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 Book 1 
 
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 COPYRJGHT DEPOSIT. 
 
Digitized by the Internet Archive 
 in 2010 with funding from 
 The Library of Congress 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/breedingoffarmanOOharp 
 
Breeding of 
 Farm Animals 
 
 B, V 
 
 Merritt W; Harper 
 
 Professor of Animal Husbandry 
 
 in the New York State College of Agriculture 
 
 at Cornell University 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
 ORANGE JUDD COMPANY 
 
 LONDON 
 
 Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co., Limited 
 1914 
 

 <o 
 
 
 
 
 
 - ^ 
 
 Co^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 Copyright, 1914, by 
 
 ORANGE JUDD COMPANY 
 
 All Rights Reserved 
 
 Entered at Stationers* Hall 
 LONDON. ENGLAND 
 
 Printed in U. S. A. 
 
 m 31 f9l4 
 
 ©CI.A387300 
 
PREFACE 
 
 This book is an attempt at arranging useful informa- 
 tion concerning the breeding of farm animals and adapt- 
 ing it to the needs of the farmer, breeder and student. It 
 includes a brief discussion of the fundamental principles 
 underlying animal breeding, such as development, selec- 
 tion, variation and heredity, together with the more prac- 
 tical phases of the work. 
 
 The book represents experience, both as a breeder and 
 instructor. It differs from other books on the breeding 
 of animals in that special emphasis is placed on the im- 
 portance of proper care and management of the parents, 
 together with the proper development of young stock, 
 as these are of the utmost importance to the practical 
 breeder, and in connection with selection give advance- 
 ment. An attempt has been made to direct attention 
 away from the speculations that characterized the earlier 
 books and to center interest in the more practical fea- 
 tures of breeding farm animals. 
 
 To get the essentials involved in animal improvement 
 clearly before us, extended use has been made of the 
 facts disclosed by the Advanced Register for Holstein- 
 Friesian cattle and by Wallace's Year Book for horses, 
 as the advancement gained by the methods here em- 
 ployed is significant. Because of the nature of the m.a- 
 terial it has been found necessary to present a few rather 
 long and complicated tables. These should be carefully 
 considered by the reader in order that he may learn to 
 analyze and generalize of his own accord. This will 
 stimulate interest and lead to closer observation of farm 
 animals generally. 
 
 To promote interest in correct type and breed char- 
 acteristics many photographs of the several classes of 
 farm animals have been used. Untouched photographs 
 
 V 
 
VI PREFACE 
 
 have been employed, as they show type and breed fea- 
 tures to advantage. 
 
 Realizing the many difficulties that present themselves 
 in the breeding of farm animals, the writer will be glad 
 to correspond with those persons into whose hands the 
 book may fall concerning such difficulties and also to 
 receive suggestions that may make the book more useful 
 as a practical guide and text. 
 
 M. W. HARPER. 
 
 Cornell University, 
 
 Ithaca, N. Y., August 3, 1914. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 Page 
 
 Introduction 1 
 
 Farm animals provide labor, food and clothing — Num- 
 ber and value of farm animals — Human population in- 
 creasing, number of farm animals decreasing — Farm 
 animals costly — Relation of food to production — -Distri- 
 bution of farm animals — Improving farm animals — En- 
 vironment — Heredity — Selection — Propagation of animals. 
 
 CHAPTER n 
 
 Reproductive Organs and Germ Cells 10 
 
 Female reproductive organs — Male reproductive organs 
 — The cell — Cell division — The chromosomes — The germ 
 cells — The egg cell — The sperm cells — Chromosome re- 
 duction — Fertilization. 
 
 CHAPTER in 
 
 The Determiners of Heredity 21 
 
 Darwin's Pangenesis — Weismann's germ plasm — Op- 
 posite views — Approved practice not involved — The 
 hereditary bridge — The hereditary material — The enzyme 
 theory — The chromosome theory — Chromosome combina- 
 tion — Origin of hereditary material — Basis of controlling 
 determiners of heredity. 
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 
 Heredity in Animal Breeding 31 
 
 Brewer's fundamental propositions — Complex nature 
 of heredity — Offspring in general resemble parents — 
 Particular offspring unlike the parent — Some offspring- 
 higher and some lower than their parents — Medium off- 
 spring the most frequent — The high parent and his off- 
 spring — The high offspring and his parents — The law of 
 ancestral hereditv — Reversion and atavism — Blended, ex- 
 clusive and particulate inheritance. 
 
 vii 
 
Vlll CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER V 
 
 Page 
 
 Mendel^'s Law of Heredity 42 
 
 The law when one pair of characters are involved, 
 Monohybrids — Dominants and recessives — The law when 
 two pairs of characters are involved, Dihybrids — Three 
 Mendelian principles — Creation of new forms — Applica- 
 tion of Mendel's Law — Transferring characters — Possi- 
 bilities of Mendelism — Mendelism and reversion — Limita- 
 tions of Mendelism. 
 
 CHAPTER VI 
 
 Selection in Animal Breeding 56 
 
 Objects of selection — Standard of excellence in selection 
 ■ — History of the breeds — Breed peculiarities — Vigor, lon- 
 gevity and fertility — Large numbers promote uniformity — 
 The exceptionable breeding animal — Comparative value of 
 sire and dam — Influence of the sire — Suitability for mating. 
 
 CHAPTER YH 
 Unit of Selection — Character 65 
 
 Character defined — Germinal, acquired and congenital 
 character — Correlated characters — Limit selection to use- 
 ful characters — Base selection on limited number of 
 characters — Records of performance — Actual breeding 
 test valuable — Breeder's fancy points — ^Fashionable breed- 
 ing — Pasr" 5 fads. 
 
 CHAPTER Vni 
 
 Basis of Selection — Variation , . . . . 74 
 
 Variation general among farm animals — Variation basis 
 of improvement — Nature of variation — Non-inheritable 
 variation — Inheritable variation — Variations distinguished 
 from the nature of characters involved — ^Quantitative 
 variation— Qualitative variation — Functional variation — 
 Variations in pattern — Degrees of variations — Continuous 
 variations — Discontinuous variations — Mutations — Sports 
 — Abnormality — Malformation — Monstrosity — Study of 
 variation — Finding the type— Variability or deviation from 
 type — Plotting frequency curve. 
 
CONTENTS IX 
 
 CHAPTER IX 
 
 Page 
 
 Some Causes of Variations 87 
 
 Some external causes of variations — Climate and local- 
 ity — Care and management — Food supply — Training and 
 developing — Use and disuse — Injuries and mutilations- 
 Chemical agents — Breeder's control of the external causes 
 of variations — Some internal causes of variation — Matura- 
 tion a cause of variation — Fertilization a cause of varia- 
 tion — Mendelism a cause of variation — Cross breeding a 
 cause of variation — Cell division a cause of variation — 
 Relative fertility and longevity. 
 
 CHAPTER X 
 
 Individual Merit and Selection 102 
 
 The breeder a judge — Types of animals — Utility of 
 types — Uniformity of type — Breeds of animals — Standard 
 of perfection — Value of breed characteristics — Age and 
 individual merit — Constitutional vigor. 
 
 CHAPTER XI 
 Pedigree and Selection 114 
 
 Form and contents of a pedigree — Tracing and writing 
 pedigrees — Comparative value of ancestors — Animal with 
 inbred pedigree — Pedigree with exceptional animal — Value 
 of family names — Significance of breeder's i ^le — Pro- 
 portion of pure-bred animals. 
 
 CHAPTER XII 
 
 Performance and Selection 125 
 
 Standards of performance — Trotting and pacing stand- 
 ard — Holstein-Friesian seven-day standard — Holstein- 
 Friesian, Jersey and Guernsey yearly standard — Ayrshire 
 yearly standard — Brown Swiss yearly standard — The_ ad- 
 vanced register record — Value of advanced register 
 record in selection — Exact measure of breeding capacity — 
 Vigor and performance — Meat, wool and egg production — 
 Value of show awafds. 
 
X CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER XIII 
 Improvement Due to Selection Based on Performance 
 
 Page 
 
 137 
 
 Characters considered and methods of presentation — 
 Developing the trotter — Influence of time records — Breed- 
 ing of great sires — Developing the dairy cow — Influence 
 of butter-fat records — Breeding cows with advanced reg- 
 ister records — Holstein-Friesian cows with records as 
 breeders — Breeding of advanced register bulls — Registered 
 animals without registered parents. 
 
 CHAPTER XIV 
 Improvement Due to Selection the Result of Pre- 
 potency 152 
 
 Breed prepotency — Individual prepotency — Prepotency 
 among horses — The famous grandsires — Breeders of 
 performers and breeders of breeders — Prepotency among 
 dairy cattle — Sires of performers and sires of breeders — 
 Performers and prepotency— Famous Holstein-Friesian 
 cows — Prepotency in sex. 
 
 CHAPTER XV 
 
 Improvement Due to Accumulative Development 166 
 
 Modifying characters — Modified characters in heredity — 
 Accumulative development in the trotter — Accumulative de- 
 velopment in the dairy cow — Results accomplished — Im- 
 provement a slow process — Methods employed. 
 
 CHAPTER XVI 
 Systems of Breeding 176 
 
 Purposes in breeding — Pure-bred breeding — Grading — 
 Cross-breeding — Line-breeding — Inbreeding — Breeding 
 from the best — Co-operative breeding. 
 
 CHAPTER XVII 
 Formation of Breeds 185 
 
 Domestication a necessity — Evolution of farm animals 
 — Origin of breeds — Robert Bakewell — Bakewell's prin- 
 ciples — Influence of Bakewell's methods — Forming of new 
 breeds — Origin of the Thoroughbred — Origin of the 
 Shorthorn — Origin of the Oxford — Origin of the Hol- 
 stein-Friesian — Origin of the Standardbred. 
 
CONTENTS xi 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII 
 
 Page 
 
 Improvement of Breeds 196 
 
 Origin of pedigrees — Eligibility to registration — Ad- 
 vanced register — Breed associations — Live st»ck shows — 
 British methods — French methods — Further improvement 
 needed — Need of extending improvement. 
 
 CHAPTER XIX 
 
 Building Up a Herd 207 
 
 The inevitability of the dairy cow — The use of pure- 
 bred animals — The use of grade animals — Foundation 
 animals — The first generation — Breeding the young heif- 
 ers — Continued judicious selection the means of improve- 
 ment — The Glista family — Advancement requires time — 
 Influence of sires. 
 
 CHAPTER XX 
 
 Community Breeding 219 
 
 Business of breeding — Expense of equipment reduced — 
 Uniformity of animals favored — Market facilities in- 
 creased — Disposal of surplus females — Cow-testing asso- 
 ciations — Advanced register testing promoted —Education 
 features — The young breeder. 
 
 CHAPTER XXI 
 
 Sex in Breeding 229 
 
 Equality in number of the sexes — Sex determination by 
 external factors — Time of breeding — Alternating ova — 
 Male and female testicles — Sexual excitement — Age and 
 vigor — Food supply — Sex determination by internal fac- 
 tors — Sex difference slight — Influence of fertilization — 
 Accessory chromosome theory — Sex limited inheritance — 
 Sex control not desirable. 
 
 CHAPTER XXII 
 
 Proi^ficacy in Breeding 237 
 
 Conditions that influence prolificacy — High prolificacy 
 desirable — Cumulative effect of prolificacy — Prolificacy in 
 horses — Prolificacy in cattle — Prolificacy in sheep — Pro- 
 lificacy in swine — Prolificacy in poultry — Prolificacy 
 hereditary. 
 
XU CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER XXIII 
 
 Page 
 
 Sterility in Breeding 248 
 
 Prevalence of sterility — Causes of sterility — Idleness 
 and overfeeding — Overwork and adverse conditions — Ex- 
 cessive sexual use — Timidity, irritability and excitability — 
 Size of male and female — Hybrid among animals usually 
 sterile — Freemartin often sterile — Hermaphrodites — Cryp- 
 torchids — Diseases of the reproductive organs — Drugs as 
 a remedy for sterility — Dilation of the os uteri — Yeast 
 solution in vagina — Management of breeding animals. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIV 
 Conception and Development of Fetus 258 
 
 Estrum or heat — Ovulation— Conception — Artificial im- 
 pregnation — Formation of the embryo — Development of 
 the fetus — Position of fetus — Relative size of fetus — Intra- 
 uterine influences— Telegony. 
 
 CHAPTER XXV 
 Abortion and Premature Birth 268 
 
 Prevalence of abortion — Kinds of abortion — Accidental 
 abortion — Infectious abortion — Avenue of infection — Con- 
 trol of infectious abortion — Avoid using infected bulls — ■ 
 Isolate infected covers — Use disinfectants freely — Age im- 
 munity in contagious abortion. 
 
 CHAPTER XXVI 
 Pregnancy and Gestation 277 
 
 Signs of pregnancy — Duration of gestation — The mare — 
 The cow — The ewe — The sow — Other animals — Poultry — 
 Number of young at birth — Poultry — Care of pregnant 
 animals — Signs of parturition — Preparation for parturi- 
 tion — Normal parturition. 
 
 CHAPTER XXVII 
 
 Ailments of the Dam 288 
 
 Difficult parturition — Wrong presentations — Eversion of 
 uterus — Retained afterbirth — Inflammation of the vagina 
 and uterus — Milk fever — Garget — Cowpox — Mammitis — 
 Altered milk secretions. 
 
CONTENTS Xlll 
 
 CHAPTER XXVIII 
 
 Page 
 
 Ailments of New-Born 298 
 
 Asphyxia — Constipation — Navel infection — Diarrhea — 
 Infectious diarrhea — Sore mouth — Sore eyes — Chilled 
 lamb — Thumps — Umbilic hernia — Scrotal hernia — Castra- 
 tion of males. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIX 
 
 Development of Young Animals 306 
 
 Condition of parents — Feeding while young — Relative 
 development — Developing the young horse — Developing 
 the heifer — Developing meat-producing animals — Environ- 
 ment, development, selection and efficiency. 
 
 Appendix 315 
 
 Table showing types and breeds of farm animals — 
 Table showing period of gestation. 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 Page 
 
 The Shorthorn bull "Avondale" Frontispiece 
 
 Diagram showing principles involved in animal breeding 6 
 
 Reproductive organs of the mare 11 
 
 Diagram of a typical cell 13 
 
 Diagram illustrating cell division or mitosis 14 
 
 Diagram of the germ cells 17 
 
 Diagram illustrating maturation in the egg cell 18 
 
 Diagram showing maturation in both germ cells 19 
 
 Diagram illustrating Weismann's theory of descent 24 
 
 Shorthorn bull "Shenstone Albino" 26 
 
 Shorthorn cow "Maxwalton Missie" 29 
 
 Guernsey bull "Hayes Cherub 2d" 34 
 
 Guernsey cow "Dolly Dimple" 36 
 
 Cheviot sheep of good type 39 
 
 Black and white guinea pigs showing Mendelian phenomena 43 
 
 Diagram illustrating Mendelian dominants and recessives 45 
 
 Guinea pigs illustrating Mendelian phenomena 47 
 
 Percheron mares of excellent type 57 
 
 Shropshire sheep uniform in type 60 
 
 Brown Swiss herd true to type 61 
 
 Poland China sow of good type 64 
 
 Shire stallion "Lockinge Hingist" 67 
 
 Dutch Belted herd of excellent type and characteristic markings 63 
 
 Hampshire sow with characteristic markings 70 
 
 Hereford cattle with characteristic markings 72 
 
 Variation among light horses 75 
 
 Variation among heavy horses 78 
 
 Rambouillet ram "Ohio Boy." Fine wool type 81 
 
 Rambouillet ewe. Fine wool type S3 
 
 Plotting a frequency curve 86 
 
 Shropshire ewe. Medium wool, mutton type 88 
 
 Belgian mare "Bella" 91 
 
 Catalonian jack ==^^_^^ 99 
 
 XV 
 
XVI LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 Span of execellent mules 100 
 
 Zebu cattle, native of Trinidad 101 
 
 Percheron stallion "Idlefonse" 103 
 
 Thoroughbred mare "Blue Girl" 104 
 
 Hereford bull "Point Comfort 14th" 107 
 
 Jersey cow "Bosman's Anna" xl 112 
 
 Poland China boar 116 
 
 Aberdeen Angus bull "Leroy of Meadowbrook" 117 
 
 Aberdeen Angus cow "Glencarnock Isla" 119 
 
 Dorset-Horned ram 121 
 
 Duroc Jersey boar 123 
 
 Standardbred stallion "Kremlin," 2.07^ 126 
 
 Berkshire sow 128 
 
 Dutch Beltqd bull "Auten" 129 
 
 Dutch Belted cow "Jennie" 134 
 
 Holstein-Friesian cow "Glista Omicron" 142 
 
 Holstein-Friesian cow "Glista Eglantine" 145 
 
 Holstein-Friesian cows with high records of performances 149 
 
 Standardbred stallion "McKinrjey," 2.11^ 155 
 
 Polled Durham bull "The Confessor" 160 
 
 Polled Durham bull "Sultan's Creed" 163 
 
 Suffolk stallion "Westside Chieftain" 167 
 
 Holstein-Friesian cow "Gl. Omicron" and daughter,"Gl. Eglantine" 170 
 
 High egg-producing hens _ 172 
 
 High wool-yielding ewe 174 
 
 Brown Swiss bull "Myone Boy" 178 
 
 Brown Swiss cow "Arlena" 181 
 
 Cotswold ram. Long wool type 186 
 
 Robert Bakewell 188 
 
 A prize-winning flock of Oxford sheep 193 
 
 Hereford heifer "Scottish Lassie" 198 
 
 Beef cattle parade on show grounds 200 
 
 Cheshire hog of excellent type 203 
 
 "Glista Ernestine" and her ancestors 212 
 
 "Glista Cora" and her ancestors 215 
 
 High-producing Holstein-Friesian cows 216 
 
 Southdown ewe lambs, uniform in conformation 220 
 
 Brown Swiss yearling heifers of uniform type 223 
 
 Ayrshire cows uniform in type and color 225 
 
 Berkshire swine true to type „^=, 227 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS XVU 
 
 Page 
 
 Jersey bull "Raleigh's Fairy Boy" 230 
 
 Jersey cow "Jacoba Irene" 233 
 
 Galloway bull, a prize winner 23'4 
 
 Galloway heifers true to type 236 
 
 Cheshire barrow of excellent type 239 
 
 Hampshire barrow, showing breed marking 241 
 
 Dorset Horned lambs 243 
 
 Southdown yearling ram 245 
 
 Red Polled bull "Teddy's Best" 249 
 
 Red Polled cow "Cosy 2d' 251 
 
 Berkshire sows at pasture 255 
 
 Poland China boar of good conformation 257 
 
 Ayrshire bull "Bargenoch Gay Cavalier" 259 
 
 Ayrshire cow "Kilnford Bell 3d" 263 
 
 Hampshire sow 265 
 
 Aberdeen Angus true to type 269 
 
 Large Yorkshire boar 270 
 
 Tamworth sow "Oakhill Fancy" 1 271 
 
 Percheron stallion "Imprecation" 279 
 
 Berkshire boar "Handsome Lee" 283 
 
 Normal presentation of young at parturition 286 
 
 Large Yorkshire sows 289 
 
 Belgian stallion "Polo Nord" 292 
 
 Group of Swiss Toggenburg does 295 
 
 Chester White boar 299 
 
 Hampshire ram 303 
 
 Duroc Jersey boar 304 
 
 Clydesdale stallion 307 
 
 Poland China barrows, grand champion pen 308 
 
 Percheron colt "Merlin" 310 
 
 Hampshire sow 313 
 
CHAPTER I 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 The breeding of animals and plants is receiving much 
 attention from the practical as well as the scientific man. 
 This activity is due to a realization of the economic 
 importance of plants and animals on the part of our 
 foremost men of affairs. The well being, indeed the very- 
 existence, of man rests ultimately upon his ability to 
 produce cultivated plants and domesticated animals in 
 abundance. Possibly never before has any question at- 
 tracted an interest so universal as that of the reproduc- 
 tion of plants and animals, including man. 
 
 While man makes economic use of many species of 
 animals, this discussion is limited to that of breeding 
 farm animals, including horses, cattle, sheep, swine and 
 poultry, although other species occasionally may be 
 used as illustrations and examples. 
 
 Farm animals provide labor, food and clothing. — Few 
 realize the extent of our dependence upon farm animals. 
 The horse has fought our wars and won our battles and 
 is our principal beast of burden. In connection with 
 improved machinery, he has increased man's productive 
 power many fold. It is estimated that the horses of 
 the United States are equal in productive industry to 
 that of 100,000,000 laborers. In America, it is the horse 
 that enables us to make farming an attractive business, 
 rather than a peasant's drudgery, as in many of the older 
 nations of the world. 
 
 In the United States, approximately one-half of the 
 amount spent for food by the average family goes for the 
 purchase of meat, eggs and dairy products. Our stand- 
 ard foods are bread and potatoes, meat, milk and eggs, 
 1hree of which are provided directly by farm animals, 
 
2 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 while the other two are largely dependent upon the 
 horse or ox to furnish the labor necessary for their prop- 
 agation and cultivation. 
 
 The wool of the sheep and the fiber of the cotton and 
 flax furnish the materials out "of which we clothe our- 
 selves. Again, the first of these materials is a direct by- 
 product of the body of one class of farm animals, and the 
 cultivation of the others is accomplished very largely by 
 means of horse labor. 
 
 Number and value of farm animals. — We possess a 
 greater number of farm animals than any other single 
 country in the world, although some nations, including 
 their dependencies, excel us in some classes, particularly 
 the British Empire in the case of sheep. Of all of the 
 farm animals in the world approximately one-fifth of the 
 horses, one-half of the mules, one-sixth of the cattle, one- 
 twelfth of the sheep and two-fifths of the swine are to be 
 found in the United States. This represents a vast 
 
 Number and Value of Farm Animals 
 
 
 Census 
 
 1900 
 
 Census 
 
 1910 
 
 Class 
 
 Total 
 number 
 
 Average* 
 
 value per 
 
 head 
 
 Total 
 number 
 
 Average 
 
 value per 
 
 head 
 
 Human population 
 
 Horses, mules and asses 
 
 Cattle, dairy 
 
 Cattle, other than dairy. . . . 
 
 Swine 
 
 Sheep 
 
 Poultry 
 
 75,994,575 
 
 24,752,436 
 18,108,666 
 51,227,166 
 64,686,155 
 61,735,014 
 250,624,038 
 
 $50.80 
 
 29.68 
 
 21.78 
 
 3.69 
 
 2.77 
 
 0.34 
 
 91,972,266 
 
 27,618,242 
 21,795,770 
 41,886,878 
 59,473,636 
 52,838,748 
 295,880,190 
 
 $111.72 
 
 34.56 
 
 24.50 
 
 6.88 
 
 4.44 
 
 0.52 
 
 Total value of farm animals 
 
 $3,03S,005,586t 
 
 $5,451,084,839t 
 
 Total value of farm crops . . 
 
 2,998,704,412 
 
 5,487,161,223 
 
 *Farm value, tlncludes goats. 
 
INTRODUCTION 3 
 
 amount of wealth, as is illustrated in the foregoing tabula- 
 tion, which gives the total population for the United 
 States, both human and animal, and the average value 
 per head for the several classes of farm animals as given 
 in the twelfth and thirteen censuses. 
 
 Human population increasing, number of farm animals 
 decreasing.— While the average value per head of all 
 farm animals has increased immensely during the past 
 decade, the number has materially decreased. This is 
 significant, especially when compared with the increase 
 in human population. Exclusive of poultry, the twelfth 
 census shows that in 1900 there were almost three head 
 of farm live stock for each human inhabitant, whereas 
 the thirteenth census shows that in 1910 there were ap- 
 proximately two head of stock for each inhabitant. The 
 year book of the department of agriculture gives further 
 reduction in the number of animals on farms, particularly 
 cattle. It is important to note this decrease has taken 
 place in the meat-producing animals — cattle other than 
 dairy, sheep and swine. Horses, dairy cattle and poul- 
 try show increase about in proportion to that of the 
 human population. We may well inquire why this is 
 true and its general significance. 
 
 Farm animals costly. — Few persons realize the expense 
 of maintaining farm animals. We need but to reflect a 
 moment and the enormity will become apparent to us. 
 Practically every farmstead throughout this broad land 
 is devoting much of its energies to animal production. 
 Farm animals not only consume vast quantities of expen- 
 sive food, but require labor in caring for their needs as 
 well as shelter for themselves and their food. Further, 
 the loss from death among our extensive animal popula- 
 tion is great, running into many millions of dollars in 
 the case of swine alone. 
 
 An idea of the cost of farm animals may be gained from 
 the following tabulation, which gives the food of main- 
 tenance and production for the several classes of farm 
 
4 
 
 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 animals, as well as the approximate daily product and 
 total annual cost for each class : 
 
 Food of Maintenance and Production 
 
 
 Mainte 
 
 Daily food 
 lbs. 
 
 lance 
 
 Production 
 
 Animal 
 weight 
 
 Annual 
 cost* 
 
 Daily food 
 lbs. 
 
 Daily product 
 
 Annual 
 cost* 
 
 Horse 
 1,250 
 
 4 grain 
 18 hay 
 
 $47.45 
 
 15 grain 
 20 hay 
 
 Moderate 
 work 
 
 $91.25 
 
 Cattle 
 1,250 
 
 25 hay 
 
 45.60 
 
 30 silage 
 12 hay 
 
 8 grain 
 
 25 lbs. milk 
 
 or 
 2 lbs. beef 
 
 73.00 
 
 Sheep 
 120 
 
 3 hay 
 
 5.50 
 
 1.5 grain 
 2.0 hay 
 
 0.4 lb. mutton 
 
 9.15 
 
 Swine 
 
 100 to 200 
 
 1 grain 
 to 
 
 2 grain 
 
 3.65 
 
 to 
 
 7.30 
 
 4 grain 
 
 to 
 6 grain 
 
 0.751b. pork 
 
 to 
 1.50 lbs. pork 
 
 14.60 
 
 to 
 
 21.90 
 
 18 fowls 
 100 lbs. 
 
 3 grain 
 
 10.95 
 
 5 grain 
 
 8 eggs, 1 lb. 
 
 or 
 .75 lb. meat 
 
 18.25 
 
 *Because of the fluctuating price of feed, the cost is estimated with grain at $20 
 a ton and hay at $10 a ton. These prices afford a convenient basis, as they are easy 
 to add to or take from, according to local conditions. 
 
 Relation of food to production. — There are approx- 
 imately three pounds of edible dry matter in the 25 
 pounds of milk ; seven-tenths of a pound in the two 
 pounds of beef; one-eighth of a pound in the .4 pound 
 of mutton ; an average of two-fifths of a pound in the 
 pork ; one-fourth of a pound in the .75 pound of fowl 
 meat ; and approximately one-fourth of a pound of 
 edible dry matter in the eight eggs. 
 
 According to this computation, the following amounts 
 of dry matter in the food will be required by the several 
 classes of farm animals, to produce one pound of edible 
 dry matter in the product. Because of the variation 
 among the individuals of the several classes, this calcula- 
 tion is supplemented by data from Jordan's "Feeding 
 
INTRODUCTION 5 
 
 Animals," which includes the digestible organic sub- 
 stance required to produce one pound increase in edible 
 solids.* 
 
 Relation of Food to Production 
 
 
 Dairy 
 cattle, 
 
 Swine. 
 
 Fowls 
 
 Sheep, 
 
 Beef 
 
 cattle, 
 
 
 milk 
 
 pork 
 
 eggs 
 
 meat 
 
 mutton 
 
 beef 
 
 Dry matter in the 
 food required to 
 produce one pound 
 of edible dry matter 
 in the product 
 
 5 lbs. 
 
 8 lbs. 
 
 14 lb?. 
 
 15 lbs. 
 
 17 lbs. 
 
 23 lbs. 
 
 Digestible organic 
 substance producing 
 one pound increase 
 edible solids 
 
 5.5 lbs. 
 
 6.4 lbs. 
 
 19.6 lbs. 
 
 23.4 lbs. 
 
 37.9 lbs. 
 
 36.3 lbs. 
 
 Since a pound of product in the shape of beef and 
 mutton costs three to four times as much as in milk and 
 pork, it is little wonder that beef cattle and sheep are 
 decreasing. It is evident that, with the increasing human 
 population, the time will come when it will be difficult, 
 if not impossible to support as many animals as we do at 
 the present. True, some classes of animals, particularly 
 fowls and swine, can be kept, in part, upon refuse,, but 
 an immense acreage of corn, oats and hay is necessary 
 to maintain our farm animals. Before long much of this 
 land will be required to support our increasing popula- 
 tion in a more economic manner than we have hitherto 
 been able to produce beef and mutton. 
 
 Distribution of farm animals. — The high food cost of 
 beef and mutton does not mean that such meat cannot 
 be produced at a profit. There are certain regions in 
 which both products make a liberal return on the invest- 
 '^lent, particularly when we consider the wool, the hide 
 and like by-products. As would be expected, because 
 
 *W. H. Jordan's "The FeedinK of Animals," p. 404. 
 
BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 of the density of the population, we find poultry and 
 dairy cattle most numerous in the Middle Atlantic and 
 North Central states where food is high in price. Fifty 
 per cent of the dairy cattle in the Union are in the North 
 Central states. In like manner we find the meat-produc- 
 ing animals, particularly cattle and sheep, very numerous 
 in regions that are sparsely populated and where food is 
 cheap, although large numbers of meat animals, particu- 
 larly swine, are to be found in the Central states. This 
 is because of the abundance of meat-producing foods. 
 Thus 45 per cent of our beef cattle are in the South Cen- 
 tral states, 42 per cent of the sheep in the Mountain states 
 and 60 per cent of the swine in the North Central states, 
 while 54 per cent of the mules are in the South Central 
 states. 
 
 Improving farm animals. — Since our animals are very 
 costly, indeed so expensive that they are decreasing in 
 number, it would seem well worth our time to give serious 
 attention to methods of increasing their efhciency. While 
 there are many factors entering into the improvement of 
 
 farm animals, many of 
 which are little under- 
 stood, yet the experi- 
 ence of successful breed- 
 ers gives us abundance 
 of evidence to suppose 
 that environment, se- 
 lection and heredity are 
 by far the most impor- 
 tant means by which 
 farm animals are im- 
 proved, as they control 
 development, give ef- 
 ficiency and purify the 
 blood. (Fig. 2.) 
 
 Fig. 2 — Diagram Showing Relationship of linvironment. i nlS 
 
 THE Principles Involved in Animal Im- fgrm is UScd tO denote 
 
INTRODUCTION 7 
 
 the conditions of life as a whole, both good and bad, into 
 which the animal comes and by which it may be eithei ad- 
 vanced or retarded, but with which it must live and compete. 
 The environment consists largely of food, shelter and care, 
 including training and developing. To obtain greatest 
 advancement the animal must be well fed at all times, 
 but more especially while young, since the individual re- 
 tarded at this age will never reach that degree of perfec- 
 tion which it otherwise would had it been properly 
 nourished during the days in which growth was possible. 
 
 The shelter required for advancement necessarily varies 
 much with the several classes of farm animals and with 
 the climate, but should be sufficient to keep the animal in 
 comfort. Exposure to very hot sun, as well as to cold 
 rains and storms, is especially harmful to all classes of 
 farm animals. The care should be such as to encourage 
 greatest development at all times. Many persons fail 
 in breeding animals by depending on heredity alone to 
 maintain and improve their stock. 
 
 While greatest advancement cannot be obtained with- 
 out suitable food and care, training and development are 
 even more important. There seems to be a tendency 
 on the part of some breeders to overlook this fact. It 
 must be remembered, however, no matter how suitable 
 the conditions, indeed no matter how pure the heritage, 
 maximum usefulness in many economic attributes or fea- 
 tures of farm animals cannot be attained without proper 
 training and development. This fact is well illustrated in 
 the case of Standardbred horses and dairy cows, the 
 only two classes of farm animals in which we have ac- 
 curate records of performance. We know exactly what 
 these animals can do and know definitely when progress 
 has been made. Further, we know positively that maxi- 
 mum efficiency depends upon proper training and de- 
 velopment, as such is necessary to bring out all of the pos- 
 sibilities of the individual. 
 
 Heredity. — This term is commonly defined as the tend- 
 
5 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 ency of the offspring to resemble the parent. In the 
 main, therefore, the individuality of the offspring is sim- 
 ilar to that of the parent. Thus in common usage we 
 have the expression "like begets like," although in an 
 exact sense no animal is like either parent. The idea 
 of heredity signifies the transmission of the determiners 
 of individuality from parent to offspring. Walter briefly 
 defines environment as what the animal has, training as 
 what he does, and heredity as what he is, thus denoting 
 purity of blood. Further, he says that while what an 
 animal has and does are of great importance, especially to 
 the individual, yet what he is, is of far more importance in 
 the long run.* This is probably true, but we will never 
 know exactly what an animal is; that is, what his capabil- 
 ities are, unless the environment and the training have 
 been such as to develop all of the potentialities with 
 which the individual is endowed. Of course, it is recog- 
 nized that the animal must be capable of development, 
 or the effect of suitable environment and proper train- 
 ing will come to naught. 
 
 Selection. — Heredity does not distinguish between the 
 good and the bad, and so far as it is concerned the off- 
 spring may obtain either or both from the parent. Here 
 is where selection plays a very significant part in the 
 improvement of our farm animals. The successful 
 breeder selects and propagates animals with desirable 
 attributes, features or characters, by which is meant 
 detail of form or function, and eliminates those individ- 
 uals that fail to come up to expectation. 
 
 As suggested, not all animals are endowed with the 
 same capabilities for development, even under suitable 
 environment, as some individuals make remarkable ad- 
 vancement, while other individuals fail to equal their 
 predecessors. Here, again, selection proves the key to 
 efficiency, for all animals that fail to develop up to the 
 standard are disregarded, and only those that come up 
 to expectation are retained for breeding purposes. Thus 
 
 *H. E. Walter, "Genetics," p. 3. 
 
INTRODUCTION 9 
 
 the average efficiency of the animals retained is su- 
 perior to the averag"e of those born into the herds. Since 
 the degree of selection employed in practice is the con- 
 trolling factor in the efficiency of our living farm animals, 
 it would seem well worth while to give careful considera- 
 tion to the methods whereby selection can be used more 
 effectively. 
 
 Propagation of animals. — So important are environ- 
 ment, selection and heredity in the development of our 
 farm animals that the influence of many factors operat- 
 ing to decrease the number of normal births, as well as 
 proper development while young, are often overlooked. 
 These very factors often are of greatest concern to the 
 practical breeder. The dairy farmer with a herd of 40 
 cows is more concerned in having his cows freshen regu- 
 larly and normally than in the individuality of the off- 
 spring. The same is true in breeding horses, beef cattle, 
 sheep and swine, with added interest in methods whereby 
 the many fatal diseases of the young may be avoided and 
 proper development secured. The proper growth of the 
 new individual, both before and after birth, is beset by 
 many difficulties. The number of animals that fail to 
 breed as well as those that give birth to premature young 
 is great. This is a source of immense financial loss in 
 dairy cattle and all pure-bred animals. Further, it has 
 been stated that approximately one-fourth of all the 
 young animals born die before they are one month of age. 
 Surely it is well worth our time to consider methods 
 whereby this great loss may be avoided. 
 
CHAPTER II 
 REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS AND GERM CELLS 
 
 In sexual reproduction the formation of the new in- 
 dividual is the result of a union of material contributed 
 by each parent — male and female. A general knowledge 
 of the location and construction of the organs that fur- 
 nish this material, and in which the young originate and 
 develop, is necessary to an understanding of the condi- 
 tions which have to do with bearing normal young. 
 Further, a knowledge of the material itself is of the very 
 utmost importance, since it is the only part passing from 
 the parents to the new individual, and must, therefore, 
 contain the determiners of heredity. 
 
 Female reproductive organs. — The generative organs 
 of the female consist of the vulva, vagina, os uteri or 
 neck of womb, uterus or womb, Fallopian tubes or ovi- 
 ducts, and the ovaries, as well as of the milk glands and 
 udder. The vulva is the external opening of the female 
 reproductive organs. The vagina is the passage from 
 the vulva to the uterus. In the mare it is 8 to 12 inches 
 in length and capable of lateral distention to the full size 
 of the pelvic cavity. The os uteri or neck of the womb 
 projects into the forward end of the vagina as much as 
 2 or 3 inches in the case of the mare. Because of the 
 nature of its walls this neck is ordinarily closed except 
 when the animal is in estrum or breeding condition and 
 during parturition. It is very important that the open- 
 ing to this organ should dilate at the time of breeding, 
 as through it the material from the male must pass in 
 order to reach the uterus or womb. The uterus lies in 
 front of the vagina. In the unbred mare it is oblong, 
 varying from 5 to 8 inches in length and from lyi to 2^ 
 inches in width. (Fig. 3.) 
 
 10 
 
REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS AND GERM CELLS 
 
 II 
 
 The ovaries are the essential female reproductive 
 organs in that they produce the female reproductive 
 bodies commonly called ova or egg cells. The detail of 
 ova formation is known as oogenesis. The ovaries are 
 
 
 Fig. 3 — Reproductive Organs of the Mare 
 
 1. Left ovary. 2. Fallopian tube or oviduct. 3. Right horn of uterus. 4. Left 
 horn of uterus. 5. Body of uterus or womb. 5". Neck of uterus. 6. Vagina. 7. 
 Vulva. 8. Broad ligament. 9. Left kidney. 10. Urinary bladder. 11. Floor of 
 pelvis. 12. Abdominal wall. 13. Roof of pelvis (after Leisering's "Atlas of the 
 Anatomy of Domesticated Animals"). 
 
 two in number, one being situated on the right side of 
 the body and one on the left. They are connected with 
 the uterus by the Fallopian tubes or oviducts. The 
 ovaries vary greatly in size and form according to age 
 and individuality. The ovary of the young mare, which 
 is the largest among farm animals, is usually 3^ to 4 
 inches in its greatest diameter, and weighs about four 
 ounces, while in the aged mare it may shrink to i^ 
 inches in its greatest diameter and its weight to one-half 
 ounce. The normal ovary of the cow is much smaller, 
 being about Yz inch in its greatest diameter and weigh- 
 ing less than one-half ounce. 
 
 The udder and milk glands are essential organs of I'c- 
 
12 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 production. They constitute a necessary source of 
 nutritive supply to the new-born animal. Under 
 domestication, the activity of the milk glands has been 
 highly developed, particularly in the cow and goat, as 
 they provide an important food supply for man. The 
 number of glands vary according to the class of animals, 
 thus the mare has two, the cow four, the ewe two, the 
 sow 8 to 12, and the cat and bitch 8 to lo each. 
 
 The milk glands consist of a cluster of cells about a 
 duct, much as grapes cluster about the stem. These 
 ducts unite and form larger canals which empty into 
 one, two, or more milk cisterns, from which the milk is 
 drawn through the teat by the sucking of the young or 
 by various milking processes. The milk is secreted in 
 the epithelial milk cells, and while, no doubt, some passes 
 into the cisterns, yet the major part is stored in the 
 milk cells. Under the excitation of milking or sucking 
 the milk flows freely into the cisterns and teats, and 
 thence is readily extracted. 
 
 Male reproductive organs. — In reproduction the male 
 reproductive organs are, of course, equally as important 
 as the female organs. For present purposes, however, 
 it is sufficient to know that the testicles of the male are 
 analagous to the ovaries of the female, and that they 
 produce the male reproductive bodies called spermatozoa 
 or sperm cells. The details of spermatozoa formation is 
 known as spermatogenesis. When discharged from the 
 body the sperm cells are contained in a white fluid which 
 is alkaline in reaction. This material is commonly 
 called the semen or seminal fluid. 
 
 It is noteworthy that both spermatozoa and ova are 
 products of metamorphoses taking place in the epithelial 
 structures, the former being derived from the spermato- 
 genic cells found in the seminiferous tubules of the tes- 
 ticles, while the latter come from the. germinal epithe- 
 lium of the ovaries. 
 
 The cell. — All organisms, both animal and plant, are 
 
REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS AND GERM CELLS 1 3 
 
 made up of cellular units, much as a brick is the unit of 
 a wall. By a consideration of these units we can gain 
 a clearer idea of the part the sperm — and egg — cells 
 play in heredity as well as in forming the new in- 
 dividual. The size of animal cells varies to a consider- 
 able degree, although, with certain minor exceptions, the 
 sperm cells are the smallest elements, while the egg cells 
 are the largest. The form of the cell is likewise exceed- 
 ingly variable. Free living cells, where the form is not 
 determined by the environment, are usually spherical 
 or oval, as the egg cells show; while those united into 
 tissue may be pressed together into any shape and with 
 many projections. 
 
 A typical cell is represented diagrammatically in Fig. 
 4. Near the center of the cell the nucleus is shown 
 
 Ce// JV^// 
 
 Cyt oh/asm 
 
 — C<z,ntro3oi7J<z 
 
 ''hroiTi^tJn 72<ztv\^orA 
 
 Fig. 4 — Diagram of a Typical Cell* 
 
 enveloped in the nuclear membrane. Because of the 
 behavior of the nuclear contents during cell division it 
 is considered of unusual significance. To add clearness 
 to the cell contents, when under examination, the scien- 
 tist stains it with a chemical preparation. When this is 
 done the nuclear material takes on a deeper and more 
 striking color than the other parts of the cell, indicating 
 a peculiar composition. For this reason the nuclear sub- 
 
 *Figs. 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 are made up from "The Cell," by permission of the 
 author, E. B. Wilson, and the publisher, The Macmillan Co. 
 
H 
 
 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 stance is called chromatin. Surrounding the nucleus is 
 the cytoplasm, in which is located the centrosome. The 
 nucleus and the cytoplasm are made up of living sub- 
 stance called protoplasm. Surrounding the whole there 
 is usually a wall which serves to separate one cell from 
 another. 
 
 Cell division. — Body growth consists of an increase in 
 the number of cells, and not of an increase in their size. 
 Large animals do not have larger cells than small 
 
 animals, but they 
 have more of them. 
 The ordinary proc- 
 ess of cell division 
 is termed mitosis, 
 and in animals is 
 made possible by 
 the material carried 
 to the growing part 
 by the blood. It oc- 
 ^^ curs constantly dur- 
 ing growth. The 
 process of simple cell 
 division is shown 
 diagrammatically in 
 Fig. 5- 
 
 As division is 
 about to take place 
 the chromatin ap- 
 pears as a fine net- 
 work running 
 through the mass 
 of the nucleus, 
 . _, ,. „ o /- c , . u ,■ not unlike beads 
 
 A. The resting cell. B C. Early stages, chromaln 
 
 collecting into ribbons. D. Chromatin segmenting, strUng U p O n a 
 
 forming chromosomes. E. Chromosomes arranged , ? ,-p,, . , 
 
 end to end along the equatorial pla.ie. F. Chromo- thread, i nlS nctWOrk 
 somes splitting lengthwise. G. Chromosomes emigrat- 11 1 
 
 ing to asters to form the new nucleus. H I. Cell wall USUaily COnuenSCS 
 
 becoming constricted to form new cells. J. New cells :„j-^ „ tlTi-<3Qr! /->r n'K 
 
 entering into resting stage. lUlU d. UU CdU Ui liu- 
 
 -DiAGRAM Illustrating Cell Division 
 OR Mitosis 
 
REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS AND GERM CELLS 1 5 
 
 bon and then breaks up transversely into a definite number 
 of segments, known as chromosomes. In the meantime the 
 centrosome has divided, and the tv\^o new bodies thus 
 formed have migrated to opposite sides of the 
 nucleus, each surrounded by its radiating lines, known 
 as asters. 
 
 The chromosomes arrange themselves end to end 
 along the equatorial plane of the spindle, at right angles 
 to its axis, and each chromosome splits lengthwise, one 
 group migrating to each aster, forming a new nucleus. 
 The cell wall becomes constructed, dividing the cyto- 
 plasm between the two new cells, and the resting stage 
 ensues during which preparation is made for another 
 division. 
 
 The chromosomes. — In the process of cell division 
 which attends all growth there are three significant facts 
 established concerning the behavior of the chromosomes, 
 which are to play a very important part in our study 
 of hereditary materials. First, the number of 
 chromosomes is constant for all individuals of the same 
 species. In farm animals the number is i6. Second, 
 in all forms arising by sexual reproduction the number 
 is thought to be even ; and, third, cell division consists 
 essentially in a splitting of the chromosomes in 
 such a manner that each daughter cell secures 
 an exact equivalent of what is received by the other 
 daughter cell of the same division. Cell division is, 
 therefore, an exceedingly orderly procedure, whereby 
 each daughter cell not only receives its share of the 
 mass, but receives exactly the same number and kind of 
 chromosomes as that of the other cell of the same 
 division. 
 
 THE GERM CELLS 
 
 Not only is the individual composed of cells, but these 
 cells are highly dififerentiated according to the function 
 
l6 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 they perform. In the study of heredity we recognize 
 two distinct groups of cells — first, the sexual or germ 
 cells of which the reproductive bodies and the organs 
 producing them, both male and female, are composed; 
 and, second, the somatic or body cells, of which the re- 
 mainder of the body structure is composed. The former 
 are capable of indefinite existence in a suitable medium, 
 whereas the latter are destined to die and disintegrate 
 with the body. 
 
 Castle and others have shown that the germ cells are 
 distinct from the body cells, although dependent upon 
 them for nutrition and growth. Castle removed the 
 ovaries from a white guinea pig just attaining sexual 
 maturity, and inserted into her body ovaries from a 
 black guinea pig not yet sexually mature. This grafted 
 animal was mated with a white mafe. Now, numerous 
 experiments have shown that white guinea pigs mated 
 with white, without exception, produce only white young. 
 In the course of a year, however, this grafted white 
 animal, mated successively with a white male, gave 
 birth to three litters of young which together consisted 
 of six individuals, all black.* 
 
 The egg cell. — Among farm animals the ovum of the 
 female is remarkable for its enormous size when com- 
 pared with the spermatozoon of the male or with body 
 cells generally. This is especially true in the case of 
 poultry. In structure the ovum presents the parts of a 
 typical cell containing a large nucleus, in this case called 
 the "germinal vesicle," with its chromatin network. The 
 ovum is distended with stored nutrients to which its 
 large size is due and upon which the young embryo sub- 
 sists for a time. The egg cells are discharged, either 
 singly, as in the case of the mare and cow; or in twos 
 and threes, as is frequently observed in sheep and goats ; 
 or in varying numbers, as in swine and carnivora. 
 
 The sperm cells. — The spermatozoa of the male present 
 a striking contrast to the ova of the female. The former 
 
 *W. E, Castle, "Heredity," p. 31, 
 
REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS AND GERM CELLS 
 
 17 
 
 is very minute, many thousand times less than the bulk 
 of the latter. The sperm cell resembles a minute, elon- 
 gated tadpole, swimming very actively about by the 
 vibrations of a long slender tail. This locomotion is 
 
 Fig. 6 — Diagram of the Germ Cells 
 
 1. Egg cell. 2. Sperm cell size to compare with egg cell. 3. Sperm cell enlarged 
 to show parts. A. Apical body. B. Nucleus. C. End knob. D. Middle piece. E. 
 Envelope of tail. F. Tail piece. G. End piece. L. Nucleolus or germinal spot. M. 
 Nucleus or germinal vesicle containing network of chromatin. N. Cytoplasm. 
 
 necessary to bring the two germ cells together, as the egg 
 cell is practically stationary because of its great bulk. 
 In structure the sperm cell contains all the parts of a 
 typical cell, but arranged in a different form and con- 
 taining very little cytoplasm. The nucleus is the im- 
 portant part. The nuclear network is much more dense 
 than in the egg cell. While the egg cells are discharged 
 singly or in comparatively small numbers, the sperm 
 cells are discharged from the testicles of the male in 
 practically countless numbers, although but one is used 
 in the act of fertilization. This is due in part at least to 
 the distance the sperm cells must travel as well as to the 
 difficulty in reaching the egg cell. 
 
 Spermatozoa possess remarkable vitality, remaining 
 active in the genital passages of the female for days and 
 
15 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 in some cases possibly for weeks. When mounted and 
 protected from evaporation, they have been known to 
 show vibratile motion after the lapse of nine days. Weak 
 alkaline solution renders them more active, while acids, 
 even very dilute, destroy them. 
 
 Chromosome reduction. — Since the number of chromo- 
 somes in a given class of animals is constant, and since 
 fertilization requires the union of a sperm cell from the 
 male with an egg cell from the female, each containing 
 i6 chromosomes, is it necessary that the number be re- 
 duced in the germ cells before fertilization, in order to 
 
 Fig. 7 — Diagram Illustrating Maturation in the Egg Cell 
 
 A. Initial phase. B. Formation of first polar body. C. Preparation for second 
 division. D. Final results, three polar bodies and the egg after maturation. 
 
REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS AND GERM CELLS 
 
 19 
 
 prevent a doubling up in the new individual. This 
 chromosome reduction takes place during cell division, 
 and is termed maturation (Fig 7). In the egg cell the 
 process is known as oogenesis and in the sperm cell as 
 spermatogenesis. The mature Qgg — or sperm — cell, with 
 half its normal number of chromosomes is termed a 
 gamete, while the fertilized egg which is formed by the 
 union of two gametes — male and female — is called a 
 cygote, or yoked cell. 
 
 In the male this reduction process is continuous, and 
 mature sperm cells are stored in considerable numbers. 
 In the female, however, the reduction takes place very 
 rapidly and just prior to uniting with a mature sperm cell. 
 In fact, in some instances, it is known to have occurred 
 after the sperm cell has passed through the wall of the 
 ovum. A diagrammatic 
 representation of the 
 process of maturation 
 is shown in Fig. 8. 
 
 The number of chro- 
 mosomes (not shown 
 in diagram) undergoes 
 division, and thus re- 
 mains constant in num- 
 ber in each germ cell 
 until the maturation 
 division, or immedi- 
 ately before the forma- 
 tion of the mature 
 sperm and egg cell, 
 when they separate 
 into two groups with- 
 out splitting, each 
 
 group going into a different cell. In this way 
 the chromosomes are reduced to one-half the normal 
 number. It is noteworthy in the case of the female that 
 the mass of food is retained in the mature egg cell and 
 
 Fig. 8 — Diagram Showing the Essential Facts 
 IN THE Maturation of the Germ Cells 
 
 1. Sperm cell. 2. Egg cell. 3. Fertilized egg. 
 A. Primordial division period. B. Growth 
 period. C. Maturation period. 
 
20 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 the other three cells perish, whereas in the male the four 
 mature sperm cells are similar in appearance and each 
 have the same possibilities. 
 
 Fertilization. — The mature sperm cell or male gamete, 
 by virtue of its power of locomotion, finds its way to 
 the mature egg cell or female gamete, their chromosomes 
 flocculate, thus restoring the normal number and com- 
 pleting the zygote, in this case the embryo of the new 
 animal. 
 
 During the act of copulation the semen of the male 
 is discharged into the vagina of the female, a part of the 
 fluid passing through the dilated os uteri or neck of the 
 womb. The spermatozoa work forward through the 
 uterus into the Fallopian tubes or oviducts. Here they 
 meet and surround the ovum from the ovary. Though 
 many sperm cells may attach themselves to the exterior 
 of the egg cell, but one penetrates to the interior. Which 
 one enters is simply a matter of chance. This union of 
 male and female reproductive bodies constitutes fertiliza- 
 tion. The fertilized ovum now migrates back into the 
 uterus, where with favorable conditions growth and 
 development ensue. 
 
CHAPTER III 
 THE DETERMINERS OF HEREDITY 
 
 The resemblance between the new individual and the 
 parent is not due to a direct transfer of the characters in 
 question, but to some kind of "determiner" of heredity. 
 Thus blood relatives do not inherit characters in the 
 manner that real estate or personal property passes from 
 one generation to another. 
 
 There have been many theories advanced attempting 
 to explain the phenomena of heredity, two of which are 
 of special interest since they serve as the basic principle 
 governing animal breeding. It is only fair to v/arn the 
 reader that these theories are conflicting, and that the 
 principle involved has been the most discussed question 
 in modern times. The first of these theories advanced 
 was that by Charles Darwin, and known as Darwin's 
 pangenesis. The second was that by August Weismann 
 and known as Weismann's germ plasm. 
 
 Darwin's pangenesis. — Although not the first to at- 
 tempt a theoretical explanation of the phenomena of 
 heredity, Darwin set forth a provisional hypothesis which 
 seemed so probable a speculation that it attracted world- 
 wide comment. In view of the importance formerly at- 
 tached to this theory of heredity, the hypothesis is given 
 as stated by Darwin : 
 
 'Tt is universally admitted that the cells or units of the 
 body increase by self-division or proliferation, retaining 
 the same nature, and that they ultimately become con- 
 verted into the various tissues and substances of the 
 body. But besides this means of increase, I assume that 
 the units throw off minute granules which are dispersed 
 throughout the whole system ; that these, when sup- 
 plied with proper nutriment, multiply by self-division, 
 
 21 
 
22 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 and are ultimately developed into units like those from 
 which they were originally derived. These granules 
 may be called gemmules. They are collected from all 
 parts of the system to constitute the sexual elements, 
 and their development in the next generation forms a 
 new being; but they are likewise capable of transmission 
 in a dormant state to future generations and may then 
 be developed. Their development depends on their 
 union with other partially developed or nascent cells 
 which precede them in the regular course of growth. 
 Why I use the term union will be seen when we discuss 
 the direct action of pollen on the tissues of the mother 
 plant. Gemmules are supposed to be thrown off by every 
 unit, not only during the adult state, but during each 
 stage of development of every organism, but not neces- 
 sarily during the continued existence of the same unit. 
 Lastly, I assume that the gemmules in their dormant 
 state have a mutual affinity for each other, leading to 
 their aggregation into buds or into the sexual elements. 
 Hence, it is not the reproductive organs or buds which 
 generate new organisms, but the units of which each 
 individual is composed. These assun:ptions constitute 
 the provisional hypothesis which I have called pan- 
 genesis."* 
 
 He later states : "I am aware that my view is merely 
 a provisional hypothesis or speculation ; but until a bet- 
 ter one is advanced it will serve to bring together a mul- 
 titude of facts which are at present left disconnected by 
 any efficient cause." 
 
 Weismann's germ plasm. — In view of the importance 
 of an intelligent idea of the source of the hereditary sub- 
 stance and its subsequent behavior the hypothesis is 
 given as stated by Weismann : 
 
 "According to my view, the germ plasm (the hered- 
 itary substance of a germ cell) of multicellular organ- 
 isms is composed of ancestral germ plasms or ids — the 
 vital units of the third order — each nuclear rod or idant 
 
 *Char1es Darwin, "Animals and Plants Under Domestication," Cliapter 27. 
 
THE DETERMINERS OF HEREDITY 2^ 
 
 being formed of a number of these. Each id in the germ 
 plasm is built up of thousands or hundreds of thousands 
 of determinants- — the vital units of the second order — 
 which, in their turn, are composed of the actual bearers 
 of vitality, or biophors — the ultimate vital units. The 
 biophors are of various kinds, and each kind corresponds 
 to a different part of a cell ; they are, therefore, the 
 'bearers of the characters or qualities' of cells. Various 
 but perfectly definite numbers and combinations of these 
 form the determinants, each of which is the primary con- 
 stituent of a particular cell, or of a small or even large 
 group of cells (e. g., blood corpuscles). 
 
 "These determinants control the cell by breaking up 
 into biophors, which migrate into the cell body through 
 the pores of the nuclear membrane, multiply there, ar- 
 range themselves according to the forces within them, 
 and determine the histological structure of the cell. But 
 they only do so after a certain definitely prescribed 
 period of development, during which they reach the cell 
 which they have to control. 
 
 "The cause of each determinant reaching its proper 
 place in the body depends on the fact that it takes up a 
 definite position in the id of germ plasm, and that the 
 latter, therefore, exhibits an inherited and perfectly 
 definite architecture. Ontogeny (development) depends 
 on a gradual process of disintegration of the id of germ 
 plasm, which splits into smaller and smaller groups of 
 determinants in the development of each individual, so 
 that in place of a million different determinants, of which 
 we may suppose the id of germ plasm to be composed, 
 each daughter cell in the next ontogenetic stage would 
 only possess half a million, and each cell in the next 
 following stage only a quarter of a million, and so on. 
 Finally, if we neglect possible complications, only one 
 kind of determinant remains in each cell, viz., that which 
 has to control that particular cell or group of cells."* 
 
 Opposite views. — According to Darwin, the deter- 
 
 *August VVeismann, "The Germ Plasm," Part I, "The Material Basis of Heredity." 
 
M 
 
 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 miners of heredity, the gemmules, are given off from the 
 body cells and dispersed throughout the whole system. 
 While some of these gemmules are active and when 
 properly nourished, multiply by self-division and ulti- 
 mately develop into cells like those from which they were 
 originally derived, other gemmules are dormant, and, 
 having a mutual affinity for each other, collect into the 
 sexual organs. 
 
 According to Weismann, the determinants proceed 
 from the germ plasm, the hereditary substance of the 
 germ cell. These determinants control development by 
 breaking up into biophores which migrate into the cell 
 body, multiply there by self-division, and arrange them- 
 selves according to forces from within. His idea of the 
 "Continuity of the Germ Plasm" regards the hereditary 
 material as passing from generation to generation with 
 the minimum of influence from, or association with the 
 body of the parent. According to this view the many 
 changes which animals undergo from time to time are 
 accounted for on the basis of selection. (Fig. 9.) 
 
 S \Lx/2e. of -stjcczss/o/j 
 
 ^Jijne. of 
 *"^ jnhizritsncz 
 
 Fig. 9 — Diagram Illustrating Weismann's Theory of Descent 
 
 G. The germ cells, which by division give rise to the body cells (S), and to new 
 germ cells (G), which separate from the body cells and repeat the process in each 
 successive generation. 
 
 Approved practice not involved. — These are the two 
 main theories on the subject of heredity. Actual ex- 
 perimentation to determine the facts seems impossible. 
 The intense interest has arisen over the assumption that 
 if the hereditary determiners follow the Darwin hypoth- 
 esis it is easy to explain the possibility of acquired char- 
 acters being inherited ; whereas, if the hereditary bearers 
 
THE DETERMINERS OF HEREDITY 
 
 -^j 
 
 proceed according to the Weismann theory, it is dif- 
 ficult to understand how a modification acquired by the 
 parent can be transmitted to the offspring. 
 
 This question is of vital importance to the student of 
 genetics and has been the object of much careful study. 
 No doubt it is one of the most discussed questions of the 
 present time, as scientific men are divided in their opin- 
 ion, many stating with much emphasis that under no 
 condition can a modification acquired by a parent be 
 transmitted to the offspring; while others are equally as 
 positive that such modifications may be inherited. In- 
 teresting as this question is to the student of genetics, 
 it is only fair, at this time, to assure the breeder of 
 animals that in actual practice it is of secondary im- 
 portance. 
 
 The hereditary bridge. — Having briefly reviewed the 
 major theories of heredity and the principles involved, 
 we will now pass to a consideration of the most approved 
 ideas, giving them in as much detail as possible in the 
 space at disposal. While little is definitely known of the 
 determiners of hereditary characters which appear in 
 successive generations, yet it is obvious that, in any 
 event, such determiners are obtained from the two germ 
 cells — male and female — and that they pass to the new 
 organism in the fertilized egg. This single cell is the 
 actual bridge between parent and offspring, and it is the 
 only bridge. The only actual fragment of the paternal 
 organism given over to the new individual is the single 
 maturated sperm cell which in fertilization unites Mnth 
 the maturated egg cell, the only fragment from the 
 maternal parent. The entire heritage is packed into 
 this single cell. 
 
 The matter appears all the more wonderful when we 
 consider the small as well as the unequal size of the two 
 germ cells, for it has been shown conclusively that the 
 egg cell and the sperm cell are equal in their hereditary 
 influence, even though the former contains many thou- 
 
26 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 sand times the bulk of the latter. Thus the minuteness 
 of the sperm cell is apparent when we reflect that the 
 egg cell is about %25 of an inch in diameter. When we 
 recall the marvelous array of characters which make up 
 the sum total of what is obviously inherited, the am_aze- 
 ment grows that so small a cell can contain such an 
 enormous load. 
 
 The fact that the heritage is completed at the time of 
 fertilization is significant. Formerly there was much 
 confusion in this matter. The statement was often made 
 that the young animal's heritage was complete at birth. 
 Now we understand the heritage to be completed, not 
 at birth, but at a much earlier time, in fact at the time 
 of conception. True, the subsequent development of 
 the new individual may be retarded or accelerated by the 
 care and nourishment of the maternal parent, before 
 birth, as well as by the nourishment and training after 
 birth. This is a matter of environment and development 
 and cannot be considered as in any sense a hereditary 
 relation. 
 
 The hereditary material.- — The course of the hereditary 
 
 determiners from their 
 probable origin in the 
 reproductive organs of 
 the male and female to 
 the mature sperm cell 
 and egg cell respec- 
 tively over the hered- 
 itary bridge — the fer- 
 tilized egg — to the em- 
 bryo and thence to the 
 
 F.G. 10-Shorthorn Bull "Shenstone ^^^ individual, SCCmS 
 
 ALBINO ' 
 
 clear and the route 
 easily followed. However, the material nature and phys- 
 ical make-up of these determiners is little understood 
 and probably exceedingly complicated. 
 
 It is conceded that there is something within the fer- 
 
THE DETERMINERS OF HEREDITY 2/ 
 
 tilized egg that controls the unfolding of the developing 
 organism. This control is complete with respect to both 
 quantity and quality, and governs the time and rate of 
 appearance of its various characters so that certain com- 
 binations rather than others shall come about in defi- 
 nite sequence. But just v^hat are the determiners of 
 these hereditary qualities? Can they be discovered by 
 the aid of the microscope, or are they chemical rather 
 than morphological in their nature, such as enzymes, 
 w^hich only the chemist can detect? 
 
 The enzyme theory. — It has been suggested that hered- 
 ity may ultimately be reduced to a series of chemical 
 reactions depending upon the manner in w^hich various 
 enzymes initiate, retard or accelerate successive chemical 
 combinations occurring in the protoplasm. Thus it has 
 been found that the blood of closely related varieties of 
 dogs is chemically different, although from a morpholog- 
 ical point of view it is apparently identical. Possibly 
 these differences extend to individuals of the same 
 variety. 
 
 The possibilities in this direction seem unlimited when 
 we reflect that an albumen compound having only 40 
 carbon atoms, a number by no means unusual, would 
 make possible millions of combinations of atoms. At 
 present, however, all that can be said for the enzyme 
 theory is that it is a bare possibility. It is suggested in 
 this connection with the thought that it might aid in a 
 clearer understanding of the possible nature of the de- 
 terminers of heredity. 
 
 The chromosome theory of heredity. — Since the nuclei 
 of sperm cell and the egg cell are the only portions of 
 these cells that invariably take part in fertilization, it has 
 been suggested that the entire factor of heritage is 
 packed into the nuclei of these germ cells. Although 
 not fully demonstrated, it is entirely probable that the 
 chromatin is the main seat of heredity and that the hered- 
 itary determiners are to be located in the chromosomes. 
 
28 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 There are many reasons for this assumption, three of 
 which are worthy of consideration. 
 
 Notwithstanding the great relative difference in size 
 between the sperm cell and the egg cell, they are prac- 
 tically equivalent in their hereditary influence. This has 
 been repeatedly shown by making reciprocal crosses be- 
 tween the two sexes. The only features that are alike 
 in the two cells are the chromosomes. The inference is, 
 therefore, that they contain the hereditary determiners. 
 
 The process of maturation by which the number of 
 chromosomes is reduced one-half, as a preliminary step 
 to fertilization, at which time the normal number is again 
 restored, is just what is needed to bring together an en- 
 tire complement of hereditary determiners, out of the 
 partial contribution of the two parents. Since, in fer- 
 tilization, no other part of the cells plays so consistent 
 and important a part as the chromosomes, during this 
 series of complicated changes, it would seem very prob- 
 able that they contain the determiners of heredity. More- 
 over, maturation is practiced by germ cells only. 
 
 The fagt that certain chromosomes in the fertilized egg 
 have been identified with particular features or combina- 
 tion of features in the adult developing from that egg 
 lends favor to the chromosome theory. This is strength- 
 ened by the probable existence of an extra chromosome 
 in connection with the determination of sex, as will be 
 pointed out later in the discussion of sex in animal breeding. 
 
 Such evidence as the foregoing has convinced many 
 that in the chromosomes we have visibly before us the 
 carriers of heredity. In fact, the supposition that the 
 chromosomes, with certain chemical reservations, are the 
 physical carriers of hereditary determiners forms an 
 excellent working hypothesis. The determiners of 
 heredity have been given a variety of names by various 
 investigators, but it is sufficient for our purpose to con- 
 sider the chromosomes as the physical basis of heredity. 
 
 Chromosome combination. — Little is definitely known 
 
THE DETERMINERS OE HEREDITY 29 
 
 concerning the makeup of the chromosomes or the dis- 
 tribution among them of the control of the various por- 
 tions of the body. Whether one chromosome could of 
 
 Fig. u— Shorthorn Cow "Maxwalton Missie" 
 
 itself, if necessary, direct the development of the entire 
 body, or whether the determiners of different parts or 
 organs are carried in separate chromosomes, is largely 
 a matter of conjecture. True, certain chromosomes in 
 the mature egg have been identified with particular fea- 
 tures in the adult, but this is by no means sufficient data 
 to warrant the general assertion that each particular 
 character in the body is always governed by a certain 
 chromosome in the mature egg. At present all we can 
 conjecture is that the combined chromosomes carry the 
 determiners of heredity. 
 
 In this connection the chromosomes that go astray in 
 maturation are significant. The possible chromosome 
 combination in the maturation of the germ cells — male 
 and female— as w?ll as their union in fertilization may 
 
30 . BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 explain much of the chance that attends all animal 
 breeding. 
 
 Origin of hereditary material. — Little is definitely 
 known of the origin of the hereditary material. Men- 
 tion is made of it at this time to show the difference in 
 time of the development of the egg cells and the sperm 
 cells and to point out the exact place of origin. The egg 
 cells, we recall, are produced in the ovaries of the female. 
 They are formed from specialized peritoneal cells known 
 as germinal epithelium. In our domestic animals all 
 permanent ova or egg cells are formed during fetal life, 
 or very soon after birth, although they do not attain 
 sexual maturity for some time, the period varying with 
 the class of animal. The sperm cells are produced in 
 the testicle of the male. These cells are produced in 
 the specialized spermatogenic cells and are formed 
 continuously throughout the productive period of the 
 animal's life. 
 
 Basis of controlling determiners of heredity. — To ob- 
 tain the greatest possible control over heredity is the 
 aim of the breeder. But, if the hereditary bearers largely 
 are conveyed in the chromosomes of the germ cells, then 
 no degree of human influence is conceivable. To find 
 a basis of controlling heredity to improve farm animals 
 we must consider the source of hereditary determiners. 
 We have shown that whatever the determiners may be, 
 they come from the parent, although, as we shall ' see 
 presently, they are influenced by previous ancestors. In 
 animal improvement, therefore, we must concentrate our 
 attention and eft'orts upon the parents and the ancestors. 
 They should be carefully developed in order to bring out 
 their possibilities, and they should be of proven worth 
 as breeders. By the selecting of animals containing the 
 hereditary material with maximum possibilities of de- 
 sired features and the minimum of those undesirable, 
 we can achieve a general control over the hereditary 
 characters of the offspring. 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 HEREDITY IN ANIMAL BREEDING 
 
 The behavior of characters as they pass from parent to 
 offspring has been the object of much careful study. In 
 considering the advisability of mating two animals it 
 is exceedingly desirable to knov^^ the possibilities of the 
 offspring. From time to time many attempts have been 
 made to deduce laws which would serve as guides to 
 the breeder. The complicated nature of heredity makes 
 the formation of such laws exceedingly difficult. This 
 is exhibited in the six fundamental propositions sug- 
 gested by Brewer, late professor in the Shefffeld Scien- 
 tific School of Yale University. 
 
 Brewer's fundamental propositions — These proposals 
 were given as suggestions in the breeding of farm 
 animals, before the rediscovery of Mendel's law of 
 heredity, hereafter to be considered, and are as follows: 
 
 1. Every animal must have two parents, and every 
 animal resembles its parents in most of its characteris- 
 tics. There is a force or tendency to keep offspring like 
 their parents or descendants like their ancestors. This 
 is called the law of inheritance (like produces like). 
 
 2. No two animals are alike or identical in all respects. 
 Hence offspring are never precisely like their ancestors. 
 This is known as the law of variation. 
 
 3. Vastly more animals are produced than are needed 
 for breeding, and only those having the highest aggregate 
 of good points should be used in breeding. This is called 
 the law of selection. 
 
 4. By training, environment and selection in pairing, 
 the form may be modified and the relative value of the 
 various points or characters changed so as to better suit 
 
 31 
 
32 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 the use or the fancy of the breeder. This is called breed- 
 ing to points. 
 
 5. By continued breeding to points, the characters may 
 be increased beyond what they were in the ancestry. 
 This is called improvement of breeds. 
 
 6. The more uniform the ancestry in character and the 
 more restricted in number, the more uniform and certain 
 the resulting descendants. The converse holds equally 
 true. The former is known as inbreeding, the latter as 
 out-crossing. 
 
 Complex nature of heredity. — Among animals reliable 
 data illustrating the free play of heredity are exceedingly 
 meager. The advanced registers contain much valuable 
 material for the guidance of breeders, but it is selected 
 material, as the animals failing to meet requirements are 
 not recorded. Possibly the most complete data that have 
 been collected, illustrating the free play of heredity, are 
 those of the English scientist Galton. He worked upon 
 the stature of English people. This material is used in 
 this connection, as it illustrates as nothing else can the 
 relation between offspring in general and their parentage. 
 Later the principles involved will be confirmed in studies 
 among dairy cattle and horses of speed. 
 
 These data are given in the tabulation, in which the 
 heights of 928 adult children are classified and compared 
 with the heights of their parents. The heights of the 
 adult children are listed at the top, and those of the 
 midparents on the left. By midparental height is meant 
 one-half of the combined heights of father and mother 
 after increasing the mother's height by one-eighth. In 
 his studies Galton found that women are one-eighth 
 (12.5%) shorter than men. Thus he multiplied all 
 female heights, both mothers and adult daughters, by 
 1.08 to convert them into male equivalents. By way of 
 explanation we see that of the 928 persons whose heights 
 were taken, 138 were 67.2 inches high. Of these, four 
 were born from 71.5-inch parents; three from 70.5-inch 
 
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 f^\ 
 
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 ir. 
 
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 M 
 
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 71.5 
 70.5 
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 68.5 
 
 
 
 
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 SlUajBdpII^ JO S 
 
 mspH 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 33 
 
34 
 
 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 parents ; 27 from 69.5-inch parents ; and so on for the 
 shorter parents. A careful analysis of the data in the 
 table illustrates the very complex nature of heredity. 
 
 In the discussion the relative terms low and high are 
 used to designate short and tall stature respectively. 
 
 ^ In his study the 
 breeder may substi- 
 tute any character 
 he has under con- 
 sideration, such as 
 low and high milk 
 yield, late and early 
 maturity and like 
 j characters. 
 ! Offspring in gen- 
 J eral resemble par- 
 ents.- — S i n c e the 
 measurements of 
 the midparents are recorded at the one-half inch 
 and the adult children at the two-tenths of an 
 inch, exact comparison is not possible. However, if we 
 compare the heights of the midparents with the heights 
 
 Fig. 12 — Guernsey Bull "Hayes Cherub 2d" 
 
 Offspring in General Similar to Parents 
 
 Parental 
 
 Low 
 
 Similar 
 
 High 
 
 Total 
 
 height 
 
 offspring 
 
 offspring 
 
 offspring 
 
 offspring 
 
 72.5 
 
 4 
 
 11 
 
 4 
 
 19 
 
 71.5 
 
 16 
 
 23 
 
 4 
 
 43 
 
 70.5 
 
 19 
 
 39 
 
 10 
 
 68 
 
 69.5 
 
 65 
 
 78 
 
 40 
 
 183 
 
 68.5 
 
 60 
 
 113 
 
 46 
 
 219 
 
 67.5 
 
 37 
 
 102 
 
 72 
 
 211 
 
 66.5 
 
 11 
 
 36 
 
 31 
 
 78 
 
 65.5 
 
 10 
 
 23 
 
 33 
 
 66 
 
 64.5 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 12 
 
 23 
 
 Total 
 
 224 
 
 434 
 
 252 
 
 910 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 25 
 
 48 
 
 27 
 
 100 
 
HEREDITY IN ANIMAL BREEDING 35 
 
 of the three nearest groups of adult children, we will 
 observe that there is general similarity between the 
 parents and offspring. This is shown in the preceding 
 tabulation, in which the parent is compared with the 
 offspring, the latter being divided in three parts — sim- 
 ilar, low and high — the similar including the sum of the 
 three groups nearest the parental height, the low the 
 sum of those below, and the high the sum of those above. 
 
 This division of offspring slightly favors the tall 
 stature, giving the high group a larger per cent than the 
 low group, which no doubt would be reversed were exact 
 comparison possible. The significant fact is that the 
 similar, although including but three groups, contains 48 
 per cent of the total number of offspring. 
 
 Particular offspring unlike the parent. — While in the 
 main the new individual resembles the parent, in particu- 
 lar cases, that is the best that can be said for it. The 
 most striking feature of the table is that offspring are 
 unlike their parents. There is limited similarity between 
 specific parents and their particular off-spring. In other 
 words, like parents as well as the same parents, in suc- 
 cessive generations, produce unlike offspring, see any 
 row in the table; and like offspring are produced by 
 unlike parents, see any column in the table (p. 33). 
 
 Every new individual inherits all of the characters of 
 the race to which it belongs. Not all characters, how- 
 ever, will be inherited with the same intensity. Some 
 will be evident in the make-up of the new individual, 
 while others will not be apparent. The visible char- 
 acters of one parent, or even of both, give no assurance 
 of what will appear in the offspring. In fact, there is no 
 true guide whereby we may know for a certainty what 
 will happen in individual cases. It is only fair to assure 
 the breeder, however, that sufficient data have been col- 
 lected to show how ofi'spring in general compare with 
 the parentage, and how general as well as specific im- 
 provement may be accomplished. 
 
36 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 Some offspring higher and some lower than their 
 parents. — The table indicates that no matter what the 
 parents, whether low or high, some of the offspring will 
 be lower and some higher than their parents. Thus, if 
 we divide the table (p. 33) into two parts, as indicated by the 
 diagonal line, placing those offspring that are superior to 
 their parents below the line and those that are inferior 
 above the line, we get the following results : 
 
 Inferior to parents 
 
 Superior to parents 
 
 Number of offspring. . 
 Per cent, of offspring. 
 
 517 
 
 55.7 
 
 411 
 44.2 
 
 Due to the dift'erence in recorded heights between 
 parent and offspring, it is not possible to divide the table 
 exactly. The results obtained, however, show clearly 
 that 44 per cent of the offspring are superior to their 
 parents, while 56 per cent are approximately equal or 
 inferior to their parents. 
 
 Medium offspring the most frequent. — A careful study 
 of the table reveals the fact that mediocrity seems to be 
 
 the common lot. This is in- 
 dicated when we compare 
 the average height of the 
 midparents, which is 68.6 
 inches, with the average 
 height of all adult children, 
 which is 68.0 inches. Ob- 
 serve how the population 
 clusters about the number 
 34, which is the nearest 
 representative of the aver- 
 midparent and adult chil- 
 dren. This is shown by the number of offspring con- 
 tained within the light dotted lines, which includes 47 
 
 Fig. 13 — Guernsey Cow "Dolly Dimple" 
 
 a^e heisfht of both the 
 
HEREDITY IN ANIMAL BREEDING 37 
 
 per cent of the total population. The principle involved 
 here is that whatever the parent — high or low^ — the off- 
 spring tend strongly toward the average of the race. 
 
 The high parent and his offspring. — High parents pro- 
 duce both low and high offspring. This is well illustrated 
 in the case of the 70.5-inch parents, which are 2 inches 
 above the average for all parents. Of the entire off- 
 spring, 68 in number, one is almost a dwarf and 51 are 
 lower than their parents, with seven distinctly below the 
 average of the race. This tendency toward inferiority 
 is known as regression. On the other hand, there are 17 
 offspring, or exactly one-fourth, superior to their excep- 
 tionally good parents. The higher we go among the ex- 
 ceptional parents the more this is true and the larger is 
 the percentage of superior offspring. This tendency 
 toward superiority is known as progression. 
 
 The high offspring and his parents. — We now come to 
 a consideration of the production of superior animals, the 
 goal of all animal breeding. The table shows that su- 
 perior animals may be produced in various ways. For 
 example, while the offspring in the 72.2-inch column are 
 clearly superior, ranging over six feet in height, yet they 
 were produced by all kinds of parents, from the very 
 tallest down to 65.5. While the parents were thus dis- 
 tributed the greatest percentage of superior offspring 
 came from extremely tall parents, although the greatest 
 number came from medium parents. Thus the greatest 
 number — 11 — came from a medium population of 183, 
 or less than one in 17, whereas next to the highest — 
 seven in number — came from a high population of 19, or 
 more than one in three. In other words, we stand one 
 chance in 17 to get a high offspring when selecting for 
 breeding purposes from medium parents, and one chance 
 in three when selecting from high parents. 
 
 High parents produce both high and low offspring, 
 and low parents produce both high and low offspring. 
 But under suitable environment high parents produce 
 
38 
 
 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 more high offspring and fewer low offspring, while low 
 parents produce more low offspring and fewer high off- 
 spring. Thus, if we divide the table into four parts as 
 indicated by the heavy lines we get the following results : 
 
 Low offspring 
 
 High offspring 
 
 Number Per cent. Number Per cent. 
 
 High parents. 
 Low parents. 
 
 Total.... 
 
 241 
 296 
 
 45 
 55 
 
 295 
 96 
 
 537 
 
 100 
 
 391 
 
 Of the 537 offspring classified as low, 55 per cent of 
 them are produced by low parents, while but 45 per 
 cent are produced by high parents. The interesting 
 fact is that of the 391 offspring classified as high, 75 
 per cent of them are produced by high parents, while 
 only 25 per cent of them are the get of low parents. 
 
 The law of ancestral heredity. — We have seen that 
 the new individual inherits all of the characters of the 
 race to which it belongs, but that many of these char- 
 acters are not evident in the make-up of the animal. We 
 now come to a consideration of the probable resemblance 
 between the new individual and his parents and to the 
 extent to which he resembles more remote ancestors. 
 Galton and Pearson have given much study to this ques- 
 tion, and although working along independent lines, they 
 have arrived at practically the same conclusions. 
 
 They state that on the average the two immediate 
 parents contribute between them one-half of the effective 
 heritage, the grandparents one-fourth, the great-grand- 
 parents one-eighth, and so on to infinity, so that the total 
 heritage would be represented by one. This is called 
 "Galton's law of ancestral heredity," and applies to 
 generations and not to individual offspring. According 
 
HEREDITY IN ANIMAL BREEDING 
 
 39 
 
 to this law, the effective heritage contributed by each 
 generation and by each separate ancestor may be repre- 
 sented as follows : 
 
 Galton's Law of Ancestral Heredity 
 
 Generation of 
 
 Number of 
 
 Hereditary contri- 
 
 Hereditary contri- 
 
 ancestors 
 
 ancestors 
 
 bution of each 
 
 bution of each 
 
 
 
 generation 
 
 ancestor 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 l/i 
 
 % 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 % 
 
 Vio 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 % 
 
 yo4 
 
 4 
 
 16 
 
 yi6 
 
 Vaso 
 
 5 
 
 32 
 
 1/32 
 
 yi02.i 
 
 6 
 
 6-1 
 
 V.U 
 
 %ll!)(! 
 
 This table is significant, as it indicates clearly the great 
 importance of the immediate parents as well as the value 
 of pure ancestors. Not infrequently, especially in animal 
 
 Fig. 14 — Cheviot Shi;ei' ui' Guuu Tvin^ 
 
40 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 breeding, much stress is placed on some noted remote 
 ancestor. According to the table, a superior ancestor in 
 the fifth generation has but one chance in over one 
 thousand in stamping a character upon the offspring. 
 
 The table also indicates the importance of pure an- 
 cestors, if we wish to foretell the characteristics of the 
 offspring. If all the lines are pure, then we may be 
 reasonably sure that the oft'spring will be like his an- 
 cestors. On the other hand, if the ancestors are mixed, 
 no one can foretell what the offspring will be like. 
 
 Reversion and atavism. — These two terms are used to 
 designate characters reappearing in the offspring, but 
 not visible in the parents. Unfortunately these terms 
 are used more or less interchangeably. Best usage war- 
 rants defining atavism as "grandparentism ;" that is, 
 skipping a generation, with the result that a character 
 in the offspring is unlike that of either parent, but sim- 
 ilar to the character in one of the grandparents. Good 
 examples are furnished by the frequent occurrence of red 
 calves among Aberdeen-Angus from black parents, as 
 well as of red and white Holstein-Friesian calves from 
 black and white parents. 
 
 On the other hand, reversion may be defined as the 
 reappearance of a character which has not been manifest 
 perhaps for many generations, although it was actually 
 present in some remote ancestor. A good illustration 
 is seen in the occurrence, now and then, of stripes or 
 bars on the shoulders and legs of the horse. The appear- 
 ance of a case of either atavism or reversion is interest- 
 ing, but neither has any practical significance in animal 
 improvement, as they can be discarded by selection the 
 same as any other undesirable character. 
 
 Blended, exclusive and particulate inheritance. — Some- 
 times the oft'spring will be intermediate between the 
 parents, showing a blend ; sometimes it will resemble 
 "one or the other parent, showing exclusive inheritance ; 
 while at other times the offspring will show traces of 
 
HEREDITY IN ANIMAL BREEDING 4I 
 
 both parents, each distinct and separate, which is known 
 as particulate inheritance. A good example of these 
 three types of inheritance is furnished in the case of 
 color among farm animals. In the coat color of horses 
 blended and exclusive inheritance is common, while par- 
 ticulate inheritance is occasionally observed. White 
 and black parents often produce a roan or a gray of vary- 
 ing shades ; at other times the offspring will inherit the 
 color of one parent to the exclusion of the other, and 
 thus be white or black; while occasionally, especially in 
 the case of ponies, the new individual inherits the color 
 of both parents, and is black and white or piebald. In 
 such cases possibly the type of inheritance depends in a 
 large measure on the purity of the coat color of the 
 parent. The best illustration of particular inheritance 
 is observed in the case of swine, where spotted offspring 
 from black and white parents are very common, owing 
 to the impurity of the coat color in the case of the 
 parents, due to extended crossing in the formation of 
 the breeds. 
 
CHAPTER V 
 MENDEL'S LAW OF HEREDITY 
 
 The most promising law for the guidance of breeders 
 at the present time is that discovered by Gregor Johann 
 Mendel, a teacher of the physical and natural sciences in 
 a monastic school at Briinn, Austria, in the second half 
 of the last century. For eight years Mendel made a 
 series of studies, mostly with peas, on the behavior of 
 certain hereditary characters, from which he drew some 
 general conclusions now known as "Mendel's law of 
 heredity," which deals with the inheritance of contrast- 
 ing or allelomorphic characters in animals and plants. 
 Although brief accounts of these experiments were pub- 
 lished in 1865, they attracted no attention until 1900, 
 when three botanists, de Vries of Holland, von Tscher- 
 mak of Austria, and Correns of Germany, working in- 
 dependently, came to much the same conclusions as 
 those formerly stated by Mendel. Since 1900 Mendel's 
 law has easily held first place among biological workers. 
 
 The law when one pair of characters is involved, mono- 
 hybrids. — To get the essential features of this law before 
 us, we will consider an illustration. The case of -coat 
 color among guinea pigs furnishes a good example. If 
 we mate a black guinea pig of pure descent with a white 
 one, the offspring will all be black, similar to the black 
 parent, and none will be white. The black color dom- 
 inates in the cross, and, as Mendel says, the white re- 
 cedes from view. The black character, therefore, is 
 called the dominant character, and the white the recessive 
 character. 
 
 Now, if two of these cross-bred black guinea pigs be 
 mated with each other, one-fourth of the offspring will 
 be of the same color as the white grandparent, one-fourth 
 
MENDEL S LAW OF HEREDITY 
 
 43 
 
 the same as the black grandparent, and one-half the same 
 as the cross-bred black parents. In other words, one- 
 fourth will be pure white, and when mated with each 
 other will produce only white offspring; one-fourth pure 
 black, and when mated with each other will produce only 
 black offspring; and one-half cross-bred black, similar 
 to their black parents, and will behave in a similar man- 
 Such an experiment 
 
 ner when mated with each other. 
 is difficult, as we cannot tell the 
 cross-bred black until they 
 have been mated and their 
 offspring observed. 
 
 This phenomenon is not dif- 
 ficult of explanation when but 
 one pair of allelomorphic char- 
 acters are involved. The ma- 
 ture germ cells or gametes which 
 united in the original cross were 
 one black and the other white in 
 character. Both characters were 
 present in the cross-bred off- 
 spring, but black, from its na- 
 ture, dominated. When the 
 cross-bred black individuals 
 produce germ cells, the black 
 and white characters separate 
 from each other and pass into 
 different cells. Thus the egq 
 cells formed by a female cross- 
 bred black are half of them 
 black and half of them white in 
 character. The same is true of 
 the sperm cells formed by a male 
 cross-bred black. The egg cell 
 that is fertilized is as likely to 
 l)e one as the other, and the 
 
 pure black from the 
 
 Fig. 15. — Black and White Guinea 
 
 Pigs Showing Mendelian 
 
 Phenomena 
 
 1. Black female guinea pig and 
 her young. 2. White male guinea 
 pig, father of black young. 3. 
 Two of the grown up young of a 
 black and white guinea pig. 4. A 
 group of four young produced by 
 the grown up animals above.* 
 
 *Figs. 15 and 17 from "Heredity," by permission of both the author, W. E. 
 Castle, and the publisher, D. Appleton & Company. 
 
44 
 
 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 sperm cell sharing- in fertilization has similar possibili- 
 ties. The results, therefore, would be as follows: 
 
 Male gametes 
 Cross-bred 
 sperm cells 
 
 Female gametes 
 Cross-bred 
 egg cells 
 
 Zygotes 
 
 WW = 1 W W pure white 
 
 B W 
 
 B W 
 
 B B = 1 B B pure black 
 
 "2 B W cross-bred black 
 
 '; Diagram illustrating the union of male and female gametes, resulting in the 
 occurrence of oflFspring ir Mendelian proportions. 
 
 Perhaps the most convenient way of representing the 
 supposed causes of Mendelian segregation, especially 
 where more than one pair of characters is involved, is by 
 the use of the four-square table. Along the top of the 
 table are written the two kinds of characters that occur 
 in equal numbers among the male germ cells of the cross- 
 bred and along the left of .the table are written the same 
 factors for the female germ cells. 
 
 Black X white = black cross-bred 
 Cross-bred male gametes 
 
 W 
 
 I 
 
 
 B B 
 
 B W 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 B 
 
 pure 
 
 cross-bred 
 
 
 
 bo 
 
 0) 
 
 
 black 
 
 black 
 
 
 
 ■s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 E 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ Zygotes 
 
 til 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -d 
 
 
 B W 
 
 WW 
 
 
 
 XI 
 
 W 
 
 cross-bred 
 
 pure 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 u 
 
 
 black 
 
 white 
 
 
 
 Diagram illustrating the union of male and female gametes, resulting in Mendelian 
 proportions when one pair of characters is involved. 
 
MENDEL S LAW OF HEREDITY 45 
 
 Dominants and recessives. — When two distinct vari- 
 eties are crossed, in which one is dominant with regard 
 to a certain character, while the other is recessive, the 
 first hybrid generation (F^) is an impure dominant. On 
 interbreeding the second generation (Fo) can be divided 
 into four parts — one pure dominant, two impure dom- 
 inants and one pure recessive. The impure dominants 
 on interbreeding split into the same proportions, while 
 the pure dominants and recessives each time breed true 
 for all successive generations. This may be illustrated 
 diagrammatically as follows : 
 
 nn D(n) nfn) an. 
 
 Fig. 16 — Diagram Illustrating Mendelian Dominants and Recessives, in Which 
 
 DD Stands for Pure Dominants, RR for Pure Recessives and D(R) for 
 
 Impure Dominants (After Herbert) 
 
 It is important to remember that this discussion ap- 
 plies to characters and not to individuals. Thus when 
 w^e say that an animal arising from cross-bred parents 
 
46 
 
 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 breeds true or pure, we mean only as to the single char- 
 acter involved. 
 
 The law when two pairs of characters are involved, 
 dihybrids. — For convenience we will continue the illus- 
 tration with guinea pigs, contrasting long and white hair 
 with short and dark hair. If we mate a short-haired 
 dark guinea pig of pure descent with a long-haired white 
 one, the offspring will all be short-haired and dark. 
 Thus short hair and dark hair are dominant, while long 
 hair and white hair are recessive. If two of the cross- 
 
 short — dark Xlong — w'.iite =short —dark cross-bred 
 Cross-bred male gametes 
 
 
 
 S D 
 
 SVkT 
 
 LD 
 
 L W 
 
 
 
 SS D D 
 
 SS D W 
 
 SL D D 
 
 SL D W 
 
 
 SD 
 
 short 
 dark 
 
 short 
 dark 
 
 short 
 dark 
 
 short 
 dark 
 
 
 
 pure 
 
 cross-bred 
 
 cross-bred 
 
 cross-bred 
 
 
 SS D W 
 
 SS WW 
 
 SL D W 
 
 S L W W 
 
 60 
 
 s w 
 
 short 
 
 short 
 
 short 
 
 short 
 
 
 dark 
 
 white 
 
 dark 
 
 white 
 
 B 
 
 
 cross-bred 
 
 pure 
 
 cross-bred 
 
 cross-bred 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 <+-. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 S L D D 
 
 SL D W 
 
 LL D D 
 
 LL DW 
 
 j^ 
 
 LD 
 
 short 
 
 short 
 
 long 
 
 long 
 
 o 
 
 
 dark 
 
 dark 
 
 dark 
 
 dark 
 
 
 
 cross-bred 
 
 cross-bred 
 
 pure 
 
 cross-bred 
 
 
 SL D W 
 
 SL WW 
 
 LL DW 
 
 LL WW 
 
 
 L W 
 
 short 
 
 short 
 
 long 
 
 long 
 
 
 
 dark 
 
 white 
 
 dark 
 
 white 
 
 
 
 cross-bred 
 
 cross-bred 
 
 cross-bred 
 
 pure 
 
 Diagram illustrating the union of male and female gametes, resulting in the 
 occurrence of Mendelian proportions when two pairs of characters are involved. 
 
MENDEL S LAW OF HEREDITY 
 
 47 
 
 bred animals be mated with each other, four kinds of 
 offspring will result : Dark and short-haired, like one 
 grandparent ; white and long-haired, like the other grand- 
 parent ; dark and long-haired, a new form ; and white and 
 short-haired, a second new form. 
 
 The segregation in the germ cells resulting in these 
 forms can be clearly illustrated diagrammatically by the 
 use of the sixteen-square table on the preceding page. 
 
 Now, the four kinds of guin- 
 ea pigs obtained from such 
 a cross will not be equally 
 numerous. Since, as we have 
 seen in the black-white cross, 
 dominants are three times as 
 numerous as recessives, we 
 should, therefore, expect the 
 short-haired to be three times as 
 numerous as the long-haired 
 ones, and the dark ones to be 
 three times as numerous as the 
 white ones. Further, animals 
 which are both short-haired and 
 dark should be 3 times 3, or nine 
 times as numerous as those 
 which are not. Thus, we have 
 the Mendelian proportion, nine 
 short-haired dark, three long- 
 haired dark, three short-haired 
 white, and one long-haired white, 
 which is closely approximated in 
 actual experience. 
 
 The breeding powers of these 
 four forms are exceedingly com- 
 plicated. The double recessive 
 long-white is the only individual 
 that will breed true. All other 
 forms require trial breeding to 
 establish their identity. This 
 
 Fig. 17 — Guinea Pigs Illustrat- 
 ing Mendelian Phenomena 
 When Two Pair of Char- 
 acters Are Involved 
 
 L Long-haired white parent. 2. 
 Short-haired dark parent. 3. 
 Long-haired darlc, a new form 
 arising when offspring of types 1 
 and 2 are interbred. 4. Short- 
 haired white, a second new form 
 arising when offspring of types 1 
 and 2 are interbred. 
 
48 
 
 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 breeding power may be most conveniently exhibited in 
 tabular form as follows : 
 
 Distinguish- 
 able types 
 
 Zygotically 
 different types 
 
 Num- 
 ber 
 
 Breeding properties when mated 
 with each other 
 
 
 (1) SS DD 
 
 1 
 
 Produces short-haired dark only 
 
 
 (2) S S D W 
 
 2 
 
 Produces short-haired dark, about 
 75 per cent, and short-haired while* 
 about 25 per cent. 
 
 9 SD 
 
 Short 
 
 (3) S L D D 
 
 2 
 
 Produces short-haired dark, about 
 75 per cent, and long-haired dark 
 about 25 per cent. 
 
 Dark 
 
 (4) SL DW 
 
 4 
 
 Produces short-haired dark ; short- 
 haired white ; long-haired dark; and 
 long-haired white in the ratio of 
 9:3:3:1 
 
 3 SW 
 
 (5) SS WW 
 
 1 
 
 Produces short-haired white only 
 
 Short 
 White 
 
 (6) SL WW 
 
 2 
 
 Produces short-haired white about 
 75 per cent, and long-haired white 
 about 25 per cent. 
 
 3L D 
 
 (7) LL D D 
 
 1 
 
 Produces long-haired dark only. 
 
 Long 
 Dark 
 
 (8) LL DW 
 
 2 
 
 Produces long-haired dark about 75 
 per cent, and long-haired white 
 about 25 per cent. 
 
 1 LW 
 
 Long 
 White 
 
 (9) LL WW 
 
 1 
 
 Produces long-haired white only. 
 
 Diagram illustrating the breeding properties of Mendelian offspring when two 
 pairs of characters are involved. 
 *New forms in italics. 
 
 Three Mendelian principles. — Mendel's law as illus- 
 trated in the crossing of pure animals with contrasting 
 characters depends on three factors — unit-characters, 
 dominance and segregation. In the illustration it was 
 apparent that there was no relation between the length 
 of hair and its color; each was transmitted entirely in- 
 dependent of the other. The length of hair, therefore, 
 is one unit-character, while the color of the hair is an- 
 
MENDEL S LAW OF HEREDITY 49 
 
 other. Ill the germ cells there are certain determiners 
 of unit-characters which dominate others during the de- 
 velopment ; thus they determine the apparent character 
 of the individual by causing that character to become 
 visible. This constitutes the dominant characters, as 
 in the cross-bred black guinea pig in the illustration. 
 
 The idea of segregation depends upon the conception 
 that the animal is made up of a bundle of unit-characters 
 which may be rearranged without disturbing the identity 
 of the various characters. When like characters are 
 joined together, as B with B (p. 44), the animal is said to 
 be hoinozygous. On the other hand, when unlike char- 
 acters are joined, as B with W, the individual is said to 
 be heterozygous. Recessive individuals are always 
 homozygous, as W W, for example. They do not con- 
 tain the dominant character, otherwise they would 
 show it. 
 
 Creation of new forms. — When short-haired dark 
 guinea pigs of pure descent are mated with long-haired 
 white ones and the hybrid form resulting therefrom inter- 
 bred, two new varieties arise — long-haired dark and 
 short-haired white. New varieties may be created by 
 gain, loss or transfer of characters from existing forms. 
 Having obtained a new variety, the next step is to fix it 
 so that it will breed true from generation to generation. 
 To fix these new forms so that they will breed true is 
 somewhat involved, especially when there are a number 
 of dominant characters, although it would be compar- 
 atively simple if dealing with a combination containing 
 only recessive characters, as they are always homozygous 
 and hence breed true from the beginning. 
 
 The most direct method of fixing a new variety would 
 be to test by suitable mating the unit-characters of each 
 individual to determine which are homozygous, and breed 
 from those, as they show only the desirable combination 
 of characters, and to reject all heterozygous individuals, 
 as they contain undesirable characters. Thus, if we were 
 
50 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 to fix the short-haired white variety, we would deter- 
 mine by mating the S S W W individuals in the tables 
 (pp. 46 and 48), and select these for breeding, rejecting all 
 others. In this way a pure race may be established. Such a 
 method, though sure, is likely to be very slow, as the 
 numbers are limited, and it involves the application of 
 the breeding test to many individuals in order to deter- 
 mine the homozygous individuals, most of which must 
 then be rejected. 
 
 It is, therefore, often better in practice to breed from 
 all animals showing the desired characters — in this case 
 short-haired white — and eliminate from their offspring 
 such individuals as do not show the proper combination 
 of characters. The short-haired white variety will thus 
 be gradually purified and a large stock of it can be built 
 up much more quickly. 
 
 Application of Mendel's law. — The examples show that 
 the coat color character and the length of hair character 
 can be transferred from one guinea pig to another when 
 separate animals possessing these particular characters 
 are mated according to Mendel's law. The long-hair 
 character of the original white animal was transferred to 
 the dark animal ; and the short hair of the original dark 
 animal was transferred to the white animal. Likewise, 
 the white coat of the original long-haired animal was 
 transferred to the short-haired animal, and the dark coat 
 of the short-haired animal was transferred to the long- 
 haired animal. 
 
 In plants this transfer of characters from one individ- 
 ual to another has been demonstrated to be of great 
 economic importance. Thus the stiff character of the 
 straw of low-yielding varieties of wheat has been trans- 
 ferred to high-yielding varieties, in which much trouble 
 had previously been experienced from broken straw. 
 Likewise, immunity to rust in wheat has been transferred 
 to varieties which formerly were very susceptible to rust. 
 There are numerous examples of this sort among plants. 
 
Mendel's law of heredity 51 
 
 Among animals fewer cases of the Mendelian phe- 
 nomena have been reported, although it is stated that the 
 trotting and pacing habit among horses behaves accord- 
 ing to Mendel's law, also that chestnut color is a Mende- 
 lian recessive. The red and white color of Shorthorn 
 cattle is said to be transmitted in Mendelian proportions, 
 as is also the hornless character when appearing in 
 horned breeds of cattle. Many features of the comb, the 
 plumage and the rumpless condition of poultry have been 
 shown to be inherited in accordance with Mendel's law. 
 Poultrymen experience difficulty in breeding blue 
 Andalusian fowls. When blue Andalusians are mated 
 together, the offspring are of three colors — black, blue 
 and white — in the Mendelian proportion of 1:2:1, while 
 the result of crossing a black and a white is a blue 
 Andalusian. This shows conclusively that the blue 
 Andalusian is a cross-bred, and the significant point to 
 remember is that it will not breed true. 
 
 Transferring characters. — At the present time there is 
 very little data available to show to what extent the more 
 economic factors, such as high fertility, early maturity, rapid 
 fattening, high quality in milk and like characters, follow the 
 Mendelian proportions in transmission. In this connection 
 James Wilson of the Royal College of Science, Dublin, Ire- 
 land, makes some interesting observations. He says : "There 
 are many cases of the transference of characters from 
 one race to another. Modern Aberdeen-Angus cattle got 
 their size, and probably their fattening capacity, from 
 English Longhorns and Shorthorns ; their color from the 
 old Celtic cattle ; their hornlessness from cattle brought 
 from Scandinavia by the Norsemen, and probably also 
 the shortness of the leg and the high quality of milk 
 which they frequently manifest, from the same source. 
 Shorthorns got their flecks from Dutch cattle and their 
 white color from the white cattle existing in the North 
 of England in the i8th century. The roans are crosses 
 between the white and the red. The North Devons 
 
52 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 probably got their shortness of leg from Norse cattle. 
 The American polled Herefords and Durhams got their 
 hornlessness chiefly from Norfolk polled, and some of 
 it from Aberdeen-Angus cattle."* 
 
 Wilson also gives an example of transferring the Jersey 
 high quality milk, testing about 5 per cent, to Red 
 Danish cattle, testing about 3.3 per cent butter fat, by 
 practically the same method as that suggested in the 
 discussion on creation of new forms (p. 49). f 
 
 Possibilities of Mendelism. — The discovery of the Men- 
 delian phenomena opens a vast field of research. Among 
 animals practically nothing has been done to determine 
 the possibilities of Mendelism. Few accurate observa- 
 tions have been made, and those of Wilson are very sug- 
 gestive. Think of the advantage to be gained could the 
 high flow of the Holstein-Friesian, the high quality of 
 Jersey milk and the early maturity of the Aberdeen- 
 Angus be transferred to the Shorthorn, or could the 
 vigor and fertility of the Large Yorkshire and the qual- 
 ity of the Cheshire be transferred to the Poland China ! 
 Likewise, think of the economic advantage to be gained 
 could the quality of the Arabian, the endurance of the 
 mustang, the action of the Standardbred, and' the fer- 
 tility and longevity of the Thoroughbred be transferred 
 to the Percheron ! Hitherto we have held such to be 
 physically impossible, and no doubt much of it is, al- 
 though, so far, exact proof is wanting. 
 
 On the other hand, if we place reliance in Wilson's 
 observations, then the triple-purpose cow — beef, butter, 
 milk — not only seems to be a possibility, but very prob- 
 able. We now have abundant data to show that fat 
 cows give as much and more milk and butter fat than 
 lean cows. Now, if high-quality fat can be transferred 
 to the high-milking cow, then there is no physical reason 
 why we cannot develop a triple-purpose cow; that is, a 
 
 *James Wilson, "The Principles of Stock Breeding," pp. 95, 96. 
 t James Wilson, "The Principles of Stock Breeding," pp. 126-132. 
 
MENDEL'S LAW OF HEREDITY 53 
 
 COW yielding a Holstein-Friesian flow of Jersey quality 
 and at the same time producing Shorthorn beef. 
 
 In view of the vast opportunity before the Shorthorn 
 breeders, together with the strong demand for dual-purpose 
 cattle, it seems strange that this is the only breed whose ad- 
 herents are advocating dairy or dual-purpose cattle that has 
 not established a system of advanced registry in which to 
 record dairy performance. There seems to be no reason 
 to doubt phenomenal development in dual-purpose and 
 possible triple-purpose Shorthorns were the breeders 
 given encouragement similar to that given the Holstein- 
 Friesian breeders. 
 
 Mendelism and reversion. — -Mendel's theory explains 
 why reversions appear and why they gradually decrease 
 with time. Take, for example, the red color among 
 Aberdeen-Angus cattle. Among the original stock there 
 were many colors, such as red, yellow, dun, brown, white 
 and the like, although black predominated. However, 
 red was the only color which was recessive to the desired 
 color, black, and the only one which could be carried 
 by a black animal without the animal showing its 
 presence. Thus, by avoiding the other colors, they were 
 rapidly eliminated. Not so with the red; it, being a 
 recessive, was frequently concealed beneath the black. 
 Red and white among Holstein-Friesian cattle act in a 
 similar manner. 
 
 Black animals which produce red calves are impure 
 blacks. They contain both red and black determiners. 
 When such a reversion appears the breeder usually 
 eliminates the cow, lest some of her descendants may 
 be similarly marked. No blame is placed on the bull 
 with which she was mated ; nevertheless, he is equally 
 responsible, for unless both are impure blacks or reces- 
 sives, they could not have produced a red calf. In fact, 
 the possible damage the cow could have done is very 
 small when compared with the bull. On the average, 
 when mated with pure black bulls, she could have pro- 
 
54 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 duced only one impure black every two years, while 
 the bull, even though mated with pure black cows, could 
 have left 30 or 40 times that number. The breeder, of 
 course, can have no suspicion that his stock is impure 
 in color until two impure blacks are mated, for then only 
 will the red appear, and that but one in four on the average. 
 
 Limitations of Mendelism. — Practically all of the 
 animal characters that have been mentioned as unit- 
 characters, following Mendel's law, are external ones. 
 These are of little importance in animal breeding. Few 
 experimental attempts have been made to determine 
 unit-characters of the body-form or function. Such fac- 
 tors are exceedingly difficult to investigate. In a con- 
 sideration of the inheritance of such factors the chief 
 difficulty lies in the possibility that a number of char- 
 acters are concerned, many of which, for various reasons, 
 do not seem to follow the Mendelian phenomena. In 
 fact, the importance of Mendel's law has been retarded 
 rather than advanced by the attempt at universal applica- 
 tion on the part of its adherents generally. Among farm 
 animals experience in crossing types to improve the form 
 or function has thus far proven very disastrous. This 
 is a very common practice of the American farmer, but 
 certainly does not seem to be a wise one. 
 
 As has been seen, when but two pairs of unit-char- 
 acters are involved the offspring are of four sorts, two 
 of which are exceedingly difficult to fix (p. 49). This 
 difficulty increases rapidly as the unit-characters in- 
 volved increase. This is well illustrated by mating 
 two guinea pigs with three pairs of characters, as color, 
 length and direction of hair. Thus if we mate a short- 
 haired, dark, smooth guinea pig with a long-haired, white 
 and rough one the resulting offspring will be short- 
 haired, dark and rough, these being the three dominant 
 characters, two derived from one parent and one from 
 the other. 
 
 Now, if these short-haired, dark and rough cross-bred 
 
Mendel's law of heredity 55 
 
 animals be mated with each other the offspring will be of 
 eight sorts and in the following proportions : 
 
 27 short-haired, dark, rough 3 long-haired, dark, smooth 
 
 9 short-haired, white, rough 3 long-haired, white, smooth 
 
 9 short-haired, dark, smooth 3 short-haired, white, smooth 
 
 9 long-haired, dark, rough 1 long-haired, white, smooth 
 
 Likewise, if four pairs of characters are involved, the 
 offspring will be of i6 different varieties and in the pro- 
 portion of 8i : 27 : 27 : 27 : 27 : 9 : 9 : 9 : 9 : 9 : 9 : 3 : 
 
 3 : 3 •• 3 : I- 
 
 The large number of new types and the difficulty of 
 fixing them seems very remote, especially when we con- 
 template the crossing of fixed breeds of farm animals. 
 The trial breeding and the elimination necessary to fix 
 new types, when only a few pairs of characters are in- 
 volved is so great as to make it impractical. When but 
 one pair is considered, only one in four is pure for one 
 character, and the number of pure stock produced grows 
 rapidly smaller as the number of characters increases, as 
 shown in the tabulation : 
 
 1 pair 1 animal in 4 is pure for one character 
 
 2 pairs 1 animal in 16 is pure for any two characters 
 
 3 pairs 1 animal in 64 is pure for any three characters 
 
 4 pairs 1 animal in 256 is pure for any four characters 
 
 5 pairs 1 animal in 1024 is pure for any five characters 
 
 The number of characters involved in crossing any of 
 the breeds of farm animals is great, and the number of 
 animals necessary for the trial breeding, as well as the 
 very large elimination, places the practical working of 
 Mendel's law in a very different light from that in which 
 it appears to the plant breeder, where numbers are of 
 no consequence. 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 SELECTION IN ANIMAL BREEDING 
 
 The breeding of useful farm animals depends very 
 largely upon our ability to select animals with skill and 
 judgment. In the discussion on heredity it was stated 
 that the offspring inherit all of the characters of the race 
 to which they belong. The offspring of given parentage, 
 therefore, may be low, medium and high in any par- 
 ticular character in which improvement is sought. In 
 the discussion on Mendel's law it was also indicated that 
 the best way to secure a given type so that it would be 
 transmitted with reasonable certainty from parent to 
 offspring was to select for mating those animals possess- 
 ing in the most perfect form the characters which we 
 wish to secure in the offspring. Selection is, therefore, 
 the all-powerful agent in controlling the characters of 
 farm animals generally. 
 
 Objects of selection. — As has been suggested, the 
 necessity for selection is based on the tendency of off- 
 spring generally to vary, in all important characters, 
 from their parents. Inferior animals should be eliminated 
 from breeding, as they tend to reproduce themselves. 
 On the other hand, superior offspring should be selected 
 for breeding, as they also tend to reproduce themselves 
 and to show still further improvement. Thus one of 
 the primary objects of selection is to improve the an- 
 cestry, preventing, so far as possible, the birth of unwel- 
 come individuals not suited to the purposes of man. The 
 animal breeder can prevent the birth of unprofitable 
 individuals approximately in proportion as he is skilled 
 in selection. 
 
 Among our farm animals, especially meat-producing 
 animals and males, more individuals are born than can 
 
 56 
 
58 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 be used in breeding, so that it becomes necessary to 
 reduce the number. A second object of selection, there- 
 fore, is to reduce numbers. This affords the breeder an 
 opportunity to influence the character and type of his 
 animals, as only superior ones should be retained for 
 breeding purposes. While selection is a very important 
 factor in establishing type, it does not greatly reduce 
 variability. This necessitates watchfulness on the part 
 of the breeder, as he must eliminate all animals from 
 breeding that do not meet the requirements of the 
 given type. 
 
 Standards of excellence in selection. — The breeder 
 must have a definite ideal or a standard of excellence 
 for his guidance in selecting his breeding animals. 
 Among the great run of variation which every breeder 
 will encounter, he must know which are useful, which 
 are fanciful and which are mere novelties. The standard 
 must not be altered by fancy considerations or by novel- 
 ties, no matter how curious or attractive. 
 
 The standard must be fixed in advance. It should be 
 wisely chosen in the light of what is needed. D.ue con- 
 sideration should be given to every influence. Once 
 chosen, however, the standard should be preserved un- 
 changed. Blood lines must be kept pure, not only 
 within the breed, but within the strain or family with 
 which we are working. This is emphasized by the law 
 of ancestral heredity and by the fact that no matter 
 what the parent, the offspring tends strongly toward 
 the average of the race to which it belongs. 
 
 History of the breeds. — When the breeder selects the 
 individuals that are to reproduce, it must be done in the 
 light of all the knowledge available. He must know the 
 weak characters as well as the strong points of the breed 
 with which he is working. This necessitates a thorough 
 knowledge of the history of the breed. The absence of 
 such intelligence is responsible for many failures. 
 
 This is well illustrated in the case of the Percheron 
 
SELECTION IN ANIMAL BREEDING 59 
 
 draft horse and in Berkshire swine. Most of the breeds 
 of draft horses, particularly those native to the British 
 Islands, are rather heavy in bone. This has led the Eng- 
 lish draft-horse breeders to select for refinement in bone. 
 Not infrequently a Percheron draft horse breeder selects 
 his animals on the same basis, which results in too light 
 a bone and lack of endurance in the limbs. The explana- 
 tion of this is that the light horse of Arabia played a very 
 important part in the formation of the Pei'fcheron breed, 
 which, therefore, is predisposed to light bone. The 
 same is true of Berkshire swine. This breed of swine 
 resulted largely from crossing the small, refined, quick- 
 maturing Neapolitan hog upon the large English hog; 
 and many are the Berkshire herds that have been ruined 
 by selecting for breeding purposes the most attractive, 
 refined and quick-maturing pigs. 
 
 Breed peculiarities. — Not only is a knowledge of the 
 history essential, but one must be familiar with the 
 inherent faults of the breed with which he is working. 
 He needs to know, for example, that the Clydesdale is 
 often deficient in the rear ribs, which gives the body a 
 rangy appearance ; that the Shire is often rather straight 
 in the pastern, with heels low and flat ; and that the 
 Belgian is often criticized for lack of substance in the 
 bones of the legs. 
 
 The breeder of Jersey dairy cattle should realize in 
 advance that individuals are often extremely delicate, 
 and the Holstein-Friesian breeder should know that the 
 breed is rather rough, possessing a short tail. He who 
 expects to breed Shorthorns needs to know that the breed 
 is of many types, varying widely in excellence, while the 
 Galloway breeder should not be surprised at consider- 
 able roughness, particularly in aged animals. 
 
 When breeding swine it is important to know that the 
 Berkshire is naturally deficient in ham, and the Poland 
 China in the shoulder; that the Chester White is a bit 
 coarse in the bone ; and that the Duroc-Jersey is uneven 
 
60 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 in type. These and the numerous other breed peculiar- 
 ities, both desirable and undesirable, should be in the 
 mind of the breeder before he begins his breeding opera- 
 tions. 
 
 Vigor, longevity and fertility. — We are so interested 
 in securing a desired type or character that we often 
 operate against valuable physical qualities, such as gen- 
 eral thrift, endurance and fertility. This is best illus- 
 trated in th« case of swine, although true of farm 
 animals generally. Since the early-maturing, heavy- 
 fleshed swine win in the show ring, they are selected for 
 breeding. Such animals are often so refined that they 
 lack vigor and fertility. Under such practice it is not 
 surprising that many of our breeds of meat-producing 
 animals lack vigor and longevity as well as fertility. 
 
 Contrast with this the endurance and prolificacy of a 
 few individuals that developed under more natural con- 
 ditions. The noted Angus cow Old Granny (No. i m 
 Angus Herd Book) produced 25 calves, the last one m 
 the 29th year of her life, and she lived to the ripe old 
 age of 36 years. The famous English Thoroughbred 
 mare. Old Fanny Cook, produced 15 foals, giving birth 
 
 Fig. 19 — Shropshire Sheep Uniform in Type 
 
SELECTION IN ANIMAL BREEDING 6l 
 
 to twins at 22 years of age, and she lived to be t,t, years 
 old. From a profitable point of view, the importance 
 
 Fig. 20 — Brown Swiss Herd True to Type 
 
 of selecting- to promote such physical properties, need 
 not be dwelt upon. 
 
 Large numbers promote uniformity. — Since our farm 
 animals are so variable, in all important characters, large 
 numbers are necessary in order to provide sufficient ma- 
 terial to secure uniformity in type. This was suggested 
 in our study of heredity, where it was stated that the 
 offspring inherit all of the characters of his race. Sup- 
 pose that we have a small uniform herd of even very 
 exceptional animals — say, four cows and a bull. Since 
 the offspring vary throughout the limits of the race, we 
 would find it difficult to preserve even a single character 
 on a uniform basis from generation to generation ; and 
 the herd once exceptional and uniform would rapidly 
 lose its identity. 
 
 In this connection the practice to pursue will depend 
 entirely upon the conditions. Thus the dairy breeder 
 possessing a common herd of cattle varying in produc- 
 tivity, some individuals scarcely paying for their keep, 
 while others are paying a good profit, is often at a loss 
 to know what disposition to make of the inferior in- 
 
62 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 dividuals, particularly if they are regular breeders. In 
 this case the inferior animals should be eliminated, even 
 though the number of animals in the herd be materially 
 reduced, as such individuals tend to reproduce others of 
 their kind. 
 
 The exceptional breeding animal. — Of even greater 
 importance than uniformity in type, large numbers are 
 absolutely necessary to secure the maximum value of 
 the exceptional breeder. This is significant, since the 
 excellence of any herd or breed is usually due to a iew 
 exceptional breeders. We have' examples of this on 
 every hand. The Hambletonian family of Standardbred 
 trotting horses owes its high speed development to a 
 very few exceptional animals descending from Hamble- 
 tonian lo and his noted son George Wilkes. Of the 
 thousands of Standardbred stallions recorded in Wal- 
 lace's Stud Book, there are but ii with 150 or more 
 performing offspring to their credit ; that is, offspring 
 that have trotted a mile in 2 130 or better, or paced one 
 in 2:25 or better. Now, of these 11 stallions, five are 
 sons of George Wilkes and three are grandsons, while 
 all are sons, grandsons or great-grandsons of Hamble- 
 tonian 10, with all but one in the paternal line. In a 
 similar manner, the Hal family of Standardbred pacers 
 descended from Tom Hal, the Morgan family descended 
 from Justin Morgan, and the American saddler descended 
 from Denmark. 
 
 Equally as good illustrations of the value of the excep- 
 tional breeder and the importance of large numbers is 
 found among dairy cattle. The De Kol strain of Hol- 
 stein-Friesian dairy cattle owes its high milk and butter 
 fat production to a very few exceptional animals 
 descending from De Kol 2d. Of the thousands of bulls 
 recorded in the Holstein-Friesian Herd Book, there are 
 but five with 100 or more advanced register daughters 
 to their credit ; that is, daughters capable of making the 
 requirements for admission to the advanced register 
 
SELECTION IN ANIMAL BREEDING 63 
 
 — producing 12 pounds of butter fat per week at 5 years 
 of age. These five bulls are sons, grandsons or great- 
 grandsons of the phenomenal cow, De Kol 2d. While 
 such remarkable breeding records depend on oppor- 
 tunity, it serves to illustrate the importance of having 
 large numbers of animals available with which to mate 
 such exceptional breeders in order to secure maximum 
 advantage. 
 
 Comparative value of sire and dam. — Considering the 
 offspring of a single mating, neither parent has any par- 
 ticular advantage over the other, and both are prac- 
 tically equal in controlling the characters of the offspring. 
 On the other hand, the sire has a decided advantage over 
 the dam in that he can influence large numbers in a 
 breeding season, whereas the dam can control but one, 
 or at most a few, as is the same of swine. The real dif- 
 ference, therefore, is one of numbers. 
 
 This principle is well illustrated in the case of the 11 
 Standardbred stallions referred to above, each with 150 
 or more performing offspring to his credit, whereas there 
 are but few mares that have 10 or more performing off- 
 spring in the list. The Holstein-Friesian bull. Lord 
 Netherland De Kol, has 120 advanced register daughters, 
 whereas Aaltje Salo 5th's Netherland, with eight ad- 
 vanced register daughters, is the leading cow of the breed 
 in the number of performing offspring to her credit (1913). 
 
 Influence of the sire. — From the foregoing it is evident 
 that the upper limit of the sire is comparatively very high 
 and the dam very low. The statement is often made 
 that the sire is half the herd, whereas he is far more than 
 that. He is one-half the herd the first generation, three- 
 quarters the second, seven-eighths the third and fifteen- 
 sixteenths the fourth. So powerful is the influence of 
 the sire that if careful selection be maintained for a few 
 generations, he will mold the character of the entire herd. 
 This fact should warn us of the necessity of exercising 
 extreme care in the selection of the sire. 
 
64 
 
 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 Fig. 21 — Poland-China Sow of Good Type 
 
 The great influence of the sire is of advantage to the 
 
 practical breeder, as he 
 can improve his herd 
 cheaply by the use of a 
 good sire. Possibly the 
 beginner with limited 
 means should procure a 
 number of rather plain 
 females and a male of as 
 good quality as he can 
 afford, rather than to 
 start with a small herd of good females and a male of 
 fair quality. 
 
 Suitability for mating. — Two animals to be suited for 
 mating should be as nearly alike in general physical 
 characters as it is possible to obtain. Since no two 
 animals are exactly alike, we must strike an average 
 between the characters of the parents and what we 
 desire to get in the offspring. It is a serious but com- 
 mon error to suppose that the bad points of one parent 
 can be overcome by good characters in the -mate. The 
 foundation of successful breeding lies in the mating of 
 two animals each of which is as nearly perfect as pos- 
 sible. When the offspring shows good qualities, the 
 mating of the parents is considered a fortunate nick. The 
 success or failure of the breeder often depends on his 
 ability to discover these nicks and to make use of them. 
 Some persons become very skilled in these, matters. 
 
CHAPTER VII 
 UNIT OF SELECTION— CHARACTER 
 
 The unit of selection is not the individual, but some 
 particular attribute or character of the individual. Thus, 
 hi the selecting of dairy cattle for breeding purposes, 
 capacity to secrete milk is one of the chief characters 
 sought ; in selecting beef cattle, ability to fleshen rapidly ; 
 in selecting draft horses, v^eight ; and in selecting swine 
 for breeding, capacity to fatten rapidly is one of the 
 chief characters taken into account. Of course, in each 
 case, many other factors or characters must be con- 
 sidered, as certain characters are more or less dependent 
 one upon the other. 
 
 Character defined. — In common usage the term "char- 
 acter" is loosely applied and has a variety of meanings. 
 When one animal differs from another, we say he has 
 different characters. Thus we say of one horse that he 
 has speed, and of another that he has not speed ; whereas 
 both have some speed, but only one has enough to be 
 worthy of note. What we really mean, therefore, is 
 that the character, speed, differs in the degree of develop- 
 ment in the two animals. Now, when the speed has been 
 improved, we speak of introducing a new character, 
 whereas the improvement simply consisted of modifying 
 a character already present. 
 
 Such modification or development may be brought 
 about by intensifying useful characters or by the sub- 
 ordination of those that are less desirable. The fact that 
 characters do not differ in kind, but only in degree, must 
 be kept clearly in the mind of the breeder when selecting 
 animals for breeding. The term character may be 
 defined, therefore, as consisting of one of those details 
 of form or function which, taken together, constitute the 
 individual animal. 
 
 65 
 
66 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 Germinal, acquired and congenital characters. — At- 
 tempts have been made to group characters mto classes 
 according to their mode of origin. Best usage warrants 
 defining germinal characters as those having their origin 
 in the germ plasm itself, as in the case of white, short- 
 haired guinea pigs descending from dark, short-haired 
 and white, long-haired guinea pigs (p. 47). Acquired 
 characters are defined as those that originate within the 
 individual under suitable environment, as the increased 
 speed of the race horse, due to continuous training. 
 Congenital characters are defined as those arising within 
 the individual also, and usually in spite of anything it 
 can do to prevent them, such as parental disease, the result 
 of uterine infection ; unsoundness in horses, the result of in- 
 herited weakness ; and the like. However, it is often dif- 
 ficult to difl^er.entiate between these three groups, as the 
 mode of origin cannot always be determined with certainty. 
 
 Correlated characters. — In our selection to improve 
 desirable characters or to subdue those that. are unde- 
 sirable we should keep in mind the fact that certain 
 characters seem to be so correlated as to move together, 
 while others move in opposite directions, and still others 
 move independent of each other. For example, there 
 is a high degree of correlation between a capacious udder 
 and high milk production, while there is a negative 
 correlation between the amount of milk produced and 
 the per cent of fat that it contains ; for, as the milk 
 production increases, the per cent of fat usually de- 
 creases. On the other hand, there is entire lack of 
 correlation between the color of a cow and the amount 
 of milk she gives, since black cows give as much and 
 no more milk than white cows. 
 
 This relationship is one of degree only, but it often 
 becomes an important factor in selecting breeding 
 animals. For example, delicacy is often associated with 
 refinement, and sterility with early maturity. Thus, 
 continued selection for refined, early-maturing animals 
 
UNIT OF SELECTION — CHARACTER 6/ 
 
 often leads to barrenness and lack of vigor. In like man- 
 ner the exceeding fineness of the Merino fleece has been 
 attained at the cost of diminished vigor. There is a high 
 degree of correlation between 
 excessive fatness and sterility 
 in both sexes, as well as be- 
 tween fatness and troubles at- 
 tending parturition in the fe- 
 male once she becomes preg- 
 nant. We have numerous ex- 
 amples of such relationships, 
 both good and bad, and the 
 breeder will do well to ac- 
 quaint himself with the more 
 important of them before he F'g. 22— shire stallion -'lockinge 
 
 , , . , , . . , HiNGlST" 
 
 selects his breedmg anmials. 
 
 Limit selection to useful characters. — In each of our 
 breeds of farm animals we have so increased the number 
 of characters that we are no longer able to find a very 
 large proportion of them in any one Individual. In 
 selecting our breeding animals we are often obliged to 
 take those possessing some undesirable characters in 
 order to get sufficient animals that meet the require- 
 ments. This makes real progress very slow. 
 
 Among the great number of characters which every 
 breed presents, the breeder should know which are use- 
 ful. He should decide upon a very limited number of 
 these and put all of his energies into their improvement. 
 This will have the decided advantage in that they will 
 be found in a large number of animals, and he can, 
 therefore, make his selection more rigid for the particular 
 characters in question. A little effort in this direction 
 would soon work wonders, as is exemplified in the speed 
 of the trotting horse, where the time has been reduced 
 from 2 :48>4 in 1810 to i :54^ in 1913. In this case speed 
 alone was the requirement. Even more striking results 
 have been attained with Holstein-Friesian cattle, where 
 
68 
 
 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 the butter fat yielded in seven days has been increased 
 from 21.2 pounds in 1894 to 35.3 pounds in 1913. In this 
 case ability to produce butter fat was the requirement. 
 Base selection on limited number of characters. — As 
 suggested in the case of the trotting horse and dairy 
 cow, where we base selection on one point, improvement 
 comes rapidly. Of course the particular character in- 
 volved depends on many subordinate factors, such as 
 vigor, capacity, endurance and the like, but all unessen- 
 
 Fic. 23 — Dutch Belted Herd of Excellent Type and Characteristic Markings 
 
 tial points, as size, style, action and conformation, have 
 been disregarded for the one object — speed in the trotter 
 and high milk and butter fat production in the cow. 
 
 On the other hand, difficulties in selection increase 
 rapidly with the increase in number of factors on which 
 selection is based. Let us assume a case where two 
 characters are involved. If one of the required factors 
 can be found in one-half of the individuals, then one-half 
 of the animals are available for breeding. To this let us 
 
UNIT OF SELECTION CHARACTER 69 
 
 add a second character that can be found in one-third 
 of the individuals. Now, the probability of finding the 
 two characters in the same individual becomes -j^^ x % or 
 Yq, so that but one animal in six meets the requirements. 
 This is particularly true of characters that do not cor- 
 relate, as color and milk production, or color and tend- 
 ency to fleshen rapidly. Notwithstanding this fact, 
 many of our breeds exhibit just such handicaps as is 
 illustrated in the black color and white belt, a breed re- 
 quirement of Dutch Belted cattle and Hampshire swine 
 (Figs. 23 and 24). 
 
 Records of performance. — After deciding upon the 
 economic characters we are to strive to improve, a record 
 of these characters should be kept, as such is invaluable 
 in mating our animals. Such records are essential to 
 highest development, as we are unable to tell what an 
 animal can do simply by a physical examination. No 
 one is so base as to claim to be able to tell how fast a 
 horse can trot, or how heavy a load he can draw by 
 looking at him, likewise no one can tell how much milk 
 and butter fat a cow will produce, or how much wool a 
 sheep will grow, on the basis of a physical examination alone. 
 
 With a record of the economic character in question 
 available for each individual, we are able to distinguish 
 the high-producing from the medium and low-perform- 
 ing animals. Such records enable us to mate the best 
 with the best, and thus improve the particular character 
 with which we are working. The remarkable success 
 attained in breeding dairy cattle in recent years has been 
 due in a large measure to the fact that the breeders kept 
 a record of the milk and butter fat produced. Thus the 
 breeders were able to know for a certainty, not only the 
 records of the animals they mated, but the records of 
 their ancestors as well. With most of our breeds of 
 farm animals the difficulty comes in devising a scheme 
 for measuring the particular characters for which the 
 animals are produced. 
 
70 
 
 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 Actual breeding test valuable. — In selecting breeding 
 animals we are confronted with the fact that certain 
 individuals transmit their qualities with a high degree 
 of certainty while others do not. This Is all the more 
 
 confusing because the ex- 
 ceptional breeder is not 
 necessarily the excep- 
 tional individual. Neither 
 Hambletonian lo nor 
 De Kol 2d were re- 
 markable performers in 
 themselves, although the 
 former founded a great 
 family of trotting horses, 
 while the latter is the 
 ancestress of the most 
 cows the world has ever 
 
 Fig. 24 — Hampshire Sow with Character- 
 istic Markings 
 
 remarkable strain of milk 
 
 seen. 
 
 The only method by which we can ascertain the actual 
 breeding value of an animal is by a breeding test. In 
 testing young females they should be mated with a male 
 of known worth, or in testing a young male he should 
 be mated with females whose breeding value is well 
 known. The offspring of young animals thus mated will 
 indicate which should be retained and which should be 
 eliminated, although in the case of dairy cows it is neces- 
 sary to have the performance of the offspring before we 
 can know for a certainty. To save time, the young 
 animals may be tested at a comparatively early age, es- 
 pecially males. The common practice of putting a new, 
 young sire into full service in a large herd, without a 
 test of his breeding capacity, cannot be too strongly 
 condemned, no matter what his individuality or his 
 pedigree. 
 
 Breeders' fancy points. — Many of our leading breeders 
 have adopted breed standards that operate as a check 
 upon the maximum development of useful characters. A 
 
UNIT OF SELECTION — CHARACTER 7I 
 
 very good example of this is observed in the color mark- 
 ings of Dutch Belted cattle, already mentioned. Accord- 
 ing to this requirement every cow must first have a 
 white belt about the body, which certainly adds nothing 
 to her ability to produce milk. Many high-producing 
 cows are eliminated from breeding simply because they 
 are deficient in this character. Possibly this serves to 
 keep the breed behind its competitors as milk-producing 
 animals. 
 
 The same principle is involved in nearly all of our 
 leading breeds, as their standard of perfection calls for 
 similar fancy points. Thus the Clydesdale and English 
 Shire draft horse must have long hairs growing from the 
 back of the cannons and fetlocks; chestnut color is 
 favored among Suffolk draft horses and Hackney coach 
 horses; the Holstein-Friesian cow must have a large 
 escutcheon, a long tail and be black and white in color; 
 the Jersey cow must have a black tongue ; the Ayrshire 
 cow must have characteristically shaped horns and a 
 straight back from base of horn to tail head ; and Hamp- 
 shire swine must be black in color with a white belt, 
 while Poland China and Berkshire swine must be black 
 in color with six white points, as well as free from curl- 
 ing hair along the back. Such fancy points add nothing 
 to the usefulness of the individual ; they simply serve 
 to complicate selection and act as a check upon maxi- 
 mum development of economic characters. 
 
 Fashionable breeding. — It often happens in the careers 
 of a breed that fashionable strains or families make their 
 appearance. Such families may owe their reputation to 
 certain notable animals, or they may result from the 
 activity of some promoter, and the popularity may, or 
 may not be due to real merit. For a time animals be- 
 longing to such families command a high price, and not 
 infrequently many small breeders become actively in- 
 terested, in the belief that they can make a large sum 
 of money and sell out before the popularity wanes. They 
 
72 
 
UNIT OF SELECTION CHARACTER 73 
 
 often pay a very large sum of money for an animal to be 
 placed in a small herd where there is utter lack of oppor- 
 tunity. Under such conditions the breeder seldom 
 realizes his money even though the individual animal 
 may be an excellent one. It will be to the financial ad- 
 vantage of the small breeder, as well as to the econ- 
 omical advantage of the breed, for him to handle the 
 best animals within his reach, and leave to the large 
 breeder, with every advantage at his command, the pro- 
 motion of fashionable strains. 
 
 Passing fads. — The breeder's work is often compli- 
 cated by fads and fancies of the public. A good illustra- 
 tion is observed in case of the shape and size of hen's 
 eggs. Some markets, especially New York City, pay 
 more for white eggs, while other markets, as Boston, 
 pay more for dark eggs ; some markets demand a 
 roundish tgg, while others prefer those of oval 
 shape. The same principle is involved in many other 
 characters, such as action and color among horses, and 
 the like. This is a serious consideration, as the breeder 
 must supply the demand or his products will remain 
 unsold. Since the breeder must sell his products or go 
 out of business, there is nothing left for him to do but 
 supply the demands of passing fads and fancies with as 
 little destruction to his breeding animals as possible. 
 
 Such demands can often be met by training, fitting and 
 conditioning, especially in cases like the action and car- 
 riage of horses. A passing fad can often be supplied by 
 the sire, thus enabling the breeder to retain his female 
 stock. No matter how pressing the fad, a few of the 
 original breeding animals should be retained as a pro- 
 tection against the day when the particular character 
 involved shall no longer be in demand. 
 
CHAPTER VIII 
 BASIS OF SELECTION— VARIATION 
 
 In the discussion of heredity it was stated that in the 
 main offspring resemble parents, but in an exact sense 
 the new individual is never like either parent. This 
 variation between parent and offspring is at once the 
 hope and despair of the breeder, who seeks to hold fast 
 to whatever he has found that is good, and at the same 
 time tries to find something better. The practical 
 breeder must keep clearly in mind the very important 
 fact that offspring are exceedingly, variable, and while 
 a few may be superior to their parents, more will be 
 inferior to them. In order to improve or even maintain 
 our animals in their present excellence we must reject 
 those offspring that are inferior and select for mating 
 those that are superior to their parents. 
 
 Variation general among farm animals. — The most 
 invariable thing about living beings is their variability. 
 Not only are no two animals equal, but no two characters 
 are exactly alike. To those unfamiliar with sheep, each 
 animal of a flock may look exactly like the others, yet 
 the trained eye readily recognizes differences arid can 
 describe each so that those with equal training may 
 recognize them. These differences extend to all char- 
 acters. Two cows of like breeding may differ widely 
 in the richness of their milk as well as in the amount 
 produced ; two horses of the same breed may differ in 
 conformation, action and pulling power; two steers of 
 like breeding differ in their ability to fatten, and the meat 
 may also differ, the loin of one being fine and tender 
 while the other may be coarse in grain. Sheep, swine 
 and poultry differ similarly. 
 
 Variation basis of improvement. — If characters were 
 
BASIS OF SELECTION — ^VARIATION 
 
 75 
 
 absolutely fixed and unchangeable, then no improvement 
 could be secured. The richness of milk as well as the 
 amount produced could neither be increased nor dimin- 
 ished, and the egg-laying capacity of hens would remain 
 constant from generation to generation, and the off- 
 
 FiG. 26 — Variation Among Light Horses 
 
 Shetland pony. 
 Thoroughbred. 
 American saddler. 
 
 Arabian. 
 
 Standardbred. 
 
 Hackney. 
 
76 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 spring would be no better or poorer than the parent. 
 As it is, with variability everywhere, our animals are 
 both capable of improvement and liable to decline, since 
 both are the logical consequence of free variability. It 
 is obvious that a high degree of variability is favorable 
 to advancement, as it gives free materials with which 
 to use selection to advantage. Since variation is the 
 controlling factor in the improvement, as well as the 
 degeneration of our farm animals, we should make a care- 
 ful study of the kinds, as well as the nature, the extent 
 and the causes that control its appearance and determine 
 its permanency. 
 
 Nature of variation. — While there is much confusion 
 among breeders, both plant and animal, as to the nature 
 of variation, there are two kinds that the practical 
 breeder must keep clearly in mind. In our discussion 
 of the character as the unit of selection, it was shown 
 that to be sure of the breeding capacity of an animal, 
 we must have, not only a record of the performance, but 
 a record of the breeding capacity as well. The state- 
 ments there made carried the suggestion that a record 
 of performance was not sufficient data to judge an 
 animal's breeding capacity, as the offspring of some 
 individuals are uniformly good, while the offspring of 
 animals apparently as good are uniformly inferior. 
 
 In other words, some individuals transmit their good 
 qualities to their offspring, while others apparently do 
 not. Further, some animals transmit the ability to show 
 still further improvement under suitable environment, 
 while others do not transmit such ability to their off- 
 spring. Thus we have two kinds of animals — one class 
 transmitting its good qualities, however attained, and a 
 second class that does not transmit them. These two 
 classes of animals give us the distinction between the 
 two classes of variations. Thus we have one class of 
 variation that is passed down from generation to genera- 
 tion, and another class which is not thus handed down 
 
BASIS OF SELECTION — VARIATION JJ 
 
 from parent to offspring. The class that is not trans- 
 mitted is called non-inheritable variation, w^hile the class 
 that is transmitted is called inheritable variation, although 
 the former is often called somatic variation and the 
 latter germinal variation. 
 
 Non-inheritable variations. — From the breeder's point 
 of view^ the distinction betw^een non-inheritable and in- 
 heritable variations is significant. The former, while of 
 inestimable value to the individual, is of no consequence 
 in breeding. Whether desirable or undesirable such 
 variations have no opportunity to affect the breed as a 
 whole either favorably or unfavorably. On the other 
 hand, from the standpoint of economic production alone, 
 non-inheritable variations may be of prime importance. 
 Good examples are observed in the case of high-produc- 
 ing cows in a commercial dairy where no attempt is 
 made to raise the calves, as well as in the case of high 
 egg-laying hens on a poultry farm where all of the eggs 
 are sold for consumption. Thus, where the product of 
 the individual is the sole object sought, non-inheritable 
 variations are as important as inheritable. In this con- 
 nection it should be noted that frequently the very 
 phenomenal producers are of the former sort, for rarely 
 do they transmit their qualities to their offspring; par- 
 ticularly is this true in case the product is of such a 
 nature as to draw heavily upon the constitutional vigor, 
 as in the case of egg-laying hens. 
 
 Inheritable variations. — As this term is used to denote 
 all variations, whether large or small and of whatever 
 origin, that are transmitted from parent to offspring and 
 from generation to generation, it is obvious that such 
 variations are of prime importance to the breeder, as they 
 are destined in time to exert a more or less permanent in- 
 fluence upon the breed, whether for good or evil. True, 
 it may not be possible for the breeder to distinguish 
 between inheritable and non-inheritable variations at the 
 time of their appearance. He may have to try them out 
 
78 
 
 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 to differentiate between them, but such is the case in 
 all forms of breeding, as has been clearly illustrated in 
 the discussion of Mendel's law. It is this that makes 
 records of performance, both in production and breeding 
 capacity, so essential to successful breeding. 
 
 Fig. 27- 
 
 Percheron. 
 Shire. 
 
 -Variation Among Heavy Horses 
 Suffolk Punch 
 
 Belgian. 
 Clydesdale. 
 
BASIS OF SELECTION VARIATION 79 
 
 The breeder must not become confused by the end- 
 less number of variations, involving all shades of dif- 
 ferences, that present themselves to his view as gen- 
 erations come and go. He must learn to consider them, 
 with the full realization that few will have a permanent 
 influence upon the breed. He must become skilled, not 
 alone in detecting useful characters, but those that are 
 connected with transmission, since they are to mold the 
 type. This calls for extended and careful observations 
 as well as the keeping of accurate records of production 
 and breeding capacity. 
 
 Variations distinguished from the nature of the char- 
 acters involved. — The breeder can gain an idea of the 
 nature of variations by a careful consideration of the 
 characters involved. Certain distinctions exist, which, 
 if overlooked, will result in more or less confusion in 
 selecting breeding animals. For sake of clearness useful 
 characters may be divided into four groups : 
 
 1. Quantitative variations.— Th.Qse relate to differences 
 in form and size. They are the simplest of variations, 
 and we observe evidence of them on every hand. For 
 example, two horses of the same breed may be practically 
 alike, except one may be large and the other small ; even 
 on the same horse one foot may be larger than the others, 
 the two ears may not be of the same size, one eye may 
 be larger than the other, and so on — all variations in 
 size. In a similar manner, one cow may have a sym- 
 metrical udder with four full quarters and with the teats 
 well placed, while the other cow may have a very ir- 
 regular udder with the hindquarters larger than the fore 
 ones, and with the teats very unevenly placed — all varia- 
 tions in form independent of size. 
 
 2. Qualitative variations. — Such relate to differences in 
 quality. These are distinct from size and form and refer 
 to the composition of the body, or to the inherent nature 
 of the character involved. While not so simple as quan- 
 titative, evidences of qualitative variations are also very 
 
60 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 abundant. For example, of all the cows of a given 
 breed, no two yield milk containing the same amount 
 of fat ; in fact, the individual cow varies widely from day 
 to day in the percentage of fat contained in the milk. 
 Of two steers of like breeding, the meat of one may be 
 fine in grain, high in flavor, tender and juicy; while the 
 meat of the other may be of coarse grain, tasteless, tough 
 and dry. The same is true of all meat-producing animals. 
 Again, the quality of no two horses is alike. One has 
 coarse, rough hair, thick hide and heavy, coarse bone ; 
 the other has smooth, soft hair, soft pliable hide and 
 fine smooth bone. While qualitative variations are not 
 so easily detected, as a rule, they are of greater sig- 
 nificance to the breeder than are those of either size or form. 
 
 3. Functional variations. — Such relate to deviations in 
 the normal activity of the various organs or parts of the 
 body, such as muscular activity, glandular secretions and 
 the like. This group refers to variations in what the 
 animal can do, and may be quantitative or qualitative. 
 
 Each organ or part of the body has its own work to do, 
 which is essentially dift'erent from that of any other organ 
 or part. The activities of these various organs are not 
 constant but exceedingly variable. Such deviations are 
 of prime importance to the breeder who is interested in 
 increasing the efficiency of the organs or parts as well 
 as in their permanent improvement. While functional 
 variations are often complex, in that a number of char- 
 acters are likely to be involved, yet illustrations are ob- 
 served on every hand. Among cows of the same breed- 
 ing, no two give the same amount of milk; in fact, the 
 individual cow does not give the same amount from day 
 to day. Likewise, animals vary in fertility, the average 
 cow or horse giving birth to but few, while, as we have 
 seen, the Angus cow. Old Granny, produced 25 young, 
 while the Thoroughbred mare. Old Fanny Cook, gave 
 birth to 15 foals. These animals both lived to a ripe old 
 age, indicating great vitality of all the organs. 
 
BASIS OF SELECTION — VARIATION 8l 
 
 4. Variations in pattern. — These have to do w^ith re- 
 peated parts, such as extra teats on cattle and sw^ine, 
 extra toes in cats and dogs, and the like. This group 
 of variations is not common among animals, but evi- 
 dences are everywhere observed among plants, as stool- 
 ing of v^heat, oats, corn and the like. 
 
 In selecting animals to improve definite qualities, the 
 breeder should distinguish betw^een these four groups, 
 as it w^ill give him a clearer idea of the nature of varia- 
 tions and how to take advantage of them in his endeavor 
 to improve animals for the service of man. 
 
 Further, it is important to remember that each group 
 may be of the non-inheritable 
 
 sort, and thus affect the in- _,—_-, -«^i^^^ 
 
 dividual only ; or each may 
 be inheritable, and thus influ- 
 ence the herd or breed. 
 
 Degrees of variations.— 
 Animals are not only exceed- 
 ingly variable, but there is 
 great difference in the degree fig. 28-KAMBouiLLET k^™ -uhio 
 which one individual devi- ^°^" 
 
 . 1 A 1 Fins wool type 
 
 ates from another. A clear 
 
 understanding of this is necessary to gain an idea of the 
 nature of variations, and hence to be able to take advan- 
 tage of such deviations as do appear. 
 
 Continuous variations. — Darwin supposed that varia- 
 tions were by nature continuous, and that new forms 
 originated by the gradual accumulation of very small 
 differences through a long period of selection. Accord- 
 ing to this theory if all of the individuals that ever lived 
 could be so arranged as to bring nearest together those 
 that are nearest alike, it would then be found that they 
 would grade into one another by insensible differences. 
 For a long time such was commonly assumed to be the 
 case, and no doubt is true of much of the variation among 
 our animals. This, of course, means that the breeder 
 
82 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 must exercise great caution in selection so as to take 
 advantage of each slight improvement, as v^ell as to 
 eliminate undesirable forms, even though the difference 
 be small. 
 
 Discontinuous variations. — It is now definitely known 
 that not all variations are continuous, but that many 
 are discontinuous; that is, the new individual differs 
 from the parent by a wide margin. According to this 
 idea, we should not expect to find all nature united by 
 insensible gradations. This class of variations is far 
 more numerous than is commonly supposed, and our 
 animals deviate widely often in the line of improvement, 
 but possibly more often in the line of deterioration. This 
 necessitates even greater vigilance on the part of the 
 breeder. 
 
 Mutations. — This term was formerly used to denote a 
 wide and discontinuous deviation from the type ; in fact, 
 forming a new type, which bred true from the beginning. 
 The common example was the case of the peach tree 
 bearing nectarines. At present there is a tendency to 
 employ the term mutant to signify any variation, 
 whether large or small and of whatever origin, that is 
 transmitted from parent to offspring and from genera- 
 tion to generation. In the latter sense it denotes prac- 
 tically the same as inheritable and germinal variation. 
 
 Sports. — Wide deviations from established types were 
 noted by Darwin, who called them "sports." Some per- 
 sons consider sports and mutants synonymous. How- 
 ever, the term sport is used here to denote a sudden and 
 wide departure from the normal type that is not trans- 
 mitted from generation to generation. 
 
 Abnormality. — This term is used to denote a variation 
 of greater magnitude than a sport. An abnormal part 
 is distinctly different from the rest of the species. It 
 may be transmitted for a few generations, but will soon 
 disappear because of lack of adaptation. 
 
 Malformation. — A variation so great as to interfere 
 
BASIS OF SELECTION VARIATION 
 
 «3 
 
 ,/^ 
 
 with the usefulness of an animal is called a malforma- 
 tion. Since the individual seldom reaches maturity such 
 deviations are of no economic importance to the breeder. 
 
 Monstrosity. — This term is used to denote a variation 
 of so great a degree as to ren- 
 der the life of the animal 
 impossible, or possible for a 
 short time only, such as an 
 individual with two heads. 
 
 These terms simply repre- 
 sent increasing degrees of 
 deviation from the normal 
 type of the race. While ab- 
 normalities, malformations 
 and monstrosities are often 
 of interest, they have no permanent value and the breeder 
 
 should eliminate them at once. 
 
 Fig. 29 — Rambouillet Ewe 
 Fine v/ool type 
 
 Distribution of Cows as 
 TO Per Cent of Butter 
 Fat 
 
 V* 
 
 Ft 
 
 2.6 
 
 1 
 
 2.7 
 
 2 
 
 2.8 
 
 1 
 
 2.9 
 
 5 
 
 3.0 
 
 16 
 
 3.1 
 
 20 
 
 3.2 
 
 43 
 
 3.3 
 
 40 
 
 3.4 
 
 51 
 
 3.5 
 
 39 
 
 3.6 
 
 29 
 
 3.7 
 
 26 
 
 3.8 
 
 19 
 
 3.9 
 
 13 
 
 4.0 
 
 9 
 
 4.1 
 
 5 
 
 4.2 
 
 2 
 
 4.3 
 
 2 
 
 4.4 
 
 1 
 
 
 324 
 
 cent, of fat called value =V. 
 ■[■cows in groups called frequency =F. 
 
 Study of variation. — So 
 
 universal is variability that 
 when considering a large 
 number of animals it is dif- 
 ficult to compare individuals 
 by the usual methods of ob- 
 servation. Thus in a study 
 of the quality of milk or the 
 percentage of butter fat, 
 taking a breed as a whole, it 
 is difficult to determine 
 whether advancement is 
 being made from generation 
 to generation, or indeed to 
 determine with exactness 
 whether the breed is hold- 
 ing its advantage. This 
 has led to the adoption of 
 the statistical methods of 
 study often called biometry. 
 
84 
 
 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 To illustrate the method let us make a study of butter 
 fat among Holstein-Friesian cows, taking the semi-official 
 records in volume 23 of the advanced register. The dif- 
 ferent individuals differ greatly in the percentage of fat 
 produced, and to obtain an idea of the rank it is necessary 
 to group them according to the per cent of fat produced, 
 as in the tabulation on preceding page showing distribu- 
 tion of cows as to per cent of fat produced. 
 
 Finding the type. — The distribution table shows a 
 total of 324 cows, varying from 2.6 to 4.4 per cent of fat, 
 with 3.4 the most common per cent. This most common 
 value is called the mode. Thus we say the 3.4 per cent 
 of fat is the mode for the semi-official Holstein-Friesian 
 cows entered in volume 2^ of the advanced register. 
 
 To find the type it is not sufficient to know the most 
 common value, but the average value as well. The 
 
 average value is called the 
 Finding the Mean mean. The average per cent 
 
 of fat yielded by the 324 
 cows may be an entirely 
 different value from the most 
 common value. To ascertain 
 this average value or mean 
 multiply each group of the 
 frequency distribution (F) 
 by its corresponding value 
 (V), add the results and 
 divide by the total number 
 of cows, as in the accom- 
 panying tabulation showing 
 method of finding the mean. 
 This gives an average 
 per cent of 3.44, differing 
 slightly from 3.4, the most 
 common value. In a similar 
 manner the mode and mean may be determined for the 
 flow of milk, and like characters that permit of definite 
 
 v 
 
 F 
 
 FV 
 
 2.6 
 
 1 
 
 2.6 
 
 2.7 
 
 2 
 
 5.4 
 
 2.8 
 
 1 
 
 2.8 
 
 2.9 
 
 5 
 
 14.5 
 
 3.0 
 
 16 
 
 48.0 
 
 3.1 
 
 20 
 
 62.0 
 
 3.2 
 
 43 
 
 137.6 
 
 3.3 
 
 40 
 
 132.0 
 
 3.4 
 
 51 
 
 173.4 
 
 3.S 
 
 39 
 
 136.5 
 
 3.6 
 
 29 
 
 104.4 
 
 3.7 
 
 26 
 
 96.2 
 
 3.8 
 
 19 
 
 72.2 
 
 3.9 
 
 13 
 
 50.7 
 
 4.0 
 
 9 
 
 36.0 
 
 4.1 
 
 5 
 
 20.5 
 
 4.2 
 
 2 
 
 8.4 
 
 4.3 
 
 2 
 
 8.6 
 
 4.4 
 
 1 
 324 
 
 4.4 
 
 1116.2 
 
 1,116.2-7-324=3.44 mean = M. 
 
BASIS OF SELECTION — VARIATION 
 
 85 
 
 measurement. The mean or average value is usually 
 accepted as the best representative of a typical individual. 
 Variability or deviation from type. — In a critical study 
 of variation we must determine the average deviation ; 
 that is, the average tendency for each cow^ to deviate 
 from the mean or average, v^hich is 3.44 per cent. From 
 the mean the low^est cow^, which is 2.6 per cent, deviates 
 .84; the next group of two cows each deviate .74, or a 
 total deviation of 2 times .y /l — 1.48. Continue down the dis- 
 tribution, and calculate the deviation of each group, then 
 add all together to obtain the total amount by which 
 all cows deviate from their average per cent of fat. Now, 
 by dividing this amount by the number of cows, we shall 
 obtain the average deviation of the cows, as in the tabula- 
 tion showing method of finding average deviation. 
 
 Finding Average Deviation 
 
 v 
 
 P 
 
 V-M 
 
 F (V-M) 
 
 2.6 
 
 1 
 
 -.84 
 
 0.84 
 
 2.7 
 
 2 
 
 -.74 
 
 1.48 
 
 2.8 
 
 1 
 
 -.64 
 
 0.64 
 
 2.9 
 
 5 
 
 -.54 
 
 2.70 
 
 3.0 
 
 16 
 
 -.44 
 
 7.04 
 
 3.1 
 
 20 
 
 -.34 
 
 6.80 
 
 3.2 
 
 43 
 
 -.24 
 
 10.32 
 
 3.3 
 
 40 
 
 -.14 
 
 5.60 
 
 3.4 
 
 51 
 
 -.04 
 
 2.04 
 
 3.5 
 
 39 
 
 .06 
 
 2.34 
 
 3.6 
 
 29 
 
 .16 
 
 4.64 
 
 3.7 
 
 26 
 
 .26 
 
 6.76 
 
 3.8 
 
 19 
 
 .36 
 
 6.84 
 
 3.9 
 
 13 
 
 .46 
 
 5.98 
 
 4.0 
 
 9 
 
 .56 
 
 5.04 
 
 4.1 
 
 5 
 
 .66 
 
 3.30 
 
 4.2 
 
 2 
 
 .76 
 
 1.52 
 
 4.3 
 
 2 
 
 .86 
 
 1.72 
 
 4.4 
 
 1 
 
 .96 
 
 0.96 
 
 
 324 
 
 
 76.56 
 
 76.56 -7-324 =0.23 + = average deviation. 
 
 This gives 0.23-)- as the average amount by which each 
 cow deviates from the average. Thus it gives a good 
 measure of the variability in this particular lot of cows. 
 
86 
 
 BREEDING OF FARAI ANIMALS 
 
 The mean and the average deviation give a very good 
 measure of the type as well as its stability, and afford a 
 very convenient basis for comparing one year's work 
 with another or one generation of animals with another 
 where large numbers of individuals are involved. 
 
 Plotting a frequency curve. — Such frequency distribu- 
 tions as the above gradually rise from the low value to 
 the mode and then descend to the high value. This is 
 best illustrated by a system of plotting in which the dis- 
 tribution is put into the form of a curve known as a 
 "frequency curve." 
 
 To plot such a curve, rule a sheet of paper both ways, 
 arranging the values along the bottom and the fre- 
 quency distribution on the left, preferably standardizing 
 it. Connect the points where the perpendicular lines 
 from the values cross the horizontal lines from the fre- 
 quencies with a curved line. This irregular line con- 
 stitutes the frequency curve and gives a true picture of 
 the variation that exists among cows in the per cent of 
 butter fat produced, as shown in Fig. 30. In this case 
 the curve is not smooth, due to lack of sufficient num- 
 bers to make it regular and uniform. 
 
 55 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 45 
 40 
 35 
 30 
 25 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 / 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 — _ 
 
 
 
 Z.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3.0 3.1 5.Z 3.2 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 44 
 
 Fig. 30 — Plotting a Frequency Curve 
 
CHAPTER IX 
 
 SOME CAUSES OF VARIATIONS 
 
 Variations constitute the basis of all improvement as 
 well as that of all decline. Because of this the breeder 
 is especially interested in the causes of variations in 
 animals, as well as in methods of their possible control. 
 While exact causes are little understood, past experience 
 has taught us that certain practices can be relied upon 
 to give good results. The general causes of variations 
 may be divided into two classes, those that arise within 
 the body, largely in the form of inherited differences, 
 and those that are external to the animal, such as dif- 
 ferences in the environment. The breeder can influence 
 the former but little, if at all ; while over the latter he 
 has practically complete control. 
 
 SOME EXTERNAL CAUSES OF VARIATIONS 
 
 Everywhere about us we observe that animals of the 
 same species vary widely according to the environment. 
 The climate and the food, as well as favorable and un- 
 favorable conditions, generally exert a profound influ- 
 ence upon living beings. We can often tell the condi- 
 tions under which an animal was grown simply by a 
 physical examination. That the conditions in which an 
 animal is obliged to live exert a direct effect upon his 
 development is beyond question. 
 
 In a general way our animals are the result of their 
 environment, and improvement is possible only when the 
 conditions of life are made more suitable. Good ex- 
 amples are observed in the case of early maturity and 
 increased fertility among cattle and swine. In nature 
 the cow does not reach full maturity until five or six 
 
 87 
 
OO BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 years of age; she does not breed until well along in 
 years, and she usually gives birth to but few calves in 
 her lifetime. On the other hand, when properly cared 
 for, the cow may give birth to young before she is two 
 years of age without injury to herself or the calf; she 
 attains her growth at a much earlier period than in 
 nature, and when properly managed may produce a num- 
 ber of calves. 
 
 Fig. 31 — Shropshire Ewe. Medium wool, mutton type. 
 
 Swine show even greater improvement. In nature the 
 sow gives birth to but one litter of one to four young 
 each year, and it requires three to five years for these 
 animals to attain full development, while under man's 
 care the sow may annually give birth to two litters of 
 six to ten young each, and in six months the pigs attain 
 
SOME CAUSES OF VARIATIONS 89 
 
 sufficient development to be bred again, as well as to be 
 marketed to advantage. 
 
 Climate and locality. — In nature there is a correlative 
 influence between the climate and the kind of animals 
 that exist under it. The characters that are most often 
 affected are those that have to do with size and the 
 external covering of the animal. The natural relation 
 of climate to size is that animals inhabiting cold climates 
 are usually small as compared with those of the same 
 species inhabiting warm climates. When animals are 
 exposed to cold, damp weather the hair becomes long 
 and thick. In some instances the exposure produces a 
 double coat of hair — an upper one being long and wavy 
 and an under one short, fine and furlike. Galloway cattle 
 furnish a good example. 
 
 Formerly we were accustomed to associating a high 
 degree of constitutional vigor with animals that were 
 developed in rather cold or severe climates. It was also 
 stated that they could not be transplanted to another 
 climate without impairing their vigor. Experience dis- 
 proves this, as many animals show ease of acclimation 
 to wide changes of climatic conditions. There are 
 numerous illustrations of where animals have been ex- 
 ported from their own country to other countries and 
 climates, and have shown as marked a degree of vigor 
 as in their native land. In fact, in many cases they have 
 shown marked improvement in constitutional vigor over 
 the original animals. For example. Merino sheep were 
 developed in the dry climate of the tablelands of Spain, 
 where they were famous for the quality of their fleece. 
 In the latter part of the eighteenth century they were 
 exported to Germany, France and the United States. 
 Although in each of these countries the climate is very 
 different from that of Spain, yet the sheep rapidly im- 
 proved in vigor and fleece covering until they far sur- 
 passed the original Spanish animals. 
 
 In like manner, Jersey and Guernsey cattle of the 
 
90 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 Channel Islands have been exported to England, Europe 
 and to the United States. In each of these countries 
 they have become perfectly acclimated and have shown 
 no loss in constitutional vigor, and, in fact, they have 
 improved wonderfully over the original cattle. 
 
 While the influence of climate and locality is great and 
 the factors at work are exceedingly complex, yet from 
 a practical point of view we may consider the food supply 
 and more favorable conditions generally, such as sufficient 
 shelter, proper care, including training and developing, 
 as the more important causes of variation. 
 
 Care and management. — In the breeding of animals 
 the conditions of environment are changed or enlarged 
 by man, who provides his animals with favorable con- 
 ditions. The improvement derived from proper care and 
 management is not fully appreciated by the average 
 breeder. The development attained by our high-class 
 animals is largely due to the favorable conditions pro- 
 vided by man. A good example is observed in the speed 
 of the trotting horse. In 1810, Boston trotted a mile at 
 Philadelphia in 2:485^. This was the fastest mile ever 
 trotted in harness and was not exceeded for 16 years. 
 In 1912 Uhlan trotted a mile at Memphis in i :58. 
 
 The conditions under which these records were made 
 are significant. Boston was in training but a few months 
 each year and was not worked out as trotters are at 
 present. At the time he made the memorable mile he 
 was driven to a high, wooden-wheeled, steel-tired, 
 straight-spindled clumsy cart ; the harness was heavy 
 and ill adapted to trotting; and the track over which he 
 was driven was not as well constructed as are present- 
 day tracks. On the other hand, Uhlan was in training 
 practically throughout the year ; he was perfectly worked 
 out, and in prime physical condition; he was driven to a 
 low, wire-wheeled, pneumatic-tired, ball-bearing, per- 
 fectly balanced cart ; the harness was light and perfectly 
 adapted ; and the track was the fastest in the world. 
 
SOME CAUSES OF VARIATIONS 9I 
 
 Food supply. — The food supply is of prime importance 
 in effecting improvement among animals. No other con- 
 ditions influence development to a greater extent. Large 
 breeds are developed from small ones largely by increas- 
 
 FiG. 32 — Belgian Mare "Bella" 
 
 ing the food supply. In addition to the increase in size, 
 there is also an increase in the constitutional vigor w^hen 
 the animal is v^^ell fed. 
 
 In order to secure increased development of all of the 
 productive functions, the animal must be supplied w^ith 
 more food than is required for the performance of the 
 normal functions. A good example is observed in the 
 increased yield of dairy cows. In the early days of 
 official cow testing a weekly yield of 18 pounds of butter 
 fat was considered exceptional. At the present time 
 (1914) the record stands at 35.3 pounds of butter fat in 
 seven days, practically double the record of a few years 
 ago. Let us note the conditions under which these 
 records were made. 
 
92 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 Formerly the cows on test received no special prepara- 
 tion before calving or subsequently. The daily food con- 
 sisted of a moderate amount of one or two kinds of con- 
 centrates or grains, all the hay they would consume 
 with the run of pasture when in season. During 
 inclement weather the animals were stabled, but 
 never blanketed. They were fed and milked twice 
 daily. Contrast such conditions with present-day 
 methods. The cows are especially prepared for 
 the test and often excessively fat; they are closely 
 stabled and often heavily blanketed; they are fed all of 
 the food they will eat, often as high as 40 or more pounds 
 of concentrates, consisting of a dozen foods variously 
 mixed, in addition to all of the silage, roots, cabbage, 
 clover and alfalfa hay they will consume, the total daily 
 ration often exceeding 100 pounds of food. Further, the 
 cows are fed and milked four times each day. 
 
 Training and development. — Just how much of the in- 
 creased speed of the trotter is due to training, to favor- 
 able conditions and to breed improvement is an open 
 question. Likewise, just how much of the improvement 
 in dairy cows is due to special preparation and develop- 
 ment, to favorable conditions, and to general improve- 
 ment of the breed is a matter concerning which we lack 
 sufficient data to answer with any degree of accuracy. 
 Certain it is, however, not least of these factors is train- 
 ing and developing. In fact, they are the chief agents 
 in bringing out efficiency, otherwise we would never 
 know the fastest trotting horse or the highest-producing 
 cow. 
 
 Training and developing are not only useful agents in 
 bringing out differences in the capacity of our farm 
 animals, but they must be continued to keep the animals 
 up to maximum efficiency. Thus, if we wish to breed a 
 strain of fast-trotting horses or of high-producing cows, 
 we must not only train the horses and develop the cows 
 during the formation of the stud or herd, but we must 
 
SOME CAUSES OF VARIATIONS 93 
 
 continue to train and develop them as long as we remain 
 in the business. The same is true of most characters 
 which the animal breeder is seeking to improve, and in 
 this they differ from unit-characters, as color, presence 
 or absence of horns on cattle and sheep, and the like. 
 It was stated in our discussion of Mendel's law that once 
 we obtained a pure color strain it would breed true from 
 generation to generation. While sufficient evidence is 
 lacking to say that such is not true of speed among 
 trotters, pulling power among draft horses and high milk 
 and butter fat production among cattle, yet the facts will 
 certainly remain unknown unless the animals are trained 
 and developed so as to bring out their maximum 
 efficiency. 
 
 Use and disuse. — It must be evident to all that use 
 stimulates and disuse dwarfs the development of many 
 organs. The training of the race horse and the develop- 
 ing of the dairy cow are good examples of normal de- 
 velopment, but by constant use it is possible to stimulate 
 some organs beyond the normal. There are many ex- 
 amples of this in the human family, such as the blind 
 reading by the touch of the finger tips, the deaf carrying 
 on conversation by watching the lips, and using the toes 
 to write. This is putting parts to entirely new use and 
 requires constant and painstaking effort to accomplish 
 the task. 
 
 That disuse dwarfs organs is well illustrated in the case 
 of the disappearance of legs from snakes and from 
 whales, the lessening of the wings in certain birds and 
 the loss of toes in many mammals including the horse, 
 the prototype being a five-toed animal. 
 
 Injuries and mutilations. — Not infrequently injury to 
 a part sets up cell division which results in a local growth 
 to support the injured parts. In the horse such growths 
 are spoken of as blemishes. Notwithstanding popular 
 opinion, the breeding animal is none the worse for 
 blemishes the result of accidental injury. 
 
94 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 Formerly there was much discussion among animal 
 breeders as to the importance of mutilations, by which 
 is meant the removal of parts after they have developed. 
 The frequent appearance of tailless kittens gave credence 
 to the belief that such mutilations were often transmitted, 
 notwithstanding the fact that there is a breed of cats 
 naturally tailless, which is no doubt responsible for the 
 tailless kittens. For countless generations it has been 
 the custom to remove the tails from lambs, with no signs 
 of tailless sheep as the result, and from the remotest times 
 the Jews have practiced circumcision, and are still at it. 
 
 While of little interest to the breeder, male castration 
 is a fertile cause of variation to the individual. In the 
 castrated animal the general development of the head 
 and neck will be arrested, he will remain lighter and finer, 
 lacking the general coarseness of unaltered males. In 
 fact, there is a profound difference in the development, 
 extending to practically every character, the animal ap- 
 proaching the general conformation of the female. Like- 
 wise, females when deprived of their ovaries develop to 
 some extent the characters of the male. 
 
 Chemical agents. — While of little or no economic value, 
 it is nevertheless interesting to note the influence of cer- 
 tain dyes and chemical agents in producing variation. 
 Long ago Darwin reported that swine feeding upon 
 madder root possessed flesh abnormally red in color. 
 Gage reports that feeding poultry vs^ith an aniline dye 
 (Sodan Red III) resulted in eggs tinted with the red 
 dye, and that chicks hatched from such eggs also were 
 tinted. Riddle reports similar results with guinea pigs. 
 In such cases the dye is held in suspension in the fats, 
 and the coloring matter disappears with the fat. 
 
 It has long been known that certain agents stimulated 
 secretions and glandular activity. Hill reports that the 
 injection into the veins of a thoroughly milked dairy cow 
 of a saline extract of the pituitary bodies of cattle re- 
 sulted in an immediate secretion of from 12 to 25 per 
 
SOME CAUSES OF VARIATIONS 95 
 
 cent of the normal flow, and the milk thus secreted con- 
 tained 50 to 100 per cent more fat than normal stripping, 
 although the flow was materially depressed at the next 
 milking. 
 
 Breeders' control of the external causes of variation. — 
 Among successful animal breeders the opinion prevails 
 that greatest development of useful characters and at- 
 tributes can be attained only by providing animals with 
 favorable conditions. Chief among these are suitable 
 food; protection from cold, heat, enemies and all annoy- 
 ing influences ; proper managemicnt ; and suitable 
 preparation, including training and developing". So far 
 as it is positively known, we have attained highest de- 
 velopment of useful characters in no other manner. The 
 breeder of animals should clearly understand this ; other- 
 wise, he may be misled by the occasional individual that 
 shows great improvement, as well as by those individuals 
 that are exceedingly prepotent in transmitting their char- 
 acters to their offspring. 
 
 SOME INTERNAL CAUSES OF VARIATIONS 
 
 There is little doubt but that the exact cause of the 
 great bulk of variability is due to factors internal to the 
 organism, mainly in the form of inherited tendencies. 
 However, these internal influences are dependent, in 
 part, at least, upon outside conditions for their oppor- 
 tunity. The external conditions must be favorable in 
 order to promote the development of inherited tendencies. 
 Unfavorable conditions dwarf development, no matter 
 how pure the heritage. 
 
 Maturation a cause of variation. — The process by which 
 the number of chromosomes in the germ cells — both male 
 and female — is reduced to half is a preliminary step to fer- 
 tilization is a very significant internal cause of variation. 
 
 For the sake of clearness in illustrating the significance 
 of this reduction, consider the case of a species in which 
 four is the regular number of chromosomes, two of which 
 
96 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 are eliminated at maturation. It is obviously impossible 
 to know which two of the four bodies will be preserved. 
 Let us consider the four chromosomes of the female to 
 bear numbers from one to four, any two of which may 
 be eliminated. Likewise, consider the four chromosomes 
 of the male to bear numbers five to eight, any two of 
 which may be split off at maturation. In this case any 
 one of the following combinations is equally as likely as 
 any other to be preserved in the germ cells during 
 maturation : 
 
 Possible Chromosome Combination in Maturation 
 
 Female germ cell 
 
 Male germ cell 
 
 1+2 2+3 
 
 1+3 2+4 
 
 1+4 3+4 
 
 5+6 6+7 
 
 5+7 6+8 
 
 5+8 7+8 
 
 Thus there are six possible combinations in a female 
 of a species of four chromosomes. But our farm animals 
 each possess 16 chromosomes in the germ cells, eight of 
 which are eliminated at maturation. Calculated on the 
 same basis, this would give 12,870* possible combinations 
 in the maturation of the ovum. 
 
 Reduction is similar in the male. While all four divi- 
 sions of the spermatozoon remain functional, only one is 
 utilized in fertilization, thus the possibilities are the same 
 as in the female. 
 
 *Suppose a female has 2 K chromosomes, of which half only are available, K 
 
 |J_K 
 
 Now the number of possible ways of selecting K among 2 K is ■ — , Thus in 
 
 I K - I K 
 case the number of chromes 5mes is 16 we have 
 
 1 • 2 • 3 • 4 ■ 5 ■ 6 • 7 • 8 • 9 • 10 • 11 • 12 • 13 • 14 • IS • 16 
 
 1-2-3-4-5-6-7-8-1- 2 ■ 3 ■ 4 ■ 5 • 6 • 7 ■ 
 Likewise the male chromosomes share similar possibilities. 
 
 12,870 
 
SOME CAUSES OF VARIATIONS 97 
 
 Fertilization a cause of variation. — The process of fer- 
 tilization in which the remaining chromosomes in the 
 maturized germ cells flocculate to restore the original 
 number is also an important internal cause of variation. 
 Continuing w^ith the illustration, we now have six pos- 
 sible maternal combinations and six possible paternal 
 combinations of chromosomes any one being equally as 
 likely as any other to unite in fertilization, thus giving 
 the following combination of chromosomes : 
 
 Possible Chromosome Combinations in Fertilization 
 
 1+2X5+6 1+4X5+6 2+4X5+6 
 
 1+2X5+7 1+4X5+7 2+4X5+7 
 
 1+2X5+8 1+4X5+8 2+4X5+8 
 
 1+2X6+7 1+4X6+7 2+4X6+7 
 
 1+2X6+8 1+4X6+8 2+4X6+8 
 
 1+2X7+8 1+4X7+8 2+4X7+8 
 
 1+3X5+6 2+3X5+6 3+4X5+6 
 
 1+3X5+7 2+3X5+7 3+4X5+7 
 
 1+3X5+8 2+3X5+8 3+4X5+8 
 
 1+3X6+7 2+3X6+7 3+4X6+7 
 
 1+3X6+8 2+3X6+8 3+4X6+8 
 
 1+3X7+8 2+3X7+8 3+4X7+8 
 
 There are 36 possible combinations of chromosomes 
 in a species with four chromosomes. Thus it is possible 
 for two parents with four chromosomes to have 36 off- 
 spring, no two of which are identical. In the case of 
 farm animals in which the regular number of chromo- 
 somes is 16 we find there are 165,636,900* possible com- 
 binations of chomosomes in fertilization. 
 
 In view of the assumption that the chromosomes bear 
 the hereditary determiners, it is not surprising that we 
 never find two animals exactly alike, even when of the 
 same parentage. Since we cannot control the chromo- 
 somes in the vital processes of maturation and fertiliza- 
 tion, there is undeniably a large element of chance in 
 breeding. It is not justifiable, however, to assume that 
 each chromosome is entirely different from all the others 
 
 *Continuing our problem as in maturation, the possible combinations of chromo- 
 somes in fertilizations is 
 [I 2 K ■}' 
 — 1 which in this case Is the same as [12,870]= = 165,636,900. 
 IK -IK J 
 
gS BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 in the same parent. The fact that there usually is a 
 general resemblance between parent and offspring, as 
 well as between oft'spring of the same parents at different 
 periods, leads to the assumption that the chromosomes 
 are largely similar. 
 
 Mendelism a cause of variation. — The most significant 
 internal cause of variation under the control of the 
 breeder is that brought about by the Mendelian phe- 
 nomenae. In the discussion of Mendel's law it was 
 clearly indicated how variations could be produced and 
 how new forms could be established (p. 49). This is a 
 comparatively simple matter where few unit-characters 
 are considered, although it becomes exceedingly complex 
 in the more economic attributes, especially those involv- 
 ing many unit-characters. 
 
 Atavism and reversion, both internal variations in 
 which the individuals skip a generation or more in their 
 inheritance and resemble former ancestors more than the 
 immediate parents, can be accounted for on the basis of 
 the Mendelian hypothesis. 
 
 Cross-breeding a cause of variation. — Among farm 
 animals the new individual is the product of two parents 
 — male and female — and is of necessity unlike either, 
 being a product of both. This is considered an internal 
 variation, and is slight if the blood lines are similar. 
 
 On the other hand, the mating of dissimilar animals 
 results in radical differences. Formerly this was the 
 chief means by which improvement was sought. It was 
 observed that the mating of unrelated animals, or those 
 which had existed under a different environment, 
 resulted in offspring possessing increased constitu- 
 tional vigor, greater prolificacy, and often individual im- 
 provement. The great difficulty came, however, when 
 an attempt was made to breed these cross-bred animals. 
 The offspring of such cross-bred animals varied widely, 
 some were good, more were inferior, and no one could 
 foretell which way the offspring would develop. While 
 
SOME CAUSES OF VARIATIONS 
 
 99 
 
 productive of variation, cross-breeding- is objectionable 
 as a system of breeding. 
 
 Cell division a cause of variation. — Growth is the result 
 of cell division. The individual cells of giants are no 
 larger than those of normal animals, 
 l:)Ut they are more numerous. Like- 
 wise, the cells of dwarfs are not 
 smaller, but fewer in number. 
 Thus it follows that size, and to 
 some extent the form, are depend- 
 ent upon cell division If too few 
 cells are formed, the animal will 
 be small ; if the cells are many, the 
 animal will be large ; while if too 
 few in some parts or too many in 
 others, the animal will be thrown 
 out of proportion, which may 
 be so serious as to result in a 
 malformed animal. What the 
 decide how far cell division 
 
 Fig. 33 — Catalonian Jack 
 
 influences are that 
 shall proceed and 
 when it shall stop in the case of each part we do not 
 know. Certain it is that favorable conditions, such as 
 food and care, exert a profound influence, especially while 
 the animal is young and cell division is active. Aside 
 from this, however, there are certain internal forces at 
 work upon the normal exercise of which all typical de- 
 velopment depends. Thus it follows that while cell 
 division, and hence development, can certainly be influ- 
 enced by favorable conditions, it is also manifest that 
 absolute control is largely beyond the power of the 
 breeder. 
 
 Relative fertility and longevity. — While not ordinarily 
 classified as causes of variations, relative fertility and 
 longevity are important factors in the make-up of the 
 characters of any particular breed. Animals are not 
 equally fertile. Occasionally desirable attributes are lost 
 through low fertility and sterility. A good example of 
 
lOO 
 
 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 this was observed in the Duchess family ^of Shorthorn^-, 
 in many respects the most remarkable family of beef 
 animals in the world. On the other hand, there may be 
 certain characters that are correlated with highest fer- 
 tility. If unrestricted, these will soon become the 
 dominant characters of the breed. It is important, there- 
 fore, that the breeder understand this, so that, if the fer- 
 
 FiG. 34 — Span of Excellent Mules 
 
 tile animals possess undesirable characters he may 
 eliminate such characters, in so far as possible, by rigid 
 selection ; and if the shy breeders possess very desirable 
 attributes, he may take pains to preserve them, although 
 there is little use in attempting to breed a strain, how- 
 ever desirable, that is not at least fairly prolific. 
 
 The make-up of the characters of a breed depends as 
 much upon longevity as upon fertility. There is little 
 use in attempting to breed a strain of short-lived animals. 
 
SOME CAUSES OF VARIATIONS 
 
 lOI 
 
 particularly of milk cows and horses, the former of which 
 is valuable in proportion to her productive age, and the 
 latter to the age to which he retains his vigor. 
 
 Fig. 35 — Zebu Cattle, Native of Trinidad 
 
CHAPTER X 
 INDIVIDUAL MERIT AND SELECTION 
 
 The animals selected for breeding should be good repre- 
 sentatives of the type and breed to which they belong. 
 In recent years breeders have been attracted by the de- 
 mand for purely bred stock and have often selected their 
 breeding animals on the basis of the pedigree and with- 
 out personal inspection. This is often a questionable 
 practice, as many individuals find their way to the books 
 of record simply because animals thus recorded are in 
 very great demand, irrespective of their fitness for breed- 
 ing purposes. In selecting foundation animals, they 
 should be carefully examined, as animals lacking type or 
 breed characteristics are likely to prove disappointing 
 in the end. 
 
 Not only should the animals themselves be carefully 
 inspected, but their parents and offspring, if available, 
 should also be critically noted. Especially is this true 
 of the offspring, as they indicate the breeding capacity, 
 and give us an idea of what to expect. So important is 
 this that when selecting animals of our own breeding, it 
 is suggested to breed those under consideration at an 
 early age, so as to learn their breeding capacity as early 
 in life as possible. If they should prove undesirable in- 
 dividuals, we are able to discard them early and thus 
 save needless expense in their maintenance. On the 
 other hand, if they should prove desirable, we know it in 
 time to secure maximum benefit. When young individ- 
 uals are bred to determine the breeding capacity, they 
 should be mated with animals of proven merit. 
 
 The breeder a judge. — In animal breeding success de- 
 pends very largely upon the ability to select animals with 
 skill and judgment. There are three important factors to 
 
INDIVIDUAL MERIT AND SELECTION 
 
 103 
 
 be considered in choosing breeding animals — individual 
 merit, pedigree and, when available, the performance of 
 the animal. Among expert judges as v^ell as breeders there 
 is much confusion as to the part each should play in 
 making a choice. A few- 
 breeders place individual 
 excellence first, a few the 
 pedigree, and a few others 
 the performance, while 
 the mass of breeders seem 
 to have no very clear idea 
 of the relationship be- 
 tween the factors. 
 
 The progress made in 
 recent years in breeding 
 trotting horses and dairy ^ ^ o «, 
 
 P •^ Fig. 36 — Percheron Stallion "Idlefonse 
 
 cattle IS gradually chang- 
 ing our ideas of judging. Formerly we tried to estimate the 
 capacity of a cow to give milk by a physical examination of 
 her external characters. This was often disappointing, as 
 many cows proved to be very good producers that were 
 lacking in general appearance, and many cows that were 
 of typical dairy form failed to make a good showing as 
 producers. In other words, we cannot tell for a cer- 
 tainty how fast a horse can trot or how much milk and 
 butter fat a cow can produce by a physical examination. 
 This can be determined only by trial — racing the horse and 
 milking the cow. This is significant, and the breeder 
 should distinguish clearly between individual merit and 
 performance. The former is a matter of judgment, while 
 the latter cannot be definitely known until a trial has 
 been made of the animal's capacity. 
 
 Types of animals. — While we cannot tell for a cer- 
 tainty what an animal can do without test, yet animals 
 assume rather characteristic forms or types because of 
 the demand made upon them in the performance of their 
 functions. Certain types, therefore, became correlated 
 
INDIVIDUAL MERIT AND SELECTION IO5 
 
 with certain functions. For example, in beef production 
 it is very important that the animals take on flesh and 
 that the body be plump and full, w^hereas in the produc- 
 tion of milk this would be considered an objection, as the 
 food should go to the production of milk and not to body 
 fat. Thus these two classes of animals are of necessity 
 widely different in type. The beef animial is compact 
 and blocky and in general appearance resembles a brick 
 set on edge, the top and bottom lines being parallel, 
 and there is an even covering of thick flesh throughout 
 the body. On the other hand, the large digestive and 
 milking capacity of the dairy cow gives her a wedge 
 shape as viewed from the side. She is deeper through 
 the hips, flank and udder than through the shoulders and 
 chest. She is lacking in flesh, spare and angular, with 
 prominent shoulders, hips and rump. Likewise, horses, 
 sheep, swine and poultry vary in type according to the 
 purpose for which they are produced. Thus we have 
 light, coach and draft types of horses ; wool and mutton 
 types of sheep ; and lard and bacon types of swine, as 
 well as dairy, beef and general-purpose types of cattle. 
 (For complete list of types and breeds, see appendix.) 
 
 Within a given type there is often much variation, and 
 the breeder should study the demands of the market in 
 order to produce that which is most desired. Not in- 
 frequently the demands of the market vary according 
 to the locality. A good example is observed in the case 
 of draft horse type. New York City being a great 
 shipping port, where much heavy hauling is done, 
 demands a large and upstanding horse, whereas the dray 
 work of Boston being much lighter, the market derhands 
 are for a low-set, massive drafter of good conformation. 
 
 Utility of types. — Since certain types are associated 
 with certain functions, in a general way, they are useful 
 in estimating the capacity of our animals. This is par- 
 ticularly true in those cases where no record of perform- 
 ance is available, as in all meat-producing animals, as 
 
I06 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 well as all horses other than trotters and pacers. The 
 breeder must make a careful study of those types that 
 are correlated with the particular products which he is 
 trying to produce. Thus when the production of meat 
 is the principal product sought, he must know the type 
 associated with early maturity and with rapid fleshing, 
 as well as that most sought by the butcher and packer, 
 as such commands the highest price on the market. In 
 all such cases the type is exceedingly useful, as it serves 
 as the only guide at the disposition of the breeder in 
 selecting his animals. 
 
 Uniformity in type. — The animals selected for breed- 
 ing should be uniform in size and type. This is of 
 special importance in meat-producing animals and horses 
 other than racers. Butchers and packers desire cattle, 
 sheep and swine uniform in weight, so that the cuts of 
 meat will run uniform as their trade demands. If the 
 animals vary in size and type, the weight of the cuts of 
 meat will likewise vary, and to this the butcher objects, 
 as he cannot find a ready market for cuts of meat varying 
 in weight. Likewise, uniformity is of importance in the 
 wool-producing sheep, as an even uniform clipping of 
 wool is to be desired. 
 
 In the breeding of horses uniformity in size and type 
 as well as color and quality is of prime importance. This 
 is emphasized by the fact that a well-matched team will 
 sell for a very much better price than when the two 
 animals are sold singly. The market demands teams 
 uniform in type, weight, quality, color and age, and it is 
 the business of the breeder to supply the market de- 
 mands. To obtain uniform offspring, it is essential to 
 breed animals that are uniform in type, as this character 
 has a tendency to be transmitted from parent to offspring. 
 
 Breeds of animals. — Within each type there are a num- 
 ber of breeds of animals, all of which conform to the gen- 
 eral type to which they belong, but differ in respect to 
 breed characteristics. In breeding pure-bred animals it 
 
INDIVIDUAL MERIT AND SELECTION 
 
 107 
 
 is as important to select individuals possessing the char- 
 acteristics of the breed to which they belong as it is to 
 select those true to type. 
 
 The breed to select in founding a stud, herd or flock 
 will depend entirely upon the attendant conditions, as 
 
 Fig. 38 — Hereforh Bull "Point Comfort 14th" 
 
 there is no best breed for all conditions. The intending 
 breeder should make a careful study of the situation, tak- 
 ing account of the market demands, the general environ- 
 ment, as well as his own limitations, and select the breed 
 best suited to his particular conditions, as certain breeds 
 arc not well adapted to certain conditions. A good ex- 
 ample of the principle involved is observed in the case 
 
I08 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 of dairy cattle. A careful study of the dairy industry 
 reveals the fact that in general large cows are replacing 
 small ones in localities where the land is level and easily 
 grazed ; while small cows are replacing large ones in hilly 
 communities where grazing is difficult. 
 
 Standard of perfection. — Each of the more important 
 breeders' associations have established a standard or a 
 scale of points for the guidance of breeders. This stand- 
 ard denotes the characteristics that each individual of 
 the breed should possess. The scale of points, known 
 as the score card, gives a percentage value to each part 
 of the animal and designates the desirable conformation. 
 This is illustrated in the following scale of points : 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS FOR HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN COWS 
 
 POINTS. 
 
 Head — Decidedly feminine in appearance; fine in contour 2 
 
 Forehead — Broad between the eyes; dishing 2 
 
 Face — Of medium length ; clean and trim, especially under the 
 
 eyes, showing facial veins ; the bridge of the nose straight 2 
 
 Muzzle — Broad with strong lips 1 
 
 Ears — Of medium size; of fine texture; the hair plentiful and 
 
 soft; the secretions oily and abundant 1 
 
 Eyes — Large; full; mild; bright 2 
 
 Horns — Small; tapering finely towaids the tips; set moderately 
 
 narrow at base ; oval ; inclining forward ; well bent inward ; 
 
 of fine texture; in appearance waxy 1 
 
 Neck — Long ; fine and clean at juncture with the head ; free 
 
 from dewlap; evenly and smoothly joined to shoulders 4 
 
 Shoulders — Slightly lower than hips ; fine and even over tops ; 
 
 moderately broad and full at sides 3 
 
 Chest — Of moderate deoth and lowness; smooth and moderately 
 
 full in the brisket ; full in the foreflanks (or through at the 
 
 heart) 6 
 
 Crops — Moderately full 2 
 
 Chine — Straight; strong, broadly developed, with open vertebras 6 
 Barrel — Long; of wedge shape; well rounded; with a large 
 
 abdomen, trimly held up (in judging the last item age 
 
 must be considered) 7 
 
 Loin and hips — Broad; level or nearly level between the hook 
 
 bones ; level and strong laterally ; spreading from chine 
 
 broadly and nearly level; hook bones fairly prominent 6 
 
 Rump — Long; high; broad with roomy pelvis; nearly level 
 
 laterally; comparatively full above the thurl; carried out 
 
 straight to dropping of tail 6 
 
INDIVIDUAL MERIT AND SELECTION IO9 
 
 Thurl — High; broa 3 
 
 Quarters — Deep; straight behind; twist filled with development 
 
 of udder; wide and moderately full at the sides 4 
 
 Flanks — Deep; comparatively full 2 
 
 Legs — Comparatively short; clean and nearly straight; wide 
 apart; firmly and squarely set under the body; feet of 
 medium size, round, solid and deep 4 
 
 Tail — Large at base, the setting well back; tapering finely to 
 switch ; the end of the bone reaching to hocks or below ; 
 the switch full 2 
 
 Hair and handling — Hair healthful in appearance; fine, soft and 
 furry; the skin of medium thickness and loose ; mellow 
 under the hand; the secretions oily, abundant and of a rich 
 brown or yellow color 8 
 
 Mammary veins — Very large; very crooked (age must be taken 
 into consideration in judging of size and crookedness) ; 
 entering very large or numerous orifices ; double extension ; 
 with special developments, such as branches, connections, etc. 10 
 
 Udder and teats — Very capacious; very flexible; quarters even; 
 nearly filling the space in the rear below the twist, extend- 
 ing well forward in front; broad and well held up 12 
 
 Teats — Well formed; wide apart, plumb and of convenient size 2 
 
 Escutcheon — Largest; finest 2 
 
 Perfection 100 
 
 General vigor — For deficiency inspectors may discredit from the 
 total received, not to exceed eight points. 
 
 General symmetry and fineness — For deficiency inspectors may dis- 
 credit from the total received, not to exceed eight points. 
 
 General style and bearing— For deficiency inspectors may discredit 
 from the total received, not to exceed eight points. 
 
 Credits for excess of requirement in production — A cow shall be 
 credited one point in excess of what she is otherwise entitled 
 to for each and every ten per cent that her butter-fat record 
 exceeds the minimum requirements for her age. 
 
 The breeder should make a thorough study of the 
 standard as well as the scale of points so as to be able 
 to recognize desirable as well as undesirable character- 
 istics. Not infrequently these breed standards call for 
 certain fancy points of little or no economic value, such 
 as escutcheon in the Holstein-Friesian cattle ; feather on 
 the cannons and fetlocks of Clydesdale and Shire horses ; 
 six white points in Poland China and Berkshire swine ; 
 and the like ; but if the breeder is producing pure-bred 
 animals, he is obliged to conform to breed standards, 
 
no BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 otherwise he will not be able to dispose of his animals 
 to financial advantage. 
 
 Value of breed characteristics. — For convenience of 
 study we may divide the characteristics of a breed into 
 two classes, basing our division upon the economic value 
 of the feature in question. Thus we have breed char- 
 acteristics that are useful and those that are not. To the 
 latter group belong such features as color. So far as is 
 known a red and white Holstein-Friesian cow is capable 
 of yielding as much milk and butter fat as a black and 
 white one, but according to the rules of the Holstein- 
 Friesian Herd Book the former cannot be recorded, as 
 only black and white animals are admitted. The same 
 is true of color markings of Dutch Belted cattle, Poland 
 China and Hampshire swine, and the like. The economic 
 value of such characteristics should be clearly understood 
 by the breeder, notwithstanding the fact that he must 
 select his animals to conform to the breed standard, 
 otherwise his animals will be discriminated against on 
 the open market. 
 
 On the other hand, many of the breed characteristics 
 are exceedingly useful. This class is well exemplified in 
 case of egg production in White Leghorn and Plymouth 
 Rock poultry, the former laying a white egg, the latter 
 a dark one. Some markets, notably those of New York 
 City, prefer white eggs and pay a very high premium 
 for them, while other markets, especially those of Bos- 
 ton, demand dark eggs, although they do not pay so 
 high a premium for them. Another notable example of 
 useful breed characteristics is that of milk and butter-fat 
 production in Jersey and Holstein-Friesian cattle. The 
 former gives a medium flow of milk very rich in fat, 
 while the latter gives a large flow which is only medium 
 in the fat content. The breeder should make a careful 
 study of all breed characteristics, valuable as well as 
 otherwise, in order that he may select his breeding 
 animals with judgment. 
 
INDIVIDUAL MERIT AND SELECTION III 
 
 Age and individual merit. — The standards of perfection 
 as well as the scale of points of the various breeds w^ere 
 designed to apply to animals in the prime of life. As 
 animals increase in age they lose much of their former 
 symmetry, become more and more angular, the abdomen 
 often becomes rather pendulous and the back more or 
 less sw^ayed. Such changes are not taken into account 
 by the standards, and it frequently happens that aged 
 animals are discriminated against. This may be per- 
 missible in the show ring, where animals are judged 
 largely in accordance with the manner in which they 
 present themselves. 
 
 On the other hand, breeding animals should not be 
 discriminated against on account of age so long as they 
 retain their reproductive powers and vigor. The age of 
 the parent does not affect the functions of the offspring. 
 Males frequently become difficult to manage as they 
 increase in age and are usually disposed of irrespective 
 of their breeding qualities and a young and often un- 
 proven male substituted in their place. This is a serious 
 mistake, as it often happens that some of the best blood 
 of the breed is lost in this manner. However, when the 
 productive powers begin to wane, the animals should be 
 disposed of, unless very exceptional breeders, as it is not 
 economical to keep animals for breeding unless they are 
 fairly fertile. 
 
 Constitutional vigor. — While the standards of perfec- 
 tion and scales of points lay considerable stress upon 
 constitutional vigor, in many cases they unconsciously 
 operate against it in that more weight is placed upon 
 other characters, such as early maturity, refinement, and 
 the like. This often proves a serious matter, as is 
 demonstrated in many herds of swine where the dams 
 have become so refined that they are very low in fer- 
 tility as well as constitutional vigor. Where breeding 
 animals are selected on basis of the standard of perfec- 
 tion, the vigor often declines and in a few years the 
 
INDIVIDUAL MERIT AND SELECTION II3 
 
 breeder finds his animals deteriorating in their produc- 
 tive functions. 
 
 In selecting animals for breeding the constitutional 
 vigor is one of the most important characteristics to be 
 considered. No animal lacking in thrift should find its 
 way into the breeding herd, no matter how^ excellent, no 
 matter M^hat the pedigree and no matter how high may 
 be the record of performance. 
 
CHAPTER XI 
 PEDIGREE AND SELECTION 
 
 The capacity of the individual to reproduce itself de- 
 pends largely upon the purity of the ancestors. If the 
 ancestors have been good for several generations, it is 
 reasonably certain that the offspring w^ill be good ; if the 
 ancestors have been poor for several generations, it is 
 likewise reasonably certain that the offspring w^ill be 
 poor; w^hereas if the ancestors have been mixed, some 
 good and some poor, it is impossible to predict w^ith any 
 degree of certainty what the offspring will be like. In 
 view of such facts the character of the ancestors becomes 
 a very important factor in selecting breeding animals as, 
 in a general way, characters will be transmitted in pro- 
 portion to the degree with which they have become fixed 
 in the parents. 
 
 Form and contents of a pedigree. — For their guidance 
 in selecting animals breeders long ago established stud, 
 herd and flock books in which the ancestors of pure-bred 
 animals were recorded. Such a record is called a pedi- 
 gree. It consists of the name of the animal, which is 
 usually designated by a serial number for convenience 
 in tracing the pedigree, although in some of the books 
 the females are arranged alphabetically within the volume. 
 The pedigree also records the date of birth, usually the 
 color and markings, the name and number of the sire 
 and dam, together with the name and address of both the 
 breeder and owner. 
 
 Most of the breeds have but one requirement for ad- 
 mission to the books of record, which is that both sire 
 and dam shall be recorded, although some breeds require 
 in addition certain breed characteristics, as black and 
 white color in the case of Holstein-Friesians. 
 
 114 
 
PEDIGREE AND SELECTION II5 
 
 The following pedigrees, one of King of the Pon- 
 tiacs, a noted Holstein-Friesian bull, the other of the 
 famous Percheron stallion Calypso, illustrate the form 
 and gives the data covered in the ordinary registered 
 pedigree : 
 
 39037. King of the Pontiacs. B., Eastern Michigan 
 Asylum, Pontiac, Mich.; O., The Stevens Brothers-Hast- 
 ings Co., Lacona, N. Y. ; March 5, 1905 ; Pontiac Korn- 
 dyke 25982-Pontiac Lunde Hengerveld 51585. 
 Calypso 25017 (44577) _ 
 
 Black; foaled May 6, 1897; imported in 1900 by Dun- 
 ham, Fletcher and Coleman, Wayne, 111.; bred by M. 
 Brossard, Department of Sarth, France. 
 
 Sire, Theudis 25015 (40871) by Besigue (19602) by 
 Brilliant III 11116 (2919). See Brilliant III (2919). 
 
 Dam, Fatma (25787) by Brilliant III 11116 (2919). 
 See Brilliant III 11116 (2919). 
 
 Second dam, Rose (11 158) by Brilliant 1271 (755). 
 
 Third dam, Madelon. 
 
 In general the pedigree is a guarantee of the purity 
 of the animal, although application for registry rests 
 solely with the breeder. For this reason the value of a 
 pedigree is largely dependent upon the reliability of the 
 owner. When a breeder files a pedigree with the request 
 that it be published, the secretary of the breeders' asso- 
 ciation is in a position to know whether the sire and dam 
 mentioned are really owned by the breeder, and to this 
 extent the secretary can vouch for the accuracy of the 
 pedigree. While some errors creep in through careless 
 methods of record keeping, it is very rare, indeed, for a 
 breeder to falsify a breeding record or substitute an in- 
 ferior animal for the one mentioned in the pedigree. 
 
 Tracing and writing pedigrees. — Since most pedigrees 
 give but one generation of ancestors, they do not provide 
 the breeder with all of the desired information in select- 
 ing his breeding animals. To get this information in a 
 comprehensive form, breeders trace down and write out 
 
ii6 
 
 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 the pedigree of the particular individuals which they 
 choose to consider. There are two methods of writing 
 pedigrees in common use in breeders' catalogs, sales' 
 
 papers and other advertising 
 mediums, in which owners fa- 
 miliarizebreeders with the breed- 
 ing of their animals. In one 
 method the dam's line is pre- 
 sented in detail, although the 
 other ancestors are not taken 
 into account. Formerly this 
 method was used extensively. 
 In the other method all of the ancestors are considered. 
 
 Fig. 40 — Poland China Boar 
 
 NoNPARiEL Marquis (55757) 
 
 Roan. Calved January 13, 
 
 Dam 
 
 Bred by 
 
 Rose of Forthton 
 
 G. & W. Forth 
 
 Kathleen 2d 
 
 J. Forth & Sons 
 
 Kathleen 
 
 J. Forth 
 
 Nonpariel 43d 
 
 Jas. Russell 
 
 Nonpariel 36th 
 
 Jas. Russell 
 
 Nonpariel 33d 
 
 John Isaac 
 
 Nonpariel 31st 
 
 S. Campbell' 
 
 Nonpariel 26th 
 
 S. Campbell 
 
 Nonpariel 24th 
 
 A. Cruickshank 
 
 Nonpariel 23d 
 
 A. Cruickshank 
 
 Nonpariel 17th 
 
 A. Cruickshank 
 
 1905. Bred by W. C. Edwards & Co. 
 
 Sire 
 Marquis of Zenda (26064) 
 Border Chief (18128) 
 Defiance (8244) 
 Sir William (7928) 
 British Statesman (42847) 
 High Sheriff 2d (702) 
 Inkerman (31414) 
 Sir Christopher (22895) 
 Scariet Velvet (16916) 
 Lord Sackville (13249) 
 The Baron (13333) 
 Matadore (11800) 
 
 Bred by 
 W. S. Marr 
 J. & W. Russell 
 Lt.-Col. Tyrwhitt 
 John Miller 
 S. Campbell 
 W. Isaac 
 S. Campbell 
 R. Booth 
 A. Cruickshank 
 A. Cruickshank 
 R. Chaloner 
 W. Smith 
 
 Lord Netherland De Kol 22187 
 
 lord Netherland 
 
 De Kol 22187 
 
 B. Dec. 12, 1894 
 
 Bred and owned 
 
 by E. C. Brill 
 
 Netheriand De Kol's 
 Perfection 17713 
 
 Susie De Kol 
 33688 
 
 Pietertje 2d's 
 Koningen 10625 
 
 Netherland De 
 Kol 10605 
 
 De Kol 2d'< 
 Netherland 
 11584 
 
 Daisy De Kol 
 20201 
 
 Koningen Von Priesland 
 5th 's Netherland 3515 
 
 Pietertje 2d 
 3273 H. H. B. 
 
 Netherland Alban 
 4584 H. H. B. 
 
 De Kol 2d 
 734 
 
 Netherland Alban 
 4584 H. H. B. 
 
 De Koi 2d 
 734 
 
 De Kol 2d's Prince 
 27o7 
 
 Belle Bamum 
 2422 
 
PEDIGREE AND SELECTION 11/ 
 
 and for convenience in study the pedigree is arranged in 
 tabular form. 
 
 The preceding pedigrees, one of Nonpariel Marquis, a 
 Shorthorn bull, and the other the Holstein-Friesian bull, 
 Lord Netherland De Kol, illustrate the two forms in 
 common use. 
 
 Fig 41 — Aberdeen Angus Bull "Leroy of Meadowbrook" 
 
 In the case of Nonpariel Marquis we note that the 
 pedigree runs entirely on the dam's side, and the ances- 
 tors are given for ii generations. Were all of the an- 
 cestors included for this period the pedigree would con- 
 tain 4,094 individuals instead of 2^), as in the present 
 form. Manifestly such pedigrees give little information 
 for the guidance of the breeder. In the case of Lord 
 Netherland De Kol all of the ancestors are given for the 
 generations covered by the pedigree, which, of course, 
 could easily be extended to the foundation animals of 
 the breed. Such a pedigree gives a complete list of all 
 the ancestors and is of the greatest significance in select- 
 ing breeding animals. 
 
 Comparative value of ancestors. — The former practice 
 of recording ancestors entirely on the dam's side encour- 
 
ii8 
 
 BREEDING 07 EARM ANIMALS 
 
 aged the idea of extending the pedigree to include very 
 remote ancestors. Not infrequently pedigrees extended 
 for twenty generations, as breeders associated great 
 length of pedigree with high breeding qualities. We now 
 have sufficient evidence to show that breeders formerly 
 placed too high a value on extreme length of pedigree. 
 Many of our best individuals that show a high tendency 
 to reproduce their characters have secured their qualities 
 from a comparatively short line of ancestors. It is the 
 animals making up the pedigree for the first four or five 
 generations that are of great influence in giving any in- 
 dividual the power to transmit qualities. So great is the 
 influence of the first four or five generations that it makes 
 little difference what the individuals were back of that 
 period. 
 
 In our discussion of the law of ancestral heredity it 
 was stated that the two immediate parents contributed 
 between them one-half of the effective heritage, the grand- 
 parents one-fourth, and the great-grandparents one- 
 
 'G. sire i/i(j 
 
 Total 
 heritage 
 
 Sir 1/4 - 
 
 rG. G. G. sire ^230 
 G. G. sire i/(i4 -| 
 
 I^G. G. G. dam V^go 
 
 rG. G. G. sire Vj-» 
 G. G. dam 1/04 J. 
 
 [G. G. G. dam y-r^o 
 
 Total 
 
 Dam Vi 
 
 V2 
 
 ,G. dam i/i 
 
 G. sire Vio 
 
 G. dam Yiis 
 
 % 
 
 G. G. sire Vm 
 G. G. dam %4 
 -G. G. sfre i/o4 
 G. G. dam Ma 
 G. C. sire %4 
 G. G. dam %4 
 
 G. G. G. sire iV.c 
 
 G. G. G. dam i/jr.d 
 
 "G. G. G. sire 1/250 
 
 G. G. G. dam VL'go 
 
 G. G. G. sire i/2r,o 
 
 G. G. G. dam V-r.e 
 
 G. G. G. sire ^256 
 
 G. G. G. dam y2r.o 
 
 G. G. G. sire V-im 
 
 G. G. G. dam %g« 
 
 G. G. G. sire V^r.a 
 
 G. G. G. dam Vi2:io 
 Vio 
 
 all 
 
 others 
 
 Vie 
 
PEDIGREE AND SELECTION 
 
 119 
 
 eighth, and so on to infinity, so that the total heritage 
 would be represented by one. For convenience of study 
 the preceding table is arranged in accordance with this 
 law, and it shows the heritage contributed by each an- 
 cestor for four generations . 
 
 Fig. 42 — Aberdeen Angus Cow "Glencarnock Isla'' 
 
 The table shows conclusively the fallacy of selecting 
 an animal when only the female line is represented in the 
 pedigree, as only the ancestors in italics would ap- 
 pear. Thus of the thirty ancestors in the four genera- 
 tions only seven would be represented and together they 
 would contribute only about 40 per cent of the total 
 heritage. 
 
 Animal with inbred pedigree. — The relative influence 
 of an animal in an inbred pedigree is a much-discussed 
 question among animal breeders. Such a pedigree limits 
 blood lines to few and closely related lines of descent, it 
 increases prepotency, gives stability to the family, favors 
 
120 
 
 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 uniformity and intensifies characters both good and bad. 
 The pedigree of the famous Jersey bull Polonius gives a 
 good illustration of an inbred pedigree. 
 
 Polonius 
 2513 
 
 Sarpendon 
 930 
 
 Mercury 
 432 
 
 Europa 
 176 
 
 Lady 
 799 
 
 Jupiter 
 93 
 
 Jupiter 
 93 
 
 Saturn 
 94 
 
 Rhea 
 166 
 
 Alphea 
 171 
 
 Saturn 
 94 
 
 Rhea 
 166 
 
 Jupiter 
 93 
 
 Saturn 
 94 
 
 Rhea 
 166 
 
 Alphea 
 171 
 
 Saturn 
 94 
 
 Rhea 
 166 
 
 Saturn 
 94 
 
 
 "Rhea 
 166 
 
 
 Jupiter 
 93 
 
 Saturn 
 94 
 
 Rhea 
 166 
 
 Alphea 
 171 
 
 Saturn 
 94 
 
 Rhae 
 166 
 
 Europa 
 176 
 
 In a common pedigree there would be 26 ancestors in 
 the four generations, representing 14 lines of descent, 
 whereas in the pedigree of Polonius there are but eight 
 individuals, representing two lines of descent. Saturn 
 and Rhea each appears seven times, Jupiter four, Alphea 
 three, Europa two, while each of the other three appears 
 but once. According to the law of ancestral heredity 
 
PEDIGREE AND SELECTION 
 
 121 
 
 these eight ancestors collectively contribute ^^q of the 
 total heritage, each individual contributing as follow^s : 
 
 Males 
 Sarpendon Vi 
 Mercury Vie 
 Jupiter %4 
 Saturn %4 
 
 Females 
 Ledy V4 
 Europa Vs 
 Alphea %4, 
 Rhea %4 
 
 A still more remarkable case of condensing blood lines 
 is observed in the pedigree of Alphea Czar. This pedi- 
 gree traces back from four to eight generations and repre- 
 sents 106 ancestors w^ith 52 lines of descent, w^hereas 
 there are actually 14 ancestors v^ith but two lines of 
 
 Fig. 43 — Dorsf.t-Horned Ram 
 
 descent in the pedigree. Saturn and Rhea, the original 
 animals, each appears 27 times, Jupiter 15, Alphea 12, 
 Mercury 7, Europa 5, Phaedra and Leda 3 each, Nym- 
 phaea 2, while Splendor the bull. Splendor the cow. Ele- 
 vator, Hark Comstock and Mercury, Jr., each appears 
 once. 
 
 Pedigree with exceptional animal. — Our former 
 methods of writing pedigrees encouraged the idea of 
 placing much stress upon an exceptional ancestor, even 
 
122 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 though he appears many generations back in the pedi- 
 gree. Manifestly, in the light of the law of ancestral 
 heredity, this practice seems unwarranted. This is par- 
 ticularly true in case the individual in question has 
 gained the notoriety through a show yard career, as this 
 signifies little save that the animal was an exceptional 
 individual. It gives us no assurance that the good qual- 
 ities will be transmitted to the offspring. In fact, it very 
 frequently happens that the reverse is the case, as there 
 are few exceptional show animals that have produced 
 offspring famous as breeders or show animals. We 
 should not, therefore, place too much stress upon the 
 exceptional animal unless the breeding powers have been 
 fully demonstrated by an actual breed test. 
 
 Value of family names. — In the development and im- 
 provement of a breed of animals it not infrequently hap- 
 pens that the descendants of some famous individual 
 assume a family name. Such families are sometimes 
 founded by a sire, but more frequently by a dam. Good 
 examples of where families were founded by the sire are 
 observed in the case of Standardbred horses where the 
 Hambletonian family descended from Hambletonian lo, 
 the Clay family from Henry Clay 8, and the Morgan 
 family from Justin Morgan. Among the more noted 
 families founded by dams, we have the Duchess family of 
 Shorthorns descending from Duchess I by Comet and the 
 De Kol family of Holstein-Friesians descended from 
 De Kol 2d by Willem III, Animals belonging to such 
 families frequently become very popular and their 
 descendants in very great demand. There is usually 
 keen rivalry among the breeders. Under such condi- 
 tions breeders with unlimited means frequently pay fancy 
 prices for the more promising individuals, with the idea 
 that they can sell the offspring to advantage and make 
 money on the transaction. This is more or less of a 
 speculation, as a special market must be found for each 
 animal sold. For the man who has the means and the 
 
PEDIGREE AND SELECTION 1 23 
 
 executive ability to conduct such a business, it may prove 
 exceedingly profitable. The average breeder, however, 
 should understand the matter thoroughly before paying 
 a fancy price for a single individual simply because the 
 animal happens to be a member of a family in great 
 public favor. 
 
 Significance of breeder's name. — The reward that oc- 
 curs to the breeder who persists in his efforts to develop 
 a strain or improve a breed of animals is unexcelled by 
 that of any other profession. Everywhere we find 
 breeders whose reputation is known far and wide. The 
 mere fact that an animal was 
 bred by them is sufficient rec- 
 ommendation to establish its 
 worth. Such men first make 
 a careful study of the business, 
 decide upon a strain and breed, 
 then work out a definite method ^J^^feSi..,***'' ^ -^^^^^ 
 of procedure which they ad- fic 44— duroc jersey boar 
 
 here to persistently. In such 
 
 cases the breeder's methods are a guarantee that none 
 but good animals were used in the business, and that 
 these were selected after a thorough consideration of the 
 individual merit, pedigree and record of performance. 
 
 Proportion of pure-bred animals, — Such statistics as 
 have been collected show that there is a close relation- 
 ship between the number of pure-bred animals in a local- 
 ity and the general excellence of farm stock. Of the 
 twenty counties in New York State containing the largest 
 number of dairy cattle those with the largest number 
 of purely bred animals include the counties in which the 
 average production was highest and the counties which 
 made the largest increase in yield during the past 
 decade. 
 
 In this connection it is interesting to observe that such 
 statistics as are available in a few states show that the 
 majority of stallions standing for public service are not 
 
124 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 recorded. No doubt some of these unrecorded animals 
 are useful sires. It is safe to say, however, that most 
 of them are of little credit to the country, for many, even 
 of those that are recorded, are unsuited for the service 
 they are allowed to perform. The meager statistics that 
 are available for cattle, sheep and swine indicate that a 
 very large percentage of the males used for service are 
 not recorded. 
 
 In 1905, the Bureau of Animal Industry issued a report 
 in which it estimated that of all horses in the United 
 States 1.02 per cent were registered. For dairy cattle 
 the per cent was given as 1.07, beef cattle 1.05, sheep 0.46 
 and swine 0.45. This gives evidence that a very large 
 proportion of the sires in use throughout the country 
 are unregistered. This no doubt accounts for much of 
 the indifference attending animal breeding in this 
 country. 
 
 A, 
 
CHAPTER XII 
 PERFORMANCE AND SELECTION 
 
 It must be clearly recognized that, as a basis for 
 estimating the breeding powers of an animal, nothing 
 compares with an accurate test of just what the animal 
 can do. While individuality and pedigree are important 
 factors for the guidance of breeders, they both become 
 secondary to a record of performance, the result of an 
 actual test. In considering such a record, however, it is 
 necessary to have full regard for the conditions under 
 which it was made. Thus an individual with a moderate 
 record made under adverse conditions may be just as 
 valuable as one with a high record made under the most 
 favorable circumstances. On the other hand, an increase 
 of a fair degree of merit under limited opportunities is 
 not a satisfactory assurance of the ability to produce 
 excellent results when accorded the most favorable op- 
 portunity. 
 
 For many years we have kept an accurate record of the 
 speed of trotting and pacing horses. These speed records 
 have been recorded in Wallace's Year Book. More re- 
 cently a system of testing milk and butter-fat capacity 
 of dairy cows has been inaugurated. The results of such 
 tests are recorded in the advanced register. We now 
 have the speed records of thousands of horses as well as 
 the milk and butter-fat records of thousands of dairy 
 cows, going back many generations. These data, accu- 
 rately collected and properly interpreted, furnish invalu- 
 able aids to breeders in selecting their animals. 
 
 Standards of performance. — Before an animal can be 
 admitted to the advanced register it must first prove its 
 worth by fulfilling certain requirements in an actual test. 
 This is very different from the requirements of the stud, 
 
126 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 herd and flock books, where an animal is eligible to ad- 
 mission providing its sire and dam are recorded, although 
 the animal must be thus recorded before it is qualified to 
 enter the test for the advanced register. For the most 
 part these standards of performance are not difficult. They 
 were established with a view of encouraging large num- 
 bers of animals to enter the test, as it was thought more 
 
 Fig. 45 — Standardbred Stallion "Kremlin," 2:07% 
 
 good would result from large numbers of fairly efficient 
 animals than small numbers of highly efficient ones. 
 
 Trotting and pacing standard. — When an animal meets 
 these requirements and is duly registered, it shall be ac- 
 cepted as a standard-bred trotter or pacer : 
 
 1. The progeny of a registered standard trotting horse 
 and a registered standard trotting mare. 
 
 2. A stallion sired by a registered standard trotting 
 horse, providing his dam and granddam were sired by a 
 
PERFORMANCE AND SELECTION 12/ 
 
 registered standard trotting horse, and he himself has a 
 record of 2 130 and is the sire of three trotters with 
 records of 2 130 from different mares. 
 
 3. A mare whose sire is a registered standard trotting 
 horse, and whose dam and granddam were sired by regis- 
 tered trotting horses, providing she herself has a trotting 
 record of 2 130 or is the dam of one trotter with a record 
 of 2 :30. 
 
 4. A mare sired by a registered standard trotting horse, 
 providing she is the dam of two trotters with records of 
 2:30. 
 
 5. A mare sired by a registered standard trotting horse, 
 providing her first, second and third dams are each sired 
 by a registered standard trotting horse. 
 
 The pacing standard is similar except the word "pacer" 
 is substituted for the word "trotter;" "pacing" for the 
 word "trotting" and the speed standard 2 125 for 2 130, 
 and the addition of a sixth paragraph, which is as follows : 
 
 6. The progeny of a registered standard trotting horse 
 out of a registered standard pacing mare, or of a regis- 
 tered standard pacing horse out of a registered standard 
 trotting mare.* 
 
 Holstein-Friesian seven-day standard. — When a cow 
 meets the following requirements and is duly registered 
 she may be admitted to the advanced register: 
 
 A cow calving on or before the day she is two years of 
 age shall make a record of not less than 7.2 pounds of 
 butter fat in seven consecutive days ; and for every day 
 that she may exceed two years of age at date of calving 
 the requirement for the butter-fat record shall be in- 
 creased .00439 of 3- pound. 
 
 If calving on the day she is five years of age, she shall 
 make a record of not less than 12 pounds of butter fat in 
 seven consecutive days ; and no increase in production 
 for increased age at date of birth shall be required for any 
 cow calving subsequently. 
 
 ♦Wallace's American Trotting Register. 
 
128 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 Holstein-Friesian seven-day requirement by classes : 
 
 Junior two-year-old ._ 7.2 pounds 
 
 Senior two-year-old 8.0 pounds 
 
 Junior three-year-old 8.8 pounds 
 
 Senior three-year-old 9.6 nounds 
 
 Junior four-year-old 10.4 pounds 
 
 Senior four-year-old 11.2 pounds 
 
 Full age 12.0 pounds 
 
 Holstein-Friesian, Jersey and Guernsey yearly stand- 
 ard. — If a test for the period of one year is commenced 
 the day the cow is two years old, or previous to that day, 
 she must produce, within one year from the date the test 
 begins, 250.5 pounds butter fat. For each day the cow 
 is over two years old at the beginning of her year's test, 
 the amount of butter fat she must produce in the year is 
 fixed by adding o.i (one-tenth) of a pound for each such 
 day to the 250.5 pounds required for the two-year-old. 
 This ratio of increase applies until the cow is five years 
 old at the beginning of her test, when the required amount 
 will have reached 360 pounds, which will be the amount 
 of butter fat required of all cows five years old or over. 
 
 These standards are based upon 
 one complete year's record from 
 the time of beginning, regard- 
 less of any time which may be 
 lost by being dry or calving 
 during that period. 
 
 Fig. 46 — Berkshire Sow « i • i , i -i 
 
 Ayrshire yearly standard. — 
 
 This calls for 214.3 pounds of fat at two years of age, with 
 the addition of .06 of fat for each succeeding day up to 
 three years of age, when the standard calls for 236 of fat, 
 with the addition of .12 for each succeeding day up to 
 five years of age, when the requirement is 322 pounds 
 of fat. 
 
 Brown Swiss yearly requirement. — This call for 222 
 pounds of fat at two years and six months of age, with 
 the addition of .09 of fat for each succeeding day up to 
 
PERFORMANCE AND SELECTION 
 
 120 
 
 six years of age, when the requirement calls for 2)37 
 pounds of fat. 
 
 The advanced register record. — A pedigree consists of 
 the name and number of an animal, the name and number 
 of the sire and dam, together with the name and address 
 of the owner. These data tell us nothing of what the 
 animal has done and gives us no assurance of what it is 
 capable of doing. True, it signifies that the animal is 
 purely bred, and in the case of famous families and noted 
 owners adds commercial value, but as to actual produc- 
 ing and breeding power it leaves us as much in the dark 
 as we were before. Contrast with this the data given 
 in the advanced register. 
 
 The following Holstein-Friesian advanced register 
 records, one of the noted cow, Belle Korndyke, the other 
 a partial record of the bull. Lord Netherland De Kol, 
 illustrate the form and give the data covered in the ad- 
 vanced register. 
 
 The first number following the name is the advanced 
 register number and the second the herd book number. 
 The first figure in 
 the parenthesis in- 
 dicates the number 
 of advanced regis- 
 ter daughters that 
 each animal has ; 
 the second figure 
 the number of sons 
 that are sires of 
 tested daughters ; 
 and the third figure 
 the number of 
 daughters that are 
 dams of tested 
 daughters. 
 
 Under each animal's name will be found a list of tested 
 daughters, together with their milk, butter fat and butter 
 
 Fic. 47 — Dutch Belted Bull "Auten" 
 
VD 
 
 On 
 
 ON 
 
 U 
 
 « 
 
 Q 
 
 J 
 J 
 W 
 
 MCDOO t^ CO — ' 
 00<N(MOO0)0) 00 00 
 
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 r^ ooicdoJoo 
 
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 S!D tM <r> -- o ro 
 ■^ fO IT) li^ in fM 
 
 
 "■*C0>O>OinN -:f Sj 
 
 ^' 
 
 ^r^'-i^oo — — oo-^inoorji^iooro — -^o 
 
 0>O50CMirjTC<xl0D0>(M0qC0<r'aiC^'*00O — 00 
 
 ^cDfOC50-;^o-^(Ooqc\itDt--05r--fOrqrooqo 
 o'0<'5oo'Tt<cvJioo-*r^cDror>JaicJo6-"CccDrJM 
 
 ^ojoo^— -r-'O^oi'^ rood oini/i-^ojporococj 
 
 j^i/i'^r^^oofor«]0ooro^03t^co^o>"^ior0'^ 
 
 S'-oo^fO-^fOrocjcD^-^iocDX'CDai — r^iO]CD^ 
 ro ■* M CO •* lO ■*■* ■*roin CM-* ■*■*«-* CO "^c^ 
 
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 QO)0000O)O5CO '-J^!^ O Q ■* (O Tl- ^CD oi/) Od ro OCO) — l^tCOJCD crO^O) SH O 
 
 NM ■— <ajl:r4 CN| ^ ■^CM'-'O] •"'^ CM -^ CMCMCg c3 
 
 
 >-mcocO'*CDO) '*1^'- 
 
 00^ 
 
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 CO -^ o r^ j2 o 
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 >-(r5CD'*rot^cocot-int^cDCMi^o>cDCMi^c'j'*ir! 
 
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 0010 <M 
 
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 =-05p 
 
 CO OJCD (M 
 
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 CM in 'n 
 
 ■^ aj _ o ^ — D 
 
 a>T-i'£cooo 
 yr ii V CM D- 
 
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 4>'— ' — 
 
 M M.CJ 
 
 4) _ " 
 
 .5 g o o 0, 
 '£"£■ "^ U t- 
 
 Q^i=i 
 
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 ■^ ' CDC) ^ 
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 M-H -l-l 
 
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 130 
 
PERFORMANCE AND SELECTION 
 
 131 
 
 record, as well as the age at which the record was made, 
 and following the list of daughters with records will be 
 found, printed in italics, the names and herd book num- 
 bers of the sons that are sires of tested daughters, and of 
 the daughters that are dams of tested daughters. 
 
 Following the name of each tested daughter will be 
 found three numbers. The first is the animal's advanced 
 register number, the second is the number of the volume 
 of the advanced register in which the record given may 
 be found, and the third the herd book number. Follow- 
 ing this is the milk, fat and butter record ; also the age 
 at which it was made. 
 
 Value of advanced register record in selection. — To get 
 the data contained in an advanced register record before 
 us in a more concrete form, let us tabulate the pedigree 
 
 Pedigree of Lord Netherland De Kol 22187, Including 
 THE Advanced Register Records* 
 
 
 
 
 Koningen Von Friesland 
 
 
 
 
 Sth's Netherland 3515 
 
 
 
 Pietertje 2d's 
 
 
 
 
 Koningen 10625 
 
 Pietertje 2d 
 
 
 
 1-3-0 
 
 3273H. H. B. ' 
 
 
 ' Netherland DeKol 
 
 
 
 
 Perfection 17713- 
 
 
 Netherland Alban 
 
 
 14-14-23 
 
 
 5484H.H.B. 
 
 
 
 Netherland De Kol 
 
 1-3-5 
 
 
 
 10605 
 
 De Kol 2d 734 
 
 536.8 milk, 21.261 fat 
 2-7-5 
 
 Lord Netherland 
 
 
 
 
 De Kol 22187 
 
 
 
 Netherland Alban 
 
 120-31-99 
 
 
 
 5,484 H.H.B. 
 
 
 
 ' DeKol 2d 's 
 
 1-3-5 
 
 
 
 Netherland 11584 • 
 
 De Kol 2d 734 
 
 
 
 22-21-28 
 
 536.8 milk, 21.261 fat 
 
 2-7-5 
 
 
 Susie De Kol 
 
 
 
 
 33688 
 
 
 r De Kol 2d's Prince 
 
 
 475.5 milk 
 
 
 2767 
 
 
 20.245 fat 
 
 Daisy De Kol 
 
 
 
 5-4-8 
 
 20201 
 
 Belle Barnum 
 2422 
 
 *Made up from Vol. 24 of the Holstein-Priesian Advanced Register. 
 
 of Lord Netherland De Kol, similar to that on page ii6, 
 but including the advanced register data. 
 
 This means that Lord Netherland De Kol has 120 
 
132 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 daughters with advanced register records; that 31 of his 
 sons have daughters w^ith records; and that 99 of his 
 daughters are the dams of daughters v^^ith advanced 
 register records. His sire, Netherland De Kol's Perfec- 
 tion, has 14 daughters v^ith records ; he has 14 sons that 
 have daughters w^ith records ; and he is the sire of 2^ 
 dams that have advanced register daughters. His dam, 
 Susie De Kol, has a record of 475.5 pounds of milk and 
 20.245 pounds of fat in seven days, as w^ell as five daugh- 
 ters v^^ith records ; she has four sons that are the sires of 
 daughters with records ; and she has eight daughters that 
 are the dams of daughters with records. Like data are 
 given for each ancestor that has an advanced register 
 record. 
 
 In like manner, to get the data contained in Wallace's 
 Year Book before us in a more concrete form, let us 
 tabulate the pedigree of the Standardbred horse, Aller- 
 ton, who leads the list with 257 performing get to his 
 credit. (P. 133.) 
 
 This gives us practically the same data as that given in 
 the Holstein-Friesian pedigree. It signifies that Allerton 
 has 199 trotters and 58 pacers to his credit in the year 
 book; that 85 of his sons have sired 197 trotters and 116 
 pacers; and that 61 of his daughteis are the dams of 63 
 trotters and 19 pacers, making a total of 395 performers 
 in the second generation. Similar data are given for each 
 ancestor in the pedigree. The sire. Jay Bird, has a total 
 of 706 performers in the second generation ; George 
 Wilkes, the grandsire, has 3,394, and Hambletonian 10, the 
 great grandsire, has 1,836, while both parents have 964, the 
 four grandparents 3,641, and the great-grandparents have 
 5,620 performers in the second generation of offspring, 
 making a total of 10,225 in the three generations of an- 
 cestors. Of course, wherever the same ancestor occurs 
 twice the performers are counted twice. 
 
 Exact measure of breeding capacity, — This standard is 
 an absolute one, and gives an exact measure of the breed- 
 
es; 
 
 
 •*o oft 
 
 w^ 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 :^L 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2ei 
 
 
 <u 
 
 .S O p w § 
 
 t_ 
 
 
 
 v _ 
 
 George W 
 72 trott 
 
 103 sires; 
 pacers 
 
 110 dams; 
 
 « 
 
 
 
 
 
 X+^m g-d 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 T3 
 
 "^ 
 
 cSrNt^ ftO 
 
 ft 
 
 
 
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 ft 
 
 
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 W r 
 
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 w 
 w 
 
 Ov ft 
 
 
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 fto 
 
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 p O 
 
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 g^ I- lu 5 <u 
 
 133 
 
134 
 
 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 ing capacity of the particular individual in question. 
 True, such records depend on opportunity, although Lord 
 Netherland De Kol was chosen to illustrate the value of 
 a record of performance in selecting animals for breeding 
 purposes because, so far as known, he did not have ex- 
 ceptionally favorable conditions. Nevertheless, at the 
 
 present time (1913), he 
 leads the list of Holstein- 
 Friesian sires with ad- 
 vanced register daugh- 
 ters, although De Kol 2d's 
 Butter Boy 3d's 74 sons 
 lead the list of sons with 
 581 daughters in the 
 register, while Lord 
 Netherland De Kol's 31 
 sons have only 105 
 daughters with records. 
 In this respect De Kol 
 2d's Butter Boy 3d is 
 followed by Hengerveld 
 De Kol, whose 54 sons 
 have 447 daughters in the advanced register, and by King 
 Segis, whose 50 sons have 340 daughters with records. 
 
 Manifestly, so far as ability to produce performers is 
 concerned, such a record as this is of vastly more im- 
 portance to the breeder than individuality or pedigree. 
 While, theoretically, successful animal breeding depends 
 largely upon the law of chance, such records as these 
 practically eliminate the chance, and we can predict the 
 outcome within the limits of accident in animal life. 
 True, this again depends on chance, but not in the same 
 sense as when we mate animals of unknown breeding 
 capacity. 
 
 Vigor and performance. — In selecting animals on the 
 basis of their performance, constitutional vigor becomes 
 of prime importance. Many of our high-performing 
 
 Fig. 48 — Dutch Belted Cow "Jennie" 
 
PERFORMANCE AND SELECTION 1 35 
 
 animals seem to produce so heavily as to undermine their 
 constitutional vigor. If such animals are selected for 
 breeding, the offspring are likely to lack vigor, and of 
 course will be unable to equal the performance of their 
 parents. We are not w^ithout examples of this, as both 
 dairy cattle and hens have been selected for breeding pur- 
 poses on the basis of their production alone, with dis- 
 astrous results. When choosing his breeding animals, 
 therefore, the breeder must clearly recognize that in the 
 absence of vigor and thrift all else may come to naught, 
 even though the particular animal selected be a good 
 individual, well bred, and with a high record of per- 
 formance to his credit. 
 
 Meat, wool and egg production. — Up to the present 
 time we have recorded performance among race horses 
 and dairy cows only. Speed and milk production are 
 easily measured, and our breeders have seized upon them 
 in the hope of gaining some light in the mysteries of 
 breeding. There seems to be no difficulty, however, in 
 measuring and recording wool production among sheep, 
 and but little difficulty is encountered in measuring egg 
 production among poultry ; in fact, most of the agricul- 
 tural experiment stations and a few breeders keep ac- 
 curate account of both functions. This provides equally 
 as valuable data in selecting breeding animals as ad- 
 vanced register records among cattle. No doubt in the 
 course of the next few years a concentrated effort will be 
 made by the various breeders' associations to keep an 
 accurate account and record all such useful functions. 
 
 There are a few functions that cannot be measured 
 with any degree of accuracy. Chief among these is meat 
 production. It would be difficult, if not impossible, to 
 measure such attributes as early maturity and economic 
 fleshing qualities among our meat-producing animals. 
 In selecting such breeding animals the breeder must rely 
 upon his own skill in estimating such attributes. 
 
 Value of show awards. — In the case of meat-produc- 
 
136 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 ing animals and horses it has been suggested that the 
 show-ring decisions be recorded and that this be used 
 as the basis in selecting breeding animals. In all prob- 
 ability such records would be of very little value in de- 
 tecting, -or even in estimating breeding capacity. In 
 reality this constitutes selecting animals on the basis of 
 individual merit. As has been stated, individual excel- 
 lence gives us no indication of the breeding capacity of 
 an animal. 
 
CHAPTER XIII 
 
 IMPROVEMENT DUE TO SELECTION BASED 
 ON PERFORMANCE 
 
 The development attained by each of our breeds of 
 animals has resulted from many co-ordinated influences, 
 no one of which has played so great a role as that of 
 selection. In the past there has been much confusion 
 among breeders in the matter of selecting animals. Much 
 of this was due to lack of understanding as to what con- 
 stituted breed excellence. Breeders were divided in their 
 opinion as to the most important characters. Some 
 breeders were selecting to advance one set of characters, 
 while other breeders were trying to advance another set. 
 Not infrequently these characters were negatively cor- 
 related, and as one improved the other declined. True, 
 each breed had its scale of points and standard of excel- 
 lence, but the interpretation of these was left to the 
 judgment of the individual breeder, and in the absence 
 of a definite feature, attribute or character to measure 
 there was utter lack of concentrated effort. As would 
 be expected under such conditions of affairs the standard 
 of excellence and scales of points have been modified from 
 time to time to suit the ideas of breeders. These changes 
 have not always worked to the advantage of the particu- 
 lar breeds affected. 
 
 Characters considered and methods of presentation.— 
 To get the essentials involved in animal improvements 
 clearly before us, it is proposed to present and discuss 
 facts disclosed by the advanced register for Holstein- 
 Friesian cattle and by Wallace's Year Book for horses. 
 In view of the remarkable advancement attained in speed 
 development and milk production some of the data are 
 considered in detail, particularly that related to milk and 
 
138 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 butter-fat production. The dairy cow and the race horse 
 are the only classes of farm animals in which records 
 of performance are kept, and hence the only ones con- 
 cerning which we have definite knowledge of the exact 
 advantage gained. However, the same principles are 
 involved and the same suggestions apply to other char- 
 acters, such as meat and wool production, the develop- 
 ment of the draft horse, the coach horse, and the like. 
 Because of the vast amount of data considered and to 
 get the facts clearly before us it is necessary to present a 
 few rather long and complicated tables. These should 
 be carefully considered by the reader in order that he 
 may analyze, generalize and synthesize of his own accord, 
 thus stimulating thought, which will lead to closer ob- 
 servation throughout nature generally. 
 
 DEVELOPING THE TROTTER 
 
 Records of performance were first recorded among race 
 horses. In the beginning, this was a private undertaking, 
 the time of the horse being recorded in racing calendars. 
 This was for the information of the men who wagered 
 their money on the race, rather than for the guidance 
 of breeders in selecting horses for breeding. Later, the 
 value of such records became apparent to the breeder, 
 and the year 1839 witnessed the beginning of methodic 
 recording time of horses in the more important races. 
 From that time until the present we have a more or less 
 complete and fairly accurate record of each horse taking 
 part in the more important racing events in this country. 
 
 Influence of time records. — Such records have been a 
 most important factor in developing extreme speed in 
 the trotter and pacer. This method not only enables us 
 to distinguish the slow and fast horses, but from the 
 records we can determine those horses that are actually 
 producing fast animals as illustrated in the pedigree 
 
IMPROVEMENT DUE TO PERFORMANCE I39 
 
 (p. 133). Thus in selecting breeding animals, the slow 
 ones are eliminated, and the fast ones are mated, which, 
 in connection with improved conditions, enables us to get 
 even faster horses. Again, the slow-producing animals 
 are discarded and the fast ones mated, which results in a 
 still greater increase in speed. 
 
 At the close of the 191 3 racing season there were listed 
 in the year book approximately 50,000 performers, of 
 which about 30,000 were trotters and about 20,000 pacers. 
 These performers were sired by approximately 10,000 
 stallions and out of 25,000 mares. This gives 
 an average of five performers to a sire and two to 
 a dam. 
 
 Breeding of great sires. — Of the thousands of sires 
 recorded in the great table of the year book there are 
 but 30 credited with 100 or more performers; that is, 
 horses good enough to meet the requirements for ad- 
 mission. While the average of all sires listed is ap- 
 proximately five performers, the average of the 30 great 
 sires is approximately 150 each. These great sires, there- 
 fore, are thirty times as efficient as the average sire. Mani- 
 festly the breeder should be interested in the history of the 
 breeding of these noted animals so as to be able to pro- 
 duce others if possible. Fortunately, the record of per- 
 formance as kept in the year book gives us a complete 
 history of the breeding power of each ancestor, provid- 
 ing it was meritorious enough to gain admission. 
 
 It is interesting to observe, of these 30 noted horses, 
 that the sire, paternal grandsire and great-grandsire each 
 has performing get to his credit ; that each dam, with two 
 exceptions, has performing get; that each maternal 
 grandsire, without exception, has performing get; and 
 that each paternal granddam, with seven exceptions, has 
 performing get to her credit. 
 
 The following tabulation shows the average number 
 of performing get for each ancestral form for three gen- 
 erations of ancestors for the 30 great sires : 
 
140 
 
 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 30 great sires 
 109.5 trotters 
 38. 1 pacers 
 
 147.6 
 
 ERFORMANCE OF 30 GrEAT SiRES 
 
 AND Their 
 
 Ancestors* 
 
 
 
 
 30 G. G. sires 
 
 
 
 22.5 trotters 
 
 
 
 .7 pacer 
 
 
 
 23.2 
 
 
 30 G. Sires 
 
 
 
 47.0 trotters 
 
 
 
 4.6 pacers 
 
 30 G. G. dams 
 
 
 
 1.1 trotters 
 
 
 51.6 
 
 
 30 sires 
 
 
 
 76.1 trotters 
 
 
 30 G. G. sires 
 
 13.1 pacers 
 
 
 7.6 trotters 
 
 
 
 .4 pacer 
 
 89.2 
 
 30 G. dams 
 2.1 trotters 
 
 30 G. sires 
 19.3 trotters 
 
 8.0 
 
 30 G. G. dams 
 .16 trotter 
 
 30 G. G. sires 
 15.5 trotters 
 .5 pacer 
 
 16.0 
 
 
 2.6 pacers 
 
 30 G. G. dams 
 
 
 
 .2 trotter 
 
 
 21.9 
 
 
 30 dams 
 
 
 
 2.9 trotters 
 
 
 30 G. G. sires 
 
 .2 pacer 
 
 
 9.8 trotters 
 2.2 pacers 
 
 3.1 
 
 30 G. dams 
 1.0 trotter 
 .1 pacer 
 
 12.0 
 30 G. G. dams 
 
 
 1.1 
 
 03 trotter 
 
 *Made up from Vol. 29, Wallace's Year Book. 
 
 This tabulation is significant. It illustrates the exact 
 breeding power necessary to produce the greatest of 
 Standardbred sires. It also shows the increased efficiency 
 from generation to generation. The 30 famous animals 
 averaged 147 performers each, while their sires averaged 
 89, their paternal grandsires 51, and the great-grandsires 
 8 and 2^, each, while the granddams average two each, 
 with both great-granddams represented. Again, the 
 dams of the 30 noted animals averaged three performers 
 
IMPROVEMENT DUE TO PERFORMANCE I4I 
 
 each, the maternal grandsires almost 2.2, and the great- 
 grandsires 12 and 16 each, while the granddams aver- 
 aged one each, w^ith both great-granddams represented. 
 No doubt many factors are involved in this remarkable 
 development, but the significant fact remains that of the 
 thousands of sires listed in the great table of the year 
 book not a single animal stands high in the list, but that 
 is backed up by high-performing ancestors for many 
 generations. 
 
 DEVELOPING THE DAIRY COW 
 
 While cattle have been bred for dairy purposes for 
 more than a century, marked improvement in milk yield 
 and butter-fat production is of comparatively recent date. 
 It is associated with the development of our present sys~ 
 tem of keeping records of the milk yield and the butter 
 fat produced for the individual animal. Formerly dairy 
 cattle were selected on the basis of their conformation, 
 which, as has been stated, is not a true guide to efficiency. 
 This resulted in slow progress. Not satisfied with such 
 progress a few breeders began to keep an accurate ac- 
 count of the milk yield and churned butter that their 
 animals produced. Such remarkable progress followed 
 that the dairy cattle-breeders' associations took up the 
 matter of keeping records. They standardized the work 
 and established the advanced registers in which the per- 
 formance is recorded. 
 
 Influence of butter-fat records. — While the Jersey 
 cattle breeders' association have encouraged the 
 keeping of records since the earl}'- '70's and the Hol- 
 stein-Friesian since the early '8o's, it was not until 1894 
 that the Holstein-Friesian breeders' association began 
 the official supervision of records. Although the work 
 has been in progress but two decades great advancement 
 has been made both in regard to the number of animals 
 tested and the results obtained. 
 
142 
 
 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 As in the case of time records among horses, the 
 records of dairy production not only enable the breeder 
 to distinguish the low from the high producing, but from 
 the records he can determine which individuals are ac- 
 tually getting high-producing animals. In selecting 
 breeding animals the breeder has but to eliminate the 
 low performing and mate the high performing which, in 
 connection with improved conditions, results in even 
 higher producing animals, and the general improvement 
 of dairy cattle. 
 
 :^«w«gy-T3i 
 
 
 Fig. 49 — Holstein-Friesian Co\y "Glista Omicron' 
 25.285 pounds of butter fat in seven days. 
 
 Breeding of cows with advanced register records. — 
 
 Manifestly, the breeding of cows that can meet the re- 
 quirements for admission to the advanced register is of 
 interest. To illustrate this a tabulation is made of all 
 of the Holstein-Friesian cows admitted to the register 
 
IMPROVEMENT DUE TO PERFORMANCE 
 
 143 
 
 during the two years ending May 15, 191 1. This in- 
 cludes 7,443 cows, of which 5,072 were first entries and 
 2,371 re-entries; that is, cows increasing a previous 
 record. Inasmuch as the re-entries may be considered a 
 second selection, they will be considered separately. 
 Since the requirements for admission to the advanced 
 register are not very difficult the table is divided into 
 three parts, the first division including those cows that 
 exceed the requirement by less than 50 per cent, the 
 second those that exceed the requirement by 50 to 100 
 per cent, and the third division those cows that exceed 
 
 Breeding of Holstein-Friesian Cows, First Entries, 
 That Fxceed the Requirement by Less Than 50% ; 
 
 BY 50% TO 1007f ; AND BY IOO% AND AbOVE. 
 
 Character of matings 
 
 Number 
 of cows 
 
 Per cent, 
 of cows 
 
 Cows that exceed the requirement by less than 50%, 3,856; 76% of total number 
 
 Both sire and dam in register. . . 
 Neither sire nor dam in register. 
 
 Sire in register, dam not 
 
 Dam in register, sire not 
 
 Totals . 
 
 34. 
 27. 
 26. 
 13. 
 
 Cows that exceed the requirement by 50% to 100%, 1,090; 22% of total number 
 
 Both sire and dam in register. . . 
 Neither sire nor dam in register. 
 
 Sire in register, dam not 
 
 Dam in register, sire not 
 
 Totals . 
 
 1,090 
 
 491 
 
 45. 
 
 196 
 
 18. 
 
 224 
 
 21. 
 
 179 
 
 16. 
 
 100. 
 
 Cows that exceed the requirements by 100% and more, 126; 2 % of total number. 
 
 Both sire and dam in register. . . , 
 Neither sire nor dam in register. 
 
 Sire in register, dam not 
 
 Dam in register, sire not 
 
 Totals. 
 
 82 
 
 65. 
 
 4 
 
 3. 
 
 22 
 
 18. 
 
 18 
 
 14. 
 
144 
 
 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 the requirement by lOO per cent or more. The cows 
 were arranged in four classes according" to the possible 
 kinds of mating. (See table on p. 143.) 
 
 In the first division more than one-third of the cows 
 have both parents in the advanced register, while almost 
 three-fourths of them have at least one parent in the 
 register. Note how this percentage increases as the 
 standard is raised. In the second division approximately 
 one-half have both parents in the register, while about 
 five-sixths have one parent in the register; whereas in 
 the third division, where the standard is doubled, prac- 
 
 Breeding of Holstein-Friesian Cows, Re-entries That 
 Exceed the Requirement by Less Than 50% ; by 50%- 
 TO 100% ; and by 100% AND Above. 
 
 Character of matings 
 
 Number 
 of cows 
 
 Per cent, 
 of cows 
 
 Cows that exceed the requirement by less than 50%, 1,534; 65% of total number 
 
 Both sire and dam in register. . . 
 Neither sire nor dam in register. 
 
 Sire in register, dam not 
 
 Dam in register, sire not 
 
 Totals . 
 
 1,534 
 
 780 
 
 51 
 
 177 
 
 12 
 
 425 
 
 27 
 
 152 
 
 10 
 
 100. 
 
 Cows that exceed the requirement by 50% to 100%, 724; 30% of total number 
 
 Both sire and dam in register. . . 
 Neither sire nor dam in register. 
 
 Sire in regi^^ter, dam not 
 
 Dam in register, sire not 
 
 Totals , 
 
 438 
 
 61 
 
 53 
 
 7 
 
 169 
 
 23 
 
 64 
 
 9 
 
 Cows that exceed the requirement bv 100%, and more, 113; 5% of total number 
 
 Both sire and dam in register. . . 
 Neither sire nor dam in register. 
 
 Sire in register, dam not 
 
 Dam in register,, sire not 
 
 Totals. 
 
 86 
 
 76. 
 
 4 
 
 4. 
 
 16 
 
 14. 
 
 7 
 
 6. 
 
IMPROVEMENT DUE TO PERFORMANCE 
 
 145 
 
 tically two-thirds have both parents in the register, and 
 practically all have one parent in the register, but three 
 in 100 having neither parent in the register. 
 
 In the first division of the re-entries (p. 144) more than 
 one-half of the cows have both parents in the register and all 
 but 12 in 100 have at least one parent in the register. 
 Again, observe how this percentage increases as the 
 standard is raised, until in the third division more than 
 three-fourths of the cows have both parents in the regis- 
 ter. These tables emphasize the fact that if we wish to 
 select the highest producing cows we must look for them 
 among the offspring of advanced register animals. 
 
 Fig. 50 — Holstein-Friesian Cow "Gi.ista Eglantine" 
 25.912 pounds of butter fat in seven days. 
 
 Holstein-Friesian cows with records as breeders. — In 
 
 this study the number of performing offspring produced 
 by cows with records is of much importance. To illus- 
 trate this a tabulation is made of all the Holstein-Friesian 
 cows that are the dams of two or, more advanced register 
 daughters. On May i, 1913, there were 4,183 such dams. 
 
146 
 
 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 For convenience of study this table (see below) is divided into 
 four parts, the first division including those dams with two 
 and three daughters, the second those with four and five, 
 the third those with six and seven, and the fourth division 
 
 Breeding of Holstein-Friesian Cows with 2 and 3, 4 
 AND 5, 6 and 7, and 8 A. R. O. Daughters* 
 
 Character of matings 
 
 Number 
 of cows 
 
 Per cent, 
 of cows 
 
 Cows with 2 and 3 A. R. O. daughters, 3,786; 90.5% of total number 
 
 Cows with 2 and 3 A. R. O. D and records. 
 Cows with 2 and 3 A. R. O. D no records. . 
 
 Totals. 
 
 57.6 
 42.4 
 
 Cows with 4 and 5 A. R. O. daughters, 375; 9% of total number 
 
 Cows with 4 and 5 A. R. O. D and records. . 
 Cows with 4 and 5 A. R. O. D no records . . . 
 
 Totals. 
 
 76.2 
 23.8 
 
 Cows with 6 and 7 A. R. 0. daughters. 
 
 20; .4% of total number 
 
 Cows with 6 and 7 A. R. O. D and records. . . 
 Cows with 6 and 7 A. R. O. D no records. . . . 
 
 Totals 
 
 13 
 2 
 
 20 
 
 90.0 
 10.0 
 
 100.0 
 
 Cows with 8 or more A. R. O. daughters, 2 
 
 Cows with 8 or more A. R. O. D and records. . 
 Cows with 8 or more A. R. O. D no records. . . 
 
 Totals . 
 
 100.0 
 
 
 *Made up from Vol. 24 of the Holstein-Friesian advanced register. 
 
 those with eight daughters each. The cows are arranged 
 in two classes, those that have records and those that 
 have no records. 
 
 In the first division, dams with two and three advanced 
 register daughters, approximately 6 out of lo, them- 
 
IMPROVEMENT DUE TO PERFORMANCE I47 
 
 selves have records. Observe how this number increases 
 as the number of calves produced increases. In the 
 second division, dams w^ith four and five advanced regis- 
 ter daughters, three-fourths have records ; in the third 
 division, dams w^ith six and seven daughters in the ad- 
 vanced register, nine-tenths have records ; and in the 
 fourth division, dams v^ith eight daughters in the regis- 
 ter, all have records. This is significant in a considera- 
 tion of the transmission of high-producing qualities from 
 the maternal parent to the female offspring. It gives 
 conclusive evidence of the desirability of high-producing 
 dams in breeding for high production among dairy cattle. 
 
 Breeding of advanced register bulls. — Among dairy 
 cattle the bulls are admitted to the advanced register on 
 the performance of their daughters. When a Holstein- 
 Friesian bull has four daughters in the register, he is 
 admitted automatically. From the breeder's point of 
 view such data are even more valuable than when an 
 animal is entered on its own performance, as such in- 
 dicates breeding ability. In this connection, therefore, 
 the breeding of bulls that make the requirements is of 
 vital importance. To illustrate this a tabulation is made 
 of all of the Holstein-Friesian bulls admitted on the per- 
 formance of their daughters up to May 15, 1912 (p. 148). 
 There were 1,191 bulls thus admitted, 126 having been en- 
 tered before the present standard was adopted. Since the 
 requirements for admission are not difficult the table is 
 divided into five parts, the first division including those 
 with 4 to 14 daughters each; the second, those with 15 
 to 24 daughters; the third, those with 25 to 49 daugh- 
 ters ; the fourth, those with 50 to 74 daughters ; and the 
 fifth, those with 75 or more daughters each. The bulls 
 are arranged in four classes according to the character of 
 the mating. 
 
 This table is significant in a consideration of methods 
 for obtaining transmitting efficiency. In the first divi- 
 sion, sires with 4 to 14 A. R. O. daughters, 50 per cent 
 
Breeding of Holstein-Friesian Sires with 4 to 14, 
 
 15 TO 24, 25 TO 49, 50 TO 74, AND 75 OR MORE A. R. O. 
 
 Daughters. 
 
 Character of matings 
 
 Number of 
 sires 
 
 Per cent 
 of sires 
 
 Sires with 4 to 14 A. R. O. daughters 948; 79.6% of all with records 
 
 Both sire and dam in register... 
 Neither sire nor dam in register. 
 
 Sire in register, dam not 
 
 Dam in register, sire not 
 
 Totals. 
 
 50.8 
 20.2 
 20.2 
 
 Sires with 15 to 24 A. R. O. daughters 155; 13.1% of all with records 
 
 Both sire and dam in register. . . 
 Neither sire nor dam in register. 
 
 Sire in register, dam not 
 
 Dam in register, sire not 
 
 Totals. 
 
 76.1 
 2.6 
 10.3 
 11.0 
 
 100.0 
 
 Sires with 25 to 49 A. R. O. daughters 65; 5.4% of all with records 
 
 Both sire and dam in regi-ter. . . 
 Neither sire nor dam in register. 
 
 Sire in register, dam not 
 
 Dam in register, sire not 
 
 Totals 
 
 72.3 
 
 .0 
 
 12.3 
 
 15.4 
 
 100.0 
 
 Sires with 50 to 74 A. R. O. daughters 13; 1.1% of all with records 
 
 Both sire and dam in register... 
 Neither sire nor dam in register. 
 
 Sire in register, dam not 
 
 Dam in register, sire not 
 
 Totals. 
 
 77.0 
 
 .0 
 
 7.7 
 
 15.3 
 
 100.0 
 
 Sires with 75 or more A. R. O. daughters 10; .8% of all with records 
 
 Both sire and dam in register. . . 
 Neither sire nor dam in register. 
 
 Sire in register, dam not 
 
 Dam in register, sire not 
 
 Totals. 
 
 10 
 
 100.0 
 
 
 
 .0 
 
 
 
 .0 
 
 
 
 .0 
 
 148 
 
IMPROVEMENT DUE TO PERFORMANCE 
 
 149 
 
 have both parents in the register, 20 per cent have sire 
 only, and 9 per cent have dam only, while but 20 per cent 
 have neither parent in the register. Note how^ rapidly the 
 per cent v\^ith both parents in the register increases, and 
 how^ those with neither parent in the register decreases. 
 In the second division, sires with 15 to 24 A. R. O. 
 daughters, 76 per cent have both parents in the register, 
 10 per cent have sire only, and 11 per cent have dam only. 
 
 Fig. 51 — Holste.n'-Fr.esian Cows with High Records of Performances 
 25.282, 24.416, 25.912 and 24.129 pounds respectively of butter fat in seven days, 
 
 whereas but 2.6 have neither parent in the register. In 
 the third and fourth divisions, sires with 25 to 49 and 50 
 to 74 A. R. O. daughters respectively, about 75 per cent 
 have both parents in the register, and all, or 100 per cent, 
 have at least one parent in the register. Likewise in 
 the last division, sires with 75 or more A. R. O. daugh- 
 ters, all have both parents in the register. 
 
 Thus there is not a bull in the advanced register with 
 50 or more daughters to his credit but that has at least 
 
I50 
 
 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 one parent in the register. Further, there is not a bull 
 with 75 or more daughters in the register but that has 
 both parents in the register. This gives conclusive evi- 
 dence of the advantage of a record of performance for 
 the guidance of breeders in selecting their animals. 
 
 Registered animals without registered parents. — As 
 the advanced register for Holstein-Friesian cattle was 
 established in 1894, it must of necessity follow that the 
 animals admitted the first few years had neither parent 
 in the register. As years went by the offspring of the 
 animals first admitted made records and were themselves 
 admitted, with the result that, at present, after the regis- 
 ter has been in existence for a number of years an increas- 
 ing percentage of the animals in the register has parents 
 in the register also. To illustrate this a tabulation is made 
 of all of the Holstein-Friesian bulls admitted to the ad- 
 vanced register each year for the decade ending May 15, 
 1912. This includes a total of i.i 15 bulls. These animals 
 are arranged in four classes as before. 
 
 Breeding of Holstein-Friesian Bulls Admitted to the 
 Advanced Register Each Year for the Decade End- 
 ing May 15, 1912. 
 
 
 Both sire 
 
 Neither sire 
 
 Sire 
 
 in 
 
 Dam in 
 
 
 
 and dam 
 
 nor dam 
 
 register 
 
 register 
 
 
 
 in register 
 
 in register 
 
 dam 
 
 not 
 
 sire not 
 
 Total 
 
 Year 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 number 
 
 
 Num- 
 
 Per 
 
 Num- 
 
 Per 
 
 Num- 
 
 Per 
 
 Num- 
 
 Per 
 
 of bulls 
 
 
 ber 
 
 cent 
 
 ber 
 
 cent 
 
 ber 
 
 cent 
 
 ber 
 
 cent 
 
 
 
 of 
 
 of 
 
 of 
 
 of 
 
 of 
 
 of 
 
 of 
 
 of 
 
 
 
 bulls 
 
 bulls 
 
 bulls 
 
 bulls 
 
 bulls 
 
 bulls 
 
 bulls 
 
 bulls 
 
 
 1903 
 
 9 
 
 22 
 
 16 
 
 39 
 
 11 
 
 27 
 
 5 
 
 12 
 
 41 
 
 1904 
 
 15 
 
 32 
 
 16 
 
 32 
 
 11 
 
 22 
 
 7 
 
 14 
 
 50 
 
 1905 
 
 28 
 
 43 
 
 19 
 
 29 
 
 13 
 
 20 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 65 
 
 1906 
 
 32 
 
 41 
 
 16 
 
 20 
 
 26 
 
 33 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 79 
 
 1907 
 
 37 
 
 49 
 
 14 
 
 18 
 
 16 
 
 21 
 
 9 
 
 12 
 
 76 
 
 1908 
 
 47 
 
 54 
 
 20 
 
 23 
 
 18 
 
 20 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 88 
 
 1909 
 
 57 
 
 55 
 
 20 
 
 19 
 
 17 
 
 16 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 104 
 
 1910 
 
 83 
 
 63 
 
 12 
 
 9 
 
 27 
 
 20 
 
 11 
 
 8 
 
 133 
 
 1911 
 
 141 
 
 67 
 
 22 
 
 10 
 
 35 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 7 
 
 219 
 
 1912 
 
 175 
 
 67 
 
 26 
 
 10 
 
 33 
 
 13 
 
 26 
 
 10 
 
 260 
 
IMPROVEMENT DUE TO PERFORMANCE 151 
 
 In lo years the percentage of bulls in the register that 
 have both parents in the register has increased from 22 
 to 67, while the percentage vi^ith neither parent has de- 
 creased from 39 to 10 in the same period. The percent- 
 age with but one parent in the register has also slightly 
 decreased. 
 
 There are many Holstein-Friesian cattle not in the 
 advanced register, simply because they have never been 
 tested. They could make the requirements for admis- 
 sion, but are not given an opportunity. Thus the per- 
 centage of animals in the register without advanced 
 register parents will simply depend upon the number of 
 animals admitted from without. 
 
 The number of cattle tested for admission to the ad- 
 vanced register is not large. During the past few years 
 only about 13 per cent of the cows and 1.3 per cent of the 
 bulls have been admitted to the register. This is sig- 
 nificant. When the small number of cows tested and in 
 the register is taken into account, and the large percent- 
 age of high-producing animals coming from the register 
 is considered, the chances of finding a maximum pro- 
 ducer from without the register are not very encourag- 
 ing. The breeder attempting to produce a cow capable 
 of making a seven-day record of 35.3 pounds of fat, or a 
 bull that can sire 100 or more advanced register daugh- 
 ters, is likely to encounter much difficulty unless he 
 selects parents from the advanced register. 
 
 In this connection it may be stated that the advanced 
 register plays no part in increasing the production of 
 dairy cows ; it neither adds to nor detracts from produc- 
 tion, but is simply an instrument in which records of per- 
 formance are kept and from which records of transmitted 
 efficiency can be obtained. 
 
CHAPTER XIV 
 
 IMPROVEMENT DUE TO SELECTION THE 
 RESULT OF PREPOTENCY 
 
 The parents are not equally powerful in transmitting 
 characters to their offspring. The parent that has the 
 superior power in determining the characters of the oft"- 
 spring is said to be prepotent. This is of much practical 
 importance to the breeder because of the direct influence 
 which it has upon improvement. It is our lack of 
 definite understanding of factors governing prepotency, 
 however, that is responsible for much of the discussion 
 on the transmission of modified or "acquired" characters, 
 sex limited inheritance and like subjects. While little 
 understood, enough is known regarding prepotence to 
 enable the skilled breeder to select animals possessing 
 it with a reasonable degree of certainty. This is es- 
 pecially true when records of performance are available. 
 
 Prepotency is considered from two points of view, first, 
 breed prepotency, by which is meant that animals of a 
 breed are all possessed of much power in transmitting 
 the characters of the breed; and, second, individual pre- 
 potency, in which the individual has much power in trans- 
 mitting its characters to the offspring. 
 
 Breed prepotency. — There is much difference in the 
 prepotency of the various breeds. This is clearly brought 
 out when two distinct breeds are crossed. Among beef 
 cattle, if a Hereford-Shorthorn cross is made, the most 
 of the offspring will inherit the color and markings as 
 well as the early-maturing qualities of the Hereford, 
 whereas their general conformation and feeding quali- 
 ties will be similar to that of the Shorthorn. Among 
 sheep, the American Merino has much power in trans- 
 mitting its characters when crossed upon other breeds, 
 
 152 
 
IMPROVEMENT DUE TO PREPOTENCY 1 53 
 
 and more especially when crossed upon grades. In fact, 
 the prepotency of the pure-bred over the common animal 
 is the significant factor in breed prepotency, as it enables 
 us to quickly transform the common animal to the type 
 of the breed from which pure-bred males have been 
 selected. In this connection it must be remembered that 
 some breeds are much more prepotent than others, and 
 hence will effect changes more rapidly, whereas some 
 breeds may be so low in their potency as to be unable 
 to effect the desired changes. 
 
 Individual prepotency, — This is of vastly more conse- 
 quence to the animal breeder than breed prepotency. 
 It is the agency through which individuals are 
 improved, and hence lies at the base of both herd and 
 breed development. Indeed, individual prepotency and 
 selection, based on records of performance, are the most 
 powerful agencies for the improvement of herds as well 
 as the several breeds of farm animals, at the command 
 of the breeder. 
 
 So influential are the more prepotent animals that we 
 are likely to confuse prepotency and fertility. This is 
 often due to the fact that the prepotent animal is given 
 the better opportunity, because of the individual merit 
 of his offspring, which naturally increases the number of 
 his get. However, an individual may be very prepotent 
 and low in fertility. In such cases it is often a question 
 as to the wisdom of continuing the potent animal in 
 service, as no animal should be retained for breeding that 
 is not fairly fertile. 
 
 Prepotency among horses. — The significance of selec- 
 tion, the result of prepotency in general improvement, 
 is clearly and forcibly illustrated in the case of speed 
 records among Standardbred horses. Of the 10,000 
 stallions siring the 50,000 performers at the close of 1913 
 there were 11 that had sired 150 or more performers each, 
 their average being 185. These phenomenal sires, there- 
 fore, were 37 times as efficient as the average sire. So 
 
154 
 
 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 important are these sires in a study of prepotency that 
 a tabulation is made, giving their name, stud book num- 
 ber and their sire and dam as well as the number of their 
 performing get, both trotters and pacers. 
 
 Breeding of ii Phenomenal Sires, Including the 
 Number of Their Performers — Trotters and Pacers* 
 
 
 
 
 Trot- 
 
 Pac- 
 
 
 Name of horse 
 
 Sire 
 
 Grandsire 
 
 ters 
 
 ers 
 
 Total 
 
 Allerton 5128 
 
 Jay Bird 5060 
 
 George Wilkes 519 
 
 199 
 
 58 
 
 257 
 
 Gambetta Wilkes 
 
 George Wilkes 
 
 Hambletonian 10 
 
 110 
 
 121 
 
 231 
 
 4659 
 
 519 
 
 
 
 
 
 Onward 1411 
 
 George Wilkes 
 519 
 
 Hambletonian 10 
 
 155 
 
 45 
 
 200 
 
 Red Wilkes 1749 
 
 George Wilkes 
 519 
 
 Hambletonian 10 
 
 133 
 
 45 
 
 178 
 
 McKinney 8818 
 
 Alcyone 732 
 
 George Wilkes 519 
 
 142 
 
 34 
 
 176 
 
 Alcantara 729 
 
 George Wilkes 
 519 
 
 Hambletonian 10 
 
 121 
 
 54 
 
 175 
 
 Nutwood 600 
 
 Belmont 64 
 
 Abdallah 15 
 
 137 
 
 37 
 
 174 
 
 Ashland Wilkes 
 
 Red Wilkes 
 
 George Wilkes 519 
 
 93 
 
 76 
 
 169 
 
 2291 
 
 1749 
 
 
 
 
 
 Electioneer 125 
 
 Hambletonian 
 
 10 
 Pancost 1439 
 
 Abdallah 1 
 
 158 
 
 2 
 
 160 
 
 Prodigal 6000 
 
 Woodford Mambrino 
 
 127 
 
 28 
 
 155 
 
 
 
 345 
 
 
 
 
 Baron Wilkes 
 
 George Wilkes 
 
 Hambletonian 10 
 
 119 
 
 35 
 
 154 
 
 4758 
 
 519 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 
 
 1494 
 
 535 
 
 2029 
 
 Average 
 
 
 
 136 
 
 49 
 
 185 
 
 *Made up from Vol. 29, Wallace's Year Book. 
 
 This table is significant, not alone in the number of 
 performing offspring represented, but in the breeding of 
 the phenomenal sires. George Wilkes is the sire of five 
 of these animals and the grandsire of three others ; while 
 one of the remaining animals is sired by Hambletonian 
 ID, the sire of George Wilkes, another by Belmont, a 
 grandson of Hambletonian lo and the remaining one 
 traces to Hambletonian lo in the maternal line of descent. 
 Of this number, those that were sired by George Wilkes 
 produced 638 trotters and 300 pacers, a total of 938 per- 
 formers, which is almost one-half of the entire number. 
 
 In a study of all such data, and in the comparison of 
 
IMPROVEMENT DUE TO PREPOTENCY 
 
 155 
 
 individuals there are three factors that must be borne in 
 mind : First, some individuals w^ere too young for their 
 entire breeding record to be completed ; second, some had 
 access to better mares and more of them than did others ; 
 and, third, some had enjoyed less opportunity than others 
 ov^ing to their racing engagements. 
 
 The famous grandsires. — A study of the more important 
 grandsires shows even more remarkable results. There are 
 seven stallions in the list that have the distinction of 
 being grandsire of over 1,000 performers each. So im- 
 portant are these in a consideration of prepotency that a 
 tabulation is made of them on page 156 showing the number 
 of performers got by each, the number of sons that are sires 
 of performers and the number sired, the number of daugh- 
 ters that are dams of performers and the number 
 dammed, also the total number of performers produced 
 by the sons and daughters. 
 
 Fig. 52 — Standarubred Stallion "McKinney," 2:111,4 
 
 It is interesting to observe that five of the famous 
 grandsires are also phenomenal sires, although the 
 animals that stand first and third as grandsires are not 
 represented in the table of phenomenal sires. The seven 
 
156 
 
 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 Famous Grandsires Having More Than i,ooo Perform- 
 ers Each in the Second Generation* 
 
 
 
 
 Sons and 
 
 Daughters and 
 
 
 Name ot 
 
 Year 
 born 
 
 Per- 
 formers 
 
 their performers 
 
 their performers 
 
 Total per- 
 
 grandsire 
 
 
 
 
 
 sons and 
 
 
 
 
 Sires 
 
 Per- 
 formers 
 
 Dams 
 
 Per- 
 formers 
 
 daughters 
 
 George Wilkes 
 
 1856 
 
 83 
 
 103 
 
 3,187 
 
 110 
 
 207 
 
 3,394 
 
 Electioneer. . . . 
 
 1868 
 
 160 
 
 104 
 
 1,851 
 
 115 
 
 185 
 
 2,036 
 
 Hambletonian 
 
 1849 
 
 40 
 
 150 
 
 1,717 
 
 80 
 
 119 
 
 1,836 
 
 Nutwood 
 
 1870 
 
 174 
 
 155 
 
 1,306 
 
 177 
 
 385 
 
 1,691 
 
 Red Wilkes 
 
 1874 
 
 178 
 
 149 
 
 995 
 
 174 
 
 297 
 
 1,292 
 
 Onward 
 
 1875 
 
 200 
 
 176 
 
 997 
 
 194 
 
 288 
 
 1,285 
 
 Baron Wilkes 
 
 1882 
 
 154 
 989 
 
 75 
 912 
 
 870 
 
 109 
 959 
 
 239 
 1,720 
 
 1,109 
 
 Total 
 
 10,923 
 
 12,643 
 
 Average 
 
 
 141 
 
 130 
 
 1,560 
 
 137 
 
 246 
 
 1,806 
 
 *Made up from Vol. 29, Wallace's Year Book. 
 
 stallions are the sires of 912 sons that sired 10,923 per- 
 formers, and of 959 daughters that are the dams of 1,720 
 performers — in all 12,643, one-fourth of all performers 
 listed in the year book. In this consideration the rela- 
 tive age is an important factor. No doubt v.hen the 
 breeding records of some of the younger horses that have 
 had better opportunities are complete w^e shall have a 
 large increase in the number of stallions with 1,000 or 
 more performers in the second generation. 
 
 Breeders of performers and breeders of breeders. — A 
 study of the records of performance among horses re- 
 veals the fact that some individuals are notably sires of 
 speed w^hich ends in that generation, v^hile other animals, 
 not especially notable for siring performers themselves, 
 yet produce sires and dams of extreme breeding pov^^er. 
 Possibly this is due, in part at least, to the fact that the 
 animals possessing extreme speed are v^^orth more as 
 racers, and thus are not given the same chance in the 
 stud as some other well-bred animals which lack the ex- 
 treme speed and, therefore, are worth more for breeding 
 than for racing. The fact that some animals seem to be 
 
IMPROVEMENT DUE TO PREPOTENCY 
 
 157 
 
 breeders of performers, while others are breeders of 
 breeders, is well illustrated in the following tabulation 
 which includes the seven famous grandsires as well as 
 the II phenomenal sires noteworthy for their performers. 
 
 Phenomenal Sires and Famous Grandsires and the 
 Number of Their Performing Descendants* 
 
 
 
 
 Sons and 
 
 Daughters and 
 
 
 
 
 
 their performers 
 
 their performers 
 
 Total per- 
 
 Name of horse 
 
 Year 
 bom 
 
 Per- 
 formers 
 
 
 
 
 
 formers of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 sons and 
 
 
 
 
 Sires 
 
 Per- 
 formers 
 
 Dams 
 
 Per- 
 formers 
 
 daughters 
 
 Allerton 
 
 1886 
 
 257 
 
 85 
 
 313 
 
 61 
 
 82 
 
 395 
 
 Gambetta"Wilke.s 
 
 1881 
 
 231 
 
 74 
 
 345 
 
 90 
 
 152 
 
 497 
 
 Onward 
 
 1875 
 
 200 
 
 176 
 
 997 
 
 194 
 
 288 
 
 1 285 
 
 Red Wilkes 
 
 1874 
 
 178 
 
 149 
 
 995 
 
 174 
 
 297 
 
 1,292 
 
 McKinney 
 
 1887 
 
 176 
 
 48 
 
 318 
 
 31 
 
 38 
 
 356 
 
 Alcantara 
 
 1876 
 
 175 
 
 79 
 
 490 
 
 97 
 
 183 
 
 673 
 
 Nutwood 
 
 1870 
 
 174 
 
 155 
 
 1,305 
 
 177 
 
 385 
 
 1,691 
 
 Ashland Wilkes 
 
 1882 
 
 169 
 
 57 
 
 259 
 
 SO 
 
 60 
 
 319 
 
 Electioneer 
 
 1868 
 
 160 
 
 104 
 
 1,851 
 
 115 
 
 185 
 
 2,036 
 
 Prodigal 
 
 1886 
 
 155 
 
 15 
 
 62 
 
 41 
 
 61 
 
 123 
 
 Baron Wilkes 
 
 1882 
 
 154 
 
 75 
 
 870 
 
 109 
 
 239 
 
 1,109 
 
 George Wilkes 
 
 1856 
 
 83 
 
 103 
 
 3,187 
 
 110 
 
 207 
 
 3,394 
 
 Hambletonian 
 
 1849 
 
 40 
 
 2,152 
 
 150 
 1,270 
 
 1,717 
 12,710 
 
 80 
 1,329 
 
 119 
 
 2,296 
 
 1,836 
 
 Total 
 
 15,006 
 
 Average 
 
 
 165 
 
 97 
 
 977 
 
 102 
 
 177 
 
 1,154 
 
 *Made up from Vol. 29, Wallace's Year Book. 
 
 Compare the performers, those gotten directly, with 
 the total performers of sons and daughters, recording 
 the second generation of performers. It will be observed 
 that seven of the 13 individuals stand high in the second 
 generation, while six are low, although in some cases 
 their ages are against their second generation record. 
 Attention is especially directed to Allerton and Gambetta 
 Wilkes, the most famous producers of speed the world 
 has seen, although their sons and daughters stand low 
 as breeders, and to George Wilkes and Hambletonian, 
 neither famous as direct producers of speed, probably 
 due to lack of opportunity, but both are phenomenal as 
 breeders of sires and dams of speed. 
 
I5<^ BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 111 this connection, it is interesting to note that while 
 there are 30 stallions with 100 or more performers to 
 their credit, there are but six with 100 or more sires, two 
 of which are not included in the list of 30 stallions. 
 There are but 56 stallions that have sired 25 or more sires 
 of performers, whereas there are approximately 300 
 stallions that have sired 25 or more performers. 
 
 Prepotency among dairy cattle. — The records of per- 
 formance among dairy cattle furnish us better examples 
 of the importance of prepotency in improvement than do 
 those of speed among horses. This is due to the fact that 
 milk and butter-fat production are connected with breed- 
 ing, whereas the racing engagements of the horse interfere 
 with the breeding. In the dairy cow, therefore, perform- 
 ance and breeding are associated ; while in the race horse 
 they are antagonistic. On the other hand, at the present 
 time the dairy cows are handicapped by the fact that we 
 have only a few years' records, as the advanced register 
 was not established until 1894, whereas we have authen- 
 tic race records since the year 1839. 
 
 While advanced register records are of recent origin, 
 the cows are gaining rapidly on the horses. On May i, 
 1913, there were 22,y20 Holstein-Friesian cows in the 
 advanced register. These were sired by 5,720 bulls, an 
 average of slightly less than four performers to the sire. 
 At the same time, there were 10 bulls that had sired 75 
 or more performers, their average being 97. These 
 famous bulls therefore, were twenty-five times as efficient 
 as the average sire. The tabulation on page 159 gives the 
 names of these famous bulls, their advanced register num- 
 ber and the number of their performing get, together with 
 the number of sons that are sires of advanced register 
 daughters and number of daughters that are dams of 
 advanced register daughters . 
 
 The extended pedigree of each of these famous bulls 
 reveals the fact that they trace to De Kol 2d in much 
 the same manner that the phenomenal sires trace to 
 
IMPROVEMENT DUE TO PREPOTENCY 
 
 159 
 
 Famous Bulls with Number of Advanced Register 
 Daughters and Number of Sons and Daughters 
 That Are Sires or Dams of Advanced Register Cows* 
 
 Name of bull 
 
 Lord Netherland De Kol 245 
 
 Hengerveld De Kol 136 
 
 De Kol 2d's Butter Boy 3d 147 
 
 Paul Beets De Kol 113 
 
 Homestead Girl De Kol Sarcastic Lad 51! 
 Pietertje Hengerveld's Count De Kol 135. 
 
 Aaggie Cornucopia Johanna Lad 473 
 
 King of the Pontiacs 702 
 
 King Segis 558 
 
 Pontiac Komdyke 177 
 
 Total 
 
 Average 
 
 Number 
 advanced 
 
 register 
 daughters 
 
 Sons 
 that are 
 A. R. O. 
 
 sires 
 
 Daughters 
 that are 
 A. R. O. 
 
 dams 
 
 120 
 
 116 
 
 113 
 
 103 
 
 99 
 
 98 
 
 90 
 
 82 
 
 77 
 
 77 
 
 975 
 97 
 
 31 
 54 
 74 
 40 
 19 
 46 
 41 
 27 
 50 
 36 
 
 418 
 42 
 
 99 
 73 
 47 
 80 
 23 
 47 
 41 
 10 
 23 
 36 
 
 479 
 48 
 
 *Made up from Vol. 24, Holstein-Friesian advanced register. 
 
 George Wilkes. De Kol 2d appears at least once in the 
 first four generations of ancestors in each of the famous 
 bulls except the last two. 
 
 Sires of performers and sires of breeders. — While the 
 advanced register is of too recent origin to show famous 
 grandparents, yet the records reveal the fact that some 
 bulls are notable sires of performers which end in that 
 generation, while others are remarkable for producing 
 sires and dams of extreme breeding power. This is well 
 illustrated in the tabulation on page 160, which includes all 
 bulls with 100 or more advanced register daughters. 
 While the bulls involved are few in number, the results 
 are significant. In all these studies it should be remem- 
 bered that marked prepotency is not of great frequency, 
 and that some individuals enjoy much greater advantages 
 than others. 
 
 Compare the performers, those gotten directly, with 
 the total performers of sons and daughters recorded in 
 the second generation. It will be observed that tw^o of 
 the four stand high in the second generation, while two 
 
i6o 
 
 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 Famous Bulls and the Number of Their Performing 
 
 Descendants* 
 
 
 
 
 Sons and 
 their 
 
 Daughters 
 and their 
 
 Total 
 per- 
 formers 
 of sons 
 
 Name 
 
 Year 
 born 
 
 Per- 
 form- 
 ers 
 
 pe 'formers 
 
 performers 
 
 
 Sires 
 
 Per- 
 form- 
 
 Dams 
 
 Per- 
 form- 
 
 and 
 daugh- 
 ters 
 
 
 
 
 
 ers 
 
 
 ers 
 
 
 Lord Netherland De Kol 
 Hengerveld De Kol 
 De Kol 2nd's Butter Boy 3rd 
 Paul Beets De Kol 
 
 1894 
 1897 
 1897 
 1893 
 
 120 
 116 
 113 
 103 
 
 31 
 
 54 
 74 
 40 
 
 100 
 447 
 581 
 162 
 
 99 
 
 73 
 47 
 80 
 
 ]72 
 
 132 
 
 73 
 
 157 
 
 222 
 579 
 654 
 319 
 
 Total 
 Average 
 
 
 452 
 113 
 
 199 
 49 
 
 1,290 
 322 
 
 299 
 
 75 
 
 484 
 121 
 
 1,774 
 443 
 
 *Made up from Vol. 24, Holstein-Friesian Advanced Register. 
 
 are very low. Attention is especially directed to Lord 
 Netherland De Kol, who leads the list of performers, yet 
 in the second generation of offspring he stands at the 
 foot of the list and is far below De Kol 2d's Butter Boy 
 3d, who leads the list as a grandsire of performers, fol- 
 lowed bv Henp-erveld De Kol. 
 
 Fig. 53 — Polled Durham Bull "The Confessor" 
 
IMPROVEMENT DUE TO PREPOTENCY l6l 
 
 Performers and prepotency. — Again we come to a con- 
 sideration of the relation between performance and breed- 
 ing powers. In the discussion of improvement due to 
 selection based on performance exa.nples were given 
 showing that the best breeders were themselves per- 
 formers, and in the above discussion it was stated that 
 we have breeders of performers and breeders of breeders. 
 The fact that we have individuals not especially note- 
 worthy for getting performers themselves, yet producing 
 sires and dams of extreme breeding power, such as 
 George Wilkes and Hambletonian, as well as the fact 
 that certain other animals are noted for getting perform- 
 ers that end in that generation, such as the stallion, Aller- 
 ton, and the bull. Lord Netherlan-d De Kol, has served 
 to confuse both practical and scientific breeders. This 
 has resulted in long-drawn discussion, each explaining 
 his point of view. 
 
 To get the matter clearly before us, let us make an- 
 other tabulation (see next page) showing the breeding of 
 the 1,191 Holstein-Friesian bulls admitted to the advanced 
 register on the performance of their daughters. This is 
 not a selected lot, but includes all bulls admitted to the 
 register on the basis of performance up to May 15, 1912. 
 For convenience of study we will divide the bulls into five 
 classes as before : First, those with 4 to 14 daughters, 
 inclusive, in the register; second, those with 15 to 24; 
 third, those with 25 to 49; fourth, those with 50 to 74; 
 and, fifth, those bulls with 75 and more daughters in the 
 register. 
 
 Observe how the percentage with both sire and dam 
 in the register increases as the number of offspring per 
 sire increases. Particular attention is called to the rapid 
 decrease in percentage with neither sire nor dam in the 
 register as the number of daughters in the register in- 
 creases. There is not a single bull that has 25 daughters 
 
1 62 
 
 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 Breeding of Holstein-Friesian Bulls Admitted to the 
 Advanced Register on the Basis of Performance Up 
 to May 15, 1912* 
 
 
 Both sire and 
 
 Neither 
 
 sire nor 
 
 Sire in 
 
 register 
 
 Dam in register 
 
 Number of 
 
 dam in 
 
 register 
 
 dam in 
 
 register 
 
 dam 
 
 not 
 
 sire not 
 
 registered 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 daughters 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 per sire 
 
 Num- 
 
 Per 
 
 Num- 
 
 Per 
 
 Num- 
 
 Per 
 
 Num- 
 
 Per 
 
 
 ber 
 
 cent. 
 
 ber 
 
 cent. 
 
 ber 
 
 cent. 
 
 ber 
 
 cent. 
 
 
 of bulls 
 
 of bulls 
 
 of bulls 
 
 of bulls 
 
 of.bulls 
 
 of bulls 
 
 of bulls 
 
 of bulls 
 
 4 to 14 
 
 482 
 
 51 
 
 192 
 
 20 
 
 191 
 
 20 
 
 83 
 
 9 
 
 IS to 24 
 
 118 
 
 76 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 16 
 
 10 
 
 17 
 
 11 
 
 25 to 49 
 
 47 
 
 72 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 16 
 
 50 to 74 
 
 10 
 
 77 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 15 
 
 75 and up 
 
 10 
 
 100 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 *Made up from Vol. 24, Holstein-Friesian advanced register. 
 
 in the register but that has at least one performing 
 parent. Further, there is not a single Holstein-Friesian 
 bull that has 75 daughters in the register but that has 
 both of his parents in the register. 
 
 The same is true of the dams of advanced register 
 daughters. To illustrate this a similar tabulation is made 
 of the breeding of all dams w^ith tv\^o or more registered 
 daughters up to May 15, 1912. 
 
 Breeding of Holstein-Friesian Cows with Two or 
 More Advanced Register Daugpiters Up to May 15, 
 1912* 
 
 Number of 
 
 Dams with records 
 
 Dams with 
 
 no records 
 
 advanced register 
 daughters per dam 
 
 Number of 
 daughters 
 
 Per cent, of 
 daughters 
 
 Number of 
 daughters 
 
 Per cent, of 
 daughters 
 
 2 and 3 
 4 and 5 
 6 and 7 
 8 
 
 2,182 
 
 286 
 
 18 
 
 2 
 
 58 
 
 76 
 
 90 
 
 100 
 
 1,604 
 
 89 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 42 
 
 24 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 *Made up from Vol. 24, Holstein-Friesian advanced register. 
 
IMPROVEMENT DUE TO PREPOTENCY 
 
 l6^ 
 
 In a consideration of the relationship between perform- 
 ance and breeding" power these tables are significant. 
 Note how rapidly the percentage of daughters with dams 
 with records increases as the number of daughters per 
 dam increases; likewise the percentage decreases as 
 rapidly when the dams have no records. This shows 
 conclusively that the most prepotent animals descend 
 from parents with records of performance without a 
 single exception. 
 
 U. 
 
 Fig. 54. — Polled Durham Bull "Sultan's Creed'' 
 
 Famous Holstein-Friesian cows. — In this connection 
 the performance and breeding record of De Kol 2d 734 
 and Belle Korndyke 13913 are of interest, as these are 
 perhaps the two most famous cows of the breed, at least 
 from the breeder's point of view. De Kol 26. has two 
 daughters in the advanced registry, seven sons that are 
 sires of advanced register daughters, and four daughters 
 
164 
 
 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 that are dams of registered daughters. Belle Korndyke 
 has four daughters in the register, six sons that are sires 
 of daughters in the register, and five daughters that are 
 dams of registered daughters. Both of these cows were 
 famous performers, De Kol 2d exceeding the require- 
 ments for admission to the register by JJ per cent and 
 holding the world's record for butter-fat yield from 1894 
 to 1897; while Belle Korndyke exceeded the requirements 
 by J2, per cent. The sons of these two cows proved re- 
 markable breeders, as is illustrated in the accompanying tabu- 
 
 Famous Holstein-Friesian Cows 
 AND Male Descendants* 
 
 Belle Korndyke 
 
 Name of Bull 
 
 Per- 
 
 Sons 
 
 Daugh- 
 
 form- 
 
 that are 
 
 ters that 
 
 ers 
 
 sires 
 
 are dams 
 
 45 
 
 8 
 
 21 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 54 
 
 11 
 
 13 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 19 
 
 11 
 
 8 
 
 77 
 
 36 
 
 36 
 
 192 
 
 ,1 
 
 80 
 
 Belle Korndyke Beryl Wayne 
 Belle Korndyke Butter Boy 
 Earl Korndyke De Kol 
 Karel Korndyke 
 Korndyke Wayne Paul D. K. 
 Pontiac Korndyke 
 
 Total 
 
 De Kol 2d 
 
 Name of bull 
 
 Per- 
 form- 
 ers 
 
 Sons 
 
 that are 
 
 sires 
 
 Daugh- 
 ters that 
 are dams 
 
 De Kol 2d's Alban 
 De Kol 2d's Butter Boy 
 De Kol 2d's Butter Boy 2d 
 De Kol 2d's Butter Boy 3d 
 De Kol 2d's Mutual Paul 
 De Kol 2d's Netherland 
 De Kol 2d's Paul De Kol 
 
 Total 
 
 13 
 12 
 10 
 113 
 39 
 22 
 45 
 
 254 
 
 19 
 20 
 12 
 
 74 
 21 
 21 
 
 35 
 
 202 
 
 14 
 18 
 13 
 47 
 19 
 28 
 32 
 
 171 
 
 *Made up from Vol. 24, Holstein-Friesian advanced register. 
 
IMPROVEMENT DUE TO PREPOTENCY 165 
 
 lation, which gives the number of daughters each son 
 has in the advanced register; also the number of grand- 
 sons that have sired registered daughters, as well as the 
 number of granddaughters that are the dams of regis- 
 tered daughters. 
 
 Prepotency in sex. — There is a general belief that the 
 sire is prepotent over the dam. In practice this is often 
 the case, for the sire should be and usually is the better 
 bred of the two parents. There is much larger oppor- 
 tunity for selection in males, because so few are needed 
 in the breeding operations. One sire can serve from 10 
 to 100 females, depending on the class of animals. Thus 
 we can, and usually do, discard nine-tenths, and even 
 more, of all the males born. In most classes of farm 
 animals a very large percentage of the females are 
 needed to maintain the animal population. This should 
 and often does result in the better class of males than 
 females, which accounts for the seeming potency of males. 
 
 We are often impressed with the resemblances between 
 ofTspring and the sire. This is due to the fact that the 
 sire influences the blood of so many offspring, whereas 
 the dam influences the blood of but one in horses and 
 cattle and but few in sheep and swine. Thus, the breeder 
 who wishes to give his animals the most benefit possible 
 of good blood at the least expense will, of course, pro- 
 vide it through the sire's side. For purely economic rea- 
 sons, therefore, sires in general are prepotent over dams 
 in general. On the other hand, where conditions such 
 as breeding and opportunity are similar, records of per- 
 formance among horses and dairy cattle fail to show one 
 sex prepotent over the other. 
 
CHAPTER XV 
 
 IMPROVEMENT DUE TO ACCUMULATIVE 
 DEVELOPMENT 
 
 While the term accumulative development has been 
 given a variety of meanings, here it is employed to denote 
 the general advance made by the offspring over the 
 parent. It is applied to all advances, v^^hether large or 
 small, and of w^hatever origin. True offspring may and 
 surely will decline unless the parents are judiciously se- 
 lected, so that we often have accumulative decline. And 
 in the case of some economic characters that are nega- 
 tively correlated, as in the case of early maturity and 
 high fertility, as v^ell as high egg production and consti- 
 tutional vigor, it may be difficult in an exact sense to 
 distinguish between breed development and breed decline, 
 for as one character improves, the other may become less 
 efficient. Here, however, is where selection proves the 
 key to the situation. If the herd has been properly 
 founded, a few individuals will show advancement in both 
 characters, and they alone should be retained for breed- 
 ing and all others should be eliminated. If, perchance, 
 none of the individuals in a given herd show improve- 
 ment in both characters, it indicates a defective founda- 
 tion and lack of judicious selection in the original breed- 
 ing animals. 
 
 Modifying characters. — Scientific breeders and biol- 
 ogists generally have entered into an unprecedented dis- 
 cussion over methods of modifying or increasing the 
 efficiency of particular characters. This discussion in- 
 volves the probable inheritance of modified or "acquired" 
 characters. Students of breeding are about equally 
 divided over the question, one-half stating that much of 
 
 166 
 
IMPROVEMENT DUE TO ACCUMULATIVE DEVELOPMENT 167 
 
 the improvement attained has been due to the offspring 
 inheriting, in part at least, certain modifications de- 
 veloped by the parent, the other half maintaining that 
 there can be no such thing as the transmission of a modi- 
 fied character. This discussion is involved in a maze of 
 definitions, one side reading certain meanings into words 
 which best suit its argument. Thus the discussion is 
 largely academic, even though the principle involved 
 may be of importance. 
 
 It is not proposed to enter into this matter further than 
 to present the conditions as they actually exist for the 
 guidance of animal breeders. Of course it is frankly ad- 
 mitted that a more definite knowledge concerning the 
 control of characters that pass from parent to offspring 
 would be invaluable, but it seems that much of the 
 present discussion is mystifying rather than clarifying 
 the field for the practical animal breeder. 
 
 Modified character in heredity. — As brought out in the 
 discussion of the determiners of heredity, there are two 
 views concerning the ap- 
 pearance and transmission 
 of modified characters. 
 According to Darwin, the 
 determiners of heredity 
 are given off from the 
 body cells and dispersed 
 throughout the system, a 
 part of the determiners 
 collecting in the sexual 
 organs, while according to fig. ss-suffolk stall.on "Wests.de 
 Weismann the determin- chieftain" 
 
 ers of heredity proceed 
 
 from the germ plasm, the hereditary substance of the 
 germ cells. These theories, or modifications of them, 
 have attracted widespread attention because of the as- 
 sumption that if we accept the Darwin theory it is easy to 
 explain the possibility of a modification or "acquired" char- 
 
l68 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 acter being inherited, whereas if we accept the Weis- 
 mann theory it is difficult to understand how a modifi- 
 cation acquired by the parent can be transmitted to the 
 offspring. 
 
 Interesting as this matter is to the student of genetics, 
 it is only of secondary importance to the practical breeder, 
 who is interested primarily in results. According to one 
 theory, when conditions are favorable the modification 
 originates spontaneously in the individual itself, while 
 according to the other the modification originates spon- 
 taneously in the germ cells, so that when the animal is 
 born it is capable of undergoing certain modifications 
 under suitable environment. In practice it makes little 
 difference which theory is accepted ; in fact, this is the 
 very reason why each theory has such strong advocates. 
 The point for the breeder to keep clearly in mind is the 
 fact that suitable environment is required for the de- 
 velopment of the modification, whatever its origin. 
 
 Accumulative development in the trotter. — For more 
 than a century trotting horses have been bred for the im- 
 provement, of the speed character. In the discussion on 
 causes of variations it was indicated that the environ- 
 ment, particularly the care, training and management, 
 resulted in the development of all of the possibilities 
 with which the animal was born, which of necessity 
 brought out the wide variation among trotters, while in 
 the discussion on the influence of time records it was 
 clearly shown that general advancement was accom- 
 plished by eliminating the slow and mating the fast, 
 which continued from generation to generation, resulting 
 in some speed marvels. 
 
 The gradual reduction in the time of the trotter gives 
 a good example of accumulative development. This is 
 illustrated in the following tabulation, which gives the 
 reduction in time for a mile track with horses in harness 
 during the past century. The table gives the name of the 
 horse, place of the race, time and date. 
 
improvement due to accumulative development 169 
 Trotting Records Reduced 
 
 Name of horse 
 
 Race course 
 
 Record 
 
 Date 
 
 Boston 
 
 Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 2-'l«^ 
 
 1810 
 
 Trouble 
 
 Jamaica, N. Y. 
 
 2 43i 
 
 1826 
 
 Sally Miller 
 
 Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 2:37 
 
 1834 
 
 Edwin Forest 
 
 Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 2:36J 
 
 1838 
 
 Dutchman 
 
 Hoboken, N. J. 
 
 2-32 
 
 1839 
 
 Lady Suffolk 
 
 Hoboken, N. J. 
 
 2:20J 
 
 1845 
 
 Pelham 
 
 Jamaica, N. Y. 
 
 2-28 
 
 1849 
 
 Highland Maid 
 
 Jamaica, N. Y. 
 
 2:27 
 
 1853 
 
 Flora Temple 
 
 Jamaica, N. Y. 
 
 2:24 J 
 
 1856 
 
 Flora Temple 
 
 Kalamazoo, Mich. 
 
 2:19f 
 
 1859 
 
 Dexter 
 
 Buffalo, N. Y. 
 
 2:171 
 
 1867 
 
 Goldsmith Maid 
 
 Milwaukee, Wis. 
 
 2:17 
 
 1871 
 
 Goldsmith Maid 
 
 Boston, Mass. 
 
 2:14 
 
 1874 
 
 Rarus 
 
 Buffalo, N. Y. 
 
 2:13i 
 
 1878 
 
 St. Julien 
 
 Oakland, Cal. 
 
 2:121 
 
 1879 
 
 Maud S. 
 
 Chicago, 111. 
 
 2:10| 
 
 1880 
 
 Jay-Eye-See 
 
 Providence, R. I. 
 
 2:10 
 
 1884 
 
 Maud S. 
 
 Cleveland, Ohio 
 
 2:081 
 
 1885 
 
 Sunol 
 
 Stockton, Cal. 
 
 2:081- 
 
 1891 
 
 Nancy Hanks 
 
 Terre Haute, Ind. 
 
 2:04 
 
 1892 
 
 Alix 
 
 Galesburg, 111. 
 
 2:03f 
 
 1894 
 
 The Abbot- 
 
 Terre Haute, Ind. 
 
 2:03i 
 
 1900 
 
 Cresceus 
 
 Columbus, Ohio 
 
 2:02i 
 
 1901 
 
 Lou Dillon 
 
 Readville, Mass. 
 
 2:00 
 
 1903 
 
 Lou Dillon 
 
 Memphis, Tenn. 
 
 l:58i* 
 
 1903 
 
 Uhlan 
 
 Memphis, Tenn. 
 
 1:58 
 
 1912 
 
 Uhlan 
 
 Memphis, Tenn. 
 
 l:54it 
 
 1913 
 
 *Paced by runner to sulky carrying wind or dust shield. 
 fPaced by runner to wagon. 
 
 The trotting horse has increased its speed by one-third, 
 in a century of racing. Just how much of this increase is 
 due to breed improvement, how much to better methods 
 of training, and how much is due to superior conditions 
 generally, such as improved harness, sulkies and track, 
 cannot be stated even approximately. In fact, it would 
 avail us but little if we knew the relative influence of 
 each, as all are essential to highest development. In 
 this connection there are three facts to be remembered : 
 First, the environment, such as the training and manage- 
 ment, developed all of the potentialities with which the 
 horse was born ; second, the records of performance en- 
 abled us to know for a certainty which were slow and 
 which were fast ; and, third, the elimination of the slow 
 and the mating of the fast resulted in present efficiency. 
 
170 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 Accumulative development in the dairy cow. — An even 
 more striking example of accumulative development is 
 observed in the case of improvement among dairy cattle. 
 This is because the characters, butter-fat and milk pro- 
 duction, go hand in hand with breeding — in fact, they 
 depend upon the normal functioning of the reproductive 
 organs ; whereas, in the case of the horse, the develop- 
 ment of speed and breeding are antagonistic, as racing 
 interferes with breeding. 
 
 Fig. 56 — Holstein-Friesian Cow "Gl. Omicron" and Daughter, "Gl. Eglantine'' 
 25.282 and 25.912 pounds butter fat in seven days, respectively. 
 
 Although the official testing of dairy cows has been in 
 progress but two decades, great advancement has been 
 made both in milk and butter-fat production, as is evidenced 
 by the tabulation on the next page, which gives the in- 
 crease in butter-fat production. The table includes the 
 name of the highest yielding cow, her advanced register 
 number, the name of the owner, the yield in milk and 
 fat for seven consecutive days and the year in which the 
 record was made. 
 
 This shows phenomenal development, as the cow has 
 increased her butter-fat yield by 60 per cent in less than 
 two decades. Many factors are involved in this remark- 
 
IMPRO\EMENT DUE TO ACCUMULATIVE DEVELOPMENT I7I 
 
 able improvement, but chief of them are suitable en- 
 vironment and records of performance, v^^hich not only 
 enable us to know^ the high producers from the low pro- 
 ducers, but provide us with data whereby we can deter- 
 
 Increase in Butter-Fat Production 
 
 
 Advanced 
 
 
 Butter 
 
 
 Name of cow 
 
 register 
 
 Name of owner 
 
 fat 
 pounds 
 
 Year 
 
 Be Kol 2d 
 
 412 
 
 H. Stevens & Son 
 
 21.261 
 
 1894 
 
 Netherland Hengerveld 
 
 1,133 
 
 H. Stevens & Son 
 
 21.333 
 
 1897 
 
 Lilith Pauline De Kol 
 
 1,415 
 
 H. P. Roe 
 
 22.589 
 
 1901 
 
 Mercedes Julip's Pietertje 
 
 2,166 
 
 T. S. Tompkins 
 
 23.487 
 
 1902 
 
 Sadie Vale Concordia 
 
 1,124 
 
 McAdam & Von Hine 
 
 24.508 
 
 1903 
 
 Aaggie Cornucopia Pauline 
 
 1,933 
 
 H. P. Roe 
 
 27.459 
 
 1904 
 
 Colantha 4th's Johanna 
 
 1,849 
 
 W. J. Gillett 
 
 28.176 
 
 1907 
 
 Grace Favne 2d's Homestead 
 
 4,422 
 
 H. A. Moyer 
 
 28.440 
 
 1909 
 
 Pontiac Clothilde De Kol 2d 
 
 5,275 
 
 Stevens Brothers 
 
 29.766 
 
 1910 
 
 Pontiac Pet 
 
 6,168 
 
 E. H. Dollar 
 
 30.142 
 
 1911 
 
 Valdessa Scott 2d 
 
 10,780 
 
 Bernard Myer 
 
 33.500 
 
 1912 
 
 K. P. Spring Farm Pontiac Lass 
 
 11,168 
 
 F. M. Jones 
 
 35.343 
 
 1912 
 
 mine the animals that are actually producing" high-yield- 
 ing offspring, as illustrated in the pedigree (p. 131). 
 Such information is invaluable in selecting breeding 
 animals, for we can discard the low producers and mate 
 the high producers, which, in connection with more fa- 
 vorable conditions, enables us to get even higher produc- 
 ing cattle. 
 
 Results accomplished. — When we consider the ances- 
 tral forms from which our farm animals have been de- 
 veloped, the results attained in individual instances seem 
 truly phenomenal. The progenitor of the horse was a 
 small, sure-footed but rough-gaited animal ; that of the 
 cow, a small, active animal, requiring five or six years 
 to mature and giving only enough milk to nourish the 
 young; that of the sheep, a long-bodied, long-legged, 
 sparsely covered animal, producing two or three pounds 
 of coarse wool and requiring three or four years to reach 
 maturity; and that of the pig, a ferocious light-bodied 
 
172 
 
 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 carnivore, requiring four years to attain maturity, while 
 the wild fowls laid only sufficient eggs for a brood. 
 
 From such ancestral horse forms descended the modern 
 Thoroughbred, capable of running a mile in 1.37%; the 
 modern pacer, able to negotiate a mile in 1.54^; the 
 stylish, high-acting Hackney; the smooth-gaited saddler, 
 capable of going a number of easy gaits ; as well as the 
 ponderous drafter, often attaining a weight of more than 
 
 I, TOO pounds at one year of 
 age, more than 1,600 at two 
 years, and more than a ton 
 at three years of age. 
 
 The cow forms gave us 
 the modern dairy cow, ca- 
 pable of producing annually 
 28,000 to 30,000 pounds of 
 milk and more than 1,000 
 pounds of butter fat, which 
 will churn out more than 
 1,200 pounds of butter, as 
 well as the modern beef 
 cattle, frequently attaining 
 a weight of 1,200 to 1,400 
 pounds by the time the ani- 
 mals reach 15 to 18 months 
 of age. From the ancestral 
 sheep forms descended the 
 modern wool sheep, often 
 shearing an annual clip of 
 25 to 30 pounds, as well as 
 mutton lambs capable of 
 attaining a weight of 60 
 pounds before they are 60 
 days of age. From the 
 swine forms descended the 
 F,G. 57-H=GHEGc.pROBuaNaHENc, modern porker, capable of 
 
 291 and303 eggs, respectively, in one yeor attammg a Weight of 3OO 
 
IMPROVEMENT DUE TO ACCUMULATIVE DEVELOPMENT 1/3 
 
 pounds at six to eight months of age. The w^ild fowls' 
 gave us the modern hen capable of laying 275 to 300 
 eggs in the year as v^^ell as an economic meat-producing 
 animal. 
 
 Improvement a slow process. — While remarkable ad- 
 vancement has been gained in increasing the efficiency 
 of each class of farm animals, yet the improvement of 
 economic characters is a slow^ process, requiring years 
 of careful study and patient effort. When selection and 
 improvement is limited to a single character, advance- 
 ment may be fairly rapid at first, but as maximum ef- 
 ficiency is approached, the rate of increase rapidly dimin- 
 ishes, and improvement calls for greater effort on the 
 part of the breeder. This is well illustrated in the case 
 of milk and butter-fat production among Holstein-Fries- 
 ian cattle, and speed development among English Thor- 
 oughbred horses. Up to two decades ago little attention 
 was given systematic attempts to improve Holstein- 
 Friesian cattle. Thus when the advanced register was 
 established the cattle responded admirably, increasing 
 their production by 60 per cent in two decades. 
 
 On the other hand, consider the case of recent speed 
 records amon^ Thoroughbred horses. This English horse 
 
 American Running Records Reduced, Mile Track 
 
 Name of horse 
 
 Race course 
 
 Time 
 
 Year 
 
 Charley Bell 
 
 Lexington, Ky. 
 
 1:451 
 
 1854 
 
 Satallite 
 
 Lexington, Ky. 
 
 
 45 i 
 
 1859 
 
 Mammona 
 
 Lexington, Ky. 
 
 
 441 
 
 1862 
 
 Revolver 
 
 Cincinnati, O. 
 
 
 44 
 
 1866 
 
 Hertog 
 
 Cincinnati, O. 
 
 
 43 i 
 
 1869 
 
 Alarm 
 
 Saratoga, N, Y. 
 
 
 42? 
 
 1872 
 
 Gray Planet 
 
 Saratoga, N. Y. 
 
 
 42 J 
 
 1874 
 
 Searcher 
 
 Lexington Ky. 
 
 
 411 
 
 1875 
 
 Ten Broeck 
 
 Hartford, Conn. 
 
 
 39f 
 
 1877 
 
 Racine 
 
 Washington Park. 111. 
 
 
 391 
 
 1890 
 
 Chorister 
 
 Morris Park, N. Y. 
 
 
 39 i 
 
 1893 
 
 Libertine 
 
 Harlem, III. 
 
 
 38 J 
 
 1894 
 
 Voter 
 
 Brighton Beach, N. Y. 
 
 
 38 
 
 1900 
 
 Allan-a-Dale 
 
 Washington Park, 111. 
 
 
 37i 
 
 1903 
 
 Dick Wells 
 
 Harlem, III. 
 
 
 371 
 
 1903 
 
 Center Shot 
 
 Santa Anita, Cal. 
 
 
 37J 
 
 1908 
 
174 
 
 BREEDING OF FARM ANIM'ALS 
 
 has been raced more or less systematically for three cen- 
 turies, and recent progress in reducing the time record has 
 been slow, as indicated by the preceding tabulation which 
 gives the reduction for the last one-half century on a mile 
 track . The table on page 173 gives the name of the horse, 
 the place of the race, the time and date. 
 
 The Thoroughbred horse has increased its speed by 
 but eight per cent in one-half a century of racing. Dur- 
 ing this same period the Standardbred, a comparatively 
 new breed, has reduced its trotting record by 27 per cent 
 (p. 169). 
 
 Methods employed. — From the foregoing discussions 
 on improvement due to selection based on records of per- 
 formance, improvement due to selection the result of 
 
 prepotency, as well as 
 improvement due to ac- 
 cumulative development, 
 it must be clear that ef- 
 ficiency depends largely 
 on selection ; that judi- 
 cious selection depends 
 on an exact knowledge 
 of development or per- 
 formance ; and that the 
 degree of development 
 depends on the environ- 
 ment, including training, 
 management, and the 
 like. This results in the development, and, therefore, the 
 discovery and retention of the efficient, as well as the elim- 
 ination of all others that lack ability to show improvement, 
 which results in general advancement. This is con- 
 tinued, and the acquirement or development of one gen- 
 eration becomes, in part at least, a heritage of the next. 
 In practice it matters not a whit whether the capacity 
 for greater efficiency is due to a kind of mutant having 
 its inception in the germ cells, or whether it arises spon- 
 
 FiG. 58 — High Wool Yielding Ewe 
 25 pounds at 15 months of age. 
 
IMPROVEMENT DUE TO ACCUMULATIVE DEVELOPMENT I75 
 
 taneously in the body in the form of an "acquired" 
 character. In his reasoning the student as well as the 
 breeder may choose whichever horn of the dilemma he 
 likes, but in practical operations it must be borne in mind 
 that in the absence of suitable environment and judicious 
 selection the capacity, whatever its origin and however 
 controlled, cannot assert itself and will go unnoticed, and 
 thus eventually be lost. 
 
CHAPTER XVI 
 SYSTEMS OF BREEDING 
 
 There are several systems of breeding, the advantage 
 and disadvantage of which the breeder should fully com- 
 prehend. This is particularly true of those systems that 
 rapidly favor purifying the blood, as otherwise undesir- 
 able attributes may be intensified along with desirable 
 ones. Since the system to be employed will depend 
 largely upon the purpose, the breeder should first of all 
 have a clear idea of just what he is trying to do, and an 
 accurate knowledge of the limitations of the various sys- 
 tems, so that he may employ the one to achieve his pur- 
 pose. 
 
 Purposes in breeding. — There are two more or less dis- 
 tinct purposes in breeding farm animals that should be 
 clearly differentiated in the mind of the breeder. In the 
 first place, animals are produced for immediate consump- 
 tion, and in the second place, they are produced for 
 breeding purposes. An attempt to improve those for 
 immediate use may be defined as herd improvement; 
 while the improvement of those for breeding purposes 
 may be defined as breed improvement. 
 
 In herd improvement the object is the betterment of 
 the individual. This is purely commercial. It is, per- 
 haps, the cheapest and most convenient of all forms of 
 breeding and productive of the most rapid gains. On 
 the other hand, in breed improvement, the object is the 
 betterment of the entire strain or race. This is creative 
 and constructive. It is, perhaps, the most expensive, 
 although of the very highest style of finished breeding 
 and calls for intelligent, painstaking effort, as in this 
 case the breeder is a true leader in the improvement of 
 types and breeds of farm animals. 
 
 176 
 
SYSTEMS OF BREEDING 1 77 
 
 Pure-bred breeding. — This system has for its purpose 
 the propagation of animals for breeding purposes, and 
 for the very highest type of production. When judi- 
 ciously practiced it results in advancing excellence. This 
 constitutes animal improvement in the true sense of the 
 term and is the highest system of finished breeding. It 
 has the disadvantage in that it is rather costly, especially 
 when the purpose is to produce something better than 
 ever existed before. This is because so few individuals 
 materially excel their predecessors or their contemporaries, 
 and so few of these can be relied upon to propagate their 
 own excellence. 
 
 If the purpose is only to multiply existing excellence, 
 then pure-bred breeding is comparatively cheap, because 
 a very large percentage of properly selected purely bred 
 animals may be depended upon to equal the excellence 
 of their predecessors. Here is where the commercial 
 aspects of pure-bred breeding works to the detriment 
 of the system. 
 
 Purely bred animals command a premium on the mar- 
 ket irrespective of excellence, hence practically all pure- 
 bred animals are preserved, and there is utter lack of 
 proper selection. This often operates to the detriment 
 of the system. Many purely bred animals are retained 
 in our breeding herds simply because they are pure bred. 
 Frequently they have no other meritorious characteristics 
 to commend them. 
 
 Because of the demand for purely bred animals for 
 breeding purposes the offspring are in great demand, 
 and this system may prove very profitable, particularly 
 if the breeder is so located as to be able to dispose of the 
 surplus stock to advantage. Thus pure-bred breeding 
 commends itself to those who have the capital and ex- 
 perience to go forward with it. 
 
 Perhaps the strongest argument in favor of the breed- 
 ing of purely bred animals lies in the fact that it serves 
 to stimulate the breeder to improved methods of care 
 
178 
 
 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 and management. He takes much more interest in the 
 work, and studies the individual animals very carefully, 
 which leads to general improvement of the herd. 
 
 Grading. — This consists in mating a common animal 
 with a purely bred animal. The pure bred may be either 
 sire or dam, but for economic reasons it is usually the 
 
 Fig. 59 — Brown Swiss Bull "Myone Boy'' 
 
 sire. This system of breeding is inexpensive, although 
 it can be used only in herd improvement. It is the 
 method to recommend to the great mass of breeders, 
 especially beginners, even though they eventually intend 
 to engage in the business of breeding pure-bred animals. 
 There is no cheaper, quicker or more thorough way to 
 become familiar with a breed than through a familiarity 
 with its grades. Further, in a few generations, grades 
 may be so improved as to be practically equal to pure 
 breds for immediate consumption, although they will be 
 worthless for breeding purposes. 
 
SYSTEMS OF BREEDING 1 79 
 
 The great advantage of grading is that it is inexpen- 
 sive, at least when accomplished with the sire. A pure- 
 bred bull in a herd of 25 common cows will give each 
 calf in the herd a pure-bred sire, thus making "half 
 bloods" of the entire crop of calves. If the grading were 
 attempted in the other way it would require 25 purely 
 bred cows and the calves would show no more improve- 
 ment. In fact, if the improvement were accomplished 
 with the cows, it would be in 25 lines, each with its shade 
 of difference, and not in one line, as would be the case 
 were the improvement done with a bull. This is a sig- 
 nificant factor when we consider the value of uniformity 
 among all classes of farm animals. 
 
 The chief disadvantage in grading is that the system is 
 not likely to be followed. The first results are likely to 
 be so satisfactory that the breeder is almost certain to 
 choose a promising grade male for a sire, because he 
 looks as good as a pure bred, whereupon by the law of 
 ancestral heredity all further improvement stops except 
 that due to selection and management. 
 
 Cross-breeding. — This consists in mating two distinct 
 breeds or families. It is a powerful means of inducing 
 variability, and can be used, with success, only in the 
 propagation of animals for immediate consumption. Up 
 to the time of Bakewell, however, it was the favorite 
 system of breeding farm animals, as it promoted con- 
 stitutional vigor, increased the size, and favored fertility. 
 This system rendered a valuable service in forming new 
 breeds. Indeed, but few breeds of farm animals have 
 been evolved without more or less cross-breeding among 
 the foundation animals. 
 
 At present this system is limited to the breeding of 
 mules, the offspring of a jack and a mare, and to the 
 production of animals for immediate consumption when 
 two breeds possess the particular attributes that it is 
 desired to secure in the offspring. Thus, in the pro- 
 duction of beef say, one breed is noted for its excellent 
 
I50 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 form but is late maturing, whereas another breed is 
 noted for its early maturity but possesses a poor con- 
 formation. Should the cross between a male and a 
 female of these breeds prove a fortunate nick, the young 
 will inherit the desirable qualities of both parents. In 
 this case the offspring will mature early and possess an 
 excellent form, two attributes highly desirable among 
 meat-producing animals. 
 
 Since crossing favors variability, the cross-bred animal 
 should never be used in breeding, as the results cannot 
 be predicted, even approximately. Certain it is the off- 
 spring will be exceedingly variable, an undesirable char- 
 acteristic among animals intended for meat production. 
 
 Line-breeding. — This consists of mating animals of a 
 single line of descent. The system is used either in 
 pure-bred breeding or in grading. In the former case 
 the purpose is usually breed improvement, while in the 
 latter it is herd improvement. This system is a favorite 
 in establishing families or strains. In fact, few of the 
 many breeds of farm animals, as well as few of the more 
 noted families or strains of the various breeds, have 
 been formed without more or less line-breeding. Since 
 all breeds are exceedingly variable, for best results, it is 
 not enough to confine selection to the limits of the 
 breed. It must be limited to those lines that most nearly 
 approach the ideal sought. 
 
 Line-breeding is a very strong factor in securing uni- 
 formity, as it combines animals very similar in their 
 characteristics. It narrows the pedigree to a few and 
 closely related lines of descent, increases the prepotency, 
 and intensifies the characters, thus giving stability to 
 the strain or breed. Line-breeding is free from many 
 of the objections attending other systems of close breed- 
 ing. It is conservative, and a very useful system for 
 the improvement of farm animals. 
 
 The chief disadvantage of line-breeding is that the 
 breeder is likely to select his animals on the basis of 
 
SYSTEMS OF BREEDING l8l 
 
 their pedigree, and thus fail to consider individual merit 
 and performance. A line-bred pedigree is good or bad, 
 according as the individual animals composing it are 
 good or bad. The breeder who selects by pedigree alone 
 w^ithout regard for individual merit or performance is 
 likely to find his herd deteriorating in a few generations. 
 This is especially true with this system of breeding, as 
 both good and bad characters alike are advanced and 
 intensified. 
 
 Inbreeding. — This consists in mating animals closely 
 related. It is line-breeding carried to its limits, and may 
 
 Fig. 60 — Brown Swiss Cow "Arlena" 
 
 be employed in grading to improve the herd, or in pure- 
 bred breeding to improve the breed. This system has 
 been used successfully in establishing, as well as improv- 
 ing, practically all of the modern breeds of farm animals. 
 It was first put into regular practice by Bakewell, and 
 since his time has been employed more or less by all 
 successful breeders. 
 
l82 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 There are three possible forms of inbreeding. First, 
 mating sire with daughter, which results in offspring con- 
 taining three-fourths of the blood lines of the sire. It is 
 practiced when it is desired to eliminate the characters 
 of the dam and intensify those possessed by the sire. 
 Second, mating son with dam, giving rise to offspring 
 containing three-fourths of the blood lines of the dam. 
 This method is practiced when it is desired to eliminate 
 the characters of the sire and intensify those of the dam. 
 Third, mating brother and sister, a method which pre- 
 serves the characters of both sire and dam. It is in- 
 ferior to either of the other two methods in strengthening 
 characters. 
 
 This system has many advantages in the breeding of 
 farm animals. It promotes uniformity by combining 
 animals very similar in their general characters. It nar- 
 rows the pedigree to few and closely related lines of 
 descent (p. 120). It intensifies characters and increases 
 the prepotency. It is recognized as the strongest of all 
 breeding. Since the infusion of new blood lines shatters 
 existing characters, no system equals inbreeding for per- 
 petuating desirable characters, doubling up existing com- 
 binations and retaining all there is of good in the excep- 
 tional individual. 
 
 Capable of producing the great improvement that it is, 
 this system is not without its disadvantages. It does 
 not respect characters, but intensifies both good and bad 
 alike. If persisted in, it is likely to result in loss of fer- 
 tility as well as constitutional vigor, which may quickly 
 lead to breed extinction. When practicing inbreeding, 
 therefore, too much importance cannot be placed upon 
 the selection of animals for high fertility and much con- 
 stitutional vigor. 
 
 There are two situations in which it may be desirable 
 to practice this system. One is in grading where we 
 have a proven sire that is known to get excellent ofif- 
 spring. It may be entirely permissible to mate him with 
 
SYSTEMS OF BREEDING 183 
 
 his own daughters, rather than go to the expense of pro- 
 curing a new sire, in which the breeding power is not 
 known. The other is when we have an animal possess- 
 ing a desirable attribute which we wish to retain. In 
 this case the only way we can retain the desirable char- 
 acter is to inbreed, otherwise it may be obliterated and 
 lost. Many a breeder has found himself in just such a 
 position, and by inbreeding has not only retained the de- 
 sirable characters in question, but has advanced and in- 
 tensified them, and in a few generations has succeeded in 
 building up the best herds in the breed. 
 
 Breeding from the best. — This consists in mating the 
 best individuals without reference to blood lines. The 
 system may be used in herd or breed improvement, 
 though the advisability of employing it will depend in a 
 large measure upon the situation. As a rule, when we 
 are grading, it is advisable to procure the very best 
 animals obtainable. On the other hand, when building 
 up a pure herd, it is equally important to give due regard 
 to the strain or family with which we are working. The 
 breeder who breeds from the best without regard for 
 family lines is likely to bring together a herd of mixed 
 females, out of which nothing of note can be established. 
 Crossing family lines brings about much the same con- 
 dition as crossing breeds, only on a more limited scale. 
 
 In constructive breeding ancestral lines must be given 
 due consideration. To secure uniformity, to intensify 
 desirable characters, and to increase the prepotency of 
 our animals, we must keep the family strains pure. The 
 introduction of new blood, even though superior, shatters 
 existing characters, destroys uniformity and weakens 
 prepotency. 
 
 Up to the time of Bakewell, breeding from the best 
 was the system used in both herd and breed improve- 
 ment. At that time it was favored by the absence of 
 written pedigrees. It often resulted in increased size. 
 advanced fertility and strengthened the constitutional 
 
154 BiREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 vigor, but then, as now, it lessened uniformity and 
 weakened prepotency, so that it was exceedingly uncer- 
 tain as to just what the offspring would be like. 
 
 Co-operative breeding. — This is a plan of procedure 
 rather than a system of breeding, but it is mentioned in 
 this connection to complete the list of methods. It con- 
 sists of a number of breeders operating jointly for their 
 mutual benefit. In animal production there are a num- 
 ber of business transactions that can be accomplished 
 to advantage by a number of men working together. 
 Chief of these are purchasing pure-bred stock, especially 
 males; disposing of surplus stock; purchasing supple- 
 mentary food in large quantities, thus obtaining the ad- 
 vantages of wholesale prices and reduced freight rates ; 
 and the forming of cow-testing associations for the pur- 
 pose of determining the profitable individual cows in the 
 dairy herd. 
 
 The strong advantage in this plan of procedure is that 
 it promotes uniformity among the animals of a commu- 
 nity. In time the locality becomes noted for the produc- 
 tion of animals of this particular type, which serves to 
 attract buyers in quest of such animals, thus increasing 
 the market facilities of the community. 
 
CHAPTER XVIi 
 FORMATION OF BREEDS 
 
 When man first propagated animals to meet his needs 
 is not known. Certain it is, however, that he enjoyed 
 their conveniences, such as the labor, food and clothing 
 they provided, from a very early period. Our oldest 
 literature makes reference to the herds and flocks as an 
 established factor in the agricultural industry of the 
 times. Since their propagation seems to have been so 
 thoroughly established, no doubt they had been domes- 
 ticated for ages. Likewise, we have no definite knowl- 
 edge as to which class of animals was first domesticated, 
 although it has generally been assumed that the dog 
 and the horse were among the first animals to be prop- 
 agated in confinement. In the case of meat-producing 
 animals there can be no doubt but that they were hunted 
 and trapped by man for ages before any attempt was 
 made to domesticate them or to propagate them in 
 captivity. 
 
 The place of first domestication has been assumed to 
 be on the continent of Asia. This is the largest land 
 area, with the greatest diversity of soil, climate and ex- 
 posure. It is, therefore, richest in animal life, as well 
 as the oldest in civilization. Here many of our most 
 useful animals were domesticated so long ago that it is 
 impossible to say when, how, or by whom the work was 
 accomplished. 
 
 Domestication a necessity. — Primitive man lived on 
 the spontaneous product of nature. Could he have main- 
 tained his existence upon these products, in all probability 
 he would never have undertaken the trouble of domes- 
 ticating the wild animals. Like the other animals about 
 him, man lived under hard conditions. He spent most of 
 
 185 
 
BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 his time in hunting something to eat and in avoiding 
 being eaten himself. In this struggle primitive man 
 found himself at no little disadvantage. He was not as 
 strong as many of the animals he hunted, and hence no 
 match for them in battle. He was neither as fleet as 
 most of the game he hunted, nor could he trail by the 
 scent like the wolf. 
 
 Man was not long in learning that his chief advantage 
 lay in his wits. He devised weapons and traps to aid 
 
 him in the hunt. He 
 was severe on the 
 animals he hunted, 
 and they not only 
 diminished in num- 
 bers, but gradually 
 learned his methods 
 and became exceed- 
 ingly wary. Again 
 man was forced to 
 rely upon his wits. 
 Because of its hunt- 
 ing habits, the wolf, 
 Long wool type. ^j^^ auccstor of the 
 
 dog, was trained to aid man in the hunt and chase. 
 With his weapons, traps and dogs, man was more severe 
 upon the animals that he hunted, and they grew more 
 and more scarce. It was inevitable that the time should 
 come when he must take care of the animals about him 
 or give up animal products, including food and clothing. 
 
 The first act toward domestication was to hunt and 
 destroy all animals that preyed upon those of value to 
 man ; the next was to spare the finest males and all 
 females with young; the next was to provide food for 
 the animals at such seasons as they seemed unable to 
 find it ; and, lastly, came the breeding in captivity and 
 caring for them at all times. 
 
 Evolution of farm animals. — Development was ex- 
 
 FiG. 61 — COTSWOLD Ram. 
 
FORMATION OF BREEDS 187 
 
 ceedingly slow at first, but when the necessity for im- 
 provement became apparent advancement went rapidly 
 forward. Thus the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries 
 witnessed - remarkable strides in the advancement of 
 agricultural interests generally. Now that men had ex- 
 tended their political and religious influence to the ends 
 of the earth they began to devote their attention to 
 economic industries. Agriculture took foremost rank 
 among these industries and during the eighteenth century 
 underwent unprecedented advancement. Since animal 
 production constituted a large part of the agricultural 
 industry, it shared in this remarkable advancement. This 
 century witnessed the introduction of the methods that 
 resulted in the establishment of the modern breeds of 
 farm animals. True, certain localities had long been 
 known for the production of animals of a given type, par- 
 ticularly in England, but these animals were not dif- 
 ferentiated as breeds. This general advancement was 
 favored by the spirit of the times, as everything seemed 
 to be in readiness for it. 
 
 Origin of breeds. — While animals have been domes- 
 ticated and at the service of man for a very long time, the 
 breeds of farm animals as we know them at present are 
 of comparatively recent origin. Although systematic 
 animal breeding is of recent origin, mention should be 
 made of the fact that improvement has been under way 
 from the time of domestication and even before. We 
 are told that when the diminishing meat supply became 
 inevitable, man secured his meat, not from the best, as 
 before, but from the common animals, being careful to 
 retain the best for breeding. Later, in choosing animals 
 to breed in captivity, nothing was more natural than that 
 the choicest should be selected, in order that the quality 
 should not deteriorate. In this way improvement was 
 introduced at the very beginning of domestication. 
 This is significant, as it would seem that our ancestors 
 very early learned the fundamental lesson of all breed- 
 
BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 ing — the better the parentage the better the offspring- 
 Robert Bakewell. — The introduction of the methods 
 that resulted in the establishment of the breeds was due 
 in a very large measure to the ingenuity of Robert Bake- 
 
 FiG. 52 — Robert Bakewell* 
 
 well. He was born in 1726 at Dishley Grange near 
 Loughborough, Leicestershire, England, where he died 
 in 1795 in his 70th year of age. From his father Bakewell 
 received excellent training in practical and experimental 
 methods of husbandry. He made excursions into dif- 
 ferent parts of England and to the Continent in order to 
 inspect the different herds and to select those animals 
 that were best adapted to his purpose. 
 
 Bakewell was very original, and tested the worth of his 
 ideas by frequent and varied experiments. His animals during 
 their lifetime were often submitted to experiments to demon- 
 strate the amount of food consumed to produce a given 
 weight in product. After slaughtering they were carefully 
 
 *From the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society Report, 1894. This report 
 contains a good description of the life and work of Bakewell, pp. 1-31. 
 
FORMATION OF BREEDS 189 
 
 examined to determine the quality of their flesh; also to 
 determine the proportion of dressed meat to offal. This 
 was not all, as we are told that skeletons and pickled 
 joints of specimens of the best sheep and cattle formed a 
 little museum, for the comparison of one generation with 
 another, and ancestors with their descendants. 
 
 Such careful observations, in connection with proper 
 care, intelligent selection and suitable mating, worked 
 rapid improvement. Thus many years did not pass be- 
 fore Bakewell's animals were unrivaled in plumpness of 
 form, in the small size of bone, and in their ability to 
 acquire external fat, as well as in the small amount of 
 food required to produce a given gain in body weight. 
 
 Bakewell's principles. — While we have no account of 
 the precise principles governing Bakewell's practice, yet 
 Culley, Young and Marshall, who were repeatedly fa- 
 vored with opportunities for making observations on 
 Bakewell's practices, give us extended accounts of his 
 methods. From these accounts it would seem that Bake- 
 well's entire attention was centered on the following 
 principles : 
 
 The first principle of improvement was that, in general, 
 animals produce others possessing qualities similar to 
 their own. With this in mind Bakewell conceived the 
 idea that he had only to select the most valuable animals 
 such as promised greatest returns, and that he should 
 then be able to produce a breed from which he could 
 derive maximum advantage. 
 
 The second principle alluded to the utility of form, as 
 he conceived the form to be related to the function. 
 Bakewell selected for small bone and beauty of form, as 
 he believed that by so doing he could reduce the per- 
 centage of offal and increase the relative proportion of 
 meat in the region of the valuable cuts. 
 
 The third principle referred to the quality of flesh. In 
 the attempt to improve the quality he gave careful atten- 
 tion to the texture of the muscular parts. He believed 
 
IQO BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 that the grain of the meat depended wholly on the breed, 
 and not, as before considered, on the size of the animal. 
 
 The fourth principle considered the propensity to fatten 
 rapidly. Thus he favored animals with a natural tendency 
 to fatten at an early age. 
 
 The fifth principle alluded to inbreeding. Formerly the 
 practice was to select females from native stock and cross 
 them with males of alien blood. Bakewell imagined that 
 better results would follow uniting superior animals of 
 the same breed than by any mixture of foreign blood. 
 Thus he shocked the mode^st people of his time by mating 
 animals whose characters he wished to preserve without 
 regard for relationship. 
 
 The sixth principle of improvement referred to 
 economic production. We are told that the prevailing 
 idea, and the one which lay at the very root and source 
 of his strength, was economy. This principle, no doubt, 
 was uppermost in his mind when selecting for small bone 
 and light offal as well as for early maturity and for the 
 increased percentage of meat in the region of valuable cuts. 
 
 Influence of Bakewell's methods. — Although his most 
 noted success was achieved with sheep known as Dish- 
 ley Leicesters, his work in breeding English Cart or 
 Shire horses as well as Longhorn cattle has been of 
 inestimable value to all branches of the breeding indus- 
 try. Bakewell's animals became very distinguished. 
 Breeders and people interested in live stock improvement 
 visited him from various parts of England and Europe. 
 They paid him large sums for the hire of his male 
 animals, particularly rams, he being the first person to 
 establish the custom of renting his animals. 
 
 In 1760 rams were hired for a few shillings for the sea- 
 son ; ten years later prices varied up to 25 guineas 
 ($131) ; and within a few years his annual income was 
 said to be 3,000 guineas ($15,750) from the hire of rams 
 alone. His celebrated ram, "Two Pounder," was hired 
 one season for 800 guineas ($4,200), with the reservation 
 
FORMATION OF BREEDS I9I 
 
 that Bakewell should breed one-third of the total number 
 of ewes specified in the contract, which was figured as 
 making the payment equivalent to a rental of 1,200 
 guineas ($6,300). He rented stallions, bulls and boars 
 on the same general plan. 
 
 Such accomplishments served to attract other breeders 
 to his methods, and the Colling Brothers, founders of the 
 Shorthorn breed, the Tompkinses, founders of ;the Here- 
 ford, and Watson, the founder of the Angus breed of 
 cattle, as well as John Ell'man, the founder of the South- 
 down breed of sheep and other early breeders, were close 
 students of Bakewell's methods. The achievements of 
 this one man furnished the stimulant which resulted in 
 the development of our modern breeds of farm animals. 
 
 Forming of new breeds. — While new breeds have been 
 formed in many ways and under various conditions, for 
 convenience of study, the methods employed may be 
 grouped into four general classes : 
 
 First. Breeds were founded by introducing alien males, 
 which were mated with native females. ' Previous to 
 Bakewell's time this was the common method, and while 
 extensively employed since, as a rule it has been followed 
 by close breeding to establish the type. This method is 
 well illustrated in the formation of the Thoroughbred 
 or English running horse. 
 
 Second. Breeds were formed by the careful selection of 
 native stock, by judicious mating, and by improved 
 methods of care and management. Animals possessing 
 the desirable qualities were often closely bred to establish 
 the type. The formation of the Shorthorn breed illus- 
 trates this method. 
 
 Third. Breeds were formed by the crossing of two or more 
 distinct breeds after which close breeding was often em- 
 ployed to preserve the desirable qualities. This method 
 is illustrated in the formation of the Oxford breed of 
 sheep. 
 
 Fourth. Breeds were formed by the uniting of two and 
 
192 
 
 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 sometimes more existing breeds. The Holstein-Friesiaii 
 breed of dairy cattle illustrates this method. 
 
 Origin of the Thoroughbred. — Stallions were imported 
 from Arabia, Barhary, Persia and other Oriental coun- 
 tries and mated with native English mares. In 16 16 
 Markham's Arabian was imported, Byerly Turk in 1689, 
 Darley Arabian in 1706, and Godolphin Barb in 1728. 
 These stallions, especially the three latter, may be con- 
 sidered the Thoroughbred foundation. From them 
 descended Herod (King Herod), Eclipse, Flying Child- 
 ers and Matchem, the greatest racing prize winners as 
 well as the most renowned sires of the breed. Herod 
 sired 497 prize winners, Eclipse 334 and Matchem 354, 
 which are estimated to have won for their owners more 
 than £500,000, or over $2,500,000. 
 
 Origin of the Shorthorn. — This breed originated in 
 the counties of York, Durham and Northumberland in 
 northeastern England. Hubback, a native bull born in 
 1777, is regarded as the founder of the breed. His off- 
 spring were better feeders, matured earlier, dressed out 
 with less offal and had more constitutional vigor than 
 the older sorts. These characters were inherited by a 
 grandson, Foljambe, who became a great breeder. A 
 son, Bolingbroke, and a daughter, Phoenix, mated to- 
 gether, produced the bull Favorite, one of the most 
 famous of the breed. Favorite, mated with his dam, pn - 
 duced Young Phoenix, which, in turn, he was bred to, 
 
 Pedigree of the Shorthorn Bull, Comet (155) 
 
 r Foljambe f263) 
 (Young Strawberry 
 I Foljambe (263) 
 I, Lady Maynard 
 ( Bolingbroke (86) 
 
 Bolingbroke (86) 
 
 Comet (155) 
 
 Favourite (252) 
 
 Young Phoenix 
 
 Phoenix 
 
 r Favourite (252) 
 
 Phoenix 
 
 Phoenix 
 Foljambe (86) 
 Lady Maynard 
 
FORMATION OF BREEDS I93 
 
 resulting in the bull Comet, a very famous animal, who 
 sold for £1,000 ($5,000), which was the highest price 
 paid up to that time. 
 
 Origin of the Oxford. — This breed of sheep was de- 
 veloped in Oxford County, England. It is of compar- 
 atively recent origin. About 1830 the shepherds of the 
 
 ff-^ 
 
 '•'; l>> 
 
 Fig. 63 — A Prize-Winnmng Flock of Oxford Sheep 
 
 County of Oxford conceived the idea of developing a 
 new breed of sheep combining the desirable qualities 
 of the long-wooled breeds and of the Down breeds. They 
 began by miating compact Cotswold rams with Hamp- 
 shire ewes. Later Southdown blood was introduced to 
 some extent, although the Hampshire was the chief 
 source of Down blood in the Oxford Down foundation. 
 As would be expected from its Cotswold ancestry, the 
 Oxford has a long and coarse fleece, although from the 
 Hampshire line it inherits desirable mutton qualities. 
 
 Origin of the Holstein-Friesian. — This breed name is 
 of American origin, there being no breed of the name in 
 Europe, the native home of the breed. The Friesian 
 cattle originated in the province of Friesland, Holland, 
 where they became so popular that many were exported 
 to Germany, Denmark, Belgium and the United States. 
 The Holstein cattle originated in the province of Hoi- 
 
194 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 stein, Germany, where they also became very noted and 
 were exported to many countries, including the United 
 States. Thus in Europe the Friesians and Holsteins are 
 separate and distinct breeds. The two breeds, however, 
 have essentially the same origin and are similar in all 
 important characteristics. In order to promote the wel- 
 fare of the two breeds, the breeders and importers in 
 this country finally came together and united their in- 
 terests, agreeing to call the breed Holstcin-Friesian. 
 
 Origin of the Standardbred horse. — The formation of 
 this breed is of interest in the consideration of the origin 
 of breeds, as we can trace present-day Standardbred horses 
 back through the Thoroughbred on the one hand and the 
 Hackney and Norfolk trotter on the other hand, to the 
 time of Darley Arabian. This relationship is illustrated 
 in the chart on opposite page showing the descent of the 
 Standardbred horse from Darley Arabian through the 
 Thoroughbred line on the left and through the Hackney 
 and Norfolk trotter line on the right ; also the relationship 
 of the II stallions with 150 or more performers, the figures 
 not in parenthesis following the names indicating the 
 number of performers. 
 
Q S p4 
 
 Q 
 < 
 
 < 
 
 o g 
 
 11 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 x: 
 
 (1) 
 
 o<- 
 
 -O- 
 
 
 
 
 
 O s 
 
 a 
 
 m 
 
 oO 
 
 fe 
 
 
 s; 
 
 
 
 1— t 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 < 
 
 U 
 
 
 
 1/3 W <5 <; 
 
 C cd 
 
 IS 
 
CHAPTER XVIII 
 IMPROVEMENT OF BREEDS 
 
 While breed improvement was due very largely to 
 judicious selection, suitable mating and better care on 
 the part of breeders generally, it is of interest to note 
 the factors that gave encouragement to such methods. 
 In the development of the breeds many factors exerted 
 a favorable influence, chief of w^hich w^ere the establish- 
 ment of books of record, of breeders' associations, and 
 of live stock shows. Since the books of record gave in- 
 formation concerning the ancestors of a given animal 
 capable of meeting the requirements, it enabled the 
 breeder to select his animals with intelligence, as well as 
 to keep the blood lines pure. Before the introduction of 
 such records it was not possible to learn the merit of a 
 given animal's ancestors, and hence impossible to es- 
 timate, even approximately, what the offspring would 
 be like. 
 
 Origin of pedigrees. — It was to promote the develop- 
 ment and to preserve the purity of the Thoroughbred or 
 English race horse that books of record were established. 
 So far as is known there were no records of breeding or 
 performance previous to the eighteenth century. True, 
 through advertisements, sales' papers, catalogs, and the 
 like, many pedigrees had gained currency, but they were all 
 shaped on fashionable lines, and many, if not most of 
 them, were fictitious. In 1709 a racing calendar of note 
 was published. Others followed, perhaps the most no- 
 table being the Racing Register, published by Bailey 
 Brothers. The records were intended largel)^ for the 
 convenience of men who wagered money, and who cared 
 little for blood lines, hence mistakes were of frequent 
 occurrence. Such was the condition of English pedi- 
 
IMPROVEMENT OF BREEDS 197 
 
 grees when, toward the close of the eighteenth century, 
 Weatherby and Pick started their stud books. 
 
 In 1786, Pick published "A Careful Collection of All 
 the Pedigrees Possible to Obtain," and in 1791 
 Weatherby published an "Introduction to a General Stud 
 Book." These publications were the forerunners of 
 Pick's Turf Register and of Weatherby's General Stud 
 Book. The first volume of both the Register and the 
 Stud Book was published in 1803. Four volumes of 
 Pick's Turf Register appeared and then the publication 
 was discontinued, while the General Stud Book continued 
 as the official organ of the Thoroughbred in England. 
 This represents the first successful attempt to record 
 genealogy of farm animals. 
 
 The second book of record to make its appearance was 
 the Shorthorn Herd Book. Acting upon his own in- 
 itiative, Coates collected the pedigrees of Shorthorns of 
 note, and after much difficulty in obtaining the necessary 
 financial assistance, published the first volume of the 
 herd book in 1822, although it was not until 1876 that the 
 British breeders, organized as the Shorthorn Society of 
 Great Britain, took charge of the preparation and pub- 
 lication of the pedigree records. Following the lead of 
 the Thoroughbred and Shorthorn breeders, the advo- 
 cates of each breed of note established and maintained a 
 book of record. The more popular breeders maintain 
 a separate book of record in each country where they are 
 extensively bred. For list see appendix. 
 
 Eligibility to registration. — At present in America, 
 practically all books of record limit registration to the 
 offspring of registered parents, although during the 
 formative period of the breeds the standard was less 
 rigid. Thus some breeds admitted animals with five 
 or seven top crosses, and others, providing the animals 
 contained a certain per cent of blood already in the book 
 of record. Such is the case even today in many foreign 
 countries. In addition to the purity of blood, some breed 
 
198 
 
 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 associations require certain breed characteristics. Thus 
 Holstein-Friesian cattle, to be eligible to registration, 
 must be black and white, and a red and white animal, 
 although of pure breeding, is not eligible. To provide 
 the finances necessary to publish the book, there is 
 usually a pro rata charge for each animal recorded. 
 
 ^^^-a^:^ ««. ^-^ 
 
 Fig. 64 — Hereford Heifer "Scottish Lassie'' 
 
 Advanced register. — The ordinary pedigree is merely 
 a guarantee against mixed blood lines and gives us evi- 
 dence that the individual belongs to a specific breed. It 
 gives us no information as to whether or not a particular 
 individual is a good one. The animal may be the best 
 or the poorest of the breed, but there is nothing in his 
 pedigree whereby we may judge of his merit. 
 
 The advanced register gives us the desired information, 
 as the performance of the animal is recorded therein. It 
 is a kind of second registration, based upon performance, 
 and furnishes us a guarantee of quality. Among horses 
 it is based upon their track records (p. 126), and among 
 
IMPROVEMENT OF BREEDS I99 
 
 dairy cattle upon the amount of milk and butter fat pro- 
 duced within a given length of time according to an 
 official recognized test (p. 127). 
 
 Breed associations. — Upon their ow^n initiative 
 Weatherby and Coates compiled and published the first 
 volumes of the General Stud Book and of the Shorthorn 
 Herd Book. The business grew so rapidly, however, and 
 there was so much detail connected with the registration, 
 such as tabulation of pedigrees, publication of the books 
 of record, and the like, as well as with financing the 
 undertaking, and later with the management of the ad- 
 vanced register work, that it became necessary to pro- 
 vide some method whereby the work could be done sys- 
 tematically. This led to the organization of associations, 
 the membership of which consisted largely of breeders 
 interested in the development of a particular breed. 
 
 Thus the advocates of each breed formed a breeders' 
 association to conduct the business connected with the 
 management of the breed. Upon the payment of a mem- 
 bership fee any breeder may become a member of the 
 association of the breed he handles. In many of the 
 associations the charges for registration of animals 
 owned by members are less than for those owned by non- 
 members. These associations are considered the official 
 organs of the breeds and have been very potent factors 
 in the general improvement and advancement of the 
 several breeds of farm animals. 
 
 Live stock shows. — One of the most important factors 
 in the early development and improvement of the breeds 
 of farm animals was the live stock show. This is es- 
 pecially true of Britain, where animal fairs have been 
 held for centuries. Following the lead of England, live 
 stock shows have been encouraged and given financial 
 assistance by practically all countries where animal pro- 
 duction constitutes a large part of the agricultural in- 
 dustry. 
 
 The value of live stock expositions for the purpose of 
 
200 
 
 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 stimulating improvement is emphasized by the interest 
 shown in our town, county, state, national and interna- 
 tional expositions. Were they not powerful factors in 
 the improvement and advancement of the breeds of farm 
 animals, they would not be so universally recognized or 
 so extensively patronized by either the exhibitors or 
 breeders. 
 
 The fact that a successful show yard career adds 
 greatly to an animal's commercial value as an individual, 
 
 Fig. 65 — Beef Cattle Parade on Show Grounds 
 
 as well as to the economic value of the get afterwards, 
 stimulates much interest among the exhibitors, and each 
 tries to outdo the other. This competition results in 
 maximum development of the individuals and brings out 
 the best animals of the various breeds. Further, such 
 expositions have been very useful in familiarizing the 
 people at large with breed characteristics and in provid- 
 ing an opportunity to compare one breed with another. 
 British methods.— Following the formation and de- 
 velopment of the Thoroughbred horse, Britain enjoyed 
 an era of live stock improvement which resulted in the 
 organization of more than a score of separate and distinct 
 breeds of farm animals, including horses, cattle, sheep 
 and swine. Since we import from Britain large numbers 
 
IMPROVEMENT OF BREEDS 201 
 
 of four breeds of horses, six breeds of cattle, nine breeds 
 of sheep and four breeds of swine, the methods of breed 
 improvement, on the little group of islands, the total area 
 of which is much less than that of the State of California, 
 are of more than passing interest. Of the 88 breeds listed 
 in the tabulation of breeds of farm animals in the ap- 
 pendix, 44 claim Britain as their native home. 
 
 The natural conditions such as the uneven topography, 
 the varied climate and the fertile soil, together with the 
 stock-loving habits of the people, favored the propaga- 
 tion and improvement of numerous types and breeds of 
 farm animals. Advancement was also promoted by the 
 system of husbandry and by the relationship between 
 tenant and landlord, the land being rented under such 
 terms as to favor the breeding and improvement of farm 
 animals. 
 
 It was recognized that the animals of certain counties 
 were distinct from those of other counties in the rate 
 and manner of growth as well as in fattening qualities. 
 Each of these sections took pride in developing its 
 animals, and there was often keen rivalry among the 
 counties or sections. There was a total absence of in- 
 discriminate crossing of animals from different counties. 
 This resulted in the development of many distinct breeds 
 each with its distinctive characteristics. 
 
 As it was in Britain that live stock shows were inau- 
 gurated, it was there that they proved their worth in 
 stimulating interest in breeding. From their inception, 
 these shows have been very potent factors in live stock 
 improvement. They were systematized by the Royal 
 Agricultural Society of England, established in 1839, since 
 which time they have attracted world-wide attention, 
 until at present all animal-producing nations hold sim- 
 ilar shows. 
 
 It is only fair to state, however, that the most signifi- 
 cant factor in stimulating improvement is the demand 
 created for the stock by America and other leading 
 
202 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 animal-producing nations, largely drawing on Britain for 
 improved blood. As the animals are intended for breed- 
 ing purposes and to introduce new blood into other coun- 
 tries, there seems to be no limit to the price foreign buy- 
 ers are willing to pay, especially if the animal has a 
 successful show yard career, or in the case of racing 
 horses a successful turf career back of him. 
 
 French methods. — Since the Percheron draft horse is 
 so very popular, the methods employed in the improve- 
 ment of the breed are of interest. In order to provide 
 horses for war purposes the early monarchs interested 
 themselves in horse breeding. Since the establishment 
 of the "Administration des Haras" during the reign of 
 Louis XIV, the French government has made systematic 
 efforts to promote the horse-breeding industry. Not- 
 withstanding the political disturbance and war, the gov- 
 ernment purchased stallions in large numbers, import- 
 ing many from foreign countries, notably Arabia. 
 
 In 1833, by royal decree, the French Jockey Club was 
 organized and a stud book established. This did much 
 to further the industry. In 1870 the management of the 
 government horses was given over to the Department of 
 Agriculture and Commerce. The general control was 
 placed in charge of a director, who was assisted by sub- 
 directors, inspector, superintendents and veterinarians, 
 all of whom must be graduated from the horse depart- 
 ment at Le Pin. This is significant, as it contributes to 
 the uniformity of the horses throughout France, and is 
 in striking contrast to American methods as set forth by 
 the various state stallion laws, where instead of a few 
 inspectors with a common ideal, there are many inspec- 
 tors with equally as many ideals. 
 
 There are three classes of government stallions in 
 France : First, those owned by the government ; second, 
 those owned privately, but subsidized by the govern- 
 ment — when thus subsidized the owners receive an an- 
 nual allowance from the Minister of Agriculture; third. 
 
IMPROVEMENT OF BREEDS 
 
 203 
 
 stallions owned privately, and, having been passed upon 
 by the officials and found w^orthy, are approved or au- 
 thorized for public service. All other stallions are pre- 
 vented by a law passed in 1885 from standing for public 
 service. 
 
 With the exception of some aid to the improvement of 
 fine-wooled sheep, the government has interested itself 
 in horse breeding only and similar aid has not been ex- 
 tended to other classes of farm animals, with the result 
 that other classes of French animals are little known 
 outside of France. 
 
 Further improvement needed. — If the propagation of 
 farm animals is to retain its present position in the agri- 
 cultural industry, the animals must be improved so as 
 to yield larger returns for the expenses involved. The in- 
 creasing price of stock foods makes this imperative, notwith- 
 standing the remarkable advancement already attained as in- 
 dicated in the discussion of results accomplished (p. 171). 
 Even in the case of such a phenomenal animal as the pig, 
 weighing 300 pounds at six to eight months of age, each 
 pound of gain will require approximately four pounds of 
 grain or its equivalent, which, with grain at $20 a ton 
 will make a feed cost 
 alone of four cents a 
 pound, to say nothing of 
 the shelter or lots, the 
 insurance or risk from 
 death, the labor and the 
 cost of the parents or 
 their inaintenance. 
 
 The need of further 
 improvement is better il- 
 lustrated in the case of Fig. 66— Cheshire Hog of Excellent Tyi'e 
 
 the beef animal that 
 
 weighs say 1,400 pounds at 18 months, phenomenal individ- 
 ual that he is. In order to force a steer to make such a gain 
 it would be necessary to feed approximately six pounds of 
 
204 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 grain or its equivalent, and at least one-half as much hay for 
 each pound of gain. With grain at $20 and hay at $10 a ton 
 this would make a food cost alone of 7^ cents a pound, 
 to say nothing of the other expenses incidental to the 
 business of raising and fattening animals for beef. This 
 calculation is based upon the most phenomenal animals 
 of the class to which they belong, yet the food cost is 
 very high, and only a very small percentage of the nutri- 
 tion or energy of the food is recovered in the product. 
 
 Need of extending improvement. — While further im- 
 provement will be welcome, the greatest need at the 
 present time is to extend such attributes as have already 
 been attained. Some horses are fast enough, some pos- 
 sess sufficient quality, some stylish enough, some suf- 
 ficiently smooth gaited, and some large enough ; but few, 
 possibly none, possess these attributes in the proper pro- 
 portion so as to secure maximum efficiency. Surely draft 
 horses are too slow and lack the endurance and quality 
 characteristic of light horses. 
 
 While the phenomenal individuals mentioned above 
 produce meat fairly economical, in the main, it is pro- 
 duced only at enormous expense of feed, requiring, 
 roughly speaking, six pounds of grain or its equivalent 
 for each pound of gain in the case of swine ; 8 to 10 pounds 
 of grain or its equivalent in the case of sheep; 12 to 15 
 pounds of grain or its equivalent in the case of cattle. 
 Likewise the hen that lays 275 to 300 eggs in a year is 
 doing much more than we have a right to reasonably 
 expect her to do, but the hen on the average farm lays 
 less than four dozen eggs in a year. If common animals 
 could be improved to even approximate the efficient ones 
 in economic production it would prove a most significant 
 factor in advancing agricultural as well as human inter- 
 ests generally, and would give the propagation of animals 
 a new lease which they could hold for some time to come. 
 
 A good example of the need of extending improvement 
 to the common animals is observed in the case of dairy 
 
IMPROVEMENT OF BREEDS 
 
 205 
 
 cattle. There is greater variation in the production of 
 dairy cows than that of any other class of farm animals. 
 To illustrate this variation the following tabulation is 
 arranged comparing the average annual production for 
 both milk and butter of all cows in the United States by 
 decades with the monthly and yearly production of the 
 leading high-producing Holstein-Friesian cows. This 
 is not a comparison of the poorest and the best, but of 
 the average for all cows in the United States and the best. 
 
 Average Yearly Production Per Cow in the United 
 
 States 
 
 Year 
 
 Milk, 
 
 Butter, 
 
 Year 
 
 Milk, 
 
 Butter, 
 
 
 pounds 
 
 pounds 
 
 
 pounds 
 
 pounds 
 
 1850 
 
 1,436 
 
 61 
 
 1890 
 
 2,709 
 
 115 
 
 1860 
 
 1,505 
 
 64 
 
 1900 
 
 3,646 
 
 155 
 
 1870 
 
 1,772 
 
 75 
 
 1910 
 
 3,520 
 
 150 
 
 1880 
 
 2,004 
 
 85 
 
 
 
 
 Production for One Month 
 
 Name of cow 
 
 Milk, 
 pounds 
 
 Butter fat, 
 pounds 
 
 80% butter, 
 pounds 
 
 K. P. Pontiac Lass 
 
 Valdessa Scott 2d 
 
 Pontiac Lady Korndyke 
 
 Johanna De Kol Van Beers 
 
 2,316 
 2.934 
 2,497 
 2,764 
 
 137 
 131 
 125 
 121 
 
 171 
 164 
 157 
 151 
 
 Production for One Year* 
 
 Banostine Belle De Kol 
 
 Pontiac Clothilde De Kol 2d. 
 High-Lawn Hartog De Kol... 
 Colantha 4th's Johanna 
 
 27,404 
 25,318 
 25,592 
 27,432 
 
 *May Rilma, a G'lernsey cow, exceeded these records in the production of 
 butter fat, producing 1,073.4 pounds of butter fat from 19,673 pounds of niir< 
 in 365 days, now the world's record for butter fat. 
 
20b BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 Thus the leading cows produce approximately as much 
 milk and butter in one month as the average cow in the 
 United States produces in one year. Further, the lead- 
 ing cows produce almost lo times as much in a year as 
 that produced by the average cow. There seems no 
 reason to doubt that the average cow could be advanced 
 to produce approximately one-third that of the lead- 
 ing cows, providing proper methods were employed in 
 feeding, breeding, care and management. In this case 
 one-half of the present number of cows would give us 
 as much milk and butter as we now receive. This would 
 result in a very great saving of food, labor and shelter 
 and advance the dairy industry to one of the most profit- 
 able branches of a2:riculture. 
 
CHAPTER XIX 
 BUILDING UP A HERD 
 
 The inevitability of the dairy cow warrants a discus- 
 sion on building up the herd. There is great variation 
 in the productiveness of dairy cows, some producing lo 
 times that of others. Notwithstanding this variability 
 she responds to judicious care and breeding more per- 
 fectly than does any other class of farm animals. This 
 means, of course, that the dairy cow is susceptible to 
 much improvement. 
 
 It is safe to say that not over one-fourth of the dairy 
 cows in the United States are capable of producing 7,500 
 pounds of milk and 300 pounds of butter fat in one year, 
 even if reasonably well fed. The breeder should not be 
 satisfied until the poorest cows in his herd are capable 
 of producing the above amount. If all the dairy cows 
 in the United States were developed to this point, the 
 average production for each cow would be approximately 
 double what it is at the present time. To put it the other 
 way around, and what is more desirable from the breed- 
 er's point of view, one-half of the present number of cows 
 would be capable of producing approximately the same 
 amount of milk and butter fat than we now obtain. Such 
 advancement is by no means impossible. In fact, it is 
 within reach of practically all breeders who are willing 
 to practice judicious methods of management, feeding 
 and breeding. 
 
 The inevitability of the dairy cow. — If the past and 
 present movements of farm animals may be accepted as 
 a criterion as to future movements, the dairy cow is soon 
 to become our principal source of animal food. There are 
 at least two very significant reasons for this assumption. 
 In the first place, no other farm animal can produce food 
 
 207 
 
.208 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 as cheaply as the dairy cow. As the human population 
 increases this is to become more apparent, as it will be 
 necessary to produce animal food more economically in 
 order to avoid a scarcity of human foodstuffs. 
 
 In the second place, at the present time, the products 
 of the dairy cow are practically indispensable as an article 
 of human diet, especially for infants. The principal 
 product, milk, is of such a nature that it cannot be trans- 
 ported a great distance, thus necessitating the keeping of 
 large numbers of dairy cows near the centers of dense 
 population. The importance of fresh, clean, sw.eet milk 
 as an article of human diet is frequently impressed upon 
 the physicians and health officers in the larger cities dur- 
 ing the hot days of midsummer, as at such times there 
 is often a high infant mortality largely due to the lack of 
 fresh, sweet milk, which is often exceedingly difficult to 
 obtain, especially if traffic is partially interrupted for a 
 few days. 
 
 The use of pure-bred animals. — It is universally ac- 
 cepted, all things considered, that purely bred animals 
 excel grades. For this reason well-bred animals com- 
 mand a fancy price which often prohibits their use ; 
 nevertheless they have a number of very strong advan- 
 tages over grades, chief of which are their capability 
 of higher production, their stimulating effect upon the 
 breeder, thus favoring general improvement, and the in- 
 creased value of their offspring- These advantages are 
 often sufficient to offset the high price. 
 
 It has been shown conclusively that there is a close 
 relationship between the number of pure-bred animals in 
 a community and the general excellence of all farm 
 animals. Of the 20 counties in New York state having 
 the largest number of dairy cattle those containing the 
 largest number of pure breds include the counties in 
 which the average yield was highest and the counties 
 which made the largest increase in yield during the past 
 decade, 
 
BUILDING UP A HERD 209 
 
 The use of grade animals. — While the ideal condition 
 would be to have only high-producing, purely bred 
 animals, at the present time this is impossible because of 
 the small number of such animals available. A very 
 small percentage of the cattle are pure bred, and of this 
 number many are inferior or diseased, which renders 
 them unfit for foundation animals on which to build a 
 future herd. In general, therefore, the breeder must use 
 the best-producing animals available without respect to 
 purity of blood for foundation stock. 
 
 By the grading-up process, that is, by continually se- 
 lecting and breeding the cows that are the best producers 
 to a purely bred bull of proven worth, it is entirely pos- 
 sible and by no means difficult to establish a herd of grade 
 cows that will equal in the production of milk any herd 
 of pure-bred animals. The enterprising and progressive 
 breeder, however, will hardly be content with grades 
 only. In the beginning his bull will be purely bred, and 
 presently he will want a pure-bred cow to match, then 
 one or two more. Thus he will be steadily and properly 
 working toward a pure-bred herd and gaining in knowl- 
 edge and experience at the same time. This will prove 
 a much more economical as well as more satisfactory 
 plan, especially with the beginner or those unaccustomed 
 to purely bred cattle, than to purchase a pure-bred herd 
 in the beginning, as the risk is too great for those lacking 
 in practical experience. 
 
 Foundation animals. — In building up the herd the most 
 important as well as the most difficult animal to select 
 is a suitable bull to head the herd. His breeding, his 
 ability to get uniformly high-producing offspring and his 
 individuality should be carefully considered. It goes 
 without saying that he should be a good individual of the 
 breed to which he belongs, and that he should be of 
 proven worth as well as purely bred. 
 
 The most important factor in selecting the foundation 
 cows is a record of performance of each animal under 
 
210 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 consideration. In building up a herd this is indis- 
 pensable. Without it, advancement is uncertain and per- 
 manent improvement is not possible. Of course, only 
 uniformly high-producing cows should be secured. 
 
 If the herd to be improved is already organized, then 
 the first problem is to separate the high-producing from 
 the low-producing cows. At the present time a very 
 large percentage of the dairy cows do not yield sufficient 
 product to pay for the food they consume, when figured at 
 prices obtainable on the farm, to say nothing of the labor 
 and other expenses. Could all such inferior cattle be 
 eliminated, this alone would very materially advance the 
 dairy industry. 
 
 After the foundation animals have been decided upon 
 and the herd assembled, it is important that the animals 
 be given the best of care. This is essential to improve- 
 ment, as highest efficiency depends on maximum develop- 
 ment, which, in turn, depends on judicious management. 
 
 The first generation. — If the sire has been well chosen, 
 the calves of the first generation are likely to be fairly 
 uniform, even though their dams be of mixed breeding. 
 If convenient, all of the heifer calves should be retained. 
 A great advantage in building up a herd by the grading- 
 up process is the opportunity afforded to raise a large 
 number of individuals up to the time they begin to pro- 
 duce. This provides large numbers from which to select, 
 which results in more rapid improvement than though 
 the numbers were limited. It often happens, however, 
 owing to lack of facilities for rearing calves, that some 
 selection must be made at birth. In this case retain the 
 heifers from the high-producing dams, disposing of those 
 from the low-producing cows. 
 
 Breeding the young heifers. — There are many perplex- 
 ing questions arising in the second generation of the 
 grading-up process. In the first place, the young heifers 
 should be bred and developed much as suggested in the 
 discussion developing the heifer (p. 311). 
 
BUILDING UP A HERD 211 
 
 If the original sire was a young- one at the time of his 
 purchase, there will be a considerable number of his half- 
 blood offspring ready to breed while he is still in the 
 height of his power. As there has been much said against 
 the practice of inbreeding, most breeders hesitate to breed a 
 bull to his own offspring. But if inbreeding is ever likely 
 to be followed by useful results it will be under just such 
 conditions, and in proportion as both the bull and the 
 half-blood heifers show strong individual vital powers 
 the practice is recommended. In the majority of cases the 
 very best bull to breed to a lot of high-quality, uniform, 
 half-blood heifers is their own sire, especially if it is de- 
 sired to secure greater uniformity and greater average pro- 
 duction in their offspring. 
 
 On the other hand, suppose the breeder wishes to 
 change bulls and procures an animal equal in productive 
 capacity but of slightly different type from the original 
 sire. In all probability their second generation calves, 
 even though they are three-fourths pure blood, will not 
 be nearly so uniform a crop as the first generation or half- 
 blood calves. Further, such offspring frequently show 
 little, if any increase, in average production, although a 
 few individuals may show marked improvement. This 
 will prove the skill and patience of the breeder. 
 
 Continued judicious selection the means of improve- 
 ment. — The heifers that show marked improvement are 
 the ones to be relied on to carry the herd forward in im- 
 provement. It is the continued elimination of the low- 
 producing and the judicious selection of the high-produc- 
 ing that advances the general average of the herd. As 
 generations come and go, the characteristics of the pure- 
 bred sire will become more fixed and the herd more uni- 
 form in type and capacity. From the production stand- 
 point, the herd will become practically equal to purely 
 bred animals, although the male offspring should not be used 
 for breeding, as they would tend to stimulate reversion 
 toward the low-producing and common-bred ancestors. 
 
212 
 
 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 The Glista family-* — This family takes its name from 
 Glista 7857, the ancestress of the Holstein-Friesian herd 
 at Cornell University, Since Glista herself was rather 
 inferior as a producer, the development of this family 
 gives a good illustration of the building up of a herd 
 from a common individual. As would be expected from 
 
 Glista 
 
 Glista 2nd 
 
 Gl. Netherland 
 
 Gl. De Kol 
 
 Gl. Iota 
 
 Gl. Ernestine 
 
 Fig. 67 — "Glista Ernestine," 24.410 pounds butter fat 
 in seven days and her ancestors. 
 
 *"The Cornell Dairy Herd," H. H. Wing; "The Cornell Countryman," Nov. 
 1913, pp. 44-51. 
 
BUILDING UP A HERD 213 
 
 SO common a foundation cow, not all descendants have 
 shown uniformly good qualities. The number of inferior 
 animals is not larger than would usually appear in any 
 course of breeding. By judicious selection these have 
 been eliminated from the herd. It is interesting to trace 
 the advancement of the descendants of this inferior cow up 
 to Glista Cora, with a record of 24.129 pounds of butter 
 fat in seven days as a senior three-year-old, to Glista 
 Ernestine, with a record of 24.410 pounds of butter fat as 
 a junior four-year-old, and to Glista Eglantine, with an 
 aged record of 25.912 pounds of butter fat in one week. 
 Glista Omicron, Glista Eglantine's dam, has a record of 
 25.282 of butter fat (Figs. 67 and 68). 
 
 In the following tabulation the relationship of all the indi- 
 viduals in the family is shown in the line of female descent, 
 together with the length of time they remained in the herd 
 and their average yield in pounds of fat per year during 
 the time they were in the herd. A study of the table re- 
 veals some of the uncertainties as well as some of the 
 difficulties with which the animal breeder must work. 
 Glista 2d, the poorest cow in the first generation of off- 
 spring, is in direct line of ascent to Glista Ernestine and 
 Glista Eglantine, now considered to be the best cows in 
 the herd, all things considered. Glista Delta, the best 
 cow in the second generation, left no female descendants, 
 and her line became extinct. The table also illustrates 
 very clearly the wide variation in relative fertility and 
 longevity, some of the cows giving birth to but one calf 
 and then failing to breed again, while others remain 
 fertile until late in life, producing 10 calves and remain- 
 ing productive for 10 years. 
 
 Advancement requires time. — While the tabulation 
 shows rapid improvement in the first two generations of 
 offspring, yet in point of time progress was slow, as is 
 like'ly to be the case in any breeding operations involving 
 the larger animals. Glista 3d produced three bull calves 
 in succession and no heifers, while Glista 4th produced 
 
a«2c.a s a 
 
 cs 
 
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 N 
 
 •° •^ s 
 
 «ca oCO >,-* 
 ore's" oS 
 
 
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 « — ^ — t r 
 
 § :2'".i:. k: 
 
 • cs _; o 
 
 Moo 
 (Sim 
 
 3 "^ 7i< '^< 
 
 '<! ^<-:<) 
 
 ^ t-H O 
 
 Si CO 
 
 J2 ^ 43 ^ 
 E "Co o . 
 
 — ._: .^ -cs ■ 
 
 •2^; 
 
 w 
 
 
 J 
 
 
 < 
 
 
 g 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 Uh 
 
 
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 ^ 
 
 H 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 C5 
 
 u 
 
 i-i-i 
 
 r/j 
 
 CO 
 
 Q 
 
 
 o 
 
 s 
 
 w 
 
 < 
 
 ^ 
 
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 H-1 
 
 H 
 
 
 r/) 
 
 
 
 
 hJ 
 
 
 O 
 
 
 W 
 
 
 K 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 in 
 
 "p.- 
 
 C9 li 
 
 
BUILDING UP A HERD 
 
 215 
 
 four bull calves before her first heifer was born. This 
 retarded progress at first, although after a time the herd 
 increased rapidly in numbers and improved in general 
 
 Advancement in Glista Family 
 
 
 Average 
 number 
 of cows 
 in herd 
 
 Milk 
 
 Fat 
 
 Period 
 
 Average 
 amount 
 
 produced 
 in one 
 
 year, lbs. 
 
 Average 
 gain, lbs. 
 
 Average 
 amount 
 
 produced 
 in one 
 
 year, lbs. 
 
 Averacre 
 gain, lbs 
 
 1891-1895 
 
 1896-1900 
 
 1.5 
 
 2.2 
 
 6.0 
 
 18.6 
 
 18.0 
 
 6,258 
 8,868 
 9,065 
 8,261 
 9,195 
 
 2,610 
 197 
 
 -804* 
 130 
 
 201 
 285 
 312 
 291 
 
 324 
 
 84 
 
 1901-1905 
 
 27 
 
 1906-1910 
 
 -21* 
 
 1911-1913 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 ♦Decrease. 
 
 Glista 
 
 Glista 4th 
 
 Gl. beta 
 
 Gl. Cora 
 
 Fig. 6S — "Glista Cora," 24.129 pounds butter fat 
 in seven days, and her ancestors 
 
2l6 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 productive capacity. This is shown in the preceding 
 tabulation which gives the average number of cows in 
 the herd, the average amount of milk produced by each 
 animal in a year, the average gain in milk as well as the 
 average amount of butter fat produced by each animal 
 in a year and the average gain in butter fat, in periods 
 of five years each beginning in 189 1 and continuing to the 
 close of 1913. 
 
 Fig. 69 — High-Producing Holstein-Friesian Cows 
 Daughters of Prince Ybma Spofford 6th 
 
 The tabulation illustrates the major drawback in breed- 
 ing pure-bred animals. Practically all of the heifer calves 
 were retained in 1906-10, there being little or no selec- 
 tion practiced. This resulted in a rapid increase in the 
 number of cows in the herd and a corresponding decrease 
 in production. The building up of a herd, whether of 
 grades or purely bred animals, depends upon judicious 
 selection. 
 
 Influence of the sires. — In the building up of a herd the 
 influence of the sires is of great importance. The ad- 
 vancement in the Glista family has probably come largely 
 through the sires, although in the tables showing female 
 descent there is no indication of this. It is difficult to 
 
BUILDING UP A HERD 
 
 ±iy 
 
 indicate the exact influence of each sire other than by 
 giving a list of his daughters, together with the produc- 
 tion of each, which is shown in the fohowing tabulation : 
 
 Fat, 
 Sired by Netherland Remus pounds 
 
 Glista 2d 188 
 
 Glista 3d 252 
 
 Glista 4th 274 
 
 Average 238 
 
 Gired by Sir Beets De Kol 
 
 Glista Beta 309 
 
 Glista De Kol 303 
 
 Glista Alpha 294 
 
 Average 302 
 
 Gired by Earl Korndyke De 
 
 Kol 
 
 Glista Delta 348 
 
 Glista Theta 302 
 
 Glista Eta 327 
 
 Glista Epsilon 312 
 
 Glista Lambda 292 
 
 Glista Gamma 336 
 
 Glista Iota 381 
 
 Glista Nu 317 
 
 Glista Mu 285 
 
 Average 323 
 
 Sired by Dutch Hengerveld 
 
 Korndyke 
 
 Glista Rho 301 
 
 Glista Xi 180 
 
 Glista Sigma 341 
 
 Glista Omicron 359 
 
 Glista Tau 255 
 
 Glista Pi 198 
 
 Glista Phi 231 
 
 Glista Upsilon 163 
 
 Average . 
 
 254 
 
 Fat 
 Sired by Small Hopes pounds 
 Korndyke De Kol 
 
 Glista Carlotta 299 
 
 Glista Psi 345 
 
 Glista Candida 259 
 
 Glista Coriander 233 
 
 Glista Corinne 253 
 
 GH a Chi 281 
 
 Glista Eloise 283 
 
 Glista Eleanor 286 
 
 Glista Omega 309 
 
 Glista Francesca 322 
 
 Glista Eva 270 
 
 Average . 
 
 285 
 
 Sired by A. & G. Netherland 
 Piebe De Kol 
 
 Glista Alpha 2d 204 
 
 Glista Echo 338 
 
 Glista Ebony 304 
 
 Average . 
 
 282 
 
 7 Sired by Prince Ybma 
 Spofford 6th 
 
 Glista Cora 413 
 
 Glista Coreva 223 
 
 Glista Dora 239 
 
 Glista Duchess 220 
 
 Glista Draba 298 
 
 Glista Ernestine 377 
 
 Glista Eglantine 264 
 
 Glista Flora 207 
 
 Glista Flora 310 
 
 Average . 
 
 .283 
 
 Since the cows are of the same strain in the female line, 
 the average variation in productiveness of the offspring 
 is due largely to the sires. Of the seven bulls, Earl Korn- 
 dyke De Kol was the individual most impressive and of 
 greatest use in the herd, whereas Dutch Hengerveld 
 Korndyke was the least successful. Special attention is 
 directed to these two sires. Had the herd missed the 
 beneficial effect of the former, the latter, in all probabil- 
 ity, would have sent it to oblivion, as many a bull thus 
 has sent many a dairy herd. On the other hand, could 
 the herd have enjoyed the beneficial effect of a second 
 sire relatively as efficient as Earl Korndyke De Kol, the 
 
2l8 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 herd would have taken rank among the foremost in the 
 country. 
 
 Prince Ybma Spofford 6th gives promise of excelling 
 Earl Korndyke De Kol, as three of his daughters — Eglan- 
 tine, Ernestine and Cora — have produced more than 24 
 pounds of butter fat in seven consecutive days and rank 
 high among the cows of the breed (Fig. 69). 
 
CHAPTER XX 
 COMMUNITY BREEDING 
 
 This system has been extensively introduced into a 
 number of foreign countries, and into some of the states 
 of the Union with most excellent results. A number of 
 breeders in a community possessing the same type or 
 breed of animals band together and form a co-operating 
 breeding society. This has for its object the production 
 and improvement of the animals of the community and 
 often of some specific breed, as well as the establishment 
 of cordial relations generally between the members of 
 the society, who agree to practice such methods as will 
 insure the most successful and economic results. It is 
 the duty of each member to improve his animals by mat- 
 ing exclusively with pure-bred sires of the breed repre- 
 sented by his society, to care for his animals in the most 
 approved manner, to co-operate with his fellow-members 
 in the use of approved sires and in buying and selling 
 stock, as well as in promoting the general welfare of the 
 animal interests of the community. 
 
 Business of breeding. — The breeding of farm animals 
 is a complicated and many-sided business. The breeder 
 must not only be a student, familiar with the underlying- 
 principles of breeding, but he must be a live stock judge 
 in order to select animals judiciously ; he must be a feeder 
 and trainer in order to develop maximum possibilities, 
 as well as a business man in the sense of being capable 
 of properly advertising his product in order that he may 
 sell and buy to advantage. 
 
 The business of producing farm animals for breeding 
 purposes is too complex for one man to accomplish with 
 greatest efficiency. It calls for the harmonious effort of 
 many minds. In the proposed society some men, by na- 
 
 219 
 
220 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 ture, may be scientific breeders, some natural judges, some 
 expert feeders, some natural trainers, and others gifted 
 with business and executive ability, the united effort of 
 which can accomplish vastly more in the way of animal 
 improvement than the wisest man working single handed. 
 True, the lone man, if a genius at business, may make 
 more money than the individuals in the society, but it 
 will be due to his executive ability and not to the quality 
 of his animals. It would be vastly better for the commu- 
 nity as well as to his own advantage for such a person to 
 join the society, as in this particular case he would be 
 able to do the entire community's business more effi- 
 ciently, because he would have a better grade of animals 
 to sell. 
 
 Expense of equipment reduced. — The improvement of 
 farm animals is an expensive business, because relatively 
 
 i' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .•1 
 
 F'^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 si 
 
 
 U.-/^ 
 
 
 
 
 ^4 
 
 
 -p 
 
 
 \i 
 
 ^, 
 
 1* 
 ■'J 
 
 %."*- 
 
 H 
 
 . ^..-^- 
 
 
 
 Fig. 70 — Southdown Ewe Lambs, Uniform in Conformation 
 
 few individuals excel their parents and very few propa- 
 gate their own excellence. Among other things this 
 expense is due to the cost of a proven purely bred sire 
 and to the large number of females necessary to allow for 
 rigid selection as well as to provide the proven sire with 
 
COMMUNITY BREEDING 221 
 
 maximum opportunity. Community breeding reduces 
 or divides this expense, so that the burden does not rest 
 so heavily on any one breeder, as the members co-operate 
 in the purchase as well as the use of the sire. This system 
 also provides a sufficient number of females to allows for 
 rigid selection in the use of the proven sire, thus securing 
 his maximum efficiency. Community breeding enables 
 the breeders of a locality to secure the services of the best 
 proven males at a very nominal pro rata cost for each 
 offspring. 
 
 Often a salesman representing a large importing firm 
 enters a community and forms a "company" in order that 
 he may sell a stallion. The company thus formed usually 
 pays a high price for the horse, as the price must cover 
 many expenses. There is no opportunity for selection, 
 and the stallion thus thrust upon a community may not 
 be of the proper type or breed to mate with the local 
 mares. Thus the company plan of purchasing a stallion 
 is objectionable, not alone because of the high price, but 
 because the animal is often unsuited to mate with the 
 mares of the community. 
 
 A better plan, for the community in need of a sire, 
 would be to send two or three of the local breeders to a 
 sales stable or breeding farm. They will be given an 
 opportunity to study the business at first hand; they will 
 have a large number of sires from which ^to select and 
 thus be able to secure one that will mate advantageously 
 with the local females ; and they will be able to procure 
 a sire at a very great reduction in price, as the firm is at 
 no expense in selling. Likewise, when females are de- 
 sired, it will be possible for a committee of two or three 
 men to go and purchase the animals at one time, thus 
 securing them at much less expense than if each member 
 went individually to secure his animals. 
 
 Uniformity of animals favored. — Community breeding 
 promotes uniformity, as all the members of the society 
 use the same or similar sires. This is significant in view 
 
222 BREEDING 01' FARM ANIMALS 
 
 of the fact that our farmers, individually, have been using 
 pure-bred sires to a greater or lesser degree for more than 
 half a century without the characters of any one breed or 
 type becoming dominant. This has resulted from lack of 
 persistency of effort, due largely to breeders working 
 single handed. It is apparent that there has been no 
 organized effort and that our animals in the main repre- 
 sent promiscuous and haphazard breeding, which, to- 
 gether with the same kind of care, accounts for the large 
 number of inferior and unprofitable animals to be found 
 in the country. 
 
 The importance of community breeding and persistency 
 of effort in establishing and perfecting a breed is empha- 
 sized by the prominence of Guernsey Island for Guernsey 
 cattle, the Jersey Island for Jersey cattle, the district of 
 Holstein for Holstein cattle, the district of La Perche for 
 Percheron horses, and the like. It is safe to say that 
 these two small islands, as well as the little districts of 
 Holland and La Perche, would never have been so con- 
 spicuous or especially prominent in breeding had it not 
 been for the organized efforts of the breeders and their 
 persistency of purpose in the breeding of cattle and 
 horses. 
 
 Community organizations for the improvement of ani- 
 mals create a new interest in the subject of breeding. The 
 individual breeder will do well to cast his lot with the 
 majority of his neighbors and breed the same type that 
 they are breeding, even though that type may not be the 
 one that best suits his fancy or even the one that is best 
 suited to the community. 
 
 Market facilities increased. — While large numbers of 
 animals may be produced by promiscuous breeding, they 
 neither make a name for the communty as a breeding 
 center nor attract buyers willing to pay appreciative 
 prices. As a rule buyers are in search of animals of a 
 particular type, and in order to locate them in such a 
 locality would be obliged to travel throughout a wide 
 
COMMUNITY BREEDING 
 
 223 
 
 territory and at a great outlay of traveling expenses, 
 locating animals here and there until the lot had been 
 gathered together. Under the community system, where 
 the animals are uniform, the buyer in search of any par- 
 
 FiG. 71 — Brown Swiss Yearling Heifers of Uniform Type 
 
 ticular type can go to the district noted for the production 
 of animals of the desired type and there find them in 
 sufficient numbers to meet his needs. This serves to ad- 
 vertise the community, which soon becomes a noted 
 breeding center, attracting large numbers of buyers will- 
 ing to pay attractive prices. 
 
 The breeding of Holstein-Friesian cattle in the vicinity 
 of Syracuse. N. Y., affords a good example of the market 
 facilities enjoyed by a community that has established a 
 reputation for the production of a certain type of animal. 
 From every country Holstein-Friesian buyers are at- 
 tracted to Syracuse, and in the near vicinity can be found 
 the highest priced cattle in the world. 
 
 To establish a world-wide market such breeding opera- 
 tions need not be confined to the vicinity of a large city, 
 as is illustrated in the case of the small town of Lake 
 Mills, Wis. Through the efforts of a few men many 
 Holstein-Friesian herds were established in the vicinity 
 of Lake Mills, which soon established the reputation of 
 
224 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 being the greatest Holstein-Friesian center in the central 
 west. Buyers are being attracted from all over 
 the country and from foreign lands, and prices rule 
 accordingly. 
 
 Disposal of surplus females. — Not infrequently the ex- 
 cellent market facilities created by the community sys- 
 tem of breeding proves the undoing of further improve- 
 ment. This is likely to be the case in a locality just 
 acquiring a reputation. An outside buyer in search of a 
 carload or more of females comes into the community and 
 offers a very fancy price for the best animals. Under 
 such conditions the breeders part with their best females 
 and the advancement gained is lost. 
 
 To be most successful the herds of the community 
 should have the first draft upon the female output in 
 order to secure material to replace the aging animals, no 
 matter what price the outside buyer may put upon them. 
 If a certain breeder finds himself in possession of a num- 
 ber of fancy females, more than he needs for his own use, 
 it would be of advantage to the community, as well as to 
 the breeder himself in the long run, to sell his surplus 
 females to his neighbors and let his neighbors sell to the 
 outside buyer. This may look like poor business for the 
 breeder of the fancy females, but it will retain the desired 
 blood in the community. It is simply carrying the advice 
 that a breeder should not part with his good females and 
 saying to the community that it should not dispose of its 
 best blood. Such a practice would raise the general 
 average of all the stock, thus giving the community a 
 better reputation for producing animals of quality. This 
 would increase the market facilities still more, and in the 
 end the breeder who had seemingly made a sacrifice at 
 first would be able to sell his second output to a very 
 great advantage. 
 
 Cow-testing associations. — Community breeding pro- 
 motes the formation of cow-testing associations, which 
 may become powerful agents in the improvement of dairy 
 
COMMUNITY BREEDING 
 
 225 
 
 cattle. The elimination of low-producing animals is the 
 first step toward improvement, and this elimination can- 
 not be brought about successfully unless records of pro- 
 duction of each cow are kept systematically. Cow-test- 
 ing associations are organizations of dairymen having for 
 their object the determination of the production of the 
 individual cows in the herd, thus supplying the informa- 
 tion necessary to judicious elimination. 
 
 Fig. 72 — Ayrshire Cows Uniform in Type and Color 
 
 The methods of procedure in these associations differ 
 widely, as they are organized in various ways and under 
 various plans, each with due regard to its own local con- 
 ditions. The essential feature in an organization of this 
 sort is to employ a reliable, painstaking man to do the 
 work. The expense to the breeder varies widely, though 
 in a herd of 25 milking cows it will cost, annually, ap- 
 proximately $1 a cow. Associations have been in success- 
 ful operation in many foreign countries and in several 
 states of the union, and it would seem that dairymen 
 should avail themselves more generally of these organi- 
 zations, especially in view of the fact that not infre- 
 quently members increase the productivity of their cows 
 25 to 50 per cent during the first year simply through 
 the elimination of animals whose inferiority was revealed 
 by the results of the tests made by the association. 
 
226 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 Advanced register testing promoted,— While the test- 
 ing association increases the productivity of the herd by 
 eliminating" the inferior animals, it does not improve the 
 individuals except as it stimulates better methods of care 
 and management. Individual advancement calls for im- 
 proved breeding, and, as has been stated, to mate dairy 
 cattle judiciously, it is essential to know not only the 
 performance of the animals thus mated, but the records 
 of production of their ancestors as well. To provide this 
 information advanced registers were established. 
 
 Community breeding promotes the formation of testing 
 associations, which in turn promotes advanced register 
 testing, by materially reducing the cost of testing for 
 members of the association, since the representative of 
 the co-operative breeders' society supervising the work 
 can make the tests in circuits without loss of time and 
 with a saving in traveling and other expenses. This is 
 especially true of those breeds that require a one or two- 
 day test each month, as the cow-testing association repre- 
 sentative can do both the association and the advanced 
 register testing at the same time, providing, of course, 
 that suitable arrangement be made in advance with the 
 various breeders' associations. On account of the im- 
 portance of official testing of dairy cows to the individual 
 breeder and to the dairy industry generally, the officials 
 in charge of the advanced register work in many of the 
 states favor this co-operative arrangement. 
 
 Educational features. — The greatest benefit from com- 
 munity breeding is the friendly spirit which it fosters 
 among the farmers of a community. It tends to stimulate 
 interest in improved methods and provides a means for 
 the education of men in the breeding, feeding and man- 
 agement of their animals. However well educated a 
 breeder may be, he is always confronted with questions 
 which he little understands, and which he must contin- 
 ually seek to comprehend. In order to pursue success- 
 fully the business, he must secure all the information that 
 
COMMUNITY BREEDING 22/ 
 
 is obtainable. The constant counsel of his brightest and 
 keenest associates will prove invaluable. 
 
 A community breeders' society offers its members an 
 opportunity to keep themselves informed on all matters 
 pertaining to success in their work. Through meetings 
 
 Fig. 73 — Berkshire Swine True to Type 
 
 of the society the members exchange helpful ideas and 
 get the experience of prominent breeders, who may be 
 invited to address and meet with them. The experience 
 of many men makes it possible to avoid and remedy many 
 evils and annoyances with which breeders have to contend. 
 
 The community breeding movement stimulates the 
 formation of co-operative societies, through which much 
 of the business of the community is transacted. With a 
 thoroughly competent man in charge of the business, 
 these societies have given excellent results. The mem- 
 bers meet at regular intervals to discuss topics pertaining 
 to the business. This stimulates a friendly rivalry and 
 fosters a better social spirit in the community generally. 
 
 The young breeder. — Even though a close student of 
 the principles of breeding as well as of types and breeds, 
 the young breeder lacks experience with animals. This 
 he should get by association with a good herd and by 
 intimate counsel with men who are in the active business 
 of breeding. 
 
228 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 The young breeder, wishing to make his money go as 
 far as possible, often begins by making the vital mistake 
 of purchasing young stock. Since a very large number of 
 young things come to but little, he soon finds himself in 
 possession of a mixed lot of animals out of which nothing 
 really worthy can be derived. The best way to get a start 
 in the breeding of pure-bred animals is to obtain the 
 foundation stock from a reputable breeder who can be 
 persuaded to part with some of his proven animals, even 
 though it is necessary to take those possessing consider- 
 able age, providing they are still fertile. The beginner 
 has no call to pay extreme prices, as he cannot sell to 
 advantage until he has acquired a reputation as a breeder 
 and established himself in the confidence of the general 
 public. 
 
CHAPTER XXI 
 SEX IN BREEDING 
 
 The commercial value of farm animals often depends 
 to a considerable measure on their sex. If a means could 
 be devised, therefore, for controlling the sex of ofifspring, 
 it would be of much value to the breeder. Endless at- 
 tempts to do this have been made, but none of the 
 theories have withstood the test of careful experiment. 
 As there is but one alternative in the case, any theory, 
 no matter how absurd, is certain to come true half the 
 time. 
 
 The theories advanced for sex determination may be 
 divided into two groups ; first, those which depend on 
 controllable external factors such as the food, climate, 
 chemical agents, will power, and the like; and, second, 
 those which depend upon internal factors centering about 
 the germ cells, and which, of course, are beyond the con- 
 trol of the breeder. 
 
 Equality in number of the sexes. — Data gathered from 
 various sources seem to indicate that the two sexes are 
 produced in practically equal numbers. The relative num- 
 ber of males per lOO females is given for horses as 99, 
 for cattle 94, for sheep 102, for swine 104, and for poultry 
 95. In Europe a study involving 60,000,000 human births 
 showed an average of 106 males to every 100 females. 
 
 SEX DETERMINATION BY EXTERNAL 
 FACTORS 
 
 A few of the more common external theories that have 
 {gained popular credence, but which, so far as present knowl- 
 edge goes, contain no basis in truth, will be reviewed before 
 considering the internal factors. The approximate equality 
 
 229 
 
230 
 
 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 of the sexes in all sorts of natural environments indicates 
 the improbability of sex control by external conditions. 
 
 Time of breeding. — It is stated that the sex is deter- 
 mined by the degree of maturity of the egg cell at the 
 time of service. If the service takes place early in the 
 period of estrum or heat the offspring will be a male; if 
 later, a female will result. Some persons say the 
 reverse. 
 
 This theory is disproved by the results of ordinary 
 farm practice. When males and females run together, 
 the service always takes place during the early stages of 
 the period of estrum in the female, which should make 
 the offspring practically all of one sex, yet the proportion 
 of males and females produced is approximately equal. 
 Alternating ova. — It is said that the ova are alternately 
 male and female, and that the sex of the offspring can 
 be controlled by the choice of the proper estrum for 
 service. Thus, if the last young was a male, then mating 
 at the first estrum as well as third, fifth and so on, would 
 
 produce females, where- 
 as the second, fourth, 
 sixth and. so on periods 
 would result in males. 
 
 This theory is also dis- 
 proved by the results of 
 farm practice, especially 
 in horse breeding, where 
 males follow males and 
 females follow females 
 without the alternating 
 period of estrum, it being the custom to breed mares on 
 the ninth day after foaling. 
 
 Male and female testicles. — The claim is made that one 
 testicle is naturally male and the other female. Thus the 
 sex of the offspring will depend upon the source of the 
 particular sperm cell taking place in the fertilization of 
 the ovum. The same claim is made for the ovaries of 
 
 Fig. 74 — Jersey Bull "Raleighs Fairy Boy" 
 
SEX IN BREEDING 23 1 
 
 the female. These theories have been disproved by the 
 fact that males with but one testicle and females with 
 but one ovary have produced male and female offspring. 
 
 Sexual excitement. — It is stated that extreme sexual 
 excitement on the part of the female is certain to result 
 in male offspring, although some persons say the reverse. 
 This theory is rather difficult to prove or disprove, but 
 the strongest argument against it is the fact that the ad- 
 herents are about equally divided as to the sex of the off- 
 spring. Either one is sure to be correct half the time 
 on the average. 
 
 Age and vigor. — The claim is made that the older 
 parent will determine the sex. The same claim is made 
 for the more vigorous parent. Both claims are disproved 
 by the results of farm practice, where young as well as 
 old males sire both males and females, and where weak 
 as well as strong males sire offspring of both sexes. 
 
 Food supply. — The statement is often made that the 
 sex is determined by the nutrition of the female. The 
 assumption is that the development of the female young 
 demands greater amounts of food and more favorable 
 conditions than does the production of males. To sub- 
 stantiate this, the claim is made that statistics reveal the 
 fact that in countries which have been ravaged by war, 
 and the food supply of the inhabitants diminished, an 
 increased proportion of male children is found. 
 
 While there is an abundance of more or less conflict- 
 ing data upon this matter, we again turn to the results 
 of farm practice to disprove the theory, especially among 
 the higher animals — horses, cattle, sheep and swine. 
 Mares in the lowest state of vitality give birth to oft"- 
 spring of both sexes. The same is true of all farm 
 animals. 
 
 SEX DETERMINATION BY INTERNAL FACTORS 
 
 In recent years there has been a growing belief that the 
 
232 
 
 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 factors determining sex are internal and that they are .con- 
 nected with the germ cells. This belief is strengthened by 
 studies made with bees, squash bugs, and the like, as well 
 as by the behavior of twins in man. 
 
 There are two kinds of twins ; first, ordinary twins, 
 which come from two separately fertilized eggs, and, 
 second, "identical twins," that have their origin in one 
 
 Fig. 75 — Jersey Cow "Jacoba Irene" 
 
 egg cell. Of the former, approximately 30 per cent in 
 man are reported as being of the two sexes, while "iden- 
 tical twins" are always of the same sex. This is given 
 as evidence that the sex is determined at the time of 
 fertilization, and it shows conclusively that neither the 
 nutrition nor the environment determines the sex. 
 
 Sex differences slight. — The differences between the 
 two sexes are few and slight, and mostly connected with 
 reproduction. This is well illustrated in the case of 
 animals that have been non-sexed, where it is often dif' 
 
SEX IN BREEDING 233 
 
 ficult to tell one sex from the other by a superficial ex- 
 amination. The differences between the sexes have been 
 much exaggerated by the division of labor. Thus in 
 seeking causes that determine the sex yve need not look 
 for such factors as alter characters, other than those 
 that take part in the reproduction of young. 
 
 Influence of fertilization. — The sex of bees seems to 
 depend upon fertilization. There are three forms of bees 
 as regards the condition of their sex organs ; first, drones 
 or males produced from unfertilized eggs ; second, work- 
 ers or females which are usually sterile and which are 
 produced from fertilized eggs ; and, third, queens or fer- 
 tile females, also produced from fertilized eggs, but de- 
 veloped in special comb cells, where they are provided 
 with large amounts of special food. Here fertilization is 
 the determining factor as to the difference between male 
 and female, and the food supply determines whether or 
 not the female is to be fertile. 
 
 This is a sex distinction that cannot hold in the higher 
 forms, where fertilization is necessary to the develop- 
 ment, whatever the sex, but it gives us evidence that sex 
 determination is closely associated with the germ cells. 
 Further, it indicates that the ova from which females 
 develop are the equivalent of the ova from which males 
 develop, plus an additional element. 
 
 Accessory chromosome theory. — Evidence in support 
 of the claim that sex is determined at fertilization is 
 drawn from recent investigation in the germ cells of cer- 
 tain species of insects. In the case of the common 
 squash bug (anasa) the body cells of the female have 22 
 chromosomes, while those of the male have but 21. The 
 same is true of the germ cells of both sexes. In the proc- 
 ess of reduction, preparatory to fertilization, the mature 
 egg cells will, of course, be reduced to 11 chromosomes 
 each. In the reduction of the male germ cells, however, 
 half are reduced to 10 and half to 11 chromosomes, as 
 the odd one does not split. Now, it has been observed 
 
234 
 
 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 that if a mature egg cell containing ii chromosomes be 
 fertilized with a mature sperm cell containing ii chromo- 
 somes also, the embryo will have 22 chromosomes and a 
 female will result. On the other hand, if fertilization is 
 accomplished by a sperm cell containing 10 chromo- 
 somes, then the embryo will have 21 chromosomes and 
 the offspring will be a male. This is illustrated diagram- 
 matically as follows : 
 
 Egg 11 chromosomes -f- sperm 11 chromosomes = 22 =: female 
 Egg 11 chromosomes -j- sperm 10 chromosomes = 21 = male 
 
 The sex of the individual in such cases depends upon 
 which sort of sperm cell fertilizes the egg cell. The male 
 and female offspring are approximately equal as the 
 mature sperm cells containing 10 and 11 chromosomes 
 are equally numerous. Evidence of a similar nature has 
 
 been observed from 
 other sources, and in 
 all cases reported the 
 female contains the 
 larger number of 
 chromosomes. 
 
 From evidence sim- 
 ilar to the foregoing, 
 the belief is gaining 
 rapidly that the sex 
 of the individual is in 
 some manner related 
 to an unpaired or odd 
 structural element in the egg or sperm cell. Upon the 
 existence of such an unpaired element in the germ cells 
 may depend the explanation of the unequal transmission 
 of certain characters among the sexes. 
 
 Sex limited inheritance. — It seems that certain char- 
 acters are transmitted to one sex but not to the other. 
 The common example is that of a cross between a barred 
 
 Fig. 76 — Galloway Bull, a Prize Winner 
 
SEX IN BREEDING 235 
 
 Plymouth Rock and a non-barred breed, as Brown Leg- 
 horns among fowls, although the same is true of color 
 blindness in man and some other color characters. If a 
 barred Plymouth Rock male is crossed with a Brown 
 Leghorn female, all of the offspring will be barred like 
 the male. But if a Brown Leghorn male is mated with 
 a barred Plymouth Rock female, the results will be dif- 
 ferent. All of the male offspring will be barred, while 
 all of the females will be dark. In this case the barred 
 Plymouth Rock female transmits the barring only to her 
 male offspring. 
 
 Color blindness in man is a sex-limited character. 
 This defect of vision is much more common in men than 
 in women. A color blind man does not transmit color 
 blindness to his sons, but only to his daughters. The 
 daughters, however, are normal provided the mother was, 
 although they transmit color blindness to half their sons. 
 Apparently, therefore, a color blind daughter could be 
 produced only by the mating of a color blind man with 
 a woman who transmitted color blindness, since the 
 daughter, to be color blind, must have received the char- 
 acter from both parents, whereas the color blind son 
 receives the character only from his mother. 
 
 The same thing is said to be true of egg-laying capacity 
 among hens. We are told that a male of high egg-laying 
 capacity transmits this character to all of his offspring, 
 both male and female, though the capacity of the male is 
 known only through his female offspring, while the 
 female of high egg-laying quality transmits the character 
 only to her male offspring. Thus it follows that a female 
 can inherit high egg-laying capacity only from her sire, 
 while a male may inherit the character either from his 
 sire, his dam, or both. 
 
 With the fact in mind, that under certain conditions 
 color is sex limited, a careful search was made of the 
 records of performance among horses and cattle without 
 any evidence of such limitations in the production of 
 
236 
 
 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 Fig. 77 — Galloway Heifers True to Type 
 
 Speed and butter fat due to sex, although such limitations 
 may exist in egg production, as this depends on the ac- 
 tive functioning of the reproductive organs. True, the 
 sire should be and usually is the better bred, and, there- 
 fore, should be prepotent 
 over the common run of 
 females. Under similar 
 conditions, however, the 
 evidence indicates that in 
 speed and butter-fat pro- 
 duction the sexes are 
 equi-potent, and that one 
 sex is as likely to be of 
 superior breeding power 
 as the other (p. 162). 
 
 Sex control not desir- 
 able. — The evidence in- 
 dicates that the sex of 
 the individual is determined at the time of fertilization, 
 and that control, especially in the higher animals, is 
 beyond the power of the breeder. At first thought 
 this may seem a handicap, but on analysis it appears 
 to be a fortunate state of affairs. It seems undesir- 
 able that the sex of farm animals should be under 
 the control of the breeder, especially in view of the com- 
 paratively higher values often placed on females. The 
 approximate equality of numbers of the two sexes is of 
 importance in general improvement. It gives a large 
 number of males from which to select. This should and 
 usually does result in a better grade of males than 
 females, which is of advantage because of the relatively 
 large number of offspring influenced by the sire. Greater 
 advancement is secured in this way than would be the 
 case were the number of males born limited to the num- 
 ber needed for breeding, as then there would be no chance 
 for selection. 
 
CHAPTER XXII 
 PROLIFICACY IN BREEDING 
 
 There is a close relationship between the prolificacy 
 of farm animals that are kept for breeding and the profits 
 arising from their production. As soon as the animal 
 reaches the proper age for breeding then the relative 
 profits grow less each day that it is kept without issue. 
 This is due to three factors that deserve attention : First, 
 the food, shelter, labor and risk of keeping an idle animal ; 
 second, the absence of offspring and lack of opportunity 
 to make a profit on them ; and, third, the probable en- 
 couragement of sterility in the case of females that do 
 not breed at an early age. This is especially true of 
 dairy cattle, where there is the added financial loss due 
 to lack of product. The animal breeder should give 
 special attention to fertility and gradually eliminate all 
 animals that are not at least fairly prolific. 
 
 Conditions that influence prolificacy. — The productive 
 powers of farm animals are influenced by the enyiron- 
 ment. All factors that tend to equalize conditions are 
 favorable to high fertility. A uniform supply of nutri- 
 tious, easily digested foods mixed into properly balanced 
 rations, together with suitable management, influence 
 reproduction favorably. On the other hand, insufiicient 
 and improper food, as well as lack of proper care, in- 
 fluence prolificacy adversely. 
 
 The training of race horses as well as the racing en- 
 gagements render it impossible to breed them regularly. 
 The developing necessary to put the dairy cow into con- 
 dition to make a high record often interferes with the 
 regularity of her breeding. Likewise, the fitting of 
 animals for the show ring as well as their showing en- 
 
 237 
 
238 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 gagements interfere with the regularity of their breeding. 
 Not only is a part of the breeding animal's life spent in 
 the preparation and taking part in such events, but the 
 methods employed in training, developing and fitting 
 often favor sterility. In fact, the conditions that influ- 
 ence fertility favorably, as well as unfavorably, are much 
 the same as those that cause sterility. 
 
 High prolificacy desirable. — The importance of high 
 prolificacy is often overlooked by the breeder. This is 
 especially true of trotting horses, as well as of animals 
 with notable showyard careers. It is the females that are 
 most affected, as the males can be used for breeding 
 when not on the racing or showing circuit. Among 
 trotting and pacing: horses the mare capable of great 
 speed is worth more for racing than for breeding, hence 
 she is often kept on the track until too late in life to 
 breed. Likewise, the value of the show animal is so 
 great that it encourages the breeder to spend months, 
 and often years, in preparation for the show ring, with 
 the result that desirable animals are often never given 
 a chance to reproduce themselves. This often means 
 that the best individual blood of the various classes and 
 breeds of farm animals is lost, which proves a very seri- 
 ous handicap in the general improvement of our animals. 
 
 It is highly desirable that the dairy cow be fully 
 fertile. Here there is an intimate relation between the 
 milk-producing powers and those of reproduction, due to 
 the fact that the profitable milk secretion is dependent 
 upon the normal functioning of the reproductive organs. 
 Should the dairy cow fail to breed regularly the breeder 
 loses on the keep of the cow, he loses on her milk produc- 
 tion, and he loses the opportunity to make a profit on the 
 calf. 
 
 That all animals kept for breeding purposes should be 
 highly fertile is emphasized by the high cost of mainte- 
 nance due to the price of feed (p. 4). The cost of 
 maintaining a few idle breeding animals will rapidly 
 
PROLIFICACY IN BREEDING 
 
 239 
 
 destroy the profits made by the breeding of animals. 
 Lack of a full realization of this on the part of farm breed- 
 ers generally has been an important factor in the de- 
 crease of farm animals during the past decade. 
 
 « 
 
 Fig. 78 — Cheshire Barrow of Excellent Type 
 
 Cumulative effect of prolificacy. — The relative impor- 
 tance of fertility can be illustrated by comparing three 
 cows, for example, of different degrees of fertility. As- 
 sume these animals to be the foundation stock for given 
 herds, and that one raises two calves and then goes 
 barren ; that another raises four; and that the third raises 
 six before she ceases to breed. Also assume that half 
 of the calves are males, half females and that all descend- 
 ants are fertile in the same degree as the original cows. 
 The following tabulation illustrates results for five gen- 
 erations : 
 
240 
 
 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 Number of Fertile Females at the End of Various 
 Generations for Three Cows of Various Degrees of 
 Fertility 
 
 
 Generations 
 
 Cows 
 
 Calves 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 No. 1 
 No. 2 
 No. 3 
 
 2 
 4 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 3 
 
 1 
 4 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 27 
 
 1 
 16 
 81 
 
 1 
 
 32 
 
 243 
 
 After five generations there would be but one fertile 
 female descending from the first cow, whereas if all had 
 been kept there would be 32 from the second and 243 
 descendants from the third cow. Compare the likely 
 profit from offspring, also the opportunity for improve- 
 ment by selection in the three cases. Of course, the 
 length of a generation may depend somewhat upon the 
 fertility of the cows, and five generations of the first 
 cow's descendants may not require more than one-half 
 as many years as five generations in the case of the 
 third cow. 
 
 To avoid the unequal time element, let us assume three 
 similar lots, but that each cow drops a calf at two years 
 of age and one each year thereafter until she goes barren. 
 Now, at the end of ten years there would be five cows 
 in the first herd, one fertile and four barren ; there would 
 be 12 in the second, eight fertile and four barren ; and in 
 the third there would be 15 cows, 13 fertile and two 
 barren. Further, there would be but five bull calves 
 in the first ; eight in the second ; while in the third there 
 would be 13 bulls. 
 
 Prolificacy in horses. — Both mares and stallions vary 
 widely in prolificacy. Some mares give birth to one or 
 two foals and then go barren, some breed every other 
 year, and some, are fully fertile. In general, the light 
 breeds are more' fertile than the heavy breeds, although 
 
PROLIFICACY IN BREEDING 
 
 241 
 
 many draft mares are highly fertile. The most produc- 
 tive period of a mare's life is from 4 to 12 years of 
 age, although in many cases this period may be extended 
 both ways. Occasionally a filly will breed at two years 
 of age, and even before, and not infrequently individuals 
 of the light breeds retain their breeding power until past 
 20 years of age. 
 
 There is a difference of opinion as to the advisability 
 of breeding two-year-old fillies. It is stated that breed- 
 ing at so early an age 
 tends to retard develop- 
 ment in both dam and 
 foal. On the other hand, 
 it is stated that early 
 pregnancy has a tend- 
 ency to stimulate the de- 
 velopment of the dam, to 
 increase her fertility, and 
 that the first foal, if from 
 a well-grown filly, stands 
 just as good a chance as 
 the first foal from a ma- 
 ture mare. Perhaps the 
 reason for much of this 
 discussion lies in the 
 fact that fillies at this age breed with much difficulty. 
 
 At about 12 years of age the productive powers of most 
 mares begin to wane, although some breed freely for a 
 much longer period, as illustrated by the famous mares 
 Green Mountain Maid, that produced 16 foals, and by 
 Old Fannie Cook, that produced 15 foals, giving birth 
 to twins at 22 years of age. 
 
 Likewise, stallions vary widely in their breeding 
 powers, some serving 50 mares, some 100, and, in the 
 lighter breeds, some serving 150 and more mares in a 
 single season. There is also much variation in the per- 
 centage of mares that stallions pregnate, although this 
 
 Fig. 79- 
 
 Hampshire Barrow Showing Breed 
 Marking 
 
242 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 may be due as much, if not more, to the mares as to the 
 stallion. On the average, the stallion pregnates 70 to 
 80 per cent of the mares served, and approximately 60 
 per cent drop living foals. In other w^ords, out of every 
 100 mares served 70 to 80 become pregnated and only 
 about 60 give birth to living foals. Thus it w^ould seem 
 that breeders should give the detailed work of breeding 
 horses careful consideration in an attempt to raise this 
 low birth rate. 
 
 Prolificacy in cattle. — Among dairy cattle fertility is 
 of prime importance, as continued milk production de- 
 pends on the regular functioning of the reproductive or- 
 gans. Though important in beef cattle also, high fer- 
 tility is not so essential, as the beef cow that fails to 
 breed may be fattened and sold for beef. The reproduc- 
 tive organs of the heifer mature at a younger age than 
 in the filly, so that cattle breed much younger in life than 
 do horses. 
 
 The most fertile period of a cow's life is from one and 
 one-half to eight years of age, although this period may 
 be extended both ways. As with fillies, there is a dif- 
 ference of opinion as to the proper age to breed heifers. 
 Heifers that are vigorous, healthy and well grown should 
 be bred rather young, thus encouraging the milking habit 
 at an early age. This practice has much to commend it 
 (p. 311). Young heifers breed with greater regularity 
 than do young fillies, because of the unconscious selec- 
 tion for young breeders that has been taking place 
 among cattle. 
 
 At about 8 to 10 years of age the breeding powers 
 of cows begin to wane, though many of them are reliable 
 breeders until a much later period of life, as observed in 
 the case of the Holstein-Friesian cow, De Kol 2d, who 
 gave birth to 14 calves, the last one in her sixteenth year, 
 as well as in the case of the Angus cow, Old Granny, that 
 produced 25 calves, the last one in the twenty-ninth year 
 of her life. 
 
PROLIFICACY IN BREEDING 243 
 
 Bulls also vary widely in fertility, although their man- 
 agement is such that they are seldom given full oppor- 
 tunity. On dairy farms, cows are bred so as to drop 
 calves in the fall of the year, whereas beef cows are bred 
 so as to calve in the spring. In either case the breeding 
 season is short, so that the bull is used but three or four 
 months each year. The number of cows that a bull can 
 pregnate depends, in part at least, upon the breed. Heavy, 
 phlegmatic beef bulls are not so prolific as the lighter and 
 more active dairy bulls. Further, the bulls of the heavy 
 dairy breeds are often less prolific than those of the 
 lighter breeds. The bull should be able to serve at least 
 25 cows in a season, and when strong and vigorous may 
 far exceed this number. 
 
 Prolificacy in sheep. — There is much variation in rela- 
 tive fertility among the several breeds of sheep. A fair 
 
 Fig. 80 — Dorset Horned Lambs 
 
 percentage of the ewes of some of the more prolific 
 breeds, such as the Dorsets, produce triplets ; the ewes 
 of other breeds, such as the Downs, produce a fair pro- 
 portion of twins ; while in some of the less fertile breeds 
 practically all of the ewes give birth to but a single off- 
 spring. Further, there is equally as great variation in 
 prolificacy among the individuals of a breed. 
 
 The most prolific period of a ewe's life is from one to 
 
244 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 five years of age, although many individuals continue to 
 breed until much later in life. While breeders differ in 
 their opinion as to the advisability of breeding the year- 
 ling lamb, if she is well matured and thrifty, it is prob- 
 ably better to try her out the first season, particularly if 
 she is very promising. If giving satisfactory results, the 
 ev^e should be retained in the flock as long as she w^ill 
 breed. After about the fifth breeding season the ewe's 
 reproductive powers begin to wane, although an occa- 
 sional one will remain fully fertile until 9 or 10 years 
 of age. There are authenticated cases of ewes remain- 
 ing in the breeding flock for 12 years, giving birth to from 
 24 to 30 lambs and raising a large proportion of them. 
 
 Likewise, rams vary in prolificacy, although the num- 
 ber of ewes they are able to pregnate will depend much 
 on their management at the mating season. The ram 
 should be kept away from the flock of ewes, as this con- 
 serves his energy, thereby enabling him to serve twice 
 as many ewes as when running in the field with the flock. 
 Where this plan is followed, the ewes are brought to the 
 ram in the morning or evening while cool, when he is 
 permitted to single out those that are in heat. Such 
 ewes are taken out and allowed a single service, A 
 thrifty ram may be permitted to serve two or three ewes 
 each morning and evening, thus enabling him to care 
 for 100 ewes in a season. This is twice or even three 
 times as many ewes as he can care for if permitted to run 
 with the flock. 
 
 Prolificacy in swine. — The several breeds of swine vary 
 widely in fertility. The bacon and semi-bacon breeds 
 are, as a rule, much more prolific than the heavy lard- 
 producing breeds. The more fertile breeds produce two 
 large litters each year, while the less prolific breeds pro- 
 duce but one litter, which often consists of a compara- 
 tively small number of pigs, and these sometimes lack- 
 ing in size and general thrift. Likewise, there is even 
 greater variation among the individuals of a given breed. 
 
PROLIFICACY IN BREEDING 245 
 
 It is a rather common practice to breed sows at six 
 or eight months of age, and after raising one litter of 
 pigs to fatten the sows for the market. This is not a 
 good practice, for once a good brood sow is found, she 
 should be retained as long as she continues to breed and 
 to do well. Further, young gilts often give birth to small 
 litters of pigs lacking size and thrift. Of course the 
 
 Fig. 81 — Southdown Yearling Ram 
 
 gilt may be tried out while young, but, if promising, she 
 should be retained in the breeding herd. The most 
 prolific period of a sow's life is from one to five years 
 of age, although many retain their breeding powers much 
 later in life. There are authenticated cases of sows re- 
 maining fully fertile until 10 years of age, giving birth 
 to 175 pigs, and raising a large proportion of them. 
 
 Boars also vary widely in fertility, although the num- 
 ber of sows that they are able to pregnate as well as the 
 
246 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 number of pigs that they are able to produce will depend 
 much upon the management. The boar is often overfed 
 on fattening foods and denied proper exercise, which 
 materially decreases his fertility. For best results the 
 boar's management at the breeding season should be 
 much the same as that suggested for the ram. 
 
 Prolificacy in poultry, — Poultry differ from other farm 
 animals in that the services of the male are not necessary 
 to the egg-laying function, although, of course, such eggs 
 will not incubate. There is greater variation in prolificacy 
 among poultry than any other class of farm animals. 
 There is much variation among the several breeds as 
 well as among individuals. Entire flocks of the more 
 prolific breeds, such as the Leghorn, average 125 to 150 
 eggs in a season, with an occasional individual laying as 
 high as 300 eggs in a year. Flocks of the less prolific 
 breeds, such as the Brahma, average only 40 to 50 eggs 
 in a season, with many individuals running very low. 
 
 The most prolific period of a hen's life is from eight 
 months to three years of age. Some pullets begin lay- 
 ing at four or five months of age, and some, hens retain 
 their egg-laying powers until seven or eight years of age. 
 Usually, but not always, the hen lays her largest number 
 of eggs the first season, and each season thereafter gradu- 
 ally diminishes in prolificacy until she ceases to lay. 
 
 Males also vary in fertility, but on the average it is 
 safe to allow one male for each 20 females. When con- 
 venient it is a good plan to change males once each week. 
 The male bird will begin to breed at four to six months 
 of age. 
 
 Prolificacy hereditary. — The tendency to prolificacy is 
 freely transmitted from parent to offspring, as is evi- 
 denced by the fertile strains among each class of farm 
 animals. This is particularly noticeable in the case of 
 sheep and swine. Sheep breeding records show that the 
 ability to produce twins and triplets is transmitted. This 
 has resulted in strains especially noted for this at- 
 
PROLIFICACY IN BREEDING 247 
 
 tribute. The same is true of swine, and we have 
 strains noted for their ability to produce two large litters 
 of pigs each year. Likewise, there are strains of both 
 sheep and swine in which the breeding powers are very 
 weak, and it is necessary to keep introducing outside 
 blood to keep them from becoming extinct. 
 
CHAPTER XXIII 
 STERILITY IN BREEDING 
 
 Success in animal breeding depends upon the ability of 
 the animal to produce living young. Individual excel- 
 lence, pedigree and performance count for nothing in the 
 presence of sterility. From the breeder's point of view 
 it matters little w^hether the inability to produce young 
 depends upon the failure of union betv^^een the male and 
 female germ cells, or to the death of the embryo and 
 fetus, or even to premature expulsion of the fetus before 
 attaining sufficient development to continue life, as each 
 prevents living offspring and practically constitutes 
 sterility. In this discussion, hov^ever, sterility is limited 
 to the failure of a union between male and female germ 
 cells. The question of the life of the embryo and fetus, 
 as well as the premature expulsion of the fetus, is con- 
 sidered in the discussion on abortion in breeding (p. 268). 
 
 Prevalence of sterility. — Among farm animals sterility 
 is widespread and of much more frequent occurrence 
 than is commonly supposed. It occurs in both sexes, but 
 in the female the genital apparatus is more complex and 
 sterility more common, although of no greater impor- 
 tance than in the male. The function of the male parent 
 ends with the injection of healthy semen into the uterus 
 or vagina of the female. In the female, however, the 
 male germ cells must migrate on through the uterus and 
 oviducts until they meet the female germ cell or ovum 
 coming from the ovary. Here fertilization takes place, 
 after which the female organs must still protect, and 
 provide nutrition to the embryo for a long period of 
 time. 
 
 Much variation exists in reference to the prevalence of 
 sterility among farm animals. It seems to be most common 
 
 248 
 
STERILITY IN BREEDING 
 
 249 
 
 Fig. 82 — Red Polled Bull "Teddy's Best' 
 
 in those animals that are kept closely confined, and hence 
 becomes of prime importance in dairy cattle. This is 
 particularly true in view of the fact that the value of a 
 cow depends upon the normal functioning of her repro- 
 ductive organs. Among 
 work horses and meat- 
 producing animals ster- 
 ility does not attract so 
 much attention, espe- 
 cially with females, as it 
 makes comparatively lit- 
 tle difference to the 
 owner whether they 
 breed, or, in the case of 
 horses, go to work, or 
 in the case of meat ani- 
 mals, go to the butcher. 
 
 The breeder should 
 make a careful study of 
 
 sterility, as the principal if not the sole value of his animals 
 depends upon their productive powers. In such cases 
 failure to breed may prove a financial disaster. If a num- 
 ber of valuable brood mares, for example, kept exclu- 
 sively for breeding, are mated with a sterile stallion, no 
 foals will be produced the following season. This re- 
 sults in a total loss of anticipated income. Further, each 
 mare has diminished in value through her increase in 
 age, and having been idle for a year, with the tendency 
 to sterility intensified. 
 
 Causes of sterility. — Among farm animals, reproduc- 
 tion occurs as a result of a union, under favorable condi- 
 tions, of a mature male germ cell with a mature female 
 germ cell. The former are produced in the testicles of 
 the male, the latter in the ovaries of the female. Any- 
 thing which interferes with the normal physiological ac- 
 tivities of either male or female, or with normal sexual 
 intercourse, may result in sterility. The function of re- 
 
250 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 production, being exceedingly complex, the causes lead- 
 ing to sterility are correspondingly numerous and ex- 
 ceedingly varied, and not infrequently little understood. 
 
 Idleness and overfeeding. — Breeding animals are often 
 closely confined, denied proper exercise, and fed an over- 
 supply of nutritious foods in order to keep them in pre- 
 sentable condition. Under such circumstances they take 
 on fat rapidly and frequently fail to show signs of sexual 
 desire. This is true of the male as v^ell as the female. 
 The tendency to loss of sexual vigor on this account in- 
 creases v^ith age, although noticeable in young males. 
 The difficulty seems to be of a purely functional nature, 
 and usually disappears under proper management, pro- 
 viding that it be applied sufficiently early. 
 
 The sexual vitality of many of our most richly bred 
 animals is often temporarily impaired and sometimes per- 
 manently destroyed in the process of fitting them for the 
 show ring. While there is no effective method for over- 
 coming this, yet much could be done to relieve the situa- 
 tion if judges in live stock exhibitions would pay less 
 attention to the amount of fat and more to the general 
 form and natural vigor of the animal in the allotment of 
 premiums. In fitting breeding animals for show it is 
 absolutely essential that an abundant exercise accom- 
 pany the preparing process, especially if the sexual vigor 
 of the animal is to be preserved. 
 
 Overwork and adverse conditions. — Farm animals that 
 are subject to severe work are often inclined to be sterile 
 for the time. It seems that the resources of the animal 
 are exhausted in the physical labor and that no reserve 
 energy remains to provide for the reproductive powers 
 during this period. Likewise, adverse conditions depress 
 the reproductive powers. The animal which does not 
 receive sufficient food to maintain general thrift and 
 afford a moderate reserve for reproduction tends to be- 
 come sterile. 
 
 Likewise, anything which results in profound depres- 
 
STERILITY IN BREEDING 
 
 251 
 
 sion of the general system is often accompanied by sus- 
 pension of the powers of reproduction. Such disorders 
 not only destroy sexual desire, but also prevent the forma- 
 tion of germ cells, which causes absolute sterility, at 
 least during the period of depression. The remedy for 
 such a condition is to be found in proper management 
 of breeding animals. 
 
 Fig. 83 — Red Polled Cow "Cosy 2nd" 
 
 Excessive sexual use. — Among males partial sterility 
 is frequently due to excessive use. Naturally the breeder 
 is interested in the number of females a male can preg- 
 nate in a season, which often leads to excessive use, 
 especially among stallions. When the number of serv- 
 ices during a given day is increased the abundance of 
 germ cells in the semen rapidly decrease, and if the 
 services are repeated too frequently the germ cells in 
 the semen become greatly diminished, thereby causing 
 low fertility and sometimes sterility. The stallion and 
 the bull should not be allowed more than three services 
 in one day, and these only under such conditions that the 
 
252 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 male be given one or two days of complete rest each 
 week. Under like conditions the ram may be allowed 
 two or three services each morning and evening for a 
 short period, while the boar should not exceed two serv- 
 ices each morning and evening. 
 
 Idle males, particularly stallions, which are closely 
 confined, overfed and denied exercise often acquire the 
 habit of masturbation, which leads to sterility. The 
 same habit is often observed in racing stallions, when 
 sexual debility is brought about by hard work on the 
 track. The remedy is judicious management and es- 
 pecially proper exercise. 
 
 Timidity, irritability and excitability. — Not infre- 
 quently timid females have a tendency to avoid males 
 and often refuse them entirely. This is especially true 
 of young heifers when approached by a boisterous bull. 
 Since the behavior of the male has much to do with such 
 cases, he should be taught, so far as possible, to approach 
 the females quietly. 
 
 Sexual intercourse in the mare and cow is frequently 
 followed by violent expulsive efforts, which result in the 
 loss of a large part or all of the semen. This is due, in 
 some cases at least, to the irritability of the female. Pos- 
 sibly in some cases it is due to excessive pain caused by 
 abnormal males. When the expulsive efforts are due to 
 irritability, the female's attention should be attracted 
 for a time after the service. This may often be done by 
 causing her to move about for a time. 
 
 Females with young at their side often become much 
 excited and resist the males because of the maternal 
 instinct. This is especially true of mares with young 
 foals by their side. In such cases the young should be 
 kept out of sight and hearing of their mothers at the 
 time of service. 
 
 Size of male and female. — If the male is comparatively 
 either too large or too small sterility may ensue as a 
 result of imperfect or incomplete copulation. This is 
 
STERILITY IN BREEDING 253 
 
 especially true of young boars trying to serve mature 
 sows. Not infrequently serious accidents result from 
 the use of very heavy bulls on small cows. The nature 
 of the cause suggests the remedy. In case the female is 
 too tall, she may be placed in a pit; or, in case the male 
 is too heavy, breeding stocks, or racks, may be so con- 
 structed as to bear the extra weight of the male. 
 
 Not infrequently painful diseases of the feet and legs 
 or of other parts which may cause pain during the process 
 of mating serve to render the service uncertain and often 
 to prevent it. 
 
 Hybrids among animals usually sterile. — This term is 
 applied to the offspring of a union of two distinct species, 
 the common example among animals being the mule, 
 which results from a cross between a jackass and a mare. 
 The offspring resulting from a cross between a stallion 
 and a jennet is known as a hinny. The mule and the 
 hinny are classed as sterile, although in rare instances 
 well-authenticated cases are reported of female mules 
 giving birth to living young. In general, all degrees of 
 fertility are found among hybrids, from extreme prolif- 
 icacy in plants to absolute sterility in case of some animals. 
 
 Freemartins often sterile. — This term is here applied 
 to designate a sexually imperfect calf born twin with a 
 normal male. In this case it is, of course, always sterile. 
 There are three kinds of twins among cattle ; first, those 
 that are both female and normal ; second, those that are 
 of different sexes and normal ; and, third, those that are 
 both male, in which case one is always abnormally de- 
 veloped, the internal organs resembling the male, and the 
 external organs the female.* In fact, this is a kind of 
 hermaphroditism, and not, as commonly supposed, a 
 heifer born twin with a bull. As indicated, a normal 
 heifer born twin with a bull is as fertile as any other heifer. 
 
 Hermaphrodites. — This term is applied to the animal 
 in which both male and female sex organs are each found 
 
 *Giddens and Thomson, "The Evolution of Sex," p. 41. 
 
254 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 more or less developed. There is wide variation in the 
 degree of development of the organs, one extreme re- 
 sembling males, the other females. Hermaphrodites are 
 classed as sterile. 
 
 Cryptorchids. — This term is applied to the male in 
 w^hich the testicle fails to descend into the scrotum but 
 remains inside the abdomen. This condition is fre- 
 quently observed in horses, v^hen they are spoken of as 
 "ridglings." Cryptorchids are classed as sterile, although 
 the animal assumes the characteristics of a normal male. 
 In fact, cryptorchid is an arrest in the development of the 
 testicle, the organ being small, soft and flabby. A sim- 
 ilar arrested condition is often observed in the ovaries. 
 Likew^ise, both organs may undergo degeneration, the 
 glands assuming a variable form and size and consisting 
 of a mass of matter devoid of proper tissue. 
 
 Diseases of the reproductive organs. — The most fre- 
 quent and important cause of sterility among farm 
 animals is that of diseased reproductive organs. There 
 are a great number of ailments of these organs that in- 
 terfere w^ith the reproductive function, many of which 
 are little understood. Probably one of the most im- 
 portant, if not one of the most frequent, diseases causing 
 sterility, especially among the females of certain classes 
 of animals, is that of cystic degeneration of the ovaries. 
 This disease is very common in highly bred milk cows, 
 especially in regions of intensive dairying, where the 
 cattle are constantly stabled, and fed an abundance of 
 artificial foods, such as distillers' grains, malt sprouts, 
 and the like. The exact cause of the disease, however, 
 is not known. Ovarian cysts also occur in mares, ewes 
 and sows. 
 
 Other diseases of the reproductive organs tending to 
 cause sterility are persistent hymen; adhesions of vag- 
 inal walls; tumors of the vulva, vagina, uterus, broad 
 ligaments and ovaries ; tuberculosis of the uterus and 
 ovaries; metritis, both acute and chronic, and the like. 
 
STERILITY IN BREEDING 255 
 
 There is little or nothing that the breeder can do to 
 remedy many of these diseases, but his attention is es- 
 pecially directed to them to impress the fact that they 
 constitute the most important cause of sterility among 
 
 Fig. 84 — Berkshire Sows at Pasture 
 
 farm animals, and also to show the fallacy of the pro- 
 miscuous use of drugs and nostrums in an attempt to 
 overcome sterility. In such cases an expert veterinarian 
 should be consulted. 
 
 Drugs as a remedy for sterility. — There seems to be a 
 widespread opinion among breeders that certain drugs 
 arouse sexual desire and hence stimulate sexual powers. 
 From time to time numerous drugs have been credited 
 with this power. The nature of many of the diseases 
 causing sterility would seem to cast reflection upon the 
 value of drugs in this connection. 
 
 Sexual instinct is so natural and so universal among 
 healthy farm animals of breeding age that nothing can 
 be gained by exciting sexual desire artificially. Further 
 arousing sexual desire by the use of drugs does not 
 insure or even favor conception. Such attributes belong 
 to every normal male and female of breeding age, and 
 if they are absent it is because of some irregularity in 
 the reproductive system or elsewhere that cannot be re- 
 moved by the use of drugs. 
 
256 . BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 It is stated also that certain foods, especially those of 
 an aromatic character, have the power of arousing sexual 
 desire. The same claim is made for certain stimulants, 
 such as calamus, pepper, powdered mustard when fed 
 in connection with well-cured and sweet smelling hay. 
 The advice accompanying such claims is to feed the food 
 for two or three days in succession and then omit it for a 
 like period, when it may be given again. Such tonics 
 are valuable only in so far as they restore debilitating 
 animals to health. 
 
 Dilation of the os uteri. — There is a rather common 
 belief among horse breeders that much of the sterility 
 in mares is due to a closure of the neck of the womb. 
 Thus, when a mare fails to conceive it is the practice to 
 "open the womb." This is a questionable practice, and 
 should be done only under the most sanitary conditions. 
 As it is ordinarily done it cannot be too strongly con- 
 demned. The rough, dirty hand of the groom, with long 
 and rough finger nails, concealing an abundance of filth 
 is forced through the vulva, vagina and neck of womb, 
 with scant regard for their delicacy and tearing the tis- 
 sues, so that the hand when withdrawn is often covered 
 with blood. Even if the womb did need opening, and so 
 far as is known it does not, this is certainly in violation 
 of all surgical principles. 
 
 Yeast solution in vagina. — Another questionable prac- 
 tice in the handling of sterile cows which was formerly 
 held in favorable repute was that of injecting a yeast 
 solution into the vagina. After a careful consideration 
 of the nature of the diseases causing sterility, it is in- 
 conceivable how yeast introduced in the vagina could 
 serve as a remedy for sterility. 
 
 Management of breeding animals. — The care that has 
 a favorable influence upon the general vigor of an animal 
 must also improve its reproductive powers, as it enables 
 all of the organs of the body to better perform their 
 normal functions, among which is reproduction. The 
 
STERILITY IN BREEDING 
 
 257 
 
 general management of breeding animals should be such, 
 therefore, as will keep them in a thrifty and vigorous con- 
 dition at all times. 
 
 In so far as possible, breeding animals should be given 
 only natural foods, which should be sweet and nutritious. 
 Foods rich in protein and 
 ash, such as oats, wheat 
 bran, clover and alfalfa, 
 are preferred to starchy 
 foods, such as corn and 
 timothy hay. In season, 
 pasture grass cannot be 
 improved upon, although 
 it should be supple- 
 mented with grain. A 
 few carrots, roots or 
 tubers is a very valu- 
 able addition to the ration, especially in the winter. 
 
 Special attention should be given to the exercise — and, 
 in the case of horses and cattle, to the grooming as well. 
 The exercise can be provided for in the case of smaller 
 animals by allowing ample range, and in the case of 
 horses by putting them to work. Moderate work is ad- 
 vantageous to horses, provided proper care be taken not 
 to overload them. It is much better than to keep them 
 tied in the stable, or even than to let them run in the 
 fields, where they are exposed to accidents resulting from 
 racing, playing or fighting with each other. The object 
 to be attained in the management of breeding animals is 
 to so feed, exercise and groom them as to keep them up 
 to the very highest pitch of vigor and thrift. 
 
 Fig. 85- 
 
 -Poland-China Boar of Good 
 Conformation 
 
CHAPTER XXIV 
 CONCEPTION AND DEVELOPMENT OF FETUS 
 
 The object of all breeding is that of reproduction. 
 Before reproduction becomes possible, however, the 
 animal must have reached the age of sexual maturity or 
 puberty. Up to this time the reproductive organs are 
 dormant so far as the production of functional germ cells 
 are concerned. At this age sexual desire is established 
 and mature germ cells are discharged. The age at which 
 farm animals reach sexual maturity varies with individ- 
 uals and breeds as well as with the several classes of 
 animals. Much depends on the size as well as the food 
 supply and the rapidity of development, although puberty 
 usually occurs prior to the completion of body growth. 
 
 Estrum, or heat. — The period of irresistible sexual de- 
 sire is known as estrum, or heat, in the female. It is es- 
 tablished as early as the twelfth to the fifteenth month 
 in mares, fifth to the sixth month in cows, third to the 
 fourth month in sows, and sheep born late in the summer 
 will show it the next breeding season, although no farm 
 animal should be bred at so early an age. Pullets often 
 begin laying eggs as early as the fourth month. 
 
 The frequency with which heat recurs in farm animals 
 varies within rather narrow limits after once being es- 
 tablished, and following parturition. The mare usually 
 comes in heat in' seven to nine days after foaling, and 
 each three or four weeks thereafter. The cow varies 
 according to the care. If the calf is taken away she 
 usually comes in heat about three weeks after parturition, 
 whereas if she suckles the calf she seldom comes in heat 
 for six or eight weeks, although in either case the periods 
 recur with considerable regularity each three weeks 
 thereafter. The sow usually comes in heat from three 
 
 258 
 
CONCEPTION AND DEVELOPMENT OF FETUS 259 
 
 to five days after weaning her pigs, and each two or 
 three weeks thereafter, although the claim is made that she 
 comes in heat every 9 to 12 days. The periods recur 
 in the ewe every two to three weeks. The mare and the 
 ewe come in heat regularly during the spring and autumn 
 months, while at other seasons the period is irregular and 
 often entirely absent. In carnivora estrum ordinarily 
 occurs semi-annually, in the late winter and early 
 autumn. 
 
 Ovulation. — Upon, the completion of the process of 
 maturation, and as a rule concurrently with estrum, the 
 ovum or ova are extruded from the Graafian follicle of 
 
 Fig. 86 — Ayrshire Bull "Bargenoch Gay Cavalier" 
 
 the ovary. Normally, the ovum or ova pass into the ovi- 
 ducts and are conveyed toward the uterus. In some 
 cases, however, the ovum is not extruded from the fol- 
 licle, but maintains its connection with the ovary and is 
 fertilized there, constituting ovarian pregnancy. 
 
 The exact relation of the period of heat, or estrum, to 
 ovulation, as well as to fertilization, has not been defi- 
 
260 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 nitely determined, and conflicting views are held. In rab- 
 bits it has been observed that when young are born, there 
 already exists in the ovaries of the doe a number of fol- 
 licles fully mature and ready to rupture. Estrum fol- 
 lows immediately after birth, copulation occurs, and it is 
 not until after 8 to 12 hours have passed that the follicles 
 rupture and discharge the ova into the oviduct, there to 
 become fertilized by the sperm cells already present. 
 Such is probably the case in other animals. 
 
 Owing to the brief duration of estrum in the cow, she 
 provides a favorable opportunity for studying the rela- 
 tion between estrum, ovulation, fertilization and men- 
 struation. In her case investigation shows the order of 
 these phenomena to be estrum, ovulation and menstrua- 
 tion, proving this order is not interrupted by copulation 
 and fertilization, in which case the order seems to be 
 estrum, ovulation, copulation and fertilization, although 
 in some cases copulation may precede ovulation. In fact, 
 in the case of many animals, it seems that ovulation is 
 favored and at times possibly hastened by copulation. 
 This is often taken advantage of by the breeder who 
 wishes to bring animals into breeding condition. 
 
 Conception.— During the act of copulation the semen 
 from the male is injected into the vagina of the female. 
 In some classes of animals possibly a part of this seminal 
 fluid is injected through the os uteri into the uterus. The 
 essential conditions of conception, so far as the male is 
 concerned, are that normal spermatozoa shall gain the os 
 uteri, traverse the uterus and oviducts and meet the 
 ovum. Here fertilization takes place through the union 
 of one sperm cell with the ovum. Under favorable con- 
 ditions development ensues, and the fertilized ovum 
 gravitates along the oviduct or Fallopian tube to the 
 uterus and conception is completed. 
 
 In farm animals nothing is known of the time required 
 for the spermatozoa to traverse the uterus and tubes, or 
 of the time required to initiate growth after fertilization 
 
CONCEPTION AND DEVELOPMENT OF FETUS 261 
 
 has been accomplished. Likewise, nothing is known of 
 the time required for the fertilized ovum to gravitate 
 along the tubes to the uterus. In the rabbit fertilization 
 takes place 8 to 12 hours after copulation, and growth or 
 segmentation begins in 10 to 12 hours after fertilization. 
 It continues for 72 hours after fertilization, at which time 
 the ovum reaches the uterus and its segmentation stage 
 has been completed. In farm animals it probably re- 
 quires a longer time, particularly as the period in woman 
 is stated to be of from four to eight days' duration. 
 
 The period of development may be divided into two 
 stages : First, the stage of the embryo, extending from 
 segmentation until the germ begins to assume definite 
 form ; and, second, the stage of the fetus, which includes 
 the remainder of the intra-uterine existence. 
 
 Artificial impregnation. — In recent years artificial in- 
 semination has been widely advocated as a remedy for 
 sterility. Apparently this claim is based upon the theory 
 that sterility is due to imperfect copulation because of 
 physical impediment, although we know now sterility is 
 usually due to other causes (p. 254). 
 
 Artificial insemination is a comparatively easy process 
 in some classes of farm animals, particularly in the case 
 of fertile mares, although it is more difficult in cows be- 
 cause of the structure of the organs. While it is a valu- 
 able remedy in cases due to physical impediment to 
 natural insemination, some exaggerated claims have been 
 made regarding its efficiency. It has been stated that 
 as high as 60 per cent, and even more, of mares, taken at 
 random, regardless of the presence of estrum, have been 
 fertilized, which, of course, is absurd. However, if the 
 mares are fertile and the artificial insemination is care- 
 fully made when the mares are in heat, there is no reason 
 to doubt that 60 per cent and even more may conceive. 
 
 Artificial impregnation has a commercial value which 
 is attractive to breeders. A healthy male, under normal 
 conditions, at each copulation discharges sufficient sper- 
 
262 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 matozoa to pregnate a large number of females. Since 
 artificial insemination is so simple an operation, it has 
 been proposed to extend the procreative power of valu- 
 able males, particularly stallions, by artificial insemina- 
 tion, and a variety of artificial impregnators have been 
 devised with which to perform the operation. 
 
 The chief factor to be observed in artificial insemina- 
 tion are cleanliness, promptness, constant temperature 
 for the semen and its secure lodgment in the os uteri 
 or uterus. 
 
 Formation of the embryo. — While the fertilized ovum 
 is passing along the Fallopian tube to the uterus it under- 
 goes repeated segmentation, becoming a more or less 
 globular mass of cells, known as the morula or mulberry 
 stage. Very soon after reaching the uterus there appears 
 in the interior of the morula a little fissure-like space 
 called the cleavage cavity. When this space has in- 
 creased in size, the germ is said to have reached the blas- 
 tula stage. At this stage the cleavage cavity is sur- 
 rounded by a single layer of cells, although in mammalia 
 the inner cell mass is very irregular. 
 
 By the invagination of the single-layered blastula at 
 the vegetable pole the double-layered grastula stage is 
 attained. Thus the grastula stage in its typical form 
 consists of two layers of cells surrounding a central 
 cavity, which communicates with the exterior by means 
 of a small aperture. This cavity later becomes the in- 
 testinal-body cavity. The outer layer of cells is the ecto- 
 derm or epiblast, and the inner layer the entoderm or 
 hypoblast. 
 
 Upon the surface of the germ at the beginning of 
 grastulation there is a round whitish spot known as the 
 embryonal area. This area rapidly enlarges, becoming 
 oval and later pear shaped. In the line, on the long axes 
 of the embryonal area, the cells become more dense, form- 
 ing the primitive streak. Soon a third layer of cells 
 lying between the epiblast and hypoblast begins to de- 
 
CONCEPTION AND DEVELOPMENT OF FETUS 263 
 
 velop near the front end of the primitive streak, from 
 v^hich point it spreads out over the germ. This layer is 
 called the mesoderm or mesoblast. 
 
 Typically the embryo now^ consists of three layers of 
 cells known as the three primary germ layers — the outer 
 layer or epiblast, the inner or hypoblast, and the middle 
 layer or mesoblast. 
 
 Fig. 87 — Ayrshire Cow "Kilnford Bell 3d" 
 
 Development of the fetus. — From the three primary 
 germ layers are developed the various tissues and organs 
 of the body. This development may be considered as 
 consisting of tw^o fundamental processes, one of special- 
 ization, or the adaptation of structure to function, and 
 the other of unequal growth, which results in the forma- 
 tion of the various organs. 
 
 In the main, the epiblast and the hypoblast produce 
 the epithelial structures, such as the alimentary canal 
 
264 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 and its appendages, the glands and their ducts, the res- 
 piratory tract, the spinal cord, the brain with its out- 
 growths, and the like ; while from the mesoblast are 
 produced the connective tissue in all its modified forms 
 such as bone, cartilage, lymph, blood, fibrous and areolar 
 tissue, muscular tissue, and the like. 
 
 The completeness of the development of the fetus at 
 birth varies widely, and no doubt depends, in part at 
 least, upon the environment of the animal. The rabbit, 
 after four weeks of intra-uterine life, is born very im- 
 mature, while the guinea pig, after the same duration 
 of intra-uterine existence, is much more completely de- 
 veloped. The young carnivora are born very immature, 
 while those of ruminants and horses are well developed. 
 The rabbit must depend upon flight as a protection 
 against foes, while carnivora must depend upon the chase 
 for food ; in either case the animal would suffer a serious 
 disadvantage from increased body weight due to the 
 presence in the uterus of a number of well developed 
 fetuses. 
 
 Position of fetus. — The position of the fetus or fetuses 
 in the uterine cavity is determined largely by the form 
 and direction of the cavity. In farm animals the uterine 
 cavity is more or less tubular in form, and normally the 
 long axes of the fetus corresponds with the long axes of 
 the uterine cavity. 
 
 At first the circulation is so distributed that more ar- 
 terial blood reaches the head end of the fetus, which 
 causes the anterior portion to possess greater weight. 
 Since, during early embryonic life, the fetus floats free 
 in the amniotic sack, the greater weight of the anterior 
 portion constantly tends to cause the embryo to rest 
 with its head end lower than the posterior part of the 
 body. 
 
 At the beginning of pregnancy, in both single-birthed 
 and twin-bearing animals, the floor of the uterus slopes 
 toward the os uteri. The head end of the fetus, being 
 
CONCEPTION AND DEVELOPMENT OF FETUS 265 
 
 much the heavier, tends to become directed toward the 
 OS uteri. This position of the fetus is also encouraged 
 by the tapering form of the uterus, w^hich is much larger 
 at the OS uteri than at the Fallopian tubes. By the time 
 the fetus begins to bear down on the floor of the uterus, 
 it has so enlarged that it cannot turn upon its own axis 
 and thus has become fixed in the uterine cavity so far 
 as changing ends is concerned. In the larger farm 
 animals, therefore, the fetus normally presents the head 
 at the time of birth. 
 
 Among multiple-birthed animals, the uterus lies upon 
 the abdominal floor and has much less influence upon 
 the position of the fetuses. Thus we find less uniformity 
 in the presentation of fetuses at birth, although the tend- 
 ency is for the head to appear first. 
 
 Relative size of fetus.— The relation between the size 
 of the fetus and the dam varies with the several classes 
 of farm animals, although within rather narrow limits. 
 In the mare the new-born foal usually weighs from eight 
 to 10 per cent of her body weight. The drain upon the 
 mare in the reproduction of young is very great. She 
 not only carries the fetus a long time, but must nurture 
 the offspring for four to six months after birth. Thus 
 the production of young makes a demand upon her sys- 
 tem for practically 18 months. 
 
 In the cow there is greater nutritive reserve, and the 
 young is usually larger, as re- 
 lated to the size of the dam, 
 than in the case of the mare, 
 usually weighing about 10 to 
 12 per cent of the body weight 
 of the dam, although the intra- 
 uterine existence is shorter, as 
 
 is also the period of nursing, fig. ss-hampshire sow 
 
 which materially decreases the 
 
 demands upon the system of the dam and favors increased 
 reproductive power. 
 
266 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 In the ewe the relative size of the fetus depends some- 
 what on the number presented. In the case of single 
 births the fetus weighs from eight to lo per cent of the 
 body weight of the dam, whereas in the case of twins and 
 triplets their combined weight often runs as high as 12 
 to 15 per cent of the body weight of the dam. Likewise, 
 in the sow the relative size of the fetuses depends some- 
 what on the number presented and to some extent on the 
 size of the dam. As a rule, the combined weight of the 
 fetuses runs from seven to 10 per cent that of the dam, 
 although sows usually breed twice annually. 
 
 Intra-uterine influences. — There is a widespread tradi- 
 tion that the developing fetus can be influenced through 
 the mental impression or the imagination of the dam. 
 This is especially true in the case of abnormalities and 
 color. Persons with whom the tradition is strong often 
 display a blanket of pleasing color before the eyes of the 
 mare at the time of copulation, in the belief that they can 
 control the color of the foal. Peculiarly marked calves 
 are said to owe their color markings to strong mental 
 impressions created by swine while pasturing with the 
 pregnant dam. 
 
 Among humans mental impressions and nervous condi- 
 tions generally are often invoked to explain birth marks 
 and other abnormalities, such as the loss of a toe, or the 
 presence of two thumbs on the same hand. The same 
 theory is also used to explain abnormalities among 
 animals. 
 
 From our consideration of the formation and de- 
 velopment of the fetus we know that the supposed 
 assumption on which such claims rest has absolutely 
 no basis in fact. During its development the fetus 
 floats free in the amniotic incasement and is not so 
 intimate with the mother as is popularly supposed. True, 
 it is dependent upon the mother for nourishment, but 
 there is no organic connection or nervous interrelation 
 whatever. Further, if females were so susceptible as this 
 
CONCEPTION AND DEVELOPMENT OF FETUS 267 
 
 to the surrounding sights, think what a fixture of colors 
 all offspring would possess ! Also think what a jumble of 
 deformed offspring would appear, as females are sub- 
 jected to all sorts of sights and experiences during the 
 many weeks of fetal development, and it would be strange 
 indeed if one out of a thousand escaped contact with some 
 experience sufficiently impressive to "mark" the new 
 born. 
 
 Telegony. — This term has reference to the supposed 
 influence of the male upon the female in such a way as 
 to influence future offspring by other sires. It is the 
 same as the influence of previous impregnation, or infec- 
 tion of the germ. 
 
 There is a prevailing belief among certain breeders that 
 the influence of the first impregnation is permanent and 
 will affect all future offspring. The claim is made that 
 a female mated with a male of a different breed will never 
 breed pure thereafter. Darwin gave credulence to this 
 belief by reporting a mare bred to a quagga, which re- 
 sulted in an offspring striped after the manner of the sire. 
 Later the mare bore two colts by stallions, both of which 
 were marked with' bars on the shoulders and legs, sup- 
 posedly showing the effects of the quagga upon the off- 
 spring of the stallion. The facts concerning the appear- 
 ance of bars upon the shoulders and legs are not ques- 
 tioned, but it should be remembered that occasionally 
 such markings appear in young horses of the purest 
 parentage. 
 
 Recent investigations by Ewart and others, repeating 
 the same experiment on an extended scale, failed to find 
 trace of the quagga beyond his own offspring. Formerly 
 dog fanciers were strong in their belief in telegony, but 
 experiments show that the influence of the first dog do 
 not extend beyond his own offspring. No doubt this 
 belief gained currency concerning dogs because of their 
 peculiar mating habits, as one can be sure of the sire only 
 in case the bitch is securely isolated. Like intra-utcrine 
 influences, telegony has absolutely no basis in fact. 
 
CHAPTER XXV 
 ABORTION AND PREMATURE BIRTH 
 
 By the term abortion is meant the expulsion of the 
 fetus at any period from the date of impregnation until 
 it is sufficiently developed to survive after birth. When 
 a living fetus is expelled prematurely but in a state of 
 development which renders survival possible, it is desig- 
 nated premature birth. These disorders, particularly 
 abortion, are very closely associated with sterility. In 
 fact, many females thought to be sterile actually conceive, 
 but expel their fetuses in such an undeveloped condition 
 that the accident goes unnoticed. Practically the results 
 are the same, but the breeder should make a careful study 
 of his animals, m order to locate those that are aborting 
 so that he may give them proper treatment. 
 
 Prevalence of abortion. — While there are no statistics 
 available, yet abortion is far more prevalent than is com- 
 monly supposed. Particularly is this true of animals 
 which are closely confined, such as dairy cattle. In the 
 lowering of breeding efficiency among dairy cattle abor- 
 tion easily takes first place. Its ravages throughout 
 dairy districts exact incalculable toll. Because of the 
 ravages of abortion, it has been estimated that few of 
 the highly bred and closely confined dairy herds exceed 
 50 per cent of their reproductive capacity. This estimate 
 may be too high, but certain it is infectious abortion 
 works great destruction in large dairy herds. In small 
 herds, however, with two or three heifers being bred each 
 year, the loss is much less and frequently passes un- 
 noticed. Likewise, in herds of mature cows the loss from 
 abortion is ordinarily slight, owing to the fact that in- 
 fectious abortion is most common in heifers. 
 
 Kinds of abortion. — ^There are two distinct forms of 
 
 268 
 
ABORTION AND PREMATURE BIRTH 269 
 
 abortion in farm animals which should be clearly under- 
 stood by all breeders: First, accidental abortion, in 
 which, owing" to accident or disease of either the fetus 
 or dam, the fetus may be expelled dead or in such a state 
 of disease as to rerjder it impossible for it to live. Second, 
 infectious abortion, in which an infection of the fetus 
 and its membranes causes the death and expulsion of 
 the fetus, or its expulsion in a living and enfeebled state 
 at any period of pregnancy, without directly inducing 
 material evidence of disease in the mother. Infectious 
 abortion is by far the most troublesome, particularly in 
 animals that are closely confined and highly fed on suc- 
 culent and artificial foods. 
 
 Accidental abortion. — This is produced by any cause 
 operating to disconnect the union of the membranes from 
 the uterus. Thus a pregnant female may abort by rea- 
 son of almost any cause 
 that very generally disturlis 
 her system, as the influence 
 of too stimulating a diet, or 
 the reverse ; the feeding of 
 ergot on rye, the smut of 
 corn or other grains, and 
 iced grasses, as well as 
 large drafts of ice cold 
 water. The more mechani- 
 cal causes are falls, blows 
 
 1 ■ I , , ■ ■ Fig. K3 — Aberdeen Angus True to Type 
 
 and violent exertion, as m 
 
 pulling; also traveling on muddy or slippery roads, jump- 
 ing fences, and the like. 
 
 Among dairy cows kept in uncomfortable stanchions, 
 on slippery, wet floors, there may at any time occur a 
 slip or fall which may imperil the life of the fetus. The 
 jamming and jolting suffered by pregnant animals dur- 
 ing transportation by rail is liable to bring about injuries 
 which may lead to abortion. 
 
 Any disease of the dam may involve the fetus and 
 
270 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 bring about its death. A miscarriage may leave the or- 
 gans in so weakened a condition that they cannot retain 
 the fetus, particularly if conception takes place immedi- 
 ately following the miscarriage. Irritation of the vagina 
 
 __, ._ is said to cause abortion. 
 
 /'" \^ Thus instances have been 
 
 C ." observed where animals 
 
 f"-^ / „ ^ thought to be in estrum, al- 
 
 •: '' though really pregnant, have 
 
 -^.fc .' aborted immediately follow- 
 
 ing copulation. 
 
 It is often difficult to rec- 
 
 FiG. 90— Large Yorkshire Boar OgnizC impending abortion, 
 
 at least until near its com- 
 pletion. Usually the animal aborts before the breeder 
 becomes aware that she is threatened. The first evidence 
 observed is the fact that abortion has taken place, as is 
 shown by the presence of the fetus and membranes. At 
 other times, however, the animal shows more or less of 
 the characteristic signs of parturition (p. 284). 
 
 The prevention of accidental abortion is the avoidance 
 of all causes which may have a tendency to produce it. 
 The proper care of breeding and pregnant animals can- 
 not be too forcibly impressed upon the breeder. Preg- 
 nant females should be so fed, exercised and groomed 
 as to keep them in the highest possible condition of thrift 
 at all times. 
 
 Infectious abortion. — The vast majority of abortions 
 in farm animals is due to infection of the genital organs. 
 Though little understood, infectious abortion is known 
 to be due to a small germ which probably gains access 
 to the uterus during estrum or during parturition. Infectious 
 abortion causes great economic losses among cows and 
 mares and has been observed in ewes and sows. Since 
 the method of infection as well as what is known of the 
 means of control and eradication are similar in all classes 
 of farm animals, and since the disease is more prevalent 
 
ABORTION AND PREMATURE BIRTH 27I 
 
 in cattle, it will be considered from the standpoint of the 
 cow, although the suggestions apply to all farm animals. 
 
 Avenue of infection. — The manner in which the infec- 
 tion is carried from one animal to another, as well as 
 the avenue by which the infection reaches the fetus, are 
 very important factors from the standpoint of the control 
 of the disease. The claim is made that the infection not 
 only passes from animal to animal, but that man may 
 carry it from one stable to another. However this may 
 be, no doubt the most important conveyer is the male. 
 A bull after serving a cow possessing the disease is likely 
 to transmit it to all cows with which he subsequently 
 comes in contact. 
 
 The chief avenue of infection is the os uteri, and the 
 most favorable time for invasion is thought to be during 
 estrum. As this is the 
 time at which copulation 
 takes place the infection 
 easily passes from the ex- 
 posed bull into the uterus 
 of the cow. Under favor- 
 able conditions, possibly, 
 
 the uterus may become in- p,^_ qi-tamworth sow -oakhill fancy" 
 fected at the time of par- 
 turition and inoculate the next fetus, causing abortion. 
 There seems little opportunity for the uterus to become 
 infected at any other time, as the sealed os uteri is no 
 doubt impregnable to contagious abortion germs. 
 
 Control of infectious abortion. — There is no sure and 
 reliable method for preventing an animal from becoming 
 infected with contagious abortion, no means of curing a 
 pregnant animal having the infection in her uterine cavity 
 and no means of definitely eradicating the disease. It is 
 stated that carbolic acid, either fed in 4 per cent solution 
 on grain, or given hypodermically in 2 per cent solution 
 acts as a specific against abortion. The same claim is 
 made for methylene blue. This is given in doses of from 
 
2/2 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 lo to 12 grams, preferably in capsules, night and morning 
 early in pregnancy, for seven days, and is repeated at four- 
 week intervals during the period of gestation. No doubt 
 the best methods for combating contagious abortion are pre- 
 cautions against the use of infected bulls, isolation of 
 infected cows, and the free use of disinfectants. 
 
 Avoid using infected bulls. — Since the infected bull is 
 thought to be the chief conveyer of the infection, every 
 precaution should be taken to keep the bull free from the 
 infection. As far as possible new cows should not be 
 brought into the herd until known to be free from in- 
 fection. Further, the bull should not be permitted to 
 serve outside cows. 
 
 Isolate infected cows. — The cow that has aborted or 
 shows signs should be removed at once from the stable 
 occupied by other cows and effectively isolated. The 
 eection of the stable she occupied should be thoroughly 
 disinfected with a i to i,ooo solution of corrosive sub- 
 limate. Even with the greatest precaution in this respect, 
 the disease is likely to spread through the stable. 
 
 Use disinfectants freely. — Since the infection of con- 
 tagious abortion is most serious in young heifers, they 
 should receive careful attention to keep them free from 
 infection if possible. It is not known just how early in life 
 the infection of contagious abortion ma}^ invade the 
 uterine cavity of the virgin heifer. It seems certain, 
 however, that when once infected the germs lie in wait 
 to cause either sterility or abortion. Dr. Williams, who 
 has made a careful study of infectious abortion in cattle, 
 gives the following advice* : 
 
 "The sexual hygiene should begin with the birth of the calf, at 
 least to the extent that it be kept in cleanly surroundings with 
 abundant room. 
 
 "Believing that the most favorable date for the invasion of the 
 infection is the period of estrum, the more frequently the virgin 
 heifer is in estrum prior to breeding, the more probable that the 
 infection will have invaded the uterus to cause first, sterility, or 
 
 *Dr. W. L. Williams, "Report of the New York State Veterinary College," 
 1911-12, pp. 107-111. 
 
ABORTION AND PREMATURE BIRTH 2/3 
 
 later, should conception occur, is prepared to cause abortion, pre- 
 mature birth, retained placenta, etc., the breeder should have care 
 that no unnecessary delay occur in breeding. Pending the age and 
 development at which the breeder desires to breed a heifer, it would 
 seem desirable to guard against infection as far as practicable by 
 disinfecting the vagina for three or four days during and imme- 
 diately followmg the estrum, while the cervical canal is in a dilated 
 state. 
 
 "At present, until more definite knowledge is gained of just 
 how early the infection invades the genital canal of virgin heifers, 
 we advise and urge that vigorous efforts at disinfection of the 
 genital organs of virgin heifers be instituted approximately six 
 weeks prior to the desired date of breedmg and continued until 
 conception is assured. That is, when a virgin heifer has advanced 
 to within six weeks of the period when it is desired to breed her, 
 and she is observed to be in estrum, begin special care of the genital 
 organs and continue through the following estrual period until the 
 estrual period when it is intended to breed her, and after breeding 
 continue the disinfection through yet another estrual cycle. If she 
 has conceived from the service, the disinfection during this period 
 has a protective value while the uterine seal is being developed If 
 ehe fails to conceive from the first cooulation, the continuance of 
 the douching tends to overcome the sterility present and guards 
 against a new invasion of infection. 
 
 Admittedly, we cannot entirely disinfect the mucous membrane 
 of the vagina. All we can do is to inject into the vagina a solution 
 of a disinfectant which will not materially irritate the organ. In 
 heifers we cannot ordinarily disinfect the uterine cavity, the cervical 
 canal being so narrow, undilatable, tortuous and irregular that safe 
 penetration is impracticable and we must content ourselves by 
 handling to the best of our ability the available vagina. If infection 
 has preceded our efforts and invaded the uterine cavity, it is 
 beyond the reach of the surgeon and must either be destroyed by 
 the bactericidal power of the organ itself or remain in position to 
 threaten disaster later. 
 
 "As in other disinfection work, the selection of a particular agent 
 is not so important as the method of handling the agent selected. 
 It is essential that no great degree of irritation should be caused, 
 since any marked irritation leads to inflammation of the vaginal 
 mucosa, to be followed later by increased infection of the inflamed 
 mucous membrane. 
 
 "In our experience we have had the most satisfactory results 
 with Lugol's solution. Next in value have been the soap-containing 
 coal tar disinfectants, especially bacterol The latter has a special 
 value in exterior washing, the soap content materially adding to the 
 cleansing value 
 
 "The highest available type of disinfection calls first for the 
 washing of the vulva, tail, buttocks and surrounding parts with a 
 warm, soapy disinfectant, such as a 15 per cent solution of bacterol, 
 which is well borne by cattle. 
 
274 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 "After cleansing the exterior, the washing of the vagina with a 
 warm 25 per cent to 0.5 per cent of Lugol's solution should follow. 
 
 "The mechanism of washing is best and most economically con- 
 ducted by means of a five-gallon vessel fitted with a metal stopcock 
 near the bottom, over which is slipped a plain pure gum horse 
 stomach tube. The vessel is then elevated and moved along behind 
 the row of cows upon a manure track or a track specially con- 
 structed for the purpose. The disinfecting fluid flows by gravity 
 either upon the exterior parts or into the vagina. The pure gum 
 stomach tube is well rounded, even and smooth, so that it is readily 
 pushed into the vagina and is sufficiently elastic to insure against 
 physical injuries to the parts. It is readily cleansed and withstands 
 boiling. 
 
 "In washing the vagina the tube should be introduced at least 
 6 to 8 inches. The mucous membrane of the vagina being disposed 
 in longitudinal folds, a small quantity of fluid or other substance 
 introduced comes in contact with only the summits of the mucous 
 folds and it is therefore essential to good results that the fluid 
 should be allowed to flow freely into the vagina until it is well 
 distended and the mucous folds obliterated, when the fluid is 
 promptly expelled. 
 
 "A 5 per cent of warm Lugol's solution is well borne, as a rule, 
 daily for one to two weeks, when it begins to irritate the vagina. 
 It then becomes advisable to decrease the strength to 0.25 per cent 
 and reduce the frequency of application to two or three times a 
 week. .Care is to be taken in properly measuring the strength of the 
 solution and constant watchfulness exercised that irritation shall 
 not occur. Experimentally we have found that when a heifer is 
 in estrum, the vagina may be freely washed with 0.25 per cent of 
 Lugol's solution one hour prior to copulation without interfering 
 with conception. 
 
 "Whenever at all practicable virgin heifers should be bred to a 
 bull which has not copulated with cows nor with other heifers than 
 those which have been handled as above. 
 
 "The bull should be handled on parallel lines recommended for 
 the heifers, the same solution sufficing for both sexes. The mech- 
 anism of washing the penis and sheath of the bull is analogous to 
 that prescribed for heifers The stomach tube being too large, a 
 pure gum horse catheter is substituted and a small pail of one 
 gallon capacity substituted for the larger pail for cows. The horse 
 catheter being too short, is to be elongated by splicing with another 
 piece of tubing. The vessel containing the fluid is elevated to a 
 height of at least 6 feet, the catheter inserted well into the sheath 
 and the opening of the sheath compressed by the operator's hand 
 until the entire sheath is completely filled and distended, when it is 
 allowed to escape. The bull should be washed both before and after 
 each service in an attempt to guard him alike against infecting and 
 becoming infected. 
 
 "When three weeks have elapsed since copulation and estrum 
 does not occur, it may be assumed that the heifer is pregnant, 
 
ABORTION AND PREMATURE BIRTH 275 
 
 which assumption may be verified by rectal palpation by a veter- 
 inarian trained in the work. The uterus is enlarged, elongated, 
 smooth and tense from contained fluid. One horn is distinctly 
 larger than the other (except in twins arising from simultaneous 
 ovulation from both ovaries), and the ovary corresponding to the 
 enlarged horn bears a typical corpus luteum of pregnanc3\ which 
 may be readily felt. 
 
 "Conception having become assured according to the above 
 plan, and having confidence in the efficient guardianship of the pla- 
 cental filter and uterine seal, no further care is required so far as 
 the welfare of the fetus is involved. If the conception has occurred 
 in a clean uterus, a healthy calf will eventually follow; if infection 
 resides in the uterine cavity, and the uterine seal has formed, it is 
 beyond our power to affect its destiny. The pregnant heifer may 
 accordingly be left alone, unless evidences of severe vaginitis or 
 other vaginal disease appears, which may call for special attention. 
 
 "If pregnancy proceeds normally, no interference is called for 
 until the date of parturitioi. draws near. At this time the vaginal 
 mucous membrane becomes congested, secretes much mucous and a 
 considerable discharge from the vulva occurs. The uterine seal dis- 
 solves as parturition approaches, and the cervical canal becomes 
 open and dilated, offering once more an open and inviting avenue 
 for infection. There again for three to six days one may well renew 
 the washings of the vagina for iwo reasons. The cleanliness of the 
 vagina lessens the amount of infection present ready to invade the 
 uterine cavity as soon as the uterine seal is destroyed, and even 
 more, immediately after the expulsion of the fetus. 
 
 "A second reason of great significance is the danger of infection 
 to the new-born young. Nocard has claimed, and substantiated his 
 claim by strong evidence, that calf scours is due to an infection 
 frequently resident in the vagina and that the calf acquires the fatal 
 infection en route in the vagina, through the freshly ruptured 
 stump of the naval cord. Aside from these, sows and heifers 
 should be kept clean at this time as a part of general cleanliness 
 demanded today in sanitary dairying. 
 
 "Should the heifer abort, calve prematurely, or calving at full 
 term suffer from metritis, as expressed by retained placenta or by 
 uterine discharge, immediate and vigorous measures should be taken 
 to restore the uterus to normal conditions at the earliest pos- 
 sible date. 
 
 "If the placenta has been retained, its expulsion should be 
 favored as far as possible. Unfortunately, retained placenta is a 
 far more serious condition than most breeders and veterinarians are 
 willing to admit. The mortality is high, much higher today than 
 that of milk fever. It interferes seriously with the milk flow during 
 the ensuing milking period, and in a disastrously large percentage 
 of cases causes obstinate or hopeless sterility. It is a serious infec- 
 tion, commanding the lif^'hcst veterinary skill and closest attention 
 for its proper handhng. 
 
 "Behind retained placenta is always metritis, especially placen- 
 
2/6 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 titis, and the foundation for that in nearly, if not all cases, is the 
 infection of contagious abortion within the uterine cavity. Accord- 
 ingly, the foundation for retained afterbirth is present before abor- 
 tion or birth has occurred, and in our judgment, the foundation had 
 been laid for the retention prior to conception, or shortly thereafter, 
 prior to the formation of the uterine seal." 
 
 Age immunity in contagious abortion. — While the 
 theory that one or even two abortions immunizes an 
 animal against the infection has no basis in fact, yet the 
 statement that after a heifer has aborted once or twice 
 she is less liable to abort again, is true. Contagious abor- 
 tion is largely a heifer disease. Thus, the heifer that has 
 aborted twice has advanced two years in age and is that 
 much removed from the most critical period, her first 
 pregnancy, and so is less liable to abort. In this connection 
 it must be remembered that abortion favors sterility, and 
 the animal that has aborted once or twice is less likely 
 to conceive again, and of necessity cannot abort ; although 
 should she conceive she is less likely to abort, simply 
 because she is past the critical period. The healthy 
 heifer, however, that has passed through her first and 
 second pregnancy is a far safer breeder in later years 
 than the heifer that has aborted. 
 
CHAPTER XXVI 
 PREGNANCY AND GESTATION 
 
 The terms pregnancy and gestation are synonymous 
 and refer to that period of time during which the young 
 is developing in the uterus of the mother. This period 
 extends from the time of the fertilization of the ovum 
 in the Fallopian tube until the birth of the fetus. The 
 formation of the embryo and development of the fetus 
 was considered in the discussion on conception. We 
 now come to a consideration of the mother. The modifi- 
 cations necessitated by the developing fetus, as well as 
 the ordeal of giving birth, exert a profound influence 
 upon her; and she in turn, is largely responsible for the 
 condition in which the young are born. 
 
 Signs of pregnancy. — While there are many signs of 
 pregnancy on which at times we can place more or less 
 reliance, they are all liable to be misleading. Not infre- 
 quently an animal presents the general appearance of 
 pregnancy for a long period of time, but later resumes 
 her normal condition without bringing forth young, while 
 in other cases there may be but slight symptoms when, 
 unexpectedly, parturition occurs, to the great surprise 
 of the breeder. 
 
 The first sign of pregnancy upon which reliance is 
 placed is the cessation of the periods of heat. As a gen- 
 eral rule, fertilization and conception stop the appear- 
 ance of estrum, which does not recur again during the 
 period of gestation. During this period the female per- 
 sistently refuses the attention of the male. Such is not 
 uniformly the case, however, as both the mare and cow 
 occasionally show signs of estrum until late in the period 
 of gestation. These females may accept the services of 
 males for months after conception takes place. On the 
 
 277 
 
2/8 BREEDING OK FARM ANIMALS 
 
 other hand, among all classes of farm animals, there will 
 be found an occasional shy breeder that persistently re- 
 fuses the attention of the male. 
 
 A second sign of pregnancy is the tendency of females 
 to take on fat, which is often very marked during the early 
 stages of gestation. Later the abdomen enlarges, due 
 to the developing fetus, and the pregnant animal becomes 
 very clumsy, and is often incapable of performing certain 
 movements. 
 
 A third sign of pregnancy is the development of the 
 milk-secreting organs. In the case of young females with 
 their first pregnancy this begins early in the period of 
 gestation, although among older animals it is not so 
 apparent until later in the period. The development of 
 the mammae or milk organs is not a sure sign of preg- 
 nancy, as in some animals the glands fail to enlarge, and 
 after parturition fail to secrete milk. This is particu- 
 larly true of old mares which have been bred for the first 
 time. Further, the milk glands may become functional 
 in non-pregnant females, as is frequently observed in the 
 case of young heifers and mare mules. 
 
 A fourth and positive sign of pregnancy is the move- 
 ments of the living fetus. These occur in most, if not 
 all farm animals, but are readily observed in the mare 
 and cow, where the size and strength of the fetus are 
 sufficient to bring about very vigorous movements. Such 
 movements cannot be observed until rather late in the 
 period of pregnancy. While there is no safe and reliable 
 method for inducing the movements, they frequently can 
 be noted while the mother is drinking, particularly in the 
 morning. To make such observations it is not necessary 
 to give ice cold water, as suggested by some persons ; 
 in fact, much better results are obtained from water at 
 medium temperature. Further, as stated in the discus- 
 sion on abortion, disastrous results may follow the giving 
 of ice cold water. 
 
 Duration of gestation. — Among farm animals the 
 
Pregnancy and gestation 279 
 
 period of gestation is exceedingly variable. The degree 
 of variability is dependent upon the length of the gesta- 
 tion period. In the rabbit, where the period is approx- 
 imately 30 days, the variation is slight, rarely exceeding 
 two days, while in the mare, with an average duration 
 of approximately 340 days, the variability is increased to 
 two or three months. 
 
 In general, the period of gestation depends on the size 
 of the animal, the larger the animal the longer the period. 
 Thus the period in the lv^ 
 
 mare is more than two 
 and one-half times that 
 of the sow. This, of 
 course, does not apply 
 to the individuals with- 
 in a given class. The 
 ponderous draft mare 
 requires no longer time 
 than the diminutive 
 pony. The length of 
 the period is somewhat 
 dependent upon the 
 state of development in ^"'- 92-percheron stall.on -...precat,on" 
 
 which the young are born. Thus in the dog the period 
 is slightly more than two months, while in sheep, which 
 in many cases are no larger than dogs, the period of gesta- 
 tion is more than twice as long, although at birth lambs 
 are far more developed than puppies. Further, it is a 
 popular opinion that male offspring require a longer 
 period of gestation, although there is not sufficient evi- 
 dence to warrant this opinion. 
 
 The mare. — The period of gestation in the mare is 
 popularly placed at 11 months, more accurately, perhaps, 
 340 days, although, as stated, it may vary greatly. Tes- 
 sier reports 582 cases among mares, with a range of 287 
 to 419 days, which may be considered the extremes for 
 normal gestation in the mare (pp. 323 to 326). 
 
2cSo 
 
 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 The cow. — The duration of gestation in the cow is 
 usually placed at nine months, but more accurately, per- 
 haps, 280 days, although it varies widely. Tessier re- 
 ports 1,131 cases among cows, with a range of 240 to 
 321 days, which may be considered the extremes for 
 normal pregnancy in the cow (pp. 323 to 326). 
 
 The ewe. — The period of gestation among sheep and 
 goats is popularly considered to be five months, more 
 accurately, perhaps, 150 days, although it is variable. 
 Tessier reports 912 ewes, with a range of 146 to 161 days, 
 which may be considered the extreme for normal gesta- 
 tion in the ewe (pp. 323 to 326). 
 
 The sow. — Among swine the duration of pregnancy is 
 considered a trifle short of four months, probably about 
 112 days, although the extremes vary from 109 to 125 
 days in normal gestation (pp. 323 to 326). 
 
 Other animals.^ — To show the general relation between 
 the size of the animal and the duration of gestation 
 the following tabulation is designed, giving the 
 period of gestation for a number of animals of various 
 sizes: 
 
 Period of Gestation 
 
 Animal 
 
 Period 
 
 Animal 
 
 Period 
 
 Elephant 
 
 24 months 
 
 Sow 
 
 4 months 
 
 Giraffe 
 
 14 months 
 
 Beaver 
 
 4 months 
 
 Buffalo 
 
 12 months 
 
 Lion 
 
 3-4 months 
 
 Ass 
 
 12 months 
 
 Dog 
 
 2 months 
 
 Mare 
 
 11 months 
 
 Fox and wolf 
 
 2 months 
 
 Cow 
 
 9 months 
 
 Cat 
 
 50 days 
 
 Bear 
 
 6 months 
 
 Rabbit 
 
 30 days 
 
 Sheep and goat 
 
 5 months 
 
 Squirrel and rat 
 
 28 days 
 
 Poultry. — The period of gestation in egg-laying animals 
 is the same as the period of incubation. The following 
 tabulation is arranged to show the period of incubation 
 in domestic fowls : 
 
pregnancy and gestation 
 Period of Incubation 
 
 281 
 
 Animal 
 
 Period 
 
 Animal 
 
 Period 
 
 Turkey 
 Guinea 
 Pea hen 
 Ducks 
 
 26 to 30 days 
 25 to 26 days 
 28 to 30 days 
 25 to 32 days 
 
 Geese 
 Hens 
 Pigeons 
 Canary birds 
 
 27 to 33 days 
 19 to 24 days 
 16 to 20 days 
 13 to 14 days 
 
 Small breeds hatch earlier than large ones. The aver- 
 age for hens is approximately 21 days, although game 
 bantams hatch at the end of 19 days, while some of the 
 larger breeds require 24 days. Duck eggs hatch earlier 
 under hens than under ducks, probably because of the 
 higher temperature of the hen's body. 
 
 Number of young at birth. — Among farm animals there 
 is much variation in the number of young brought forth 
 at a given birth. Domestic animals are grouped into 
 three classes according to the number of fetuses 
 ordinarily produced ; the uniparous animals which or- 
 dinarily give birth to but a single young at a time, such 
 as the mare and cow; the biparous or twin-bearing 
 animals, such as the goat and some breeds of sheep ; 
 and the muciparous animals, which usually give birth 
 to a number of young at a time, such as the sow, dog and 
 other carnivora. The following tabulation shows the 
 approximate number of young brought forth at a given 
 birth among the more important animals : 
 
 Number of Young at Birth 
 
 Animal 
 
 Number 
 
 Animal 
 
 Number 
 
 Elephant 
 
 
 Sow 
 
 4-14 
 
 Giraffe 
 
 
 Beaver 
 
 4 
 
 Buffalo 
 
 
 Lion 
 
 2 
 
 Ass 
 
 
 Dog 
 
 4-8 
 
 Mare 
 
 
 Fox and wolf 
 
 4-6 
 
 Cow 
 
 
 Cat 
 
 3-6 
 
 Bear 
 
 2 
 
 Rabbit 
 
 4-8 
 
 Sheep and goat 
 
 1-2-3 
 
 Squirrel and rat 
 
 3-6 
 
282 
 
 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 Single-birthed animals occasionally bear twins. All 
 multiple-birthed animals are exceedingly variable in the 
 number of young produced at a time. 
 
 Poultry. — The egg-laying animals are also exceedingly 
 variable in the number of eggs produced in a season. 
 Under proper care the hens of the meat type, such as 
 Brahma, Cochin and Langshan, produce from 30 to 60 
 eggs in a season ; those of the general purpose type, such 
 as Plymouth Rock, Wyandotte, Java, Orpington and 
 Rhode Island Red, produce from 75 to 100; while those 
 of the egg type, particularly the Leghorn, average 125 
 to 150 for entire flocks, with the high individuals running 
 up to 300 eggs in a season. Likewise, turkey hens vary 
 widely in the number of eggs produced, but individuals 
 average from 25 to 40 eggs in a given season. The fol- 
 lowing tabulation shows the number of eggs in a brood 
 under natural conditions such as when the hen "steals" 
 her nest : 
 
 Number of Eggs in Brood 
 
 Animal 
 
 Number 
 
 Animal 
 
 Number 
 
 Turkey 
 Hen 
 Guinea 
 Geese 
 
 15-18 
 15-18 
 15-18 
 15-18 
 
 Duck 
 Pea-hen 
 Canary 
 Pigeon 
 
 9-12 
 
 8-10 
 
 2- 4 
 
 2 
 
 Care of pregnant animals. — In the attempt to favor 
 pregnant animals we often subject them to very adverse 
 conditions. Often pregnant animals are closely con- 
 fined, fed the most nutritious of foods and denied exer- 
 cise, particularly in winter, as we are afraid they may 
 slip and injure themselves or their young. Under such 
 conditions these animals take on fat rapidly, they be- 
 come swollen and stiff and their flesh soft and flabby, 
 all of which serve to increase the difficulties during ges- 
 tation, but more especially at parturition time. 
 
PREGNANCY AND GESTATION 283 
 
 Pregnant animals should be given much the same care 
 as other animals. This is particularly true as regards 
 exercise. Thus, in the case of the mare, moderate work 
 is not only harmless, but of positive advantage. Of 
 course, she should be protected from rough treatment, as 
 in fact all animals should be at all times. She should not 
 be roughly jostled by the pole of the vehicle; violent 
 pulling should be carefully guarded against; as should 
 also rapid trotting, galloping, jumping, and the like. 
 
 Animals w^ell advanced in the period of pregnancy 
 should not be shipped in railv^ay cars. The unsteady 
 movements of the car 
 jostles the animal about 
 more or less violently. 
 When at pasture preg- 
 nant animals should l^e 
 
 protected against all un- ' ^ ^^ 
 
 due excitement, as chas- 
 ing by dogs or other ani- 
 mals. Mules and colts Fig. 93— Berkshire Boar "Handsome Lee" 
 
 are especially meddle- 
 some. It has been suggested that pregnant animals 
 of different classes should not be allowed in the same 
 field, but this applies only in case they are quarrel- 
 some. Of course, swine should be excluded at the time 
 other animals are parturating, as, being omnivorous, they 
 may devour the young, and, in fact, if the dam is ex- 
 hausted or injured, she too may succumb to the rapacity 
 of the swine. 
 
 The food of pregnant animals should be such as will 
 stimulate growth and development rather than fat pro- 
 duction. Thus foods rich in protein and ash, such as oats, 
 bran, clover and alfalfa, are preferred to starchy foods, 
 such as corn and timothy hay. By the use of proper 
 foods the bowels should be kept in good condition and 
 constipation avoided. The feeding of too stimulating a 
 ration or the reverse, as well as the feeding of harmful 
 
284 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 materials, as ergot on rye, smut of corn or other grains, 
 moldy hay, iced grasses, and the drinking of filthy, stag- 
 nant or iced water should be avoided at all times. 
 
 Signs of parturition. — Because of the uncertainty of the 
 period of gestation, pregnant animals should be watched 
 closely for a time previous to the expiration of the average 
 period. The limitations given on pages 279 and 280 sug- 
 gest a good time to begin observations. There are certain 
 signs of the near approach of parturition that rarely fail. 
 
 The most conspicuous symptom of the near approach 
 of parturition is the increased functional activity of the 
 milk glands. There is a tendency for these glands to 
 become gradually enlarged, firm and resistant to the 
 touch as the time for parturition approaches. At first 
 they contain a watery secretion, which gradually be- 
 comes more milk-like, and later assumes the character- 
 istics of colostrum. Lastly, the teats fill out to the tips 
 and the milk may escape from them in drops. Much 
 reliance is placed on this symptom, as the young is 
 usually born within 24 hours after wax forms at the teats. 
 On the other hand, this is not a positive sign, as the milk 
 may flow for days before the young is born. Occasion- 
 ally, however, this sign fails, as under certain conditions 
 the milk glands do not develop, at least noticeably, and 
 even more rarely they are excited to functional activity 
 without pregnancy. 
 
 A very important symptom of approaching parturition 
 is the relaxation of the muscles passing over the rump, 
 causing a sinking of the croup. This is due to a soften- 
 ing of the muscles, which favors the ease of bearing 
 young. Another sign is the changes which take place 
 in the vulva. The vulva lips become somewhat thick- 
 ened and stand apart more loosely than ordinarily. In 
 the cow a discharge of ropy mucus is noticeable. Later 
 the animal becomes uneasy, ceases to eat, switches the 
 tail, lies down, then rises again and may moan, indicating 
 that labor has begun. 
 
PREGNANCY AND GESTATION 285 
 
 Some animals become nervous and more or less excited. 
 This is particularly true of ewes. It is not unusual to 
 see her hunting anxiously about for her lamb before it 
 has been born. Just before parturition the sow spends 
 much of her time in collecting material for a nest. When 
 at large in the field she makes a very cozy nest, and in 
 confinement makes such a bed as the material at hand 
 permits. 
 
 Preparation for parturition. — Proper precaution should 
 be taken to avoid injury to the young or to the mother 
 from defective stabling or from the presence of other 
 animals. When the weather will permit, the best place 
 for an animal to give birth to young is in an open, grassy 
 paddock, as there is no danger from infection or mechan- 
 ical injury. This, of course, is impossible in winter and 
 undesirable during the hot summer months when the 
 flies are annoying. 
 
 Parturating animals should be provided with a large, 
 well-lighted and well-ventilated box stall, thoroughly 
 clean and freshly bedded, from which all obstructions, 
 such as mangers and feed boxes, have been removed. If 
 convenient, a little air-slaked lime should be scattered 
 about the stall before the bedding is put down. This 
 disinfects the stall and aids in the prevention of infection, 
 which causes a high mortality among new-born farm 
 animals. Some breeders arrange a special box stall, by 
 constructing a false wall, sloping it upward and outward 
 at an angle of 45 degrees and joining the main wall at a 
 height of 4 feet. This sloping wall prevents the mare 
 and cow from injuring the protruding fetus. 
 
 The lambing fold should be provided with a number 
 of panels 3 feet high and 4 feet long, so that when two 
 such panels are hinged together and placed in the corner 
 of the barn they make a pen 4 feet square. When the 
 ewe shows signs of lambing she should be placed in one 
 of these pens, thus separating her from the flock and 
 preventing the lamb from straying away, as it is very 
 
286 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 likely to do if not restrained or confined with Its dam. 
 
 The piggery should be provided with a fender made of 
 a scantling securely fastened, say 8 inches from the floor 
 and the same distance from the walls. The young pigs 
 soon learn to take advantage of the protection furnished 
 by this device, thus avoiding much of the danger of being 
 crushed by the mother when she lies down. 
 
 Normal parturition. — As the labor pains come on, the 
 neck of the uterus largely disappears and the os gradu- 
 ally dilates. The water bag passes into the opening, 
 portions of the fetus soon advance into the vagina, and 
 definite labor pains quickly become established. The 
 pain and suffering depend largely upon the class of 
 animals, being severe in the mare and cow, but much 
 less aggravating in the sow. The water bag aids ma- 
 terially in the expulsion of the fetus. It brings equal 
 pressure to bear in dilation of the passages, which not 
 
 Fig. 94 — Normal Presentation of Young at Parturition — 
 
 2 Os uteri, 3 Vagina, 4 Bladder, 5 Urethra, 6 Floor of pelvis, 7 The young or 
 
 fetus M normal position before birth. (Made up from Pilz's Anatomical 
 
 Manikin of the Horse) 
 
PREGNANCY AND GESTATION 287 
 
 only favors dilation, but no doubt eases the pain. This 
 dilation is also favored by the form of the fetus when 
 normally presented. 
 
 Among the larger farm animals, the vast majority 
 of fetuses present the two front feet, followed by the 
 nose. These parts form an elongated cone, which acts 
 as a wedge in gradually dilating the passages. The con- 
 ditions are essentially the same when the fetus presents 
 the two hind feet, as the legs and thighs serve as a long 
 wedge-like cone. In anterior presentation the head is 
 usually the most difficult, and after it emerges from the 
 vulva the other parts usually pass with comparative ease, 
 although there may be marked resistance as the chest 
 and shoulders enter the passage. In posterior presenta- 
 tion the hips are usually the most difficult. 
 
 The time required for normal parturition in farm 
 animals is exceedingly variable. As a rule, it is pro- 
 longed in animals with their first birth, as the organs 
 have not previously been dilated. In the mare parturi- 
 tion is rather prompt, but often exceedingly painful, 
 causing sweating. In fact, rapid parturition is es- 
 sential, as the fetal connections are weak and 
 easily separated, which cuts off the nutritive supply, 
 thus causing the death of the fetus in the case of pro- 
 longed parturition. In this respect the cow has a de- 
 cided advantage over the mare, as the fetal membranes 
 are more strongly attached and not so likely to be dis- 
 connected, and may therefore experience prolonged par- 
 turition with practically no danger to the young. 
 
 In the sow and other multiple-birthed animals, the 
 young usually follow each other rather quickly. A sow 
 may bear 10 or 12 pigs in less than an hour. On the 
 other hand, parturition sometimes becomes extremely 
 tedious and a sow may be a day or more in bearing a 
 litter. 
 
CHAPTER XXVII 
 AILMENTS OF THE DAM 
 
 There are a few diseases that occasionally trouble 
 animals during or immediately following parturition. 
 The breeder should make a careful study of these, not 
 only that he may be able to handle urgent cases, but in 
 order that he may manage his pregnant animals so as 
 to avoid such ailments in so far as it is possible. The 
 suggestions herein given are intended to familiarize the 
 breeder with the nature of the diseases that he may know 
 when to call for the advice of the trained veterinarian. 
 
 Difficult parturition. — There are a number of causes of 
 difficult parturition among farm animals. It may be due 
 to a very large fetus, a small passage in the dam, or to 
 some malformation in either the fetus or the dam, as well 
 as to wrong presentation. When an animal has been 
 in intense labor for an hour without progress in deliver- 
 ing the young, an examination should be made to deter- 
 mine the cause of retarded birth. The chances of suc- 
 cess are much greater when taken early, before the dam 
 is exhausted from severe straining. If assistance is de- 
 layed, the water bag may be ruptured, thus allowing the 
 lubricating fluids to escape and the parts to become dry 
 and swollen. 
 
 The operator should be dressed in sleeveless clothing 
 that will not be injured on being soiled. The arms should 
 be rubbed with clean sweet oil, preferably carbolized 
 oil, one part of carbolic acid to 30 parts of oil. This 
 serves to protect both the animal and the operator from 
 infection. The examination can be made much easier if the 
 animal is turned with her head downhill, as the internal 
 organs gravitate forward into the abdomen, thus making 
 more room in which to manipulate the fetus. One of the 
 
 288 
 
AILMENTS OF THE DAM 289 
 
 most frequent abnormal positions is with the head and 
 one foreleg presented but with the other foreleg doubled 
 back. In this case, should the animal be lying down, 
 turn her on the side opposite to that on which the limb 
 is missing, so that there may be more room to arrange 
 the fetus and to bring up the missing member. To avoid 
 losing the parts already in position, double a piece of 
 rope and loop it around the foreleg, and another around 
 the head arranging the rope so as not to injure the young, 
 if still alive ; then push the fetus back into the uterus, 
 and bring forward the foreleg that is doubled back, thus 
 securing a normal position. 
 
 Fig. 95 — Large Yorkshire Sows 
 
 No attempt should be made to arrange the fetus dur- 
 ing labor pains. After one pain has ceased, then the part 
 may be straightened out before another pain comes ont 
 The operator must be patient and painstaking, remem- 
 bering that the fetus will not come until in the proper 
 position, and when so arranged it is likely to come fairly 
 easy. If the passages have lost their natural lubricating 
 liquid and become dry, lubricate the interior of the pas- 
 sages and the surfaces of the fetus as far as can be reached 
 with sweet oil. 
 
290 
 
 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 111 assisting the delivery, draw only while the animal 
 is in labor. The natural curvature of both the fetus and 
 the passages are followed and the extraction of the fetus 
 favored by drawing downward toward the hocks as well 
 as backwards. The amount of force that one person can 
 exert is usually sufficient. Avoid injuring the parts, as 
 inflammation and blood poisoning may follow. 
 
 Difficult parturition is much more troublesome in the 
 mare than in the cow, ewe or sow. The great length 
 of the limbs and neck of the foal renders it extremely dif- 
 ficult to secure and bring up a missing member which 
 has been turned back. The fetal membranes of the foal 
 are loosely attached to the uterus. The foal becomes 
 separated from its mother at an early stage and rarely 
 survives four hours after the beginning of labor pains. 
 
 Wrong presentations. — In addition to normal presenta- 
 tion, the fetus may appear in a number of positions, some 
 of them requiring ingenuity and skill to handle, together 
 
 Wrong Presentations of Fetuses* 
 
 I Incompletely extended 
 Crossed over neck 
 Bent back at the knee 
 Bent back from the shoulder 
 
 Anterior presentations 
 
 Head 
 
 Posterior presentations 
 
 Body presentations 
 
 Hind legs . . 
 
 Hind legs 
 
 Bent downward on the neck 
 Turned back beneath the breast 
 
 Turned to one side 
 [ Turned upward and backward 
 
 Hind feet turned outward 
 
 Hind feet resting on pelvis 
 
 Transverse Back of fetus to side of pelvis 
 
 Inverted Back of fetus to floor of pelvis 
 
 Bent on itself at the hock 
 
 Bent at the hip 
 
 Transverse Back of fetus to side oi pelvis 
 
 Inverted Back of fetus to floor of pelvis 
 
 With back and loins presented 
 
 With breast and abdomen presented 
 
 * "Diseases of the Horse," p. 176. Special Report, Bureau of Animal Industry, 
 Department of Agriculture. 
 
AILMENTS OF THE DAM 29I 
 
 with careful study of conditions. When the fetus can- 
 not be secured in any other manner, it is necessary to 
 perform embryotomy, which consists of dismembering 
 the fetus and removing it part at a time. This calls for 
 the services of a trained veterinarian. The tabulation on 
 page 290 gives the more important positions in which 
 wrong presentations may occur. 
 
 Eversion of the uterus. — This ailment is frequently 
 observed among cows, and is commonly called "casting 
 the withers." It often follows difficult parturition, the 
 animal continuing to strain until the uterus is forced out 
 and hangs from the vulva. The displaced uterus must be 
 kept scrupulously clean, and carefully sponged with cold 
 water containing a weak solution of carbolic acid. The 
 cold is useful in driving out the blood and reducing the 
 bulk. With the closed list gradually reinvert the uterus 
 into place. The animal will strain while this is being 
 done, but the uterus must be firmly held in place until 
 the straining is over. A small rope tied tightly around 
 the body just back of the front legs and another just 
 forward of the hind legs will usually allay the straining. 
 The hindquarters should be elevated by raising the rear 
 of the stall some 4 or 5 inches. 
 
 The holding of the uterus in place is the next point. 
 Some persons advise taking about four stitches through 
 the lips of the vulva, which are left in for 24 to 36 hours, 
 or until all straining is stopped. Perhaps the safest 
 method is by the use of a rope truss. To make this truss 
 use a long i-inch rope. Double this rope at its middle 
 and place over the neck of the animal ; bring the ends 
 one on either side of the neck, down between the fore- 
 legs ; then pass back between the hind legs and up to 
 the vulva, tying as necessary, to secure firmly ; and 
 then carry the ropes forward along the back and tie into 
 the middle of the rope at the top of the neck. 
 
 Retained afterbirth. — Among most farm animals, with 
 the exception of the cow, the afterbirth or placenta comes 
 
292 BREEDING OF. FARM ANIMALS 
 
 away when the young animal is born. In the cow, how- 
 ever, it frequently remains attached to the walls of the 
 uterus. This is particularly true after an abortion. 
 When the afterbirth is not removed it decomposes and 
 is discharged as a yellow or reddish fluid, having a dis- 
 agreeable odor. This discharge is most apparent when 
 the animal endeavors to pass urine. The rear parts be- 
 come soiled by this discharge, which often contains 
 lumps of decomposing material. The cow presents an 
 unthrifty appearance, loses flesh, and the milk flow is 
 rapidly diminished. 
 
 If possible the afterbirth should be removed within 24 
 or 36 hours after parturition. To do this, a simple 
 
 method, which is often use- 
 ful, is to hang a small 
 weight, not to exceed one 
 or two pounds, to the hang- 
 ing portion of the afterbirth 
 and allow this by its dan- 
 gling motion as the cow 
 moves along to pull the 
 membranes from their at- 
 tachments and to stimulate 
 the uterus to expulsive 
 
 Fig. 96— Belgian Stallion "Polo Nord" Contractions. 
 
 If this is ineffective and 
 the afterbirth remains, an attempt should be made to remove 
 the membranes by hand. This should be done within 24 
 hours after calving. The operator should dress and grease 
 the arms as suggested in difficult parturition. With extreme 
 care the greased arm is introduced and passed on until the 
 places of attachment are reached. The attachments will 
 be found to resemble mushroom-shaped bodies. They 
 should be detached one by one, by passing the thumb 
 between the membrane and the uterus. Should the mem- 
 branes adhere to the heads of these bodies, under no cir- 
 cumstances tear the membranes loose, as further compli- 
 
AILMENTS OF THE DAM 293 
 
 cations are likely to follow such practice. In removing 
 the placenta extreme care should be taken not to rup- 
 ture the uterus. After the membrane has been removed 
 disinfect the passages with a weak solution of carbolic 
 acid. 
 
 Inflammation of the vagina and uterus. — Simple in- 
 flammation of these organs may be the result of bruises, 
 lacerations or other injuries sustained at the time of 
 parturition. It will be shown by swelling of the lips of 
 the vulva, which, together with their lining membrane, 
 become of a dark red hue and the discharge increases 
 and becomes whitish or purulent, and it may be fetid. Slight 
 cases recover spontaneously or under the injections of 
 mild astringents, as a very weak solution of carbolic 
 acid, say one teaspoonful of the acid to a quart of water. 
 
 On the other hand, such inflammations, particularly 
 of the uterus, may be of a very serious nature. The gen- 
 eral poisoning may extend, so that the inflammation 
 affects the lining membrane of the entire abdominal 
 cavity. Such diseases are known as metritis, and are 
 entirely too complicated for the breeder, calling for the 
 services of the trained veterinarian. 
 
 Milk fever. — This disease is also known as parturition 
 apoplexy and parturition fever, though there is usually 
 but very little fever and the temperature is often below 
 normal. This is primarily a dairy cow disease. The 
 best and heaviest milkers are most subject to attack. 
 The disease is more likely to occur when birth has been 
 easy and quick. It usually comes on within two days 
 after calving. The first symptom is uneasiness, the cow 
 is dull, the appetite gone, and the milk secretions lessened 
 or stopped. The eyes possess a vacant stare, she gradu- 
 ally loses control of the hind parts and finally, unable to 
 stand, she falls or lies down. At first she lies with head 
 turned around and nose resting on the flank, but later 
 she may stretch out full on her side. Unconsciousness 
 soon follows, the eyes become glazed, with pupils widely 
 
294 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 dilated, and often there is a slight moan with the breath- 
 ing. Relief must follow quickly or the cow will soon 
 expire. 
 
 Formerly milk fever was considered extremely serious, 
 but with the air treatment it is seldom fatal. This con- 
 sists simply of injecting air into the udder and carefully 
 kneading the udder at the same time. There are milk 
 fever outfits on the market with which to force the air 
 into the udder, but if one of these is not near at hand, 
 a very convenient apparatus can be made from a common 
 bicycle air pump and a milk tube. Secure the milk tube 
 to the pump, insert the tube into the teat, and as the air 
 is forced in knead the udder well. Fill each quarter, and 
 in two or three hours milk the air out, rest a few minutes, 
 and pump up again. Make the cow as comfortable as 
 possible and keep her propped up on her brisket, with the 
 head elevated to avoid bloating. 
 
 While little is known as to the cause of milk fever, 
 the fact that the air-distended udder gives relief so 
 quickly is significant. The disease seems to be due to 
 absence of pressure in the udder ; therefore, to avoid the 
 disease, never milk the high-producing cow dry for some 
 days after calving. 
 
 Garget. — This is a congestion of the udder often ob- 
 served in heavy milkers, before and just after calving. 
 The milk glands are enlarged, hot and tense and the ail- 
 ment is commonly referred to as caked udder. This 
 congestion usually disappears in two or three days after 
 the secretion of milk has been fully established. This 
 is greatly favored by allowing the calf to run with its dam 
 for a few days, otherwise the congestion must be relieved 
 by drawing the milk frequently by hand. Gently but 
 thoroughly rub the udder. 
 
 If the congestion remains, bathe the udder with hot 
 water 15 minutes at a time. After rubbing the udder 
 dry, apply an ointment made by dissolving two table- 
 spoonfuls of gum camphor in a teacupful of melted fresh 
 
AILMENTS OF THE DAM 
 
 295 
 
 lard. This may be improved by the addition of one ounce 
 of the fluid extract of belladonna. The udder should be 
 bathed three times daily and the ointment well rubbed 
 in after each bath. If the udder is large and pendulous, 
 support should be given by the use of a wide piece of 
 cloth with holes cut for the teats, and this held in place 
 by arranging a band over the back. 
 
 Fig. 97 — Group of Swiss Toggenburg Does 
 
 Cow pox. — This is a contagious inflammation of the 
 udder, which is usually spread from one cow to another 
 by the hands of the milker. The yield of milk is dimin- 
 ished, the teats become very tender and in two or three 
 days there appear little pealike nodules on the udder. 
 At first these pocks contain yellow pus, which later dries 
 into a yellowish scab. This finally falls, leaving a dis- 
 tinct pit in the skin. 
 
 The treatment is to heal the sores and to check the 
 propagation of the germ. This can be done by bathing 
 the udder and teats three times daily with a solution of 
 half an ounce of hyposulphite of soda in a pint of water. 
 
296 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 As milking is the chief cause of the persistence of the 
 disease, this should be done as gently as possible. 
 
 Mammitis. — This is an inflammation of the udder. It 
 may be due to congestion, to exposure to cold or wet, 
 to injuries of the udder caused by blows or kicks, to 
 insufficient stripping of the udder, and the like. The 
 first observed signs of illness are the swelling, heat, and 
 tenderness of the udder. The inflammation may become 
 so tense as to cause the animal to straddle with the hind 
 legs. When she lies down it is on the unaffected side. 
 The milk flow is suppressed and often replaced by a 
 watery fluid colored with blood. In very bad cases the 
 cow may lose the inflamed quarter. 
 
 The treatment varies according to the condition of the 
 animal. If there is only slight inflammation, rub the 
 udder well with camphorated ointment, or a weak iodine 
 ointment. Milk four to six times daily and rub the udder 
 thoroughly each time. The milking must be done with 
 care and gentleness, squeezing the teat instead of pulling 
 and stripping. In case the cow is seen to be shivering, 
 every effort should be made to warm her, by giving warm 
 water in the form of a drench, by warm injections, and 
 by the applications of blankets wrung out of warm water, 
 to the loins. After an hour's sweat, rub dry and cover 
 with a dry blanket. 
 
 In case the fever has set in and the inflammation is 
 much more advanced, give a laxative consisting of one 
 to two pounds of epsom salts to which one ounce of 
 ginger has been added. After the purging has ceased 
 this may be followed by daily doses of one ounce of salt- 
 peter. The inflamed quarter should be bathed in warm 
 warter. To do this place a bucket of warm water be- 
 neath the udder from which a blanket may be raised and 
 held against the udder, dipping it anew whenever the 
 heat is lost. After this has been continued for an hour, 
 rub the udder dry, then cover with a coating of soap. 
 
 Altered milk secretion.- — After giving birth, if there is 
 
AILMENTS OF THE DAM 297 
 
 a scant secretion of milk, or if the milk is thin and ap- 
 parently lacking in fat content, the dam should be fed 
 milk-producing foods, such as bran mashes and alfalfa or 
 clover hay, as these tend to increase the milk flow, im- 
 prove the quality of the milk up to normal, and have a 
 laxative effect upon the bowels. However, if the udder 
 is swollen and inflamed, such foods should not be given 
 until the inflammation disappears. 
 
 Soon after parturition bloody milk is frequently ob- 
 served. This is often due to a rupture of some of the 
 small blood vessels near the milk cells, or it may be due 
 to an injury or to a diseased condition of the milk glands. 
 The presence of germs in the udder frequently causes blue or 
 bitter as well as slippery and putrid milk. The treat- 
 ment for such ailments depends upon the cause. When 
 due to a germ it is often necessary to inject a disinfectant 
 into the udder. For this purpose, a solution of boracic 
 acid is used with good results. In simple cases bathing 
 the udder in hot water and frequently milking the glands 
 clean gives good results. 
 
CHAPTER XXVIII 
 AILMENTS OF THE NEW-BORN 
 
 The mortality among new-born animals is very high. 
 It has been estimated that one-fourth of all farm animals 
 born into the world succumb before they are one month 
 of age. Possibly this estimate is too high in the case of 
 foals and lambs, although it is not too great in pigs, or 
 in the case of calves, if the abortions that take place well 
 along in pregnancy be included in the estimate. 
 
 In the main, these young animals succumb to diseases 
 that easily can be avoided. The most troublesome of 
 these diseases are due to infection during or immediately 
 after birth. All such troublesome diseases and attendant 
 losses can be avoided if proper sanitation be provided. 
 
 Asphyxia. — In retarded parturition, asphyxia is rather 
 common. This is especiall}^ true in the case of the foal, 
 where the fetal connection with the uterus is very slight. 
 The placenta may become partially or entirely detached 
 before the fetus is expelled, thus smothering the foal. 
 The navel cord may become tightly compressed between 
 the fetus and the pelvis of the dam in such a manner as 
 to interrupt the circulation. Likewise, the cord may be- 
 come entangled about one of the limbs or the head of 
 the fetus, and the circulation thus be interrupted, with 
 asphyxia as a result. Sometimes the fetal membranes 
 about the head and nostrils fail to rupture, thus causing 
 partial asphyxia. 
 
 In partial asphyxia respiration may be favored by al- 
 ternately compressing and relaxing the chest with the 
 hands, by vigorously stroking the the chest, and by ex- 
 tending the front legs alternately forward and backward. 
 Suspending animals by the hind legs tends to stimulate 
 respiration and permits the free escape of fluids that may 
 
 298 
 
AILMENTS OF THE NEW-BORN 299 
 
 have lodged in the lungs. A sharp blow upon the nose 
 often tends to induce respiration, as does the dashing of 
 cold water upon the skin of the animal. 
 
 Constipation. — During the last few days of fetal life 
 there collects in the alimentary tract of the young an 
 excretory debris known as meconium. This material 
 varies in color and consistency, but is usually of a yellow- 
 ish or greenish hue and appears as a pasty mass, in which 
 condition it is usually promptly expelled without dif- 
 ficulty. In the foal, however, this material is frequently 
 hard and dry, in which condition it is often retained, 
 and leads to further complications, not infrequently caus- 
 ing the death of the young animal. This is especially 
 true of foals whose dams have been confined to the stable, 
 denied exercise, and fed upon dry food during the latter 
 part of pregnancy. 
 
 If the alimentary tract has not been cleaned of this 
 meconium within a few hours after birth and the young- 
 ster presents the symptoms of illness, standing with the 
 front legs extending forward 
 and the hind legs backward, 
 with back depressed, occasion- 
 ally looking toward the flank 
 and straining, as if to expel the 
 material, something must be 
 done to stimulate the bowels to 
 action. The colostrum or first fig. 98-Chester white boar 
 milk of the dam is a natural 
 
 purgative and favors the early passage of the material. The 
 bowels of the foal can usually be stimulated to action by 
 giving internally two ounces of castor oil or four ounces 
 of olive oil, and by an injection of warm water into the 
 bowels. The oil must be given carefully, to avoid 
 strangling the foal. The water used in the injection 
 should have added to it a little glycerine, although some 
 persons prefer the addition of a very little common salt. 
 Inject gently into the rectum with a common hard rub- 
 
300 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 ber syringe, taking care not to i"upture the tender mem- 
 brane. This will soften the meconium, lubricate the 
 passage and stimulate the bowels to action. 
 
 Navel infection. — This is another disease common to 
 young foals. It is due to filth germs that gain access 
 to the body of the foal by way of the open umbilical vein 
 of the navel at birth. Soon after these germs enter the 
 navel, they set up irritation and inflammation. The 
 navel becomes enlarged, pus forms and is absorbed into 
 the general circulation. Abscesses form in all parts of 
 the body, notably in the joints of the legs and at the 
 throat and poll. It is comparatively rare that a foal is 
 saved after the disease reaches the pus-forming stage. 
 
 The breeder should understand that this disease is due 
 to a simple infection, and that proper hygienic measures 
 will prevent it. The box stall in which the mare foals 
 should be scrupulously clean, well lighted and well ven- 
 tilated. It should be well bedded with clean, fresh ma- 
 terial, preferably straw or shavings. A little lime scat- 
 tered about the floor before the bedding is put down 
 serves to disinfect and sweeten the stall. Immediately 
 after the foal is delivered the navel should be disinfected 
 with a powder consisting of equal parts of dry or des- 
 iccated alum, gum camphor and starch, finely powdered 
 and thoroughly mixed. The navel cord should neither 
 be cut nor tied. If the cord is powdered at intervals of 
 half an hour it will mummify within three hours and all 
 danger from infection will be eliminated. 
 
 Diarrhea. — This disease is common among suckling 
 animals. The causes of simple diarrhea are many and 
 varied, although overfeeding as well as too rapid feed- 
 ing on the part of the young are the most common. The 
 surroundings of the new-born often bring on the disease. 
 Closely crowded, filthy and four-smelling quarters are 
 likely to produce an attack. Young animals kept in the 
 open air where they can obtain sufiicient exercise, pure 
 air and sunlight are seldom troubled with diarrhea. 
 
AILMENTS OF THE NEW-BORN 3OI 
 
 The treatment is to remove the cause, if possible. If 
 the disease is due to an oversupply of milk, the dam 
 should be milked in part by hand, remembering that the 
 last milk is the richer in fat, which is the element causing 
 the disturbance. The dam's ration should be reduced 
 first by one-third, and then by one-half should the large 
 milk flow continue. Avoid all conditions likely to cause 
 such disorders. If the dam is properly fed, exer- 
 cised and managed, there is very little danger. In treat- 
 ing the young the nature of the disease must be borne in 
 mind, that it is caused by an irritant in the digestive tract, 
 which must be removed before a cure can be effected. 
 The best policy in such disorders is to expel the irritant 
 with a laxative, such as castor oil or linseed oil. 
 
 Infectious diarrhea. — This is a serious dysentery com- 
 mon to calves and is often known as white scours. In- 
 fectious diarrhea usually appears during the first or 
 second day after birth. It may appear immediately after 
 parturition, and in some instances seemingly exists at the 
 time the young animal is born, and it may perish from 
 the disease without having sucked the dam. The dis- 
 ease is highly contagious, attacking all calves dropped 
 in the same stable. It is caused by a germ, which prob- 
 ably gains admittance to the alimentary tract by way of 
 the nostrils and mouth and through the navel wound. 
 Infectious diarrhea is highly fatal and runs a very acute 
 course. 
 
 The symptom is a foul-smelling liquid evacuation, 
 which, at first, is of a yellowish hue, but later changes 
 to a grayish color. At first the liquid is expelled with con- 
 siderable force, but later the evacuation takes place in- 
 voluntarily. Sometimes the disease is accompanied by 
 stretching and at other times there are convulsions. 
 
 As the disease is highly fatal, chief attention must be 
 given to preventive measures. Before parturition the 
 dam should be placed in a thoroughly disinfected, com- 
 fortable box stall. Before she is placed in the stall her 
 
302 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 posterior parts and udder should be washed with a warm 
 antiseptic, as a two per cent solution of carbolic acid. 
 As soon as the calf is born the navel should be dusted 
 with an antiseptic powder, similar to that of the foal, as 
 suggested in navel infection. The calf should be re- 
 moved at once to quarters free from previous infection. 
 In drawing the milk and in feeding the calf, every precau- 
 tion must be taken to avoid infection. The milker should 
 carefully disinfect his hands and the udder. The milk 
 should be drawn and fed in sterile vessels. Likewise, 
 care should be taken that the infection be not carried to 
 the young by other animals, in the bedding or food, or 
 by the caretaker. The stable in which the disease has 
 existed should be thoroughly disinfected with a corrosive 
 sublimate solution. 
 
 Sore mouth. — Lambs and pigs are often troubled with 
 contagious sore mouth, which may also affect the teats 
 of their dams. Sores and later scabs form along the 
 edges of the mouth and on the teats of the dam. This 
 prevents proper nursing and interferes with the thrift 
 of the young. In the case of lambs the treatment is to 
 rub off the scabs and wash the parts in undiluted sheep 
 dip. In the case of pigs prepare a solution of perman- 
 ganate of potash, using one and one-half ounces of the 
 crystals dissolved in one gallon of warm water. Dip 
 the pig headforemost into this solution and hold there 
 a second. This should be repeated for a few days. This 
 disease can be prevented by providing clean comfortable 
 quarters for the youngsters. 
 
 Frequently young pigs are troubled with long, sharp 
 teeth. These lacerate the teats of the dam and she will 
 not let the youngster nurse, which interferes with their 
 thrift. The treatment is to cut the sharp points from 
 the teeth with a pair of nippers. 
 
 Sore eyes. — Like sore mouth, this is a contagious dis- 
 ease common to lambs. Though it interferes seriously 
 with the thrift of the lambs, it is very easily cured. Sheep 
 
AILMENTS OF THE NEW-BORN 303 
 
 dip diluted with 40 parts water used as a wash will work 
 a rapid cure. It is well to see that a little of the diluted 
 dip gets into the eyes. This may start the tears, but it 
 has the desired effect. 
 
 Chilled lamb. — Occasionally new-born lambs get sep- 
 arated from their dams and become chilled. This is 
 likely to prove fatal unless they are very thoroughly 
 warmed. A hot bath is the best thing for a chilled lamb. 
 This can conveniently be ac- 
 complished by immersing the 
 lamb in water as hot as one can 
 bear the hand. Keep the water 
 hot by adding more to it, taking 
 care not to scald the lamb. 
 When warmed, wipe thor- 
 oughly dry with flannel cloth 
 
 and restore to the dam. A few f,g. 99-hampshire ram 
 drops of brandy in warm water 
 
 is good for a chilled lamb. The lamb should be watched 
 to be sure that it nurses the dam. 
 
 Thumps. — This is a digestive trouble common to young 
 pigs, and is due to overfeeding or lack of exercise. The 
 treatment is to compel the pigs to take exercise, and pos- 
 sibly reduce the sow's milk-producing food until the pigs 
 are older. Young pigs may be encouraged to take exer- 
 cise by arranging a panel, provided with a trap door, 
 across one corner of the pen, thus providing a small tri- 
 angular pen. On the floor of this small pen scatter a 
 little meal, or provide a trough with a little sweet milk. 
 When the young pigs enter the triangular pen to eat the 
 food thus provided, close the trap door, separating them 
 from their dam. In this manner they may be separated 
 from the dam for three or four hours in the morning and 
 a like period in the evening. When thus separated they will 
 take sufficient exercise to keep. them in thrifty condition. 
 
 Umbilical hernia. — This is a disease in which the umbilic 
 ring, through which the navel cord passes, fails to close 
 
304 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 during the development of the fetus. It is rather com- 
 mon in foals and pigs, but may occur among other farm 
 animals. The disease is congenital, though it may not 
 be noticed at the time of birth. The size of the tumor 
 as well as the hernial ring varies greatly. In the pig it 
 ranges from one-half to 2 inches in diameter, while with 
 the foal it ranges from i to 6 inches. The causes which 
 operate to prevent the closing of the umbilic ring during 
 fetal development are complicated and the defect is con- 
 sidered hereditary. 
 
 Since umbilical hernia usually disappears, at least when 
 not too large, an opportunity should be given for a spon- 
 taneous recovery. This is especially true of foals. When 
 the hernial ring is large, it may be necessary to use some 
 means for overcoming the defect, except in the case of 
 animals intended for early slaughter. Before undertak- 
 ing treatment, however, it is desirable that the young 
 animal shall have acquired some age and considerable 
 vigor. 
 
 There are many methods of treatment to overcome 
 umbilical hernia, such as the application of a bandage or 
 truss about the body in such a manner as to press the 
 contents of the tumor up within the abdomen ; the 
 
 application of a mineral acid, 
 thus causing an intense local 
 inflammation with much swell- 
 ing, which induces closure of 
 the hernial ring, the application 
 of clamps similar to those used in 
 castration; and the application of 
 Fig. 100— duroc jtRSEY Boar sutures ill sucli a manner as to 
 encourage closing of the hernial 
 ring. The use of each method calls for the skill of a 
 trained veterinarian. 
 
 Scrotal hernia.^ — This is a disease similar to umbilical 
 hernia, in which the inguinal ring, through which the 
 testicle cords pass, fails to close during the development 
 
AILMENTS OF THE NEW-BORN 305 
 
 of the fetus. It is rather common among foals and pigs. 
 Scrotal or inguinal hernia is primarily a defect of males, 
 although very rarely it exists among females. It is fre- 
 quently observed among draft bred foals, where it is 
 usually of a temporary character and later disappears. 
 In some instances, however, the inguinal ring is exces- 
 sively large, so that portions of the viscera protrude 
 through it, and in all such cases some means must be 
 employed for overcoming the defect, animals intended 
 for early slaughter excepted. As in umbilical hernia, treat- 
 ment calls for the skill of the trained veterinarian. 
 
 Castration of males. — Young males not needed for 
 breeding purposes should be castrated early in life, as 
 there is less danger from complications, and the opera- 
 tion can be accomplished with ease. At this age the 
 organs are not mature and the shock to the young animals 
 is much less than if the operation be delayed. Further, 
 if left entire too long, the animal tends to become 
 "staggy" in appearance and will not make as good a 
 feeder as when castration is accomplished at an early 
 age. Thus the colt should be castrated before one year 
 of age, the calf at three or four months, the pig at three 
 or four weeks, and the lamb at lo days to two weeks 
 of age. 
 
 The fact that the male develops stronger features than 
 the female is often taken advantage of by horse breeders, 
 and colts that are rather undeveloped, especially about 
 the head and neck, as well as those that are rather timid 
 in nature, are often left entire six months longer in order 
 that these parts may improve. However, the colt should 
 not be left entire too long, as he may develop vicious 
 habits. 
 
CHAPTER XXIX 
 DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG ANIMALS 
 
 Possibly no feature connected with animal breeding is 
 of greater importance than the proper development of 
 young stock. While variation is the basis of improve- 
 ment and selection the key to the situation, yet intelli- 
 gent selection can be exercised only in case the animals 
 are properly developed. It is as an aid to selection, 
 therefore, that development is of greatest importance. 
 Selection is based in large part on the individuality, and 
 unless the animal has been properly developed estimates 
 of merit will be unreliable. Some inferior animals 
 will be preserved and some superior ones discarded. In- 
 telligent selection, therefore, is possible only when the 
 animal has had a chance to develop those possibilities 
 with which he has been endowed. 
 
 There are a number of factors entering into the de- 
 velopment of young animals, chief of which are the con- 
 dition of the parents, proper feeding, sufficient training 
 and judicious management. 
 
 Condition of parents.^ — A lack of proper nutrition on 
 the part of the dam impairs and restricts the development 
 of the fetus. The nourishment of the offspring during 
 its fetal life has just as strong an influence upon its final 
 development as that furnished after it enters upon a sep- 
 arate existence. While careful feeding after birth may 
 compensate, in part at least, for such impaired develop- 
 ment, it never can fully atone for the curtailment suf- 
 fered at the time the fetus was being formed. Further, 
 the dam that is not well nourished during pregnancy 
 usually fails to give a plentiful supply of milk, which also 
 operates to retard development. 
 
 To supply the nutrients for the growth of the fetus 
 
 306 
 
DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG ANIMALS 30/ 
 
 through the food of the dam calls for a ration rich in 
 protein and mineral matter, as the increase consists 
 mainly of bone, muscle and body tissue. Fat-producing 
 foods do not supply the materials required by the grow- 
 ing young, and should be 
 avoided in making up the 
 ration for the pregnant 
 female. Such foods may 
 lead to serious complica- 
 tions during and imme- 
 diately following parturi- 
 tion. The proper nutrients 
 would be contained in a 
 ration consisting of oats 
 and bran for the concen- '*-- 
 
 trates, and clover and al- 
 falfa for the forage. This fig. ioi~Clydesdale stallion 
 may be improved by the 
 
 addition of a succulent food, such as pasture grass in sea- 
 son, carrots for horses and roots and silage in the case of 
 cows and ewes. 
 
 Among the smaller farm animals, such as swine and 
 sheep, the relative size of the dam is a controlling factor 
 in determining the birth weight of the young. In the 
 main, large mothers produce large offspring. This is 
 very significant, in view of the fact that lambs and pigs 
 possessing a heavy birth weight develop much more 
 rapidly than those of light birth weight. 
 
 Feeding while young. — Growth and development are 
 due to cell division. This cell division is exceedingly 
 rapid during fetal development and immediately follow- 
 ing birth, but gradually decreases as the animal attains 
 maturity. The grozving age, therefore, is the age of 
 infancy. This is a significant fact, which the breeder 
 who would secure maximum development must use to 
 his advantage. Every means should be employed to en- 
 courage and promote growth and development while the 
 
308 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 animal is young. Often the right kind of food is restricted, 
 and before it is reahzed the period in which growth is pos- 
 sible has passed. In such cases a knowledge of the 
 animal's capabilities is impossible, as no attempt was 
 made to develop them. 
 
 At a very early age animals should be encouraged to take 
 food in addition to that furnished by the dam. They will 
 eat only a very little food at first, but the object is to get 
 them accustomed to this supplementary food. As young 
 animals grow they will take the food in increasing quan- 
 tities. This supplementary feeding has the added ad- 
 vantage that it favors weaning, and the animals will 
 adapt themselves to the changed conditions without loss, 
 providing increasing amounts of food are given. 
 
 To supply the nutrients needed by the young animal in 
 securing maximum growth and development calls for a 
 ration rich in protein and mineral matter similar to that 
 suggested for the pregnant dam. A grain ration consist- 
 ing of equal parts by weight of wheat bran, ground oats 
 and corn meal, to which lo per cent of linseed oil meal has 
 been added, gives very good results with all classes of 
 
 Fig. 102 — Poland-China Barrows. Grand Champion Pen 
 
DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG ANIMALS 
 
 309 
 
 young animals. Since the increase consists mainly of 
 bone and muscle with but little fat, those foods favoring 
 fat formation should be used very sparingly. 
 
 Relative development. — In general the v^eight of the 
 fetus or fetuses of farm animals is approximately one- 
 tenth the weight of the dam. This relative propor- 
 tion seems to run fairly uniform irrespective of the 
 number of fetuses produced at a single parturition. Thus, 
 in the case of the sow, even though she gives birth to 10 
 or 12 pigs at a time, their collective birth weight seldom 
 exceeds one-tenth that of the dam. This means that the 
 individuals must be very small, and that development 
 must be exceedingly rapid after birth. No class of farm 
 animals even approximates the pig in rapidity of de- 
 velopment. Not infrequently pigs increase their birth 
 weight 150 fold in 9 or 10 months. This is a 
 significant observation in the economic production of 
 meat. 
 
 That the age of infancy is the age of growth is well 
 illustrated in the tabulation on this page which shows the 
 
 Development of Farm Animals 
 
 Horses 
 
 Cattle 
 
 Sheep 
 
 Swine 
 
 Age 
 
 
 Gain 
 
 Per 
 
 
 Gain 
 
 Per 
 
 
 Gain 
 
 Per 
 
 
 Gain 
 
 Per 
 
 
 Weight 
 
 per 
 
 cent. 
 
 Weight 
 
 per 
 
 cent. 
 
 Weight 
 
 per 
 
 cent 
 
 Weight 
 
 per 
 
 cent 
 
 Mo. 
 
 
 mo. 
 
 gam 
 
 
 mo. 
 
 gam 
 
 
 mo. 
 
 gam 
 
 
 mo. 
 
 gam 
 
 Birth 
 
 125 
 
 
 
 105 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 21 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 255 
 
 130 
 
 104 
 
 200 
 
 95 
 
 90 
 
 24 
 
 15 
 
 166 
 
 12 
 
 9h 
 
 380 
 
 2 
 
 350 
 
 95 
 
 37 
 
 275 
 
 75 
 
 37 
 
 40 
 
 16 
 
 66 
 
 26 
 
 14 
 
 116 
 
 3 
 
 435 
 
 85 
 
 23 
 
 340 
 
 65 
 
 24 
 
 52 
 
 12 
 
 30 
 
 48 
 
 22 
 
 84 
 
 4 
 
 515 
 
 80 
 
 18 
 
 400 
 
 60 
 
 18 
 
 62 
 
 10 
 
 19 
 
 78 
 
 30 
 
 62 
 
 5 
 
 590 
 
 75 
 
 14 
 
 455 
 
 55 
 
 14 
 
 68 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 122 
 
 44 
 
 56 
 
 6 
 
 655 
 
 65 
 
 11 
 
 510 
 
 55 
 
 12 
 
 73 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 170 
 
 48 
 
 39 
 
 7 
 
 715 
 
 60 
 
 9 
 
 570 
 
 60 
 
 11 
 
 78 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 222 
 
 52 
 
 30 
 
 8 
 
 760 
 
 45 
 
 6 
 
 625 
 
 55 
 
 9 
 
 84 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 264 
 
 42 
 
 18 
 
 9 
 
 810 
 
 SO 
 
 6 
 
 670 
 
 50 
 
 9 
 
 92 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 304 
 
 40 
 
 15 
 
 10 
 
 850 
 
 40 
 
 5 
 
 725 
 
 55 
 
 8 
 
 100 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 890 
 
 40 
 
 5 
 
 770 
 
 45 
 
 6 
 
 107 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 925 
 
 35 
 
 4 
 
 820 
 
 50 
 
 6 
 
 114 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 
 24 
 
 1,310 
 
 32 
 
 3 
 
 1,204 
 
 32 
 
 4 
 
 140 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 36 
 
 1,660 
 
 29 
 
 2 
 
 1,504 
 
 25 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
310 BREEDING OF FARAf ANIMALS 
 
 average monthly weight, gain and per cent gain from 
 birth to maturity for a representative lot of each class 
 of farm animals. 
 
 Note the very rapid growth during the first month in 
 each case, but more especially in the case of swine. This 
 is very significant, for if the individual is neglected at 
 this time its possibilities will remain forever unknown. 
 At six months of age sheep and swine have attained 
 approximately one-half of the normal mature weight. 
 At one year of age horses and cattle that have been well 
 managed will have attained about one-half of their ma- 
 ture weight. Sheep usually reach maturity at less than 
 two years of age, while horses and cattle continue to 
 develop until approximately five years of age. 
 
 Developing the young horse. — The methods employed 
 by professional horse trainers in developing trotters and 
 
 high-acting coach horses 
 indicate the advantage 
 to be gained by suitable 
 training while the anim^als 
 are young. From birth 
 the foals are fed regularly 
 up to the limit of their 
 appetite in order to keep 
 them strong. If properly 
 groomed and exercised, 
 it is not possible to get a 
 ^ .„o n ^ «,, » foal too fat. To facilitate 
 
 Fig. 103 — Percheron Colt Merlin 
 
 1600 pounds at 2 years of age ^arly training a Small 
 
 track, similar to a race 
 track, is provided. On this track the foals are 
 exercised as soon in life as they can handle themselves 
 to advantage. At first the youngsters run free and 
 are controlled by attendants provided with whips, to 
 which are attached long lashes; later they are led and 
 finally driven with the single line. This exercise is con- 
 tinued daily from colthood until old enough to put in 
 
DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG ANIMALS 3II 
 
 harness, with the exception of two or three days each 
 month, when the youngsters are turned to a paddock 
 where they can have perfect freedom, in order to break 
 the monotony of the daily exercise and to freshen them. 
 They are then placed in harness and the daily training 
 continued. Horsemen feel that such continuous train- 
 ing is necessary to develop maximum speed, style and 
 action. 
 
 The same principle holds true in the development of 
 draft foals. To encourage growth they should be fed 
 liberally on nutritious foods from birth to maturity, and 
 to promote the development of quality they should be 
 regularly exercised and thoroughly groomed. The 
 breeder who wishes to secure maximum growth and 
 highest quality should remember that it is scarcely pos- 
 sible to overfeed colts, providing, of course, that judicious 
 management accompanies such feeding. 
 
 Developing the heifer. — The young heifer that is to re- 
 main in the dairy herd should be given extra care from 
 birth, in order that she be well grown by the time she 
 is sexually mature. To develop a high-producing cow 
 it is important that she be bred at an early age, and this 
 can be done to advantage only in case she is well grown. 
 The claim is made by some persons that the demands 
 made on the young heifer by the growing fetus, together 
 with her own growth, are too severe, and that she is 
 likely to be stunt£d. On the other hand, experience in- 
 dicates that the constant recurring periods of estrum 
 checks growth and that the condition of pregnancy has 
 a stimulating effect. The assimilation seems to be im- 
 proved, and if the heifer be supplied with an abundance 
 of nutritious food she will make a greater growth during- 
 pregnancy than otherwise. 
 
 The breeding of a well-grown heifer at 15 months of 
 age has much to commend it. In the first place, unbred 
 heifers are in estrum two or three days every three weeks, 
 and it is at such times that the reproductive organs arc 
 
312 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 likely to become infected with the germ of contagious 
 abortion, which may cause sterility, or, in case the heifer 
 conceives, it may produce abortion. Thus, the animal 
 bred early in life is likely to escape this infection and 
 prove a regular breeder. In the second place, it is pos- 
 sible to develop the milk-secreting organs of a heifer 
 much more perfectly than of an older animal. 
 
 The secreting of milk is a kind of habit, and the earlier 
 in life the young heifer becomes accustomed to it the 
 better producer she will make. Once giving milk, she 
 should be kept at it as long as possible. The cow that 
 dries off after secreting milk a few months is unprofit- 
 able. The heifer should not be bred a second time until 
 rather late, as the effect of again becoming pregnant 
 has a tendency to decrease the flow of milk. During 
 this first lactation the object is to keep her in milk as long 
 as possible, in order to develop a persistent milker, rather 
 than to encourage a high production for a short time and 
 then dry her off, as is the usual practice. 
 
 Developing meat-producing animals, — This calls for 
 special consideration because of the seemingly conflict- 
 ing factors involved. In the development of meat-pro- 
 ducing animals early maturity is exceedingly important, 
 because the relative rapidity of gains decreases, and the 
 amount of food required to produce a pound of body 
 weight rapidly increases, as the birth period is receded 
 from, until at length a period is reached, after which fur- 
 ther gains become impossible. Thus the age of infancy 
 is not only the age of growth, but it is also the age of 
 economic meat production. 
 
 Early maturity, however, may reduce the constitutional 
 vigor of the animal, thus defeating the object for which it 
 was developed. In the main, when early maturity does 
 affect the constitutional vigor, it is due to the undermin- 
 ing influence of breeding from immature animals, as well 
 as to the extreme artificial conditions which frequently 
 attend such breeding. Thus, in order to avoid much 
 
DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG ANIMALS 313 
 
 of the adverse effect of early maturity upon the general 
 vigor and thrift of the animal, we have but to refrain 
 from using miniature animals in breeding. Further, ma- 
 ture dams favor the rapid 
 development of young in 
 three important respects. 
 In the first place, a mature 
 dam usually provides a 
 more bountiful supply of 
 milk; second, as we have 
 already observed, the 
 larger the dam the larger 
 the offspring at birth: ^"'- io4-hampshire sow 
 
 A ^U-A ^1 1 .U W'^le belt 
 
 and, third, the larger the 
 
 birth weight the more rapid and economic gains the 
 
 young will make, other conditions being equal. 
 
 Inasmuch as the tendency to early maturity is hered- 
 itary, the promising females should be tried out at as 
 early an age as possible, even though this practice may 
 operate slightly against the development of the first born. 
 However, once a desirable female is found, she should 
 be retained as long as she continues to do well in the 
 breeding herd. 
 
 As suggested, the young animals that are intended for 
 meat production should be encouraged from birth. Early 
 gains are the most economic. The young animal that is 
 permitted to lose its body fat will not make as efficient 
 a meat producer as it otherwise would had it been prop- 
 erly encouraged from birth until ready for slaughter. 
 
 Environment, development, selection and efficiency. — 
 Among farm animals development is largely a matter 
 of possibilities. Individual excellence of parents, as well 
 as the purity of the heritage, count for little in the ab- 
 sence of suitable environment. The modern breeds of 
 farm animals have been evolved, in a large measure, by 
 improved methods of care and management. Their 
 superiority cannot assert itself in the absence of the 
 
314 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 
 
 accustomed environment. Therefore, to secure maximum 
 development in farm animals, both young and old, the 
 management must be as favorable as possible to advance 
 all of the potentialities of 'the individual. 
 
 Unless all of the possibilities within the individual have 
 been properly developed, intelligent selection is not pos- 
 sible. Some inferior animals will be retained for breed- 
 ing and some superior individuals will be eliminated. 
 Farm animals have been improved by continuous selec- 
 tion as well as by better methods of care and manage- 
 ment. To secure the maximum advantage of selection, 
 therefore, the conditions must be such as to advance the 
 possibilities that have been intensified through genera- 
 tions of careful selection. 
 
 The efficiency of the individuals in hand depends upon 
 vigorous selection based on maximum development of all 
 the potentialities with which the individual has been en- 
 dowed. Further, selection under such conditions puri- 
 fies the strain, family, or breed by the elimination of all 
 individuals not possessing the desirable characters. 
 
 Thus, the relation between the environment and de- 
 velopment, the relation between the development and 
 intelligent selection, as well as the relation between in- 
 telligent selection and the general excellence of the in- 
 dividuals in hand, must be clearly evident to the breeder 
 of farm animals. For, in the main, the environment con- 
 trols the development, the development directs selection, 
 and selection governs individual efficiency and purifies 
 the strains, families and breeds of our farm animals. 
 
APPENDIX 
 
 315 
 
APPENDIX 
 
 Breeds of farm animals. — For the benefit of the reader 
 who may wish to obtain detail information concerning 
 a particular breed, the following tabulation is arranged, 
 giving the type, name of the breed, native home, size and 
 common color for each breed ; as well as the name and 
 address of the secretary in charge of the breeders' asso- 
 ciation, who may be addressed for detailed information : 
 
 Breeds of Light Type of Horses 
 
 Name of 
 breed 
 
 Native 
 home 
 
 Height, hands; 
 weight, pounds 
 
 Color 
 
 Secretary 
 
 Address 
 
 Arabian 
 
 Arabia 
 
 14 
 800 
 
 -14i 
 -1,000 
 
 Bay, white 
 
 Henry K. Bush- 
 Brown 
 
 Newburg, N. Y. 
 
 Thoroughbred 
 
 England 
 
 14 
 800 
 
 -16* 
 -1,050 
 
 Bay, brown. 
 
 W. H. Rowe 
 
 5th Ave. and 46th 
 St., New York, 
 N. Y. 
 
 American 
 Saddler 
 
 United 
 States 
 
 15-1 
 950 
 
 ^-15-2^ 
 -1,050 
 
 Bay, brown, 
 black 
 
 I. N. Ball 
 
 Louisville, Ky. 
 
 Standardbred 
 
 United 
 States 
 
 15i 
 900 
 
 -ISf 
 -1,150 
 
 Bay, brown, 
 black 
 
 W. H. Knight 
 
 355 Dearborn St., 
 Chicago, 111. 
 
 Orloff 
 Trotter 
 
 Russia 
 
 151 
 1,100 
 
 -16J 
 -1,300 
 
 Gray, bay, 
 black 
 
 
 
 Morgan 
 
 United 
 States 
 
 14f 
 900 
 
 -ISf 
 -1,150 
 
 Bay, chest- 
 nut 
 
 T. E. Boyce 
 
 Middlebury, Vt. 
 
 Breeds of Coach Type of Horses 
 
 Name of 
 breed 
 
 Native 
 home 
 
 Height, 
 hands; 
 weight, 
 pounds 
 
 Color 
 
 Secretary 
 
 Address 
 
 Hackney 
 
 England 
 
 15^-151 
 1,000 -1,200 
 
 Chestnut 
 
 Gumey C. Gue 
 
 308 W. 97th St., 
 New York, N. Y. 
 
 French 
 Coach 
 
 Prance 
 
 15 -16 
 1,200 -1,350 
 
 Bay, brown, 
 chestnut 
 
 Duncan E. Willit 
 
 Oak Park, III. 
 
 German 
 Coach 
 
 Germany 
 
 16 -16i 
 1,350 -1,450 
 
 Black, brown, 
 chestnut 
 
 J. Crouch 
 
 Lafayette, Ind. 
 
 Cleveland 
 Bay 
 
 England 
 
 16 -16f 
 1,200 -1,550 
 
 Bay 
 
 R. p. Stericker 
 
 Oconomowoc, Wis. 
 
 316 
 
appendix 
 Breeds of Draft Type of Horses 
 
 317 
 
 Name of 
 breed 
 
 Native 
 home 
 
 Height, 
 hands ; 
 weight, 
 pounds 
 
 Color 
 
 Secretary 
 
 Address 
 
 Percheron 
 
 France 
 
 15i -17 
 1,800 -2,300 
 
 Black, gray 
 
 Wayne Dinsmore 
 
 Union Stock Yards 
 Chicago, 111. 
 
 French 
 Draft 
 
 France 
 
 15§ -17 
 1,800 -2,300 
 
 Black, gray 
 
 C. E. Stubbs 
 
 Fairfield, Iowa 
 
 Clydesdale 
 
 Scotland 
 
 16 -16i 
 1,800 -2,300 
 
 Light bay 
 
 R. B. Ogilvie 
 
 Union Stock Yards 
 Chicago, III. 
 
 Shire 
 
 England 
 
 16 -17 
 1,800 -2,300 
 
 Light bay 
 
 Charles Burgess 
 
 Wenona, 111. 
 
 Belgian 
 
 Belgium 
 
 16 -17 
 1,600 -2,300 
 
 Bay, black, 
 brown 
 
 J. D. Conner, Jr. 
 
 Wabash, Ind. 
 
 Suflfolk 
 
 England 
 
 16 -17 
 1,600 -2,000 
 
 Chestnut, 
 bay 
 
 Alex. Galbraith 
 
 Janesville, Wis. 
 
 Breeds of Ponies 
 
 Name of 
 breed 
 
 Native 
 home 
 
 Height, 
 
 inches; 
 weight, 
 pounds 
 
 Color 
 
 Secretary 
 
 Address 
 
 Shetland 
 
 Shetland 
 Islands 
 
 34 - 44 
 250 - 400 
 
 Black, brown, 
 piebald 
 
 Miss Julia M. Wade 
 
 Lafayette, Ind. 
 
 Welsh 
 
 Wales 
 
 48 - 56 
 400 - 600 
 
 Brown, gray 
 
 John Alexander 
 
 Aurora, III. 
 
 Exmoor 
 
 Devonshire 
 
 48 - 56 
 500 - 800 
 
 Bay, gray 
 
 
 
 Arabian 
 
 Arabia 
 
 Under 56 
 600 - 800 
 
 Bay, white 
 
 Henry K. Bush- 
 Brown 
 
 Newburg, N. Y 
 
 Hackney 
 Mexican* 
 
 England 
 Mexico 
 
 Under 56 
 600 - 800 
 
 Under 56 
 600 - 850 
 
 Chestnut 
 Duns, mixed 
 
 Gurney C. Gue 
 
 308 W. 97th St. 
 
 New York, 
 
 N. Y. 
 
 Indian* 
 
 Western United 
 States 
 
 Under 56 
 
 Duns, bays, 
 mixed 
 
 
 
 *Not recognized a.s a breed. 
 
3i8 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 Breeds of Jacks 
 
 Name of 
 breed 
 
 Native 
 home 
 
 Height, 
 hands; 
 
 Color 
 
 Secretary 
 
 Address 
 
 Andalusian 
 
 Andalusia, 
 Spain 
 
 141 - 15^ 
 
 Gray 
 
 
 
 Maltese 
 Catalonian 
 
 Malta 
 
 Islan-1s 
 Catalonia, 
 
 Spain 
 
 14 - 14i 
 14^ - 15i 
 
 Brown, black 
 Black brown 
 
 C. F. Cook 
 
 Lexington, Ky 
 
 Majorca 
 
 Majorca 
 Islands 
 
 15 - 16 
 
 Black 
 
 
 
 Italian 
 
 Italy 
 
 13 - 14 
 
 Blue, black 
 
 
 
 Poitou 
 
 France 
 
 141 - 15 
 
 Black 
 
 
 
 Major Breeds of Dairy Cattle 
 
 Name of 
 breed 
 
 Native 
 home 
 
 Weight 
 
 Color 
 
 Secretary 
 
 Address 
 
 Jerseys 
 
 Jersey 
 Islands 
 
 800 - 1,200 
 
 Fawnlike 
 
 R. M. Gow 
 
 324 W. 23d St., 
 New York, N. Y. 
 
 Holstein- 
 Friesian 
 
 Holland 
 
 1,400 - 2,000 
 
 Black and white 
 
 Fred L. Houghton 
 
 Brattleboro, Vt. 
 
 Guernseys 
 
 Guernsey 
 Islands 
 
 1,000 - 1.500 
 
 Yellow fawn 
 
 Wm. H. Caldwell 
 
 Peterboro, N. H 
 
 Ayrshires 
 
 Scotland 
 
 1,000 - 1,400 
 
 Red, white 
 
 CM. Winslow 
 
 Brandon, Vt. 
 
 Minor Breeds of Dairy Cattle 
 
 Name of 
 breed 
 
 Native 
 home 
 
 Weight 
 
 Color 
 
 Secretary 
 
 Address 
 
 Dutch 
 Belted 
 
 Brown 
 Swiss 
 French 
 Canadian 
 Kerry 
 
 Holland 
 
 Switzerland 
 Canada 
 Ireland 
 
 1,100- 1,700 
 
 1,200 - 1,600 
 800- 1,000 
 600 - 900 
 
 Black, white 
 belt 
 
 Brown 
 
 Black 
 
 Black, red 
 
 G. G. Gibbs 
 Ira Inman 
 
 Marksboro, N. J. 
 Beloit, Wis. 
 
APPENDIX 
 
 319 
 
 Major Breeds of Beef Cattli 
 
 Name of 
 breed 
 
 Native 
 home • 
 
 Weight 
 
 Color 
 
 Secretary 
 
 Address 
 
 Shorthorn 
 
 England 
 
 1,400 - 2,000 
 
 Red, white 
 roan 
 
 John W. Groves 
 
 Chicago, III. 
 
 Hereford 
 
 England 
 
 1,400 - 2,000 
 
 Red and white 
 
 R. J. Kinzer 
 
 Kansas City, Mo. 
 
 Aberdeen 
 Angus 
 
 Scotland 
 
 1,400- 1,800 
 
 Black 
 
 Chas. Gray 
 
 17 Exchange Ave., 
 Chicago, 111. 
 
 Galloway 
 
 Scotland 
 
 1,200- 1,800 
 
 Black 
 
 Robt. W. Brown 
 
 17 Exchange Ave., 
 Chicasc 111. 
 
 Minor Breeds of Beef Cattle 
 
 Name of 
 breed 
 
 Native 
 home 
 
 Weight 
 
 Color 
 
 Secretary 
 
 Address 
 
 Polled 
 Durham 
 
 England 
 
 1,400 - 2,000 
 
 Red, white, 
 roan 
 
 J. M. Martz 
 
 Greenville, Ohio 
 
 Devon 
 
 England 
 
 1,200 - 1,800 
 
 Red 
 
 L. P. Sisson 
 
 Newark, Ohio 
 
 Red Polled 
 
 England 
 
 1,200 - 1,800 
 
 Red 
 
 H. A. Martin 
 
 Gotham, Wis. 
 
 Sussex 
 
 England 
 
 1,200 - 1,800 
 
 Red 
 
 
 
 West 
 Highland 
 
 Scotland 
 
 900- 1,200 
 
 Red, black 
 
 
 
 Fine-Wool Breeds of Sheep 
 
 Name of 
 breed 
 
 Native 
 home 
 
 Color 
 
 of 
 Points 
 
 Weight, 
 
 Secretary 
 
 Address 
 
 American 
 Merino 
 
 Delaine 
 Merino 
 
 Rambouillet 
 
 United 
 States 
 
 United 
 States 
 
 France 
 
 White 
 White 
 White 
 
 100 - 1,S0 
 100 - 150 
 ISO - 185 
 
 Wesley Bishop 
 J. B. Johnson 
 Dwight Lincoln 
 
 Delaware, Ohio 
 
 248 West Pike St.. 
 Canonsburg, Pa. 
 
 Milford Center, Ohio 
 
320 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 Mutton Breeds of Sheep 
 
 Name of 
 breed 
 
 Native 
 home 
 
 Color 
 
 of 
 Points 
 
 Weight 
 
 Secretary 
 
 Address 
 
 Southdown 
 
 England 
 
 Gray 
 
 125 - 175 
 
 Frank S. Springer 
 
 Springfield, III. 
 
 Shropshire 
 
 England 
 
 Dark 
 brown 
 
 155 - 225 
 
 Miss Julia M. Wade 
 
 Lafayette, Ind. 
 
 Hampshire 
 
 England 
 
 Dark 
 brown 
 
 ISO - 250 
 
 Comfort A. Tyler 
 
 310 East Chicago St., 
 Coldwater, Mich. 
 
 Suffolk 
 Down 
 
 England 
 
 Black 
 
 ISO - 240 
 
 
 
 Oxford 
 Down 
 
 England 
 
 Brown 
 
 200 - 325 
 
 W. A. Shafor 
 
 Hamilton, Ohio 
 
 Dorset 
 
 England 
 
 White 
 
 150 - 225 
 
 Joseph E. Wing 
 
 Mechanicsburg, Ohio 
 
 Cheviot 
 
 Scotland 
 England 
 
 White 
 
 150 - 225 
 
 F. E. Dawley 
 
 Fayetteville, N. Y. 
 
 Long wool breeds of sheep, see next page. 
 
 Pure Lard Breeds of Swine 
 
 Name of 
 breed 
 
 Native 
 home 
 
 Size 
 
 Color 
 
 Secretary 
 
 Address 
 
 Poland 
 China 
 
 United States 
 
 Medium 
 
 Black 
 
 W.M.McFadden* 
 
 Union Stock Yards, 
 Chicago, 111. 
 
 Berkshire 
 
 England 
 
 Medium 
 
 Black 
 
 Prank S. Springer 
 
 510 E. Monroe St., 
 Springfield, 111. 
 
 Duroc- 
 
 United States 
 
 Medium 
 
 Red 
 
 J. R. Pfandert 
 
 Peoria, 111. 
 
 Jersey 
 Chester 
 
 White 
 Hampshire 
 
 United States 
 America 
 
 Large 
 
 Medium 
 
 White 
 Black, belt 
 
 J. C. Hiles 
 E. C. Stone 
 
 Cleveland, Ohio 
 Armstrong, 111. 
 
 Essex 
 
 England 
 
 Small 
 
 Black 
 
 F. M. Strout 
 
 McLean, 111. 
 
 Small 
 
 Yorkshire 
 
 England 
 
 Small 
 
 White 
 
 Harry G. Krum 
 
 White Bear Lake, 
 Minn. 
 
 Suffolk 
 
 England 
 
 Small 
 
 White 
 
 
 
 *A. M. Brown, Winchester, Ind. 
 *G. F. Woodworth, Maryville, Mo. 
 tT. P. Pearson, Thorntown, Ind. 
 
APPENDIX 
 
 3^1 
 
 Long-Wool Breeds of Sheep 
 
 Name of 
 breed 
 
 Native 
 home 
 
 Color 
 
 of 
 Points 
 
 Weight 
 
 Secretary 
 
 Address 
 
 Leicester 
 
 England 
 
 White 
 
 180 - 240 
 
 A. J. Temple 
 
 Cameron, 111. 
 
 Cotswold 
 
 England 
 
 White, 
 spotted 
 
 200 - 265 
 
 F. W Harding 
 
 Waukesha, Wis. 
 
 Lincoln 
 
 Blackfaced 
 Highland 
 
 England 
 Scotland 
 
 White, 
 
 mottled 
 Black 
 
 275 - 350 
 
 Bert Smith 
 
 Charlotte, Mich. 
 
 Intermediate Breeds of Swine 
 
 Name of 
 breed 
 
 Native 
 home 
 
 Size 
 
 Color 
 
 Secretary 
 
 Address 
 
 Cheshire 
 
 United States 
 
 Medium 
 
 White 
 
 Ed. S. Hill 
 
 Freeville, N. Y. 
 
 Victoria 
 
 United States 
 
 Medium 
 
 White 
 
 
 
 Middle 
 Yorkshire 
 
 England 
 
 Medium 
 
 White 
 
 
 
 Pure-Bacon Breeds of Swine 
 
 Name of 
 breed 
 
 Native 
 home 
 
 Size 
 
 Color 
 
 Secretary 
 
 Address 
 
 Large 
 
 Yorkshire 
 
 Tamworth 
 
 England 
 England 
 
 Large 
 Large 
 
 White 
 Red 
 
 Harry G. Krum 
 E. N. Ball 
 
 White Bear Lake, 
 Minn. 
 
 Ann Arbor, Mich. 
 
 Egg-Laying Breeds of Fowls 
 
 
 Native home ' 
 
 Number of 
 varieties 
 
 Weight, pounds 
 
 Name of breed 
 
 Male 
 
 Female 
 
 Leghorn 
 
 Minorcas 
 
 Andalusian 
 
 Spanish 
 
 Red Cap 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 Italy 
 
 Minorca Islands 
 
 Andalusia, Spain 
 
 Soain 
 
 England 
 
 Holland 
 
 8 
 3 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 6 
 
 8 - 9 
 6 
 8 
 1\ 
 
 61 - 7J 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
6--^ 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 Meat-Producing Breeds of Fowls 
 
 
 Native home 
 
 Number of 
 varieties 
 
 Weight, pounds 
 
 Name of breed 
 
 Male 
 
 Female 
 
 Brahma 
 
 Cochin 
 
 Langshan 
 
 Asia 
 
 China 
 
 China 
 
 2 
 4 
 2 
 
 11 - 12 
 11 
 9i 
 
 8i - 9i 
 
 General-Purpose Breeds of Fowls 
 
 
 Native home 
 
 Number of 
 varieties 
 
 Weight, pounds 
 
 Name of breed 
 
 Male 
 
 Female 
 
 Plymouth Rock 
 
 Wyandotte 
 
 Java 
 
 Dominique 
 
 Rhode Island Red 
 
 Orpington 
 
 Dorking 
 
 Houdan 
 
 United States 
 United States 
 United States 
 United States 
 United States 
 England 
 England 
 France 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 2 
 1 
 2 
 3 
 3 
 1 
 
 9i 
 8 5 
 9.^ 
 
 8 
 
 81 
 
 10 
 
 7§-9 
 
 7 
 
 7| 
 6| 
 Th 
 6 
 
 61 
 
 8 
 
 6- 7 
 
 6 
 
 Gestation period for farm animals. — For ready refer- 
 ence the following tabulation is arranged, giving the date 
 of service and the date of parturition for the mare, cow, 
 ewe and sow. This provides for a gestation period of 
 340 days for the mare, 280 for the cow, 150 for the ewe 
 and 112 days for the sow. The rows of figures between 
 the lines give the date of service. Directly below is 
 given a corresponding row of birth dates for each class 
 of animal. Thus a mare bred on January i will be due 
 to foal December 6 ; a cow bred February i will be due 
 November 7 ; a ewe bred November i will be due March 
 30; and a sow bred December i will be due March 22. 
 Of course, these figures are only approximately correct, 
 as the period of gestation is exceedingly variable (pp. 
 279 and 280). 
 
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INDEX 
 
 A 
 
 Abdallah 195 
 
 Aberdeen Angus cattle 319 
 
 Abortion 268 
 
 accidental 269 
 
 age immunity 276 
 
 avenue of infection 271 
 
 avoid using infectious bulls.... 272 
 
 carbolic acid for 271 
 
 causes 269 
 
 control 271 
 
 infectious 270 
 
 isolate infected cows 272 
 
 kinds 268 
 
 methylene blue for 271 
 
 prevalence 268 
 
 treatment 272 
 
 use disinfectants freely 272 
 
 Abnormality 82 
 
 Accidental abortion 269 
 
 Accumulative development 166 
 
 in cattle 170 
 
 in trotter 168 
 
 Acquired character 66, 166 
 
 Advanced register 198 
 
 animals without registered par- 
 ents 150 
 
 bulls 147 
 
 bulls, breeding 148 
 
 cows, breeding 142 
 
 established 141 
 
 improvement 145 
 
 number of cows 158 
 
 record 130 
 
 testing 226 
 
 value of 132 
 
 Afterbirth, retained 291 
 
 A. & G. Netherland De Kol 216 
 
 Age and individual merit Ill 
 
 in selection Ill 
 
 Allerton 133 
 
 Alphea 121 
 
 Alphea Czar 121 
 
 American Merino sheep 319 
 
 American saddle horse 316 
 
 Andalusian jack 318 
 
 Angus cattle 319 
 
 Animals, costly 3 
 
 decreasing 3 
 
 distribution 5 
 
 number 2 
 
 propagation 9 
 
 provide clothing 1 
 
 provide food 1 
 
 provide labor 1 
 
 value 2 
 
 Ancestors, comparative value 117 
 
 Ancestral heredity 38 
 
 Appleton & Company 43 
 
 Arabian horse 316 
 
 pony 317 
 
 Artificial impregnation 261 
 
 Asphyxia 298 
 
 Associations, testing 224 
 
 Atavism 40 
 
 cause of variation 98 
 
 Average deviation 85 
 
 Ayrshire cow 318 
 
 standard of performance 128 
 
 B 
 
 Bailey Racing Register 196 
 
 Bakewell, Robert 188 
 
 methods 190 
 
 principles 189 
 
 Banostine Belle De Kol 205 
 
 Bear 280 
 
 Beef-animal development 312 
 
 Beef, cost of production 4 
 
 Belgian horse 317 
 
 Belle Korndyke 164 
 
 performance 129 
 
 Berkshire swine 320 
 
 Beaver 280 
 
 Biparous 281 
 
 Blackfaced Highland sheep 321 
 
 Bladder 11 
 
 Blended inheritance 40 
 
 Breed associations 199 
 
 Breed characteristics, value of 110 
 
 peculiarities 59 
 
 prepotency 152 
 
 Breeder, exceptional 62 
 
 young 227 
 
 Breeders' fancy points 70 
 
 name, significance of 123 
 
 Breeders of breeders 156 
 
 of performers 156 
 
 Breeding, animals, management 256 
 
 capacity, measurement 132 
 
 community 219 
 
 complicated business 220 
 
 cross breeding 179 
 
 grading 178 
 
 inbreeding 181 
 
 line breeding 180 
 
 pure-bred breeding 177 
 
 systems 176 
 
 test valuable 70 
 
 Breeds 316 
 
 formation of 185, 191 
 
 history of 58 
 
 improvement 196 
 
 in selection 106 
 
 origin 187 
 
 poultry 32 1 
 
 327 
 
328 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Page 
 
 Brewer 31 
 
 fundamental propositions 31 
 
 British methods 200 
 
 Broad ligaments 11 
 
 Brown Swiss cow 318 
 
 standard of performance 128 
 
 Buffalo 280 
 
 Building up a herd 207 
 
 Bulls, advanced register 147 
 
 improvement due to 216 
 
 influence of 217 
 
 Business of breeding 219 
 
 Butter fat production increased. 171 
 
 records, influence of 141 
 
 C 
 
 Calf, asphyxia 298 
 
 castration 305 
 
 development 311 
 
 diarrhea 300 
 
 feeding 307 
 
 infectious diarrhea 301 
 
 preparation for birth 285 
 
 Calypso 115 
 
 Canary birds 281 
 
 Care a cause of variation 90 
 
 of breeding animals 256 
 
 Castle, W. E 16 
 
 "Casting the wethers" 291 
 
 Castration a cause of variation. ... 94 
 
 of males 305 
 
 Cat 280 
 
 Catalonian jack 318 
 
 Cattle, cost of production 4 
 
 number 2 
 
 prepotency 158 
 
 prolificacy 242 
 
 value 2 
 
 causes of variations 95 
 
 Cells 12 
 
 centrosome 13 
 
 chromatin 13 
 
 chromosomes 15 
 
 cytoplasm 13 
 
 division 14 
 
 division a cause of variation . . 99 
 
 egg 11, 16 
 
 germ. 15 
 
 mitosis 14 
 
 nucleus 13 
 
 protoplasm 14 
 
 sperm 12, 16 
 
 spermatogenic 12 
 
 Centrosome 13 
 
 Character 65 
 
 acquired 66 
 
 congenital 66 
 
 correlated 66 
 
 defined 65 
 
 dominant 42 
 
 germinal 66 
 
 limit in selection 68 
 
 modifying 166 
 
 recessive 42 
 
 transferred 51 
 
 unit of selection 65 
 
 useful 67 
 
 Page 
 
 Chart of GHsta family 214 
 
 Chemical agents a cause of variation 94 
 
 Cheshire swine 321 
 
 Chester White swine 320 
 
 Cheviot sheep 320 
 
 Chilled lamb 303 
 
 Chromatin 13 
 
 Chromosomes 14, 15 
 
 combination 28, 96 
 
 control of heredity 29 
 
 in maturation 29 
 
 reduction 18 
 
 reduction a cause of variation 96 
 
 theory 27 
 
 theory of sex 233 
 
 Cleveland bay horse. . 316 
 
 Climate a cause of variation 89 
 
 Clothing 1 
 
 Clydesdale horse 317 
 
 Coats 197 
 
 Shorthorn Herd Book 197 
 
 Colantha 4th's Johanna 205 
 
 Color blindness 235 
 
 Colt, asphyxia 298 
 
 castration 305 
 
 constipation 299 
 
 development 310 
 
 diarrhea 300 
 
 feeding 307 
 
 navel infection 300 
 
 scrotal hernia 304 
 
 umbilical hernia 303 
 
 Community breeding 219 
 
 advantages 220 
 
 centers 223 
 
 education features 226 
 
 Conception 258, 260 
 
 Congenital character 66 
 
 Constitutional vigor in selection. .. Ill 
 
 Comet 192 
 
 Constipation 299 
 
 Continuous variation 81 
 
 Co-operative breeding 184 
 
 Correlated characters 66 
 
 Correns 42 
 
 Cotswold sheep 321 
 
 Cow, accumulative development. . . 170 
 
 advanced register 151 
 
 care of 282 
 
 cow pox 295 
 
 dairy, development 141 
 
 difficult parturition 288 
 
 economical usefulness 208 
 
 estrum 258 
 
 eversion of the uterus 291 
 
 garget 294 
 
 gestation 279 
 
 gestation table 323 
 
 inevitability of 207 
 
 mammitis 296 
 
 milk fever 293 
 
 milk secretion altered 296 
 
 pregnancy 158, 279 
 
 prepotency 158 
 
 prolificacy 242 
 
 retained afterbirth 291 
 
 with advanced register records 142 
 with records as breeders 145 
 
INDEX 
 
 329 
 
 Page 
 
 Cow pox 295 
 
 treatment ■'^° 
 
 Cow-testing associations 224 
 
 Creation of new forms 49 
 
 Crops 2 
 
 Cross-breedmg -i '^ 
 
 cause of variation ^o 
 
 Cryptorchids defined 254 
 
 Cystic degeneration 254 
 
 Cytoplasm ^^ 
 
 D 
 
 Dairy cattle, accumulative develop- 
 ment 170 
 
 prepotency 158 
 
 development 141 
 
 economical usefulness 208 
 
 inevitability of 207 
 
 Dam, disease 288 
 
 value of 63 
 
 Darwin, Charles 21 
 
 pangenesis 21 
 
 De Kol 2d 164 
 
 Delaine Merino sheep 319 
 
 Delivering the young 287 
 
 Development 7, 138, 174, 313 
 
 a cause of variation 92 
 
 accumulative 166 
 
 of dairy cow 141 
 
 of trotter 1^8 
 
 of young 306 
 
 Deviation, average 85 
 
 Devon cattle 319 
 
 de Vries 42 
 
 Diarrhea 300 
 
 infectious 301 
 
 Dihybrids 46 
 
 Disease of the dam 288 
 
 of new-born 298 
 
 of reproductive organs 254 
 
 of young animals 298 
 
 Disuse, a cause of variation 93 
 
 Discontinuous variation 82 
 
 Dog 280 
 
 Domestication a necessity 185 
 
 Dominant character 42 
 
 Dorset sheep 320 
 
 Drugs for sterility 255 
 
 Ducks 281 
 
 Duroc Jersey swine 320 
 
 Dutch Belted cow 318 
 
 Dutch Hengerveld De Kol 216 
 
 Dysentery 301 
 
 E 
 
 Eari Korndyke De Kol 216 
 
 Egg cells 11. 16 
 
 when formed 30 
 
 Eggs, cost of production 4 
 
 Egg-producing hens, high 172 
 
 Egg-production 135 
 
 Elephant 280 
 
 Embryo 262 
 
 blastula stage 262 
 
 Page 
 
 Embryo, formation 262 
 
 grastula stage 262 
 
 morula stage 262 
 
 mulberry stage 262 
 
 Environment 6, 313 
 
 and development 7, 138, 174 
 
 Enzyme theory 27 
 
 Equipment expense reduced 220 
 
 Essex swine 320 
 
 Estrum 258 
 
 when appearing 258 
 
 Eiwopa 121 
 
 Evolution of farm animals 186 
 
 Ewe, care of 282 
 
 difficult parturition 288 
 
 estrum 258 
 
 gestation 280 
 
 gestation table 323 
 
 mammitis 296 
 
 milk secretion altered 296 
 
 pregnancy 280 
 
 Excellence, standards of 58 
 
 Exclusive inheritance 40 
 
 Excitability 252 
 
 Exmoor pony 317 
 
 Exposure 7 
 
 Extending improvement 204 
 
 External causes of variation. . .87 to 94 
 Eyes, sore 302 
 
 F 
 
 Fallopian tubes 10 
 
 Family name, value of 122 
 
 Famous grandsires 155 
 
 Famous Holstein-Friesian cows.... 163 
 
 Fancy points, value of 109 
 
 Fashionable breeding 70 
 
 Feeding young 307 
 
 Females, disposal of 224 
 
 organs 10 
 
 reproductive organs, dilation of 256 
 
 size of 252 
 
 Fertility 60 
 
 Fetal movements 278 
 
 Fetus development 258, 263 
 
 position 264 
 
 size 265 
 
 Fertility a cause of variation 99 
 
 Fertilization 20 
 
 cause of variation 97 
 
 combinations of chromosomes . . 97 
 
 influence on sex 233 
 
 Fillies, breeding 240 
 
 Foals, feeding 307 
 
 preparation for 285 
 
 Food 1 
 
 and product 4 
 
 supply a cause of variation... 91 
 
 Formation of breeds 1H5 
 
 new breeds 191 
 
 Foundation animals 209 
 
 Fowls, cost of production 4 
 
 Fox 280 
 
 Freemartins defined 253 
 
 French Canadian cow 318 
 
330 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Page 
 
 French coach horse 316 
 
 French draft horse 317 
 
 French Jockey club 202 
 
 French methods 202 
 
 Frequency curve 86 
 
 Functional variation 80 
 
 G 
 
 Gage 94 
 
 Galloway cattle 319 
 
 Galton 32 
 
 Galton's law of ancestral heredity 39 
 
 Gamete 19 
 
 Garget 294 
 
 treatment 295 
 
 Geese 281 
 
 Gemmules 22 
 
 George Wilkes as a breeder 154 
 
 Germ cells 15 
 
 hereditary bridge 25 
 
 hereditary material 26 
 
 Germ-plasm 22 
 
 German coach horse 316 
 
 Germinal character 66 
 
 Germinal vesicle 16 
 
 Gestation 277 
 
 ewe 280 
 
 duration of 278 
 
 mare 279 
 
 signs 277 
 
 sow 280 
 
 table 322 
 
 Giraffe 280 
 
 Glista Cora's record 213 
 
 Glista Eglantine's record 213 
 
 Glista Ernestine's record 213 
 
 Glista Omicron's record 213 
 
 Glista family 212 
 
 chart 214 
 
 Goat 280 
 
 Grade animals, uses of 209 
 
 Grading.... 178 
 
 Great sires, breeding of 140 
 
 Guernsey cow 318 
 
 standard of performance 128 
 
 Guinea 281 
 
 H 
 
 Hackney horse 316 
 
 Hampshire sheep 320 
 
 Hampshire swine 320 
 
 Heifers breeding 210, 242 
 
 development 311 
 
 Hens, high egg-producing 172 
 
 prolificacy 246 
 
 Heredity 7, 21 
 
 ancestral 38 
 
 basis of control 30 
 
 bridge 25 
 
 carriers 28 
 
 completed 26 
 
 complex 32 
 
 determiners of 21 
 
 in animal breeding 31 
 
 laws of 31 
 
 Heredity, measurement of 132 
 
 modifying characters 167 
 
 prolificacy 246 
 
 Hereditary material 26 
 
 origin 30 
 
 Hereford cattle 319 
 
 Heritage in nuclei 2 7 
 
 Herd, building up 207 
 
 breeding up 212 
 
 difficulties of improvement.... 213 
 
 first generation 210 
 
 Glista family 212 
 
 Hermaphrodites defined 253 
 
 Hernia, scrotal 304 
 
 umbilical 303 
 
 Heterozygous 49 
 
 High- Lawn Hartog De Kol 205 
 
 Hill 94 
 
 History of the breeds 58 
 
 Hog, see swine. 
 
 Holstein-Friesian cattle origin 193 
 
 centers 223 
 
 cows 318 
 
 scale of points 108 
 
 yearly standard 128 
 
 7-day standard 127 
 
 Homozygous 49 
 
 Horned Dorset sheep 320 
 
 Horses, breeding the filly 240 
 
 cost of production 4 
 
 development. , 310 
 
 estrum 258 
 
 in productive industry 1 
 
 number 2 
 
 pregnancy 279 
 
 prepotency 153 
 
 prolificacy 240 
 
 telegony 267 
 
 value 2 
 
 Hubback 192 
 
 Human population 2 
 
 Hybrids often sterile 253 
 
 I 
 
 Id 23 
 
 Idleness and overfeeding 250 
 
 Impregnation, artificial 261 
 
 Improvement, basis of 74 
 
 due to prepotency 152 
 
 due to selection 137 
 
 extended 204 
 
 methods employed 174 
 
 needed 203 
 
 results accomplished 171 
 
 a slow process 173 
 
 takes time 213 
 
 Improving farm animals 6 
 
 Inbreeding 181 
 
 Inbred pedigree 119 
 
 Indian pony 317 
 
 Individual merit in selection 102 
 
 Individual prepotency 153 
 
 Infectious abortion 270 
 
 Inheritable variation 77 
 
 Inheritance, blended 40 
 
 exclusive 40 
 
INDEX 
 
 331 
 
 Page 
 
 Inheritance, particulate 41 
 
 sex limited 234 
 
 Injuries a cause of variation 93 
 
 Internal causes of variation. .95 to 101 
 
 Intra-uterine influence 266 
 
 Irritability 252 
 
 Italian jack 318 
 
 J 
 
 Jersey cow 318 
 
 standard of performance 128 
 
 Jennet 280 
 
 Johanna De Kol Von Beers 205 
 
 "Joint ill" 300 
 
 Judge, value of 102 
 
 Jupiter 121 
 
 E 
 
 Kerry cow 318 
 
 Kidney 11 
 
 King of Pontlacs 115 
 
 K. P. Pontiac Lass 205 
 
 L 
 
 Labor 1 
 
 Lamb asphyxia 298 
 
 breeding 244 
 
 castration 305 
 
 chilled 303 
 
 development 312 
 
 diarrhea 300 
 
 feeding 307 
 
 preparation for 285 
 
 sore eyes 302 
 
 sore mouth 302 
 
 Large Yorkshire swine 321 
 
 Law of ancestral heredity 38 
 
 of heredity 31, 42 
 
 Ledy 121 
 
 Leicester sheep 321 
 
 Leisering 11 
 
 Ligaments, broad 10 
 
 Lincoln sheep 321 
 
 Line breeding 180 
 
 Lion 280 
 
 Live stock shows 199 
 
 Locality a cause of variation 89 
 
 Longevity 60 
 
 cause of variation 99 
 
 Lord Netherland De Kol 116 
 
 performance 130 
 
 M 
 
 Macmillan Co 13 
 
 Majorca jack 318 
 
 Male, castration 305 
 
 size of 252 
 
 Malformation 82 
 
 Maltese jack 318 
 
 Management, a cause of variation 90 
 
 of breeding animals 256 
 
 Mating, suitability for 64 
 
 Page 
 
 Maturation 18 
 
 cause of variation 95 
 
 oogenesis 19 
 
 spermatogenesis 19 
 
 Mammitis 296 
 
 treatment 296 
 
 Mare, care of 282 
 
 difficult parturition 288 
 
 gestation table 323 
 
 mammitis 296 
 
 milk secretion altered 296 
 
 pregnancy 279 
 
 market facilities increased 222 
 
 Mean 84 
 
 Meat, producing 135 
 
 Mendel, G. J 42 
 
 Mendel's law, application 50 
 
 creation of new forms 49 
 
 dihybrids 46 
 
 dominants 45 
 
 gamete 43 
 
 of heredity 42 
 
 limitations 54 
 
 monohybrids 42 
 
 possibilities 52 
 
 recessives 45 
 
 reversion 53 
 
 transferring characters 51 
 
 zygote 44 
 
 Mendelism a cause of variation.... 98 
 
 Mendelian principles '. 48 
 
 Mercury 121 
 
 Merit in selection 102 
 
 Metamorphosis 12 
 
 Mexican pony 317 
 
 Middle Yorkshire 321 
 
 Milk, cost of production 4 
 
 cisterns 12 
 
 glands 12 
 
 gland, number 12 
 
 secretion altered 296 
 
 Milk fever 293 
 
 treatment 294 
 
 Mitosis 14 
 
 Mode 84 
 
 Monohybrids 42 
 
 Monstrosity 83 
 
 Mouth, sore 302 
 
 Morgan horse 316 
 
 Multiparous 281 
 
 Mutants 82 
 
 Mutations 82 
 
 Mutation a cause of variation 93 
 
 N 
 
 Navel infection 300 
 
 Neck of womb 10 
 
 Need of improvement 203 
 
 Netherland Nemus 217 
 
 New-born, disease 298 
 
 New forms 47 
 
 fixing 49 
 
 Nick 64 
 
 Non-inheritable variation 77 
 
 Nonpariel Marquis 116 
 
 Nucleus 13 
 
Z2>2 
 
 INDEX 
 
 O 
 
 OflFspring, development 306 
 
 disease 298 
 
 high 37 
 
 higher than parents 36 
 
 lower than parents 36 
 
 medium most frequent 36 
 
 number at birth 281 
 
 relative development 309 
 
 similar to parents 34 
 
 unlike parents 35 
 
 Oogenesis 11 
 
 Organs, Fallopian tubes 10 
 
 female 10 
 
 male 12 
 
 OS uteri 10 
 
 ovaries 10 
 
 reproductive 10 
 
 vagina 10 
 
 uterus 10 
 
 vulva 10 
 
 Origin of breeds 187 
 
 Orlofl horse 316 
 
 Os uteri 10 
 
 opening 256 
 
 Ova 11 
 
 Oviducts 10 
 
 Ovulation 259 
 
 Ovaries 10 
 
 Overfeeding and idleness 250 
 
 Overwork and adverse conditions.. 250 
 
 Oxford sheep 193 
 
 Oxford Down sheep 320 
 
 P 
 
 Pacer, accumulative development.. 168 
 
 Pacing standard 127 
 
 Pangenesis 21 
 
 Parents influence young 306 
 
 Particulate inheritance 40 
 
 Parturition, difficult 288 
 
 normal 286 
 
 preparation for 285 
 
 signs of 284 
 
 wrong presentation 290 
 
 Pea hen 281 
 
 Pearson 38 
 
 Pedigree 196 
 
 Alphea Czar 121 
 
 and performance 133 
 
 and record of performance. ... 131 
 
 Calypso 115 
 
 Comet 192 
 
 contents of 114 
 
 form of 114 
 
 inbred 119 
 
 in selection 114 
 
 King of Pontiacs 115 
 
 Lord Netheriand De Kol 116 
 
 Nonpariel Marquis 116 
 
 origin 196 
 
 Polonius 119 
 
 showing value of ancestors .... 118 
 
 tracing 115 
 
 with exceptional animal 121 
 
 writing 1 15, 1 16 
 
 Page 
 
 Percheron horse 317 
 
 Performance 59 
 
 and prepotency 161 
 
 and selection 125 
 
 and vigor 134 
 
 Ayrshire 128 
 
 breeding test 70 
 
 Brown Swiss 128 
 
 Guernsey 128 
 
 Holstein-Friesian 127 
 
 Jersey 128 
 
 pacing standard 127 
 
 record of 131 
 
 standards of 125 
 
 trotting staniard 126 
 
 value of in selection 131 
 
 Pick.W. M 197 
 
 Picks Turf Register 197 
 
 Pig, asphyxia 298 
 
 castration 305 
 
 constipation 299 
 
 development 312 
 
 diarrhea 300 
 
 feeding 307 
 
 preparation for 286 
 
 scrotal hernia 304 
 
 sore mouth 302 
 
 thumps 203 
 
 umbilical hernia 303 
 
 Pigeons 281 
 
 Plymouth Rock barring 235 
 
 Poitou jack 318 
 
 Poland China swine 320 
 
 Polled Durham cattle 319 
 
 Polonius 119 
 
 Pontiac Belle De Kol 205 
 
 Pontiac Clothilde De Kol 2d 205 
 
 Pontiac Lady Korndyke 205 
 
 Population, cow 2 
 
 horse 2 
 
 human 2 
 
 poultry 2 
 
 sheep 2 
 
 swine 2 
 
 Poultry, breeds of . . . 32 
 
 cost of production 4 
 
 number 2 
 
 prolificacy 246 
 
 value 2 
 
 Pregnancy 277 
 
 ass 280 
 
 cat 280 
 
 beaver 280 
 
 buffalo 280 
 
 ewe 280 
 
 giraffe 280 
 
 dog 280 
 
 elephant 280 
 
 lion 280 
 
 mare 279 
 
 signs 277 
 
 squirrel 280 
 
 rabbit 280 
 
 sow 280 
 
 wolf 280 
 
 Pregnant animals, care of 282 
 
 Premature birth 268 
 
INDEX 
 
 333 
 
 Prepotency 
 
 and performers 
 
 breed 
 
 dairy cattle 
 
 individual 
 
 in horses 
 
 in sex 
 
 Presentation, normal 
 
 Prince Ybma Spofford De Kol. 
 Prolificacy 
 
 cumulative effect 
 
 desirable ._ 
 
 factors influencing 
 
 heredity 
 
 in cattle 
 
 in horses 
 
 in poultry 
 
 in sheep 
 
 in swine 
 
 Progression 
 
 Propagation of farm animals 
 
 Protoplasm 
 
 Pure-bred animal, economic useful 
 ness 
 
 percentage of 
 
 proportion of 
 
 uses of 
 
 breeding 
 
 Purposes of breeding 
 
 Page 
 152 
 161 
 152 
 158 
 153 
 153 
 165 
 286 
 216 
 237 
 239 
 238 
 237 
 246 
 242 
 240 
 246 
 243 
 244 
 37 
 9 
 14 
 
 208 
 124 
 123 
 20S 
 177 
 170 
 
 Qualitative variation 79 
 
 Quantitative variation 79 
 
 Racing Register 196 
 
 Rabbit 280 
 
 Rambouillet sheep 319 
 
 Rat 280 
 
 Recessive character 42 
 
 Records reduced 169 
 
 Red Polled cattle 319 
 
 Reduction of chromosomes 18 
 
 Reproductive organs 10 
 
 diseased 254 
 
 female 10 
 
 male 12 
 
 Register, advanced 198 
 
 Registration rules 197 
 
 Regression 37 
 
 Relative development 309 
 
 Results accomplished 171 
 
 Retained afterbirth 291 
 
 Reversion 40 
 
 and Mendelism 53 
 
 cause of variation 98 
 
 Rhea 121 
 
 Ridglings defined 254 
 
 Royal Agricultural Report 188 
 
 Running records reduced 173 
 
 Saturn 121 
 
 Sarpendon 121 
 
 Page 
 
 Scrotal hernia 304 
 
 Selection 8, 56,313 
 
 and improvement 137 
 
 basis of 74 
 
 based on performance 69 
 
 breeder a judge 102 
 
 breed peculiarities 59 
 
 complicated by fancy points . . 70 
 
 exceptional breeder 62 
 
 fashionable breeding 70 
 
 fertility 60 
 
 history of breeds 58 
 
 large numbers important 61 
 
 limit number of characters .... 68 
 
 limit to useful characters 67 
 
 longevity 60 
 
 means of improvement 211 
 
 nick 64 
 
 object 56 
 
 passing fads 73 
 
 performance 125 
 
 standards of 103 
 
 standards of excellence 58 
 
 suitability for mating 64 
 
 uniformity in type 106 
 
 unit of 65 
 
 value of breeds 106 
 
 value of breed characteristics. . 110 
 
 value of dam 63 
 
 value of fancy points 109 
 
 value of merit 102 
 
 value of pedigree 114 
 
 value of record 131 
 
 value of sire 63 
 
 value of types 103 
 
 value of vigor Ill 
 
 vigor 60 
 
 Sex, equality 229 
 
 in breeding 229 
 
 control not desirable 235 
 
 Sex determination 229 
 
 alternating ova 230 
 
 age and vigor 231 
 
 chromosome theory 233 
 
 external 229 
 
 female testicle 230 
 
 fertilization on 233 
 
 food supply 231 
 
 internal 231 
 
 male testicle 230 
 
 sexual excitement 231 
 
 time of breeding 230 
 
 Sex differences slight 232 
 
 Sex-limited inheritance 234 
 
 Sex prepotency 165 
 
 Sexual use, excessive 251 
 
 Sheep, cost of production 4 
 
 number 2 
 
 prolificacy 243 
 
 value 2 
 
 Shetland pony 317 
 
 Shire horse 317 
 
 Shropshire sheep 320 
 
 Shorthorn cattle 192, 319 
 
 Show awards, value of 135 
 
 Sir Beets De Kol 216 
 
 Sire, influence 63, 217 
 
334 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Page 
 
 Sire, value of 63 
 
 great 139 
 
 of breeders 159 
 
 of performers 159 
 
 Small Hopes Korndyke DeKol.... 217 
 
 Small Yorkshire swine 320 
 
 Southdown sheep 320 
 
 Sow, care of 282 
 
 difficult parturition 289 
 
 estrum 258 
 
 gestation 280 
 
 gestation table 323 
 
 mammitis 296 
 
 pregnancy 280 
 
 with secretion altered 296 
 
 Sore eyes 302 
 
 Sore mouth 302 
 
 Sperm cells 12, 16 
 
 when secreted 30 
 
 Spermatogenesis 12 
 
 Spermatozoa 12 
 
 Sports 82 
 
 Squirrel 280 
 
 Standard of perfection in selection 
 
 108, 125 
 
 Holstein-Friesian 7-day 127 
 
 Standards of performance 125 
 
 pacing 127 
 
 trotting 126 
 
 Standardbred horse 194 
 
 origin and descent 195 
 
 Sterility 248 
 
 causes 249 
 
 excessive sexual use 251 
 
 excitability 252 
 
 hybrids 253 
 
 idleness 250 
 
 importance 248 
 
 irritability 252 
 
 overfeeding 250 
 
 prevalence 248 
 
 tirhidity 252 
 
 use of drugs 255 
 
 use of yeast solution 256 
 
 Stock shows 199 
 
 System of breeding 176 
 
 co-operative breeling 184 
 
 cross breeding 179 
 
 breeding from best 183 
 
 grading 178 
 
 inbreeding 181 
 
 Hie breeding 180 
 
 pure bred breeding 177 
 
 Suffolk Down sheep 320 
 
 Suffolk horse 317 
 
 Suffolk swine 320 
 
 Sussex cattle 319 
 
 Swine, cost of production 4 
 
 number 2 
 
 prolificacy 244 
 
 value 2 
 
 T 
 
 Table of breeds 316 
 
 Tamworth swine 321 
 
 Telegony 267 
 
 Page 
 
 Testicles 12 
 
 Testing associations 224 
 
 Thoroughbred horse 192, 316 
 
 Time records, influence of 138 
 
 Timidity 252 
 
 Thumps 303 
 
 Tracing a pedigree 115 
 
 Training, a cause of variation 92 
 
 and developing. . . . 7, 138, 174, 313 
 
 the trotter 310 
 
 Transmitting capacity 132 
 
 Triple-purpose cow 52 
 
 Trotter, accumulative development 168 
 
 development 138 
 
 Trotting records reduced 169 
 
 standard 126 
 
 Turkey 281 
 
 Type, deviation from 85 
 
 finding 84 
 
 mean 84 
 
 mode 84 
 
 uniformity in selection 106 
 
 utility of in selection 105 
 
 value of in selection 103 
 
 U 
 
 Udder. 11 
 
 Umbilical hernia 303 
 
 Uniformity favored 61, 221 
 
 Uni parous 281 
 
 Use a cause of variation 93 
 
 Uterine influence 266 
 
 telegony 267 
 
 Uterus 10 
 
 eversion 291 
 
 inflammation 293 
 
 V 
 
 Vagina 10 
 
 inflammation 293 
 
 Valdessa Scott 2d 205 
 
 Value of ancestors 117 
 
 Variability 85 
 
 Variation 74 
 
 abnormality 82 
 
 among heavy horses 78 
 
 among light horses 75 
 
 basis of improvement 74 
 
 breeders control 95 
 
 causes of 87 to 101 
 
 continuous 81 
 
 degrees of 81 
 
 discontinuous 82 
 
 finding type 84 
 
 functional 80 
 
 general 74 
 
 inheritable 77 
 
 in pattern 81 
 
 malformation 84 
 
 mean 82 
 
 method of study 83 
 
 mode 84 
 
 monstrosity 83 
 
 mutation 82 
 
 non inheritable 77 
 
INDEX 
 
 335 
 
 Variation, nature of 76 
 
 qualitative 79 
 
 quantitative 79 
 
 sport 82 
 
 Victoria swine 321 
 
 Vigor 60 
 
 and performance 134 
 
 in selection Ill 
 
 von Tschermak 42 
 
 Vulva 10 
 
 W 
 
 Weatherby 197 
 
 Weatherby's General Stud Book. . . 197 
 
 Weismann, A 21 
 
 Weismann's germ plasm 22 
 
 Welsh pony 317 
 
 West Highland cattle 319 
 
 "White scours" 301 
 
 WilUams, Dr. W. L 272 
 
 Page 
 
 Wilson, James 51 
 
 Wolf 280 
 
 Womb 10 
 
 neck of 10 
 
 opening 256 
 
 Wool producing 135 
 
 Writing a pedigree 115 
 
 Wrong presentation 290 
 
 Y 
 
 Yeast solution for sterility 256 
 
 Yearly production for cows 205 
 
 Young breeders 227 
 
 delivering 287 
 
 disease 298 
 
 number at birth 281 
 
 2 
 
 Zygote 19 
 
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The Management and Feeding of Cattle 
 
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 nical terms, and is easily understood by the average farm 
 boy. The book is just the thing for the every-day dairy- 
 man, and should be in the hands of every farmer in the 
 country. Illustrated. 5x7 inches. 100 pages. Cloth. Net, $0.50. 
 
 A Dairy Laboratory Guide 
 
 By H. E. Ross. While the book is intended primarily 
 for use in the laboratory, it should be of value to the 
 practical dairyman. The time has come when the suc- 
 cessful dairyman must study his business from a purely 
 scientific point of view, and in this book the scientific 
 principles, upon which dairy industry is based, are stated 
 clearly and simply, and wherever it is possible, these prin- 
 ciples are illustrated by practical problems and examples. 
 90 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth Net, $0.50 
 
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