knov^^ the possibilities of the
offspring. From time to time many attempts have been
made to deduce laws which would serve as guides to
the breeder. The complicated nature of heredity makes
the formation of such laws exceedingly difficult. This
is exhibited in the six fundamental propositions sug-
gested by Brewer, late professor in the Shefffeld Scien-
tific School of Yale University.

Brewer's fundamental propositions — These proposals
were given as suggestions in the breeding of farm
animals, before the rediscovery of Mendel's law of
heredity, hereafter to be considered, and are as follows:

1. Every animal must have two parents, and every
animal resembles its parents in most of its characteris-
tics. There is a force or tendency to keep offspring like
their parents or descendants like their ancestors. This
is called the law of inheritance (like produces like).

2. No two animals are alike or identical in all respects.
Hence offspring are never precisely like their ancestors.
This is known as the law of variation.

3. Vastly more animals are produced than are needed
for breeding, and only those having the highest aggregate
of good points should be used in breeding. This is called
the law of selection.

4. By training, environment and selection in pairing,
the form may be modified and the relative value of the
various points or characters changed so as to better suit

32 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

the use or the fancy of the breeder. This is called breed-
ing to points.

5. By continued breeding to points, the characters may
be increased beyond what they were in the ancestry.
This is called improvement of breeds.

6. The more uniform the ancestry in character and the
more restricted in number, the more uniform and certain
the resulting descendants. The converse holds equally
true. The former is known as inbreeding, the latter as
out-crossing.

Complex nature of heredity. — Among animals reliable
data illustrating the free play of heredity are exceedingly
meager. The advanced registers contain much valuable
material for the guidance of breeders, but it is selected
material, as the animals failing to meet requirements are
not recorded. Possibly the most complete data that have
been collected, illustrating the free play of heredity, are
those of the English scientist Galton. He worked upon
the stature of English people. This material is used in
this connection, as it illustrates as nothing else can the
relation between offspring in general and their parentage.
Later the principles involved will be confirmed in studies
among dairy cattle and horses of speed.

These data are given in the tabulation, in which the
heights of 928 adult children are classified and compared
with the heights of their parents. The heights of the
adult children are listed at the top, and those of the
midparents on the left. By midparental height is meant
one-half of the combined heights of father and mother
after increasing the mother's height by one-eighth. In
his studies Galton found that women are one-eighth
(12.5%) shorter than men. Thus he multiplied all
female heights, both mothers and adult daughters, by
1.08 to convert them into male equivalents. By way of
explanation we see that of the 928 persons whose heights
were taken, 138 were 67.2 inches high. Of these, four
were born from 71.5-inch parents; three from 70.5-inch

■^

O; lo v2 O

„

»o

t>.

o! 0>' 00 00
VO N^ \0 vo

2 43
3 68

5 183
— 219

00
1

t~0

■*

N f<5 «* r^

f-)

S. O, Tj" -< ^

■*

"tX t^ O oo

rf
o

".1

''I

lO CC ''^\ 00

r-5 1
1

—

00
so

v^ 1

-c

f<5

oc \

f^\

ir.

« « Tj. VO

lis::

o
00

1 - - -

ill!

■*

I - 1 -

71.5
70.5
69.5
68.5

•<*

"a
P3

-4-

SlUajBdpII^ JO S

mspH

BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

parents ; 27 from 69.5-inch parents ; and so on for the
shorter parents. A careful analysis of the data in the
table illustrates the very complex nature of heredity.

In the discussion the relative terms low and high are
used to designate short and tall stature respectively.

^ In his study the
breeder may substi-
tute any character
he has under con-
sideration, such as
low and high milk
yield, late and early
maturity and like
j characters.
! Offspring in gen-
J eral resemble par-
ents.- — S i n c e the
measurements of
the midparents are recorded at the one-half inch
and the adult children at the two-tenths of an
inch, exact comparison is not possible. However, if we
compare the heights of the midparents with the heights

Fig. 12 — Guernsey Bull "Hayes Cherub 2d"

Offspring in General Similar to Parents

Parental

Low

Similar

High

Total

height

offspring

72.5

71.5

70.5

69.5

183

68.5

113

219

67.5

102

211

66.5

65.5

64.5

Total

224

434

252

910

Per cent.

100

HEREDITY IN ANIMAL BREEDING 35

of the three nearest groups of adult children, we will
observe that there is general similarity between the
parents and offspring. This is shown in the preceding
tabulation, in which the parent is compared with the
offspring, the latter being divided in three parts — sim-
ilar, low and high — the similar including the sum of the
three groups nearest the parental height, the low the
sum of those below, and the high the sum of those above.

This division of offspring slightly favors the tall
stature, giving the high group a larger per cent than the
low group, which no doubt would be reversed were exact
comparison possible. The significant fact is that the
similar, although including but three groups, contains 48
per cent of the total number of offspring.

Particular offspring unlike the parent. — While in the
main the new individual resembles the parent, in particu-
lar cases, that is the best that can be said for it. The
most striking feature of the table is that offspring are
unlike their parents. There is limited similarity between
specific parents and their particular off-spring. In other
words, like parents as well as the same parents, in suc-
cessive generations, produce unlike offspring, see any
row in the table; and like offspring are produced by
unlike parents, see any column in the table (p. 33).

Every new individual inherits all of the characters of
the race to which it belongs. Not all characters, how-
ever, will be inherited with the same intensity. Some
will be evident in the make-up of the new individual,
while others will not be apparent. The visible char-
acters of one parent, or even of both, give no assurance
of what will appear in the offspring. In fact, there is no
true guide whereby we may know for a certainty what
will happen in individual cases. It is only fair to assure
the breeder, however, that sufficient data have been col-
lected to show how ofi'spring in general compare with
the parentage, and how general as well as specific im-
provement may be accomplished.

36 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

Some offspring higher and some lower than their
parents. — The table indicates that no matter what the
parents, whether low or high, some of the offspring will
be lower and some higher than their parents. Thus, if
we divide the table (p. 33) into two parts, as indicated by the
diagonal line, placing those offspring that are superior to
their parents below the line and those that are inferior
above the line, we get the following results :

Inferior to parents

Superior to parents

Number of offspring. .
Per cent, of offspring.

517

55.7

411
44.2

Due to the dift'erence in recorded heights between
parent and offspring, it is not possible to divide the table
exactly. The results obtained, however, show clearly
that 44 per cent of the offspring are superior to their
parents, while 56 per cent are approximately equal or
inferior to their parents.

Medium offspring the most frequent. — A careful study
of the table reveals the fact that mediocrity seems to be

the common lot. This is in-
dicated when we compare
the average height of the
midparents, which is 68.6
inches, with the average
height of all adult children,
which is 68.0 inches. Ob-
serve how the population
clusters about the number
34, which is the nearest
representative of the aver-
midparent and adult chil-
dren. This is shown by the number of offspring con-
tained within the light dotted lines, which includes 47

Fig. 13 — Guernsey Cow "Dolly Dimple"

a^e heisfht of both the

HEREDITY IN ANIMAL BREEDING 37

per cent of the total population. The principle involved
here is that whatever the parent — high or low^ — the off-
spring tend strongly toward the average of the race.

The high parent and his offspring. — High parents pro-
duce both low and high offspring. This is well illustrated
in the case of the 70.5-inch parents, which are 2 inches
above the average for all parents. Of the entire off-
spring, 68 in number, one is almost a dwarf and 51 are
lower than their parents, with seven distinctly below the
average of the race. This tendency toward inferiority
is known as regression. On the other hand, there are 17
offspring, or exactly one-fourth, superior to their excep-
tionally good parents. The higher we go among the ex-
ceptional parents the more this is true and the larger is
the percentage of superior offspring. This tendency
toward superiority is known as progression.

The high offspring and his parents. — We now come to
a consideration of the production of superior animals, the
goal of all animal breeding. The table shows that su-
perior animals may be produced in various ways. For
example, while the offspring in the 72.2-inch column are
clearly superior, ranging over six feet in height, yet they
were produced by all kinds of parents, from the very
tallest down to 65.5. While the parents were thus dis-
tributed the greatest percentage of superior offspring
came from extremely tall parents, although the greatest
number came from medium parents. Thus the greatest
number — 11 — came from a medium population of 183,
or less than one in 17, whereas next to the highest —
seven in number — came from a high population of 19, or
more than one in three. In other words, we stand one
chance in 17 to get a high offspring when selecting for
breeding purposes from medium parents, and one chance
in three when selecting from high parents.

High parents produce both high and low offspring,
and low parents produce both high and low offspring.
But under suitable environment high parents produce

BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

more high offspring and fewer low offspring, while low
parents produce more low offspring and fewer high off-
spring. Thus, if we divide the table into four parts as
indicated by the heavy lines we get the following results :

Low offspring

High offspring

Number Per cent. Number Per cent.

High parents.
Low parents.

Total....

241
296

45
55

295
96

537

100

391

Of the 537 offspring classified as low, 55 per cent of
them are produced by low parents, while but 45 per
cent are produced by high parents. The interesting
fact is that of the 391 offspring classified as high, 75
per cent of them are produced by high parents, while
only 25 per cent of them are the get of low parents.

The law of ancestral heredity. — We have seen that
the new individual inherits all of the characters of the
race to which it belongs, but that many of these char-
acters are not evident in the make-up of the animal. We
now come to a consideration of the probable resemblance
between the new individual and his parents and to the
extent to which he resembles more remote ancestors.
Galton and Pearson have given much study to this ques-
tion, and although working along independent lines, they
have arrived at practically the same conclusions.

They state that on the average the two immediate
parents contribute between them one-half of the effective
heritage, the grandparents one-fourth, the great-grand-
parents one-eighth, and so on to infinity, so that the total
heritage would be represented by one. This is called
"Galton's law of ancestral heredity," and applies to
generations and not to individual offspring. According

HEREDITY IN ANIMAL BREEDING

to this law, the effective heritage contributed by each
generation and by each separate ancestor may be repre-
sented as follows :

Galton's Law of Ancestral Heredity

Generation of

Number of

Hereditary contri-

ancestors

bution of each

generation

ancestor

l/i

Vio

yo4

yi6

Vaso

1/32

yi02.i

6-1

V.U

%ll!)(!

This table is significant, as it indicates clearly the great
importance of the immediate parents as well as the value
of pure ancestors. Not infrequently, especially in animal

Fig. 14 — Cheviot Shi;ei' ui' Guuu Tvin^

40 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

breeding, much stress is placed on some noted remote
ancestor. According to the table, a superior ancestor in
the fifth generation has but one chance in over one
thousand in stamping a character upon the offspring.

The table also indicates the importance of pure an-
cestors, if we wish to foretell the characteristics of the
offspring. If all the lines are pure, then we may be
reasonably sure that the oft'spring will be like his an-
cestors. On the other hand, if the ancestors are mixed,
no one can foretell what the offspring will be like.

Reversion and atavism. — These two terms are used to
designate characters reappearing in the offspring, but
not visible in the parents. Unfortunately these terms
are used more or less interchangeably. Best usage war-
rants defining atavism as "grandparentism ;" that is,
skipping a generation, with the result that a character
in the offspring is unlike that of either parent, but sim-
ilar to the character in one of the grandparents. Good
examples are furnished by the frequent occurrence of red
calves among Aberdeen-Angus from black parents, as
well as of red and white Holstein-Friesian calves from
black and white parents.

On the other hand, reversion may be defined as the
reappearance of a character which has not been manifest
perhaps for many generations, although it was actually
present in some remote ancestor. A good illustration
is seen in the occurrence, now and then, of stripes or
bars on the shoulders and legs of the horse. The appear-
ance of a case of either atavism or reversion is interest-
ing, but neither has any practical significance in animal
improvement, as they can be discarded by selection the
same as any other undesirable character.

Blended, exclusive and particulate inheritance. — Some-
times the oft'spring will be intermediate between the
parents, showing a blend ; sometimes it will resemble
"one or the other parent, showing exclusive inheritance ;
while at other times the offspring will show traces of

HEREDITY IN ANIMAL BREEDING 4I

both parents, each distinct and separate, which is known
as particulate inheritance. A good example of these
three types of inheritance is furnished in the case of
color among farm animals. In the coat color of horses
blended and exclusive inheritance is common, while par-
ticulate inheritance is occasionally observed. White
and black parents often produce a roan or a gray of vary-
ing shades ; at other times the offspring will inherit the
color of one parent to the exclusion of the other, and
thus be white or black; while occasionally, especially in
the case of ponies, the new individual inherits the color
of both parents, and is black and white or piebald. In
such cases possibly the type of inheritance depends in a
large measure on the purity of the coat color of the
parent. The best illustration of particular inheritance
is observed in the case of swine, where spotted offspring
from black and white parents are very common, owing
to the impurity of the coat color in the case of the
parents, due to extended crossing in the formation of
the breeds.

CHAPTER V
MENDEL'S LAW OF HEREDITY

The most promising law for the guidance of breeders
at the present time is that discovered by Gregor Johann
Mendel, a teacher of the physical and natural sciences in
a monastic school at Briinn, Austria, in the second half
of the last century. For eight years Mendel made a
series of studies, mostly with peas, on the behavior of
certain hereditary characters, from which he drew some
general conclusions now known as "Mendel's law of
heredity," which deals with the inheritance of contrast-
ing or allelomorphic characters in animals and plants.
Although brief accounts of these experiments were pub-
lished in 1865, they attracted no attention until 1900,
when three botanists, de Vries of Holland, von Tscher-
mak of Austria, and Correns of Germany, working in-
dependently, came to much the same conclusions as
those formerly stated by Mendel. Since 1900 Mendel's
law has easily held first place among biological workers.

The law when one pair of characters is involved, mono-
hybrids. — To get the essential features of this law before
us, we will consider an illustration. The case of -coat
color among guinea pigs furnishes a good example. If
we mate a black guinea pig of pure descent with a white
one, the offspring will all be black, similar to the black
parent, and none will be white. The black color dom-
inates in the cross, and, as Mendel says, the white re-
cedes from view. The black character, therefore, is
called the dominant character, and the white the recessive
character.

Now, if two of these cross-bred black guinea pigs be
mated with each other, one-fourth of the offspring will
be of the same color as the white grandparent, one-fourth

MENDEL S LAW OF HEREDITY

the same as the black grandparent, and one-half the same
as the cross-bred black parents. In other words, one-
fourth will be pure white, and when mated with each
other will produce only white offspring; one-fourth pure
black, and when mated with each other will produce only
black offspring; and one-half cross-bred black, similar
to their black parents, and will behave in a similar man-
Such an experiment

ner when mated with each other.
is difficult, as we cannot tell the
cross-bred black until they
have been mated and their
offspring observed.

This phenomenon is not dif-
ficult of explanation when but
one pair of allelomorphic char-
acters are involved. The ma-
ture germ cells or gametes which
united in the original cross were
one black and the other white in
character. Both characters were
present in the cross-bred off-
spring, but black, from its na-
ture, dominated. When the
cross-bred black individuals
produce germ cells, the black
and white characters separate
from each other and pass into
different cells. Thus the egq
cells formed by a female cross-
bred black are half of them
black and half of them white in
character. The same is true of
the sperm cells formed by a male
cross-bred black. The egg cell
that is fertilized is as likely to
l)e one as the other, and the

pure black from the

Fig. 15. — Black and White Guinea

Pigs Showing Mendelian

Phenomena

1. Black female guinea pig and
her young. 2. White male guinea
pig, father of black young. 3.
Two of the grown up young of a
black and white guinea pig. 4. A
group of four young produced by
the grown up animals above.*

*Figs. 15 and 17 from "Heredity," by permission of both the author, W. E.
Castle, and the publisher, D. Appleton & Company.

BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

sperm cell sharing- in fertilization has similar possibili-
ties. The results, therefore, would be as follows:

Male gametes
Cross-bred
sperm cells

Female gametes
Cross-bred
egg cells

Zygotes

WW = 1 W W pure white

B W

B B = 1 B B pure black

"2 B W cross-bred black

'; Diagram illustrating the union of male and female gametes, resulting in the
occurrence of oflFspring ir Mendelian proportions.

Perhaps the most convenient way of representing the
supposed causes of Mendelian segregation, especially
where more than one pair of characters is involved, is by
the use of the four-square table. Along the top of the
table are written the two kinds of characters that occur
in equal numbers among the male germ cells of the cross-
bred and along the left of .the table are written the same
factors for the female germ cells.

Black X white = black cross-bred
Cross-bred male gametes

B B

B W

pure

cross-bred

black

■s

\ Zygotes

til

-d

B W

cross-bred

pure

black

white

Diagram illustrating the union of male and female gametes, resulting in Mendelian
proportions when one pair of characters is involved.

MENDEL S LAW OF HEREDITY 45

Dominants and recessives. — When two distinct vari-
eties are crossed, in which one is dominant with regard
to a certain character, while the other is recessive, the
first hybrid generation (F^) is an impure dominant. On
interbreeding the second generation (Fo) can be divided
into four parts — one pure dominant, two impure dom-
inants and one pure recessive. The impure dominants
on interbreeding split into the same proportions, while
the pure dominants and recessives each time breed true
for all successive generations. This may be illustrated
diagrammatically as follows :

nn D(n) nfn) an.

Fig. 16 — Diagram Illustrating Mendelian Dominants and Recessives, in Which

DD Stands for Pure Dominants, RR for Pure Recessives and D(R) for

Impure Dominants (After Herbert)

It is important to remember that this discussion ap-
plies to characters and not to individuals. Thus when
w^e say that an animal arising from cross-bred parents

BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

breeds true or pure, we mean only as to the single char-
acter involved.

The law when two pairs of characters are involved,
dihybrids. — For convenience we will continue the illus-
tration with guinea pigs, contrasting long and white hair
with short and dark hair. If we mate a short-haired
dark guinea pig of pure descent with a long-haired white
one, the offspring will all be short-haired and dark.
Thus short hair and dark hair are dominant, while long
hair and white hair are recessive. If two of the cross-

short — dark Xlong — w'.iite =short —dark cross-bred
Cross-bred male gametes

S D

SVkT

L W

SS D D

SS D W

SL D D

SL D W

short
dark

pure

cross-bred

SS D W

SS WW

SL D W

S L W W

s w

short

dark

white

dark

white

cross-bred

pure

cross-bred

<+-.

S L D D

SL D W

LL D D

LL DW

short

long

dark

cross-bred

pure

cross-bred

SL D W

SL WW

LL DW

LL WW

L W

short

long

dark

white

dark

white

cross-bred

pure

Diagram illustrating the union of male and female gametes, resulting in the
occurrence of Mendelian proportions when two pairs of characters are involved.

MENDEL S LAW OF HEREDITY

bred animals be mated with each other, four kinds of
offspring will result : Dark and short-haired, like one
grandparent ; white and long-haired, like the other grand-
parent ; dark and long-haired, a new form ; and white and
short-haired, a second new form.

The segregation in the germ cells resulting in these
forms can be clearly illustrated diagrammatically by the
use of the sixteen-square table on the preceding page.

Now, the four kinds of guin-
ea pigs obtained from such
a cross will not be equally
numerous. Since, as we have
seen in the black-white cross,
dominants are three times as
numerous as recessives, we
should, therefore, expect the
short-haired to be three times as
numerous as the long-haired
ones, and the dark ones to be
three times as numerous as the
white ones. Further, animals
which are both short-haired and
dark should be 3 times 3, or nine
times as numerous as those
which are not. Thus, we have
the Mendelian proportion, nine
short-haired dark, three long-
haired dark, three short-haired
white, and one long-haired white,
which is closely approximated in
actual experience.

The breeding powers of these
four forms are exceedingly com-
plicated. The double recessive
long-white is the only individual
that will breed true. All other
forms require trial breeding to
establish their identity. This

Fig. 17 — Guinea Pigs Illustrat-
ing Mendelian Phenomena
When Two Pair of Char-
acters Are Involved

L Long-haired white parent. 2.
Short-haired dark parent. 3.
Long-haired darlc, a new form
arising when offspring of types 1
and 2 are interbred. 4. Short-
haired white, a second new form
arising when offspring of types 1
and 2 are interbred.

BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

breeding power may be most conveniently exhibited in
tabular form as follows :

Distinguish-
able types

Zygotically
different types

Num-
ber

Breeding properties when mated
with each other

(1) SS DD

Produces short-haired dark only

(2) S S D W

Produces short-haired dark, about
75 per cent, and short-haired while*
about 25 per cent.

9 SD

Short

(3) S L D D

Produces short-haired dark, about
75 per cent, and long-haired dark
about 25 per cent.

Dark

(4) SL DW

Produces short-haired dark ; short-
haired white ; long-haired dark; and
long-haired white in the ratio of
9:3:3:1

3 SW

(5) SS WW

Produces short-haired white only

Short
White

(6) SL WW

Produces short-haired white about
75 per cent, and long-haired white
about 25 per cent.

3L D

(7) LL D D

Produces long-haired dark only.

Long
Dark

(8) LL DW

Produces long-haired dark about 75
per cent, and long-haired white
about 25 per cent.

1 LW

Long
White

(9) LL WW

Produces long-haired white only.

Diagram illustrating the breeding properties of Mendelian offspring when two
pairs of characters are involved.
*New forms in italics.

Three Mendelian principles. — Mendel's law as illus-
trated in the crossing of pure animals with contrasting
characters depends on three factors — unit-characters,
dominance and segregation. In the illustration it was
apparent that there was no relation between the length
of hair and its color; each was transmitted entirely in-
dependent of the other. The length of hair, therefore,
is one unit-character, while the color of the hair is an-

MENDEL S LAW OF HEREDITY 49

other. Ill the germ cells there are certain determiners
of unit-characters which dominate others during the de-
velopment ; thus they determine the apparent character
of the individual by causing that character to become
visible. This constitutes the dominant characters, as
in the cross-bred black guinea pig in the illustration.

The idea of segregation depends upon the conception
that the animal is made up of a bundle of unit-characters
which may be rearranged without disturbing the identity
of the various characters. When like characters are
joined together, as B with B (p. 44), the animal is said to
be hoinozygous. On the other hand, when unlike char-
acters are joined, as B with W, the individual is said to
be heterozygous. Recessive individuals are always
homozygous, as W W, for example. They do not con-
tain the dominant character, otherwise they would
show it.

Creation of new forms. — When short-haired dark
guinea pigs of pure descent are mated with long-haired
white ones and the hybrid form resulting therefrom inter-
bred, two new varieties arise — long-haired dark and
short-haired white. New varieties may be created by
gain, loss or transfer of characters from existing forms.
Having obtained a new variety, the next step is to fix it
so that it will breed true from generation to generation.
To fix these new forms so that they will breed true is
somewhat involved, especially when there are a number
of dominant characters, although it would be compar-
atively simple if dealing with a combination containing
only recessive characters, as they are always homozygous
and hence breed true from the beginning.

The most direct method of fixing a new variety would
be to test by suitable mating the unit-characters of each
individual to determine which are homozygous, and breed
from those, as they show only the desirable combination
of characters, and to reject all heterozygous individuals,
as they contain undesirable characters. Thus, if we were

50 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

to fix the short-haired white variety, we would deter-
mine by mating the S S W W individuals in the tables
(pp. 46 and 48), and select these for breeding, rejecting all
others. In this way a pure race may be established. Such a
method, though sure, is likely to be very slow, as the
numbers are limited, and it involves the application of
the breeding test to many individuals in order to deter-
mine the homozygous individuals, most of which must
then be rejected.

It is, therefore, often better in practice to breed from
all animals showing the desired characters — in this case
short-haired white — and eliminate from their offspring
such individuals as do not show the proper combination
of characters. The short-haired white variety will thus
be gradually purified and a large stock of it can be built
up much more quickly.

Application of Mendel's law. — The examples show that
the coat color character and the length of hair character
can be transferred from one guinea pig to another when
separate animals possessing these particular characters
are mated according to Mendel's law. The long-hair
character of the original white animal was transferred to
the dark animal ; and the short hair of the original dark
animal was transferred to the white animal. Likewise,
the white coat of the original long-haired animal was
transferred to the short-haired animal, and the dark coat
of the short-haired animal was transferred to the long-
haired animal.

In plants this transfer of characters from one individ-
ual to another has been demonstrated to be of great
economic importance. Thus the stiff character of the
straw of low-yielding varieties of wheat has been trans-
ferred to high-yielding varieties, in which much trouble
had previously been experienced from broken straw.
Likewise, immunity to rust in wheat has been transferred
to varieties which formerly were very susceptible to rust.
There are numerous examples of this sort among plants.

Mendel's law of heredity 51

Among animals fewer cases of the Mendelian phe-
nomena have been reported, although it is stated that the
trotting and pacing habit among horses behaves accord-
ing to Mendel's law, also that chestnut color is a Mende-
lian recessive. The red and white color of Shorthorn
cattle is said to be transmitted in Mendelian proportions,
as is also the hornless character when appearing in
horned breeds of cattle. Many features of the comb, the
plumage and the rumpless condition of poultry have been
shown to be inherited in accordance with Mendel's law.
Poultrymen experience difficulty in breeding blue
Andalusian fowls. When blue Andalusians are mated
together, the offspring are of three colors — black, blue
and white — in the Mendelian proportion of 1:2:1, while
the result of crossing a black and a white is a blue
Andalusian. This shows conclusively that the blue
Andalusian is a cross-bred, and the significant point to
remember is that it will not breed true.

Transferring characters. — At the present time there is
very little data available to show to what extent the more
economic factors, such as high fertility, early maturity, rapid
fattening, high quality in milk and like characters, follow the
Mendelian proportions in transmission. In this connection
James Wilson of the Royal College of Science, Dublin, Ire-
land, makes some interesting observations. He says : "There
are many cases of the transference of characters from
one race to another. Modern Aberdeen-Angus cattle got
their size, and probably their fattening capacity, from
English Longhorns and Shorthorns ; their color from the
old Celtic cattle ; their hornlessness from cattle brought
from Scandinavia by the Norsemen, and probably also
the shortness of the leg and the high quality of milk
which they frequently manifest, from the same source.
Shorthorns got their flecks from Dutch cattle and their
white color from the white cattle existing in the North
of England in the i8th century. The roans are crosses
between the white and the red. The North Devons

52 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

probably got their shortness of leg from Norse cattle.
The American polled Herefords and Durhams got their
hornlessness chiefly from Norfolk polled, and some of
it from Aberdeen-Angus cattle."*

Wilson also gives an example of transferring the Jersey
high quality milk, testing about 5 per cent, to Red
Danish cattle, testing about 3.3 per cent butter fat, by
practically the same method as that suggested in the
discussion on creation of new forms (p. 49). f

Possibilities of Mendelism. — The discovery of the Men-
delian phenomena opens a vast field of research. Among
animals practically nothing has been done to determine
the possibilities of Mendelism. Few accurate observa-
tions have been made, and those of Wilson are very sug-
gestive. Think of the advantage to be gained could the
high flow of the Holstein-Friesian, the high quality of
Jersey milk and the early maturity of the Aberdeen-
Angus be transferred to the Shorthorn, or could the
vigor and fertility of the Large Yorkshire and the qual-
ity of the Cheshire be transferred to the Poland China !
Likewise, think of the economic advantage to be gained
could the quality of the Arabian, the endurance of the
mustang, the action of the Standardbred, and' the fer-
tility and longevity of the Thoroughbred be transferred
to the Percheron ! Hitherto we have held such to be
physically impossible, and no doubt much of it is, al-
though, so far, exact proof is wanting.

On the other hand, if we place reliance in Wilson's
observations, then the triple-purpose cow — beef, butter,
milk — not only seems to be a possibility, but very prob-
able. We now have abundant data to show that fat
cows give as much and more milk and butter fat than
lean cows. Now, if high-quality fat can be transferred
to the high-milking cow, then there is no physical reason
why we cannot develop a triple-purpose cow; that is, a

*James Wilson, "The Principles of Stock Breeding," pp. 95, 96.
t James Wilson, "The Principles of Stock Breeding," pp. 126-132.

MENDEL'S LAW OF HEREDITY 53

COW yielding a Holstein-Friesian flow of Jersey quality
and at the same time producing Shorthorn beef.

In view of the vast opportunity before the Shorthorn
breeders, together with the strong demand for dual-purpose
cattle, it seems strange that this is the only breed whose ad-
herents are advocating dairy or dual-purpose cattle that has
not established a system of advanced registry in which to
record dairy performance. There seems to be no reason
to doubt phenomenal development in dual-purpose and
possible triple-purpose Shorthorns were the breeders
given encouragement similar to that given the Holstein-
Friesian breeders.

Mendelism and reversion. — -Mendel's theory explains
why reversions appear and why they gradually decrease
with time. Take, for example, the red color among
Aberdeen-Angus cattle. Among the original stock there
were many colors, such as red, yellow, dun, brown, white
and the like, although black predominated. However,
red was the only color which was recessive to the desired
color, black, and the only one which could be carried
by a black animal without the animal showing its
presence. Thus, by avoiding the other colors, they were
rapidly eliminated. Not so with the red; it, being a
recessive, was frequently concealed beneath the black.
Red and white among Holstein-Friesian cattle act in a
similar manner.

Black animals which produce red calves are impure
blacks. They contain both red and black determiners.
When such a reversion appears the breeder usually
eliminates the cow, lest some of her descendants may
be similarly marked. No blame is placed on the bull
with which she was mated ; nevertheless, he is equally
responsible, for unless both are impure blacks or reces-
sives, they could not have produced a red calf. In fact,
the possible damage the cow could have done is very
small when compared with the bull. On the average,
when mated with pure black bulls, she could have pro-

54 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

duced only one impure black every two years, while
the bull, even though mated with pure black cows, could
have left 30 or 40 times that number. The breeder, of
course, can have no suspicion that his stock is impure
in color until two impure blacks are mated, for then only
will the red appear, and that but one in four on the average.

Limitations of Mendelism. — Practically all of the
animal characters that have been mentioned as unit-
characters, following Mendel's law, are external ones.
These are of little importance in animal breeding. Few
experimental attempts have been made to determine
unit-characters of the body-form or function. Such fac-
tors are exceedingly difficult to investigate. In a con-
sideration of the inheritance of such factors the chief
difficulty lies in the possibility that a number of char-
acters are concerned, many of which, for various reasons,
do not seem to follow the Mendelian phenomena. In
fact, the importance of Mendel's law has been retarded
rather than advanced by the attempt at universal applica-
tion on the part of its adherents generally. Among farm
animals experience in crossing types to improve the form
or function has thus far proven very disastrous. This
is a very common practice of the American farmer, but
certainly does not seem to be a wise one.

As has been seen, when but two pairs of unit-char-
acters are involved the offspring are of four sorts, two
of which are exceedingly difficult to fix (p. 49). This
difficulty increases rapidly as the unit-characters in-
volved increase. This is well illustrated by mating
two guinea pigs with three pairs of characters, as color,
length and direction of hair. Thus if we mate a short-
haired, dark, smooth guinea pig with a long-haired, white
and rough one the resulting offspring will be short-
haired, dark and rough, these being the three dominant
characters, two derived from one parent and one from
the other.

Now, if these short-haired, dark and rough cross-bred

Mendel's law of heredity 55

animals be mated with each other the offspring will be of
eight sorts and in the following proportions :

27 short-haired, dark, rough 3 long-haired, dark, smooth

9 short-haired, white, rough 3 long-haired, white, smooth

9 short-haired, dark, smooth 3 short-haired, white, smooth

9 long-haired, dark, rough 1 long-haired, white, smooth

Likewise, if four pairs of characters are involved, the
offspring will be of i6 different varieties and in the pro-
portion of 8i : 27 : 27 : 27 : 27 : 9 : 9 : 9 : 9 : 9 : 9 : 3 :

3 : 3 •• 3 : I-

The large number of new types and the difficulty of
fixing them seems very remote, especially when we con-
template the crossing of fixed breeds of farm animals.
The trial breeding and the elimination necessary to fix
new types, when only a few pairs of characters are in-
volved is so great as to make it impractical. When but
one pair is considered, only one in four is pure for one
character, and the number of pure stock produced grows
rapidly smaller as the number of characters increases, as
shown in the tabulation :

1 pair 1 animal in 4 is pure for one character

2 pairs 1 animal in 16 is pure for any two characters

3 pairs 1 animal in 64 is pure for any three characters

4 pairs 1 animal in 256 is pure for any four characters

5 pairs 1 animal in 1024 is pure for any five characters

The number of characters involved in crossing any of
the breeds of farm animals is great, and the number of
animals necessary for the trial breeding, as well as the
very large elimination, places the practical working of
Mendel's law in a very different light from that in which
it appears to the plant breeder, where numbers are of
no consequence.

CHAPTER VI
SELECTION IN ANIMAL BREEDING

The breeding of useful farm animals depends very
largely upon our ability to select animals with skill and
judgment. In the discussion on heredity it was stated
that the offspring inherit all of the characters of the race
to which they belong. The offspring of given parentage,
therefore, may be low, medium and high in any par-
ticular character in which improvement is sought. In
the discussion on Mendel's law it was also indicated that
the best way to secure a given type so that it would be
transmitted with reasonable certainty from parent to
offspring was to select for mating those animals possess-
ing in the most perfect form the characters which we
wish to secure in the offspring. Selection is, therefore,
the all-powerful agent in controlling the characters of
farm animals generally.

Objects of selection. — As has been suggested, the
necessity for selection is based on the tendency of off-
spring generally to vary, in all important characters,
from their parents. Inferior animals should be eliminated
from breeding, as they tend to reproduce themselves.
On the other hand, superior offspring should be selected
for breeding, as they also tend to reproduce themselves
and to show still further improvement. Thus one of
the primary objects of selection is to improve the an-
cestry, preventing, so far as possible, the birth of unwel-
come individuals not suited to the purposes of man. The
animal breeder can prevent the birth of unprofitable
individuals approximately in proportion as he is skilled
in selection.

Among our farm animals, especially meat-producing
animals and males, more individuals are born than can

58 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

be used in breeding, so that it becomes necessary to
reduce the number. A second object of selection, there-
fore, is to reduce numbers. This affords the breeder an
opportunity to influence the character and type of his
animals, as only superior ones should be retained for
breeding purposes. While selection is a very important
factor in establishing type, it does not greatly reduce
variability. This necessitates watchfulness on the part
of the breeder, as he must eliminate all animals from
breeding that do not meet the requirements of the
given type.

Standards of excellence in selection. — The breeder
must have a definite ideal or a standard of excellence
for his guidance in selecting his breeding animals.
Among the great run of variation which every breeder
will encounter, he must know which are useful, which
are fanciful and which are mere novelties. The standard
must not be altered by fancy considerations or by novel-
ties, no matter how curious or attractive.

The standard must be fixed in advance. It should be
wisely chosen in the light of what is needed. D.ue con-
sideration should be given to every influence. Once
chosen, however, the standard should be preserved un-
changed. Blood lines must be kept pure, not only
within the breed, but within the strain or family with
which we are working. This is emphasized by the law
of ancestral heredity and by the fact that no matter
what the parent, the offspring tends strongly toward
the average of the race to which it belongs.

History of the breeds. — When the breeder selects the
individuals that are to reproduce, it must be done in the
light of all the knowledge available. He must know the
weak characters as well as the strong points of the breed
with which he is working. This necessitates a thorough
knowledge of the history of the breed. The absence of
such intelligence is responsible for many failures.

This is well illustrated in the case of the Percheron

SELECTION IN ANIMAL BREEDING 59

draft horse and in Berkshire swine. Most of the breeds
of draft horses, particularly those native to the British
Islands, are rather heavy in bone. This has led the Eng-
lish draft-horse breeders to select for refinement in bone.
Not infrequently a Percheron draft horse breeder selects
his animals on the same basis, which results in too light
a bone and lack of endurance in the limbs. The explana-
tion of this is that the light horse of Arabia played a very
important part in the formation of the Pei'fcheron breed,
which, therefore, is predisposed to light bone. The
same is true of Berkshire swine. This breed of swine
resulted largely from crossing the small, refined, quick-
maturing Neapolitan hog upon the large English hog;
and many are the Berkshire herds that have been ruined
by selecting for breeding purposes the most attractive,
refined and quick-maturing pigs.

Breed peculiarities. — Not only is a knowledge of the
history essential, but one must be familiar with the
inherent faults of the breed with which he is working.
He needs to know, for example, that the Clydesdale is
often deficient in the rear ribs, which gives the body a
rangy appearance ; that the Shire is often rather straight
in the pastern, with heels low and flat ; and that the
Belgian is often criticized for lack of substance in the
bones of the legs.

The breeder of Jersey dairy cattle should realize in
advance that individuals are often extremely delicate,
and the Holstein-Friesian breeder should know that the
breed is rather rough, possessing a short tail. He who
expects to breed Shorthorns needs to know that the breed
is of many types, varying widely in excellence, while the
Galloway breeder should not be surprised at consider-
able roughness, particularly in aged animals.

When breeding swine it is important to know that the
Berkshire is naturally deficient in ham, and the Poland
China in the shoulder; that the Chester White is a bit
coarse in the bone ; and that the Duroc-Jersey is uneven

60 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

in type. These and the numerous other breed peculiar-
ities, both desirable and undesirable, should be in the
mind of the breeder before he begins his breeding opera-
tions.

Vigor, longevity and fertility. — We are so interested
in securing a desired type or character that we often
operate against valuable physical qualities, such as gen-
eral thrift, endurance and fertility. This is best illus-
trated in th« case of swine, although true of farm
animals generally. Since the early-maturing, heavy-
fleshed swine win in the show ring, they are selected for
breeding. Such animals are often so refined that they
lack vigor and fertility. Under such practice it is not
surprising that many of our breeds of meat-producing
animals lack vigor and longevity as well as fertility.

Contrast with this the endurance and prolificacy of a
few individuals that developed under more natural con-
ditions. The noted Angus cow Old Granny (No. i m
Angus Herd Book) produced 25 calves, the last one m
the 29th year of her life, and she lived to the ripe old
age of 36 years. The famous English Thoroughbred
mare. Old Fanny Cook, produced 15 foals, giving birth

Fig. 19 — Shropshire Sheep Uniform in Type

SELECTION IN ANIMAL BREEDING 6l

to twins at 22 years of age, and she lived to be t,t, years
old. From a profitable point of view, the importance

Fig. 20 — Brown Swiss Herd True to Type

of selecting- to promote such physical properties, need
not be dwelt upon.

Large numbers promote uniformity. — Since our farm
animals are so variable, in all important characters, large
numbers are necessary in order to provide sufficient ma-
terial to secure uniformity in type. This was suggested
in our study of heredity, where it was stated that the
offspring inherit all of the characters of his race. Sup-
pose that we have a small uniform herd of even very
exceptional animals — say, four cows and a bull. Since
the offspring vary throughout the limits of the race, we
would find it difficult to preserve even a single character
on a uniform basis from generation to generation ; and
the herd once exceptional and uniform would rapidly
lose its identity.

In this connection the practice to pursue will depend
entirely upon the conditions. Thus the dairy breeder
possessing a common herd of cattle varying in produc-
tivity, some individuals scarcely paying for their keep,
while others are paying a good profit, is often at a loss
to know what disposition to make of the inferior in-

62 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

dividuals, particularly if they are regular breeders. In
this case the inferior animals should be eliminated, even
though the number of animals in the herd be materially
reduced, as such individuals tend to reproduce others of
their kind.

The exceptional breeding animal. — Of even greater
importance than uniformity in type, large numbers are
absolutely necessary to secure the maximum value of
the exceptional breeder. This is significant, since the
excellence of any herd or breed is usually due to a iew
exceptional breeders. We have' examples of this on
every hand. The Hambletonian family of Standardbred
trotting horses owes its high speed development to a
very few exceptional animals descending from Hamble-
tonian lo and his noted son George Wilkes. Of the
thousands of Standardbred stallions recorded in Wal-
lace's Stud Book, there are but ii with 150 or more
performing offspring to their credit ; that is, offspring
that have trotted a mile in 2 130 or better, or paced one
in 2:25 or better. Now, of these 11 stallions, five are
sons of George Wilkes and three are grandsons, while
all are sons, grandsons or great-grandsons of Hamble-
tonian 10, with all but one in the paternal line. In a
similar manner, the Hal family of Standardbred pacers
descended from Tom Hal, the Morgan family descended
from Justin Morgan, and the American saddler descended
from Denmark.

Equally as good illustrations of the value of the excep-
tional breeder and the importance of large numbers is
found among dairy cattle. The De Kol strain of Hol-
stein-Friesian dairy cattle owes its high milk and butter
fat production to a very few exceptional animals
descending from De Kol 2d. Of the thousands of bulls
recorded in the Holstein-Friesian Herd Book, there are
but five with 100 or more advanced register daughters
to their credit ; that is, daughters capable of making the
requirements for admission to the advanced register

SELECTION IN ANIMAL BREEDING 63

— producing 12 pounds of butter fat per week at 5 years
of age. These five bulls are sons, grandsons or great-
grandsons of the phenomenal cow, De Kol 2d. While
such remarkable breeding records depend on oppor-
tunity, it serves to illustrate the importance of having
large numbers of animals available with which to mate
such exceptional breeders in order to secure maximum
advantage.

Comparative value of sire and dam. — Considering the
offspring of a single mating, neither parent has any par-
ticular advantage over the other, and both are prac-
tically equal in controlling the characters of the offspring.
On the other hand, the sire has a decided advantage over
the dam in that he can influence large numbers in a
breeding season, whereas the dam can control but one,
or at most a few, as is the same of swine. The real dif-
ference, therefore, is one of numbers.

This principle is well illustrated in the case of the 11
Standardbred stallions referred to above, each with 150
or more performing offspring to his credit, whereas there
are but few mares that have 10 or more performing off-
spring in the list. The Holstein-Friesian bull. Lord
Netherland De Kol, has 120 advanced register daughters,
whereas Aaltje Salo 5th's Netherland, with eight ad-
vanced register daughters, is the leading cow of the breed
in the number of performing offspring to her credit (1913).

Influence of the sire. — From the foregoing it is evident
that the upper limit of the sire is comparatively very high
and the dam very low. The statement is often made
that the sire is half the herd, whereas he is far more than
that. He is one-half the herd the first generation, three-
quarters the second, seven-eighths the third and fifteen-
sixteenths the fourth. So powerful is the influence of
the sire that if careful selection be maintained for a few
generations, he will mold the character of the entire herd.
This fact should warn us of the necessity of exercising
extreme care in the selection of the sire.

BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

Fig. 21 — Poland-China Sow of Good Type

The great influence of the sire is of advantage to the

practical breeder, as he
can improve his herd
cheaply by the use of a
good sire. Possibly the
beginner with limited
means should procure a
number of rather plain
females and a male of as
good quality as he can
afford, rather than to
start with a small herd of good females and a male of
fair quality.

Suitability for mating. — Two animals to be suited for
mating should be as nearly alike in general physical
characters as it is possible to obtain. Since no two
animals are exactly alike, we must strike an average
between the characters of the parents and what we
desire to get in the offspring. It is a serious but com-
mon error to suppose that the bad points of one parent
can be overcome by good characters in the -mate. The
foundation of successful breeding lies in the mating of
two animals each of which is as nearly perfect as pos-
sible. When the offspring shows good qualities, the
mating of the parents is considered a fortunate nick. The
success or failure of the breeder often depends on his
ability to discover these nicks and to make use of them.
Some persons become very skilled in these, matters.

CHAPTER VII
UNIT OF SELECTION— CHARACTER

The unit of selection is not the individual, but some
particular attribute or character of the individual. Thus,
hi the selecting of dairy cattle for breeding purposes,
capacity to secrete milk is one of the chief characters
sought ; in selecting beef cattle, ability to fleshen rapidly ;
in selecting draft horses, v^eight ; and in selecting swine
for breeding, capacity to fatten rapidly is one of the
chief characters taken into account. Of course, in each
case, many other factors or characters must be con-
sidered, as certain characters are more or less dependent
one upon the other.

Character defined. — In common usage the term "char-
acter" is loosely applied and has a variety of meanings.
When one animal differs from another, we say he has
different characters. Thus we say of one horse that he
has speed, and of another that he has not speed ; whereas
both have some speed, but only one has enough to be
worthy of note. What we really mean, therefore, is
that the character, speed, differs in the degree of develop-
ment in the two animals. Now, when the speed has been
improved, we speak of introducing a new character,
whereas the improvement simply consisted of modifying
a character already present.

Such modification or development may be brought
about by intensifying useful characters or by the sub-
ordination of those that are less desirable. The fact that
characters do not differ in kind, but only in degree, must
be kept clearly in the mind of the breeder when selecting
animals for breeding. The term character may be
defined, therefore, as consisting of one of those details
of form or function which, taken together, constitute the
individual animal.

66 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

Germinal, acquired and congenital characters. — At-
tempts have been made to group characters mto classes
according to their mode of origin. Best usage warrants
defining germinal characters as those having their origin
in the germ plasm itself, as in the case of white, short-
haired guinea pigs descending from dark, short-haired
and white, long-haired guinea pigs (p. 47). Acquired
characters are defined as those that originate within the
individual under suitable environment, as the increased
speed of the race horse, due to continuous training.
Congenital characters are defined as those arising within
the individual also, and usually in spite of anything it
can do to prevent them, such as parental disease, the result
of uterine infection ; unsoundness in horses, the result of in-
herited weakness ; and the like. However, it is often dif-
ficult to difl^er.entiate between these three groups, as the
mode of origin cannot always be determined with certainty.

Correlated characters. — In our selection to improve
desirable characters or to subdue those that. are unde-
sirable we should keep in mind the fact that certain
characters seem to be so correlated as to move together,
while others move in opposite directions, and still others
move independent of each other. For example, there
is a high degree of correlation between a capacious udder
and high milk production, while there is a negative
correlation between the amount of milk produced and
the per cent of fat that it contains ; for, as the milk
production increases, the per cent of fat usually de-
creases. On the other hand, there is entire lack of
correlation between the color of a cow and the amount
of milk she gives, since black cows give as much and
no more milk than white cows.

This relationship is one of degree only, but it often
becomes an important factor in selecting breeding
animals. For example, delicacy is often associated with
refinement, and sterility with early maturity. Thus,
continued selection for refined, early-maturing animals

UNIT OF SELECTION — CHARACTER 6/

often leads to barrenness and lack of vigor. In like man-
ner the exceeding fineness of the Merino fleece has been
attained at the cost of diminished vigor. There is a high
degree of correlation between
excessive fatness and sterility
in both sexes, as well as be-
tween fatness and troubles at-
tending parturition in the fe-
male once she becomes preg-
nant. We have numerous ex-
amples of such relationships,
both good and bad, and the
breeder will do well to ac-
quaint himself with the more
important of them before he F'g. 22— shire stallion -'lockinge

, , . , , . . , HiNGlST"

selects his breedmg anmials.

Limit selection to useful characters. — In each of our
breeds of farm animals we have so increased the number
of characters that we are no longer able to find a very
large proportion of them in any one Individual. In
selecting our breeding animals we are often obliged to
take those possessing some undesirable characters in
order to get sufficient animals that meet the require-
ments. This makes real progress very slow.

Among the great number of characters which every
breed presents, the breeder should know which are use-
ful. He should decide upon a very limited number of
these and put all of his energies into their improvement.
This will have the decided advantage in that they will
be found in a large number of animals, and he can,
therefore, make his selection more rigid for the particular
characters in question. A little effort in this direction
would soon work wonders, as is exemplified in the speed
of the trotting horse, where the time has been reduced
from 2 :48>4 in 1810 to i :54^ in 1913. In this case speed
alone was the requirement. Even more striking results
have been attained with Holstein-Friesian cattle, where

BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

the butter fat yielded in seven days has been increased
from 21.2 pounds in 1894 to 35.3 pounds in 1913. In this
case ability to produce butter fat was the requirement.
Base selection on limited number of characters. — As
suggested in the case of the trotting horse and dairy
cow, where we base selection on one point, improvement
comes rapidly. Of course the particular character in-
volved depends on many subordinate factors, such as
vigor, capacity, endurance and the like, but all unessen-

Fic. 23 — Dutch Belted Herd of Excellent Type and Characteristic Markings

tial points, as size, style, action and conformation, have
been disregarded for the one object — speed in the trotter
and high milk and butter fat production in the cow.

On the other hand, difficulties in selection increase
rapidly with the increase in number of factors on which
selection is based. Let us assume a case where two
characters are involved. If one of the required factors
can be found in one-half of the individuals, then one-half
of the animals are available for breeding. To this let us

UNIT OF SELECTION CHARACTER 69

add a second character that can be found in one-third
of the individuals. Now, the probability of finding the
two characters in the same individual becomes -j^^ x % or
Yq, so that but one animal in six meets the requirements.
This is particularly true of characters that do not cor-
relate, as color and milk production, or color and tend-
ency to fleshen rapidly. Notwithstanding this fact,
many of our breeds exhibit just such handicaps as is
illustrated in the black color and white belt, a breed re-
quirement of Dutch Belted cattle and Hampshire swine
(Figs. 23 and 24).

Records of performance. — After deciding upon the
economic characters we are to strive to improve, a record
of these characters should be kept, as such is invaluable
in mating our animals. Such records are essential to
highest development, as we are unable to tell what an
animal can do simply by a physical examination. No
one is so base as to claim to be able to tell how fast a
horse can trot, or how heavy a load he can draw by
looking at him, likewise no one can tell how much milk
and butter fat a cow will produce, or how much wool a
sheep will grow, on the basis of a physical examination alone.

With a record of the economic character in question
available for each individual, we are able to distinguish
the high-producing from the medium and low-perform-
ing animals. Such records enable us to mate the best
with the best, and thus improve the particular character
with which we are working. The remarkable success
attained in breeding dairy cattle in recent years has been
due in a large measure to the fact that the breeders kept
a record of the milk and butter fat produced. Thus the
breeders were able to know for a certainty, not only the
records of the animals they mated, but the records of
their ancestors as well. With most of our breeds of
farm animals the difficulty comes in devising a scheme
for measuring the particular characters for which the
animals are produced.

BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

Actual breeding test valuable. — In selecting breeding
animals we are confronted with the fact that certain
individuals transmit their qualities with a high degree
of certainty while others do not. This Is all the more

confusing because the ex-
ceptional breeder is not
necessarily the excep-
tional individual. Neither
Hambletonian lo nor
De Kol 2d were re-
markable performers in
themselves, although the
former founded a great
family of trotting horses,
while the latter is the
ancestress of the most
cows the world has ever

Fig. 24 — Hampshire Sow with Character-
istic Markings

remarkable strain of milk

seen.

The only method by which we can ascertain the actual
breeding value of an animal is by a breeding test. In
testing young females they should be mated with a male
of known worth, or in testing a young male he should
be mated with females whose breeding value is well
known. The offspring of young animals thus mated will
indicate which should be retained and which should be
eliminated, although in the case of dairy cows it is neces-
sary to have the performance of the offspring before we
can know for a certainty. To save time, the young
animals may be tested at a comparatively early age, es-
pecially males. The common practice of putting a new,
young sire into full service in a large herd, without a
test of his breeding capacity, cannot be too strongly
condemned, no matter what his individuality or his
pedigree.

Breeders' fancy points. — Many of our leading breeders
have adopted breed standards that operate as a check
upon the maximum development of useful characters. A

UNIT OF SELECTION — CHARACTER 7I

very good example of this is observed in the color mark-
ings of Dutch Belted cattle, already mentioned. Accord-
ing to this requirement every cow must first have a
white belt about the body, which certainly adds nothing
to her ability to produce milk. Many high-producing
cows are eliminated from breeding simply because they
are deficient in this character. Possibly this serves to
keep the breed behind its competitors as milk-producing
animals.

The same principle is involved in nearly all of our
leading breeds, as their standard of perfection calls for
similar fancy points. Thus the Clydesdale and English
Shire draft horse must have long hairs growing from the
back of the cannons and fetlocks; chestnut color is
favored among Suffolk draft horses and Hackney coach
horses; the Holstein-Friesian cow must have a large
escutcheon, a long tail and be black and white in color;
the Jersey cow must have a black tongue ; the Ayrshire
cow must have characteristically shaped horns and a
straight back from base of horn to tail head ; and Hamp-
shire swine must be black in color with a white belt,
while Poland China and Berkshire swine must be black
in color with six white points, as well as free from curl-
ing hair along the back. Such fancy points add nothing
to the usefulness of the individual ; they simply serve
to complicate selection and act as a check upon maxi-
mum development of economic characters.

Fashionable breeding. — It often happens in the careers
of a breed that fashionable strains or families make their
appearance. Such families may owe their reputation to
certain notable animals, or they may result from the
activity of some promoter, and the popularity may, or
may not be due to real merit. For a time animals be-
longing to such families command a high price, and not
infrequently many small breeders become actively in-
terested, in the belief that they can make a large sum
of money and sell out before the popularity wanes. They

UNIT OF SELECTION CHARACTER 73

often pay a very large sum of money for an animal to be
placed in a small herd where there is utter lack of oppor-
tunity. Under such conditions the breeder seldom
realizes his money even though the individual animal
may be an excellent one. It will be to the financial ad-
vantage of the small breeder, as well as to the econ-
omical advantage of the breed, for him to handle the
best animals within his reach, and leave to the large
breeder, with every advantage at his command, the pro-
motion of fashionable strains.

Passing fads. — The breeder's work is often compli-
cated by fads and fancies of the public. A good illustra-
tion is observed in case of the shape and size of hen's
eggs. Some markets, especially New York City, pay
more for white eggs, while other markets, as Boston,
pay more for dark eggs ; some markets demand a
roundish tgg, while others prefer those of oval
shape. The same principle is involved in many other
characters, such as action and color among horses, and
the like. This is a serious consideration, as the breeder
must supply the demand or his products will remain
unsold. Since the breeder must sell his products or go
out of business, there is nothing left for him to do but
supply the demands of passing fads and fancies with as
little destruction to his breeding animals as possible.

Such demands can often be met by training, fitting and
conditioning, especially in cases like the action and car-
riage of horses. A passing fad can often be supplied by
the sire, thus enabling the breeder to retain his female
stock. No matter how pressing the fad, a few of the
original breeding animals should be retained as a pro-
tection against the day when the particular character
involved shall no longer be in demand.

CHAPTER VIII
BASIS OF SELECTION— VARIATION

In the discussion of heredity it was stated that in the
main offspring resemble parents, but in an exact sense
the new individual is never like either parent. This
variation between parent and offspring is at once the
hope and despair of the breeder, who seeks to hold fast
to whatever he has found that is good, and at the same
time tries to find something better. The practical
breeder must keep clearly in mind the very important
fact that offspring are exceedingly, variable, and while
a few may be superior to their parents, more will be
inferior to them. In order to improve or even maintain
our animals in their present excellence we must reject
those offspring that are inferior and select for mating
those that are superior to their parents.

Variation general among farm animals. — The most
invariable thing about living beings is their variability.
Not only are no two animals equal, but no two characters
are exactly alike. To those unfamiliar with sheep, each
animal of a flock may look exactly like the others, yet
the trained eye readily recognizes differences arid can
describe each so that those with equal training may
recognize them. These differences extend to all char-
acters. Two cows of like breeding may differ widely
in the richness of their milk as well as in the amount
produced ; two horses of the same breed may differ in
conformation, action and pulling power; two steers of
like breeding differ in their ability to fatten, and the meat
may also differ, the loin of one being fine and tender
while the other may be coarse in grain. Sheep, swine
and poultry differ similarly.

Variation basis of improvement. — If characters were

BASIS OF SELECTION — ^VARIATION

absolutely fixed and unchangeable, then no improvement
could be secured. The richness of milk as well as the
amount produced could neither be increased nor dimin-
ished, and the egg-laying capacity of hens would remain
constant from generation to generation, and the off-

FiG. 26 — Variation Among Light Horses

Shetland pony.
Thoroughbred.
American saddler.

Arabian.

Standardbred.

Hackney.

76 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

spring would be no better or poorer than the parent.
As it is, with variability everywhere, our animals are
both capable of improvement and liable to decline, since
both are the logical consequence of free variability. It
is obvious that a high degree of variability is favorable
to advancement, as it gives free materials with which
to use selection to advantage. Since variation is the
controlling factor in the improvement, as well as the
degeneration of our farm animals, we should make a care-
ful study of the kinds, as well as the nature, the extent
and the causes that control its appearance and determine
its permanency.

Nature of variation. — While there is much confusion
among breeders, both plant and animal, as to the nature
of variation, there are two kinds that the practical
breeder must keep clearly in mind. In our discussion
of the character as the unit of selection, it was shown
that to be sure of the breeding capacity of an animal,
we must have, not only a record of the performance, but
a record of the breeding capacity as well. The state-
ments there made carried the suggestion that a record
of performance was not sufficient data to judge an
animal's breeding capacity, as the offspring of some
individuals are uniformly good, while the offspring of
animals apparently as good are uniformly inferior.

In other words, some individuals transmit their good
qualities to their offspring, while others apparently do
not. Further, some animals transmit the ability to show
still further improvement under suitable environment,
while others do not transmit such ability to their off-
spring. Thus we have two kinds of animals — one class
transmitting its good qualities, however attained, and a
second class that does not transmit them. These two
classes of animals give us the distinction between the
two classes of variations. Thus we have one class of
variation that is passed down from generation to genera-
tion, and another class which is not thus handed down

BASIS OF SELECTION — VARIATION JJ

from parent to offspring. The class that is not trans-
mitted is called non-inheritable variation, w^hile the class
that is transmitted is called inheritable variation, although
the former is often called somatic variation and the
latter germinal variation.

Non-inheritable variations. — From the breeder's point
of view^ the distinction betw^een non-inheritable and in-
heritable variations is significant. The former, while of
inestimable value to the individual, is of no consequence
in breeding. Whether desirable or undesirable such
variations have no opportunity to affect the breed as a
whole either favorably or unfavorably. On the other
hand, from the standpoint of economic production alone,
non-inheritable variations may be of prime importance.
Good examples are observed in the case of high-produc-
ing cows in a commercial dairy where no attempt is
made to raise the calves, as well as in the case of high
egg-laying hens on a poultry farm where all of the eggs
are sold for consumption. Thus, where the product of
the individual is the sole object sought, non-inheritable
variations are as important as inheritable. In this con-
nection it should be noted that frequently the very
phenomenal producers are of the former sort, for rarely
do they transmit their qualities to their offspring; par-
ticularly is this true in case the product is of such a
nature as to draw heavily upon the constitutional vigor,
as in the case of egg-laying hens.

Inheritable variations. — As this term is used to denote
all variations, whether large or small and of whatever
origin, that are transmitted from parent to offspring and
from generation to generation, it is obvious that such
variations are of prime importance to the breeder, as they
are destined in time to exert a more or less permanent in-
fluence upon the breed, whether for good or evil. True,
it may not be possible for the breeder to distinguish
between inheritable and non-inheritable variations at the
time of their appearance. He may have to try them out

BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

to differentiate between them, but such is the case in
all forms of breeding, as has been clearly illustrated in
the discussion of Mendel's law. It is this that makes
records of performance, both in production and breeding
capacity, so essential to successful breeding.

Fig. 27-

Percheron.
Shire.

-Variation Among Heavy Horses
Suffolk Punch

Belgian.
Clydesdale.

BASIS OF SELECTION VARIATION 79

The breeder must not become confused by the end-
less number of variations, involving all shades of dif-
ferences, that present themselves to his view as gen-
erations come and go. He must learn to consider them,
with the full realization that few will have a permanent
influence upon the breed. He must become skilled, not
alone in detecting useful characters, but those that are
connected with transmission, since they are to mold the
type. This calls for extended and careful observations
as well as the keeping of accurate records of production
and breeding capacity.

Variations distinguished from the nature of the char-
acters involved. — The breeder can gain an idea of the
nature of variations by a careful consideration of the
characters involved. Certain distinctions exist, which,
if overlooked, will result in more or less confusion in
selecting breeding animals. For sake of clearness useful
characters may be divided into four groups :

1. Quantitative variations.— Th.Qse relate to differences
in form and size. They are the simplest of variations,
and we observe evidence of them on every hand. For
example, two horses of the same breed may be practically
alike, except one may be large and the other small ; even
on the same horse one foot may be larger than the others,
the two ears may not be of the same size, one eye may
be larger than the other, and so on — all variations in
size. In a similar manner, one cow may have a sym-
metrical udder with four full quarters and with the teats
well placed, while the other cow may have a very ir-
regular udder with the hindquarters larger than the fore
ones, and with the teats very unevenly placed — all varia-
tions in form independent of size.

2. Qualitative variations. — Such relate to differences in
quality. These are distinct from size and form and refer
to the composition of the body, or to the inherent nature
of the character involved. While not so simple as quan-
titative, evidences of qualitative variations are also very

60 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

abundant. For example, of all the cows of a given
breed, no two yield milk containing the same amount
of fat ; in fact, the individual cow varies widely from day
to day in the percentage of fat contained in the milk.
Of two steers of like breeding, the meat of one may be
fine in grain, high in flavor, tender and juicy; while the
meat of the other may be of coarse grain, tasteless, tough
and dry. The same is true of all meat-producing animals.
Again, the quality of no two horses is alike. One has
coarse, rough hair, thick hide and heavy, coarse bone ;
the other has smooth, soft hair, soft pliable hide and
fine smooth bone. While qualitative variations are not
so easily detected, as a rule, they are of greater sig-
nificance to the breeder than are those of either size or form.

3. Functional variations. — Such relate to deviations in
the normal activity of the various organs or parts of the
body, such as muscular activity, glandular secretions and
the like. This group refers to variations in what the
animal can do, and may be quantitative or qualitative.

Each organ or part of the body has its own work to do,
which is essentially dift'erent from that of any other organ
or part. The activities of these various organs are not
constant but exceedingly variable. Such deviations are
of prime importance to the breeder who is interested in
increasing the efficiency of the organs or parts as well
as in their permanent improvement. While functional
variations are often complex, in that a number of char-
acters are likely to be involved, yet illustrations are ob-
served on every hand. Among cows of the same breed-
ing, no two give the same amount of milk; in fact, the
individual cow does not give the same amount from day
to day. Likewise, animals vary in fertility, the average
cow or horse giving birth to but few, while, as we have
seen, the Angus cow. Old Granny, produced 25 young,
while the Thoroughbred mare. Old Fanny Cook, gave
birth to 15 foals. These animals both lived to a ripe old
age, indicating great vitality of all the organs.

BASIS OF SELECTION — VARIATION 8l

4. Variations in pattern. — These have to do w^ith re-
peated parts, such as extra teats on cattle and sw^ine,
extra toes in cats and dogs, and the like. This group
of variations is not common among animals, but evi-
dences are everywhere observed among plants, as stool-
ing of v^heat, oats, corn and the like.

In selecting animals to improve definite qualities, the
breeder should distinguish betw^een these four groups,
as it w^ill give him a clearer idea of the nature of varia-
tions and how to take advantage of them in his endeavor
to improve animals for the service of man.

Further, it is important to remember that each group
may be of the non-inheritable

sort, and thus affect the in- _,—_-, -«^i^^^

dividual only ; or each may
be inheritable, and thus influ-
ence the herd or breed.

Degrees of variations.—
Animals are not only exceed-
ingly variable, but there is
great difference in the degree fig. 28-KAMBouiLLET k^™ -uhio
which one individual devi- ^°^"

. 1 A 1 Fins wool type

ates from another. A clear

understanding of this is necessary to gain an idea of the
nature of variations, and hence to be able to take advan-
tage of such deviations as do appear.

Continuous variations. — Darwin supposed that varia-
tions were by nature continuous, and that new forms
originated by the gradual accumulation of very small
differences through a long period of selection. Accord-
ing to this theory if all of the individuals that ever lived
could be so arranged as to bring nearest together those
that are nearest alike, it would then be found that they
would grade into one another by insensible differences.
For a long time such was commonly assumed to be the
case, and no doubt is true of much of the variation among
our animals. This, of course, means that the breeder

82 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

must exercise great caution in selection so as to take
advantage of each slight improvement, as v^ell as to
eliminate undesirable forms, even though the difference
be small.

Discontinuous variations. — It is now definitely known
that not all variations are continuous, but that many
are discontinuous; that is, the new individual differs
from the parent by a wide margin. According to this
idea, we should not expect to find all nature united by
insensible gradations. This class of variations is far
more numerous than is commonly supposed, and our
animals deviate widely often in the line of improvement,
but possibly more often in the line of deterioration. This
necessitates even greater vigilance on the part of the
breeder.

Mutations. — This term was formerly used to denote a
wide and discontinuous deviation from the type ; in fact,
forming a new type, which bred true from the beginning.
The common example was the case of the peach tree
bearing nectarines. At present there is a tendency to
employ the term mutant to signify any variation,
whether large or small and of whatever origin, that is
transmitted from parent to offspring and from genera-
tion to generation. In the latter sense it denotes prac-
tically the same as inheritable and germinal variation.

Sports. — Wide deviations from established types were
noted by Darwin, who called them "sports." Some per-
sons consider sports and mutants synonymous. How-
ever, the term sport is used here to denote a sudden and
wide departure from the normal type that is not trans-
mitted from generation to generation.

Abnormality. — This term is used to denote a variation
of greater magnitude than a sport. An abnormal part
is distinctly different from the rest of the species. It
may be transmitted for a few generations, but will soon
disappear because of lack of adaptation.

Malformation. — A variation so great as to interfere

BASIS OF SELECTION VARIATION

«3

,/^

with the usefulness of an animal is called a malforma-
tion. Since the individual seldom reaches maturity such
deviations are of no economic importance to the breeder.

Monstrosity. — This term is used to denote a variation
of so great a degree as to ren-
der the life of the animal
impossible, or possible for a
short time only, such as an
individual with two heads.

These terms simply repre-
sent increasing degrees of
deviation from the normal
type of the race. While ab-
normalities, malformations
and monstrosities are often
of interest, they have no permanent value and the breeder

should eliminate them at once.

Fig. 29 — Rambouillet Ewe
Fine v/ool type

Distribution of Cows as
TO Per Cent of Butter
Fat

2.6

2.7

2.8

2.9

3.0

3.1

3.2

3.3

3.4

3.5

3.6

3.7

3.8

3.9

4.0

4.1

4.2

4.3

4.4

324

cent, of fat called value =V.
■[■cows in groups called frequency =F.

Study of variation. — So

universal is variability that
when considering a large
number of animals it is dif-
ficult to compare individuals
by the usual methods of ob-
servation. Thus in a study
of the quality of milk or the
percentage of butter fat,
taking a breed as a whole, it
is difficult to determine
whether advancement is
being made from generation
to generation, or indeed to
determine with exactness
whether the breed is hold-
ing its advantage. This
has led to the adoption of
the statistical methods of
study often called biometry.

BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

To illustrate the method let us make a study of butter
fat among Holstein-Friesian cows, taking the semi-official
records in volume 23 of the advanced register. The dif-
ferent individuals differ greatly in the percentage of fat
produced, and to obtain an idea of the rank it is necessary
to group them according to the per cent of fat produced,
as in the tabulation on preceding page showing distribu-
tion of cows as to per cent of fat produced.

Finding the type. — The distribution table shows a
total of 324 cows, varying from 2.6 to 4.4 per cent of fat,
with 3.4 the most common per cent. This most common
value is called the mode. Thus we say the 3.4 per cent
of fat is the mode for the semi-official Holstein-Friesian
cows entered in volume 2^ of the advanced register.

To find the type it is not sufficient to know the most
common value, but the average value as well. The

average value is called the
Finding the Mean mean. The average per cent

of fat yielded by the 324
cows may be an entirely
different value from the most
common value. To ascertain
this average value or mean
multiply each group of the
frequency distribution (F)
by its corresponding value
(V), add the results and
divide by the total number
of cows, as in the accom-
panying tabulation showing
method of finding the mean.
This gives an average
per cent of 3.44, differing
slightly from 3.4, the most
common value. In a similar
manner the mode and mean may be determined for the
flow of milk, and like characters that permit of definite

2.6

2.7

5.4

2.8

2.9

14.5

3.0

48.0

3.1

62.0

3.2

137.6

3.3

132.0

3.4

173.4

3.S

136.5

3.6

104.4

3.7

96.2

3.8

72.2

3.9

50.7

4.0

36.0

4.1

20.5

4.2

8.4

4.3

8.6

4.4

1
324

4.4

1116.2

1,116.2-7-324=3.44 mean = M.

BASIS OF SELECTION — VARIATION

measurement. The mean or average value is usually
accepted as the best representative of a typical individual.
Variability or deviation from type. — In a critical study
of variation we must determine the average deviation ;
that is, the average tendency for each cow^ to deviate
from the mean or average, v^hich is 3.44 per cent. From
the mean the low^est cow^, which is 2.6 per cent, deviates
.84; the next group of two cows each deviate .74, or a
total deviation of 2 times .y /l — 1.48. Continue down the dis-
tribution, and calculate the deviation of each group, then
add all together to obtain the total amount by which
all cows deviate from their average per cent of fat. Now,
by dividing this amount by the number of cows, we shall
obtain the average deviation of the cows, as in the tabula-
tion showing method of finding average deviation.

Finding Average Deviation

V-M

F (V-M)

2.6

-.84

0.84

2.7

-.74

1.48

2.8

-.64

0.64

2.9

-.54

2.70

3.0

-.44

7.04

3.1

-.34

6.80

3.2

-.24

10.32

3.3

-.14

5.60

3.4

-.04

2.04

3.5

.06

2.34

3.6

.16

4.64

3.7

.26

6.76

3.8

.36

6.84

3.9

.46

5.98

4.0

.56

5.04

4.1

.66

3.30

4.2

.76

1.52

4.3

.86

1.72

4.4

.96

0.96

324

76.56

76.56 -7-324 =0.23 + = average deviation.

This gives 0.23-)- as the average amount by which each
cow deviates from the average. Thus it gives a good
measure of the variability in this particular lot of cows.

BREEDING OF FARAI ANIMALS

The mean and the average deviation give a very good
measure of the type as well as its stability, and afford a
very convenient basis for comparing one year's work
with another or one generation of animals with another
where large numbers of individuals are involved.

Plotting a frequency curve. — Such frequency distribu-
tions as the above gradually rise from the low value to
the mode and then descend to the high value. This is
best illustrated by a system of plotting in which the dis-
tribution is put into the form of a curve known as a
"frequency curve."

To plot such a curve, rule a sheet of paper both ways,
arranging the values along the bottom and the fre-
quency distribution on the left, preferably standardizing
it. Connect the points where the perpendicular lines
from the values cross the horizontal lines from the fre-
quencies with a curved line. This irregular line con-
stitutes the frequency curve and gives a true picture of
the variation that exists among cows in the per cent of
butter fat produced, as shown in Fig. 30. In this case
the curve is not smooth, due to lack of sufficient num-
bers to make it regular and uniform.

45
40
35
30
25

— _

Z.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3.0 3.1 5.Z 3.2 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 44

Fig. 30 — Plotting a Frequency Curve

CHAPTER IX

SOME CAUSES OF VARIATIONS

Variations constitute the basis of all improvement as
well as that of all decline. Because of this the breeder
is especially interested in the causes of variations in
animals, as well as in methods of their possible control.
While exact causes are little understood, past experience
has taught us that certain practices can be relied upon
to give good results. The general causes of variations
may be divided into two classes, those that arise within
the body, largely in the form of inherited differences,
and those that are external to the animal, such as dif-
ferences in the environment. The breeder can influence
the former but little, if at all ; while over the latter he
has practically complete control.

SOME EXTERNAL CAUSES OF VARIATIONS

Everywhere about us we observe that animals of the
same species vary widely according to the environment.
The climate and the food, as well as favorable and un-
favorable conditions, generally exert a profound influ-
ence upon living beings. We can often tell the condi-
tions under which an animal was grown simply by a
physical examination. That the conditions in which an
animal is obliged to live exert a direct effect upon his
development is beyond question.

In a general way our animals are the result of their
environment, and improvement is possible only when the
conditions of life are made more suitable. Good ex-
amples are observed in the case of early maturity and
increased fertility among cattle and swine. In nature
the cow does not reach full maturity until five or six

OO BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

years of age; she does not breed until well along in
years, and she usually gives birth to but few calves in
her lifetime. On the other hand, when properly cared
for, the cow may give birth to young before she is two
years of age without injury to herself or the calf; she
attains her growth at a much earlier period than in
nature, and when properly managed may produce a num-
ber of calves.

Fig. 31 — Shropshire Ewe. Medium wool, mutton type.

Swine show even greater improvement. In nature the
sow gives birth to but one litter of one to four young
each year, and it requires three to five years for these
animals to attain full development, while under man's
care the sow may annually give birth to two litters of
six to ten young each, and in six months the pigs attain

SOME CAUSES OF VARIATIONS 89

sufficient development to be bred again, as well as to be
marketed to advantage.

Climate and locality. — In nature there is a correlative
influence between the climate and the kind of animals
that exist under it. The characters that are most often
affected are those that have to do with size and the
external covering of the animal. The natural relation
of climate to size is that animals inhabiting cold climates
are usually small as compared with those of the same
species inhabiting warm climates. When animals are
exposed to cold, damp weather the hair becomes long
and thick. In some instances the exposure produces a
double coat of hair — an upper one being long and wavy
and an under one short, fine and furlike. Galloway cattle
furnish a good example.

Formerly we were accustomed to associating a high
degree of constitutional vigor with animals that were
developed in rather cold or severe climates. It was also
stated that they could not be transplanted to another
climate without impairing their vigor. Experience dis-
proves this, as many animals show ease of acclimation
to wide changes of climatic conditions. There are
numerous illustrations of where animals have been ex-
ported from their own country to other countries and
climates, and have shown as marked a degree of vigor
as in their native land. In fact, in many cases they have
shown marked improvement in constitutional vigor over
the original animals. For example. Merino sheep were
developed in the dry climate of the tablelands of Spain,
where they were famous for the quality of their fleece.
In the latter part of the eighteenth century they were
exported to Germany, France and the United States.
Although in each of these countries the climate is very
different from that of Spain, yet the sheep rapidly im-
proved in vigor and fleece covering until they far sur-
passed the original Spanish animals.

In like manner, Jersey and Guernsey cattle of the

90 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

Channel Islands have been exported to England, Europe
and to the United States. In each of these countries
they have become perfectly acclimated and have shown
no loss in constitutional vigor, and, in fact, they have
improved wonderfully over the original cattle.

While the influence of climate and locality is great and
the factors at work are exceedingly complex, yet from
a practical point of view we may consider the food supply
and more favorable conditions generally, such as sufficient
shelter, proper care, including training and developing,
as the more important causes of variation.

Care and management. — In the breeding of animals
the conditions of environment are changed or enlarged
by man, who provides his animals with favorable con-
ditions. The improvement derived from proper care and
management is not fully appreciated by the average
breeder. The development attained by our high-class
animals is largely due to the favorable conditions pro-
vided by man. A good example is observed in the speed
of the trotting horse. In 1810, Boston trotted a mile at
Philadelphia in 2:485^. This was the fastest mile ever
trotted in harness and was not exceeded for 16 years.
In 1912 Uhlan trotted a mile at Memphis in i :58.

The conditions under which these records were made
are significant. Boston was in training but a few months
each year and was not worked out as trotters are at
present. At the time he made the memorable mile he
was driven to a high, wooden-wheeled, steel-tired,
straight-spindled clumsy cart ; the harness was heavy
and ill adapted to trotting; and the track over which he
was driven was not as well constructed as are present-
day tracks. On the other hand, Uhlan was in training
practically throughout the year ; he was perfectly worked
out, and in prime physical condition; he was driven to a
low, wire-wheeled, pneumatic-tired, ball-bearing, per-
fectly balanced cart ; the harness was light and perfectly
adapted ; and the track was the fastest in the world.

SOME CAUSES OF VARIATIONS 9I

Food supply. — The food supply is of prime importance
in effecting improvement among animals. No other con-
ditions influence development to a greater extent. Large
breeds are developed from small ones largely by increas-

FiG. 32 — Belgian Mare "Bella"

ing the food supply. In addition to the increase in size,
there is also an increase in the constitutional vigor w^hen
the animal is v^^ell fed.

In order to secure increased development of all of the
productive functions, the animal must be supplied w^ith
more food than is required for the performance of the
normal functions. A good example is observed in the
increased yield of dairy cows. In the early days of
official cow testing a weekly yield of 18 pounds of butter
fat was considered exceptional. At the present time
(1914) the record stands at 35.3 pounds of butter fat in
seven days, practically double the record of a few years
ago. Let us note the conditions under which these
records were made.

92 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

Formerly the cows on test received no special prepara-
tion before calving or subsequently. The daily food con-
sisted of a moderate amount of one or two kinds of con-
centrates or grains, all the hay they would consume
with the run of pasture when in season. During
inclement weather the animals were stabled, but
never blanketed. They were fed and milked twice
daily. Contrast such conditions with present-day
methods. The cows are especially prepared for
the test and often excessively fat; they are closely
stabled and often heavily blanketed; they are fed all of
the food they will eat, often as high as 40 or more pounds
of concentrates, consisting of a dozen foods variously
mixed, in addition to all of the silage, roots, cabbage,
clover and alfalfa hay they will consume, the total daily
ration often exceeding 100 pounds of food. Further, the
cows are fed and milked four times each day.

Training and development. — Just how much of the in-
creased speed of the trotter is due to training, to favor-
able conditions and to breed improvement is an open
question. Likewise, just how much of the improvement
in dairy cows is due to special preparation and develop-
ment, to favorable conditions, and to general improve-
ment of the breed is a matter concerning which we lack
sufficient data to answer with any degree of accuracy.
Certain it is, however, not least of these factors is train-
ing and developing. In fact, they are the chief agents
in bringing out efficiency, otherwise we would never
know the fastest trotting horse or the highest-producing
cow.

Training and developing are not only useful agents in
bringing out differences in the capacity of our farm
animals, but they must be continued to keep the animals
up to maximum efficiency. Thus, if we wish to breed a
strain of fast-trotting horses or of high-producing cows,
we must not only train the horses and develop the cows
during the formation of the stud or herd, but we must

SOME CAUSES OF VARIATIONS 93

continue to train and develop them as long as we remain
in the business. The same is true of most characters
which the animal breeder is seeking to improve, and in
this they differ from unit-characters, as color, presence
or absence of horns on cattle and sheep, and the like.
It was stated in our discussion of Mendel's law that once
we obtained a pure color strain it would breed true from
generation to generation. While sufficient evidence is
lacking to say that such is not true of speed among
trotters, pulling power among draft horses and high milk
and butter fat production among cattle, yet the facts will
certainly remain unknown unless the animals are trained
and developed so as to bring out their maximum
efficiency.

Use and disuse. — It must be evident to all that use
stimulates and disuse dwarfs the development of many
organs. The training of the race horse and the develop-
ing of the dairy cow are good examples of normal de-
velopment, but by constant use it is possible to stimulate
some organs beyond the normal. There are many ex-
amples of this in the human family, such as the blind
reading by the touch of the finger tips, the deaf carrying
on conversation by watching the lips, and using the toes
to write. This is putting parts to entirely new use and
requires constant and painstaking effort to accomplish
the task.

That disuse dwarfs organs is well illustrated in the case
of the disappearance of legs from snakes and from
whales, the lessening of the wings in certain birds and
the loss of toes in many mammals including the horse,
the prototype being a five-toed animal.

Injuries and mutilations. — Not infrequently injury to
a part sets up cell division which results in a local growth
to support the injured parts. In the horse such growths
are spoken of as blemishes. Notwithstanding popular
opinion, the breeding animal is none the worse for
blemishes the result of accidental injury.

94 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

Formerly there was much discussion among animal
breeders as to the importance of mutilations, by which
is meant the removal of parts after they have developed.
The frequent appearance of tailless kittens gave credence
to the belief that such mutilations were often transmitted,
notwithstanding the fact that there is a breed of cats
naturally tailless, which is no doubt responsible for the
tailless kittens. For countless generations it has been
the custom to remove the tails from lambs, with no signs
of tailless sheep as the result, and from the remotest times
the Jews have practiced circumcision, and are still at it.

While of little interest to the breeder, male castration
is a fertile cause of variation to the individual. In the
castrated animal the general development of the head
and neck will be arrested, he will remain lighter and finer,
lacking the general coarseness of unaltered males. In
fact, there is a profound difference in the development,
extending to practically every character, the animal ap-
proaching the general conformation of the female. Like-
wise, females when deprived of their ovaries develop to
some extent the characters of the male.

Chemical agents. — While of little or no economic value,
it is nevertheless interesting to note the influence of cer-
tain dyes and chemical agents in producing variation.
Long ago Darwin reported that swine feeding upon
madder root possessed flesh abnormally red in color.
Gage reports that feeding poultry vs^ith an aniline dye
(Sodan Red III) resulted in eggs tinted with the red
dye, and that chicks hatched from such eggs also were
tinted. Riddle reports similar results with guinea pigs.
In such cases the dye is held in suspension in the fats,
and the coloring matter disappears with the fat.

It has long been known that certain agents stimulated
secretions and glandular activity. Hill reports that the
injection into the veins of a thoroughly milked dairy cow
of a saline extract of the pituitary bodies of cattle re-
sulted in an immediate secretion of from 12 to 25 per

SOME CAUSES OF VARIATIONS 95

cent of the normal flow, and the milk thus secreted con-
tained 50 to 100 per cent more fat than normal stripping,
although the flow was materially depressed at the next
milking.

Breeders' control of the external causes of variation. —
Among successful animal breeders the opinion prevails
that greatest development of useful characters and at-
tributes can be attained only by providing animals with
favorable conditions. Chief among these are suitable
food; protection from cold, heat, enemies and all annoy-
ing influences ; proper managemicnt ; and suitable
preparation, including training and developing". So far
as it is positively known, we have attained highest de-
velopment of useful characters in no other manner. The
breeder of animals should clearly understand this ; other-
wise, he may be misled by the occasional individual that
shows great improvement, as well as by those individuals
that are exceedingly prepotent in transmitting their char-
acters to their offspring.

SOME INTERNAL CAUSES OF VARIATIONS

There is little doubt but that the exact cause of the
great bulk of variability is due to factors internal to the
organism, mainly in the form of inherited tendencies.
However, these internal influences are dependent, in
part, at least, upon outside conditions for their oppor-
tunity. The external conditions must be favorable in
order to promote the development of inherited tendencies.
Unfavorable conditions dwarf development, no matter
how pure the heritage.

Maturation a cause of variation. — The process by which
the number of chromosomes in the germ cells — both male
and female — is reduced to half is a preliminary step to fer-
tilization is a very significant internal cause of variation.

For the sake of clearness in illustrating the significance
of this reduction, consider the case of a species in which
four is the regular number of chromosomes, two of which

96 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

are eliminated at maturation. It is obviously impossible
to know which two of the four bodies will be preserved.
Let us consider the four chromosomes of the female to
bear numbers from one to four, any two of which may
be eliminated. Likewise, consider the four chromosomes
of the male to bear numbers five to eight, any two of
which may be split off at maturation. In this case any
one of the following combinations is equally as likely as
any other to be preserved in the germ cells during
maturation :

Possible Chromosome Combination in Maturation

Female germ cell

Male germ cell

1+2 2+3

1+3 2+4

1+4 3+4

5+6 6+7

5+7 6+8

5+8 7+8

Thus there are six possible combinations in a female
of a species of four chromosomes. But our farm animals
each possess 16 chromosomes in the germ cells, eight of
which are eliminated at maturation. Calculated on the
same basis, this would give 12,870* possible combinations
in the maturation of the ovum.

Reduction is similar in the male. While all four divi-
sions of the spermatozoon remain functional, only one is
utilized in fertilization, thus the possibilities are the same
as in the female.

*Suppose a female has 2 K chromosomes, of which half only are available, K

|J_K

Now the number of possible ways of selecting K among 2 K is ■ — , Thus in

I K - I K
case the number of chromes 5mes is 16 we have

1 • 2 • 3 • 4 ■ 5 ■ 6 • 7 • 8 • 9 • 10 • 11 • 12 • 13 • 14 • IS • 16

1-2-3-4-5-6-7-8-1- 2 ■ 3 ■ 4 ■ 5 • 6 • 7 ■
Likewise the male chromosomes share similar possibilities.

12,870

SOME CAUSES OF VARIATIONS 97

Fertilization a cause of variation. — The process of fer-
tilization in which the remaining chromosomes in the
maturized germ cells flocculate to restore the original
number is also an important internal cause of variation.
Continuing w^ith the illustration, we now have six pos-
sible maternal combinations and six possible paternal
combinations of chromosomes any one being equally as
likely as any other to unite in fertilization, thus giving
the following combination of chromosomes :

Possible Chromosome Combinations in Fertilization

1+2X5+6 1+4X5+6 2+4X5+6

1+2X5+7 1+4X5+7 2+4X5+7

1+2X5+8 1+4X5+8 2+4X5+8

1+2X6+7 1+4X6+7 2+4X6+7

1+2X6+8 1+4X6+8 2+4X6+8

1+2X7+8 1+4X7+8 2+4X7+8

1+3X5+6 2+3X5+6 3+4X5+6

1+3X5+7 2+3X5+7 3+4X5+7

1+3X5+8 2+3X5+8 3+4X5+8

1+3X6+7 2+3X6+7 3+4X6+7

1+3X6+8 2+3X6+8 3+4X6+8

1+3X7+8 2+3X7+8 3+4X7+8

There are 36 possible combinations of chromosomes
in a species with four chromosomes. Thus it is possible
for two parents with four chromosomes to have 36 off-
spring, no two of which are identical. In the case of
farm animals in which the regular number of chromo-
somes is 16 we find there are 165,636,900* possible com-
binations of chomosomes in fertilization.

In view of the assumption that the chromosomes bear
the hereditary determiners, it is not surprising that we
never find two animals exactly alike, even when of the
same parentage. Since we cannot control the chromo-
somes in the vital processes of maturation and fertiliza-
tion, there is undeniably a large element of chance in
breeding. It is not justifiable, however, to assume that
each chromosome is entirely different from all the others

*Continuing our problem as in maturation, the possible combinations of chromo-
somes in fertilizations is
[I 2 K ■}'
— 1 which in this case Is the same as [12,870]= = 165,636,900.
IK -IK J

gS BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

in the same parent. The fact that there usually is a
general resemblance between parent and offspring, as
well as between oft'spring of the same parents at different
periods, leads to the assumption that the chromosomes
are largely similar.

Mendelism a cause of variation. — The most significant
internal cause of variation under the control of the
breeder is that brought about by the Mendelian phe-
nomenae. In the discussion of Mendel's law it was
clearly indicated how variations could be produced and
how new forms could be established (p. 49). This is a
comparatively simple matter where few unit-characters
are considered, although it becomes exceedingly complex
in the more economic attributes, especially those involv-
ing many unit-characters.

Atavism and reversion, both internal variations in
which the individuals skip a generation or more in their
inheritance and resemble former ancestors more than the
immediate parents, can be accounted for on the basis of
the Mendelian hypothesis.

Cross-breeding a cause of variation. — Among farm
animals the new individual is the product of two parents
— male and female — and is of necessity unlike either,
being a product of both. This is considered an internal
variation, and is slight if the blood lines are similar.

On the other hand, the mating of dissimilar animals
results in radical differences. Formerly this was the
chief means by which improvement was sought. It was
observed that the mating of unrelated animals, or those
which had existed under a different environment,
resulted in offspring possessing increased constitu-
tional vigor, greater prolificacy, and often individual im-
provement. The great difficulty came, however, when
an attempt was made to breed these cross-bred animals.
The offspring of such cross-bred animals varied widely,
some were good, more were inferior, and no one could
foretell which way the offspring would develop. While

SOME CAUSES OF VARIATIONS

productive of variation, cross-breeding- is objectionable
as a system of breeding.

Cell division a cause of variation. — Growth is the result
of cell division. The individual cells of giants are no
larger than those of normal animals,
l:)Ut they are more numerous. Like-
wise, the cells of dwarfs are not
smaller, but fewer in number.
Thus it follows that size, and to
some extent the form, are depend-
ent upon cell division If too few
cells are formed, the animal will
be small ; if the cells are many, the
animal will be large ; while if too
few in some parts or too many in
others, the animal will be thrown
out of proportion, which may
be so serious as to result in a
malformed animal. What the
decide how far cell division

Fig. 33 — Catalonian Jack

influences are that
shall proceed and
when it shall stop in the case of each part we do not
know. Certain it is that favorable conditions, such as
food and care, exert a profound influence, especially while
the animal is young and cell division is active. Aside
from this, however, there are certain internal forces at
work upon the normal exercise of which all typical de-
velopment depends. Thus it follows that while cell
division, and hence development, can certainly be influ-
enced by favorable conditions, it is also manifest that
absolute control is largely beyond the power of the
breeder.

Relative fertility and longevity. — While not ordinarily
classified as causes of variations, relative fertility and
longevity are important factors in the make-up of the
characters of any particular breed. Animals are not
equally fertile. Occasionally desirable attributes are lost
through low fertility and sterility. A good example of

lOO

BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

this was observed in the Duchess family ^of Shorthorn^-,
in many respects the most remarkable family of beef
animals in the world. On the other hand, there may be
certain characters that are correlated with highest fer-
tility. If unrestricted, these will soon become the
dominant characters of the breed. It is important, there-
fore, that the breeder understand this, so that, if the fer-

FiG. 34 — Span of Excellent Mules

tile animals possess undesirable characters he may
eliminate such characters, in so far as possible, by rigid
selection ; and if the shy breeders possess very desirable
attributes, he may take pains to preserve them, although
there is little use in attempting to breed a strain, how-
ever desirable, that is not at least fairly prolific.

The make-up of the characters of a breed depends as
much upon longevity as upon fertility. There is little
use in attempting to breed a strain of short-lived animals.

SOME CAUSES OF VARIATIONS

lOI

particularly of milk cows and horses, the former of which
is valuable in proportion to her productive age, and the
latter to the age to which he retains his vigor.

Fig. 35 — Zebu Cattle, Native of Trinidad

CHAPTER X
INDIVIDUAL MERIT AND SELECTION

The animals selected for breeding should be good repre-
sentatives of the type and breed to which they belong.
In recent years breeders have been attracted by the de-
mand for purely bred stock and have often selected their
breeding animals on the basis of the pedigree and with-
out personal inspection. This is often a questionable
practice, as many individuals find their way to the books
of record simply because animals thus recorded are in
very great demand, irrespective of their fitness for breed-
ing purposes. In selecting foundation animals, they
should be carefully examined, as animals lacking type or
breed characteristics are likely to prove disappointing
in the end.

Not only should the animals themselves be carefully
inspected, but their parents and offspring, if available,
should also be critically noted. Especially is this true
of the offspring, as they indicate the breeding capacity,
and give us an idea of what to expect. So important is
this that when selecting animals of our own breeding, it
is suggested to breed those under consideration at an
early age, so as to learn their breeding capacity as early
in life as possible. If they should prove undesirable in-
dividuals, we are able to discard them early and thus
save needless expense in their maintenance. On the
other hand, if they should prove desirable, we know it in
time to secure maximum benefit. When young individ-
uals are bred to determine the breeding capacity, they
should be mated with animals of proven merit.

The breeder a judge. — In animal breeding success de-
pends very largely upon the ability to select animals with
skill and judgment. There are three important factors to

INDIVIDUAL MERIT AND SELECTION

103

be considered in choosing breeding animals — individual
merit, pedigree and, when available, the performance of
the animal. Among expert judges as v^ell as breeders there
is much confusion as to the part each should play in
making a choice. A few-
breeders place individual
excellence first, a few the
pedigree, and a few others
the performance, while
the mass of breeders seem
to have no very clear idea
of the relationship be-
tween the factors.

The progress made in
recent years in breeding
trotting horses and dairy ^ ^ o «,

P •^ Fig. 36 — Percheron Stallion "Idlefonse

cattle IS gradually chang-
ing our ideas of judging. Formerly we tried to estimate the
capacity of a cow to give milk by a physical examination of
her external characters. This was often disappointing, as
many cows proved to be very good producers that were
lacking in general appearance, and many cows that were
of typical dairy form failed to make a good showing as
producers. In other words, we cannot tell for a cer-
tainty how fast a horse can trot or how much milk and
butter fat a cow can produce by a physical examination.
This can be determined only by trial — racing the horse and
milking the cow. This is significant, and the breeder
should distinguish clearly between individual merit and
performance. The former is a matter of judgment, while
the latter cannot be definitely known until a trial has
been made of the animal's capacity.

Types of animals. — While we cannot tell for a cer-
tainty what an animal can do without test, yet animals
assume rather characteristic forms or types because of
the demand made upon them in the performance of their
functions. Certain types, therefore, became correlated

INDIVIDUAL MERIT AND SELECTION IO5

with certain functions. For example, in beef production
it is very important that the animals take on flesh and
that the body be plump and full, w^hereas in the produc-
tion of milk this would be considered an objection, as the
food should go to the production of milk and not to body
fat. Thus these two classes of animals are of necessity
widely different in type. The beef animial is compact
and blocky and in general appearance resembles a brick
set on edge, the top and bottom lines being parallel,
and there is an even covering of thick flesh throughout
the body. On the other hand, the large digestive and
milking capacity of the dairy cow gives her a wedge
shape as viewed from the side. She is deeper through
the hips, flank and udder than through the shoulders and
chest. She is lacking in flesh, spare and angular, with
prominent shoulders, hips and rump. Likewise, horses,
sheep, swine and poultry vary in type according to the
purpose for which they are produced. Thus we have
light, coach and draft types of horses ; wool and mutton
types of sheep ; and lard and bacon types of swine, as
well as dairy, beef and general-purpose types of cattle.
(For complete list of types and breeds, see appendix.)

Within a given type there is often much variation, and
the breeder should study the demands of the market in
order to produce that which is most desired. Not in-
frequently the demands of the market vary according
to the locality. A good example is observed in the case
of draft horse type. New York City being a great
shipping port, where much heavy hauling is done,
demands a large and upstanding horse, whereas the dray
work of Boston being much lighter, the market derhands
are for a low-set, massive drafter of good conformation.

Utility of types. — Since certain types are associated
with certain functions, in a general way, they are useful
in estimating the capacity of our animals. This is par-
ticularly true in those cases where no record of perform-
ance is available, as in all meat-producing animals, as

I06 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

well as all horses other than trotters and pacers. The
breeder must make a careful study of those types that
are correlated with the particular products which he is
trying to produce. Thus when the production of meat
is the principal product sought, he must know the type
associated with early maturity and with rapid fleshing,
as well as that most sought by the butcher and packer,
as such commands the highest price on the market. In
all such cases the type is exceedingly useful, as it serves
as the only guide at the disposition of the breeder in
selecting his animals.

Uniformity in type. — The animals selected for breed-
ing should be uniform in size and type. This is of
special importance in meat-producing animals and horses
other than racers. Butchers and packers desire cattle,
sheep and swine uniform in weight, so that the cuts of
meat will run uniform as their trade demands. If the
animals vary in size and type, the weight of the cuts of
meat will likewise vary, and to this the butcher objects,
as he cannot find a ready market for cuts of meat varying
in weight. Likewise, uniformity is of importance in the
wool-producing sheep, as an even uniform clipping of
wool is to be desired.

In the breeding of horses uniformity in size and type
as well as color and quality is of prime importance. This
is emphasized by the fact that a well-matched team will
sell for a very much better price than when the two
animals are sold singly. The market demands teams
uniform in type, weight, quality, color and age, and it is
the business of the breeder to supply the market de-
mands. To obtain uniform offspring, it is essential to
breed animals that are uniform in type, as this character
has a tendency to be transmitted from parent to offspring.

Breeds of animals. — Within each type there are a num-
ber of breeds of animals, all of which conform to the gen-
eral type to which they belong, but differ in respect to
breed characteristics. In breeding pure-bred animals it

INDIVIDUAL MERIT AND SELECTION

107

is as important to select individuals possessing the char-
acteristics of the breed to which they belong as it is to
select those true to type.

The breed to select in founding a stud, herd or flock
will depend entirely upon the attendant conditions, as

Fig. 38 — Hereforh Bull "Point Comfort 14th"

there is no best breed for all conditions. The intending
breeder should make a careful study of the situation, tak-
ing account of the market demands, the general environ-
ment, as well as his own limitations, and select the breed
best suited to his particular conditions, as certain breeds
arc not well adapted to certain conditions. A good ex-
ample of the principle involved is observed in the case

I08 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

of dairy cattle. A careful study of the dairy industry
reveals the fact that in general large cows are replacing
small ones in localities where the land is level and easily
grazed ; while small cows are replacing large ones in hilly
communities where grazing is difficult.

Standard of perfection. — Each of the more important
breeders' associations have established a standard or a
scale of points for the guidance of breeders. This stand-
ard denotes the characteristics that each individual of
the breed should possess. The scale of points, known
as the score card, gives a percentage value to each part
of the animal and designates the desirable conformation.
This is illustrated in the following scale of points :

SCALE OF POINTS FOR HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN COWS

POINTS.

Head — Decidedly feminine in appearance; fine in contour 2

Forehead — Broad between the eyes; dishing 2

Face — Of medium length ; clean and trim, especially under the

eyes, showing facial veins ; the bridge of the nose straight 2

Muzzle — Broad with strong lips 1

Ears — Of medium size; of fine texture; the hair plentiful and

soft; the secretions oily and abundant 1

Eyes — Large; full; mild; bright 2

Horns — Small; tapering finely towaids the tips; set moderately

narrow at base ; oval ; inclining forward ; well bent inward ;

of fine texture; in appearance waxy 1

Neck — Long ; fine and clean at juncture with the head ; free

from dewlap; evenly and smoothly joined to shoulders 4

Shoulders — Slightly lower than hips ; fine and even over tops ;

moderately broad and full at sides 3

Chest — Of moderate deoth and lowness; smooth and moderately

full in the brisket ; full in the foreflanks (or through at the

heart) 6

Crops — Moderately full 2

Chine — Straight; strong, broadly developed, with open vertebras 6
Barrel — Long; of wedge shape; well rounded; with a large

abdomen, trimly held up (in judging the last item age

must be considered) 7

Loin and hips — Broad; level or nearly level between the hook

bones ; level and strong laterally ; spreading from chine

broadly and nearly level; hook bones fairly prominent 6

Rump — Long; high; broad with roomy pelvis; nearly level

laterally; comparatively full above the thurl; carried out

straight to dropping of tail 6

INDIVIDUAL MERIT AND SELECTION IO9

Thurl — High; broa 3

Quarters — Deep; straight behind; twist filled with development

of udder; wide and moderately full at the sides 4

Flanks — Deep; comparatively full 2

Legs — Comparatively short; clean and nearly straight; wide
apart; firmly and squarely set under the body; feet of
medium size, round, solid and deep 4

Tail — Large at base, the setting well back; tapering finely to
switch ; the end of the bone reaching to hocks or below ;
the switch full 2

Hair and handling — Hair healthful in appearance; fine, soft and
furry; the skin of medium thickness and loose ; mellow
under the hand; the secretions oily, abundant and of a rich
brown or yellow color 8

Mammary veins — Very large; very crooked (age must be taken
into consideration in judging of size and crookedness) ;
entering very large or numerous orifices ; double extension ;
with special developments, such as branches, connections, etc. 10

Udder and teats — Very capacious; very flexible; quarters even;
nearly filling the space in the rear below the twist, extend-
ing well forward in front; broad and well held up 12

Teats — Well formed; wide apart, plumb and of convenient size 2

Escutcheon — Largest; finest 2

Perfection 100

General vigor — For deficiency inspectors may discredit from the
total received, not to exceed eight points.

General symmetry and fineness — For deficiency inspectors may dis-
credit from the total received, not to exceed eight points.

General style and bearing— For deficiency inspectors may discredit
from the total received, not to exceed eight points.

Credits for excess of requirement in production — A cow shall be
credited one point in excess of what she is otherwise entitled
to for each and every ten per cent that her butter-fat record
exceeds the minimum requirements for her age.

The breeder should make a thorough study of the
standard as well as the scale of points so as to be able
to recognize desirable as well as undesirable character-
istics. Not infrequently these breed standards call for
certain fancy points of little or no economic value, such
as escutcheon in the Holstein-Friesian cattle ; feather on
the cannons and fetlocks of Clydesdale and Shire horses ;
six white points in Poland China and Berkshire swine ;
and the like ; but if the breeder is producing pure-bred
animals, he is obliged to conform to breed standards,

no BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

otherwise he will not be able to dispose of his animals
to financial advantage.

Value of breed characteristics. — For convenience of
study we may divide the characteristics of a breed into
two classes, basing our division upon the economic value
of the feature in question. Thus we have breed char-
acteristics that are useful and those that are not. To the
latter group belong such features as color. So far as is
known a red and white Holstein-Friesian cow is capable
of yielding as much milk and butter fat as a black and
white one, but according to the rules of the Holstein-
Friesian Herd Book the former cannot be recorded, as
only black and white animals are admitted. The same
is true of color markings of Dutch Belted cattle, Poland
China and Hampshire swine, and the like. The economic
value of such characteristics should be clearly understood
by the breeder, notwithstanding the fact that he must
select his animals to conform to the breed standard,
otherwise his animals will be discriminated against on
the open market.

On the other hand, many of the breed characteristics
are exceedingly useful. This class is well exemplified in
case of egg production in White Leghorn and Plymouth
Rock poultry, the former laying a white egg, the latter
a dark one. Some markets, notably those of New York
City, prefer white eggs and pay a very high premium
for them, while other markets, especially those of Bos-
ton, demand dark eggs, although they do not pay so
high a premium for them. Another notable example of
useful breed characteristics is that of milk and butter-fat
production in Jersey and Holstein-Friesian cattle. The
former gives a medium flow of milk very rich in fat,
while the latter gives a large flow which is only medium
in the fat content. The breeder should make a careful
study of all breed characteristics, valuable as well as
otherwise, in order that he may select his breeding
animals with judgment.

INDIVIDUAL MERIT AND SELECTION III

Age and individual merit. — The standards of perfection
as well as the scale of points of the various breeds w^ere
designed to apply to animals in the prime of life. As
animals increase in age they lose much of their former
symmetry, become more and more angular, the abdomen
often becomes rather pendulous and the back more or
less sw^ayed. Such changes are not taken into account
by the standards, and it frequently happens that aged
animals are discriminated against. This may be per-
missible in the show ring, where animals are judged
largely in accordance with the manner in which they
present themselves.

On the other hand, breeding animals should not be
discriminated against on account of age so long as they
retain their reproductive powers and vigor. The age of
the parent does not affect the functions of the offspring.
Males frequently become difficult to manage as they
increase in age and are usually disposed of irrespective
of their breeding qualities and a young and often un-
proven male substituted in their place. This is a serious
mistake, as it often happens that some of the best blood
of the breed is lost in this manner. However, when the
productive powers begin to wane, the animals should be
disposed of, unless very exceptional breeders, as it is not
economical to keep animals for breeding unless they are
fairly fertile.

Constitutional vigor. — While the standards of perfec-
tion and scales of points lay considerable stress upon
constitutional vigor, in many cases they unconsciously
operate against it in that more weight is placed upon
other characters, such as early maturity, refinement, and
the like. This often proves a serious matter, as is
demonstrated in many herds of swine where the dams
have become so refined that they are very low in fer-
tility as well as constitutional vigor. Where breeding
animals are selected on basis of the standard of perfec-
tion, the vigor often declines and in a few years the

INDIVIDUAL MERIT AND SELECTION II3

breeder finds his animals deteriorating in their produc-
tive functions.

In selecting animals for breeding the constitutional
vigor is one of the most important characteristics to be
considered. No animal lacking in thrift should find its
way into the breeding herd, no matter how^ excellent, no
matter M^hat the pedigree and no matter how high may
be the record of performance.

CHAPTER XI
PEDIGREE AND SELECTION

The capacity of the individual to reproduce itself de-
pends largely upon the purity of the ancestors. If the
ancestors have been good for several generations, it is
reasonably certain that the offspring w^ill be good ; if the
ancestors have been poor for several generations, it is
likewise reasonably certain that the offspring w^ill be
poor; w^hereas if the ancestors have been mixed, some
good and some poor, it is impossible to predict w^ith any
degree of certainty what the offspring will be like. In
view of such facts the character of the ancestors becomes
a very important factor in selecting breeding animals as,
in a general way, characters will be transmitted in pro-
portion to the degree with which they have become fixed
in the parents.

Form and contents of a pedigree. — For their guidance
in selecting animals breeders long ago established stud,
herd and flock books in which the ancestors of pure-bred
animals were recorded. Such a record is called a pedi-
gree. It consists of the name of the animal, which is
usually designated by a serial number for convenience
in tracing the pedigree, although in some of the books
the females are arranged alphabetically within the volume.
The pedigree also records the date of birth, usually the
color and markings, the name and number of the sire
and dam, together with the name and address of both the
breeder and owner.

Most of the breeds have but one requirement for ad-
mission to the books of record, which is that both sire
and dam shall be recorded, although some breeds require
in addition certain breed characteristics, as black and
white color in the case of Holstein-Friesians.

114

PEDIGREE AND SELECTION II5

The following pedigrees, one of King of the Pon-
tiacs, a noted Holstein-Friesian bull, the other of the
famous Percheron stallion Calypso, illustrate the form
and gives the data covered in the ordinary registered
pedigree :

39037. King of the Pontiacs. B., Eastern Michigan
Asylum, Pontiac, Mich.; O., The Stevens Brothers-Hast-
ings Co., Lacona, N. Y. ; March 5, 1905 ; Pontiac Korn-
dyke 25982-Pontiac Lunde Hengerveld 51585.
Calypso 25017 (44577) _

Black; foaled May 6, 1897; imported in 1900 by Dun-
ham, Fletcher and Coleman, Wayne, 111.; bred by M.
Brossard, Department of Sarth, France.

Sire, Theudis 25015 (40871) by Besigue (19602) by
Brilliant III 11116 (2919). See Brilliant III (2919).

Dam, Fatma (25787) by Brilliant III 11116 (2919).
See Brilliant III 11116 (2919).

Second dam, Rose (11 158) by Brilliant 1271 (755).

Third dam, Madelon.

In general the pedigree is a guarantee of the purity
of the animal, although application for registry rests
solely with the breeder. For this reason the value of a
pedigree is largely dependent upon the reliability of the
owner. When a breeder files a pedigree with the request
that it be published, the secretary of the breeders' asso-
ciation is in a position to know whether the sire and dam
mentioned are really owned by the breeder, and to this
extent the secretary can vouch for the accuracy of the
pedigree. While some errors creep in through careless
methods of record keeping, it is very rare, indeed, for a
breeder to falsify a breeding record or substitute an in-
ferior animal for the one mentioned in the pedigree.

Tracing and writing pedigrees. — Since most pedigrees
give but one generation of ancestors, they do not provide
the breeder with all of the desired information in select-
ing his breeding animals. To get this information in a
comprehensive form, breeders trace down and write out

ii6

BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

the pedigree of the particular individuals which they
choose to consider. There are two methods of writing
pedigrees in common use in breeders' catalogs, sales'

papers and other advertising
mediums, in which owners fa-
miliarizebreeders with the breed-
ing of their animals. In one
method the dam's line is pre-
sented in detail, although the
other ancestors are not taken
into account. Formerly this
method was used extensively.
In the other method all of the ancestors are considered.

Fig. 40 — Poland China Boar

NoNPARiEL Marquis (55757)

Roan. Calved January 13,

Dam

Bred by

Rose of Forthton

G. & W. Forth

Kathleen 2d

J. Forth & Sons

Kathleen

J. Forth

Nonpariel 43d

Jas. Russell

Nonpariel 36th

Jas. Russell

Nonpariel 33d

John Isaac

Nonpariel 31st

S. Campbell'

Nonpariel 26th

S. Campbell

Nonpariel 24th

A. Cruickshank

Nonpariel 23d

A. Cruickshank

Nonpariel 17th

A. Cruickshank

1905. Bred by W. C. Edwards & Co.

Sire
Marquis of Zenda (26064)
Border Chief (18128)
Defiance (8244)
Sir William (7928)
British Statesman (42847)
High Sheriff 2d (702)
Inkerman (31414)
Sir Christopher (22895)
Scariet Velvet (16916)
Lord Sackville (13249)
The Baron (13333)
Matadore (11800)

Bred by
W. S. Marr
J. & W. Russell
Lt.-Col. Tyrwhitt
John Miller
S. Campbell
W. Isaac
S. Campbell
R. Booth
A. Cruickshank
A. Cruickshank
R. Chaloner
W. Smith

Lord Netherland De Kol 22187

lord Netherland

De Kol 22187

B. Dec. 12, 1894

Bred and owned

by E. C. Brill

Netheriand De Kol's
Perfection 17713

Susie De Kol
33688

Pietertje 2d's
Koningen 10625

Netherland De
Kol 10605

De Kol 2d'<
Netherland
11584

Daisy De Kol
20201

Koningen Von Priesland
5th 's Netherland 3515

Pietertje 2d
3273 H. H. B.

Netherland Alban
4584 H. H. B.

De Kol 2d
734

Netherland Alban
4584 H. H. B.

De Koi 2d
734

De Kol 2d's Prince
27o7

Belle Bamum
2422

PEDIGREE AND SELECTION 11/

and for convenience in study the pedigree is arranged in
tabular form.

The preceding pedigrees, one of Nonpariel Marquis, a
Shorthorn bull, and the other the Holstein-Friesian bull,
Lord Netherland De Kol, illustrate the two forms in
common use.

Fig 41 — Aberdeen Angus Bull "Leroy of Meadowbrook"

In the case of Nonpariel Marquis we note that the
pedigree runs entirely on the dam's side, and the ances-
tors are given for ii generations. Were all of the an-
cestors included for this period the pedigree would con-
tain 4,094 individuals instead of 2^), as in the present
form. Manifestly such pedigrees give little information
for the guidance of the breeder. In the case of Lord
Netherland De Kol all of the ancestors are given for the
generations covered by the pedigree, which, of course,
could easily be extended to the foundation animals of
the breed. Such a pedigree gives a complete list of all
the ancestors and is of the greatest significance in select-
ing breeding animals.

Comparative value of ancestors. — The former practice
of recording ancestors entirely on the dam's side encour-

ii8

BREEDING 07 EARM ANIMALS

aged the idea of extending the pedigree to include very
remote ancestors. Not infrequently pedigrees extended
for twenty generations, as breeders associated great
length of pedigree with high breeding qualities. We now
have sufficient evidence to show that breeders formerly
placed too high a value on extreme length of pedigree.
Many of our best individuals that show a high tendency
to reproduce their characters have secured their qualities
from a comparatively short line of ancestors. It is the
animals making up the pedigree for the first four or five
generations that are of great influence in giving any in-
dividual the power to transmit qualities. So great is the
influence of the first four or five generations that it makes
little difference what the individuals were back of that
period.

In our discussion of the law of ancestral heredity it
was stated that the two immediate parents contributed
between them one-half of the effective heritage, the grand-
parents one-fourth, and the great-grandparents one-

'G. sire i/i(j

Total
heritage

Sir 1/4 -

rG. G. G. sire ^230
G. G. sire i/(i4 -|

I^G. G. G. dam V^go

rG. G. G. sire Vj-»
G. G. dam 1/04 J.

[G. G. G. dam y-r^o

Total

Dam Vi

,G. dam i/i

G. sire Vio

G. dam Yiis

G. G. sire Vm
G. G. dam %4
-G. G. sfre i/o4
G. G. dam Ma
G. C. sire %4
G. G. dam %4

G. G. G. sire iV.c

G. G. G. dam i/jr.d

"G. G. G. sire 1/250

G. G. G. dam VL'go

G. G. G. sire i/2r,o

G. G. G. dam V-r.e

G. G. G. sire ^256

G. G. G. dam y2r.o

G. G. G. sire V-im

G. G. G. dam %g«

G. G. G. sire V^r.a

G. G. G. dam Vi2:io
Vio

all

others

Vie

PEDIGREE AND SELECTION

119

eighth, and so on to infinity, so that the total heritage
would be represented by one. For convenience of study
the preceding table is arranged in accordance with this
law, and it shows the heritage contributed by each an-
cestor for four generations .

Fig. 42 — Aberdeen Angus Cow "Glencarnock Isla''

The table shows conclusively the fallacy of selecting
an animal when only the female line is represented in the
pedigree, as only the ancestors in italics would ap-
pear. Thus of the thirty ancestors in the four genera-
tions only seven would be represented and together they
would contribute only about 40 per cent of the total
heritage.

Animal with inbred pedigree. — The relative influence
of an animal in an inbred pedigree is a much-discussed
question among animal breeders. Such a pedigree limits
blood lines to few and closely related lines of descent, it
increases prepotency, gives stability to the family, favors

120

BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

uniformity and intensifies characters both good and bad.
The pedigree of the famous Jersey bull Polonius gives a
good illustration of an inbred pedigree.

Polonius
2513

Sarpendon
930

Mercury
432

Europa
176

Lady
799

Jupiter
93

Saturn
94

Rhea
166

Alphea
171

Saturn
94

Rhea
166

Jupiter
93

Saturn
94

Rhea
166

Alphea
171

Saturn
94

Rhea
166

Saturn
94

"Rhea
166

Jupiter
93

Saturn
94

Rhea
166

Alphea
171

Saturn
94

Rhae
166

Europa
176

In a common pedigree there would be 26 ancestors in
the four generations, representing 14 lines of descent,
whereas in the pedigree of Polonius there are but eight
individuals, representing two lines of descent. Saturn
and Rhea each appears seven times, Jupiter four, Alphea
three, Europa two, while each of the other three appears
but once. According to the law of ancestral heredity

PEDIGREE AND SELECTION

121

these eight ancestors collectively contribute ^^q of the
total heritage, each individual contributing as follow^s :

Males
Sarpendon Vi
Mercury Vie
Jupiter %4
Saturn %4

Females
Ledy V4
Europa Vs
Alphea %4,
Rhea %4

A still more remarkable case of condensing blood lines
is observed in the pedigree of Alphea Czar. This pedi-
gree traces back from four to eight generations and repre-
sents 106 ancestors w^ith 52 lines of descent, w^hereas
there are actually 14 ancestors v^ith but two lines of

Fig. 43 — Dorsf.t-Horned Ram

descent in the pedigree. Saturn and Rhea, the original
animals, each appears 27 times, Jupiter 15, Alphea 12,
Mercury 7, Europa 5, Phaedra and Leda 3 each, Nym-
phaea 2, while Splendor the bull. Splendor the cow. Ele-
vator, Hark Comstock and Mercury, Jr., each appears
once.

Pedigree with exceptional animal. — Our former
methods of writing pedigrees encouraged the idea of
placing much stress upon an exceptional ancestor, even

122 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

though he appears many generations back in the pedi-
gree. Manifestly, in the light of the law of ancestral
heredity, this practice seems unwarranted. This is par-
ticularly true in case the individual in question has
gained the notoriety through a show yard career, as this
signifies little save that the animal was an exceptional
individual. It gives us no assurance that the good qual-
ities will be transmitted to the offspring. In fact, it very
frequently happens that the reverse is the case, as there
are few exceptional show animals that have produced
offspring famous as breeders or show animals. We
should not, therefore, place too much stress upon the
exceptional animal unless the breeding powers have been
fully demonstrated by an actual breed test.

Value of family names. — In the development and im-
provement of a breed of animals it not infrequently hap-
pens that the descendants of some famous individual
assume a family name. Such families are sometimes
founded by a sire, but more frequently by a dam. Good
examples of where families were founded by the sire are
observed in the case of Standardbred horses where the
Hambletonian family descended from Hambletonian lo,
the Clay family from Henry Clay 8, and the Morgan
family from Justin Morgan. Among the more noted
families founded by dams, we have the Duchess family of
Shorthorns descending from Duchess I by Comet and the
De Kol family of Holstein-Friesians descended from
De Kol 2d by Willem III, Animals belonging to such
families frequently become very popular and their
descendants in very great demand. There is usually
keen rivalry among the breeders. Under such condi-
tions breeders with unlimited means frequently pay fancy
prices for the more promising individuals, with the idea
that they can sell the offspring to advantage and make
money on the transaction. This is more or less of a
speculation, as a special market must be found for each
animal sold. For the man who has the means and the

PEDIGREE AND SELECTION 1 23

executive ability to conduct such a business, it may prove
exceedingly profitable. The average breeder, however,
should understand the matter thoroughly before paying
a fancy price for a single individual simply because the
animal happens to be a member of a family in great
public favor.

Significance of breeder's name. — The reward that oc-
curs to the breeder who persists in his efforts to develop
a strain or improve a breed of animals is unexcelled by
that of any other profession. Everywhere we find
breeders whose reputation is known far and wide. The
mere fact that an animal was
bred by them is sufficient rec-
ommendation to establish its
worth. Such men first make
a careful study of the business,
decide upon a strain and breed,
then work out a definite method ^J^^feSi..,***'' ^ -^^^^^
of procedure which they ad- fic 44— duroc jersey boar

here to persistently. In such

cases the breeder's methods are a guarantee that none
but good animals were used in the business, and that
these were selected after a thorough consideration of the
individual merit, pedigree and record of performance.

Proportion of pure-bred animals, — Such statistics as
have been collected show that there is a close relation-
ship between the number of pure-bred animals in a local-
ity and the general excellence of farm stock. Of the
twenty counties in New York State containing the largest
number of dairy cattle those with the largest number
of purely bred animals include the counties in which the
average production was highest and the counties which
made the largest increase in yield during the past
decade.

In this connection it is interesting to observe that such
statistics as are available in a few states show that the
majority of stallions standing for public service are not

124 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

recorded. No doubt some of these unrecorded animals
are useful sires. It is safe to say, however, that most
of them are of little credit to the country, for many, even
of those that are recorded, are unsuited for the service
they are allowed to perform. The meager statistics that
are available for cattle, sheep and swine indicate that a
very large percentage of the males used for service are
not recorded.

In 1905, the Bureau of Animal Industry issued a report
in which it estimated that of all horses in the United
States 1.02 per cent were registered. For dairy cattle
the per cent was given as 1.07, beef cattle 1.05, sheep 0.46
and swine 0.45. This gives evidence that a very large
proportion of the sires in use throughout the country
are unregistered. This no doubt accounts for much of
the indifference attending animal breeding in this
country.

CHAPTER XII
PERFORMANCE AND SELECTION

It must be clearly recognized that, as a basis for
estimating the breeding powers of an animal, nothing
compares with an accurate test of just what the animal
can do. While individuality and pedigree are important
factors for the guidance of breeders, they both become
secondary to a record of performance, the result of an
actual test. In considering such a record, however, it is
necessary to have full regard for the conditions under
which it was made. Thus an individual with a moderate
record made under adverse conditions may be just as
valuable as one with a high record made under the most
favorable circumstances. On the other hand, an increase
of a fair degree of merit under limited opportunities is
not a satisfactory assurance of the ability to produce
excellent results when accorded the most favorable op-
portunity.

For many years we have kept an accurate record of the
speed of trotting and pacing horses. These speed records
have been recorded in Wallace's Year Book. More re-
cently a system of testing milk and butter-fat capacity
of dairy cows has been inaugurated. The results of such
tests are recorded in the advanced register. We now
have the speed records of thousands of horses as well as
the milk and butter-fat records of thousands of dairy
cows, going back many generations. These data, accu-
rately collected and properly interpreted, furnish invalu-
able aids to breeders in selecting their animals.

Standards of performance. — Before an animal can be
admitted to the advanced register it must first prove its
worth by fulfilling certain requirements in an actual test.
This is very different from the requirements of the stud,

126 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

herd and flock books, where an animal is eligible to ad-
mission providing its sire and dam are recorded, although
the animal must be thus recorded before it is qualified to
enter the test for the advanced register. For the most
part these standards of performance are not difficult. They
were established with a view of encouraging large num-
bers of animals to enter the test, as it was thought more

Fig. 45 — Standardbred Stallion "Kremlin," 2:07%

good would result from large numbers of fairly efficient
animals than small numbers of highly efficient ones.

Trotting and pacing standard. — When an animal meets
these requirements and is duly registered, it shall be ac-
cepted as a standard-bred trotter or pacer :

1. The progeny of a registered standard trotting horse
and a registered standard trotting mare.

2. A stallion sired by a registered standard trotting
horse, providing his dam and granddam were sired by a

PERFORMANCE AND SELECTION 12/

registered standard trotting horse, and he himself has a
record of 2 130 and is the sire of three trotters with
records of 2 130 from different mares.

3. A mare whose sire is a registered standard trotting
horse, and whose dam and granddam were sired by regis-
tered trotting horses, providing she herself has a trotting
record of 2 130 or is the dam of one trotter with a record
of 2 :30.

4. A mare sired by a registered standard trotting horse,
providing she is the dam of two trotters with records of
2:30.

5. A mare sired by a registered standard trotting horse,
providing her first, second and third dams are each sired
by a registered standard trotting horse.

The pacing standard is similar except the word "pacer"
is substituted for the word "trotter;" "pacing" for the
word "trotting" and the speed standard 2 125 for 2 130,
and the addition of a sixth paragraph, which is as follows :

6. The progeny of a registered standard trotting horse
out of a registered standard pacing mare, or of a regis-
tered standard pacing horse out of a registered standard
trotting mare.*

Holstein-Friesian seven-day standard. — When a cow
meets the following requirements and is duly registered
she may be admitted to the advanced register:

A cow calving on or before the day she is two years of
age shall make a record of not less than 7.2 pounds of
butter fat in seven consecutive days ; and for every day
that she may exceed two years of age at date of calving
the requirement for the butter-fat record shall be in-
creased .00439 of 3- pound.

If calving on the day she is five years of age, she shall
make a record of not less than 12 pounds of butter fat in
seven consecutive days ; and no increase in production
for increased age at date of birth shall be required for any
cow calving subsequently.

♦Wallace's American Trotting Register.

128 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

Holstein-Friesian seven-day requirement by classes :

Junior two-year-old ._ 7.2 pounds

Senior two-year-old 8.0 pounds

Junior three-year-old 8.8 pounds

Senior three-year-old 9.6 nounds

Junior four-year-old 10.4 pounds

Senior four-year-old 11.2 pounds

Full age 12.0 pounds

Holstein-Friesian, Jersey and Guernsey yearly stand-
ard. — If a test for the period of one year is commenced
the day the cow is two years old, or previous to that day,
she must produce, within one year from the date the test
begins, 250.5 pounds butter fat. For each day the cow
is over two years old at the beginning of her year's test,
the amount of butter fat she must produce in the year is
fixed by adding o.i (one-tenth) of a pound for each such
day to the 250.5 pounds required for the two-year-old.
This ratio of increase applies until the cow is five years
old at the beginning of her test, when the required amount
will have reached 360 pounds, which will be the amount
of butter fat required of all cows five years old or over.

These standards are based upon
one complete year's record from
the time of beginning, regard-
less of any time which may be
lost by being dry or calving
during that period.

Fig. 46 — Berkshire Sow « i • i , i -i

Ayrshire yearly standard. —

This calls for 214.3 pounds of fat at two years of age, with
the addition of .06 of fat for each succeeding day up to
three years of age, when the standard calls for 236 of fat,
with the addition of .12 for each succeeding day up to
five years of age, when the requirement is 322 pounds
of fat.

Brown Swiss yearly requirement. — This call for 222
pounds of fat at two years and six months of age, with
the addition of .09 of fat for each succeeding day up to

PERFORMANCE AND SELECTION

120

six years of age, when the requirement calls for 2)37
pounds of fat.

The advanced register record. — A pedigree consists of
the name and number of an animal, the name and number
of the sire and dam, together with the name and address
of the owner. These data tell us nothing of what the
animal has done and gives us no assurance of what it is
capable of doing. True, it signifies that the animal is
purely bred, and in the case of famous families and noted
owners adds commercial value, but as to actual produc-
ing and breeding power it leaves us as much in the dark
as we were before. Contrast with this the data given
in the advanced register.

The following Holstein-Friesian advanced register
records, one of the noted cow, Belle Korndyke, the other
a partial record of the bull. Lord Netherland De Kol,
illustrate the form and give the data covered in the ad-
vanced register.

The first number following the name is the advanced
register number and the second the herd book number.
The first figure in
the parenthesis in-
dicates the number
of advanced regis-
ter daughters that
each animal has ;
the second figure
the number of sons
that are sires of
tested daughters ;
and the third figure
the number of
daughters that are
dams of tested
daughters.

Under each animal's name will be found a list of tested
daughters, together with their milk, butter fat and butter

Fic. 47 — Dutch Belted Bull "Auten"

J
J
W

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130

PERFORMANCE AND SELECTION

131

record, as well as the age at which the record was made,
and following the list of daughters with records will be
found, printed in italics, the names and herd book num-
bers of the sons that are sires of tested daughters, and of
the daughters that are dams of tested daughters.

Following the name of each tested daughter will be
found three numbers. The first is the animal's advanced
register number, the second is the number of the volume
of the advanced register in which the record given may
be found, and the third the herd book number. Follow-
ing this is the milk, fat and butter record ; also the age
at which it was made.

Value of advanced register record in selection. — To get
the data contained in an advanced register record before
us in a more concrete form, let us tabulate the pedigree

Pedigree of Lord Netherland De Kol 22187, Including
THE Advanced Register Records*

Koningen Von Friesland

Sth's Netherland 3515

Pietertje 2d's

Koningen 10625

Pietertje 2d

1-3-0

3273H. H. B. '

' Netherland DeKol

Perfection 17713-

Netherland Alban

14-14-23

5484H.H.B.

Netherland De Kol

1-3-5

10605

De Kol 2d 734

536.8 milk, 21.261 fat
2-7-5

Lord Netherland

De Kol 22187

Netherland Alban

120-31-99

5,484 H.H.B.

' DeKol 2d 's

1-3-5

Netherland 11584 •

De Kol 2d 734

22-21-28

536.8 milk, 21.261 fat

2-7-5

Susie De Kol

33688

r De Kol 2d's Prince

475.5 milk

2767

20.245 fat

Daisy De Kol

5-4-8

20201

Belle Barnum
2422

*Made up from Vol. 24 of the Holstein-Priesian Advanced Register.

of Lord Netherland De Kol, similar to that on page ii6,
but including the advanced register data.

This means that Lord Netherland De Kol has 120

132 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

daughters with advanced register records; that 31 of his
sons have daughters w^ith records; and that 99 of his
daughters are the dams of daughters v^^ith advanced
register records. His sire, Netherland De Kol's Perfec-
tion, has 14 daughters v^ith records ; he has 14 sons that
have daughters w^ith records ; and he is the sire of 2^
dams that have advanced register daughters. His dam,
Susie De Kol, has a record of 475.5 pounds of milk and
20.245 pounds of fat in seven days, as w^ell as five daugh-
ters v^^ith records ; she has four sons that are the sires of
daughters with records ; and she has eight daughters that
are the dams of daughters with records. Like data are
given for each ancestor that has an advanced register
record.

In like manner, to get the data contained in Wallace's
Year Book before us in a more concrete form, let us
tabulate the pedigree of the Standardbred horse, Aller-
ton, who leads the list with 257 performing get to his
credit. (P. 133.)

This gives us practically the same data as that given in
the Holstein-Friesian pedigree. It signifies that Allerton
has 199 trotters and 58 pacers to his credit in the year
book; that 85 of his sons have sired 197 trotters and 116
pacers; and that 61 of his daughteis are the dams of 63
trotters and 19 pacers, making a total of 395 performers
in the second generation. Similar data are given for each
ancestor in the pedigree. The sire. Jay Bird, has a total
of 706 performers in the second generation ; George
Wilkes, the grandsire, has 3,394, and Hambletonian 10, the
great grandsire, has 1,836, while both parents have 964, the
four grandparents 3,641, and the great-grandparents have
5,620 performers in the second generation of offspring,
making a total of 10,225 in the three generations of an-
cestors. Of course, wherever the same ancestor occurs
twice the performers are counted twice.

Exact measure of breeding capacity, — This standard is
an absolute one, and gives an exact measure of the breed-

es;

•*o oft

:^L

2ei

.S O p w §

v _

George W
72 trott

103 sires;
pacers

110 dams;

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133

134

BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

ing capacity of the particular individual in question.
True, such records depend on opportunity, although Lord
Netherland De Kol was chosen to illustrate the value of
a record of performance in selecting animals for breeding
purposes because, so far as known, he did not have ex-
ceptionally favorable conditions. Nevertheless, at the

present time (1913), he
leads the list of Holstein-
Friesian sires with ad-
vanced register daugh-
ters, although De Kol 2d's
Butter Boy 3d's 74 sons
lead the list of sons with
581 daughters in the
register, while Lord
Netherland De Kol's 31
sons have only 105
daughters with records.
In this respect De Kol
2d's Butter Boy 3d is
followed by Hengerveld
De Kol, whose 54 sons
have 447 daughters in the advanced register, and by King
Segis, whose 50 sons have 340 daughters with records.

Manifestly, so far as ability to produce performers is
concerned, such a record as this is of vastly more im-
portance to the breeder than individuality or pedigree.
While, theoretically, successful animal breeding depends
largely upon the law of chance, such records as these
practically eliminate the chance, and we can predict the
outcome within the limits of accident in animal life.
True, this again depends on chance, but not in the same
sense as when we mate animals of unknown breeding
capacity.

Vigor and performance. — In selecting animals on the
basis of their performance, constitutional vigor becomes
of prime importance. Many of our high-performing

Fig. 48 — Dutch Belted Cow "Jennie"

PERFORMANCE AND SELECTION 1 35

animals seem to produce so heavily as to undermine their
constitutional vigor. If such animals are selected for
breeding, the offspring are likely to lack vigor, and of
course will be unable to equal the performance of their
parents. We are not w^ithout examples of this, as both
dairy cattle and hens have been selected for breeding pur-
poses on the basis of their production alone, with dis-
astrous results. When choosing his breeding animals,
therefore, the breeder must clearly recognize that in the
absence of vigor and thrift all else may come to naught,
even though the particular animal selected be a good
individual, well bred, and with a high record of per-
formance to his credit.

Meat, wool and egg production. — Up to the present
time we have recorded performance among race horses
and dairy cows only. Speed and milk production are
easily measured, and our breeders have seized upon them
in the hope of gaining some light in the mysteries of
breeding. There seems to be no difficulty, however, in
measuring and recording wool production among sheep,
and but little difficulty is encountered in measuring egg
production among poultry ; in fact, most of the agricul-
tural experiment stations and a few breeders keep ac-
curate account of both functions. This provides equally
as valuable data in selecting breeding animals as ad-
vanced register records among cattle. No doubt in the
course of the next few years a concentrated effort will be
made by the various breeders' associations to keep an
accurate account and record all such useful functions.

There are a few functions that cannot be measured
with any degree of accuracy. Chief among these is meat
production. It would be difficult, if not impossible, to
measure such attributes as early maturity and economic
fleshing qualities among our meat-producing animals.
In selecting such breeding animals the breeder must rely
upon his own skill in estimating such attributes.

Value of show awards. — In the case of meat-produc-

136 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

ing animals and horses it has been suggested that the
show-ring decisions be recorded and that this be used
as the basis in selecting breeding animals. In all prob-
ability such records would be of very little value in de-
tecting, -or even in estimating breeding capacity. In
reality this constitutes selecting animals on the basis of
individual merit. As has been stated, individual excel-
lence gives us no indication of the breeding capacity of
an animal.

CHAPTER XIII

IMPROVEMENT DUE TO SELECTION BASED
ON PERFORMANCE

The development attained by each of our breeds of
animals has resulted from many co-ordinated influences,
no one of which has played so great a role as that of
selection. In the past there has been much confusion
among breeders in the matter of selecting animals. Much
of this was due to lack of understanding as to what con-
stituted breed excellence. Breeders were divided in their
opinion as to the most important characters. Some
breeders were selecting to advance one set of characters,
while other breeders were trying to advance another set.
Not infrequently these characters were negatively cor-
related, and as one improved the other declined. True,
each breed had its scale of points and standard of excel-
lence, but the interpretation of these was left to the
judgment of the individual breeder, and in the absence
of a definite feature, attribute or character to measure
there was utter lack of concentrated effort. As would
be expected under such conditions of affairs the standard
of excellence and scales of points have been modified from
time to time to suit the ideas of breeders. These changes
have not always worked to the advantage of the particu-
lar breeds affected.

Characters considered and methods of presentation.—
To get the essentials involved in animal improvements
clearly before us, it is proposed to present and discuss
facts disclosed by the advanced register for Holstein-
Friesian cattle and by Wallace's Year Book for horses.
In view of the remarkable advancement attained in speed
development and milk production some of the data are
considered in detail, particularly that related to milk and

138 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

butter-fat production. The dairy cow and the race horse
are the only classes of farm animals in which records
of performance are kept, and hence the only ones con-
cerning which we have definite knowledge of the exact
advantage gained. However, the same principles are
involved and the same suggestions apply to other char-
acters, such as meat and wool production, the develop-
ment of the draft horse, the coach horse, and the like.
Because of the vast amount of data considered and to
get the facts clearly before us it is necessary to present a
few rather long and complicated tables. These should
be carefully considered by the reader in order that he
may analyze, generalize and synthesize of his own accord,
thus stimulating thought, which will lead to closer ob-
servation throughout nature generally.

DEVELOPING THE TROTTER

Records of performance were first recorded among race
horses. In the beginning, this was a private undertaking,
the time of the horse being recorded in racing calendars.
This was for the information of the men who wagered
their money on the race, rather than for the guidance
of breeders in selecting horses for breeding. Later, the
value of such records became apparent to the breeder,
and the year 1839 witnessed the beginning of methodic
recording time of horses in the more important races.
From that time until the present we have a more or less
complete and fairly accurate record of each horse taking
part in the more important racing events in this country.

Influence of time records. — Such records have been a
most important factor in developing extreme speed in
the trotter and pacer. This method not only enables us
to distinguish the slow and fast horses, but from the
records we can determine those horses that are actually
producing fast animals as illustrated in the pedigree

IMPROVEMENT DUE TO PERFORMANCE I39

(p. 133). Thus in selecting breeding animals, the slow
ones are eliminated, and the fast ones are mated, which,
in connection with improved conditions, enables us to get
even faster horses. Again, the slow-producing animals
are discarded and the fast ones mated, which results in a
still greater increase in speed.

At the close of the 191 3 racing season there were listed
in the year book approximately 50,000 performers, of
which about 30,000 were trotters and about 20,000 pacers.
These performers were sired by approximately 10,000
stallions and out of 25,000 mares. This gives
an average of five performers to a sire and two to
a dam.

Breeding of great sires. — Of the thousands of sires
recorded in the great table of the year book there are
but 30 credited with 100 or more performers; that is,
horses good enough to meet the requirements for ad-
mission. While the average of all sires listed is ap-
proximately five performers, the average of the 30 great
sires is approximately 150 each. These great sires, there-
fore, are thirty times as efficient as the average sire. Mani-
festly the breeder should be interested in the history of the
breeding of these noted animals so as to be able to pro-
duce others if possible. Fortunately, the record of per-
formance as kept in the year book gives us a complete
history of the breeding power of each ancestor, provid-
ing it was meritorious enough to gain admission.

It is interesting to observe, of these 30 noted horses,
that the sire, paternal grandsire and great-grandsire each
has performing get to his credit ; that each dam, with two
exceptions, has performing get; that each maternal
grandsire, without exception, has performing get; and
that each paternal granddam, with seven exceptions, has
performing get to her credit.

The following tabulation shows the average number
of performing get for each ancestral form for three gen-
erations of ancestors for the 30 great sires :

140

BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

30 great sires
109.5 trotters
38. 1 pacers

147.6

ERFORMANCE OF 30 GrEAT SiRES

AND Their

Ancestors*

30 G. G. sires

22.5 trotters

.7 pacer

23.2

30 G. Sires

47.0 trotters

4.6 pacers

30 G. G. dams

1.1 trotters

51.6

30 sires

76.1 trotters

30 G. G. sires

13.1 pacers

7.6 trotters

.4 pacer

89.2

30 G. dams
2.1 trotters

30 G. sires
19.3 trotters

8.0

30 G. G. dams
.16 trotter

30 G. G. sires
15.5 trotters
.5 pacer

16.0

2.6 pacers

30 G. G. dams

.2 trotter

21.9

30 dams

2.9 trotters

30 G. G. sires

.2 pacer

9.8 trotters
2.2 pacers

3.1

30 G. dams
1.0 trotter
.1 pacer

12.0
30 G. G. dams

1.1

03 trotter

*Made up from Vol. 29, Wallace's Year Book.

This tabulation is significant. It illustrates the exact
breeding power necessary to produce the greatest of
Standardbred sires. It also shows the increased efficiency
from generation to generation. The 30 famous animals
averaged 147 performers each, while their sires averaged
89, their paternal grandsires 51, and the great-grandsires
8 and 2^, each, while the granddams average two each,
with both great-granddams represented. Again, the
dams of the 30 noted animals averaged three performers

IMPROVEMENT DUE TO PERFORMANCE I4I

each, the maternal grandsires almost 2.2, and the great-
grandsires 12 and 16 each, while the granddams aver-
aged one each, w^ith both great-granddams represented.
No doubt many factors are involved in this remarkable
development, but the significant fact remains that of the
thousands of sires listed in the great table of the year
book not a single animal stands high in the list, but that
is backed up by high-performing ancestors for many
generations.

DEVELOPING THE DAIRY COW

While cattle have been bred for dairy purposes for
more than a century, marked improvement in milk yield
and butter-fat production is of comparatively recent date.
It is associated with the development of our present sys~
tem of keeping records of the milk yield and the butter
fat produced for the individual animal. Formerly dairy
cattle were selected on the basis of their conformation,
which, as has been stated, is not a true guide to efficiency.
This resulted in slow progress. Not satisfied with such
progress a few breeders began to keep an accurate ac-
count of the milk yield and churned butter that their
animals produced. Such remarkable progress followed
that the dairy cattle-breeders' associations took up the
matter of keeping records. They standardized the work
and established the advanced registers in which the per-
formance is recorded.

Influence of butter-fat records. — While the Jersey
cattle breeders' association have encouraged the
keeping of records since the earl}'- '70's and the Hol-
stein-Friesian since the early '8o's, it was not until 1894
that the Holstein-Friesian breeders' association began
the official supervision of records. Although the work
has been in progress but two decades great advancement
has been made both in regard to the number of animals
tested and the results obtained.

142

BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

As in the case of time records among horses, the
records of dairy production not only enable the breeder
to distinguish the low from the high producing, but from
the records he can determine which individuals are ac-
tually getting high-producing animals. In selecting
breeding animals the breeder has but to eliminate the
low performing and mate the high performing which, in
connection with improved conditions, results in even
higher producing animals, and the general improvement
of dairy cattle.

:^«w«gy-T3i

Fig. 49 — Holstein-Friesian Co\y "Glista Omicron'
25.285 pounds of butter fat in seven days.

Breeding of cows with advanced register records. —

Manifestly, the breeding of cows that can meet the re-
quirements for admission to the advanced register is of
interest. To illustrate this a tabulation is made of all
of the Holstein-Friesian cows admitted to the register

IMPROVEMENT DUE TO PERFORMANCE

143

during the two years ending May 15, 191 1. This in-
cludes 7,443 cows, of which 5,072 were first entries and
2,371 re-entries; that is, cows increasing a previous
record. Inasmuch as the re-entries may be considered a
second selection, they will be considered separately.
Since the requirements for admission to the advanced
register are not very difficult the table is divided into
three parts, the first division including those cows that
exceed the requirement by less than 50 per cent, the
second those that exceed the requirement by 50 to 100
per cent, and the third division those cows that exceed

Breeding of Holstein-Friesian Cows, First Entries,
That Fxceed the Requirement by Less Than 50% ;

BY 50% TO 1007f ; AND BY IOO% AND AbOVE.

Character of matings

Number
of cows

Per cent,
of cows

Cows that exceed the requirement by less than 50%, 3,856; 76% of total number

Both sire and dam in register. . .
Neither sire nor dam in register.

Sire in register, dam not

Dam in register, sire not

Totals .

34.
27.
26.
13.

Cows that exceed the requirement by 50% to 100%, 1,090; 22% of total number

Both sire and dam in register. . .
Neither sire nor dam in register.

Sire in register, dam not

Dam in register, sire not

Totals .

1,090

491

45.

196

18.

224

21.

179

16.

100.

Cows that exceed the requirements by 100% and more, 126; 2 % of total number.

Both sire and dam in register. . . ,
Neither sire nor dam in register.

Sire in register, dam not

Dam in register, sire not

Totals.

65.

18.

14.

144

BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

the requirement by lOO per cent or more. The cows
were arranged in four classes according" to the possible
kinds of mating. (See table on p. 143.)

In the first division more than one-third of the cows
have both parents in the advanced register, while almost
three-fourths of them have at least one parent in the
register. Note how this percentage increases as the
standard is raised. In the second division approximately
one-half have both parents in the register, while about
five-sixths have one parent in the register; whereas in
the third division, where the standard is doubled, prac-

Breeding of Holstein-Friesian Cows, Re-entries That
Exceed the Requirement by Less Than 50% ; by 50%-
TO 100% ; and by 100% AND Above.

Character of matings

Number
of cows

Per cent,
of cows

Cows that exceed the requirement by less than 50%, 1,534; 65% of total number

Both sire and dam in register. . .
Neither sire nor dam in register.

Sire in register, dam not

Dam in register, sire not

Totals .

1,534

780

177

425

152

100.

Cows that exceed the requirement by 50% to 100%, 724; 30% of total number

Both sire and dam in register. . .
Neither sire nor dam in register.

Sire in regi^^ter, dam not

Dam in register, sire not

Totals ,

438

169

Cows that exceed the requirement bv 100%, and more, 113; 5% of total number

Both sire and dam in register. . .
Neither sire nor dam in register.

Sire in register, dam not

Dam in register,, sire not

Totals.

76.

14.

IMPROVEMENT DUE TO PERFORMANCE

145

tically two-thirds have both parents in the register, and
practically all have one parent in the register, but three
in 100 having neither parent in the register.

In the first division of the re-entries (p. 144) more than
one-half of the cows have both parents in the register and all
but 12 in 100 have at least one parent in the register.
Again, observe how this percentage increases as the
standard is raised, until in the third division more than
three-fourths of the cows have both parents in the regis-
ter. These tables emphasize the fact that if we wish to
select the highest producing cows we must look for them
among the offspring of advanced register animals.

Fig. 50 — Holstein-Friesian Cow "Gi.ista Eglantine"
25.912 pounds of butter fat in seven days.

Holstein-Friesian cows with records as breeders. — In

this study the number of performing offspring produced
by cows with records is of much importance. To illus-
trate this a tabulation is made of all the Holstein-Friesian
cows that are the dams of two or, more advanced register
daughters. On May i, 1913, there were 4,183 such dams.

146

BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

For convenience of study this table (see below) is divided into
four parts, the first division including those dams with two
and three daughters, the second those with four and five,
the third those with six and seven, and the fourth division

Breeding of Holstein-Friesian Cows with 2 and 3, 4
AND 5, 6 and 7, and 8 A. R. O. Daughters*

Character of matings

Number
of cows

Per cent,
of cows

Cows with 2 and 3 A. R. O. daughters, 3,786; 90.5% of total number

Cows with 2 and 3 A. R. O. D and records.
Cows with 2 and 3 A. R. O. D no records. .

Totals.

57.6
42.4

Cows with 4 and 5 A. R. O. daughters, 375; 9% of total number

Cows with 4 and 5 A. R. O. D and records. .
Cows with 4 and 5 A. R. O. D no records . . .

Totals.

76.2
23.8

Cows with 6 and 7 A. R. 0. daughters.

20; .4% of total number

Cows with 6 and 7 A. R. O. D and records. . .
Cows with 6 and 7 A. R. O. D no records. . . .

Totals

13
2

90.0
10.0

100.0

Cows with 8 or more A. R. O. daughters, 2

Cows with 8 or more A. R. O. D and records. .
Cows with 8 or more A. R. O. D no records. . .

Totals .

100.0

*Made up from Vol. 24 of the Holstein-Friesian advanced register.

those with eight daughters each. The cows are arranged
in two classes, those that have records and those that
have no records.

In the first division, dams with two and three advanced
register daughters, approximately 6 out of lo, them-

IMPROVEMENT DUE TO PERFORMANCE I47

selves have records. Observe how this number increases
as the number of calves produced increases. In the
second division, dams w^ith four and five advanced regis-
ter daughters, three-fourths have records ; in the third
division, dams w^ith six and seven daughters in the ad-
vanced register, nine-tenths have records ; and in the
fourth division, dams v^ith eight daughters in the regis-
ter, all have records. This is significant in a considera-
tion of the transmission of high-producing qualities from
the maternal parent to the female offspring. It gives
conclusive evidence of the desirability of high-producing
dams in breeding for high production among dairy cattle.

Breeding of advanced register bulls. — Among dairy
cattle the bulls are admitted to the advanced register on
the performance of their daughters. When a Holstein-
Friesian bull has four daughters in the register, he is
admitted automatically. From the breeder's point of
view such data are even more valuable than when an
animal is entered on its own performance, as such in-
dicates breeding ability. In this connection, therefore,
the breeding of bulls that make the requirements is of
vital importance. To illustrate this a tabulation is made
of all of the Holstein-Friesian bulls admitted on the per-
formance of their daughters up to May 15, 1912 (p. 148).
There were 1,191 bulls thus admitted, 126 having been en-
tered before the present standard was adopted. Since the
requirements for admission are not difficult the table is
divided into five parts, the first division including those
with 4 to 14 daughters each; the second, those with 15
to 24 daughters; the third, those with 25 to 49 daugh-
ters ; the fourth, those with 50 to 74 daughters ; and the
fifth, those with 75 or more daughters each. The bulls
are arranged in four classes according to the character of
the mating.

This table is significant in a consideration of methods
for obtaining transmitting efficiency. In the first divi-
sion, sires with 4 to 14 A. R. O. daughters, 50 per cent

Breeding of Holstein-Friesian Sires with 4 to 14,

15 TO 24, 25 TO 49, 50 TO 74, AND 75 OR MORE A. R. O.

Daughters.

Character of matings

Number of
sires

Per cent
of sires

Sires with 4 to 14 A. R. O. daughters 948; 79.6% of all with records

Both sire and dam in register...
Neither sire nor dam in register.

Sire in register, dam not

Dam in register, sire not

Totals.

50.8
20.2
20.2

Sires with 15 to 24 A. R. O. daughters 155; 13.1% of all with records

Both sire and dam in register. . .
Neither sire nor dam in register.

Sire in register, dam not

Dam in register, sire not

Totals.

76.1
2.6
10.3
11.0

100.0

Sires with 25 to 49 A. R. O. daughters 65; 5.4% of all with records

Both sire and dam in regi-ter. . .
Neither sire nor dam in register.

Sire in register, dam not

Dam in register, sire not

Totals

72.3

12.3

15.4

100.0

Sires with 50 to 74 A. R. O. daughters 13; 1.1% of all with records

Both sire and dam in register...
Neither sire nor dam in register.

Sire in register, dam not

Dam in register, sire not

Totals.

77.0

7.7

15.3

100.0

Sires with 75 or more A. R. O. daughters 10; .8% of all with records

Both sire and dam in register. . .
Neither sire nor dam in register.

Sire in register, dam not

Dam in register, sire not

Totals.

100.0

148

IMPROVEMENT DUE TO PERFORMANCE

149

have both parents in the register, 20 per cent have sire
only, and 9 per cent have dam only, while but 20 per cent
have neither parent in the register. Note how^ rapidly the
per cent v\^ith both parents in the register increases, and
how^ those with neither parent in the register decreases.
In the second division, sires with 15 to 24 A. R. O.
daughters, 76 per cent have both parents in the register,
10 per cent have sire only, and 11 per cent have dam only.

Fig. 51 — Holste.n'-Fr.esian Cows with High Records of Performances
25.282, 24.416, 25.912 and 24.129 pounds respectively of butter fat in seven days,

whereas but 2.6 have neither parent in the register. In
the third and fourth divisions, sires with 25 to 49 and 50
to 74 A. R. O. daughters respectively, about 75 per cent
have both parents in the register, and all, or 100 per cent,
have at least one parent in the register. Likewise in
the last division, sires with 75 or more A. R. O. daugh-
ters, all have both parents in the register.

Thus there is not a bull in the advanced register with
50 or more daughters to his credit but that has at least

I50

BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

one parent in the register. Further, there is not a bull
with 75 or more daughters in the register but that has
both parents in the register. This gives conclusive evi-
dence of the advantage of a record of performance for
the guidance of breeders in selecting their animals.

Registered animals without registered parents. — As
the advanced register for Holstein-Friesian cattle was
established in 1894, it must of necessity follow that the
animals admitted the first few years had neither parent
in the register. As years went by the offspring of the
animals first admitted made records and were themselves
admitted, with the result that, at present, after the regis-
ter has been in existence for a number of years an increas-
ing percentage of the animals in the register has parents
in the register also. To illustrate this a tabulation is made
of all of the Holstein-Friesian bulls admitted to the ad-
vanced register each year for the decade ending May 15,
1912. This includes a total of i.i 15 bulls. These animals
are arranged in four classes as before.

Breeding of Holstein-Friesian Bulls Admitted to the
Advanced Register Each Year for the Decade End-
ing May 15, 1912.

Both sire

Neither sire

Sire

Dam in

and dam

nor dam

in register

dam

not

sire not

Total

Year

number

Num-

Per

Num-

Per

Num-

Per

Num-

Per

of bulls

ber

cent

ber

cent

ber

cent

ber

cent

bulls

1903

1904

1905

1906

1907

1908

1909

104

1910

133

1911

141

219

1912

175

260

IMPROVEMENT DUE TO PERFORMANCE 151

In lo years the percentage of bulls in the register that
have both parents in the register has increased from 22
to 67, while the percentage vi^ith neither parent has de-
creased from 39 to 10 in the same period. The percent-
age with but one parent in the register has also slightly
decreased.

There are many Holstein-Friesian cattle not in the
advanced register, simply because they have never been
tested. They could make the requirements for admis-
sion, but are not given an opportunity. Thus the per-
centage of animals in the register without advanced
register parents will simply depend upon the number of
animals admitted from without.

The number of cattle tested for admission to the ad-
vanced register is not large. During the past few years
only about 13 per cent of the cows and 1.3 per cent of the
bulls have been admitted to the register. This is sig-
nificant. When the small number of cows tested and in
the register is taken into account, and the large percent-
age of high-producing animals coming from the register
is considered, the chances of finding a maximum pro-
ducer from without the register are not very encourag-
ing. The breeder attempting to produce a cow capable
of making a seven-day record of 35.3 pounds of fat, or a
bull that can sire 100 or more advanced register daugh-
ters, is likely to encounter much difficulty unless he
selects parents from the advanced register.

In this connection it may be stated that the advanced
register plays no part in increasing the production of
dairy cows ; it neither adds to nor detracts from produc-
tion, but is simply an instrument in which records of per-
formance are kept and from which records of transmitted
efficiency can be obtained.

CHAPTER XIV

IMPROVEMENT DUE TO SELECTION THE
RESULT OF PREPOTENCY

The parents are not equally powerful in transmitting
characters to their offspring. The parent that has the
superior power in determining the characters of the oft"-
spring is said to be prepotent. This is of much practical
importance to the breeder because of the direct influence
which it has upon improvement. It is our lack of
definite understanding of factors governing prepotency,
however, that is responsible for much of the discussion
on the transmission of modified or "acquired" characters,
sex limited inheritance and like subjects. While little
understood, enough is known regarding prepotence to
enable the skilled breeder to select animals possessing
it with a reasonable degree of certainty. This is es-
pecially true when records of performance are available.

Prepotency is considered from two points of view, first,
breed prepotency, by which is meant that animals of a
breed are all possessed of much power in transmitting
the characters of the breed; and, second, individual pre-
potency, in which the individual has much power in trans-
mitting its characters to the offspring.

Breed prepotency. — There is much difference in the
prepotency of the various breeds. This is clearly brought
out when two distinct breeds are crossed. Among beef
cattle, if a Hereford-Shorthorn cross is made, the most
of the offspring will inherit the color and markings as
well as the early-maturing qualities of the Hereford,
whereas their general conformation and feeding quali-
ties will be similar to that of the Shorthorn. Among
sheep, the American Merino has much power in trans-
mitting its characters when crossed upon other breeds,

152

IMPROVEMENT DUE TO PREPOTENCY 1 53

and more especially when crossed upon grades. In fact,
the prepotency of the pure-bred over the common animal
is the significant factor in breed prepotency, as it enables
us to quickly transform the common animal to the type
of the breed from which pure-bred males have been
selected. In this connection it must be remembered that
some breeds are much more prepotent than others, and
hence will effect changes more rapidly, whereas some
breeds may be so low in their potency as to be unable
to effect the desired changes.

Individual prepotency, — This is of vastly more conse-
quence to the animal breeder than breed prepotency.
It is the agency through which individuals are
improved, and hence lies at the base of both herd and
breed development. Indeed, individual prepotency and
selection, based on records of performance, are the most
powerful agencies for the improvement of herds as well
as the several breeds of farm animals, at the command
of the breeder.

So influential are the more prepotent animals that we
are likely to confuse prepotency and fertility. This is
often due to the fact that the prepotent animal is given
the better opportunity, because of the individual merit
of his offspring, which naturally increases the number of
his get. However, an individual may be very prepotent
and low in fertility. In such cases it is often a question
as to the wisdom of continuing the potent animal in
service, as no animal should be retained for breeding that
is not fairly fertile.

Prepotency among horses. — The significance of selec-
tion, the result of prepotency in general improvement,
is clearly and forcibly illustrated in the case of speed
records among Standardbred horses. Of the 10,000
stallions siring the 50,000 performers at the close of 1913
there were 11 that had sired 150 or more performers each,
their average being 185. These phenomenal sires, there-
fore, were 37 times as efficient as the average sire. So

154

BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

important are these sires in a study of prepotency that
a tabulation is made, giving their name, stud book num-
ber and their sire and dam as well as the number of their
performing get, both trotters and pacers.

Breeding of ii Phenomenal Sires, Including the
Number of Their Performers — Trotters and Pacers*

Trot-

Pac-

Name of horse

Sire

Grandsire

ters

ers

Total

Allerton 5128

Jay Bird 5060

George Wilkes 519

199

257

Gambetta Wilkes

George Wilkes

Hambletonian 10

110

121

231

4659

519

Onward 1411

George Wilkes
519

Hambletonian 10

155

200

Red Wilkes 1749

George Wilkes
519

Hambletonian 10

133

178

McKinney 8818

Alcyone 732

George Wilkes 519

142

176

Alcantara 729

George Wilkes
519

Hambletonian 10

121

175

Nutwood 600

Belmont 64

Abdallah 15

137

174

Ashland Wilkes

Red Wilkes

George Wilkes 519

169

2291

1749

Electioneer 125

Hambletonian

10
Pancost 1439

Abdallah 1

158

160

Prodigal 6000

Woodford Mambrino

127

155

345

Baron Wilkes

George Wilkes

Hambletonian 10

119

154

4758

519

Total

1494

535

2029

Average

136

185

*Made up from Vol. 29, Wallace's Year Book.

This table is significant, not alone in the number of
performing offspring represented, but in the breeding of
the phenomenal sires. George Wilkes is the sire of five
of these animals and the grandsire of three others ; while
one of the remaining animals is sired by Hambletonian
ID, the sire of George Wilkes, another by Belmont, a
grandson of Hambletonian lo and the remaining one
traces to Hambletonian lo in the maternal line of descent.
Of this number, those that were sired by George Wilkes
produced 638 trotters and 300 pacers, a total of 938 per-
formers, which is almost one-half of the entire number.

In a study of all such data, and in the comparison of

IMPROVEMENT DUE TO PREPOTENCY

155

individuals there are three factors that must be borne in
mind : First, some individuals w^ere too young for their
entire breeding record to be completed ; second, some had
access to better mares and more of them than did others ;
and, third, some had enjoyed less opportunity than others
ov^ing to their racing engagements.

The famous grandsires. — A study of the more important
grandsires shows even more remarkable results. There are
seven stallions in the list that have the distinction of
being grandsire of over 1,000 performers each. So im-
portant are these in a consideration of prepotency that a
tabulation is made of them on page 156 showing the number
of performers got by each, the number of sons that are sires
of performers and the number sired, the number of daugh-
ters that are dams of performers and the number
dammed, also the total number of performers produced
by the sons and daughters.

Fig. 52 — Standarubred Stallion "McKinney," 2:111,4

It is interesting to observe that five of the famous
grandsires are also phenomenal sires, although the
animals that stand first and third as grandsires are not
represented in the table of phenomenal sires. The seven

156

BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

Famous Grandsires Having More Than i,ooo Perform-
ers Each in the Second Generation*

Sons and

Daughters and

Name ot

Year
born

Per-
formers

their performers

Total per-

grandsire

sons and

Sires

Per-
formers

Dams

Per-
formers

daughters

George Wilkes

1856

103

3,187

110

207

3,394

Electioneer. . . .

1868

160

104

1,851

115

185

2,036

Hambletonian

1849

150

1,717

119

1,836

Nutwood

1870

174

155

1,306

177

385

1,691

Red Wilkes

1874

178

149

995

174

297

1,292

Onward

1875

200

176

997

194

288

1,285

Baron Wilkes

1882

154
989

75
912

870

109
959

239
1,720

1,109

Total

10,923

12,643

Average

141

130

1,560

137

246

1,806

*Made up from Vol. 29, Wallace's Year Book.

stallions are the sires of 912 sons that sired 10,923 per-
formers, and of 959 daughters that are the dams of 1,720
performers — in all 12,643, one-fourth of all performers
listed in the year book. In this consideration the rela-
tive age is an important factor. No doubt v.hen the
breeding records of some of the younger horses that have
had better opportunities are complete w^e shall have a
large increase in the number of stallions with 1,000 or
more performers in the second generation.

Breeders of performers and breeders of breeders. — A
study of the records of performance among horses re-
veals the fact that some individuals are notably sires of
speed w^hich ends in that generation, v^hile other animals,
not especially notable for siring performers themselves,
yet produce sires and dams of extreme breeding pov^^er.
Possibly this is due, in part at least, to the fact that the
animals possessing extreme speed are v^^orth more as
racers, and thus are not given the same chance in the
stud as some other well-bred animals which lack the ex-
treme speed and, therefore, are worth more for breeding
than for racing. The fact that some animals seem to be

IMPROVEMENT DUE TO PREPOTENCY

157

breeders of performers, while others are breeders of
breeders, is well illustrated in the following tabulation
which includes the seven famous grandsires as well as
the II phenomenal sires noteworthy for their performers.

Phenomenal Sires and Famous Grandsires and the
Number of Their Performing Descendants*

Sons and

Daughters and

their performers

Total per-

Name of horse

Year
bom

Per-
formers

formers of

sons and

Sires

Per-
formers

Dams

Per-
formers

daughters

Allerton

1886

257

313

395

Gambetta"Wilke.s

1881

231

345

152

497

Onward

1875

200

176

997

194

288

1 285

Red Wilkes

1874

178

149

995

174

297

1,292

McKinney

1887

176

318

356

Alcantara

1876

175

490

183

673

Nutwood

1870

174

155

1,305

177

385

1,691

Ashland Wilkes

1882

169

259

319

Electioneer

1868

160

104

1,851

115

185

2,036

Prodigal

1886

155

123

Baron Wilkes

1882

154

870

109

239

1,109

George Wilkes

1856

103

3,187

110

207

3,394

Hambletonian

1849

2,152

150
1,270

1,717
12,710

80
1,329

119

2,296

1,836

Total

15,006

Average

165

977

102

177

1,154

*Made up from Vol. 29, Wallace's Year Book.

Compare the performers, those gotten directly, with
the total performers of sons and daughters, recording
the second generation of performers. It will be observed
that seven of the 13 individuals stand high in the second
generation, while six are low, although in some cases
their ages are against their second generation record.
Attention is especially directed to Allerton and Gambetta
Wilkes, the most famous producers of speed the world
has seen, although their sons and daughters stand low
as breeders, and to George Wilkes and Hambletonian,
neither famous as direct producers of speed, probably
due to lack of opportunity, but both are phenomenal as
breeders of sires and dams of speed.

I5<^ BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

111 this connection, it is interesting to note that while
there are 30 stallions with 100 or more performers to
their credit, there are but six with 100 or more sires, two
of which are not included in the list of 30 stallions.
There are but 56 stallions that have sired 25 or more sires
of performers, whereas there are approximately 300
stallions that have sired 25 or more performers.

Prepotency among dairy cattle. — The records of per-
formance among dairy cattle furnish us better examples
of the importance of prepotency in improvement than do
those of speed among horses. This is due to the fact that
milk and butter-fat production are connected with breed-
ing, whereas the racing engagements of the horse interfere
with the breeding. In the dairy cow, therefore, perform-
ance and breeding are associated ; while in the race horse
they are antagonistic. On the other hand, at the present
time the dairy cows are handicapped by the fact that we
have only a few years' records, as the advanced register
was not established until 1894, whereas we have authen-
tic race records since the year 1839.

While advanced register records are of recent origin,
the cows are gaining rapidly on the horses. On May i,
1913, there were 22,y20 Holstein-Friesian cows in the
advanced register. These were sired by 5,720 bulls, an
average of slightly less than four performers to the sire.
At the same time, there were 10 bulls that had sired 75
or more performers, their average being 97. These
famous bulls therefore, were twenty-five times as efficient
as the average sire. The tabulation on page 159 gives the
names of these famous bulls, their advanced register num-
ber and the number of their performing get, together with
the number of sons that are sires of advanced register
daughters and number of daughters that are dams of
advanced register daughters .

The extended pedigree of each of these famous bulls
reveals the fact that they trace to De Kol 2d in much
the same manner that the phenomenal sires trace to

IMPROVEMENT DUE TO PREPOTENCY

159

Famous Bulls with Number of Advanced Register
Daughters and Number of Sons and Daughters
That Are Sires or Dams of Advanced Register Cows*

Name of bull

Lord Netherland De Kol 245

Hengerveld De Kol 136

De Kol 2d's Butter Boy 3d 147

Paul Beets De Kol 113

Homestead Girl De Kol Sarcastic Lad 51!
Pietertje Hengerveld's Count De Kol 135.

Aaggie Cornucopia Johanna Lad 473

King of the Pontiacs 702

King Segis 558

Pontiac Komdyke 177

Total

Average

Number
advanced

Sons
that are
A. R. O.

sires

Daughters
that are
A. R. O.

dams

120

116

113

103

975
97

31
54
74
40
19
46
41
27
50
36

418
42

99
73
47
80
23
47
41
10
23
36

479
48

*Made up from Vol. 24, Holstein-Friesian advanced register.

George Wilkes. De Kol 2d appears at least once in the
first four generations of ancestors in each of the famous
bulls except the last two.

Sires of performers and sires of breeders. — While the
advanced register is of too recent origin to show famous
grandparents, yet the records reveal the fact that some
bulls are notable sires of performers which end in that
generation, while others are remarkable for producing
sires and dams of extreme breeding power. This is well
illustrated in the tabulation on page 160, which includes all
bulls with 100 or more advanced register daughters.
While the bulls involved are few in number, the results
are significant. In all these studies it should be remem-
bered that marked prepotency is not of great frequency,
and that some individuals enjoy much greater advantages
than others.

Compare the performers, those gotten directly, with
the total performers of sons and daughters recorded in
the second generation. It will be observed that tw^o of
the four stand high in the second generation, while two

i6o

BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

Famous Bulls and the Number of Their Performing

Descendants*

Sons and
their

Daughters
and their

Total
per-
formers
of sons

Name

Year
born

Per-
form-
ers

pe 'formers

performers

Sires

Per-
form-

Dams

Per-
form-

and
daugh-
ters

ers

Lord Netherland De Kol
Hengerveld De Kol
De Kol 2nd's Butter Boy 3rd
Paul Beets De Kol

1894
1897
1897
1893

120
116
113
103

54
74
40

100
447
581
162

73
47
80

]72

132

157

222
579
654
319

Total
Average

452
113

199
49

1,290
322

299

484
121

1,774
443

*Made up from Vol. 24, Holstein-Friesian Advanced Register.

are very low. Attention is especially directed to Lord
Netherland De Kol, who leads the list of performers, yet
in the second generation of offspring he stands at the
foot of the list and is far below De Kol 2d's Butter Boy
3d, who leads the list as a grandsire of performers, fol-
lowed bv Henp-erveld De Kol.

Fig. 53 — Polled Durham Bull "The Confessor"

IMPROVEMENT DUE TO PREPOTENCY l6l

Performers and prepotency. — Again we come to a con-
sideration of the relation between performance and breed-
ing powers. In the discussion of improvement due to
selection based on performance exa.nples were given
showing that the best breeders were themselves per-
formers, and in the above discussion it was stated that
we have breeders of performers and breeders of breeders.
The fact that we have individuals not especially note-
worthy for getting performers themselves, yet producing
sires and dams of extreme breeding power, such as
George Wilkes and Hambletonian, as well as the fact
that certain other animals are noted for getting perform-
ers that end in that generation, such as the stallion, Aller-
ton, and the bull. Lord Netherlan-d De Kol, has served
to confuse both practical and scientific breeders. This
has resulted in long-drawn discussion, each explaining
his point of view.

To get the matter clearly before us, let us make an-
other tabulation (see next page) showing the breeding of
the 1,191 Holstein-Friesian bulls admitted to the advanced
register on the performance of their daughters. This is
not a selected lot, but includes all bulls admitted to the
register on the basis of performance up to May 15, 1912.
For convenience of study we will divide the bulls into five
classes as before : First, those with 4 to 14 daughters,
inclusive, in the register; second, those with 15 to 24;
third, those with 25 to 49; fourth, those with 50 to 74;
and, fifth, those bulls with 75 and more daughters in the
register.

Observe how the percentage with both sire and dam
in the register increases as the number of offspring per
sire increases. Particular attention is called to the rapid
decrease in percentage with neither sire nor dam in the
register as the number of daughters in the register in-
creases. There is not a single bull that has 25 daughters

1 62

BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

Breeding of Holstein-Friesian Bulls Admitted to the
Advanced Register on the Basis of Performance Up
to May 15, 1912*

Both sire and

Neither

sire nor

Sire in

Dam in register

Number of

dam in

dam

not

sire not

registered

daughters

per sire

Num-

Per

Num-

Per

Num-

Per

Num-

Per

ber

cent.

ber

cent.

ber

cent.

ber

cent.

of bulls

of.bulls

of bulls

4 to 14

482

192

191

IS to 24

118

25 to 49

50 to 74

75 and up

100

*Made up from Vol. 24, Holstein-Friesian advanced register.

in the register but that has at least one performing
parent. Further, there is not a single Holstein-Friesian
bull that has 75 daughters in the register but that has
both of his parents in the register.

The same is true of the dams of advanced register
daughters. To illustrate this a similar tabulation is made
of the breeding of all dams w^ith tv\^o or more registered
daughters up to May 15, 1912.

Breeding of Holstein-Friesian Cows with Two or
More Advanced Register Daugpiters Up to May 15,
1912*

Number of

Dams with records

Dams with

no records

advanced register
daughters per dam

Number of
daughters

Per cent, of
daughters

Number of
daughters

Per cent, of
daughters

2 and 3
4 and 5
6 and 7
8

2,182

286

100

1,604

*Made up from Vol. 24, Holstein-Friesian advanced register.

IMPROVEMENT DUE TO PREPOTENCY

l6^

In a consideration of the relationship between perform-
ance and breeding" power these tables are significant.
Note how rapidly the percentage of daughters with dams
with records increases as the number of daughters per
dam increases; likewise the percentage decreases as
rapidly when the dams have no records. This shows
conclusively that the most prepotent animals descend
from parents with records of performance without a
single exception.

Fig. 54. — Polled Durham Bull "Sultan's Creed''

Famous Holstein-Friesian cows. — In this connection
the performance and breeding record of De Kol 2d 734
and Belle Korndyke 13913 are of interest, as these are
perhaps the two most famous cows of the breed, at least
from the breeder's point of view. De Kol 26. has two
daughters in the advanced registry, seven sons that are
sires of advanced register daughters, and four daughters

164

BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

that are dams of registered daughters. Belle Korndyke
has four daughters in the register, six sons that are sires
of daughters in the register, and five daughters that are
dams of registered daughters. Both of these cows were
famous performers, De Kol 2d exceeding the require-
ments for admission to the register by JJ per cent and
holding the world's record for butter-fat yield from 1894
to 1897; while Belle Korndyke exceeded the requirements
by J2, per cent. The sons of these two cows proved re-
markable breeders, as is illustrated in the accompanying tabu-

Famous Holstein-Friesian Cows
AND Male Descendants*

Belle Korndyke

Name of Bull

Per-

Sons

Daugh-

form-

that are

ters that

ers

sires

are dams

192

Belle Korndyke Beryl Wayne
Belle Korndyke Butter Boy
Earl Korndyke De Kol
Karel Korndyke
Korndyke Wayne Paul D. K.
Pontiac Korndyke

Total

De Kol 2d

Name of bull

Per-
form-
ers

Sons

that are

sires

Daugh-
ters that
are dams

De Kol 2d's Alban
De Kol 2d's Butter Boy
De Kol 2d's Butter Boy 2d
De Kol 2d's Butter Boy 3d
De Kol 2d's Mutual Paul
De Kol 2d's Netherland
De Kol 2d's Paul De Kol

Total

13
12
10
113
39
22
45

254

19
20
12

74
21
21

202

14
18
13
47
19
28
32

171

*Made up from Vol. 24, Holstein-Friesian advanced register.

IMPROVEMENT DUE TO PREPOTENCY 165

lation, which gives the number of daughters each son
has in the advanced register; also the number of grand-
sons that have sired registered daughters, as well as the
number of granddaughters that are the dams of regis-
tered daughters.

Prepotency in sex. — There is a general belief that the
sire is prepotent over the dam. In practice this is often
the case, for the sire should be and usually is the better
bred of the two parents. There is much larger oppor-
tunity for selection in males, because so few are needed
in the breeding operations. One sire can serve from 10
to 100 females, depending on the class of animals. Thus
we can, and usually do, discard nine-tenths, and even
more, of all the males born. In most classes of farm
animals a very large percentage of the females are
needed to maintain the animal population. This should
and often does result in the better class of males than
females, which accounts for the seeming potency of males.

We are often impressed with the resemblances between
ofTspring and the sire. This is due to the fact that the
sire influences the blood of so many offspring, whereas
the dam influences the blood of but one in horses and
cattle and but few in sheep and swine. Thus, the breeder
who wishes to give his animals the most benefit possible
of good blood at the least expense will, of course, pro-
vide it through the sire's side. For purely economic rea-
sons, therefore, sires in general are prepotent over dams
in general. On the other hand, where conditions such
as breeding and opportunity are similar, records of per-
formance among horses and dairy cattle fail to show one
sex prepotent over the other.

CHAPTER XV

IMPROVEMENT DUE TO ACCUMULATIVE
DEVELOPMENT

While the term accumulative development has been
given a variety of meanings, here it is employed to denote
the general advance made by the offspring over the
parent. It is applied to all advances, v^^hether large or
small, and of w^hatever origin. True offspring may and
surely will decline unless the parents are judiciously se-
lected, so that we often have accumulative decline. And
in the case of some economic characters that are nega-
tively correlated, as in the case of early maturity and
high fertility, as v^ell as high egg production and consti-
tutional vigor, it may be difficult in an exact sense to
distinguish between breed development and breed decline,
for as one character improves, the other may become less
efficient. Here, however, is where selection proves the
key to the situation. If the herd has been properly
founded, a few individuals will show advancement in both
characters, and they alone should be retained for breed-
ing and all others should be eliminated. If, perchance,
none of the individuals in a given herd show improve-
ment in both characters, it indicates a defective founda-
tion and lack of judicious selection in the original breed-
ing animals.

Modifying characters. — Scientific breeders and biol-
ogists generally have entered into an unprecedented dis-
cussion over methods of modifying or increasing the
efficiency of particular characters. This discussion in-
volves the probable inheritance of modified or "acquired"
characters. Students of breeding are about equally
divided over the question, one-half stating that much of

166

IMPROVEMENT DUE TO ACCUMULATIVE DEVELOPMENT 167

the improvement attained has been due to the offspring
inheriting, in part at least, certain modifications de-
veloped by the parent, the other half maintaining that
there can be no such thing as the transmission of a modi-
fied character. This discussion is involved in a maze of
definitions, one side reading certain meanings into words
which best suit its argument. Thus the discussion is
largely academic, even though the principle involved
may be of importance.

It is not proposed to enter into this matter further than
to present the conditions as they actually exist for the
guidance of animal breeders. Of course it is frankly ad-
mitted that a more definite knowledge concerning the
control of characters that pass from parent to offspring
would be invaluable, but it seems that much of the
present discussion is mystifying rather than clarifying
the field for the practical animal breeder.

Modified character in heredity. — As brought out in the
discussion of the determiners of heredity, there are two
views concerning the ap-
pearance and transmission
of modified characters.
According to Darwin, the
determiners of heredity
are given off from the
body cells and dispersed
throughout the system, a
part of the determiners
collecting in the sexual
organs, while according to fig. ss-suffolk stall.on "Wests.de
Weismann the determin- chieftain"

ers of heredity proceed

from the germ plasm, the hereditary substance of the
germ cells. These theories, or modifications of them,
have attracted widespread attention because of the as-
sumption that if we accept the Darwin theory it is easy to
explain the possibility of a modification or "acquired" char-

l68 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

acter being inherited, whereas if we accept the Weis-
mann theory it is difficult to understand how a modifi-
cation acquired by the parent can be transmitted to the
offspring.

Interesting as this matter is to the student of genetics,
it is only of secondary importance to the practical breeder,
who is interested primarily in results. According to one
theory, when conditions are favorable the modification
originates spontaneously in the individual itself, while
according to the other the modification originates spon-
taneously in the germ cells, so that when the animal is
born it is capable of undergoing certain modifications
under suitable environment. In practice it makes little
difference which theory is accepted ; in fact, this is the
very reason why each theory has such strong advocates.
The point for the breeder to keep clearly in mind is the
fact that suitable environment is required for the de-
velopment of the modification, whatever its origin.

Accumulative development in the trotter. — For more
than a century trotting horses have been bred for the im-
provement, of the speed character. In the discussion on
causes of variations it was indicated that the environ-
ment, particularly the care, training and management,
resulted in the development of all of the possibilities
with which the animal was born, which of necessity
brought out the wide variation among trotters, while in
the discussion on the influence of time records it was
clearly shown that general advancement was accom-
plished by eliminating the slow and mating the fast,
which continued from generation to generation, resulting
in some speed marvels.

The gradual reduction in the time of the trotter gives
a good example of accumulative development. This is
illustrated in the following tabulation, which gives the
reduction in time for a mile track with horses in harness
during the past century. The table gives the name of the
horse, place of the race, time and date.

improvement due to accumulative development 169
Trotting Records Reduced

Name of horse

Race course

Record

Date

Boston

Philadelphia, Pa.

2-'l«^

1810

Trouble

Jamaica, N. Y.

2 43i

1826

Sally Miller

Philadelphia, Pa.

2:37

1834

Edwin Forest

Philadelphia, Pa.

2:36J

1838

Dutchman

Hoboken, N. J.

2-32

1839

Lady Suffolk

Hoboken, N. J.

2:20J

1845

Pelham

Jamaica, N. Y.

2-28

1849

Highland Maid

Jamaica, N. Y.

2:27

1853

Flora Temple

Jamaica, N. Y.

2:24 J

1856

Flora Temple

Kalamazoo, Mich.

2:19f

1859

Dexter

Buffalo, N. Y.

2:171

1867

Goldsmith Maid

Milwaukee, Wis.

2:17

1871

Goldsmith Maid

Boston, Mass.

2:14

1874

Rarus

Buffalo, N. Y.

2:13i

1878

St. Julien

Oakland, Cal.

2:121

1879

Maud S.

Chicago, 111.

2:10|

1880

Jay-Eye-See

Providence, R. I.

2:10

1884

Maud S.

Cleveland, Ohio

2:081

1885

Sunol

Stockton, Cal.

2:081-

1891

Nancy Hanks

Terre Haute, Ind.

2:04

1892

Alix

Galesburg, 111.

2:03f

1894

The Abbot-

Terre Haute, Ind.

2:03i

1900

Cresceus

Columbus, Ohio

2:02i

1901

Lou Dillon

Readville, Mass.

2:00

1903

Lou Dillon

Memphis, Tenn.

l:58i*

1903

Uhlan

Memphis, Tenn.

1:58

1912

Uhlan

Memphis, Tenn.

l:54it

1913

*Paced by runner to sulky carrying wind or dust shield.
fPaced by runner to wagon.

The trotting horse has increased its speed by one-third,
in a century of racing. Just how much of this increase is
due to breed improvement, how much to better methods
of training, and how much is due to superior conditions
generally, such as improved harness, sulkies and track,
cannot be stated even approximately. In fact, it would
avail us but little if we knew the relative influence of
each, as all are essential to highest development. In
this connection there are three facts to be remembered :
First, the environment, such as the training and manage-
ment, developed all of the potentialities with which the
horse was born ; second, the records of performance en-
abled us to know for a certainty which were slow and
which were fast ; and, third, the elimination of the slow
and the mating of the fast resulted in present efficiency.

170 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

Accumulative development in the dairy cow. — An even
more striking example of accumulative development is
observed in the case of improvement among dairy cattle.
This is because the characters, butter-fat and milk pro-
duction, go hand in hand with breeding — in fact, they
depend upon the normal functioning of the reproductive
organs ; whereas, in the case of the horse, the develop-
ment of speed and breeding are antagonistic, as racing
interferes with breeding.

Fig. 56 — Holstein-Friesian Cow "Gl. Omicron" and Daughter, "Gl. Eglantine''
25.282 and 25.912 pounds butter fat in seven days, respectively.

Although the official testing of dairy cows has been in
progress but two decades, great advancement has been
made both in milk and butter-fat production, as is evidenced
by the tabulation on the next page, which gives the in-
crease in butter-fat production. The table includes the
name of the highest yielding cow, her advanced register
number, the name of the owner, the yield in milk and
fat for seven consecutive days and the year in which the
record was made.

This shows phenomenal development, as the cow has
increased her butter-fat yield by 60 per cent in less than
two decades. Many factors are involved in this remark-

IMPRO\EMENT DUE TO ACCUMULATIVE DEVELOPMENT I7I

able improvement, but chief of them are suitable en-
vironment and records of performance, v^^hich not only
enable us to know^ the high producers from the low pro-
ducers, but provide us with data whereby we can deter-

Increase in Butter-Fat Production

Advanced

Butter

Name of cow

Name of owner

fat
pounds

Year

Be Kol 2d

412

H. Stevens & Son

21.261

1894

Netherland Hengerveld

1,133

H. Stevens & Son

21.333

1897

Lilith Pauline De Kol

1,415

H. P. Roe

22.589

1901

Mercedes Julip's Pietertje

2,166

T. S. Tompkins

23.487

1902

Sadie Vale Concordia

1,124

McAdam & Von Hine

24.508

1903

Aaggie Cornucopia Pauline

1,933

H. P. Roe

27.459

1904

Colantha 4th's Johanna

1,849

W. J. Gillett

28.176

1907

Grace Favne 2d's Homestead

4,422

H. A. Moyer

28.440

1909

Pontiac Clothilde De Kol 2d

5,275

Stevens Brothers

29.766

1910

Pontiac Pet

6,168

E. H. Dollar

30.142

1911

Valdessa Scott 2d

10,780

Bernard Myer

33.500

1912

K. P. Spring Farm Pontiac Lass

11,168

F. M. Jones

35.343

1912

mine the animals that are actually producing" high-yield-
ing offspring, as illustrated in the pedigree (p. 131).
Such information is invaluable in selecting breeding
animals, for we can discard the low producers and mate
the high producers, which, in connection with more fa-
vorable conditions, enables us to get even higher produc-
ing cattle.

Results accomplished. — When we consider the ances-
tral forms from which our farm animals have been de-
veloped, the results attained in individual instances seem
truly phenomenal. The progenitor of the horse was a
small, sure-footed but rough-gaited animal ; that of the
cow, a small, active animal, requiring five or six years
to mature and giving only enough milk to nourish the
young; that of the sheep, a long-bodied, long-legged,
sparsely covered animal, producing two or three pounds
of coarse wool and requiring three or four years to reach
maturity; and that of the pig, a ferocious light-bodied

172

BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

carnivore, requiring four years to attain maturity, while
the wild fowls laid only sufficient eggs for a brood.

From such ancestral horse forms descended the modern
Thoroughbred, capable of running a mile in 1.37%; the
modern pacer, able to negotiate a mile in 1.54^; the
stylish, high-acting Hackney; the smooth-gaited saddler,
capable of going a number of easy gaits ; as well as the
ponderous drafter, often attaining a weight of more than

I, TOO pounds at one year of
age, more than 1,600 at two
years, and more than a ton
at three years of age.

The cow forms gave us
the modern dairy cow, ca-
pable of producing annually
28,000 to 30,000 pounds of
milk and more than 1,000
pounds of butter fat, which
will churn out more than
1,200 pounds of butter, as
well as the modern beef
cattle, frequently attaining
a weight of 1,200 to 1,400
pounds by the time the ani-
mals reach 15 to 18 months
of age. From the ancestral
sheep forms descended the
modern wool sheep, often
shearing an annual clip of
25 to 30 pounds, as well as
mutton lambs capable of
attaining a weight of 60
pounds before they are 60
days of age. From the
swine forms descended the
F,G. 57-H=GHEGc.pROBuaNaHENc, modern porker, capable of

291 and303 eggs, respectively, in one yeor attammg a Weight of 3OO

IMPROVEMENT DUE TO ACCUMULATIVE DEVELOPMENT 1/3

pounds at six to eight months of age. The w^ild fowls'
gave us the modern hen capable of laying 275 to 300
eggs in the year as v^^ell as an economic meat-producing
animal.

Improvement a slow process. — While remarkable ad-
vancement has been gained in increasing the efficiency
of each class of farm animals, yet the improvement of
economic characters is a slow^ process, requiring years
of careful study and patient effort. When selection and
improvement is limited to a single character, advance-
ment may be fairly rapid at first, but as maximum ef-
ficiency is approached, the rate of increase rapidly dimin-
ishes, and improvement calls for greater effort on the
part of the breeder. This is well illustrated in the case
of milk and butter-fat production among Holstein-Fries-
ian cattle, and speed development among English Thor-
oughbred horses. Up to two decades ago little attention
was given systematic attempts to improve Holstein-
Friesian cattle. Thus when the advanced register was
established the cattle responded admirably, increasing
their production by 60 per cent in two decades.

On the other hand, consider the case of recent speed
records amon^ Thoroughbred horses. This English horse

American Running Records Reduced, Mile Track

Name of horse

Race course

Time

Year

Charley Bell

Lexington, Ky.

1:451

1854

Satallite

Lexington, Ky.

45 i

1859

Mammona

Lexington, Ky.

441

1862

Revolver

Cincinnati, O.

1866

Hertog

Cincinnati, O.

43 i

1869

Alarm

Saratoga, N, Y.

42?

1872

Gray Planet

Saratoga, N. Y.

42 J

1874

Searcher

Lexington Ky.

411

1875

Ten Broeck

Hartford, Conn.

39f

1877

Racine

Washington Park. 111.

391

1890

Chorister

Morris Park, N. Y.

39 i

1893

Libertine

Harlem, III.

38 J

1894

Voter

Brighton Beach, N. Y.

1900

Allan-a-Dale

Washington Park, 111.

37i

1903

Dick Wells

Harlem, III.

371

1903

Center Shot

Santa Anita, Cal.

37J

1908

174

BREEDING OF FARM ANIM'ALS

has been raced more or less systematically for three cen-
turies, and recent progress in reducing the time record has
been slow, as indicated by the preceding tabulation which
gives the reduction for the last one-half century on a mile
track . The table on page 173 gives the name of the horse,
the place of the race, the time and date.

The Thoroughbred horse has increased its speed by
but eight per cent in one-half a century of racing. Dur-
ing this same period the Standardbred, a comparatively
new breed, has reduced its trotting record by 27 per cent
(p. 169).

Methods employed. — From the foregoing discussions
on improvement due to selection based on records of per-
formance, improvement due to selection the result of

prepotency, as well as
improvement due to ac-
cumulative development,
it must be clear that ef-
ficiency depends largely
on selection ; that judi-
cious selection depends
on an exact knowledge
of development or per-
formance ; and that the
degree of development
depends on the environ-
ment, including training,
management, and the
like. This results in the development, and, therefore, the
discovery and retention of the efficient, as well as the elim-
ination of all others that lack ability to show improvement,
which results in general advancement. This is con-
tinued, and the acquirement or development of one gen-
eration becomes, in part at least, a heritage of the next.
In practice it matters not a whit whether the capacity
for greater efficiency is due to a kind of mutant having
its inception in the germ cells, or whether it arises spon-

FiG. 58 — High Wool Yielding Ewe
25 pounds at 15 months of age.

IMPROVEMENT DUE TO ACCUMULATIVE DEVELOPMENT I75

taneously in the body in the form of an "acquired"
character. In his reasoning the student as well as the
breeder may choose whichever horn of the dilemma he
likes, but in practical operations it must be borne in mind
that in the absence of suitable environment and judicious
selection the capacity, whatever its origin and however
controlled, cannot assert itself and will go unnoticed, and
thus eventually be lost.

CHAPTER XVI
SYSTEMS OF BREEDING

There are several systems of breeding, the advantage
and disadvantage of which the breeder should fully com-
prehend. This is particularly true of those systems that
rapidly favor purifying the blood, as otherwise undesir-
able attributes may be intensified along with desirable
ones. Since the system to be employed will depend
largely upon the purpose, the breeder should first of all
have a clear idea of just what he is trying to do, and an
accurate knowledge of the limitations of the various sys-
tems, so that he may employ the one to achieve his pur-
pose.

Purposes in breeding. — There are two more or less dis-
tinct purposes in breeding farm animals that should be
clearly differentiated in the mind of the breeder. In the
first place, animals are produced for immediate consump-
tion, and in the second place, they are produced for
breeding purposes. An attempt to improve those for
immediate use may be defined as herd improvement;
while the improvement of those for breeding purposes
may be defined as breed improvement.

In herd improvement the object is the betterment of
the individual. This is purely commercial. It is, per-
haps, the cheapest and most convenient of all forms of
breeding and productive of the most rapid gains. On
the other hand, in breed improvement, the object is the
betterment of the entire strain or race. This is creative
and constructive. It is, perhaps, the most expensive,
although of the very highest style of finished breeding
and calls for intelligent, painstaking effort, as in this
case the breeder is a true leader in the improvement of
types and breeds of farm animals.

176

SYSTEMS OF BREEDING 1 77

Pure-bred breeding. — This system has for its purpose
the propagation of animals for breeding purposes, and
for the very highest type of production. When judi-
ciously practiced it results in advancing excellence. This
constitutes animal improvement in the true sense of the
term and is the highest system of finished breeding. It
has the disadvantage in that it is rather costly, especially
when the purpose is to produce something better than
ever existed before. This is because so few individuals
materially excel their predecessors or their contemporaries,
and so few of these can be relied upon to propagate their
own excellence.

If the purpose is only to multiply existing excellence,
then pure-bred breeding is comparatively cheap, because
a very large percentage of properly selected purely bred
animals may be depended upon to equal the excellence
of their predecessors. Here is where the commercial
aspects of pure-bred breeding works to the detriment
of the system.

Purely bred animals command a premium on the mar-
ket irrespective of excellence, hence practically all pure-
bred animals are preserved, and there is utter lack of
proper selection. This often operates to the detriment
of the system. Many purely bred animals are retained
in our breeding herds simply because they are pure bred.
Frequently they have no other meritorious characteristics
to commend them.

Because of the demand for purely bred animals for
breeding purposes the offspring are in great demand,
and this system may prove very profitable, particularly
if the breeder is so located as to be able to dispose of the
surplus stock to advantage. Thus pure-bred breeding
commends itself to those who have the capital and ex-
perience to go forward with it.

Perhaps the strongest argument in favor of the breed-
ing of purely bred animals lies in the fact that it serves
to stimulate the breeder to improved methods of care

178

BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

and management. He takes much more interest in the
work, and studies the individual animals very carefully,
which leads to general improvement of the herd.

Grading. — This consists in mating a common animal
with a purely bred animal. The pure bred may be either
sire or dam, but for economic reasons it is usually the

Fig. 59 — Brown Swiss Bull "Myone Boy''

sire. This system of breeding is inexpensive, although
it can be used only in herd improvement. It is the
method to recommend to the great mass of breeders,
especially beginners, even though they eventually intend
to engage in the business of breeding pure-bred animals.
There is no cheaper, quicker or more thorough way to
become familiar with a breed than through a familiarity
with its grades. Further, in a few generations, grades
may be so improved as to be practically equal to pure
breds for immediate consumption, although they will be
worthless for breeding purposes.

SYSTEMS OF BREEDING 1 79

The great advantage of grading is that it is inexpen-
sive, at least when accomplished with the sire. A pure-
bred bull in a herd of 25 common cows will give each
calf in the herd a pure-bred sire, thus making "half
bloods" of the entire crop of calves. If the grading were
attempted in the other way it would require 25 purely
bred cows and the calves would show no more improve-
ment. In fact, if the improvement were accomplished
with the cows, it would be in 25 lines, each with its shade
of difference, and not in one line, as would be the case
were the improvement done with a bull. This is a sig-
nificant factor when we consider the value of uniformity
among all classes of farm animals.

The chief disadvantage in grading is that the system is
not likely to be followed. The first results are likely to
be so satisfactory that the breeder is almost certain to
choose a promising grade male for a sire, because he
looks as good as a pure bred, whereupon by the law of
ancestral heredity all further improvement stops except
that due to selection and management.

Cross-breeding. — This consists in mating two distinct
breeds or families. It is a powerful means of inducing
variability, and can be used, with success, only in the
propagation of animals for immediate consumption. Up
to the time of Bakewell, however, it was the favorite
system of breeding farm animals, as it promoted con-
stitutional vigor, increased the size, and favored fertility.
This system rendered a valuable service in forming new
breeds. Indeed, but few breeds of farm animals have
been evolved without more or less cross-breeding among
the foundation animals.

At present this system is limited to the breeding of
mules, the offspring of a jack and a mare, and to the
production of animals for immediate consumption when
two breeds possess the particular attributes that it is
desired to secure in the offspring. Thus, in the pro-
duction of beef say, one breed is noted for its excellent

I50 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

form but is late maturing, whereas another breed is
noted for its early maturity but possesses a poor con-
formation. Should the cross between a male and a
female of these breeds prove a fortunate nick, the young
will inherit the desirable qualities of both parents. In
this case the offspring will mature early and possess an
excellent form, two attributes highly desirable among
meat-producing animals.

Since crossing favors variability, the cross-bred animal
should never be used in breeding, as the results cannot
be predicted, even approximately. Certain it is the off-
spring will be exceedingly variable, an undesirable char-
acteristic among animals intended for meat production.

Line-breeding. — This consists of mating animals of a
single line of descent. The system is used either in
pure-bred breeding or in grading. In the former case
the purpose is usually breed improvement, while in the
latter it is herd improvement. This system is a favorite
in establishing families or strains. In fact, few of the
many breeds of farm animals, as well as few of the more
noted families or strains of the various breeds, have
been formed without more or less line-breeding. Since
all breeds are exceedingly variable, for best results, it is
not enough to confine selection to the limits of the
breed. It must be limited to those lines that most nearly
approach the ideal sought.

Line-breeding is a very strong factor in securing uni-
formity, as it combines animals very similar in their
characteristics. It narrows the pedigree to a few and
closely related lines of descent, increases the prepotency,
and intensifies the characters, thus giving stability to
the strain or breed. Line-breeding is free from many
of the objections attending other systems of close breed-
ing. It is conservative, and a very useful system for
the improvement of farm animals.

The chief disadvantage of line-breeding is that the
breeder is likely to select his animals on the basis of

SYSTEMS OF BREEDING l8l

their pedigree, and thus fail to consider individual merit
and performance. A line-bred pedigree is good or bad,
according as the individual animals composing it are
good or bad. The breeder who selects by pedigree alone
w^ithout regard for individual merit or performance is
likely to find his herd deteriorating in a few generations.
This is especially true with this system of breeding, as
both good and bad characters alike are advanced and
intensified.

Inbreeding. — This consists in mating animals closely
related. It is line-breeding carried to its limits, and may

Fig. 60 — Brown Swiss Cow "Arlena"

be employed in grading to improve the herd, or in pure-
bred breeding to improve the breed. This system has
been used successfully in establishing, as well as improv-
ing, practically all of the modern breeds of farm animals.
It was first put into regular practice by Bakewell, and
since his time has been employed more or less by all
successful breeders.

l82 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

There are three possible forms of inbreeding. First,
mating sire with daughter, which results in offspring con-
taining three-fourths of the blood lines of the sire. It is
practiced when it is desired to eliminate the characters
of the dam and intensify those possessed by the sire.
Second, mating son with dam, giving rise to offspring
containing three-fourths of the blood lines of the dam.
This method is practiced when it is desired to eliminate
the characters of the sire and intensify those of the dam.
Third, mating brother and sister, a method which pre-
serves the characters of both sire and dam. It is in-
ferior to either of the other two methods in strengthening
characters.

This system has many advantages in the breeding of
farm animals. It promotes uniformity by combining
animals very similar in their general characters. It nar-
rows the pedigree to few and closely related lines of
descent (p. 120). It intensifies characters and increases
the prepotency. It is recognized as the strongest of all
breeding. Since the infusion of new blood lines shatters
existing characters, no system equals inbreeding for per-
petuating desirable characters, doubling up existing com-
binations and retaining all there is of good in the excep-
tional individual.

Capable of producing the great improvement that it is,
this system is not without its disadvantages. It does
not respect characters, but intensifies both good and bad
alike. If persisted in, it is likely to result in loss of fer-
tility as well as constitutional vigor, which may quickly
lead to breed extinction. When practicing inbreeding,
therefore, too much importance cannot be placed upon
the selection of animals for high fertility and much con-
stitutional vigor.

There are two situations in which it may be desirable
to practice this system. One is in grading where we
have a proven sire that is known to get excellent ofif-
spring. It may be entirely permissible to mate him with

SYSTEMS OF BREEDING 183

his own daughters, rather than go to the expense of pro-
curing a new sire, in which the breeding power is not
known. The other is when we have an animal possess-
ing a desirable attribute which we wish to retain. In
this case the only way we can retain the desirable char-
acter is to inbreed, otherwise it may be obliterated and
lost. Many a breeder has found himself in just such a
position, and by inbreeding has not only retained the de-
sirable characters in question, but has advanced and in-
tensified them, and in a few generations has succeeded in
building up the best herds in the breed.

Breeding from the best. — This consists in mating the
best individuals without reference to blood lines. The
system may be used in herd or breed improvement,
though the advisability of employing it will depend in a
large measure upon the situation. As a rule, when we
are grading, it is advisable to procure the very best
animals obtainable. On the other hand, when building
up a pure herd, it is equally important to give due regard
to the strain or family with which we are working. The
breeder who breeds from the best without regard for
family lines is likely to bring together a herd of mixed
females, out of which nothing of note can be established.
Crossing family lines brings about much the same con-
dition as crossing breeds, only on a more limited scale.

In constructive breeding ancestral lines must be given
due consideration. To secure uniformity, to intensify
desirable characters, and to increase the prepotency of
our animals, we must keep the family strains pure. The
introduction of new blood, even though superior, shatters
existing characters, destroys uniformity and weakens
prepotency.

Up to the time of Bakewell, breeding from the best
was the system used in both herd and breed improve-
ment. At that time it was favored by the absence of
written pedigrees. It often resulted in increased size.
advanced fertility and strengthened the constitutional

154 BiREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

vigor, but then, as now, it lessened uniformity and
weakened prepotency, so that it was exceedingly uncer-
tain as to just what the offspring would be like.

Co-operative breeding. — This is a plan of procedure
rather than a system of breeding, but it is mentioned in
this connection to complete the list of methods. It con-
sists of a number of breeders operating jointly for their
mutual benefit. In animal production there are a num-
ber of business transactions that can be accomplished
to advantage by a number of men working together.
Chief of these are purchasing pure-bred stock, especially
males; disposing of surplus stock; purchasing supple-
mentary food in large quantities, thus obtaining the ad-
vantages of wholesale prices and reduced freight rates ;
and the forming of cow-testing associations for the pur-
pose of determining the profitable individual cows in the
dairy herd.

The strong advantage in this plan of procedure is that
it promotes uniformity among the animals of a commu-
nity. In time the locality becomes noted for the produc-
tion of animals of this particular type, which serves to
attract buyers in quest of such animals, thus increasing
the market facilities of the community.

CHAPTER XVIi
FORMATION OF BREEDS

When man first propagated animals to meet his needs
is not known. Certain it is, however, that he enjoyed
their conveniences, such as the labor, food and clothing
they provided, from a very early period. Our oldest
literature makes reference to the herds and flocks as an
established factor in the agricultural industry of the
times. Since their propagation seems to have been so
thoroughly established, no doubt they had been domes-
ticated for ages. Likewise, we have no definite knowl-
edge as to which class of animals was first domesticated,
although it has generally been assumed that the dog
and the horse were among the first animals to be prop-
agated in confinement. In the case of meat-producing
animals there can be no doubt but that they were hunted
and trapped by man for ages before any attempt was
made to domesticate them or to propagate them in
captivity.

The place of first domestication has been assumed to
be on the continent of Asia. This is the largest land
area, with the greatest diversity of soil, climate and ex-
posure. It is, therefore, richest in animal life, as well
as the oldest in civilization. Here many of our most
useful animals were domesticated so long ago that it is
impossible to say when, how, or by whom the work was
accomplished.

Domestication a necessity. — Primitive man lived on
the spontaneous product of nature. Could he have main-
tained his existence upon these products, in all probability
he would never have undertaken the trouble of domes-
ticating the wild animals. Like the other animals about
him, man lived under hard conditions. He spent most of

185

BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

his time in hunting something to eat and in avoiding
being eaten himself. In this struggle primitive man
found himself at no little disadvantage. He was not as
strong as many of the animals he hunted, and hence no
match for them in battle. He was neither as fleet as
most of the game he hunted, nor could he trail by the
scent like the wolf.

Man was not long in learning that his chief advantage
lay in his wits. He devised weapons and traps to aid

him in the hunt. He
was severe on the
animals he hunted,
and they not only
diminished in num-
bers, but gradually
learned his methods
and became exceed-
ingly wary. Again
man was forced to
rely upon his wits.
Because of its hunt-
ing habits, the wolf,
Long wool type. ^j^^ auccstor of the

dog, was trained to aid man in the hunt and chase.
With his weapons, traps and dogs, man was more severe
upon the animals that he hunted, and they grew more
and more scarce. It was inevitable that the time should
come when he must take care of the animals about him
or give up animal products, including food and clothing.

The first act toward domestication was to hunt and
destroy all animals that preyed upon those of value to
man ; the next was to spare the finest males and all
females with young; the next was to provide food for
the animals at such seasons as they seemed unable to
find it ; and, lastly, came the breeding in captivity and
caring for them at all times.

Evolution of farm animals. — Development was ex-

FiG. 61 — COTSWOLD Ram.

FORMATION OF BREEDS 187

ceedingly slow at first, but when the necessity for im-
provement became apparent advancement went rapidly
forward. Thus the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries
witnessed - remarkable strides in the advancement of
agricultural interests generally. Now that men had ex-
tended their political and religious influence to the ends
of the earth they began to devote their attention to
economic industries. Agriculture took foremost rank
among these industries and during the eighteenth century
underwent unprecedented advancement. Since animal
production constituted a large part of the agricultural
industry, it shared in this remarkable advancement. This
century witnessed the introduction of the methods that
resulted in the establishment of the modern breeds of
farm animals. True, certain localities had long been
known for the production of animals of a given type, par-
ticularly in England, but these animals were not dif-
ferentiated as breeds. This general advancement was
favored by the spirit of the times, as everything seemed
to be in readiness for it.

Origin of breeds. — While animals have been domes-
ticated and at the service of man for a very long time, the
breeds of farm animals as we know them at present are
of comparatively recent origin. Although systematic
animal breeding is of recent origin, mention should be
made of the fact that improvement has been under way
from the time of domestication and even before. We
are told that when the diminishing meat supply became
inevitable, man secured his meat, not from the best, as
before, but from the common animals, being careful to
retain the best for breeding. Later, in choosing animals
to breed in captivity, nothing was more natural than that
the choicest should be selected, in order that the quality
should not deteriorate. In this way improvement was
introduced at the very beginning of domestication.
This is significant, as it would seem that our ancestors
very early learned the fundamental lesson of all breed-

BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

ing — the better the parentage the better the offspring-
Robert Bakewell. — The introduction of the methods
that resulted in the establishment of the breeds was due
in a very large measure to the ingenuity of Robert Bake-

FiG. 52 — Robert Bakewell*

well. He was born in 1726 at Dishley Grange near
Loughborough, Leicestershire, England, where he died
in 1795 in his 70th year of age. From his father Bakewell
received excellent training in practical and experimental
methods of husbandry. He made excursions into dif-
ferent parts of England and to the Continent in order to
inspect the different herds and to select those animals
that were best adapted to his purpose.

Bakewell was very original, and tested the worth of his
ideas by frequent and varied experiments. His animals during
their lifetime were often submitted to experiments to demon-
strate the amount of food consumed to produce a given
weight in product. After slaughtering they were carefully

*From the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society Report, 1894. This report
contains a good description of the life and work of Bakewell, pp. 1-31.

FORMATION OF BREEDS 189

examined to determine the quality of their flesh; also to
determine the proportion of dressed meat to offal. This
was not all, as we are told that skeletons and pickled
joints of specimens of the best sheep and cattle formed a
little museum, for the comparison of one generation with
another, and ancestors with their descendants.

Such careful observations, in connection with proper
care, intelligent selection and suitable mating, worked
rapid improvement. Thus many years did not pass be-
fore Bakewell's animals were unrivaled in plumpness of
form, in the small size of bone, and in their ability to
acquire external fat, as well as in the small amount of
food required to produce a given gain in body weight.

Bakewell's principles. — While we have no account of
the precise principles governing Bakewell's practice, yet
Culley, Young and Marshall, who were repeatedly fa-
vored with opportunities for making observations on
Bakewell's practices, give us extended accounts of his
methods. From these accounts it would seem that Bake-
well's entire attention was centered on the following
principles :

The first principle of improvement was that, in general,
animals produce others possessing qualities similar to
their own. With this in mind Bakewell conceived the
idea that he had only to select the most valuable animals
such as promised greatest returns, and that he should
then be able to produce a breed from which he could
derive maximum advantage.

The second principle alluded to the utility of form, as
he conceived the form to be related to the function.
Bakewell selected for small bone and beauty of form, as
he believed that by so doing he could reduce the per-
centage of offal and increase the relative proportion of
meat in the region of the valuable cuts.

The third principle referred to the quality of flesh. In
the attempt to improve the quality he gave careful atten-
tion to the texture of the muscular parts. He believed

IQO BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

that the grain of the meat depended wholly on the breed,
and not, as before considered, on the size of the animal.

The fourth principle considered the propensity to fatten
rapidly. Thus he favored animals with a natural tendency
to fatten at an early age.

The fifth principle alluded to inbreeding. Formerly the
practice was to select females from native stock and cross
them with males of alien blood. Bakewell imagined that
better results would follow uniting superior animals of
the same breed than by any mixture of foreign blood.
Thus he shocked the mode^st people of his time by mating
animals whose characters he wished to preserve without
regard for relationship.

The sixth principle of improvement referred to
economic production. We are told that the prevailing
idea, and the one which lay at the very root and source
of his strength, was economy. This principle, no doubt,
was uppermost in his mind when selecting for small bone
and light offal as well as for early maturity and for the
increased percentage of meat in the region of valuable cuts.

Influence of Bakewell's methods. — Although his most
noted success was achieved with sheep known as Dish-
ley Leicesters, his work in breeding English Cart or
Shire horses as well as Longhorn cattle has been of
inestimable value to all branches of the breeding indus-
try. Bakewell's animals became very distinguished.
Breeders and people interested in live stock improvement
visited him from various parts of England and Europe.
They paid him large sums for the hire of his male
animals, particularly rams, he being the first person to
establish the custom of renting his animals.

In 1760 rams were hired for a few shillings for the sea-
son ; ten years later prices varied up to 25 guineas
($131) ; and within a few years his annual income was
said to be 3,000 guineas ($15,750) from the hire of rams
alone. His celebrated ram, "Two Pounder," was hired
one season for 800 guineas ($4,200), with the reservation

FORMATION OF BREEDS I9I

that Bakewell should breed one-third of the total number
of ewes specified in the contract, which was figured as
making the payment equivalent to a rental of 1,200
guineas ($6,300). He rented stallions, bulls and boars
on the same general plan.

Such accomplishments served to attract other breeders
to his methods, and the Colling Brothers, founders of the
Shorthorn breed, the Tompkinses, founders of ;the Here-
ford, and Watson, the founder of the Angus breed of
cattle, as well as John Ell'man, the founder of the South-
down breed of sheep and other early breeders, were close
students of Bakewell's methods. The achievements of
this one man furnished the stimulant which resulted in
the development of our modern breeds of farm animals.

Forming of new breeds. — While new breeds have been
formed in many ways and under various conditions, for
convenience of study, the methods employed may be
grouped into four general classes :

First. Breeds were founded by introducing alien males,
which were mated with native females. ' Previous to
Bakewell's time this was the common method, and while
extensively employed since, as a rule it has been followed
by close breeding to establish the type. This method is
well illustrated in the formation of the Thoroughbred
or English running horse.

Second. Breeds were formed by the careful selection of
native stock, by judicious mating, and by improved
methods of care and management. Animals possessing
the desirable qualities were often closely bred to establish
the type. The formation of the Shorthorn breed illus-
trates this method.

Third. Breeds were formed by the crossing of two or more
distinct breeds after which close breeding was often em-
ployed to preserve the desirable qualities. This method
is illustrated in the formation of the Oxford breed of
sheep.

Fourth. Breeds were formed by the uniting of two and

192

BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

sometimes more existing breeds. The Holstein-Friesiaii
breed of dairy cattle illustrates this method.

Origin of the Thoroughbred. — Stallions were imported
from Arabia, Barhary, Persia and other Oriental coun-
tries and mated with native English mares. In 16 16
Markham's Arabian was imported, Byerly Turk in 1689,
Darley Arabian in 1706, and Godolphin Barb in 1728.
These stallions, especially the three latter, may be con-
sidered the Thoroughbred foundation. From them
descended Herod (King Herod), Eclipse, Flying Child-
ers and Matchem, the greatest racing prize winners as
well as the most renowned sires of the breed. Herod
sired 497 prize winners, Eclipse 334 and Matchem 354,
which are estimated to have won for their owners more
than £500,000, or over $2,500,000.

Origin of the Shorthorn. — This breed originated in
the counties of York, Durham and Northumberland in
northeastern England. Hubback, a native bull born in
1777, is regarded as the founder of the breed. His off-
spring were better feeders, matured earlier, dressed out
with less offal and had more constitutional vigor than
the older sorts. These characters were inherited by a
grandson, Foljambe, who became a great breeder. A
son, Bolingbroke, and a daughter, Phoenix, mated to-
gether, produced the bull Favorite, one of the most
famous of the breed. Favorite, mated with his dam, pn -
duced Young Phoenix, which, in turn, he was bred to,

Pedigree of the Shorthorn Bull, Comet (155)

r Foljambe f263)
(Young Strawberry
I Foljambe (263)
I, Lady Maynard
( Bolingbroke (86)

Bolingbroke (86)

Comet (155)

Favourite (252)

Young Phoenix

Phoenix

r Favourite (252)

Phoenix

Phoenix
Foljambe (86)
Lady Maynard

FORMATION OF BREEDS I93

resulting in the bull Comet, a very famous animal, who
sold for £1,000 ($5,000), which was the highest price
paid up to that time.

Origin of the Oxford. — This breed of sheep was de-
veloped in Oxford County, England. It is of compar-
atively recent origin. About 1830 the shepherds of the

ff-^

'•'; l>>

Fig. 63 — A Prize-Winnmng Flock of Oxford Sheep

County of Oxford conceived the idea of developing a
new breed of sheep combining the desirable qualities
of the long-wooled breeds and of the Down breeds. They
began by miating compact Cotswold rams with Hamp-
shire ewes. Later Southdown blood was introduced to
some extent, although the Hampshire was the chief
source of Down blood in the Oxford Down foundation.
As would be expected from its Cotswold ancestry, the
Oxford has a long and coarse fleece, although from the
Hampshire line it inherits desirable mutton qualities.

Origin of the Holstein-Friesian. — This breed name is
of American origin, there being no breed of the name in
Europe, the native home of the breed. The Friesian
cattle originated in the province of Friesland, Holland,
where they became so popular that many were exported
to Germany, Denmark, Belgium and the United States.
The Holstein cattle originated in the province of Hoi-

194 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

stein, Germany, where they also became very noted and
were exported to many countries, including the United
States. Thus in Europe the Friesians and Holsteins are
separate and distinct breeds. The two breeds, however,
have essentially the same origin and are similar in all
important characteristics. In order to promote the wel-
fare of the two breeds, the breeders and importers in
this country finally came together and united their in-
terests, agreeing to call the breed Holstcin-Friesian.

Origin of the Standardbred horse. — The formation of
this breed is of interest in the consideration of the origin
of breeds, as we can trace present-day Standardbred horses
back through the Thoroughbred on the one hand and the
Hackney and Norfolk trotter on the other hand, to the
time of Darley Arabian. This relationship is illustrated
in the chart on opposite page showing the descent of the
Standardbred horse from Darley Arabian through the
Thoroughbred line on the left and through the Hackney
and Norfolk trotter line on the right ; also the relationship
of the II stallions with 150 or more performers, the figures
not in parenthesis following the names indicating the
number of performers.

Q S p4

Q
<

o g

(1)

o<-

-O-

O s

1— t

1/3 W <5 <;

C cd

CHAPTER XVIII
IMPROVEMENT OF BREEDS

While breed improvement was due very largely to
judicious selection, suitable mating and better care on
the part of breeders generally, it is of interest to note
the factors that gave encouragement to such methods.
In the development of the breeds many factors exerted
a favorable influence, chief of w^hich w^ere the establish-
ment of books of record, of breeders' associations, and
of live stock shows. Since the books of record gave in-
formation concerning the ancestors of a given animal
capable of meeting the requirements, it enabled the
breeder to select his animals with intelligence, as well as
to keep the blood lines pure. Before the introduction of
such records it was not possible to learn the merit of a
given animal's ancestors, and hence impossible to es-
timate, even approximately, what the offspring would
be like.

Origin of pedigrees. — It was to promote the develop-
ment and to preserve the purity of the Thoroughbred or
English race horse that books of record were established.
So far as is known there were no records of breeding or
performance previous to the eighteenth century. True,
through advertisements, sales' papers, catalogs, and the
like, many pedigrees had gained currency, but they were all
shaped on fashionable lines, and many, if not most of
them, were fictitious. In 1709 a racing calendar of note
was published. Others followed, perhaps the most no-
table being the Racing Register, published by Bailey
Brothers. The records were intended largel)^ for the
convenience of men who wagered money, and who cared
little for blood lines, hence mistakes were of frequent
occurrence. Such was the condition of English pedi-

IMPROVEMENT OF BREEDS 197

grees when, toward the close of the eighteenth century,
Weatherby and Pick started their stud books.

In 1786, Pick published "A Careful Collection of All
the Pedigrees Possible to Obtain," and in 1791
Weatherby published an "Introduction to a General Stud
Book." These publications were the forerunners of
Pick's Turf Register and of Weatherby's General Stud
Book. The first volume of both the Register and the
Stud Book was published in 1803. Four volumes of
Pick's Turf Register appeared and then the publication
was discontinued, while the General Stud Book continued
as the official organ of the Thoroughbred in England.
This represents the first successful attempt to record
genealogy of farm animals.

The second book of record to make its appearance was
the Shorthorn Herd Book. Acting upon his own in-
itiative, Coates collected the pedigrees of Shorthorns of
note, and after much difficulty in obtaining the necessary
financial assistance, published the first volume of the
herd book in 1822, although it was not until 1876 that the
British breeders, organized as the Shorthorn Society of
Great Britain, took charge of the preparation and pub-
lication of the pedigree records. Following the lead of
the Thoroughbred and Shorthorn breeders, the advo-
cates of each breed of note established and maintained a
book of record. The more popular breeders maintain
a separate book of record in each country where they are
extensively bred. For list see appendix.

Eligibility to registration. — At present in America,
practically all books of record limit registration to the
offspring of registered parents, although during the
formative period of the breeds the standard was less
rigid. Thus some breeds admitted animals with five
or seven top crosses, and others, providing the animals
contained a certain per cent of blood already in the book
of record. Such is the case even today in many foreign
countries. In addition to the purity of blood, some breed

198

BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

associations require certain breed characteristics. Thus
Holstein-Friesian cattle, to be eligible to registration,
must be black and white, and a red and white animal,
although of pure breeding, is not eligible. To provide
the finances necessary to publish the book, there is
usually a pro rata charge for each animal recorded.

^^^-a^:^ ««. ^-^

Fig. 64 — Hereford Heifer "Scottish Lassie''

Advanced register. — The ordinary pedigree is merely
a guarantee against mixed blood lines and gives us evi-
dence that the individual belongs to a specific breed. It
gives us no information as to whether or not a particular
individual is a good one. The animal may be the best
or the poorest of the breed, but there is nothing in his
pedigree whereby we may judge of his merit.

The advanced register gives us the desired information,
as the performance of the animal is recorded therein. It
is a kind of second registration, based upon performance,
and furnishes us a guarantee of quality. Among horses
it is based upon their track records (p. 126), and among

IMPROVEMENT OF BREEDS I99

dairy cattle upon the amount of milk and butter fat pro-
duced within a given length of time according to an
official recognized test (p. 127).

Breed associations. — Upon their ow^n initiative
Weatherby and Coates compiled and published the first
volumes of the General Stud Book and of the Shorthorn
Herd Book. The business grew so rapidly, however, and
there was so much detail connected with the registration,
such as tabulation of pedigrees, publication of the books
of record, and the like, as well as with financing the
undertaking, and later with the management of the ad-
vanced register work, that it became necessary to pro-
vide some method whereby the work could be done sys-
tematically. This led to the organization of associations,
the membership of which consisted largely of breeders
interested in the development of a particular breed.

Thus the advocates of each breed formed a breeders'
association to conduct the business connected with the
management of the breed. Upon the payment of a mem-
bership fee any breeder may become a member of the
association of the breed he handles. In many of the
associations the charges for registration of animals
owned by members are less than for those owned by non-
members. These associations are considered the official
organs of the breeds and have been very potent factors
in the general improvement and advancement of the
several breeds of farm animals.

Live stock shows. — One of the most important factors
in the early development and improvement of the breeds
of farm animals was the live stock show. This is es-
pecially true of Britain, where animal fairs have been
held for centuries. Following the lead of England, live
stock shows have been encouraged and given financial
assistance by practically all countries where animal pro-
duction constitutes a large part of the agricultural in-
dustry.

The value of live stock expositions for the purpose of

200

BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

stimulating improvement is emphasized by the interest
shown in our town, county, state, national and interna-
tional expositions. Were they not powerful factors in
the improvement and advancement of the breeds of farm
animals, they would not be so universally recognized or
so extensively patronized by either the exhibitors or
breeders.

The fact that a successful show yard career adds
greatly to an animal's commercial value as an individual,

Fig. 65 — Beef Cattle Parade on Show Grounds

as well as to the economic value of the get afterwards,
stimulates much interest among the exhibitors, and each
tries to outdo the other. This competition results in
maximum development of the individuals and brings out
the best animals of the various breeds. Further, such
expositions have been very useful in familiarizing the
people at large with breed characteristics and in provid-
ing an opportunity to compare one breed with another.
British methods.— Following the formation and de-
velopment of the Thoroughbred horse, Britain enjoyed
an era of live stock improvement which resulted in the
organization of more than a score of separate and distinct
breeds of farm animals, including horses, cattle, sheep
and swine. Since we import from Britain large numbers

IMPROVEMENT OF BREEDS 201

of four breeds of horses, six breeds of cattle, nine breeds
of sheep and four breeds of swine, the methods of breed
improvement, on the little group of islands, the total area
of which is much less than that of the State of California,
are of more than passing interest. Of the 88 breeds listed
in the tabulation of breeds of farm animals in the ap-
pendix, 44 claim Britain as their native home.

The natural conditions such as the uneven topography,
the varied climate and the fertile soil, together with the
stock-loving habits of the people, favored the propaga-
tion and improvement of numerous types and breeds of
farm animals. Advancement was also promoted by the
system of husbandry and by the relationship between
tenant and landlord, the land being rented under such
terms as to favor the breeding and improvement of farm
animals.

It was recognized that the animals of certain counties
were distinct from those of other counties in the rate
and manner of growth as well as in fattening qualities.
Each of these sections took pride in developing its
animals, and there was often keen rivalry among the
counties or sections. There was a total absence of in-
discriminate crossing of animals from different counties.
This resulted in the development of many distinct breeds
each with its distinctive characteristics.

As it was in Britain that live stock shows were inau-
gurated, it was there that they proved their worth in
stimulating interest in breeding. From their inception,
these shows have been very potent factors in live stock
improvement. They were systematized by the Royal
Agricultural Society of England, established in 1839, since
which time they have attracted world-wide attention,
until at present all animal-producing nations hold sim-
ilar shows.

It is only fair to state, however, that the most signifi-
cant factor in stimulating improvement is the demand
created for the stock by America and other leading

202 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

animal-producing nations, largely drawing on Britain for
improved blood. As the animals are intended for breed-
ing purposes and to introduce new blood into other coun-
tries, there seems to be no limit to the price foreign buy-
ers are willing to pay, especially if the animal has a
successful show yard career, or in the case of racing
horses a successful turf career back of him.

French methods. — Since the Percheron draft horse is
so very popular, the methods employed in the improve-
ment of the breed are of interest. In order to provide
horses for war purposes the early monarchs interested
themselves in horse breeding. Since the establishment
of the "Administration des Haras" during the reign of
Louis XIV, the French government has made systematic
efforts to promote the horse-breeding industry. Not-
withstanding the political disturbance and war, the gov-
ernment purchased stallions in large numbers, import-
ing many from foreign countries, notably Arabia.

In 1833, by royal decree, the French Jockey Club was
organized and a stud book established. This did much
to further the industry. In 1870 the management of the
government horses was given over to the Department of
Agriculture and Commerce. The general control was
placed in charge of a director, who was assisted by sub-
directors, inspector, superintendents and veterinarians,
all of whom must be graduated from the horse depart-
ment at Le Pin. This is significant, as it contributes to
the uniformity of the horses throughout France, and is
in striking contrast to American methods as set forth by
the various state stallion laws, where instead of a few
inspectors with a common ideal, there are many inspec-
tors with equally as many ideals.

There are three classes of government stallions in
France : First, those owned by the government ; second,
those owned privately, but subsidized by the govern-
ment — when thus subsidized the owners receive an an-
nual allowance from the Minister of Agriculture; third.

IMPROVEMENT OF BREEDS

203

stallions owned privately, and, having been passed upon
by the officials and found w^orthy, are approved or au-
thorized for public service. All other stallions are pre-
vented by a law passed in 1885 from standing for public
service.

With the exception of some aid to the improvement of
fine-wooled sheep, the government has interested itself
in horse breeding only and similar aid has not been ex-
tended to other classes of farm animals, with the result
that other classes of French animals are little known
outside of France.

Further improvement needed. — If the propagation of
farm animals is to retain its present position in the agri-
cultural industry, the animals must be improved so as
to yield larger returns for the expenses involved. The in-
creasing price of stock foods makes this imperative, notwith-
standing the remarkable advancement already attained as in-
dicated in the discussion of results accomplished (p. 171).
Even in the case of such a phenomenal animal as the pig,
weighing 300 pounds at six to eight months of age, each
pound of gain will require approximately four pounds of
grain or its equivalent, which, with grain at $20 a ton
will make a feed cost
alone of four cents a
pound, to say nothing of
the shelter or lots, the
insurance or risk from
death, the labor and the
cost of the parents or
their inaintenance.

The need of further
improvement is better il-
lustrated in the case of Fig. 66— Cheshire Hog of Excellent Tyi'e

the beef animal that

weighs say 1,400 pounds at 18 months, phenomenal individ-
ual that he is. In order to force a steer to make such a gain
it would be necessary to feed approximately six pounds of

204 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

grain or its equivalent, and at least one-half as much hay for
each pound of gain. With grain at $20 and hay at $10 a ton
this would make a food cost alone of 7^ cents a pound,
to say nothing of the other expenses incidental to the
business of raising and fattening animals for beef. This
calculation is based upon the most phenomenal animals
of the class to which they belong, yet the food cost is
very high, and only a very small percentage of the nutri-
tion or energy of the food is recovered in the product.

Need of extending improvement. — While further im-
provement will be welcome, the greatest need at the
present time is to extend such attributes as have already
been attained. Some horses are fast enough, some pos-
sess sufficient quality, some stylish enough, some suf-
ficiently smooth gaited, and some large enough ; but few,
possibly none, possess these attributes in the proper pro-
portion so as to secure maximum efficiency. Surely draft
horses are too slow and lack the endurance and quality
characteristic of light horses.

While the phenomenal individuals mentioned above
produce meat fairly economical, in the main, it is pro-
duced only at enormous expense of feed, requiring,
roughly speaking, six pounds of grain or its equivalent
for each pound of gain in the case of swine ; 8 to 10 pounds
of grain or its equivalent in the case of sheep; 12 to 15
pounds of grain or its equivalent in the case of cattle.
Likewise the hen that lays 275 to 300 eggs in a year is
doing much more than we have a right to reasonably
expect her to do, but the hen on the average farm lays
less than four dozen eggs in a year. If common animals
could be improved to even approximate the efficient ones
in economic production it would prove a most significant
factor in advancing agricultural as well as human inter-
ests generally, and would give the propagation of animals
a new lease which they could hold for some time to come.

A good example of the need of extending improvement
to the common animals is observed in the case of dairy

IMPROVEMENT OF BREEDS

205

cattle. There is greater variation in the production of
dairy cows than that of any other class of farm animals.
To illustrate this variation the following tabulation is
arranged comparing the average annual production for
both milk and butter of all cows in the United States by
decades with the monthly and yearly production of the
leading high-producing Holstein-Friesian cows. This
is not a comparison of the poorest and the best, but of
the average for all cows in the United States and the best.

Average Yearly Production Per Cow in the United

States

Year

Milk,

Butter,

Year

Milk,

Butter,

pounds

1850

1,436

1890

2,709

115

1860

1,505

1900

3,646

155

1870

1,772

1910

3,520

150

1880

2,004

Production for One Month

Name of cow

Milk,
pounds

Butter fat,
pounds

80% butter,
pounds

K. P. Pontiac Lass

Valdessa Scott 2d

Pontiac Lady Korndyke

Johanna De Kol Van Beers

2,316
2.934
2,497
2,764

137
131
125
121

171
164
157
151

Production for One Year*

Banostine Belle De Kol

Pontiac Clothilde De Kol 2d.
High-Lawn Hartog De Kol...
Colantha 4th's Johanna

27,404
25,318
25,592
27,432

*May Rilma, a G'lernsey cow, exceeded these records in the production of
butter fat, producing 1,073.4 pounds of butter fat from 19,673 pounds of niir<
in 365 days, now the world's record for butter fat.

20b BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

Thus the leading cows produce approximately as much
milk and butter in one month as the average cow in the
United States produces in one year. Further, the lead-
ing cows produce almost lo times as much in a year as
that produced by the average cow. There seems no
reason to doubt that the average cow could be advanced
to produce approximately one-third that of the lead-
ing cows, providing proper methods were employed in
feeding, breeding, care and management. In this case
one-half of the present number of cows would give us
as much milk and butter as we now receive. This would
result in a very great saving of food, labor and shelter
and advance the dairy industry to one of the most profit-
able branches of a2:riculture.

CHAPTER XIX
BUILDING UP A HERD

The inevitability of the dairy cow warrants a discus-
sion on building up the herd. There is great variation
in the productiveness of dairy cows, some producing lo
times that of others. Notwithstanding this variability
she responds to judicious care and breeding more per-
fectly than does any other class of farm animals. This
means, of course, that the dairy cow is susceptible to
much improvement.

It is safe to say that not over one-fourth of the dairy
cows in the United States are capable of producing 7,500
pounds of milk and 300 pounds of butter fat in one year,
even if reasonably well fed. The breeder should not be
satisfied until the poorest cows in his herd are capable
of producing the above amount. If all the dairy cows
in the United States were developed to this point, the
average production for each cow would be approximately
double what it is at the present time. To put it the other
way around, and what is more desirable from the breed-
er's point of view, one-half of the present number of cows
would be capable of producing approximately the same
amount of milk and butter fat than we now obtain. Such
advancement is by no means impossible. In fact, it is
within reach of practically all breeders who are willing
to practice judicious methods of management, feeding
and breeding.

The inevitability of the dairy cow. — If the past and
present movements of farm animals may be accepted as
a criterion as to future movements, the dairy cow is soon
to become our principal source of animal food. There are
at least two very significant reasons for this assumption.
In the first place, no other farm animal can produce food

207

.208 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

as cheaply as the dairy cow. As the human population
increases this is to become more apparent, as it will be
necessary to produce animal food more economically in
order to avoid a scarcity of human foodstuffs.

In the second place, at the present time, the products
of the dairy cow are practically indispensable as an article
of human diet, especially for infants. The principal
product, milk, is of such a nature that it cannot be trans-
ported a great distance, thus necessitating the keeping of
large numbers of dairy cows near the centers of dense
population. The importance of fresh, clean, sw.eet milk
as an article of human diet is frequently impressed upon
the physicians and health officers in the larger cities dur-
ing the hot days of midsummer, as at such times there
is often a high infant mortality largely due to the lack of
fresh, sweet milk, which is often exceedingly difficult to
obtain, especially if traffic is partially interrupted for a
few days.

The use of pure-bred animals. — It is universally ac-
cepted, all things considered, that purely bred animals
excel grades. For this reason well-bred animals com-
mand a fancy price which often prohibits their use ;
nevertheless they have a number of very strong advan-
tages over grades, chief of which are their capability
of higher production, their stimulating effect upon the
breeder, thus favoring general improvement, and the in-
creased value of their offspring- These advantages are
often sufficient to offset the high price.

It has been shown conclusively that there is a close
relationship between the number of pure-bred animals in
a community and the general excellence of all farm
animals. Of the 20 counties in New York state having
the largest number of dairy cattle those containing the
largest number of pure breds include the counties in
which the average yield was highest and the counties
which made the largest increase in yield during the past
decade,

BUILDING UP A HERD 209

The use of grade animals. — While the ideal condition
would be to have only high-producing, purely bred
animals, at the present time this is impossible because of
the small number of such animals available. A very
small percentage of the cattle are pure bred, and of this
number many are inferior or diseased, which renders
them unfit for foundation animals on which to build a
future herd. In general, therefore, the breeder must use
the best-producing animals available without respect to
purity of blood for foundation stock.

By the grading-up process, that is, by continually se-
lecting and breeding the cows that are the best producers
to a purely bred bull of proven worth, it is entirely pos-
sible and by no means difficult to establish a herd of grade
cows that will equal in the production of milk any herd
of pure-bred animals. The enterprising and progressive
breeder, however, will hardly be content with grades
only. In the beginning his bull will be purely bred, and
presently he will want a pure-bred cow to match, then
one or two more. Thus he will be steadily and properly
working toward a pure-bred herd and gaining in knowl-
edge and experience at the same time. This will prove
a much more economical as well as more satisfactory
plan, especially with the beginner or those unaccustomed
to purely bred cattle, than to purchase a pure-bred herd
in the beginning, as the risk is too great for those lacking
in practical experience.

Foundation animals. — In building up the herd the most
important as well as the most difficult animal to select
is a suitable bull to head the herd. His breeding, his
ability to get uniformly high-producing offspring and his
individuality should be carefully considered. It goes
without saying that he should be a good individual of the
breed to which he belongs, and that he should be of
proven worth as well as purely bred.

The most important factor in selecting the foundation
cows is a record of performance of each animal under

210 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

consideration. In building up a herd this is indis-
pensable. Without it, advancement is uncertain and per-
manent improvement is not possible. Of course, only
uniformly high-producing cows should be secured.

If the herd to be improved is already organized, then
the first problem is to separate the high-producing from
the low-producing cows. At the present time a very
large percentage of the dairy cows do not yield sufficient
product to pay for the food they consume, when figured at
prices obtainable on the farm, to say nothing of the labor
and other expenses. Could all such inferior cattle be
eliminated, this alone would very materially advance the
dairy industry.

After the foundation animals have been decided upon
and the herd assembled, it is important that the animals
be given the best of care. This is essential to improve-
ment, as highest efficiency depends on maximum develop-
ment, which, in turn, depends on judicious management.

The first generation. — If the sire has been well chosen,
the calves of the first generation are likely to be fairly
uniform, even though their dams be of mixed breeding.
If convenient, all of the heifer calves should be retained.
A great advantage in building up a herd by the grading-
up process is the opportunity afforded to raise a large
number of individuals up to the time they begin to pro-
duce. This provides large numbers from which to select,
which results in more rapid improvement than though
the numbers were limited. It often happens, however,
owing to lack of facilities for rearing calves, that some
selection must be made at birth. In this case retain the
heifers from the high-producing dams, disposing of those
from the low-producing cows.

Breeding the young heifers. — There are many perplex-
ing questions arising in the second generation of the
grading-up process. In the first place, the young heifers
should be bred and developed much as suggested in the
discussion developing the heifer (p. 311).

BUILDING UP A HERD 211

If the original sire was a young- one at the time of his
purchase, there will be a considerable number of his half-
blood offspring ready to breed while he is still in the
height of his power. As there has been much said against
the practice of inbreeding, most breeders hesitate to breed a
bull to his own offspring. But if inbreeding is ever likely
to be followed by useful results it will be under just such
conditions, and in proportion as both the bull and the
half-blood heifers show strong individual vital powers
the practice is recommended. In the majority of cases the
very best bull to breed to a lot of high-quality, uniform,
half-blood heifers is their own sire, especially if it is de-
sired to secure greater uniformity and greater average pro-
duction in their offspring.

On the other hand, suppose the breeder wishes to
change bulls and procures an animal equal in productive
capacity but of slightly different type from the original
sire. In all probability their second generation calves,
even though they are three-fourths pure blood, will not
be nearly so uniform a crop as the first generation or half-
blood calves. Further, such offspring frequently show
little, if any increase, in average production, although a
few individuals may show marked improvement. This
will prove the skill and patience of the breeder.

Continued judicious selection the means of improve-
ment. — The heifers that show marked improvement are
the ones to be relied on to carry the herd forward in im-
provement. It is the continued elimination of the low-
producing and the judicious selection of the high-produc-
ing that advances the general average of the herd. As
generations come and go, the characteristics of the pure-
bred sire will become more fixed and the herd more uni-
form in type and capacity. From the production stand-
point, the herd will become practically equal to purely
bred animals, although the male offspring should not be used
for breeding, as they would tend to stimulate reversion
toward the low-producing and common-bred ancestors.

212

BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

The Glista family-* — This family takes its name from
Glista 7857, the ancestress of the Holstein-Friesian herd
at Cornell University, Since Glista herself was rather
inferior as a producer, the development of this family
gives a good illustration of the building up of a herd
from a common individual. As would be expected from

Glista

Glista 2nd

Gl. Netherland

Gl. De Kol

Gl. Iota

Gl. Ernestine

Fig. 67 — "Glista Ernestine," 24.410 pounds butter fat
in seven days and her ancestors.

*"The Cornell Dairy Herd," H. H. Wing; "The Cornell Countryman," Nov.
1913, pp. 44-51.

BUILDING UP A HERD 213

SO common a foundation cow, not all descendants have
shown uniformly good qualities. The number of inferior
animals is not larger than would usually appear in any
course of breeding. By judicious selection these have
been eliminated from the herd. It is interesting to trace
the advancement of the descendants of this inferior cow up
to Glista Cora, with a record of 24.129 pounds of butter
fat in seven days as a senior three-year-old, to Glista
Ernestine, with a record of 24.410 pounds of butter fat as
a junior four-year-old, and to Glista Eglantine, with an
aged record of 25.912 pounds of butter fat in one week.
Glista Omicron, Glista Eglantine's dam, has a record of
25.282 of butter fat (Figs. 67 and 68).

In the following tabulation the relationship of all the indi-
viduals in the family is shown in the line of female descent,
together with the length of time they remained in the herd
and their average yield in pounds of fat per year during
the time they were in the herd. A study of the table re-
veals some of the uncertainties as well as some of the
difficulties with which the animal breeder must work.
Glista 2d, the poorest cow in the first generation of off-
spring, is in direct line of ascent to Glista Ernestine and
Glista Eglantine, now considered to be the best cows in
the herd, all things considered. Glista Delta, the best
cow in the second generation, left no female descendants,
and her line became extinct. The table also illustrates
very clearly the wide variation in relative fertility and
longevity, some of the cows giving birth to but one calf
and then failing to breed again, while others remain
fertile until late in life, producing 10 calves and remain-
ing productive for 10 years.

Advancement requires time. — While the tabulation
shows rapid improvement in the first two generations of
offspring, yet in point of time progress was slow, as is
like'ly to be the case in any breeding operations involving
the larger animals. Glista 3d produced three bull calves
in succession and no heifers, while Glista 4th produced

a«2c.a s a

* e

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«ca oCO >,-*
ore's" oS

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« — ^ — t r

§ :2'".i:. k:

• cs _; o

Moo
(Sim

3 "^ 7i< '^<

'<! ^<-:<)

^ t-H O

Si CO

J2 ^ 43 ^
E "Co o .

— ._: .^ -cs ■

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i-i-i

r/j

H-1

r/)

"p.-

C9 li

BUILDING UP A HERD

215

four bull calves before her first heifer was born. This
retarded progress at first, although after a time the herd
increased rapidly in numbers and improved in general

Advancement in Glista Family

Average
number
of cows
in herd

Milk

Fat

Period

Average
amount

produced
in one

year, lbs.

Average
gain, lbs.

Average
amount

produced
in one

year, lbs.

Averacre
gain, lbs

1891-1895

1896-1900

1.5

2.2

6.0

18.6

18.0

6,258
8,868
9,065
8,261
9,195

2,610
197

-804*
130

201
285
312
291

324

1901-1905

1906-1910

-21*

1911-1913

♦Decrease.

Glista

Glista 4th

Gl. beta

Gl. Cora

Fig. 6S — "Glista Cora," 24.129 pounds butter fat
in seven days, and her ancestors

2l6 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

productive capacity. This is shown in the preceding
tabulation which gives the average number of cows in
the herd, the average amount of milk produced by each
animal in a year, the average gain in milk as well as the
average amount of butter fat produced by each animal
in a year and the average gain in butter fat, in periods
of five years each beginning in 189 1 and continuing to the
close of 1913.

Fig. 69 — High-Producing Holstein-Friesian Cows
Daughters of Prince Ybma Spofford 6th

The tabulation illustrates the major drawback in breed-
ing pure-bred animals. Practically all of the heifer calves
were retained in 1906-10, there being little or no selec-
tion practiced. This resulted in a rapid increase in the
number of cows in the herd and a corresponding decrease
in production. The building up of a herd, whether of
grades or purely bred animals, depends upon judicious
selection.

Influence of the sires. — In the building up of a herd the
influence of the sires is of great importance. The ad-
vancement in the Glista family has probably come largely
through the sires, although in the tables showing female
descent there is no indication of this. It is difficult to

BUILDING UP A HERD

±iy

indicate the exact influence of each sire other than by
giving a list of his daughters, together with the produc-
tion of each, which is shown in the fohowing tabulation :

Fat,
Sired by Netherland Remus pounds

Glista 2d 188

Glista 3d 252

Glista 4th 274

Average 238

Gired by Sir Beets De Kol

Glista Beta 309

Glista De Kol 303

Glista Alpha 294

Average 302

Gired by Earl Korndyke De

Kol

Glista Delta 348

Glista Theta 302

Glista Eta 327

Glista Epsilon 312

Glista Lambda 292

Glista Gamma 336

Glista Iota 381

Glista Nu 317

Glista Mu 285

Average 323

Sired by Dutch Hengerveld

Korndyke

Glista Rho 301

Glista Xi 180

Glista Sigma 341

Glista Omicron 359

Glista Tau 255

Glista Pi 198

Glista Phi 231

Glista Upsilon 163

Average .

254

Fat
Sired by Small Hopes pounds
Korndyke De Kol

Glista Carlotta 299

Glista Psi 345

Glista Candida 259

Glista Coriander 233

Glista Corinne 253

GH a Chi 281

Glista Eloise 283

Glista Eleanor 286

Glista Omega 309

Glista Francesca 322

Glista Eva 270

Average .

285

Sired by A. & G. Netherland
Piebe De Kol

Glista Alpha 2d 204

Glista Echo 338

Glista Ebony 304

Average .

282

7 Sired by Prince Ybma
Spofford 6th

Glista Cora 413

Glista Coreva 223

Glista Dora 239

Glista Duchess 220

Glista Draba 298

Glista Ernestine 377

Glista Eglantine 264

Glista Flora 207

Glista Flora 310

Average .

.283

Since the cows are of the same strain in the female line,
the average variation in productiveness of the offspring
is due largely to the sires. Of the seven bulls, Earl Korn-
dyke De Kol was the individual most impressive and of
greatest use in the herd, whereas Dutch Hengerveld
Korndyke was the least successful. Special attention is
directed to these two sires. Had the herd missed the
beneficial effect of the former, the latter, in all probabil-
ity, would have sent it to oblivion, as many a bull thus
has sent many a dairy herd. On the other hand, could
the herd have enjoyed the beneficial effect of a second
sire relatively as efficient as Earl Korndyke De Kol, the

2l8 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

herd would have taken rank among the foremost in the
country.

Prince Ybma Spofford 6th gives promise of excelling
Earl Korndyke De Kol, as three of his daughters — Eglan-
tine, Ernestine and Cora — have produced more than 24
pounds of butter fat in seven consecutive days and rank
high among the cows of the breed (Fig. 69).

CHAPTER XX
COMMUNITY BREEDING

This system has been extensively introduced into a
number of foreign countries, and into some of the states
of the Union with most excellent results. A number of
breeders in a community possessing the same type or
breed of animals band together and form a co-operating
breeding society. This has for its object the production
and improvement of the animals of the community and
often of some specific breed, as well as the establishment
of cordial relations generally between the members of
the society, who agree to practice such methods as will
insure the most successful and economic results. It is
the duty of each member to improve his animals by mat-
ing exclusively with pure-bred sires of the breed repre-
sented by his society, to care for his animals in the most
approved manner, to co-operate with his fellow-members
in the use of approved sires and in buying and selling
stock, as well as in promoting the general welfare of the
animal interests of the community.

Business of breeding. — The breeding of farm animals
is a complicated and many-sided business. The breeder
must not only be a student, familiar with the underlying-
principles of breeding, but he must be a live stock judge
in order to select animals judiciously ; he must be a feeder
and trainer in order to develop maximum possibilities,
as well as a business man in the sense of being capable
of properly advertising his product in order that he may
sell and buy to advantage.

The business of producing farm animals for breeding
purposes is too complex for one man to accomplish with
greatest efficiency. It calls for the harmonious effort of
many minds. In the proposed society some men, by na-

219

220 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

ture, may be scientific breeders, some natural judges, some
expert feeders, some natural trainers, and others gifted
with business and executive ability, the united effort of
which can accomplish vastly more in the way of animal
improvement than the wisest man working single handed.
True, the lone man, if a genius at business, may make
more money than the individuals in the society, but it
will be due to his executive ability and not to the quality
of his animals. It would be vastly better for the commu-
nity as well as to his own advantage for such a person to
join the society, as in this particular case he would be
able to do the entire community's business more effi-
ciently, because he would have a better grade of animals
to sell.

Expense of equipment reduced. — The improvement of
farm animals is an expensive business, because relatively

.•1

F'^

U.-/^

-p

1*
■'J

%."*-

. ^..-^-

Fig. 70 — Southdown Ewe Lambs, Uniform in Conformation

few individuals excel their parents and very few propa-
gate their own excellence. Among other things this
expense is due to the cost of a proven purely bred sire
and to the large number of females necessary to allow for
rigid selection as well as to provide the proven sire with

COMMUNITY BREEDING 221

maximum opportunity. Community breeding reduces
or divides this expense, so that the burden does not rest
so heavily on any one breeder, as the members co-operate
in the purchase as well as the use of the sire. This system
also provides a sufficient number of females to allows for
rigid selection in the use of the proven sire, thus securing
his maximum efficiency. Community breeding enables
the breeders of a locality to secure the services of the best
proven males at a very nominal pro rata cost for each
offspring.

Often a salesman representing a large importing firm
enters a community and forms a "company" in order that
he may sell a stallion. The company thus formed usually
pays a high price for the horse, as the price must cover
many expenses. There is no opportunity for selection,
and the stallion thus thrust upon a community may not
be of the proper type or breed to mate with the local
mares. Thus the company plan of purchasing a stallion
is objectionable, not alone because of the high price, but
because the animal is often unsuited to mate with the
mares of the community.

A better plan, for the community in need of a sire,
would be to send two or three of the local breeders to a
sales stable or breeding farm. They will be given an
opportunity to study the business at first hand; they will
have a large number of sires from which ^to select and
thus be able to secure one that will mate advantageously
with the local females ; and they will be able to procure
a sire at a very great reduction in price, as the firm is at
no expense in selling. Likewise, when females are de-
sired, it will be possible for a committee of two or three
men to go and purchase the animals at one time, thus
securing them at much less expense than if each member
went individually to secure his animals.

Uniformity of animals favored. — Community breeding
promotes uniformity, as all the members of the society
use the same or similar sires. This is significant in view

222 BREEDING 01' FARM ANIMALS

of the fact that our farmers, individually, have been using
pure-bred sires to a greater or lesser degree for more than
half a century without the characters of any one breed or
type becoming dominant. This has resulted from lack of
persistency of effort, due largely to breeders working
single handed. It is apparent that there has been no
organized effort and that our animals in the main repre-
sent promiscuous and haphazard breeding, which, to-
gether with the same kind of care, accounts for the large
number of inferior and unprofitable animals to be found
in the country.

The importance of community breeding and persistency
of effort in establishing and perfecting a breed is empha-
sized by the prominence of Guernsey Island for Guernsey
cattle, the Jersey Island for Jersey cattle, the district of
Holstein for Holstein cattle, the district of La Perche for
Percheron horses, and the like. It is safe to say that
these two small islands, as well as the little districts of
Holland and La Perche, would never have been so con-
spicuous or especially prominent in breeding had it not
been for the organized efforts of the breeders and their
persistency of purpose in the breeding of cattle and
horses.

Community organizations for the improvement of ani-
mals create a new interest in the subject of breeding. The
individual breeder will do well to cast his lot with the
majority of his neighbors and breed the same type that
they are breeding, even though that type may not be the
one that best suits his fancy or even the one that is best
suited to the community.

Market facilities increased. — While large numbers of
animals may be produced by promiscuous breeding, they
neither make a name for the communty as a breeding
center nor attract buyers willing to pay appreciative
prices. As a rule buyers are in search of animals of a
particular type, and in order to locate them in such a
locality would be obliged to travel throughout a wide

COMMUNITY BREEDING

223

territory and at a great outlay of traveling expenses,
locating animals here and there until the lot had been
gathered together. Under the community system, where
the animals are uniform, the buyer in search of any par-

FiG. 71 — Brown Swiss Yearling Heifers of Uniform Type

ticular type can go to the district noted for the production
of animals of the desired type and there find them in
sufficient numbers to meet his needs. This serves to ad-
vertise the community, which soon becomes a noted
breeding center, attracting large numbers of buyers will-
ing to pay attractive prices.

The breeding of Holstein-Friesian cattle in the vicinity
of Syracuse. N. Y., affords a good example of the market
facilities enjoyed by a community that has established a
reputation for the production of a certain type of animal.
From every country Holstein-Friesian buyers are at-
tracted to Syracuse, and in the near vicinity can be found
the highest priced cattle in the world.

To establish a world-wide market such breeding opera-
tions need not be confined to the vicinity of a large city,
as is illustrated in the case of the small town of Lake
Mills, Wis. Through the efforts of a few men many
Holstein-Friesian herds were established in the vicinity
of Lake Mills, which soon established the reputation of

224 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

being the greatest Holstein-Friesian center in the central
west. Buyers are being attracted from all over
the country and from foreign lands, and prices rule
accordingly.

Disposal of surplus females. — Not infrequently the ex-
cellent market facilities created by the community sys-
tem of breeding proves the undoing of further improve-
ment. This is likely to be the case in a locality just
acquiring a reputation. An outside buyer in search of a
carload or more of females comes into the community and
offers a very fancy price for the best animals. Under
such conditions the breeders part with their best females
and the advancement gained is lost.

To be most successful the herds of the community
should have the first draft upon the female output in
order to secure material to replace the aging animals, no
matter what price the outside buyer may put upon them.
If a certain breeder finds himself in possession of a num-
ber of fancy females, more than he needs for his own use,
it would be of advantage to the community, as well as to
the breeder himself in the long run, to sell his surplus
females to his neighbors and let his neighbors sell to the
outside buyer. This may look like poor business for the
breeder of the fancy females, but it will retain the desired
blood in the community. It is simply carrying the advice
that a breeder should not part with his good females and
saying to the community that it should not dispose of its
best blood. Such a practice would raise the general
average of all the stock, thus giving the community a
better reputation for producing animals of quality. This
would increase the market facilities still more, and in the
end the breeder who had seemingly made a sacrifice at
first would be able to sell his second output to a very
great advantage.

Cow-testing associations. — Community breeding pro-
motes the formation of cow-testing associations, which
may become powerful agents in the improvement of dairy

COMMUNITY BREEDING

225

cattle. The elimination of low-producing animals is the
first step toward improvement, and this elimination can-
not be brought about successfully unless records of pro-
duction of each cow are kept systematically. Cow-test-
ing associations are organizations of dairymen having for
their object the determination of the production of the
individual cows in the herd, thus supplying the informa-
tion necessary to judicious elimination.

Fig. 72 — Ayrshire Cows Uniform in Type and Color

The methods of procedure in these associations differ
widely, as they are organized in various ways and under
various plans, each with due regard to its own local con-
ditions. The essential feature in an organization of this
sort is to employ a reliable, painstaking man to do the
work. The expense to the breeder varies widely, though
in a herd of 25 milking cows it will cost, annually, ap-
proximately $1 a cow. Associations have been in success-
ful operation in many foreign countries and in several
states of the union, and it would seem that dairymen
should avail themselves more generally of these organi-
zations, especially in view of the fact that not infre-
quently members increase the productivity of their cows
25 to 50 per cent during the first year simply through
the elimination of animals whose inferiority was revealed
by the results of the tests made by the association.

226 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

Advanced register testing promoted,— While the test-
ing association increases the productivity of the herd by
eliminating" the inferior animals, it does not improve the
individuals except as it stimulates better methods of care
and management. Individual advancement calls for im-
proved breeding, and, as has been stated, to mate dairy
cattle judiciously, it is essential to know not only the
performance of the animals thus mated, but the records
of production of their ancestors as well. To provide this
information advanced registers were established.

Community breeding promotes the formation of testing
associations, which in turn promotes advanced register
testing, by materially reducing the cost of testing for
members of the association, since the representative of
the co-operative breeders' society supervising the work
can make the tests in circuits without loss of time and
with a saving in traveling and other expenses. This is
especially true of those breeds that require a one or two-
day test each month, as the cow-testing association repre-
sentative can do both the association and the advanced
register testing at the same time, providing, of course,
that suitable arrangement be made in advance with the
various breeders' associations. On account of the im-
portance of official testing of dairy cows to the individual
breeder and to the dairy industry generally, the officials
in charge of the advanced register work in many of the
states favor this co-operative arrangement.

Educational features. — The greatest benefit from com-
munity breeding is the friendly spirit which it fosters
among the farmers of a community. It tends to stimulate
interest in improved methods and provides a means for
the education of men in the breeding, feeding and man-
agement of their animals. However well educated a
breeder may be, he is always confronted with questions
which he little understands, and which he must contin-
ually seek to comprehend. In order to pursue success-
fully the business, he must secure all the information that

COMMUNITY BREEDING 22/

is obtainable. The constant counsel of his brightest and
keenest associates will prove invaluable.

A community breeders' society offers its members an
opportunity to keep themselves informed on all matters
pertaining to success in their work. Through meetings

Fig. 73 — Berkshire Swine True to Type

of the society the members exchange helpful ideas and
get the experience of prominent breeders, who may be
invited to address and meet with them. The experience
of many men makes it possible to avoid and remedy many
evils and annoyances with which breeders have to contend.

The community breeding movement stimulates the
formation of co-operative societies, through which much
of the business of the community is transacted. With a
thoroughly competent man in charge of the business,
these societies have given excellent results. The mem-
bers meet at regular intervals to discuss topics pertaining
to the business. This stimulates a friendly rivalry and
fosters a better social spirit in the community generally.

The young breeder. — Even though a close student of
the principles of breeding as well as of types and breeds,
the young breeder lacks experience with animals. This
he should get by association with a good herd and by
intimate counsel with men who are in the active business
of breeding.

228 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

The young breeder, wishing to make his money go as
far as possible, often begins by making the vital mistake
of purchasing young stock. Since a very large number of
young things come to but little, he soon finds himself in
possession of a mixed lot of animals out of which nothing
really worthy can be derived. The best way to get a start
in the breeding of pure-bred animals is to obtain the
foundation stock from a reputable breeder who can be
persuaded to part with some of his proven animals, even
though it is necessary to take those possessing consider-
able age, providing they are still fertile. The beginner
has no call to pay extreme prices, as he cannot sell to
advantage until he has acquired a reputation as a breeder
and established himself in the confidence of the general
public.

CHAPTER XXI
SEX IN BREEDING

The commercial value of farm animals often depends
to a considerable measure on their sex. If a means could
be devised, therefore, for controlling the sex of ofifspring,
it would be of much value to the breeder. Endless at-
tempts to do this have been made, but none of the
theories have withstood the test of careful experiment.
As there is but one alternative in the case, any theory,
no matter how absurd, is certain to come true half the
time.

The theories advanced for sex determination may be
divided into two groups ; first, those which depend on
controllable external factors such as the food, climate,
chemical agents, will power, and the like; and, second,
those which depend upon internal factors centering about
the germ cells, and which, of course, are beyond the con-
trol of the breeder.

Equality in number of the sexes. — Data gathered from
various sources seem to indicate that the two sexes are
produced in practically equal numbers. The relative num-
ber of males per lOO females is given for horses as 99,
for cattle 94, for sheep 102, for swine 104, and for poultry
95. In Europe a study involving 60,000,000 human births
showed an average of 106 males to every 100 females.

SEX DETERMINATION BY EXTERNAL
FACTORS

A few of the more common external theories that have
{gained popular credence, but which, so far as present knowl-
edge goes, contain no basis in truth, will be reviewed before
considering the internal factors. The approximate equality

229

230

BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

of the sexes in all sorts of natural environments indicates
the improbability of sex control by external conditions.

Time of breeding. — It is stated that the sex is deter-
mined by the degree of maturity of the egg cell at the
time of service. If the service takes place early in the
period of estrum or heat the offspring will be a male; if
later, a female will result. Some persons say the
reverse.

This theory is disproved by the results of ordinary
farm practice. When males and females run together,
the service always takes place during the early stages of
the period of estrum in the female, which should make
the offspring practically all of one sex, yet the proportion
of males and females produced is approximately equal.
Alternating ova. — It is said that the ova are alternately
male and female, and that the sex of the offspring can
be controlled by the choice of the proper estrum for
service. Thus, if the last young was a male, then mating
at the first estrum as well as third, fifth and so on, would

produce females, where-
as the second, fourth,
sixth and. so on periods
would result in males.

This theory is also dis-
proved by the results of
farm practice, especially
in horse breeding, where
males follow males and
females follow females
without the alternating
period of estrum, it being the custom to breed mares on
the ninth day after foaling.

Male and female testicles. — The claim is made that one
testicle is naturally male and the other female. Thus the
sex of the offspring will depend upon the source of the
particular sperm cell taking place in the fertilization of
the ovum. The same claim is made for the ovaries of

Fig. 74 — Jersey Bull "Raleighs Fairy Boy"

SEX IN BREEDING 23 1

the female. These theories have been disproved by the
fact that males with but one testicle and females with
but one ovary have produced male and female offspring.

Sexual excitement. — It is stated that extreme sexual
excitement on the part of the female is certain to result
in male offspring, although some persons say the reverse.
This theory is rather difficult to prove or disprove, but
the strongest argument against it is the fact that the ad-
herents are about equally divided as to the sex of the off-
spring. Either one is sure to be correct half the time
on the average.

Age and vigor. — The claim is made that the older
parent will determine the sex. The same claim is made
for the more vigorous parent. Both claims are disproved
by the results of farm practice, where young as well as
old males sire both males and females, and where weak
as well as strong males sire offspring of both sexes.

Food supply. — The statement is often made that the
sex is determined by the nutrition of the female. The
assumption is that the development of the female young
demands greater amounts of food and more favorable
conditions than does the production of males. To sub-
stantiate this, the claim is made that statistics reveal the
fact that in countries which have been ravaged by war,
and the food supply of the inhabitants diminished, an
increased proportion of male children is found.

While there is an abundance of more or less conflict-
ing data upon this matter, we again turn to the results
of farm practice to disprove the theory, especially among
the higher animals — horses, cattle, sheep and swine.
Mares in the lowest state of vitality give birth to oft"-
spring of both sexes. The same is true of all farm
animals.

SEX DETERMINATION BY INTERNAL FACTORS

In recent years there has been a growing belief that the

232

BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

factors determining sex are internal and that they are .con-
nected with the germ cells. This belief is strengthened by
studies made with bees, squash bugs, and the like, as well
as by the behavior of twins in man.

There are two kinds of twins ; first, ordinary twins,
which come from two separately fertilized eggs, and,
second, "identical twins," that have their origin in one

Fig. 75 — Jersey Cow "Jacoba Irene"

egg cell. Of the former, approximately 30 per cent in
man are reported as being of the two sexes, while "iden-
tical twins" are always of the same sex. This is given
as evidence that the sex is determined at the time of
fertilization, and it shows conclusively that neither the
nutrition nor the environment determines the sex.

Sex differences slight. — The differences between the
two sexes are few and slight, and mostly connected with
reproduction. This is well illustrated in the case of
animals that have been non-sexed, where it is often dif'

SEX IN BREEDING 233

ficult to tell one sex from the other by a superficial ex-
amination. The differences between the sexes have been
much exaggerated by the division of labor. Thus in
seeking causes that determine the sex yve need not look
for such factors as alter characters, other than those
that take part in the reproduction of young.

Influence of fertilization. — The sex of bees seems to
depend upon fertilization. There are three forms of bees
as regards the condition of their sex organs ; first, drones
or males produced from unfertilized eggs ; second, work-
ers or females which are usually sterile and which are
produced from fertilized eggs ; and, third, queens or fer-
tile females, also produced from fertilized eggs, but de-
veloped in special comb cells, where they are provided
with large amounts of special food. Here fertilization is
the determining factor as to the difference between male
and female, and the food supply determines whether or
not the female is to be fertile.

This is a sex distinction that cannot hold in the higher
forms, where fertilization is necessary to the develop-
ment, whatever the sex, but it gives us evidence that sex
determination is closely associated with the germ cells.
Further, it indicates that the ova from which females
develop are the equivalent of the ova from which males
develop, plus an additional element.

Accessory chromosome theory. — Evidence in support
of the claim that sex is determined at fertilization is
drawn from recent investigation in the germ cells of cer-
tain species of insects. In the case of the common
squash bug (anasa) the body cells of the female have 22
chromosomes, while those of the male have but 21. The
same is true of the germ cells of both sexes. In the proc-
ess of reduction, preparatory to fertilization, the mature
egg cells will, of course, be reduced to 11 chromosomes
each. In the reduction of the male germ cells, however,
half are reduced to 10 and half to 11 chromosomes, as
the odd one does not split. Now, it has been observed

234

BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

that if a mature egg cell containing ii chromosomes be
fertilized with a mature sperm cell containing ii chromo-
somes also, the embryo will have 22 chromosomes and a
female will result. On the other hand, if fertilization is
accomplished by a sperm cell containing 10 chromo-
somes, then the embryo will have 21 chromosomes and
the offspring will be a male. This is illustrated diagram-
matically as follows :

Egg 11 chromosomes -f- sperm 11 chromosomes = 22 =: female
Egg 11 chromosomes -j- sperm 10 chromosomes = 21 = male

The sex of the individual in such cases depends upon
which sort of sperm cell fertilizes the egg cell. The male
and female offspring are approximately equal as the
mature sperm cells containing 10 and 11 chromosomes
are equally numerous. Evidence of a similar nature has

been observed from
other sources, and in
all cases reported the
female contains the
larger number of
chromosomes.

From evidence sim-
ilar to the foregoing,
the belief is gaining
rapidly that the sex
of the individual is in
some manner related
to an unpaired or odd
structural element in the egg or sperm cell. Upon the
existence of such an unpaired element in the germ cells
may depend the explanation of the unequal transmission
of certain characters among the sexes.

Sex limited inheritance. — It seems that certain char-
acters are transmitted to one sex but not to the other.
The common example is that of a cross between a barred

Fig. 76 — Galloway Bull, a Prize Winner

SEX IN BREEDING 235

Plymouth Rock and a non-barred breed, as Brown Leg-
horns among fowls, although the same is true of color
blindness in man and some other color characters. If a
barred Plymouth Rock male is crossed with a Brown
Leghorn female, all of the offspring will be barred like
the male. But if a Brown Leghorn male is mated with
a barred Plymouth Rock female, the results will be dif-
ferent. All of the male offspring will be barred, while
all of the females will be dark. In this case the barred
Plymouth Rock female transmits the barring only to her
male offspring.

Color blindness in man is a sex-limited character.
This defect of vision is much more common in men than
in women. A color blind man does not transmit color
blindness to his sons, but only to his daughters. The
daughters, however, are normal provided the mother was,
although they transmit color blindness to half their sons.
Apparently, therefore, a color blind daughter could be
produced only by the mating of a color blind man with
a woman who transmitted color blindness, since the
daughter, to be color blind, must have received the char-
acter from both parents, whereas the color blind son
receives the character only from his mother.

The same thing is said to be true of egg-laying capacity
among hens. We are told that a male of high egg-laying
capacity transmits this character to all of his offspring,
both male and female, though the capacity of the male is
known only through his female offspring, while the
female of high egg-laying quality transmits the character
only to her male offspring. Thus it follows that a female
can inherit high egg-laying capacity only from her sire,
while a male may inherit the character either from his
sire, his dam, or both.

With the fact in mind, that under certain conditions
color is sex limited, a careful search was made of the
records of performance among horses and cattle without
any evidence of such limitations in the production of

236

BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

Fig. 77 — Galloway Heifers True to Type

Speed and butter fat due to sex, although such limitations
may exist in egg production, as this depends on the ac-
tive functioning of the reproductive organs. True, the
sire should be and usually is the better bred, and, there-
fore, should be prepotent
over the common run of
females. Under similar
conditions, however, the
evidence indicates that in
speed and butter-fat pro-
duction the sexes are
equi-potent, and that one
sex is as likely to be of
superior breeding power
as the other (p. 162).

Sex control not desir-
able. — The evidence in-
dicates that the sex of
the individual is determined at the time of fertilization,
and that control, especially in the higher animals, is
beyond the power of the breeder. At first thought
this may seem a handicap, but on analysis it appears
to be a fortunate state of affairs. It seems undesir-
able that the sex of farm animals should be under
the control of the breeder, especially in view of the com-
paratively higher values often placed on females. The
approximate equality of numbers of the two sexes is of
importance in general improvement. It gives a large
number of males from which to select. This should and
usually does result in a better grade of males than
females, which is of advantage because of the relatively
large number of offspring influenced by the sire. Greater
advancement is secured in this way than would be the
case were the number of males born limited to the num-
ber needed for breeding, as then there would be no chance
for selection.

CHAPTER XXII
PROLIFICACY IN BREEDING

There is a close relationship between the prolificacy
of farm animals that are kept for breeding and the profits
arising from their production. As soon as the animal
reaches the proper age for breeding then the relative
profits grow less each day that it is kept without issue.
This is due to three factors that deserve attention : First,
the food, shelter, labor and risk of keeping an idle animal ;
second, the absence of offspring and lack of opportunity
to make a profit on them ; and, third, the probable en-
couragement of sterility in the case of females that do
not breed at an early age. This is especially true of
dairy cattle, where there is the added financial loss due
to lack of product. The animal breeder should give
special attention to fertility and gradually eliminate all
animals that are not at least fairly prolific.

Conditions that influence prolificacy. — The productive
powers of farm animals are influenced by the enyiron-
ment. All factors that tend to equalize conditions are
favorable to high fertility. A uniform supply of nutri-
tious, easily digested foods mixed into properly balanced
rations, together with suitable management, influence
reproduction favorably. On the other hand, insufiicient
and improper food, as well as lack of proper care, in-
fluence prolificacy adversely.

The training of race horses as well as the racing en-
gagements render it impossible to breed them regularly.
The developing necessary to put the dairy cow into con-
dition to make a high record often interferes with the
regularity of her breeding. Likewise, the fitting of
animals for the show ring as well as their showing en-

237

238 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

gagements interfere with the regularity of their breeding.
Not only is a part of the breeding animal's life spent in
the preparation and taking part in such events, but the
methods employed in training, developing and fitting
often favor sterility. In fact, the conditions that influ-
ence fertility favorably, as well as unfavorably, are much
the same as those that cause sterility.

High prolificacy desirable. — The importance of high
prolificacy is often overlooked by the breeder. This is
especially true of trotting horses, as well as of animals
with notable showyard careers. It is the females that are
most affected, as the males can be used for breeding
when not on the racing or showing circuit. Among
trotting and pacing: horses the mare capable of great
speed is worth more for racing than for breeding, hence
she is often kept on the track until too late in life to
breed. Likewise, the value of the show animal is so
great that it encourages the breeder to spend months,
and often years, in preparation for the show ring, with
the result that desirable animals are often never given
a chance to reproduce themselves. This often means
that the best individual blood of the various classes and
breeds of farm animals is lost, which proves a very seri-
ous handicap in the general improvement of our animals.

It is highly desirable that the dairy cow be fully
fertile. Here there is an intimate relation between the
milk-producing powers and those of reproduction, due to
the fact that the profitable milk secretion is dependent
upon the normal functioning of the reproductive organs.
Should the dairy cow fail to breed regularly the breeder
loses on the keep of the cow, he loses on her milk produc-
tion, and he loses the opportunity to make a profit on the
calf.

That all animals kept for breeding purposes should be
highly fertile is emphasized by the high cost of mainte-
nance due to the price of feed (p. 4). The cost of
maintaining a few idle breeding animals will rapidly

PROLIFICACY IN BREEDING

239

destroy the profits made by the breeding of animals.
Lack of a full realization of this on the part of farm breed-
ers generally has been an important factor in the de-
crease of farm animals during the past decade.

Fig. 78 — Cheshire Barrow of Excellent Type

Cumulative effect of prolificacy. — The relative impor-
tance of fertility can be illustrated by comparing three
cows, for example, of different degrees of fertility. As-
sume these animals to be the foundation stock for given
herds, and that one raises two calves and then goes
barren ; that another raises four; and that the third raises
six before she ceases to breed. Also assume that half
of the calves are males, half females and that all descend-
ants are fertile in the same degree as the original cows.
The following tabulation illustrates results for five gen-
erations :

240

BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

Number of Fertile Females at the End of Various
Generations for Three Cows of Various Degrees of
Fertility

Generations

Cows

Calves

No. 1
No. 2
No. 3

2
4
6

2
3

1
4
9

1
16
81

243

After five generations there would be but one fertile
female descending from the first cow, whereas if all had
been kept there would be 32 from the second and 243
descendants from the third cow. Compare the likely
profit from offspring, also the opportunity for improve-
ment by selection in the three cases. Of course, the
length of a generation may depend somewhat upon the
fertility of the cows, and five generations of the first
cow's descendants may not require more than one-half
as many years as five generations in the case of the
third cow.

To avoid the unequal time element, let us assume three
similar lots, but that each cow drops a calf at two years
of age and one each year thereafter until she goes barren.
Now, at the end of ten years there would be five cows
in the first herd, one fertile and four barren ; there would
be 12 in the second, eight fertile and four barren ; and in
the third there would be 15 cows, 13 fertile and two
barren. Further, there would be but five bull calves
in the first ; eight in the second ; while in the third there
would be 13 bulls.

Prolificacy in horses. — Both mares and stallions vary
widely in prolificacy. Some mares give birth to one or
two foals and then go barren, some breed every other
year, and some, are fully fertile. In general, the light
breeds are more' fertile than the heavy breeds, although

PROLIFICACY IN BREEDING

241

many draft mares are highly fertile. The most produc-
tive period of a mare's life is from 4 to 12 years of
age, although in many cases this period may be extended
both ways. Occasionally a filly will breed at two years
of age, and even before, and not infrequently individuals
of the light breeds retain their breeding power until past
20 years of age.

There is a difference of opinion as to the advisability
of breeding two-year-old fillies. It is stated that breed-
ing at so early an age
tends to retard develop-
ment in both dam and
foal. On the other hand,
it is stated that early
pregnancy has a tend-
ency to stimulate the de-
velopment of the dam, to
increase her fertility, and
that the first foal, if from
a well-grown filly, stands
just as good a chance as
the first foal from a ma-
ture mare. Perhaps the
reason for much of this
discussion lies in the
fact that fillies at this age breed with much difficulty.

At about 12 years of age the productive powers of most
mares begin to wane, although some breed freely for a
much longer period, as illustrated by the famous mares
Green Mountain Maid, that produced 16 foals, and by
Old Fannie Cook, that produced 15 foals, giving birth
to twins at 22 years of age.

Likewise, stallions vary widely in their breeding
powers, some serving 50 mares, some 100, and, in the
lighter breeds, some serving 150 and more mares in a
single season. There is also much variation in the per-
centage of mares that stallions pregnate, although this

Fig. 79-

Hampshire Barrow Showing Breed
Marking

242 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

may be due as much, if not more, to the mares as to the
stallion. On the average, the stallion pregnates 70 to
80 per cent of the mares served, and approximately 60
per cent drop living foals. In other w^ords, out of every
100 mares served 70 to 80 become pregnated and only
about 60 give birth to living foals. Thus it w^ould seem
that breeders should give the detailed work of breeding
horses careful consideration in an attempt to raise this
low birth rate.

Prolificacy in cattle. — Among dairy cattle fertility is
of prime importance, as continued milk production de-
pends on the regular functioning of the reproductive or-
gans. Though important in beef cattle also, high fer-
tility is not so essential, as the beef cow that fails to
breed may be fattened and sold for beef. The reproduc-
tive organs of the heifer mature at a younger age than
in the filly, so that cattle breed much younger in life than
do horses.

The most fertile period of a cow's life is from one and
one-half to eight years of age, although this period may
be extended both ways. As with fillies, there is a dif-
ference of opinion as to the proper age to breed heifers.
Heifers that are vigorous, healthy and well grown should
be bred rather young, thus encouraging the milking habit
at an early age. This practice has much to commend it
(p. 311). Young heifers breed with greater regularity
than do young fillies, because of the unconscious selec-
tion for young breeders that has been taking place
among cattle.

At about 8 to 10 years of age the breeding powers
of cows begin to wane, though many of them are reliable
breeders until a much later period of life, as observed in
the case of the Holstein-Friesian cow, De Kol 2d, who
gave birth to 14 calves, the last one in her sixteenth year,
as well as in the case of the Angus cow, Old Granny, that
produced 25 calves, the last one in the twenty-ninth year
of her life.

PROLIFICACY IN BREEDING 243

Bulls also vary widely in fertility, although their man-
agement is such that they are seldom given full oppor-
tunity. On dairy farms, cows are bred so as to drop
calves in the fall of the year, whereas beef cows are bred
so as to calve in the spring. In either case the breeding
season is short, so that the bull is used but three or four
months each year. The number of cows that a bull can
pregnate depends, in part at least, upon the breed. Heavy,
phlegmatic beef bulls are not so prolific as the lighter and
more active dairy bulls. Further, the bulls of the heavy
dairy breeds are often less prolific than those of the
lighter breeds. The bull should be able to serve at least
25 cows in a season, and when strong and vigorous may
far exceed this number.

Prolificacy in sheep. — There is much variation in rela-
tive fertility among the several breeds of sheep. A fair

Fig. 80 — Dorset Horned Lambs

percentage of the ewes of some of the more prolific
breeds, such as the Dorsets, produce triplets ; the ewes
of other breeds, such as the Downs, produce a fair pro-
portion of twins ; while in some of the less fertile breeds
practically all of the ewes give birth to but a single off-
spring. Further, there is equally as great variation in
prolificacy among the individuals of a breed.

The most prolific period of a ewe's life is from one to

244 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

five years of age, although many individuals continue to
breed until much later in life. While breeders differ in
their opinion as to the advisability of breeding the year-
ling lamb, if she is well matured and thrifty, it is prob-
ably better to try her out the first season, particularly if
she is very promising. If giving satisfactory results, the
ev^e should be retained in the flock as long as she w^ill
breed. After about the fifth breeding season the ewe's
reproductive powers begin to wane, although an occa-
sional one will remain fully fertile until 9 or 10 years
of age. There are authenticated cases of ewes remain-
ing in the breeding flock for 12 years, giving birth to from
24 to 30 lambs and raising a large proportion of them.

Likewise, rams vary in prolificacy, although the num-
ber of ewes they are able to pregnate will depend much
on their management at the mating season. The ram
should be kept away from the flock of ewes, as this con-
serves his energy, thereby enabling him to serve twice
as many ewes as when running in the field with the flock.
Where this plan is followed, the ewes are brought to the
ram in the morning or evening while cool, when he is
permitted to single out those that are in heat. Such
ewes are taken out and allowed a single service, A
thrifty ram may be permitted to serve two or three ewes
each morning and evening, thus enabling him to care
for 100 ewes in a season. This is twice or even three
times as many ewes as he can care for if permitted to run
with the flock.

Prolificacy in swine. — The several breeds of swine vary
widely in fertility. The bacon and semi-bacon breeds
are, as a rule, much more prolific than the heavy lard-
producing breeds. The more fertile breeds produce two
large litters each year, while the less prolific breeds pro-
duce but one litter, which often consists of a compara-
tively small number of pigs, and these sometimes lack-
ing in size and general thrift. Likewise, there is even
greater variation among the individuals of a given breed.

PROLIFICACY IN BREEDING 245

It is a rather common practice to breed sows at six
or eight months of age, and after raising one litter of
pigs to fatten the sows for the market. This is not a
good practice, for once a good brood sow is found, she
should be retained as long as she continues to breed and
to do well. Further, young gilts often give birth to small
litters of pigs lacking size and thrift. Of course the

Fig. 81 — Southdown Yearling Ram

gilt may be tried out while young, but, if promising, she
should be retained in the breeding herd. The most
prolific period of a sow's life is from one to five years
of age, although many retain their breeding powers much
later in life. There are authenticated cases of sows re-
maining fully fertile until 10 years of age, giving birth
to 175 pigs, and raising a large proportion of them.

Boars also vary widely in fertility, although the num-
ber of sows that they are able to pregnate as well as the

246 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

number of pigs that they are able to produce will depend
much upon the management. The boar is often overfed
on fattening foods and denied proper exercise, which
materially decreases his fertility. For best results the
boar's management at the breeding season should be
much the same as that suggested for the ram.

Prolificacy in poultry, — Poultry differ from other farm
animals in that the services of the male are not necessary
to the egg-laying function, although, of course, such eggs
will not incubate. There is greater variation in prolificacy
among poultry than any other class of farm animals.
There is much variation among the several breeds as
well as among individuals. Entire flocks of the more
prolific breeds, such as the Leghorn, average 125 to 150
eggs in a season, with an occasional individual laying as
high as 300 eggs in a year. Flocks of the less prolific
breeds, such as the Brahma, average only 40 to 50 eggs
in a season, with many individuals running very low.

The most prolific period of a hen's life is from eight
months to three years of age. Some pullets begin lay-
ing at four or five months of age, and some, hens retain
their egg-laying powers until seven or eight years of age.
Usually, but not always, the hen lays her largest number
of eggs the first season, and each season thereafter gradu-
ally diminishes in prolificacy until she ceases to lay.

Males also vary in fertility, but on the average it is
safe to allow one male for each 20 females. When con-
venient it is a good plan to change males once each week.
The male bird will begin to breed at four to six months
of age.

Prolificacy hereditary. — The tendency to prolificacy is
freely transmitted from parent to offspring, as is evi-
denced by the fertile strains among each class of farm
animals. This is particularly noticeable in the case of
sheep and swine. Sheep breeding records show that the
ability to produce twins and triplets is transmitted. This
has resulted in strains especially noted for this at-

PROLIFICACY IN BREEDING 247

tribute. The same is true of swine, and we have
strains noted for their ability to produce two large litters
of pigs each year. Likewise, there are strains of both
sheep and swine in which the breeding powers are very
weak, and it is necessary to keep introducing outside
blood to keep them from becoming extinct.

CHAPTER XXIII
STERILITY IN BREEDING

Success in animal breeding depends upon the ability of
the animal to produce living young. Individual excel-
lence, pedigree and performance count for nothing in the
presence of sterility. From the breeder's point of view
it matters little w^hether the inability to produce young
depends upon the failure of union betv^^een the male and
female germ cells, or to the death of the embryo and
fetus, or even to premature expulsion of the fetus before
attaining sufficient development to continue life, as each
prevents living offspring and practically constitutes
sterility. In this discussion, hov^ever, sterility is limited
to the failure of a union between male and female germ
cells. The question of the life of the embryo and fetus,
as well as the premature expulsion of the fetus, is con-
sidered in the discussion on abortion in breeding (p. 268).

Prevalence of sterility. — Among farm animals sterility
is widespread and of much more frequent occurrence
than is commonly supposed. It occurs in both sexes, but
in the female the genital apparatus is more complex and
sterility more common, although of no greater impor-
tance than in the male. The function of the male parent
ends with the injection of healthy semen into the uterus
or vagina of the female. In the female, however, the
male germ cells must migrate on through the uterus and
oviducts until they meet the female germ cell or ovum
coming from the ovary. Here fertilization takes place,
after which the female organs must still protect, and
provide nutrition to the embryo for a long period of
time.

Much variation exists in reference to the prevalence of
sterility among farm animals. It seems to be most common

248

STERILITY IN BREEDING

249

Fig. 82 — Red Polled Bull "Teddy's Best'

in those animals that are kept closely confined, and hence
becomes of prime importance in dairy cattle. This is
particularly true in view of the fact that the value of a
cow depends upon the normal functioning of her repro-
ductive organs. Among
work horses and meat-
producing animals ster-
ility does not attract so
much attention, espe-
cially with females, as it
makes comparatively lit-
tle difference to the
owner whether they
breed, or, in the case of
horses, go to work, or
in the case of meat ani-
mals, go to the butcher.

The breeder should
make a careful study of

sterility, as the principal if not the sole value of his animals
depends upon their productive powers. In such cases
failure to breed may prove a financial disaster. If a num-
ber of valuable brood mares, for example, kept exclu-
sively for breeding, are mated with a sterile stallion, no
foals will be produced the following season. This re-
sults in a total loss of anticipated income. Further, each
mare has diminished in value through her increase in
age, and having been idle for a year, with the tendency
to sterility intensified.

Causes of sterility. — Among farm animals, reproduc-
tion occurs as a result of a union, under favorable condi-
tions, of a mature male germ cell with a mature female
germ cell. The former are produced in the testicles of
the male, the latter in the ovaries of the female. Any-
thing which interferes with the normal physiological ac-
tivities of either male or female, or with normal sexual
intercourse, may result in sterility. The function of re-

250 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

production, being exceedingly complex, the causes lead-
ing to sterility are correspondingly numerous and ex-
ceedingly varied, and not infrequently little understood.

Idleness and overfeeding. — Breeding animals are often
closely confined, denied proper exercise, and fed an over-
supply of nutritious foods in order to keep them in pre-
sentable condition. Under such circumstances they take
on fat rapidly and frequently fail to show signs of sexual
desire. This is true of the male as v^ell as the female.
The tendency to loss of sexual vigor on this account in-
creases v^ith age, although noticeable in young males.
The difficulty seems to be of a purely functional nature,
and usually disappears under proper management, pro-
viding that it be applied sufficiently early.

The sexual vitality of many of our most richly bred
animals is often temporarily impaired and sometimes per-
manently destroyed in the process of fitting them for the
show ring. While there is no effective method for over-
coming this, yet much could be done to relieve the situa-
tion if judges in live stock exhibitions would pay less
attention to the amount of fat and more to the general
form and natural vigor of the animal in the allotment of
premiums. In fitting breeding animals for show it is
absolutely essential that an abundant exercise accom-
pany the preparing process, especially if the sexual vigor
of the animal is to be preserved.

Overwork and adverse conditions. — Farm animals that
are subject to severe work are often inclined to be sterile
for the time. It seems that the resources of the animal
are exhausted in the physical labor and that no reserve
energy remains to provide for the reproductive powers
during this period. Likewise, adverse conditions depress
the reproductive powers. The animal which does not
receive sufficient food to maintain general thrift and
afford a moderate reserve for reproduction tends to be-
come sterile.

Likewise, anything which results in profound depres-

STERILITY IN BREEDING

251

sion of the general system is often accompanied by sus-
pension of the powers of reproduction. Such disorders
not only destroy sexual desire, but also prevent the forma-
tion of germ cells, which causes absolute sterility, at
least during the period of depression. The remedy for
such a condition is to be found in proper management
of breeding animals.

Fig. 83 — Red Polled Cow "Cosy 2nd"

Excessive sexual use. — Among males partial sterility
is frequently due to excessive use. Naturally the breeder
is interested in the number of females a male can preg-
nate in a season, which often leads to excessive use,
especially among stallions. When the number of serv-
ices during a given day is increased the abundance of
germ cells in the semen rapidly decrease, and if the
services are repeated too frequently the germ cells in
the semen become greatly diminished, thereby causing
low fertility and sometimes sterility. The stallion and
the bull should not be allowed more than three services
in one day, and these only under such conditions that the

252 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

male be given one or two days of complete rest each
week. Under like conditions the ram may be allowed
two or three services each morning and evening for a
short period, while the boar should not exceed two serv-
ices each morning and evening.

Idle males, particularly stallions, which are closely
confined, overfed and denied exercise often acquire the
habit of masturbation, which leads to sterility. The
same habit is often observed in racing stallions, when
sexual debility is brought about by hard work on the
track. The remedy is judicious management and es-
pecially proper exercise.

Timidity, irritability and excitability. — Not infre-
quently timid females have a tendency to avoid males
and often refuse them entirely. This is especially true
of young heifers when approached by a boisterous bull.
Since the behavior of the male has much to do with such
cases, he should be taught, so far as possible, to approach
the females quietly.

Sexual intercourse in the mare and cow is frequently
followed by violent expulsive efforts, which result in the
loss of a large part or all of the semen. This is due, in
some cases at least, to the irritability of the female. Pos-
sibly in some cases it is due to excessive pain caused by
abnormal males. When the expulsive efforts are due to
irritability, the female's attention should be attracted
for a time after the service. This may often be done by
causing her to move about for a time.

Females with young at their side often become much
excited and resist the males because of the maternal
instinct. This is especially true of mares with young
foals by their side. In such cases the young should be
kept out of sight and hearing of their mothers at the
time of service.

Size of male and female. — If the male is comparatively
either too large or too small sterility may ensue as a
result of imperfect or incomplete copulation. This is

STERILITY IN BREEDING 253

especially true of young boars trying to serve mature
sows. Not infrequently serious accidents result from
the use of very heavy bulls on small cows. The nature
of the cause suggests the remedy. In case the female is
too tall, she may be placed in a pit; or, in case the male
is too heavy, breeding stocks, or racks, may be so con-
structed as to bear the extra weight of the male.

Not infrequently painful diseases of the feet and legs
or of other parts which may cause pain during the process
of mating serve to render the service uncertain and often
to prevent it.

Hybrids among animals usually sterile. — This term is
applied to the offspring of a union of two distinct species,
the common example among animals being the mule,
which results from a cross between a jackass and a mare.
The offspring resulting from a cross between a stallion
and a jennet is known as a hinny. The mule and the
hinny are classed as sterile, although in rare instances
well-authenticated cases are reported of female mules
giving birth to living young. In general, all degrees of
fertility are found among hybrids, from extreme prolif-
icacy in plants to absolute sterility in case of some animals.

Freemartins often sterile. — This term is here applied
to designate a sexually imperfect calf born twin with a
normal male. In this case it is, of course, always sterile.
There are three kinds of twins among cattle ; first, those
that are both female and normal ; second, those that are
of different sexes and normal ; and, third, those that are
both male, in which case one is always abnormally de-
veloped, the internal organs resembling the male, and the
external organs the female.* In fact, this is a kind of
hermaphroditism, and not, as commonly supposed, a
heifer born twin with a bull. As indicated, a normal
heifer born twin with a bull is as fertile as any other heifer.

Hermaphrodites. — This term is applied to the animal
in which both male and female sex organs are each found

*Giddens and Thomson, "The Evolution of Sex," p. 41.

254 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

more or less developed. There is wide variation in the
degree of development of the organs, one extreme re-
sembling males, the other females. Hermaphrodites are
classed as sterile.

Cryptorchids. — This term is applied to the male in
w^hich the testicle fails to descend into the scrotum but
remains inside the abdomen. This condition is fre-
quently observed in horses, v^hen they are spoken of as
"ridglings." Cryptorchids are classed as sterile, although
the animal assumes the characteristics of a normal male.
In fact, cryptorchid is an arrest in the development of the
testicle, the organ being small, soft and flabby. A sim-
ilar arrested condition is often observed in the ovaries.
Likew^ise, both organs may undergo degeneration, the
glands assuming a variable form and size and consisting
of a mass of matter devoid of proper tissue.

Diseases of the reproductive organs. — The most fre-
quent and important cause of sterility among farm
animals is that of diseased reproductive organs. There
are a great number of ailments of these organs that in-
terfere w^ith the reproductive function, many of which
are little understood. Probably one of the most im-
portant, if not one of the most frequent, diseases causing
sterility, especially among the females of certain classes
of animals, is that of cystic degeneration of the ovaries.
This disease is very common in highly bred milk cows,
especially in regions of intensive dairying, where the
cattle are constantly stabled, and fed an abundance of
artificial foods, such as distillers' grains, malt sprouts,
and the like. The exact cause of the disease, however,
is not known. Ovarian cysts also occur in mares, ewes
and sows.

Other diseases of the reproductive organs tending to
cause sterility are persistent hymen; adhesions of vag-
inal walls; tumors of the vulva, vagina, uterus, broad
ligaments and ovaries ; tuberculosis of the uterus and
ovaries; metritis, both acute and chronic, and the like.

STERILITY IN BREEDING 255

There is little or nothing that the breeder can do to
remedy many of these diseases, but his attention is es-
pecially directed to them to impress the fact that they
constitute the most important cause of sterility among

Fig. 84 — Berkshire Sows at Pasture

farm animals, and also to show the fallacy of the pro-
miscuous use of drugs and nostrums in an attempt to
overcome sterility. In such cases an expert veterinarian
should be consulted.

Drugs as a remedy for sterility. — There seems to be a
widespread opinion among breeders that certain drugs
arouse sexual desire and hence stimulate sexual powers.
From time to time numerous drugs have been credited
with this power. The nature of many of the diseases
causing sterility would seem to cast reflection upon the
value of drugs in this connection.

Sexual instinct is so natural and so universal among
healthy farm animals of breeding age that nothing can
be gained by exciting sexual desire artificially. Further
arousing sexual desire by the use of drugs does not
insure or even favor conception. Such attributes belong
to every normal male and female of breeding age, and
if they are absent it is because of some irregularity in
the reproductive system or elsewhere that cannot be re-
moved by the use of drugs.

256 . BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

It is stated also that certain foods, especially those of
an aromatic character, have the power of arousing sexual
desire. The same claim is made for certain stimulants,
such as calamus, pepper, powdered mustard when fed
in connection with well-cured and sweet smelling hay.
The advice accompanying such claims is to feed the food
for two or three days in succession and then omit it for a
like period, when it may be given again. Such tonics
are valuable only in so far as they restore debilitating
animals to health.

Dilation of the os uteri. — There is a rather common
belief among horse breeders that much of the sterility
in mares is due to a closure of the neck of the womb.
Thus, when a mare fails to conceive it is the practice to
"open the womb." This is a questionable practice, and
should be done only under the most sanitary conditions.
As it is ordinarily done it cannot be too strongly con-
demned. The rough, dirty hand of the groom, with long
and rough finger nails, concealing an abundance of filth
is forced through the vulva, vagina and neck of womb,
with scant regard for their delicacy and tearing the tis-
sues, so that the hand when withdrawn is often covered
with blood. Even if the womb did need opening, and so
far as is known it does not, this is certainly in violation
of all surgical principles.

Yeast solution in vagina. — Another questionable prac-
tice in the handling of sterile cows which was formerly
held in favorable repute was that of injecting a yeast
solution into the vagina. After a careful consideration
of the nature of the diseases causing sterility, it is in-
conceivable how yeast introduced in the vagina could
serve as a remedy for sterility.

Management of breeding animals. — The care that has
a favorable influence upon the general vigor of an animal
must also improve its reproductive powers, as it enables
all of the organs of the body to better perform their
normal functions, among which is reproduction. The

STERILITY IN BREEDING

257

general management of breeding animals should be such,
therefore, as will keep them in a thrifty and vigorous con-
dition at all times.

In so far as possible, breeding animals should be given
only natural foods, which should be sweet and nutritious.
Foods rich in protein and
ash, such as oats, wheat
bran, clover and alfalfa,
are preferred to starchy
foods, such as corn and
timothy hay. In season,
pasture grass cannot be
improved upon, although
it should be supple-
mented with grain. A
few carrots, roots or
tubers is a very valu-
able addition to the ration, especially in the winter.

Special attention should be given to the exercise — and,
in the case of horses and cattle, to the grooming as well.
The exercise can be provided for in the case of smaller
animals by allowing ample range, and in the case of
horses by putting them to work. Moderate work is ad-
vantageous to horses, provided proper care be taken not
to overload them. It is much better than to keep them
tied in the stable, or even than to let them run in the
fields, where they are exposed to accidents resulting from
racing, playing or fighting with each other. The object
to be attained in the management of breeding animals is
to so feed, exercise and groom them as to keep them up
to the very highest pitch of vigor and thrift.

Fig. 85-

-Poland-China Boar of Good
Conformation

CHAPTER XXIV
CONCEPTION AND DEVELOPMENT OF FETUS

The object of all breeding is that of reproduction.
Before reproduction becomes possible, however, the
animal must have reached the age of sexual maturity or
puberty. Up to this time the reproductive organs are
dormant so far as the production of functional germ cells
are concerned. At this age sexual desire is established
and mature germ cells are discharged. The age at which
farm animals reach sexual maturity varies with individ-
uals and breeds as well as with the several classes of
animals. Much depends on the size as well as the food
supply and the rapidity of development, although puberty
usually occurs prior to the completion of body growth.

Estrum, or heat. — The period of irresistible sexual de-
sire is known as estrum, or heat, in the female. It is es-
tablished as early as the twelfth to the fifteenth month
in mares, fifth to the sixth month in cows, third to the
fourth month in sows, and sheep born late in the summer
will show it the next breeding season, although no farm
animal should be bred at so early an age. Pullets often
begin laying eggs as early as the fourth month.

The frequency with which heat recurs in farm animals
varies within rather narrow limits after once being es-
tablished, and following parturition. The mare usually
comes in heat in' seven to nine days after foaling, and
each three or four weeks thereafter. The cow varies
according to the care. If the calf is taken away she
usually comes in heat about three weeks after parturition,
whereas if she suckles the calf she seldom comes in heat
for six or eight weeks, although in either case the periods
recur with considerable regularity each three weeks
thereafter. The sow usually comes in heat from three

258

CONCEPTION AND DEVELOPMENT OF FETUS 259

to five days after weaning her pigs, and each two or
three weeks thereafter, although the claim is made that she
comes in heat every 9 to 12 days. The periods recur
in the ewe every two to three weeks. The mare and the
ewe come in heat regularly during the spring and autumn
months, while at other seasons the period is irregular and
often entirely absent. In carnivora estrum ordinarily
occurs semi-annually, in the late winter and early
autumn.

Ovulation. — Upon, the completion of the process of
maturation, and as a rule concurrently with estrum, the
ovum or ova are extruded from the Graafian follicle of

Fig. 86 — Ayrshire Bull "Bargenoch Gay Cavalier"

the ovary. Normally, the ovum or ova pass into the ovi-
ducts and are conveyed toward the uterus. In some
cases, however, the ovum is not extruded from the fol-
licle, but maintains its connection with the ovary and is
fertilized there, constituting ovarian pregnancy.

The exact relation of the period of heat, or estrum, to
ovulation, as well as to fertilization, has not been defi-

260 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

nitely determined, and conflicting views are held. In rab-
bits it has been observed that when young are born, there
already exists in the ovaries of the doe a number of fol-
licles fully mature and ready to rupture. Estrum fol-
lows immediately after birth, copulation occurs, and it is
not until after 8 to 12 hours have passed that the follicles
rupture and discharge the ova into the oviduct, there to
become fertilized by the sperm cells already present.
Such is probably the case in other animals.

Owing to the brief duration of estrum in the cow, she
provides a favorable opportunity for studying the rela-
tion between estrum, ovulation, fertilization and men-
struation. In her case investigation shows the order of
these phenomena to be estrum, ovulation and menstrua-
tion, proving this order is not interrupted by copulation
and fertilization, in which case the order seems to be
estrum, ovulation, copulation and fertilization, although
in some cases copulation may precede ovulation. In fact,
in the case of many animals, it seems that ovulation is
favored and at times possibly hastened by copulation.
This is often taken advantage of by the breeder who
wishes to bring animals into breeding condition.

Conception.— During the act of copulation the semen
from the male is injected into the vagina of the female.
In some classes of animals possibly a part of this seminal
fluid is injected through the os uteri into the uterus. The
essential conditions of conception, so far as the male is
concerned, are that normal spermatozoa shall gain the os
uteri, traverse the uterus and oviducts and meet the
ovum. Here fertilization takes place through the union
of one sperm cell with the ovum. Under favorable con-
ditions development ensues, and the fertilized ovum
gravitates along the oviduct or Fallopian tube to the
uterus and conception is completed.

In farm animals nothing is known of the time required
for the spermatozoa to traverse the uterus and tubes, or
of the time required to initiate growth after fertilization

CONCEPTION AND DEVELOPMENT OF FETUS 261

has been accomplished. Likewise, nothing is known of
the time required for the fertilized ovum to gravitate
along the tubes to the uterus. In the rabbit fertilization
takes place 8 to 12 hours after copulation, and growth or
segmentation begins in 10 to 12 hours after fertilization.
It continues for 72 hours after fertilization, at which time
the ovum reaches the uterus and its segmentation stage
has been completed. In farm animals it probably re-
quires a longer time, particularly as the period in woman
is stated to be of from four to eight days' duration.

The period of development may be divided into two
stages : First, the stage of the embryo, extending from
segmentation until the germ begins to assume definite
form ; and, second, the stage of the fetus, which includes
the remainder of the intra-uterine existence.

Artificial impregnation. — In recent years artificial in-
semination has been widely advocated as a remedy for
sterility. Apparently this claim is based upon the theory
that sterility is due to imperfect copulation because of
physical impediment, although we know now sterility is
usually due to other causes (p. 254).

Artificial insemination is a comparatively easy process
in some classes of farm animals, particularly in the case
of fertile mares, although it is more difficult in cows be-
cause of the structure of the organs. While it is a valu-
able remedy in cases due to physical impediment to
natural insemination, some exaggerated claims have been
made regarding its efficiency. It has been stated that
as high as 60 per cent, and even more, of mares, taken at
random, regardless of the presence of estrum, have been
fertilized, which, of course, is absurd. However, if the
mares are fertile and the artificial insemination is care-
fully made when the mares are in heat, there is no reason
to doubt that 60 per cent and even more may conceive.

Artificial impregnation has a commercial value which
is attractive to breeders. A healthy male, under normal
conditions, at each copulation discharges sufficient sper-

262 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

matozoa to pregnate a large number of females. Since
artificial insemination is so simple an operation, it has
been proposed to extend the procreative power of valu-
able males, particularly stallions, by artificial insemina-
tion, and a variety of artificial impregnators have been
devised with which to perform the operation.

The chief factor to be observed in artificial insemina-
tion are cleanliness, promptness, constant temperature
for the semen and its secure lodgment in the os uteri
or uterus.

Formation of the embryo. — While the fertilized ovum
is passing along the Fallopian tube to the uterus it under-
goes repeated segmentation, becoming a more or less
globular mass of cells, known as the morula or mulberry
stage. Very soon after reaching the uterus there appears
in the interior of the morula a little fissure-like space
called the cleavage cavity. When this space has in-
creased in size, the germ is said to have reached the blas-
tula stage. At this stage the cleavage cavity is sur-
rounded by a single layer of cells, although in mammalia
the inner cell mass is very irregular.

By the invagination of the single-layered blastula at
the vegetable pole the double-layered grastula stage is
attained. Thus the grastula stage in its typical form
consists of two layers of cells surrounding a central
cavity, which communicates with the exterior by means
of a small aperture. This cavity later becomes the in-
testinal-body cavity. The outer layer of cells is the ecto-
derm or epiblast, and the inner layer the entoderm or
hypoblast.

Upon the surface of the germ at the beginning of
grastulation there is a round whitish spot known as the
embryonal area. This area rapidly enlarges, becoming
oval and later pear shaped. In the line, on the long axes
of the embryonal area, the cells become more dense, form-
ing the primitive streak. Soon a third layer of cells
lying between the epiblast and hypoblast begins to de-

CONCEPTION AND DEVELOPMENT OF FETUS 263

velop near the front end of the primitive streak, from
v^hich point it spreads out over the germ. This layer is
called the mesoderm or mesoblast.

Typically the embryo now^ consists of three layers of
cells known as the three primary germ layers — the outer
layer or epiblast, the inner or hypoblast, and the middle
layer or mesoblast.

Fig. 87 — Ayrshire Cow "Kilnford Bell 3d"

Development of the fetus. — From the three primary
germ layers are developed the various tissues and organs
of the body. This development may be considered as
consisting of tw^o fundamental processes, one of special-
ization, or the adaptation of structure to function, and
the other of unequal growth, which results in the forma-
tion of the various organs.

In the main, the epiblast and the hypoblast produce
the epithelial structures, such as the alimentary canal

264 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

and its appendages, the glands and their ducts, the res-
piratory tract, the spinal cord, the brain with its out-
growths, and the like ; while from the mesoblast are
produced the connective tissue in all its modified forms
such as bone, cartilage, lymph, blood, fibrous and areolar
tissue, muscular tissue, and the like.

The completeness of the development of the fetus at
birth varies widely, and no doubt depends, in part at
least, upon the environment of the animal. The rabbit,
after four weeks of intra-uterine life, is born very im-
mature, while the guinea pig, after the same duration
of intra-uterine existence, is much more completely de-
veloped. The young carnivora are born very immature,
while those of ruminants and horses are well developed.
The rabbit must depend upon flight as a protection
against foes, while carnivora must depend upon the chase
for food ; in either case the animal would suffer a serious
disadvantage from increased body weight due to the
presence in the uterus of a number of well developed
fetuses.

Position of fetus. — The position of the fetus or fetuses
in the uterine cavity is determined largely by the form
and direction of the cavity. In farm animals the uterine
cavity is more or less tubular in form, and normally the
long axes of the fetus corresponds with the long axes of
the uterine cavity.

At first the circulation is so distributed that more ar-
terial blood reaches the head end of the fetus, which
causes the anterior portion to possess greater weight.
Since, during early embryonic life, the fetus floats free
in the amniotic sack, the greater weight of the anterior
portion constantly tends to cause the embryo to rest
with its head end lower than the posterior part of the
body.

At the beginning of pregnancy, in both single-birthed
and twin-bearing animals, the floor of the uterus slopes
toward the os uteri. The head end of the fetus, being

CONCEPTION AND DEVELOPMENT OF FETUS 265

much the heavier, tends to become directed toward the
OS uteri. This position of the fetus is also encouraged
by the tapering form of the uterus, w^hich is much larger
at the OS uteri than at the Fallopian tubes. By the time
the fetus begins to bear down on the floor of the uterus,
it has so enlarged that it cannot turn upon its own axis
and thus has become fixed in the uterine cavity so far
as changing ends is concerned. In the larger farm
animals, therefore, the fetus normally presents the head
at the time of birth.

Among multiple-birthed animals, the uterus lies upon
the abdominal floor and has much less influence upon
the position of the fetuses. Thus we find less uniformity
in the presentation of fetuses at birth, although the tend-
ency is for the head to appear first.

Relative size of fetus.— The relation between the size
of the fetus and the dam varies with the several classes
of farm animals, although within rather narrow limits.
In the mare the new-born foal usually weighs from eight
to 10 per cent of her body weight. The drain upon the
mare in the reproduction of young is very great. She
not only carries the fetus a long time, but must nurture
the offspring for four to six months after birth. Thus
the production of young makes a demand upon her sys-
tem for practically 18 months.

In the cow there is greater nutritive reserve, and the
young is usually larger, as re-
lated to the size of the dam,
than in the case of the mare,
usually weighing about 10 to
12 per cent of the body weight
of the dam, although the intra-
uterine existence is shorter, as

is also the period of nursing, fig. ss-hampshire sow

which materially decreases the

demands upon the system of the dam and favors increased
reproductive power.

266 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

In the ewe the relative size of the fetus depends some-
what on the number presented. In the case of single
births the fetus weighs from eight to lo per cent of the
body weight of the dam, whereas in the case of twins and
triplets their combined weight often runs as high as 12
to 15 per cent of the body weight of the dam. Likewise,
in the sow the relative size of the fetuses depends some-
what on the number presented and to some extent on the
size of the dam. As a rule, the combined weight of the
fetuses runs from seven to 10 per cent that of the dam,
although sows usually breed twice annually.

Intra-uterine influences. — There is a widespread tradi-
tion that the developing fetus can be influenced through
the mental impression or the imagination of the dam.
This is especially true in the case of abnormalities and
color. Persons with whom the tradition is strong often
display a blanket of pleasing color before the eyes of the
mare at the time of copulation, in the belief that they can
control the color of the foal. Peculiarly marked calves
are said to owe their color markings to strong mental
impressions created by swine while pasturing with the
pregnant dam.

Among humans mental impressions and nervous condi-
tions generally are often invoked to explain birth marks
and other abnormalities, such as the loss of a toe, or the
presence of two thumbs on the same hand. The same
theory is also used to explain abnormalities among
animals.

From our consideration of the formation and de-
velopment of the fetus we know that the supposed
assumption on which such claims rest has absolutely
no basis in fact. During its development the fetus
floats free in the amniotic incasement and is not so
intimate with the mother as is popularly supposed. True,
it is dependent upon the mother for nourishment, but
there is no organic connection or nervous interrelation
whatever. Further, if females were so susceptible as this

CONCEPTION AND DEVELOPMENT OF FETUS 267

to the surrounding sights, think what a fixture of colors
all offspring would possess ! Also think what a jumble of
deformed offspring would appear, as females are sub-
jected to all sorts of sights and experiences during the
many weeks of fetal development, and it would be strange
indeed if one out of a thousand escaped contact with some
experience sufficiently impressive to "mark" the new
born.

Telegony. — This term has reference to the supposed
influence of the male upon the female in such a way as
to influence future offspring by other sires. It is the
same as the influence of previous impregnation, or infec-
tion of the germ.

There is a prevailing belief among certain breeders that
the influence of the first impregnation is permanent and
will affect all future offspring. The claim is made that
a female mated with a male of a different breed will never
breed pure thereafter. Darwin gave credulence to this
belief by reporting a mare bred to a quagga, which re-
sulted in an offspring striped after the manner of the sire.
Later the mare bore two colts by stallions, both of which
were marked with' bars on the shoulders and legs, sup-
posedly showing the effects of the quagga upon the off-
spring of the stallion. The facts concerning the appear-
ance of bars upon the shoulders and legs are not ques-
tioned, but it should be remembered that occasionally
such markings appear in young horses of the purest
parentage.

Recent investigations by Ewart and others, repeating
the same experiment on an extended scale, failed to find
trace of the quagga beyond his own offspring. Formerly
dog fanciers were strong in their belief in telegony, but
experiments show that the influence of the first dog do
not extend beyond his own offspring. No doubt this
belief gained currency concerning dogs because of their
peculiar mating habits, as one can be sure of the sire only
in case the bitch is securely isolated. Like intra-utcrine
influences, telegony has absolutely no basis in fact.

CHAPTER XXV
ABORTION AND PREMATURE BIRTH

By the term abortion is meant the expulsion of the
fetus at any period from the date of impregnation until
it is sufficiently developed to survive after birth. When
a living fetus is expelled prematurely but in a state of
development which renders survival possible, it is desig-
nated premature birth. These disorders, particularly
abortion, are very closely associated with sterility. In
fact, many females thought to be sterile actually conceive,
but expel their fetuses in such an undeveloped condition
that the accident goes unnoticed. Practically the results
are the same, but the breeder should make a careful study
of his animals, m order to locate those that are aborting
so that he may give them proper treatment.

Prevalence of abortion. — While there are no statistics
available, yet abortion is far more prevalent than is com-
monly supposed. Particularly is this true of animals
which are closely confined, such as dairy cattle. In the
lowering of breeding efficiency among dairy cattle abor-
tion easily takes first place. Its ravages throughout
dairy districts exact incalculable toll. Because of the
ravages of abortion, it has been estimated that few of
the highly bred and closely confined dairy herds exceed
50 per cent of their reproductive capacity. This estimate
may be too high, but certain it is infectious abortion
works great destruction in large dairy herds. In small
herds, however, with two or three heifers being bred each
year, the loss is much less and frequently passes un-
noticed. Likewise, in herds of mature cows the loss from
abortion is ordinarily slight, owing to the fact that in-
fectious abortion is most common in heifers.

Kinds of abortion. — ^There are two distinct forms of

268

ABORTION AND PREMATURE BIRTH 269

abortion in farm animals which should be clearly under-
stood by all breeders: First, accidental abortion, in
which, owing" to accident or disease of either the fetus
or dam, the fetus may be expelled dead or in such a state
of disease as to rerjder it impossible for it to live. Second,
infectious abortion, in which an infection of the fetus
and its membranes causes the death and expulsion of
the fetus, or its expulsion in a living and enfeebled state
at any period of pregnancy, without directly inducing
material evidence of disease in the mother. Infectious
abortion is by far the most troublesome, particularly in
animals that are closely confined and highly fed on suc-
culent and artificial foods.

Accidental abortion. — This is produced by any cause
operating to disconnect the union of the membranes from
the uterus. Thus a pregnant female may abort by rea-
son of almost any cause
that very generally disturlis
her system, as the influence
of too stimulating a diet, or
the reverse ; the feeding of
ergot on rye, the smut of
corn or other grains, and
iced grasses, as well as
large drafts of ice cold
water. The more mechani-
cal causes are falls, blows

1 ■ I , , ■ ■ Fig. K3 — Aberdeen Angus True to Type

and violent exertion, as m

pulling; also traveling on muddy or slippery roads, jump-
ing fences, and the like.

Among dairy cows kept in uncomfortable stanchions,
on slippery, wet floors, there may at any time occur a
slip or fall which may imperil the life of the fetus. The
jamming and jolting suffered by pregnant animals dur-
ing transportation by rail is liable to bring about injuries
which may lead to abortion.

Any disease of the dam may involve the fetus and

270 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

bring about its death. A miscarriage may leave the or-
gans in so weakened a condition that they cannot retain
the fetus, particularly if conception takes place immedi-
ately following the miscarriage. Irritation of the vagina

__, ._ is said to cause abortion.

/'" \^ Thus instances have been

C ." observed where animals

f"-^ / „ ^ thought to be in estrum, al-

•: '' though really pregnant, have

-^.fc .' aborted immediately follow-

ing copulation.

It is often difficult to rec-

FiG. 90— Large Yorkshire Boar OgnizC impending abortion,

at least until near its com-
pletion. Usually the animal aborts before the breeder
becomes aware that she is threatened. The first evidence
observed is the fact that abortion has taken place, as is
shown by the presence of the fetus and membranes. At
other times, however, the animal shows more or less of
the characteristic signs of parturition (p. 284).

The prevention of accidental abortion is the avoidance
of all causes which may have a tendency to produce it.
The proper care of breeding and pregnant animals can-
not be too forcibly impressed upon the breeder. Preg-
nant females should be so fed, exercised and groomed
as to keep them in the highest possible condition of thrift
at all times.

Infectious abortion. — The vast majority of abortions
in farm animals is due to infection of the genital organs.
Though little understood, infectious abortion is known
to be due to a small germ which probably gains access
to the uterus during estrum or during parturition. Infectious
abortion causes great economic losses among cows and
mares and has been observed in ewes and sows. Since
the method of infection as well as what is known of the
means of control and eradication are similar in all classes
of farm animals, and since the disease is more prevalent

ABORTION AND PREMATURE BIRTH 27I

in cattle, it will be considered from the standpoint of the
cow, although the suggestions apply to all farm animals.

Avenue of infection. — The manner in which the infec-
tion is carried from one animal to another, as well as
the avenue by which the infection reaches the fetus, are
very important factors from the standpoint of the control
of the disease. The claim is made that the infection not
only passes from animal to animal, but that man may
carry it from one stable to another. However this may
be, no doubt the most important conveyer is the male.
A bull after serving a cow possessing the disease is likely
to transmit it to all cows with which he subsequently
comes in contact.

The chief avenue of infection is the os uteri, and the
most favorable time for invasion is thought to be during
estrum. As this is the
time at which copulation
takes place the infection
easily passes from the ex-
posed bull into the uterus
of the cow. Under favor-
able conditions, possibly,

the uterus may become in- p,^_ qi-tamworth sow -oakhill fancy"
fected at the time of par-
turition and inoculate the next fetus, causing abortion.
There seems little opportunity for the uterus to become
infected at any other time, as the sealed os uteri is no
doubt impregnable to contagious abortion germs.

Control of infectious abortion. — There is no sure and
reliable method for preventing an animal from becoming
infected with contagious abortion, no means of curing a
pregnant animal having the infection in her uterine cavity
and no means of definitely eradicating the disease. It is
stated that carbolic acid, either fed in 4 per cent solution
on grain, or given hypodermically in 2 per cent solution
acts as a specific against abortion. The same claim is
made for methylene blue. This is given in doses of from

2/2 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

lo to 12 grams, preferably in capsules, night and morning
early in pregnancy, for seven days, and is repeated at four-
week intervals during the period of gestation. No doubt
the best methods for combating contagious abortion are pre-
cautions against the use of infected bulls, isolation of
infected cows, and the free use of disinfectants.

Avoid using infected bulls. — Since the infected bull is
thought to be the chief conveyer of the infection, every
precaution should be taken to keep the bull free from the
infection. As far as possible new cows should not be
brought into the herd until known to be free from in-
fection. Further, the bull should not be permitted to
serve outside cows.

Isolate infected cows. — The cow that has aborted or
shows signs should be removed at once from the stable
occupied by other cows and effectively isolated. The
eection of the stable she occupied should be thoroughly
disinfected with a i to i,ooo solution of corrosive sub-
limate. Even with the greatest precaution in this respect,
the disease is likely to spread through the stable.

Use disinfectants freely. — Since the infection of con-
tagious abortion is most serious in young heifers, they
should receive careful attention to keep them free from
infection if possible. It is not known just how early in life
the infection of contagious abortion ma}^ invade the
uterine cavity of the virgin heifer. It seems certain,
however, that when once infected the germs lie in wait
to cause either sterility or abortion. Dr. Williams, who
has made a careful study of infectious abortion in cattle,
gives the following advice* :

"The sexual hygiene should begin with the birth of the calf, at
least to the extent that it be kept in cleanly surroundings with
abundant room.

"Believing that the most favorable date for the invasion of the
infection is the period of estrum, the more frequently the virgin
heifer is in estrum prior to breeding, the more probable that the
infection will have invaded the uterus to cause first, sterility, or

*Dr. W. L. Williams, "Report of the New York State Veterinary College,"
1911-12, pp. 107-111.

ABORTION AND PREMATURE BIRTH 2/3

later, should conception occur, is prepared to cause abortion, pre-
mature birth, retained placenta, etc., the breeder should have care
that no unnecessary delay occur in breeding. Pending the age and
development at which the breeder desires to breed a heifer, it would
seem desirable to guard against infection as far as practicable by
disinfecting the vagina for three or four days during and imme-
diately followmg the estrum, while the cervical canal is in a dilated
state.

"At present, until more definite knowledge is gained of just
how early the infection invades the genital canal of virgin heifers,
we advise and urge that vigorous efforts at disinfection of the
genital organs of virgin heifers be instituted approximately six
weeks prior to the desired date of breedmg and continued until
conception is assured. That is, when a virgin heifer has advanced
to within six weeks of the period when it is desired to breed her,
and she is observed to be in estrum, begin special care of the genital
organs and continue through the following estrual period until the
estrual period when it is intended to breed her, and after breeding
continue the disinfection through yet another estrual cycle. If she
has conceived from the service, the disinfection during this period
has a protective value while the uterine seal is being developed If
ehe fails to conceive from the first cooulation, the continuance of
the douching tends to overcome the sterility present and guards
against a new invasion of infection.

Admittedly, we cannot entirely disinfect the mucous membrane
of the vagina. All we can do is to inject into the vagina a solution
of a disinfectant which will not materially irritate the organ. In
heifers we cannot ordinarily disinfect the uterine cavity, the cervical
canal being so narrow, undilatable, tortuous and irregular that safe
penetration is impracticable and we must content ourselves by
handling to the best of our ability the available vagina. If infection
has preceded our efforts and invaded the uterine cavity, it is
beyond the reach of the surgeon and must either be destroyed by
the bactericidal power of the organ itself or remain in position to
threaten disaster later.

"As in other disinfection work, the selection of a particular agent
is not so important as the method of handling the agent selected.
It is essential that no great degree of irritation should be caused,
since any marked irritation leads to inflammation of the vaginal
mucosa, to be followed later by increased infection of the inflamed
mucous membrane.

"In our experience we have had the most satisfactory results
with Lugol's solution. Next in value have been the soap-containing
coal tar disinfectants, especially bacterol The latter has a special
value in exterior washing, the soap content materially adding to the
cleansing value

"The highest available type of disinfection calls first for the
washing of the vulva, tail, buttocks and surrounding parts with a
warm, soapy disinfectant, such as a 15 per cent solution of bacterol,
which is well borne by cattle.

274 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

"After cleansing the exterior, the washing of the vagina with a
warm 25 per cent to 0.5 per cent of Lugol's solution should follow.

"The mechanism of washing is best and most economically con-
ducted by means of a five-gallon vessel fitted with a metal stopcock
near the bottom, over which is slipped a plain pure gum horse
stomach tube. The vessel is then elevated and moved along behind
the row of cows upon a manure track or a track specially con-
structed for the purpose. The disinfecting fluid flows by gravity
either upon the exterior parts or into the vagina. The pure gum
stomach tube is well rounded, even and smooth, so that it is readily
pushed into the vagina and is sufficiently elastic to insure against
physical injuries to the parts. It is readily cleansed and withstands
boiling.

"In washing the vagina the tube should be introduced at least
6 to 8 inches. The mucous membrane of the vagina being disposed
in longitudinal folds, a small quantity of fluid or other substance
introduced comes in contact with only the summits of the mucous
folds and it is therefore essential to good results that the fluid
should be allowed to flow freely into the vagina until it is well
distended and the mucous folds obliterated, when the fluid is
promptly expelled.

"A 5 per cent of warm Lugol's solution is well borne, as a rule,
daily for one to two weeks, when it begins to irritate the vagina.
It then becomes advisable to decrease the strength to 0.25 per cent
and reduce the frequency of application to two or three times a
week. .Care is to be taken in properly measuring the strength of the
solution and constant watchfulness exercised that irritation shall
not occur. Experimentally we have found that when a heifer is
in estrum, the vagina may be freely washed with 0.25 per cent of
Lugol's solution one hour prior to copulation without interfering
with conception.

"Whenever at all practicable virgin heifers should be bred to a
bull which has not copulated with cows nor with other heifers than
those which have been handled as above.

"The bull should be handled on parallel lines recommended for
the heifers, the same solution sufficing for both sexes. The mech-
anism of washing the penis and sheath of the bull is analogous to
that prescribed for heifers The stomach tube being too large, a
pure gum horse catheter is substituted and a small pail of one
gallon capacity substituted for the larger pail for cows. The horse
catheter being too short, is to be elongated by splicing with another
piece of tubing. The vessel containing the fluid is elevated to a
height of at least 6 feet, the catheter inserted well into the sheath
and the opening of the sheath compressed by the operator's hand
until the entire sheath is completely filled and distended, when it is
allowed to escape. The bull should be washed both before and after
each service in an attempt to guard him alike against infecting and
becoming infected.

"When three weeks have elapsed since copulation and estrum
does not occur, it may be assumed that the heifer is pregnant,

ABORTION AND PREMATURE BIRTH 275

which assumption may be verified by rectal palpation by a veter-
inarian trained in the work. The uterus is enlarged, elongated,
smooth and tense from contained fluid. One horn is distinctly
larger than the other (except in twins arising from simultaneous
ovulation from both ovaries), and the ovary corresponding to the
enlarged horn bears a typical corpus luteum of pregnanc3\ which
may be readily felt.

"Conception having become assured according to the above
plan, and having confidence in the efficient guardianship of the pla-
cental filter and uterine seal, no further care is required so far as
the welfare of the fetus is involved. If the conception has occurred
in a clean uterus, a healthy calf will eventually follow; if infection
resides in the uterine cavity, and the uterine seal has formed, it is
beyond our power to affect its destiny. The pregnant heifer may
accordingly be left alone, unless evidences of severe vaginitis or
other vaginal disease appears, which may call for special attention.

"If pregnancy proceeds normally, no interference is called for
until the date of parturitioi. draws near. At this time the vaginal
mucous membrane becomes congested, secretes much mucous and a
considerable discharge from the vulva occurs. The uterine seal dis-
solves as parturition approaches, and the cervical canal becomes
open and dilated, offering once more an open and inviting avenue
for infection. There again for three to six days one may well renew
the washings of the vagina for iwo reasons. The cleanliness of the
vagina lessens the amount of infection present ready to invade the
uterine cavity as soon as the uterine seal is destroyed, and even
more, immediately after the expulsion of the fetus.

"A second reason of great significance is the danger of infection
to the new-born young. Nocard has claimed, and substantiated his
claim by strong evidence, that calf scours is due to an infection
frequently resident in the vagina and that the calf acquires the fatal
infection en route in the vagina, through the freshly ruptured
stump of the naval cord. Aside from these, sows and heifers
should be kept clean at this time as a part of general cleanliness
demanded today in sanitary dairying.

"Should the heifer abort, calve prematurely, or calving at full
term suffer from metritis, as expressed by retained placenta or by
uterine discharge, immediate and vigorous measures should be taken
to restore the uterus to normal conditions at the earliest pos-
sible date.

"If the placenta has been retained, its expulsion should be
favored as far as possible. Unfortunately, retained placenta is a
far more serious condition than most breeders and veterinarians are
willing to admit. The mortality is high, much higher today than
that of milk fever. It interferes seriously with the milk flow during
the ensuing milking period, and in a disastrously large percentage
of cases causes obstinate or hopeless sterility. It is a serious infec-
tion, commanding the lif^'hcst veterinary skill and closest attention
for its proper handhng.

"Behind retained placenta is always metritis, especially placen-

2/6 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

titis, and the foundation for that in nearly, if not all cases, is the
infection of contagious abortion within the uterine cavity. Accord-
ingly, the foundation for retained afterbirth is present before abor-
tion or birth has occurred, and in our judgment, the foundation had
been laid for the retention prior to conception, or shortly thereafter,
prior to the formation of the uterine seal."

Age immunity in contagious abortion. — While the
theory that one or even two abortions immunizes an
animal against the infection has no basis in fact, yet the
statement that after a heifer has aborted once or twice
she is less liable to abort again, is true. Contagious abor-
tion is largely a heifer disease. Thus, the heifer that has
aborted twice has advanced two years in age and is that
much removed from the most critical period, her first
pregnancy, and so is less liable to abort. In this connection
it must be remembered that abortion favors sterility, and
the animal that has aborted once or twice is less likely
to conceive again, and of necessity cannot abort ; although
should she conceive she is less likely to abort, simply
because she is past the critical period. The healthy
heifer, however, that has passed through her first and
second pregnancy is a far safer breeder in later years
than the heifer that has aborted.

CHAPTER XXVI
PREGNANCY AND GESTATION

The terms pregnancy and gestation are synonymous
and refer to that period of time during which the young
is developing in the uterus of the mother. This period
extends from the time of the fertilization of the ovum
in the Fallopian tube until the birth of the fetus. The
formation of the embryo and development of the fetus
was considered in the discussion on conception. We
now come to a consideration of the mother. The modifi-
cations necessitated by the developing fetus, as well as
the ordeal of giving birth, exert a profound influence
upon her; and she in turn, is largely responsible for the
condition in which the young are born.

Signs of pregnancy. — While there are many signs of
pregnancy on which at times we can place more or less
reliance, they are all liable to be misleading. Not infre-
quently an animal presents the general appearance of
pregnancy for a long period of time, but later resumes
her normal condition without bringing forth young, while
in other cases there may be but slight symptoms when,
unexpectedly, parturition occurs, to the great surprise
of the breeder.

The first sign of pregnancy upon which reliance is
placed is the cessation of the periods of heat. As a gen-
eral rule, fertilization and conception stop the appear-
ance of estrum, which does not recur again during the
period of gestation. During this period the female per-
sistently refuses the attention of the male. Such is not
uniformly the case, however, as both the mare and cow
occasionally show signs of estrum until late in the period
of gestation. These females may accept the services of
males for months after conception takes place. On the

277

2/8 BREEDING OK FARM ANIMALS

other hand, among all classes of farm animals, there will
be found an occasional shy breeder that persistently re-
fuses the attention of the male.

A second sign of pregnancy is the tendency of females
to take on fat, which is often very marked during the early
stages of gestation. Later the abdomen enlarges, due
to the developing fetus, and the pregnant animal becomes
very clumsy, and is often incapable of performing certain
movements.

A third sign of pregnancy is the development of the
milk-secreting organs. In the case of young females with
their first pregnancy this begins early in the period of
gestation, although among older animals it is not so
apparent until later in the period. The development of
the mammae or milk organs is not a sure sign of preg-
nancy, as in some animals the glands fail to enlarge, and
after parturition fail to secrete milk. This is particu-
larly true of old mares which have been bred for the first
time. Further, the milk glands may become functional
in non-pregnant females, as is frequently observed in the
case of young heifers and mare mules.

A fourth and positive sign of pregnancy is the move-
ments of the living fetus. These occur in most, if not
all farm animals, but are readily observed in the mare
and cow, where the size and strength of the fetus are
sufficient to bring about very vigorous movements. Such
movements cannot be observed until rather late in the
period of pregnancy. While there is no safe and reliable
method for inducing the movements, they frequently can
be noted while the mother is drinking, particularly in the
morning. To make such observations it is not necessary
to give ice cold water, as suggested by some persons ;
in fact, much better results are obtained from water at
medium temperature. Further, as stated in the discus-
sion on abortion, disastrous results may follow the giving
of ice cold water.

Duration of gestation. — Among farm animals the

Pregnancy and gestation 279

period of gestation is exceedingly variable. The degree
of variability is dependent upon the length of the gesta-
tion period. In the rabbit, where the period is approx-
imately 30 days, the variation is slight, rarely exceeding
two days, while in the mare, with an average duration
of approximately 340 days, the variability is increased to
two or three months.

In general, the period of gestation depends on the size
of the animal, the larger the animal the longer the period.
Thus the period in the lv^

mare is more than two
and one-half times that
of the sow. This, of
course, does not apply
to the individuals with-
in a given class. The
ponderous draft mare
requires no longer time
than the diminutive
pony. The length of
the period is somewhat
dependent upon the
state of development in ^"'- 92-percheron stall.on -...precat,on"

which the young are born. Thus in the dog the period
is slightly more than two months, while in sheep, which
in many cases are no larger than dogs, the period of gesta-
tion is more than twice as long, although at birth lambs
are far more developed than puppies. Further, it is a
popular opinion that male offspring require a longer
period of gestation, although there is not sufficient evi-
dence to warrant this opinion.

The mare. — The period of gestation in the mare is
popularly placed at 11 months, more accurately, perhaps,
340 days, although, as stated, it may vary greatly. Tes-
sier reports 582 cases among mares, with a range of 287
to 419 days, which may be considered the extremes for
normal gestation in the mare (pp. 323 to 326).

2cSo

BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

The cow. — The duration of gestation in the cow is
usually placed at nine months, but more accurately, per-
haps, 280 days, although it varies widely. Tessier re-
ports 1,131 cases among cows, with a range of 240 to
321 days, which may be considered the extremes for
normal pregnancy in the cow (pp. 323 to 326).

The ewe. — The period of gestation among sheep and
goats is popularly considered to be five months, more
accurately, perhaps, 150 days, although it is variable.
Tessier reports 912 ewes, with a range of 146 to 161 days,
which may be considered the extreme for normal gesta-
tion in the ewe (pp. 323 to 326).

The sow. — Among swine the duration of pregnancy is
considered a trifle short of four months, probably about
112 days, although the extremes vary from 109 to 125
days in normal gestation (pp. 323 to 326).

Other animals.^ — To show the general relation between
the size of the animal and the duration of gestation
the following tabulation is designed, giving the
period of gestation for a number of animals of various
sizes:

Period of Gestation

Animal

Period

Animal

Period

Elephant

24 months

Sow

4 months

Giraffe

14 months

Beaver

4 months

Buffalo

12 months

Lion

3-4 months

Ass

12 months

Dog

2 months

Mare

11 months

Fox and wolf

2 months

Cow

9 months

Cat

50 days

Bear

6 months

Rabbit

30 days

Sheep and goat

5 months

Squirrel and rat

28 days

Poultry. — The period of gestation in egg-laying animals
is the same as the period of incubation. The following
tabulation is arranged to show the period of incubation
in domestic fowls :

pregnancy and gestation
Period of Incubation

281

Animal

Period

Animal

Period

Turkey
Guinea
Pea hen
Ducks

26 to 30 days
25 to 26 days
28 to 30 days
25 to 32 days

Geese
Hens
Pigeons
Canary birds

27 to 33 days
19 to 24 days
16 to 20 days
13 to 14 days

Small breeds hatch earlier than large ones. The aver-
age for hens is approximately 21 days, although game
bantams hatch at the end of 19 days, while some of the
larger breeds require 24 days. Duck eggs hatch earlier
under hens than under ducks, probably because of the
higher temperature of the hen's body.

Number of young at birth. — Among farm animals there
is much variation in the number of young brought forth
at a given birth. Domestic animals are grouped into
three classes according to the number of fetuses
ordinarily produced ; the uniparous animals which or-
dinarily give birth to but a single young at a time, such
as the mare and cow; the biparous or twin-bearing
animals, such as the goat and some breeds of sheep ;
and the muciparous animals, which usually give birth
to a number of young at a time, such as the sow, dog and
other carnivora. The following tabulation shows the
approximate number of young brought forth at a given
birth among the more important animals :

Number of Young at Birth

Animal

Number

Animal

Number

Elephant

Sow

4-14

Giraffe

Beaver

Buffalo

Lion

Ass

Dog

4-8

Mare

Fox and wolf

4-6

Cow

Cat

3-6

Bear

Rabbit

4-8

Sheep and goat

1-2-3

Squirrel and rat

3-6

282

BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

Single-birthed animals occasionally bear twins. All
multiple-birthed animals are exceedingly variable in the
number of young produced at a time.

Poultry. — The egg-laying animals are also exceedingly
variable in the number of eggs produced in a season.
Under proper care the hens of the meat type, such as
Brahma, Cochin and Langshan, produce from 30 to 60
eggs in a season ; those of the general purpose type, such
as Plymouth Rock, Wyandotte, Java, Orpington and
Rhode Island Red, produce from 75 to 100; while those
of the egg type, particularly the Leghorn, average 125
to 150 for entire flocks, with the high individuals running
up to 300 eggs in a season. Likewise, turkey hens vary
widely in the number of eggs produced, but individuals
average from 25 to 40 eggs in a given season. The fol-
lowing tabulation shows the number of eggs in a brood
under natural conditions such as when the hen "steals"
her nest :

Number of Eggs in Brood

Animal

Number

Animal

Number

Turkey
Hen
Guinea
Geese

15-18
15-18
15-18
15-18

Duck
Pea-hen
Canary
Pigeon

9-12

8-10

2- 4

Care of pregnant animals. — In the attempt to favor
pregnant animals we often subject them to very adverse
conditions. Often pregnant animals are closely con-
fined, fed the most nutritious of foods and denied exer-
cise, particularly in winter, as we are afraid they may
slip and injure themselves or their young. Under such
conditions these animals take on fat rapidly, they be-
come swollen and stiff and their flesh soft and flabby,
all of which serve to increase the difficulties during ges-
tation, but more especially at parturition time.

PREGNANCY AND GESTATION 283

Pregnant animals should be given much the same care
as other animals. This is particularly true as regards
exercise. Thus, in the case of the mare, moderate work
is not only harmless, but of positive advantage. Of
course, she should be protected from rough treatment, as
in fact all animals should be at all times. She should not
be roughly jostled by the pole of the vehicle; violent
pulling should be carefully guarded against; as should
also rapid trotting, galloping, jumping, and the like.

Animals w^ell advanced in the period of pregnancy
should not be shipped in railv^ay cars. The unsteady
movements of the car
jostles the animal about
more or less violently.
When at pasture preg-
nant animals should l^e

protected against all un- ' ^ ^^

due excitement, as chas-
ing by dogs or other ani-
mals. Mules and colts Fig. 93— Berkshire Boar "Handsome Lee"

are especially meddle-
some. It has been suggested that pregnant animals
of different classes should not be allowed in the same
field, but this applies only in case they are quarrel-
some. Of course, swine should be excluded at the time
other animals are parturating, as, being omnivorous, they
may devour the young, and, in fact, if the dam is ex-
hausted or injured, she too may succumb to the rapacity
of the swine.

The food of pregnant animals should be such as will
stimulate growth and development rather than fat pro-
duction. Thus foods rich in protein and ash, such as oats,
bran, clover and alfalfa, are preferred to starchy foods,
such as corn and timothy hay. By the use of proper
foods the bowels should be kept in good condition and
constipation avoided. The feeding of too stimulating a
ration or the reverse, as well as the feeding of harmful

284 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

materials, as ergot on rye, smut of corn or other grains,
moldy hay, iced grasses, and the drinking of filthy, stag-
nant or iced water should be avoided at all times.

Signs of parturition. — Because of the uncertainty of the
period of gestation, pregnant animals should be watched
closely for a time previous to the expiration of the average
period. The limitations given on pages 279 and 280 sug-
gest a good time to begin observations. There are certain
signs of the near approach of parturition that rarely fail.

The most conspicuous symptom of the near approach
of parturition is the increased functional activity of the
milk glands. There is a tendency for these glands to
become gradually enlarged, firm and resistant to the
touch as the time for parturition approaches. At first
they contain a watery secretion, which gradually be-
comes more milk-like, and later assumes the character-
istics of colostrum. Lastly, the teats fill out to the tips
and the milk may escape from them in drops. Much
reliance is placed on this symptom, as the young is
usually born within 24 hours after wax forms at the teats.
On the other hand, this is not a positive sign, as the milk
may flow for days before the young is born. Occasion-
ally, however, this sign fails, as under certain conditions
the milk glands do not develop, at least noticeably, and
even more rarely they are excited to functional activity
without pregnancy.

A very important symptom of approaching parturition
is the relaxation of the muscles passing over the rump,
causing a sinking of the croup. This is due to a soften-
ing of the muscles, which favors the ease of bearing
young. Another sign is the changes which take place
in the vulva. The vulva lips become somewhat thick-
ened and stand apart more loosely than ordinarily. In
the cow a discharge of ropy mucus is noticeable. Later
the animal becomes uneasy, ceases to eat, switches the
tail, lies down, then rises again and may moan, indicating
that labor has begun.

PREGNANCY AND GESTATION 285

Some animals become nervous and more or less excited.
This is particularly true of ewes. It is not unusual to
see her hunting anxiously about for her lamb before it
has been born. Just before parturition the sow spends
much of her time in collecting material for a nest. When
at large in the field she makes a very cozy nest, and in
confinement makes such a bed as the material at hand
permits.

Preparation for parturition. — Proper precaution should
be taken to avoid injury to the young or to the mother
from defective stabling or from the presence of other
animals. When the weather will permit, the best place
for an animal to give birth to young is in an open, grassy
paddock, as there is no danger from infection or mechan-
ical injury. This, of course, is impossible in winter and
undesirable during the hot summer months when the
flies are annoying.

Parturating animals should be provided with a large,
well-lighted and well-ventilated box stall, thoroughly
clean and freshly bedded, from which all obstructions,
such as mangers and feed boxes, have been removed. If
convenient, a little air-slaked lime should be scattered
about the stall before the bedding is put down. This
disinfects the stall and aids in the prevention of infection,
which causes a high mortality among new-born farm
animals. Some breeders arrange a special box stall, by
constructing a false wall, sloping it upward and outward
at an angle of 45 degrees and joining the main wall at a
height of 4 feet. This sloping wall prevents the mare
and cow from injuring the protruding fetus.

The lambing fold should be provided with a number
of panels 3 feet high and 4 feet long, so that when two
such panels are hinged together and placed in the corner
of the barn they make a pen 4 feet square. When the
ewe shows signs of lambing she should be placed in one
of these pens, thus separating her from the flock and
preventing the lamb from straying away, as it is very

286 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

likely to do if not restrained or confined with Its dam.

The piggery should be provided with a fender made of
a scantling securely fastened, say 8 inches from the floor
and the same distance from the walls. The young pigs
soon learn to take advantage of the protection furnished
by this device, thus avoiding much of the danger of being
crushed by the mother when she lies down.

Normal parturition. — As the labor pains come on, the
neck of the uterus largely disappears and the os gradu-
ally dilates. The water bag passes into the opening,
portions of the fetus soon advance into the vagina, and
definite labor pains quickly become established. The
pain and suffering depend largely upon the class of
animals, being severe in the mare and cow, but much
less aggravating in the sow. The water bag aids ma-
terially in the expulsion of the fetus. It brings equal
pressure to bear in dilation of the passages, which not

Fig. 94 — Normal Presentation of Young at Parturition —

2 Os uteri, 3 Vagina, 4 Bladder, 5 Urethra, 6 Floor of pelvis, 7 The young or

fetus M normal position before birth. (Made up from Pilz's Anatomical

Manikin of the Horse)

PREGNANCY AND GESTATION 287

only favors dilation, but no doubt eases the pain. This
dilation is also favored by the form of the fetus when
normally presented.

Among the larger farm animals, the vast majority
of fetuses present the two front feet, followed by the
nose. These parts form an elongated cone, which acts
as a wedge in gradually dilating the passages. The con-
ditions are essentially the same when the fetus presents
the two hind feet, as the legs and thighs serve as a long
wedge-like cone. In anterior presentation the head is
usually the most difficult, and after it emerges from the
vulva the other parts usually pass with comparative ease,
although there may be marked resistance as the chest
and shoulders enter the passage. In posterior presenta-
tion the hips are usually the most difficult.

The time required for normal parturition in farm
animals is exceedingly variable. As a rule, it is pro-
longed in animals with their first birth, as the organs
have not previously been dilated. In the mare parturi-
tion is rather prompt, but often exceedingly painful,
causing sweating. In fact, rapid parturition is es-
sential, as the fetal connections are weak and
easily separated, which cuts off the nutritive supply,
thus causing the death of the fetus in the case of pro-
longed parturition. In this respect the cow has a de-
cided advantage over the mare, as the fetal membranes
are more strongly attached and not so likely to be dis-
connected, and may therefore experience prolonged par-
turition with practically no danger to the young.

In the sow and other multiple-birthed animals, the
young usually follow each other rather quickly. A sow
may bear 10 or 12 pigs in less than an hour. On the
other hand, parturition sometimes becomes extremely
tedious and a sow may be a day or more in bearing a
litter.

CHAPTER XXVII
AILMENTS OF THE DAM

There are a few diseases that occasionally trouble
animals during or immediately following parturition.
The breeder should make a careful study of these, not
only that he may be able to handle urgent cases, but in
order that he may manage his pregnant animals so as
to avoid such ailments in so far as it is possible. The
suggestions herein given are intended to familiarize the
breeder with the nature of the diseases that he may know
when to call for the advice of the trained veterinarian.

Difficult parturition. — There are a number of causes of
difficult parturition among farm animals. It may be due
to a very large fetus, a small passage in the dam, or to
some malformation in either the fetus or the dam, as well
as to wrong presentation. When an animal has been
in intense labor for an hour without progress in deliver-
ing the young, an examination should be made to deter-
mine the cause of retarded birth. The chances of suc-
cess are much greater when taken early, before the dam
is exhausted from severe straining. If assistance is de-
layed, the water bag may be ruptured, thus allowing the
lubricating fluids to escape and the parts to become dry
and swollen.

The operator should be dressed in sleeveless clothing
that will not be injured on being soiled. The arms should
be rubbed with clean sweet oil, preferably carbolized
oil, one part of carbolic acid to 30 parts of oil. This
serves to protect both the animal and the operator from
infection. The examination can be made much easier if the
animal is turned with her head downhill, as the internal
organs gravitate forward into the abdomen, thus making
more room in which to manipulate the fetus. One of the

288

AILMENTS OF THE DAM 289

most frequent abnormal positions is with the head and
one foreleg presented but with the other foreleg doubled
back. In this case, should the animal be lying down,
turn her on the side opposite to that on which the limb
is missing, so that there may be more room to arrange
the fetus and to bring up the missing member. To avoid
losing the parts already in position, double a piece of
rope and loop it around the foreleg, and another around
the head arranging the rope so as not to injure the young,
if still alive ; then push the fetus back into the uterus,
and bring forward the foreleg that is doubled back, thus
securing a normal position.

Fig. 95 — Large Yorkshire Sows

No attempt should be made to arrange the fetus dur-
ing labor pains. After one pain has ceased, then the part
may be straightened out before another pain comes ont
The operator must be patient and painstaking, remem-
bering that the fetus will not come until in the proper
position, and when so arranged it is likely to come fairly
easy. If the passages have lost their natural lubricating
liquid and become dry, lubricate the interior of the pas-
sages and the surfaces of the fetus as far as can be reached
with sweet oil.

290

BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

111 assisting the delivery, draw only while the animal
is in labor. The natural curvature of both the fetus and
the passages are followed and the extraction of the fetus
favored by drawing downward toward the hocks as well
as backwards. The amount of force that one person can
exert is usually sufficient. Avoid injuring the parts, as
inflammation and blood poisoning may follow.

Difficult parturition is much more troublesome in the
mare than in the cow, ewe or sow. The great length
of the limbs and neck of the foal renders it extremely dif-
ficult to secure and bring up a missing member which
has been turned back. The fetal membranes of the foal
are loosely attached to the uterus. The foal becomes
separated from its mother at an early stage and rarely
survives four hours after the beginning of labor pains.

Wrong presentations. — In addition to normal presenta-
tion, the fetus may appear in a number of positions, some
of them requiring ingenuity and skill to handle, together

Wrong Presentations of Fetuses*

I Incompletely extended
Crossed over neck
Bent back at the knee
Bent back from the shoulder

Anterior presentations

Head

Posterior presentations

Body presentations

Hind legs . .

Hind legs

Bent downward on the neck
Turned back beneath the breast

Turned to one side
[ Turned upward and backward

Hind feet turned outward

Hind feet resting on pelvis

Transverse Back of fetus to side of pelvis

Inverted Back of fetus to floor of pelvis

Bent on itself at the hock

Bent at the hip

Transverse Back of fetus to side oi pelvis

Inverted Back of fetus to floor of pelvis

With back and loins presented

With breast and abdomen presented

* "Diseases of the Horse," p. 176. Special Report, Bureau of Animal Industry,
Department of Agriculture.

AILMENTS OF THE DAM 29I

with careful study of conditions. When the fetus can-
not be secured in any other manner, it is necessary to
perform embryotomy, which consists of dismembering
the fetus and removing it part at a time. This calls for
the services of a trained veterinarian. The tabulation on
page 290 gives the more important positions in which
wrong presentations may occur.

Eversion of the uterus. — This ailment is frequently
observed among cows, and is commonly called "casting
the withers." It often follows difficult parturition, the
animal continuing to strain until the uterus is forced out
and hangs from the vulva. The displaced uterus must be
kept scrupulously clean, and carefully sponged with cold
water containing a weak solution of carbolic acid. The
cold is useful in driving out the blood and reducing the
bulk. With the closed list gradually reinvert the uterus
into place. The animal will strain while this is being
done, but the uterus must be firmly held in place until
the straining is over. A small rope tied tightly around
the body just back of the front legs and another just
forward of the hind legs will usually allay the straining.
The hindquarters should be elevated by raising the rear
of the stall some 4 or 5 inches.

The holding of the uterus in place is the next point.
Some persons advise taking about four stitches through
the lips of the vulva, which are left in for 24 to 36 hours,
or until all straining is stopped. Perhaps the safest
method is by the use of a rope truss. To make this truss
use a long i-inch rope. Double this rope at its middle
and place over the neck of the animal ; bring the ends
one on either side of the neck, down between the fore-
legs ; then pass back between the hind legs and up to
the vulva, tying as necessary, to secure firmly ; and
then carry the ropes forward along the back and tie into
the middle of the rope at the top of the neck.

Retained afterbirth. — Among most farm animals, with
the exception of the cow, the afterbirth or placenta comes

292 BREEDING OF. FARM ANIMALS

away when the young animal is born. In the cow, how-
ever, it frequently remains attached to the walls of the
uterus. This is particularly true after an abortion.
When the afterbirth is not removed it decomposes and
is discharged as a yellow or reddish fluid, having a dis-
agreeable odor. This discharge is most apparent when
the animal endeavors to pass urine. The rear parts be-
come soiled by this discharge, which often contains
lumps of decomposing material. The cow presents an
unthrifty appearance, loses flesh, and the milk flow is
rapidly diminished.

If possible the afterbirth should be removed within 24
or 36 hours after parturition. To do this, a simple

method, which is often use-
ful, is to hang a small
weight, not to exceed one
or two pounds, to the hang-
ing portion of the afterbirth
and allow this by its dan-
gling motion as the cow
moves along to pull the
membranes from their at-
tachments and to stimulate
the uterus to expulsive

Fig. 96— Belgian Stallion "Polo Nord" Contractions.

If this is ineffective and
the afterbirth remains, an attempt should be made to remove
the membranes by hand. This should be done within 24
hours after calving. The operator should dress and grease
the arms as suggested in difficult parturition. With extreme
care the greased arm is introduced and passed on until the
places of attachment are reached. The attachments will
be found to resemble mushroom-shaped bodies. They
should be detached one by one, by passing the thumb
between the membrane and the uterus. Should the mem-
branes adhere to the heads of these bodies, under no cir-
cumstances tear the membranes loose, as further compli-

AILMENTS OF THE DAM 293

cations are likely to follow such practice. In removing
the placenta extreme care should be taken not to rup-
ture the uterus. After the membrane has been removed
disinfect the passages with a weak solution of carbolic
acid.

Inflammation of the vagina and uterus. — Simple in-
flammation of these organs may be the result of bruises,
lacerations or other injuries sustained at the time of
parturition. It will be shown by swelling of the lips of
the vulva, which, together with their lining membrane,
become of a dark red hue and the discharge increases
and becomes whitish or purulent, and it may be fetid. Slight
cases recover spontaneously or under the injections of
mild astringents, as a very weak solution of carbolic
acid, say one teaspoonful of the acid to a quart of water.

On the other hand, such inflammations, particularly
of the uterus, may be of a very serious nature. The gen-
eral poisoning may extend, so that the inflammation
affects the lining membrane of the entire abdominal
cavity. Such diseases are known as metritis, and are
entirely too complicated for the breeder, calling for the
services of the trained veterinarian.

Milk fever. — This disease is also known as parturition
apoplexy and parturition fever, though there is usually
but very little fever and the temperature is often below
normal. This is primarily a dairy cow disease. The
best and heaviest milkers are most subject to attack.
The disease is more likely to occur when birth has been
easy and quick. It usually comes on within two days
after calving. The first symptom is uneasiness, the cow
is dull, the appetite gone, and the milk secretions lessened
or stopped. The eyes possess a vacant stare, she gradu-
ally loses control of the hind parts and finally, unable to
stand, she falls or lies down. At first she lies with head
turned around and nose resting on the flank, but later
she may stretch out full on her side. Unconsciousness
soon follows, the eyes become glazed, with pupils widely

294 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

dilated, and often there is a slight moan with the breath-
ing. Relief must follow quickly or the cow will soon
expire.

Formerly milk fever was considered extremely serious,
but with the air treatment it is seldom fatal. This con-
sists simply of injecting air into the udder and carefully
kneading the udder at the same time. There are milk
fever outfits on the market with which to force the air
into the udder, but if one of these is not near at hand,
a very convenient apparatus can be made from a common
bicycle air pump and a milk tube. Secure the milk tube
to the pump, insert the tube into the teat, and as the air
is forced in knead the udder well. Fill each quarter, and
in two or three hours milk the air out, rest a few minutes,
and pump up again. Make the cow as comfortable as
possible and keep her propped up on her brisket, with the
head elevated to avoid bloating.

While little is known as to the cause of milk fever,
the fact that the air-distended udder gives relief so
quickly is significant. The disease seems to be due to
absence of pressure in the udder ; therefore, to avoid the
disease, never milk the high-producing cow dry for some
days after calving.

Garget. — This is a congestion of the udder often ob-
served in heavy milkers, before and just after calving.
The milk glands are enlarged, hot and tense and the ail-
ment is commonly referred to as caked udder. This
congestion usually disappears in two or three days after
the secretion of milk has been fully established. This
is greatly favored by allowing the calf to run with its dam
for a few days, otherwise the congestion must be relieved
by drawing the milk frequently by hand. Gently but
thoroughly rub the udder.

If the congestion remains, bathe the udder with hot
water 15 minutes at a time. After rubbing the udder
dry, apply an ointment made by dissolving two table-
spoonfuls of gum camphor in a teacupful of melted fresh

AILMENTS OF THE DAM

295

lard. This may be improved by the addition of one ounce
of the fluid extract of belladonna. The udder should be
bathed three times daily and the ointment well rubbed
in after each bath. If the udder is large and pendulous,
support should be given by the use of a wide piece of
cloth with holes cut for the teats, and this held in place
by arranging a band over the back.

Fig. 97 — Group of Swiss Toggenburg Does

Cow pox. — This is a contagious inflammation of the
udder, which is usually spread from one cow to another
by the hands of the milker. The yield of milk is dimin-
ished, the teats become very tender and in two or three
days there appear little pealike nodules on the udder.
At first these pocks contain yellow pus, which later dries
into a yellowish scab. This finally falls, leaving a dis-
tinct pit in the skin.

The treatment is to heal the sores and to check the
propagation of the germ. This can be done by bathing
the udder and teats three times daily with a solution of
half an ounce of hyposulphite of soda in a pint of water.

296 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

As milking is the chief cause of the persistence of the
disease, this should be done as gently as possible.

Mammitis. — This is an inflammation of the udder. It
may be due to congestion, to exposure to cold or wet,
to injuries of the udder caused by blows or kicks, to
insufficient stripping of the udder, and the like. The
first observed signs of illness are the swelling, heat, and
tenderness of the udder. The inflammation may become
so tense as to cause the animal to straddle with the hind
legs. When she lies down it is on the unaffected side.
The milk flow is suppressed and often replaced by a
watery fluid colored with blood. In very bad cases the
cow may lose the inflamed quarter.

The treatment varies according to the condition of the
animal. If there is only slight inflammation, rub the
udder well with camphorated ointment, or a weak iodine
ointment. Milk four to six times daily and rub the udder
thoroughly each time. The milking must be done with
care and gentleness, squeezing the teat instead of pulling
and stripping. In case the cow is seen to be shivering,
every effort should be made to warm her, by giving warm
water in the form of a drench, by warm injections, and
by the applications of blankets wrung out of warm water,
to the loins. After an hour's sweat, rub dry and cover
with a dry blanket.

In case the fever has set in and the inflammation is
much more advanced, give a laxative consisting of one
to two pounds of epsom salts to which one ounce of
ginger has been added. After the purging has ceased
this may be followed by daily doses of one ounce of salt-
peter. The inflamed quarter should be bathed in warm
warter. To do this place a bucket of warm water be-
neath the udder from which a blanket may be raised and
held against the udder, dipping it anew whenever the
heat is lost. After this has been continued for an hour,
rub the udder dry, then cover with a coating of soap.

Altered milk secretion.- — After giving birth, if there is

AILMENTS OF THE DAM 297

a scant secretion of milk, or if the milk is thin and ap-
parently lacking in fat content, the dam should be fed
milk-producing foods, such as bran mashes and alfalfa or
clover hay, as these tend to increase the milk flow, im-
prove the quality of the milk up to normal, and have a
laxative effect upon the bowels. However, if the udder
is swollen and inflamed, such foods should not be given
until the inflammation disappears.

Soon after parturition bloody milk is frequently ob-
served. This is often due to a rupture of some of the
small blood vessels near the milk cells, or it may be due
to an injury or to a diseased condition of the milk glands.
The presence of germs in the udder frequently causes blue or
bitter as well as slippery and putrid milk. The treat-
ment for such ailments depends upon the cause. When
due to a germ it is often necessary to inject a disinfectant
into the udder. For this purpose, a solution of boracic
acid is used with good results. In simple cases bathing
the udder in hot water and frequently milking the glands
clean gives good results.

CHAPTER XXVIII
AILMENTS OF THE NEW-BORN

The mortality among new-born animals is very high.
It has been estimated that one-fourth of all farm animals
born into the world succumb before they are one month
of age. Possibly this estimate is too high in the case of
foals and lambs, although it is not too great in pigs, or
in the case of calves, if the abortions that take place well
along in pregnancy be included in the estimate.

In the main, these young animals succumb to diseases
that easily can be avoided. The most troublesome of
these diseases are due to infection during or immediately
after birth. All such troublesome diseases and attendant
losses can be avoided if proper sanitation be provided.

Asphyxia. — In retarded parturition, asphyxia is rather
common. This is especiall}^ true in the case of the foal,
where the fetal connection with the uterus is very slight.
The placenta may become partially or entirely detached
before the fetus is expelled, thus smothering the foal.
The navel cord may become tightly compressed between
the fetus and the pelvis of the dam in such a manner as
to interrupt the circulation. Likewise, the cord may be-
come entangled about one of the limbs or the head of
the fetus, and the circulation thus be interrupted, with
asphyxia as a result. Sometimes the fetal membranes
about the head and nostrils fail to rupture, thus causing
partial asphyxia.

In partial asphyxia respiration may be favored by al-
ternately compressing and relaxing the chest with the
hands, by vigorously stroking the the chest, and by ex-
tending the front legs alternately forward and backward.
Suspending animals by the hind legs tends to stimulate
respiration and permits the free escape of fluids that may

298

AILMENTS OF THE NEW-BORN 299

have lodged in the lungs. A sharp blow upon the nose
often tends to induce respiration, as does the dashing of
cold water upon the skin of the animal.

Constipation. — During the last few days of fetal life
there collects in the alimentary tract of the young an
excretory debris known as meconium. This material
varies in color and consistency, but is usually of a yellow-
ish or greenish hue and appears as a pasty mass, in which
condition it is usually promptly expelled without dif-
ficulty. In the foal, however, this material is frequently
hard and dry, in which condition it is often retained,
and leads to further complications, not infrequently caus-
ing the death of the young animal. This is especially
true of foals whose dams have been confined to the stable,
denied exercise, and fed upon dry food during the latter
part of pregnancy.

If the alimentary tract has not been cleaned of this
meconium within a few hours after birth and the young-
ster presents the symptoms of illness, standing with the
front legs extending forward
and the hind legs backward,
with back depressed, occasion-
ally looking toward the flank
and straining, as if to expel the
material, something must be
done to stimulate the bowels to
action. The colostrum or first fig. 98-Chester white boar
milk of the dam is a natural

purgative and favors the early passage of the material. The
bowels of the foal can usually be stimulated to action by
giving internally two ounces of castor oil or four ounces
of olive oil, and by an injection of warm water into the
bowels. The oil must be given carefully, to avoid
strangling the foal. The water used in the injection
should have added to it a little glycerine, although some
persons prefer the addition of a very little common salt.
Inject gently into the rectum with a common hard rub-

300 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

ber syringe, taking care not to i"upture the tender mem-
brane. This will soften the meconium, lubricate the
passage and stimulate the bowels to action.

Navel infection. — This is another disease common to
young foals. It is due to filth germs that gain access
to the body of the foal by way of the open umbilical vein
of the navel at birth. Soon after these germs enter the
navel, they set up irritation and inflammation. The
navel becomes enlarged, pus forms and is absorbed into
the general circulation. Abscesses form in all parts of
the body, notably in the joints of the legs and at the
throat and poll. It is comparatively rare that a foal is
saved after the disease reaches the pus-forming stage.

The breeder should understand that this disease is due
to a simple infection, and that proper hygienic measures
will prevent it. The box stall in which the mare foals
should be scrupulously clean, well lighted and well ven-
tilated. It should be well bedded with clean, fresh ma-
terial, preferably straw or shavings. A little lime scat-
tered about the floor before the bedding is put down
serves to disinfect and sweeten the stall. Immediately
after the foal is delivered the navel should be disinfected
with a powder consisting of equal parts of dry or des-
iccated alum, gum camphor and starch, finely powdered
and thoroughly mixed. The navel cord should neither
be cut nor tied. If the cord is powdered at intervals of
half an hour it will mummify within three hours and all
danger from infection will be eliminated.

Diarrhea. — This disease is common among suckling
animals. The causes of simple diarrhea are many and
varied, although overfeeding as well as too rapid feed-
ing on the part of the young are the most common. The
surroundings of the new-born often bring on the disease.
Closely crowded, filthy and four-smelling quarters are
likely to produce an attack. Young animals kept in the
open air where they can obtain sufiicient exercise, pure
air and sunlight are seldom troubled with diarrhea.

AILMENTS OF THE NEW-BORN 3OI

The treatment is to remove the cause, if possible. If
the disease is due to an oversupply of milk, the dam
should be milked in part by hand, remembering that the
last milk is the richer in fat, which is the element causing
the disturbance. The dam's ration should be reduced
first by one-third, and then by one-half should the large
milk flow continue. Avoid all conditions likely to cause
such disorders. If the dam is properly fed, exer-
cised and managed, there is very little danger. In treat-
ing the young the nature of the disease must be borne in
mind, that it is caused by an irritant in the digestive tract,
which must be removed before a cure can be effected.
The best policy in such disorders is to expel the irritant
with a laxative, such as castor oil or linseed oil.

Infectious diarrhea. — This is a serious dysentery com-
mon to calves and is often known as white scours. In-
fectious diarrhea usually appears during the first or
second day after birth. It may appear immediately after
parturition, and in some instances seemingly exists at the
time the young animal is born, and it may perish from
the disease without having sucked the dam. The dis-
ease is highly contagious, attacking all calves dropped
in the same stable. It is caused by a germ, which prob-
ably gains admittance to the alimentary tract by way of
the nostrils and mouth and through the navel wound.
Infectious diarrhea is highly fatal and runs a very acute
course.

The symptom is a foul-smelling liquid evacuation,
which, at first, is of a yellowish hue, but later changes
to a grayish color. At first the liquid is expelled with con-
siderable force, but later the evacuation takes place in-
voluntarily. Sometimes the disease is accompanied by
stretching and at other times there are convulsions.

As the disease is highly fatal, chief attention must be
given to preventive measures. Before parturition the
dam should be placed in a thoroughly disinfected, com-
fortable box stall. Before she is placed in the stall her

302 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

posterior parts and udder should be washed with a warm
antiseptic, as a two per cent solution of carbolic acid.
As soon as the calf is born the navel should be dusted
with an antiseptic powder, similar to that of the foal, as
suggested in navel infection. The calf should be re-
moved at once to quarters free from previous infection.
In drawing the milk and in feeding the calf, every precau-
tion must be taken to avoid infection. The milker should
carefully disinfect his hands and the udder. The milk
should be drawn and fed in sterile vessels. Likewise,
care should be taken that the infection be not carried to
the young by other animals, in the bedding or food, or
by the caretaker. The stable in which the disease has
existed should be thoroughly disinfected with a corrosive
sublimate solution.

Sore mouth. — Lambs and pigs are often troubled with
contagious sore mouth, which may also affect the teats
of their dams. Sores and later scabs form along the
edges of the mouth and on the teats of the dam. This
prevents proper nursing and interferes with the thrift
of the young. In the case of lambs the treatment is to
rub off the scabs and wash the parts in undiluted sheep
dip. In the case of pigs prepare a solution of perman-
ganate of potash, using one and one-half ounces of the
crystals dissolved in one gallon of warm water. Dip
the pig headforemost into this solution and hold there
a second. This should be repeated for a few days. This
disease can be prevented by providing clean comfortable
quarters for the youngsters.

Frequently young pigs are troubled with long, sharp
teeth. These lacerate the teats of the dam and she will
not let the youngster nurse, which interferes with their
thrift. The treatment is to cut the sharp points from
the teeth with a pair of nippers.

Sore eyes. — Like sore mouth, this is a contagious dis-
ease common to lambs. Though it interferes seriously
with the thrift of the lambs, it is very easily cured. Sheep

AILMENTS OF THE NEW-BORN 303

dip diluted with 40 parts water used as a wash will work
a rapid cure. It is well to see that a little of the diluted
dip gets into the eyes. This may start the tears, but it
has the desired effect.

Chilled lamb. — Occasionally new-born lambs get sep-
arated from their dams and become chilled. This is
likely to prove fatal unless they are very thoroughly
warmed. A hot bath is the best thing for a chilled lamb.
This can conveniently be ac-
complished by immersing the
lamb in water as hot as one can
bear the hand. Keep the water
hot by adding more to it, taking
care not to scald the lamb.
When warmed, wipe thor-
oughly dry with flannel cloth

and restore to the dam. A few f,g. 99-hampshire ram
drops of brandy in warm water

is good for a chilled lamb. The lamb should be watched
to be sure that it nurses the dam.

Thumps. — This is a digestive trouble common to young
pigs, and is due to overfeeding or lack of exercise. The
treatment is to compel the pigs to take exercise, and pos-
sibly reduce the sow's milk-producing food until the pigs
are older. Young pigs may be encouraged to take exer-
cise by arranging a panel, provided with a trap door,
across one corner of the pen, thus providing a small tri-
angular pen. On the floor of this small pen scatter a
little meal, or provide a trough with a little sweet milk.
When the young pigs enter the triangular pen to eat the
food thus provided, close the trap door, separating them
from their dam. In this manner they may be separated
from the dam for three or four hours in the morning and
a like period in the evening. When thus separated they will
take sufficient exercise to keep. them in thrifty condition.

Umbilical hernia. — This is a disease in which the umbilic
ring, through which the navel cord passes, fails to close

304 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

during the development of the fetus. It is rather com-
mon in foals and pigs, but may occur among other farm
animals. The disease is congenital, though it may not
be noticed at the time of birth. The size of the tumor
as well as the hernial ring varies greatly. In the pig it
ranges from one-half to 2 inches in diameter, while with
the foal it ranges from i to 6 inches. The causes which
operate to prevent the closing of the umbilic ring during
fetal development are complicated and the defect is con-
sidered hereditary.

Since umbilical hernia usually disappears, at least when
not too large, an opportunity should be given for a spon-
taneous recovery. This is especially true of foals. When
the hernial ring is large, it may be necessary to use some
means for overcoming the defect, except in the case of
animals intended for early slaughter. Before undertak-
ing treatment, however, it is desirable that the young
animal shall have acquired some age and considerable
vigor.

There are many methods of treatment to overcome
umbilical hernia, such as the application of a bandage or
truss about the body in such a manner as to press the
contents of the tumor up within the abdomen ; the

application of a mineral acid,
thus causing an intense local
inflammation with much swell-
ing, which induces closure of
the hernial ring, the application
of clamps similar to those used in
castration; and the application of
Fig. 100— duroc jtRSEY Boar sutures ill sucli a manner as to
encourage closing of the hernial
ring. The use of each method calls for the skill of a
trained veterinarian.

Scrotal hernia.^ — This is a disease similar to umbilical
hernia, in which the inguinal ring, through which the
testicle cords pass, fails to close during the development

AILMENTS OF THE NEW-BORN 305

of the fetus. It is rather common among foals and pigs.
Scrotal or inguinal hernia is primarily a defect of males,
although very rarely it exists among females. It is fre-
quently observed among draft bred foals, where it is
usually of a temporary character and later disappears.
In some instances, however, the inguinal ring is exces-
sively large, so that portions of the viscera protrude
through it, and in all such cases some means must be
employed for overcoming the defect, animals intended
for early slaughter excepted. As in umbilical hernia, treat-
ment calls for the skill of the trained veterinarian.

Castration of males. — Young males not needed for
breeding purposes should be castrated early in life, as
there is less danger from complications, and the opera-
tion can be accomplished with ease. At this age the
organs are not mature and the shock to the young animals
is much less than if the operation be delayed. Further,
if left entire too long, the animal tends to become
"staggy" in appearance and will not make as good a
feeder as when castration is accomplished at an early
age. Thus the colt should be castrated before one year
of age, the calf at three or four months, the pig at three
or four weeks, and the lamb at lo days to two weeks
of age.

The fact that the male develops stronger features than
the female is often taken advantage of by horse breeders,
and colts that are rather undeveloped, especially about
the head and neck, as well as those that are rather timid
in nature, are often left entire six months longer in order
that these parts may improve. However, the colt should
not be left entire too long, as he may develop vicious
habits.

CHAPTER XXIX
DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG ANIMALS

Possibly no feature connected with animal breeding is
of greater importance than the proper development of
young stock. While variation is the basis of improve-
ment and selection the key to the situation, yet intelli-
gent selection can be exercised only in case the animals
are properly developed. It is as an aid to selection,
therefore, that development is of greatest importance.
Selection is based in large part on the individuality, and
unless the animal has been properly developed estimates
of merit will be unreliable. Some inferior animals
will be preserved and some superior ones discarded. In-
telligent selection, therefore, is possible only when the
animal has had a chance to develop those possibilities
with which he has been endowed.

There are a number of factors entering into the de-
velopment of young animals, chief of which are the con-
dition of the parents, proper feeding, sufficient training
and judicious management.

Condition of parents.^ — A lack of proper nutrition on
the part of the dam impairs and restricts the development
of the fetus. The nourishment of the offspring during
its fetal life has just as strong an influence upon its final
development as that furnished after it enters upon a sep-
arate existence. While careful feeding after birth may
compensate, in part at least, for such impaired develop-
ment, it never can fully atone for the curtailment suf-
fered at the time the fetus was being formed. Further,
the dam that is not well nourished during pregnancy
usually fails to give a plentiful supply of milk, which also
operates to retard development.

To supply the nutrients for the growth of the fetus

306

DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG ANIMALS 30/

through the food of the dam calls for a ration rich in
protein and mineral matter, as the increase consists
mainly of bone, muscle and body tissue. Fat-producing
foods do not supply the materials required by the grow-
ing young, and should be
avoided in making up the
ration for the pregnant
female. Such foods may
lead to serious complica-
tions during and imme-
diately following parturi-
tion. The proper nutrients
would be contained in a
ration consisting of oats
and bran for the concen- '*--

trates, and clover and al-
falfa for the forage. This fig. ioi~Clydesdale stallion
may be improved by the

addition of a succulent food, such as pasture grass in sea-
son, carrots for horses and roots and silage in the case of
cows and ewes.

Among the smaller farm animals, such as swine and
sheep, the relative size of the dam is a controlling factor
in determining the birth weight of the young. In the
main, large mothers produce large offspring. This is
very significant, in view of the fact that lambs and pigs
possessing a heavy birth weight develop much more
rapidly than those of light birth weight.

Feeding while young. — Growth and development are
due to cell division. This cell division is exceedingly
rapid during fetal development and immediately follow-
ing birth, but gradually decreases as the animal attains
maturity. The grozving age, therefore, is the age of
infancy. This is a significant fact, which the breeder
who would secure maximum development must use to
his advantage. Every means should be employed to en-
courage and promote growth and development while the

308 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

animal is young. Often the right kind of food is restricted,
and before it is reahzed the period in which growth is pos-
sible has passed. In such cases a knowledge of the
animal's capabilities is impossible, as no attempt was
made to develop them.

At a very early age animals should be encouraged to take
food in addition to that furnished by the dam. They will
eat only a very little food at first, but the object is to get
them accustomed to this supplementary food. As young
animals grow they will take the food in increasing quan-
tities. This supplementary feeding has the added ad-
vantage that it favors weaning, and the animals will
adapt themselves to the changed conditions without loss,
providing increasing amounts of food are given.

To supply the nutrients needed by the young animal in
securing maximum growth and development calls for a
ration rich in protein and mineral matter similar to that
suggested for the pregnant dam. A grain ration consist-
ing of equal parts by weight of wheat bran, ground oats
and corn meal, to which lo per cent of linseed oil meal has
been added, gives very good results with all classes of

Fig. 102 — Poland-China Barrows. Grand Champion Pen

DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG ANIMALS

309

young animals. Since the increase consists mainly of
bone and muscle with but little fat, those foods favoring
fat formation should be used very sparingly.

Relative development. — In general the v^eight of the
fetus or fetuses of farm animals is approximately one-
tenth the weight of the dam. This relative propor-
tion seems to run fairly uniform irrespective of the
number of fetuses produced at a single parturition. Thus,
in the case of the sow, even though she gives birth to 10
or 12 pigs at a time, their collective birth weight seldom
exceeds one-tenth that of the dam. This means that the
individuals must be very small, and that development
must be exceedingly rapid after birth. No class of farm
animals even approximates the pig in rapidity of de-
velopment. Not infrequently pigs increase their birth
weight 150 fold in 9 or 10 months. This is a
significant observation in the economic production of
meat.

That the age of infancy is the age of growth is well
illustrated in the tabulation on this page which shows the

Development of Farm Animals

Horses

Cattle

Sheep

Swine

Age

Gain

Per

Gain

Per

Gain

Per

Gain

Per

Weight

per

cent.

Weight

per

cent.

Weight

per

cent

Weight

per

cent

Mo.

mo.

gam

mo.

gam

mo.

gam

mo.

gam

Birth

125

105

255

130

104

200

166

380

350

275

116

435

340

515

400

590

455

122

655

510

170

715

570

222

760

625

264

810

670

304

850

725

100

890

770

107

925

820

114

1,310

1,204

140

1,660

1,504

310 BREEDING OF FARAf ANIMALS

average monthly weight, gain and per cent gain from
birth to maturity for a representative lot of each class
of farm animals.

Note the very rapid growth during the first month in
each case, but more especially in the case of swine. This
is very significant, for if the individual is neglected at
this time its possibilities will remain forever unknown.
At six months of age sheep and swine have attained
approximately one-half of the normal mature weight.
At one year of age horses and cattle that have been well
managed will have attained about one-half of their ma-
ture weight. Sheep usually reach maturity at less than
two years of age, while horses and cattle continue to
develop until approximately five years of age.

Developing the young horse. — The methods employed
by professional horse trainers in developing trotters and

high-acting coach horses
indicate the advantage
to be gained by suitable
training while the anim^als
are young. From birth
the foals are fed regularly
up to the limit of their
appetite in order to keep
them strong. If properly
groomed and exercised,
it is not possible to get a
^ .„o n ^ «,, » foal too fat. To facilitate

Fig. 103 — Percheron Colt Merlin

1600 pounds at 2 years of age ^arly training a Small

track, similar to a race
track, is provided. On this track the foals are
exercised as soon in life as they can handle themselves
to advantage. At first the youngsters run free and
are controlled by attendants provided with whips, to
which are attached long lashes; later they are led and
finally driven with the single line. This exercise is con-
tinued daily from colthood until old enough to put in

DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG ANIMALS 3II

harness, with the exception of two or three days each
month, when the youngsters are turned to a paddock
where they can have perfect freedom, in order to break
the monotony of the daily exercise and to freshen them.
They are then placed in harness and the daily training
continued. Horsemen feel that such continuous train-
ing is necessary to develop maximum speed, style and
action.

The same principle holds true in the development of
draft foals. To encourage growth they should be fed
liberally on nutritious foods from birth to maturity, and
to promote the development of quality they should be
regularly exercised and thoroughly groomed. The
breeder who wishes to secure maximum growth and
highest quality should remember that it is scarcely pos-
sible to overfeed colts, providing, of course, that judicious
management accompanies such feeding.

Developing the heifer. — The young heifer that is to re-
main in the dairy herd should be given extra care from
birth, in order that she be well grown by the time she
is sexually mature. To develop a high-producing cow
it is important that she be bred at an early age, and this
can be done to advantage only in case she is well grown.
The claim is made by some persons that the demands
made on the young heifer by the growing fetus, together
with her own growth, are too severe, and that she is
likely to be stunt£d. On the other hand, experience in-
dicates that the constant recurring periods of estrum
checks growth and that the condition of pregnancy has
a stimulating effect. The assimilation seems to be im-
proved, and if the heifer be supplied with an abundance
of nutritious food she will make a greater growth during-
pregnancy than otherwise.

The breeding of a well-grown heifer at 15 months of
age has much to commend it. In the first place, unbred
heifers are in estrum two or three days every three weeks,
and it is at such times that the reproductive organs arc

312 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

likely to become infected with the germ of contagious
abortion, which may cause sterility, or, in case the heifer
conceives, it may produce abortion. Thus, the animal
bred early in life is likely to escape this infection and
prove a regular breeder. In the second place, it is pos-
sible to develop the milk-secreting organs of a heifer
much more perfectly than of an older animal.

The secreting of milk is a kind of habit, and the earlier
in life the young heifer becomes accustomed to it the
better producer she will make. Once giving milk, she
should be kept at it as long as possible. The cow that
dries off after secreting milk a few months is unprofit-
able. The heifer should not be bred a second time until
rather late, as the effect of again becoming pregnant
has a tendency to decrease the flow of milk. During
this first lactation the object is to keep her in milk as long
as possible, in order to develop a persistent milker, rather
than to encourage a high production for a short time and
then dry her off, as is the usual practice.

Developing meat-producing animals, — This calls for
special consideration because of the seemingly conflict-
ing factors involved. In the development of meat-pro-
ducing animals early maturity is exceedingly important,
because the relative rapidity of gains decreases, and the
amount of food required to produce a pound of body
weight rapidly increases, as the birth period is receded
from, until at length a period is reached, after which fur-
ther gains become impossible. Thus the age of infancy
is not only the age of growth, but it is also the age of
economic meat production.

Early maturity, however, may reduce the constitutional
vigor of the animal, thus defeating the object for which it
was developed. In the main, when early maturity does
affect the constitutional vigor, it is due to the undermin-
ing influence of breeding from immature animals, as well
as to the extreme artificial conditions which frequently
attend such breeding. Thus, in order to avoid much

DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG ANIMALS 313

of the adverse effect of early maturity upon the general
vigor and thrift of the animal, we have but to refrain
from using miniature animals in breeding. Further, ma-
ture dams favor the rapid
development of young in
three important respects.
In the first place, a mature
dam usually provides a
more bountiful supply of
milk; second, as we have
already observed, the
larger the dam the larger
the offspring at birth: ^"'- io4-hampshire sow

A ^U-A ^1 1 .U W'^le belt

and, third, the larger the

birth weight the more rapid and economic gains the

young will make, other conditions being equal.

Inasmuch as the tendency to early maturity is hered-
itary, the promising females should be tried out at as
early an age as possible, even though this practice may
operate slightly against the development of the first born.
However, once a desirable female is found, she should
be retained as long as she continues to do well in the
breeding herd.

As suggested, the young animals that are intended for
meat production should be encouraged from birth. Early
gains are the most economic. The young animal that is
permitted to lose its body fat will not make as efficient
a meat producer as it otherwise would had it been prop-
erly encouraged from birth until ready for slaughter.

Environment, development, selection and efficiency. —
Among farm animals development is largely a matter
of possibilities. Individual excellence of parents, as well
as the purity of the heritage, count for little in the ab-
sence of suitable environment. The modern breeds of
farm animals have been evolved, in a large measure, by
improved methods of care and management. Their
superiority cannot assert itself in the absence of the

314 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

accustomed environment. Therefore, to secure maximum
development in farm animals, both young and old, the
management must be as favorable as possible to advance
all of the potentialities of 'the individual.

Unless all of the possibilities within the individual have
been properly developed, intelligent selection is not pos-
sible. Some inferior animals will be retained for breed-
ing and some superior individuals will be eliminated.
Farm animals have been improved by continuous selec-
tion as well as by better methods of care and manage-
ment. To secure the maximum advantage of selection,
therefore, the conditions must be such as to advance the
possibilities that have been intensified through genera-
tions of careful selection.

The efficiency of the individuals in hand depends upon
vigorous selection based on maximum development of all
the potentialities with which the individual has been en-
dowed. Further, selection under such conditions puri-
fies the strain, family, or breed by the elimination of all
individuals not possessing the desirable characters.

Thus, the relation between the environment and de-
velopment, the relation between the development and
intelligent selection, as well as the relation between in-
telligent selection and the general excellence of the in-
dividuals in hand, must be clearly evident to the breeder
of farm animals. For, in the main, the environment con-
trols the development, the development directs selection,
and selection governs individual efficiency and purifies
the strains, families and breeds of our farm animals.

APPENDIX

315

APPENDIX

Breeds of farm animals. — For the benefit of the reader
who may wish to obtain detail information concerning
a particular breed, the following tabulation is arranged,
giving the type, name of the breed, native home, size and
common color for each breed ; as well as the name and
address of the secretary in charge of the breeders' asso-
ciation, who may be addressed for detailed information :

Breeds of Light Type of Horses

Name of
breed

Native
home

Height, hands;
weight, pounds

Color

Secretary

Address

Arabian

Arabia

14
800

-14i
-1,000

Bay, white

Henry K. Bush-
Brown

Newburg, N. Y.

Thoroughbred

England

14
800

-16*
-1,050

Bay, brown.

W. H. Rowe

5th Ave. and 46th
St., New York,
N. Y.

American
Saddler

United
States

15-1
950

^-15-2^
-1,050

Bay, brown,
black

I. N. Ball

Louisville, Ky.

Standardbred

United
States

15i
900

-ISf
-1,150

Bay, brown,
black

W. H. Knight

355 Dearborn St.,
Chicago, 111.

Orloff
Trotter

Russia

151
1,100

-16J
-1,300

Gray, bay,
black

Morgan

United
States

14f
900

-ISf
-1,150

Bay, chest-
nut

T. E. Boyce

Middlebury, Vt.

Breeds of Coach Type of Horses

Name of
breed

Native
home

Height,
hands;
weight,
pounds

Color

Secretary

Address

Hackney

England

15^-151
1,000 -1,200

Chestnut

Gumey C. Gue

308 W. 97th St.,
New York, N. Y.

French
Coach

Prance

15 -16
1,200 -1,350

Bay, brown,
chestnut

Duncan E. Willit

Oak Park, III.

German
Coach

Germany

16 -16i
1,350 -1,450

Black, brown,
chestnut

J. Crouch

Lafayette, Ind.

Cleveland
Bay

England

16 -16f
1,200 -1,550

Bay

R. p. Stericker

Oconomowoc, Wis.

316

appendix
Breeds of Draft Type of Horses

317

Name of
breed

Native
home

Height,
hands ;
weight,
pounds

Color

Secretary

Address

Percheron

France

15i -17
1,800 -2,300

Black, gray

Wayne Dinsmore

Union Stock Yards
Chicago, 111.

French
Draft

France

15§ -17
1,800 -2,300

Black, gray

C. E. Stubbs

Fairfield, Iowa

Clydesdale

Scotland

16 -16i
1,800 -2,300

Light bay

R. B. Ogilvie

Union Stock Yards
Chicago, III.

Shire

England

16 -17
1,800 -2,300

Light bay

Charles Burgess

Wenona, 111.

Belgian

Belgium

16 -17
1,600 -2,300

Bay, black,
brown

J. D. Conner, Jr.

Wabash, Ind.

Suflfolk

England

16 -17
1,600 -2,000

Chestnut,
bay

Alex. Galbraith

Janesville, Wis.

Breeds of Ponies

Name of
breed

Native
home

Height,

inches;
weight,
pounds

Color

Secretary

Address

Shetland

Shetland
Islands

34 - 44
250 - 400

Black, brown,
piebald

Miss Julia M. Wade

Lafayette, Ind.

Welsh

Wales

48 - 56
400 - 600

Brown, gray

John Alexander

Aurora, III.

Exmoor

Devonshire

48 - 56
500 - 800

Bay, gray

Arabian

Arabia

Under 56
600 - 800

Bay, white

Henry K. Bush-
Brown

Newburg, N. Y

Hackney
Mexican*

England
Mexico

Under 56
600 - 800

Under 56
600 - 850

Chestnut
Duns, mixed

Gurney C. Gue

308 W. 97th St.

New York,

N. Y.

Indian*

Western United
States

Under 56

Duns, bays,
mixed

*Not recognized a.s a breed.

3i8

APPENDIX

Breeds of Jacks

Name of
breed

Native
home

Height,
hands;

Color

Secretary

Address

Andalusian

Andalusia,
Spain

141 - 15^

Gray

Maltese
Catalonian

Malta

Islan-1s
Catalonia,

Spain

14 - 14i
14^ - 15i

Brown, black
Black brown

C. F. Cook

Lexington, Ky

Majorca

Majorca
Islands

15 - 16

Black

Italian

Italy

13 - 14

Blue, black

Poitou

France

141 - 15

Black

Major Breeds of Dairy Cattle

Name of
breed

Native
home

Weight

Color

Secretary

Address

Jerseys

Jersey
Islands

800 - 1,200

Fawnlike

R. M. Gow

324 W. 23d St.,
New York, N. Y.

Holstein-
Friesian

Holland

1,400 - 2,000

Black and white

Fred L. Houghton

Brattleboro, Vt.

Guernseys

Guernsey
Islands

1,000 - 1.500

Yellow fawn

Wm. H. Caldwell

Peterboro, N. H

Ayrshires

Scotland

1,000 - 1,400

Red, white

CM. Winslow

Brandon, Vt.

Minor Breeds of Dairy Cattle

Name of
breed

Native
home

Weight

Color

Secretary

Address

Dutch
Belted

Brown
Swiss
French
Canadian
Kerry

Holland

Switzerland
Canada
Ireland

1,100- 1,700

1,200 - 1,600
800- 1,000
600 - 900

Black, white
belt

Brown

Black

Black, red

G. G. Gibbs
Ira Inman

Marksboro, N. J.
Beloit, Wis.

APPENDIX

319

Major Breeds of Beef Cattli

Name of
breed

Native
home •

Weight

Color

Secretary

Address

Shorthorn

England

1,400 - 2,000

Red, white
roan

John W. Groves

Chicago, III.

Hereford

England

1,400 - 2,000

Red and white

R. J. Kinzer

Kansas City, Mo.

Aberdeen
Angus

Scotland

1,400- 1,800

Black

Chas. Gray

17 Exchange Ave.,
Chicago, 111.

Galloway

Scotland

1,200- 1,800

Black

Robt. W. Brown

17 Exchange Ave.,
Chicasc 111.

Minor Breeds of Beef Cattle

Name of
breed

Native
home

Weight

Color

Secretary

Address

Polled
Durham

England

1,400 - 2,000

Red, white,
roan

J. M. Martz

Greenville, Ohio

Devon

England

1,200 - 1,800

Red

L. P. Sisson

Newark, Ohio

Red Polled

England

1,200 - 1,800

Red

H. A. Martin

Gotham, Wis.

Sussex

England

1,200 - 1,800

Red

West
Highland

Scotland

900- 1,200

Red, black

Fine-Wool Breeds of Sheep

Name of
breed

Native
home

Color

of
Points

Weight,

Secretary

Address

American
Merino

Delaine
Merino

Rambouillet

United
States

France

White
White
White

100 - 1,S0
100 - 150
ISO - 185

Wesley Bishop
J. B. Johnson
Dwight Lincoln

Delaware, Ohio

248 West Pike St..
Canonsburg, Pa.

Milford Center, Ohio

320

APPENDIX

Mutton Breeds of Sheep

Name of
breed

Native
home

Color

of
Points

Weight

Secretary

Address

Southdown

England

Gray

125 - 175

Frank S. Springer

Springfield, III.

Shropshire

England

Dark
brown

155 - 225

Miss Julia M. Wade

Lafayette, Ind.

Hampshire

England

Dark
brown

ISO - 250

Comfort A. Tyler

310 East Chicago St.,
Coldwater, Mich.

Suffolk
Down

England

Black

ISO - 240

Oxford
Down

England

Brown

200 - 325

W. A. Shafor

Hamilton, Ohio

Dorset

England

White

150 - 225

Joseph E. Wing

Mechanicsburg, Ohio

Cheviot

Scotland
England

White

150 - 225

F. E. Dawley

Fayetteville, N. Y.

Long wool breeds of sheep, see next page.

Pure Lard Breeds of Swine

Name of
breed

Native
home

Size

Color

Secretary

Address

Poland
China

United States

Medium

Black

W.M.McFadden*

Union Stock Yards,
Chicago, 111.

Berkshire

England

Medium

Black

Prank S. Springer

510 E. Monroe St.,
Springfield, 111.

Duroc-

United States

Medium

Red

J. R. Pfandert

Peoria, 111.

Jersey
Chester

White
Hampshire

United States
America

Large

Medium

White
Black, belt

J. C. Hiles
E. C. Stone

Cleveland, Ohio
Armstrong, 111.

Essex

England

Small

Black

F. M. Strout

McLean, 111.

Small

Yorkshire

England

Small

White

Harry G. Krum

White Bear Lake,
Minn.

Suffolk

England

Small

White

*A. M. Brown, Winchester, Ind.
*G. F. Woodworth, Maryville, Mo.
tT. P. Pearson, Thorntown, Ind.

APPENDIX

3^1

Long-Wool Breeds of Sheep

Name of
breed

Native
home

Color

of
Points

Weight

Secretary

Address

Leicester

England

White

180 - 240

A. J. Temple

Cameron, 111.

Cotswold

England

White,
spotted

200 - 265

F. W Harding

Waukesha, Wis.

Lincoln

Blackfaced
Highland

England
Scotland

White,

mottled
Black

275 - 350

Bert Smith

Charlotte, Mich.

Intermediate Breeds of Swine

Name of
breed

Native
home

Size

Color

Secretary

Address

Cheshire

United States

Medium

White

Ed. S. Hill

Freeville, N. Y.

Victoria

United States

Medium

White

Middle
Yorkshire

England

Medium

White

Pure-Bacon Breeds of Swine

Name of
breed

Native
home

Size

Color

Secretary

Address

Large

Yorkshire

Tamworth

England
England

Large
Large

White
Red

Harry G. Krum
E. N. Ball

White Bear Lake,
Minn.

Ann Arbor, Mich.

Egg-Laying Breeds of Fowls

Native home '

Number of
varieties

Weight, pounds

Name of breed

Male

Female

Leghorn

Minorcas

Andalusian

Spanish

Red Cap

Hamburg

Italy

Minorca Islands

Andalusia, Spain

Soain

England

Holland

8
3
1
1
1
6

8 - 9
6
8
1\

61 - 7J

6--^

APPENDIX

Meat-Producing Breeds of Fowls

Native home

Number of
varieties

Weight, pounds

Name of breed

Male

Female

Brahma

Cochin

Langshan

Asia

China

2
4
2

11 - 12
11
9i

8i - 9i

General-Purpose Breeds of Fowls

Native home

Number of
varieties

Weight, pounds

Name of breed

Male

Female

Plymouth Rock

Wyandotte

Java

Dominique

Rhode Island Red

Orpington

Dorking

Houdan

United States
United States
United States
United States
United States
England
England
France

8
2
1
2
3
3
1

9i
8 5
9.^

7§-9

7|
6|
Th
6

6- 7

Gestation period for farm animals. — For ready refer-
ence the following tabulation is arranged, giving the date
of service and the date of parturition for the mare, cow,
ewe and sow. This provides for a gestation period of
340 days for the mare, 280 for the cow, 150 for the ewe
and 112 days for the sow. The rows of figures between
the lines give the date of service. Directly below is
given a corresponding row of birth dates for each class
of animal. Thus a mare bred on January i will be due
to foal December 6 ; a cow bred February i will be due
November 7 ; a ewe bred November i will be due March
30; and a sow bred December i will be due March 22.
Of course, these figures are only approximately correct,
as the period of gestation is exceedingly variable (pp.
279 and 280).

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O O

^ CN ^

fN ■^ ^

CN CN

in \o

CN (N

CN CN

fO ■*

CS CN

(N r^

CN CN w

w r-1

CN 04

O — i

CN (N

o c

-<-< CN

CO Ov

r^ 00

vo (^

'^ lO

ro ■*

(N fO

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0-. o

00 o»

t^ 00

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s s

S 2

21 00

CN \o

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0\ r/;

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S O W w

o 2;

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r»V CS "

C^ O ro

CN r^ -^

00 Ov r^

cs -^ ^

t^ 00 .^

CS —I ^

>o f^ o

cs ^ ^

"1 CO

■rt ^

O f^

IN CS

o -^

(M CS "

-#10

fC ■* lO

rj r) ■*

th M ro

O ^ c^l

On O -^

< 2; O

ro f^) CN

r^ 00 oC fN
^ (N ^ -^

O O O
CM i~- ■^

O Ti^
00 t>]

r^ (N ^

in lo C^

tH lO

Q :^

> s
W c2

00 On

f- 00

tN (N

<N IM

tN IN

■* lO

fN iv>

^ fN

<N <N

•* 00

<N «

CN <-i

O •!)<

(N T^

0> "1

\0 o

•/) Ov

•^ 00

rs NO

O ":(<
0\ fO
00 CN

NO -H

ro
lO o

Ti< On
CN

CO 00

CN »^

O - -H VO

I °

S U

o <

< 2

•*

^ CO

CN (M rt

CN -rt* ^ ^^

tS CS '^

^ fo to \o

tN '^ ^

-* -O a>

CS M '-I

rj cs '-I

p^ rO O 00

— rj lO

O CO O —I

rt ro lO

rr) lo
CS

—I rO
00 c^

CN (N

CN ^

\0 *^ ^ fS

IT) VO CO tH

00 CK «-i

00 -^ —

t-H r>i ^

lO VO

-* lo

ro '^

cs ":

O w

Cv o

CO 0-.

VO t^ O CO
rf) (N

lO v^ Ov CN

W CO

^ C^ ^ S

I ^ ^ I

S O W w

INDEX

Abdallah 195

Aberdeen Angus cattle 319

Abortion 268

accidental 269

age immunity 276

avenue of infection 271

avoid using infectious bulls.... 272

carbolic acid for 271

causes 269

control 271

infectious 270

isolate infected cows 272

kinds 268

methylene blue for 271

prevalence 268

treatment 272

use disinfectants freely 272

Abnormality 82

Accidental abortion 269

Accumulative development 166

in cattle 170

in trotter 168

Acquired character 66, 166

Advanced register 198

animals without registered par-
ents 150

bulls 147

bulls, breeding 148

cows, breeding 142

established 141

improvement 145

number of cows 158

record 130

testing 226

value of 132

Afterbirth, retained 291

A. & G. Netherland De Kol 216

Age and individual merit Ill

in selection Ill

Allerton 133

Alphea 121

Alphea Czar 121

American Merino sheep 319

American saddle horse 316

Andalusian jack 318

Angus cattle 319

Animals, costly 3

decreasing 3

distribution 5

number 2

propagation 9

provide clothing 1

provide food 1

provide labor 1

value 2

Ancestors, comparative value 117

Ancestral heredity 38

Appleton & Company 43

Arabian horse 316

pony 317

Artificial impregnation 261

Asphyxia 298

Associations, testing 224

Atavism 40

cause of variation 98

Average deviation 85

Ayrshire cow 318

standard of performance 128

Bailey Racing Register 196

Bakewell, Robert 188

methods 190

principles 189

Banostine Belle De Kol 205

Bear 280

Beef-animal development 312

Beef, cost of production 4

Belgian horse 317

Belle Korndyke 164

performance 129

Berkshire swine 320

Beaver 280

Biparous 281

Blackfaced Highland sheep 321

Bladder 11

Blended inheritance 40

Breed associations 199

Breed characteristics, value of 110

peculiarities 59

prepotency 152

Breeder, exceptional 62

young 227

Breeders' fancy points 70

name, significance of 123

Breeders of breeders 156

of performers 156

Breeding, animals, management 256

capacity, measurement 132

community 219

complicated business 220

cross breeding 179

grading 178

inbreeding 181

line breeding 180

pure-bred breeding 177

systems 176

test valuable 70

Breeds 316

formation of 185, 191

history of 58

improvement 196

in selection 106

origin 187

poultry 32 1

327

328

INDEX

Page

Brewer 31

fundamental propositions 31

British methods 200

Broad ligaments 11

Brown Swiss cow 318

standard of performance 128

Buffalo 280

Building up a herd 207

Bulls, advanced register 147

improvement due to 216

influence of 217

Business of breeding 219

Butter fat production increased. 171

records, influence of 141

Calf, asphyxia 298

castration 305

development 311

diarrhea 300

feeding 307

infectious diarrhea 301

preparation for birth 285

Calypso 115

Canary birds 281

Care a cause of variation 90

of breeding animals 256

Castle, W. E 16

"Casting the wethers" 291

Castration a cause of variation. ... 94

of males 305

Cat 280

Catalonian jack 318

Cattle, cost of production 4

number 2

prepotency 158

prolificacy 242

value 2

causes of variations 95

Cells 12

centrosome 13

chromatin 13

chromosomes 15

cytoplasm 13

division 14

division a cause of variation . . 99

egg 11, 16

germ. 15

mitosis 14

nucleus 13

protoplasm 14

sperm 12, 16

spermatogenic 12

Centrosome 13

Character 65

acquired 66

congenital 66

correlated 66

defined 65

dominant 42

germinal 66

limit in selection 68

modifying 166

recessive 42

transferred 51

unit of selection 65

useful 67

Page

Chart of GHsta family 214

Chemical agents a cause of variation 94

Cheshire swine 321

Chester White swine 320

Cheviot sheep 320

Chilled lamb 303

Chromatin 13

Chromosomes 14, 15

combination 28, 96

control of heredity 29

in maturation 29

reduction 18

reduction a cause of variation 96

theory 27

theory of sex 233

Cleveland bay horse. . 316

Climate a cause of variation 89

Clothing 1

Clydesdale horse 317

Coats 197

Shorthorn Herd Book 197

Colantha 4th's Johanna 205

Color blindness 235

Colt, asphyxia 298

castration 305

constipation 299

development 310

diarrhea 300

feeding 307

navel infection 300

scrotal hernia 304

umbilical hernia 303

Community breeding 219

advantages 220

centers 223

education features 226

Conception 258, 260

Congenital character 66

Constitutional vigor in selection. .. Ill

Comet 192

Constipation 299

Continuous variation 81

Co-operative breeding 184

Correlated characters 66

Correns 42

Cotswold sheep 321

Cow, accumulative development. . . 170

advanced register 151

care of 282

cow pox 295

dairy, development 141

difficult parturition 288

economical usefulness 208

estrum 258

eversion of the uterus 291

garget 294

gestation 279

gestation table 323

inevitability of 207

mammitis 296

milk fever 293

milk secretion altered 296

pregnancy 158, 279

prepotency 158

prolificacy 242

retained afterbirth 291

with advanced register records 142
with records as breeders 145

INDEX

329

Page

Cow pox 295

treatment ■'^°

Cow-testing associations 224

Creation of new forms 49

Crops 2

Cross-breedmg -i '^

cause of variation ^o

Cryptorchids defined 254

Cystic degeneration 254

Cytoplasm ^^

Dairy cattle, accumulative develop-
ment 170

prepotency 158

development 141

economical usefulness 208

inevitability of 207

Dam, disease 288

value of 63

Darwin, Charles 21

pangenesis 21

De Kol 2d 164

Delaine Merino sheep 319

Delivering the young 287

Development 7, 138, 174, 313

a cause of variation 92

accumulative 166

of dairy cow 141

of trotter 1^8

of young 306

Deviation, average 85

Devon cattle 319

de Vries 42

Diarrhea 300

infectious 301

Dihybrids 46

Disease of the dam 288

of new-born 298

of reproductive organs 254

of young animals 298

Disuse, a cause of variation 93

Discontinuous variation 82

Dog 280

Domestication a necessity 185

Dominant character 42

Dorset sheep 320

Drugs for sterility 255

Ducks 281

Duroc Jersey swine 320

Dutch Belted cow 318

Dutch Hengerveld De Kol 216

Dysentery 301

Eari Korndyke De Kol 216

Egg cells 11. 16

when formed 30

Eggs, cost of production 4

Egg-producing hens, high 172

Egg-production 135

Elephant 280

Embryo 262

blastula stage 262

Page

Embryo, formation 262

grastula stage 262

morula stage 262

mulberry stage 262

Environment 6, 313

and development 7, 138, 174

Enzyme theory 27

Equipment expense reduced 220

Essex swine 320

Estrum 258

when appearing 258

Eiwopa 121

Evolution of farm animals 186

Ewe, care of 282

difficult parturition 288

estrum 258

gestation 280

gestation table 323

mammitis 296

milk secretion altered 296

pregnancy 280

Excellence, standards of 58

Exclusive inheritance 40

Excitability 252

Exmoor pony 317

Exposure 7

Extending improvement 204

External causes of variation. . .87 to 94
Eyes, sore 302

Fallopian tubes 10

Family name, value of 122

Famous grandsires 155

Famous Holstein-Friesian cows.... 163

Fancy points, value of 109

Fashionable breeding 70

Feeding young 307

Females, disposal of 224

organs 10

reproductive organs, dilation of 256

size of 252

Fertility 60

Fetal movements 278

Fetus development 258, 263

position 264

size 265

Fertility a cause of variation 99

Fertilization 20

cause of variation 97

combinations of chromosomes . . 97

influence on sex 233

Fillies, breeding 240

Foals, feeding 307

preparation for 285

Food 1

and product 4

supply a cause of variation... 91

Formation of breeds 1H5

new breeds 191

Foundation animals 209

Fowls, cost of production 4

Fox 280

Freemartins defined 253

French Canadian cow 318

330

INDEX

Page

French coach horse 316

French draft horse 317

French Jockey club 202

French methods 202

Frequency curve 86

Functional variation 80

Gage 94

Galloway cattle 319

Galton 32

Galton's law of ancestral heredity 39

Gamete 19

Garget 294

treatment 295

Geese 281

Gemmules 22

George Wilkes as a breeder 154

Germ cells 15

hereditary bridge 25

hereditary material 26

Germ-plasm 22

German coach horse 316

Germinal character 66

Germinal vesicle 16

Gestation 277

ewe 280

duration of 278

mare 279

signs 277

sow 280

table 322

Giraffe 280

Glista Cora's record 213

Glista Eglantine's record 213

Glista Ernestine's record 213

Glista Omicron's record 213

Glista family 212

chart 214

Goat 280

Grade animals, uses of 209

Grading.... 178

Great sires, breeding of 140

Guernsey cow 318

standard of performance 128

Guinea 281

Hackney horse 316

Hampshire sheep 320

Hampshire swine 320

Heifers breeding 210, 242

development 311

Hens, high egg-producing 172

prolificacy 246

Heredity 7, 21

ancestral 38

basis of control 30

bridge 25

carriers 28

completed 26

complex 32

determiners of 21

in animal breeding 31

laws of 31

Heredity, measurement of 132

modifying characters 167

prolificacy 246

Hereditary material 26

origin 30

Hereford cattle 319

Heritage in nuclei 2 7

Herd, building up 207

breeding up 212

difficulties of improvement.... 213

first generation 210

Glista family 212

Hermaphrodites defined 253

Hernia, scrotal 304

umbilical 303

Heterozygous 49

High- Lawn Hartog De Kol 205

Hill 94

History of the breeds 58

Hog, see swine.

Holstein-Friesian cattle origin 193

centers 223

cows 318

scale of points 108

yearly standard 128

7-day standard 127

Homozygous 49

Horned Dorset sheep 320

Horses, breeding the filly 240

cost of production 4

development. , 310

estrum 258

in productive industry 1

number 2

pregnancy 279

prepotency 153

prolificacy 240

telegony 267

value 2

Hubback 192

Human population 2

Hybrids often sterile 253

Id 23

Idleness and overfeeding 250

Impregnation, artificial 261

Improvement, basis of 74

due to prepotency 152

due to selection 137

extended 204

methods employed 174

needed 203

results accomplished 171

a slow process 173

takes time 213

Improving farm animals 6

Inbreeding 181

Inbred pedigree 119

Indian pony 317

Individual merit in selection 102

Individual prepotency 153

Infectious abortion 270

Inheritable variation 77

Inheritance, blended 40

exclusive 40

INDEX

331

Page

Inheritance, particulate 41

sex limited 234

Injuries a cause of variation 93

Internal causes of variation. .95 to 101

Intra-uterine influence 266

Irritability 252

Italian jack 318

Jersey cow 318

standard of performance 128

Jennet 280

Johanna De Kol Von Beers 205

"Joint ill" 300

Judge, value of 102

Jupiter 121

Kerry cow 318

Kidney 11

King of Pontlacs 115

K. P. Pontiac Lass 205

Labor 1

Lamb asphyxia 298

breeding 244

castration 305

chilled 303

development 312

diarrhea 300

feeding 307

preparation for 285

sore eyes 302

sore mouth 302

Large Yorkshire swine 321

Law of ancestral heredity 38

of heredity 31, 42

Ledy 121

Leicester sheep 321

Leisering 11

Ligaments, broad 10

Lincoln sheep 321

Line breeding 180

Lion 280

Live stock shows 199

Locality a cause of variation 89

Longevity 60

cause of variation 99

Lord Netherland De Kol 116

performance 130

Macmillan Co 13

Majorca jack 318

Male, castration 305

size of 252

Malformation 82

Maltese jack 318

Management, a cause of variation 90

of breeding animals 256

Mating, suitability for 64

Page

Maturation 18

cause of variation 95

oogenesis 19

spermatogenesis 19

Mammitis 296

treatment 296

Mare, care of 282

difficult parturition 288

gestation table 323

mammitis 296

milk secretion altered 296

pregnancy 279

market facilities increased 222

Mean 84

Meat, producing 135

Mendel, G. J 42

Mendel's law, application 50

creation of new forms 49

dihybrids 46

dominants 45

gamete 43

of heredity 42

limitations 54

monohybrids 42

possibilities 52

recessives 45

reversion 53

transferring characters 51

zygote 44

Mendelism a cause of variation.... 98

Mendelian principles '. 48

Mercury 121

Merit in selection 102

Metamorphosis 12

Mexican pony 317

Middle Yorkshire 321

Milk, cost of production 4

cisterns 12

glands 12

gland, number 12

secretion altered 296

Milk fever 293

treatment 294

Mitosis 14

Mode 84

Monohybrids 42

Monstrosity 83

Mouth, sore 302

Morgan horse 316

Multiparous 281

Mutants 82

Mutations 82

Mutation a cause of variation 93

Navel infection 300

Neck of womb 10

Need of improvement 203

Netherland Nemus 217

New-born, disease 298

New forms 47

fixing 49

Nick 64

Non-inheritable variation 77

Nonpariel Marquis 116

Nucleus 13

Z2>2

INDEX

OflFspring, development 306

disease 298

high 37

higher than parents 36

lower than parents 36

medium most frequent 36

number at birth 281

relative development 309

similar to parents 34

unlike parents 35

Oogenesis 11

Organs, Fallopian tubes 10

female 10

male 12

OS uteri 10

ovaries 10

reproductive 10

vagina 10

uterus 10

vulva 10

Origin of breeds 187

Orlofl horse 316

Os uteri 10

opening 256

Ova 11

Oviducts 10

Ovulation 259

Ovaries 10

Overfeeding and idleness 250

Overwork and adverse conditions.. 250

Oxford sheep 193

Oxford Down sheep 320

Pacer, accumulative development.. 168

Pacing standard 127

Pangenesis 21

Parents influence young 306

Particulate inheritance 40

Parturition, difficult 288

normal 286

preparation for 285

signs of 284

wrong presentation 290

Pea hen 281

Pearson 38

Pedigree 196

Alphea Czar 121

and performance 133

and record of performance. ... 131

Calypso 115

Comet 192

contents of 114

form of 114

inbred 119

in selection 114

King of Pontiacs 115

Lord Netheriand De Kol 116

Nonpariel Marquis 116

origin 196

Polonius 119

showing value of ancestors .... 118

tracing 115

with exceptional animal 121

writing 1 15, 1 16

Page

Percheron horse 317

Performance 59

and prepotency 161

and selection 125

and vigor 134

Ayrshire 128

breeding test 70

Brown Swiss 128

Guernsey 128

Holstein-Friesian 127

Jersey 128

pacing standard 127

record of 131

standards of 125

trotting staniard 126

value of in selection 131

Pick.W. M 197

Picks Turf Register 197

Pig, asphyxia 298

castration 305

constipation 299

development 312

diarrhea 300

feeding 307

preparation for 286

scrotal hernia 304

sore mouth 302

thumps 203

umbilical hernia 303

Pigeons 281

Plymouth Rock barring 235

Poitou jack 318

Poland China swine 320

Polled Durham cattle 319

Polonius 119

Pontiac Belle De Kol 205

Pontiac Clothilde De Kol 2d 205

Pontiac Lady Korndyke 205

Population, cow 2

horse 2

human 2

poultry 2

sheep 2

swine 2

Poultry, breeds of . . . 32

cost of production 4

number 2

prolificacy 246

value 2

Pregnancy 277

ass 280

cat 280

beaver 280

buffalo 280

ewe 280

giraffe 280

dog 280

elephant 280

lion 280

mare 279

signs 277

squirrel 280

rabbit 280

sow 280

wolf 280

Pregnant animals, care of 282

Premature birth 268

INDEX

333

Prepotency

and performers

breed

dairy cattle

individual

in horses

in sex

Presentation, normal

Prince Ybma Spofford De Kol.
Prolificacy

cumulative effect

desirable ._

factors influencing

heredity

in cattle

in horses

in poultry

in sheep

in swine

Progression

Propagation of farm animals

Protoplasm

Pure-bred animal, economic useful
ness

percentage of

proportion of

uses of

breeding

Purposes of breeding

Page
152
161
152
158
153
153
165
286
216
237
239
238
237
246
242
240
246
243
244
37
9
14

208
124
123
20S
177
170

Qualitative variation 79

Quantitative variation 79

Racing Register 196

Rabbit 280

Rambouillet sheep 319

Rat 280

Recessive character 42

Records reduced 169

Red Polled cattle 319

Reduction of chromosomes 18

Reproductive organs 10

diseased 254

female 10

male 12

Registration rules 197

Regression 37

Relative development 309

Results accomplished 171

Retained afterbirth 291

Reversion 40

and Mendelism 53

cause of variation 98

Rhea 121

Ridglings defined 254

Royal Agricultural Report 188

Running records reduced 173

Saturn 121

Sarpendon 121

Page

Scrotal hernia 304

Selection 8, 56,313

and improvement 137

basis of 74

based on performance 69

breeder a judge 102

breed peculiarities 59

complicated by fancy points . . 70

exceptional breeder 62

fashionable breeding 70

fertility 60

history of breeds 58

large numbers important 61

limit number of characters .... 68

limit to useful characters 67

longevity 60

means of improvement 211

nick 64

object 56

passing fads 73

performance 125

standards of 103

standards of excellence 58

suitability for mating 64

uniformity in type 106

unit of 65

value of breeds 106

value of breed characteristics. . 110

value of dam 63

value of fancy points 109

value of merit 102

value of pedigree 114

value of record 131

value of sire 63

value of types 103

value of vigor Ill

vigor 60

Sex, equality 229

in breeding 229

control not desirable 235

Sex determination 229

alternating ova 230

age and vigor 231

chromosome theory 233

external 229

female testicle 230

fertilization on 233

food supply 231

internal 231

male testicle 230

sexual excitement 231

time of breeding 230

Sex differences slight 232

Sex-limited inheritance 234

Sex prepotency 165

Sexual use, excessive 251

Sheep, cost of production 4

number 2

prolificacy 243

value 2

Shetland pony 317

Shire horse 317

Shropshire sheep 320

Shorthorn cattle 192, 319

Show awards, value of 135

Sir Beets De Kol 216

Sire, influence 63, 217

334

INDEX

Page

Sire, value of 63

great 139

of breeders 159

of performers 159

Small Hopes Korndyke DeKol.... 217

Small Yorkshire swine 320

Southdown sheep 320

Sow, care of 282

difficult parturition 289

estrum 258

gestation 280

gestation table 323

mammitis 296

pregnancy 280

with secretion altered 296

Sore eyes 302

Sore mouth 302

Sperm cells 12, 16

when secreted 30

Spermatogenesis 12

Spermatozoa 12

Sports 82

Squirrel 280

Standard of perfection in selection

108, 125

Holstein-Friesian 7-day 127

Standards of performance 125

pacing 127

trotting 126

Standardbred horse 194

origin and descent 195

Sterility 248

causes 249

excessive sexual use 251

excitability 252

hybrids 253

idleness 250

importance 248

irritability 252

overfeeding 250

prevalence 248

tirhidity 252

use of drugs 255

use of yeast solution 256

Stock shows 199

System of breeding 176

co-operative breeling 184

cross breeding 179

breeding from best 183

grading 178

inbreeding 181

Hie breeding 180

pure bred breeding 177

Suffolk Down sheep 320

Suffolk horse 317

Suffolk swine 320

Sussex cattle 319

Swine, cost of production 4

number 2

prolificacy 244

value 2

Table of breeds 316

Tamworth swine 321

Telegony 267

Page

Testicles 12

Testing associations 224

Thoroughbred horse 192, 316

Time records, influence of 138

Timidity 252

Thumps 303

Tracing a pedigree 115

Training, a cause of variation 92

and developing. . . . 7, 138, 174, 313

the trotter 310

Transmitting capacity 132

Triple-purpose cow 52

Trotter, accumulative development 168

development 138

Trotting records reduced 169

standard 126

Turkey 281

Type, deviation from 85

finding 84

mean 84

mode 84

uniformity in selection 106

utility of in selection 105

value of in selection 103

Udder. 11

Umbilical hernia 303

Uniformity favored 61, 221

Uni parous 281

Use a cause of variation 93

Uterine influence 266

telegony 267

Uterus 10

eversion 291

inflammation 293

Vagina 10

inflammation 293

Valdessa Scott 2d 205

Value of ancestors 117

Variability 85

Variation 74

abnormality 82

among heavy horses 78

among light horses 75

basis of improvement 74

breeders control 95

causes of 87 to 101

continuous 81

degrees of 81

discontinuous 82

finding type 84

functional 80

general 74

inheritable 77

in pattern 81

malformation 84

mean 82

method of study 83

mode 84

monstrosity 83

mutation 82

non inheritable 77

INDEX

335

Variation, nature of 76

qualitative 79

quantitative 79

sport 82

Victoria swine 321

Vigor 60

and performance 134

in selection Ill

von Tschermak 42

Vulva 10

Weatherby 197

Weatherby's General Stud Book. . . 197

Weismann, A 21

Weismann's germ plasm 22

Welsh pony 317

West Highland cattle 319

"White scours" 301

WilUams, Dr. W. L 272

Page

Wilson, James 51

Wolf 280

Womb 10

neck of 10

opening 256

Wool producing 135

Writing a pedigree 115

Wrong presentation 290

Yeast solution for sterility 256

Yearly production for cows 205

Young breeders 227

delivering 287

disease 298

number at birth 281

Zygote 19

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By Charles William Burkett. This book abounds in
helpful suggestions and valuable information for the most
successful treatment of ills and accidents, and disease
troubles. A practical treatise on the diseases of farm
stock; containing brief and popular advice on the nature,
cause and treatment of disease, the common ailments and
the care and management of stock when sick. It is
profusely illustrated, containing a number of halftone
illustrations, and a great many drawings picturing diseases,
their symptoms and familiar attitudes assumed by farm
animals when affected with disease, and presents, for the
first time, a plain, practical and satisfactory guide for
farmers who are interested in the common diseases of the
farm. Illustrated. 5x7 inches. 288 pages. Cloth. Net, $1.50.

First Lessons in Dairying

By Hubert E. Van Norman. This splendid little book
has been written from a practical point of view, to fill
a place in dairy literature long needed. It is designed
primarily as a practical guide to successful dairying, an
elementary text-book for colleges and for use especially
in short-course classes. It embodies underlying principles
involved in the handling of milk, delivery to factory, ship-
ping station, and the manufacture of butter on the farm.
It is written in a simple, popular way, being free from tech-
nical terms, and is easily understood by the average farm
boy. The book is just the thing for the every-day dairy-
man, and should be in the hands of every farmer in the
country. Illustrated. 5x7 inches. 100 pages. Cloth. Net, $0.50.

A Dairy Laboratory Guide

By H. E. Ross. While the book is intended primarily
for use in the laboratory, it should be of value to the
practical dairyman. The time has come when the suc-
cessful dairyman must study his business from a purely
scientific point of view, and in this book the scientific
principles, upon which dairy industry is based, are stated
clearly and simply, and wherever it is possible, these prin-
ciples are illustrated by practical problems and examples.
90 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth Net, $0.50

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