LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 
 
 T3 en 
 
 Chap, Copyright N<». 
 
 Shelf ^\A) I \ 
 
 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 
 
MAR 5 1901 
 
ENGINEERING 
 
 FOR STEAM ENGINEERS. 
 
 WRITTEN FOR THE BENEFIT OF THOSE MEN IN 
 
 CHARGE OF STEAM PLANTS WHO WISH TO 
 
 IMPROVE THEIR KNOWLEDGE OF STEAM 
 
 ENGINEERING IN ORDER TO ENABLE 
 THEM TO PASS EXAMINATIONS WHERE A 
 LICENSE IS REQUIRED, AND TO DO MORE SAT- 
 ISFACTORY WORK WHEREVER A STEAM ENGINE IS 
 
 FOUND. 
 
 BY W. H. WAKEMAN. 
 
 AUTHOR OF "MODERN EXAMINATIONS OF STEAM ENGINEERS," "PRACTICAL 
 
 GUIDE FOR FIREMEN." AND NUMEROUS ARTICLES FOR THE 
 
 MECHANICAL PRESS. 
 
 FIRST EDITION, ONE THOUSAND gO?I,ES, 
 
 • - 
 
 1 - > 
 
 NEW HAVEN, CONN., U. S. A. 
 
 PUBLISHED BY THE AUTHOR* 
 1901. 
 
THE LIBRARY OF 
 
 CONGRESS. 
 Two Copies Received 
 
 MAR. 5 1901 
 
 Copyright entry 
 
 CLASS Q. **W. No. 
 
 COPY B. 
 
 
 COPYRIGHTED 
 
 By W. H. WAKEMAN, 
 1900. 
 
 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 5r 
 
 h3 
 
PREFACEo 
 
 The adoption of compound, triple and quadruple 
 expansion engines, necessitating the use of high 
 steam pressures for their economical operation, the 
 rapid increase in the number of high speed, direct 
 connected engines, and the many appliances now 
 found in every first-class plant for the saving of fu- 
 el, the rapid generation of steam, and for increas- 
 ing the life of the machinery, have added much to 
 the care and responsibility of the steam engineer, 
 so that in order to be competent for this kind of 
 work means much more at the present time than it 
 did a few years ago. 
 
 In order to keep abreast of the times it becomes 
 necessary for those who are in charge of steam plants 
 not only to get as much experience as possible them- 
 selves, but also to profit by the experience of others, 
 as in this way it is possible for us to steer clear of 
 the pitfalls which have made failures of the lives of . 
 others, and have rendered their efforts for advance- 
 ment of no avail. 
 
 The study of well written books, treating of sub- 
 jects that interest the steam engineer 5 is one of the 
 most advisable ways of gaining knowledge, and that 
 this volume may be considered an addition to those 
 works which have proved to be of interest and value 
 is the sincere wish of 
 
 THE AUTHOR. 
 
 New Haven, Conn. 
 
ENGINE ROOM 
 OF THE BOARDMAN MANUAL TRAINING HIGH SCHOOL, 
 NEW HAVEN, CONN. 
 The "Workshop" of the Author. 
 
DEDICATION 
 
 To those owners of steam plants, Master Mechan- 
 ics of factories, Chief Engineers in charge of steam 
 machinery, and Mechanical Engineers engaged in 
 designing and erecting plants, who have ever been 
 ready and willing to offer substantial encourage- 
 ment to me while employed in work that is for the 
 purpose of shortening the distance between the of- 
 fice and the engine room, improving the condition 
 of the steam engineer, and affording greater secu- 
 rity to those who live and work in the vicinity of 
 steam boilers, this book is respectfully dedicated 
 by 
 
 The Author. 
 
 New Haven, Conn. 
 

 
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ENGINEERING PRACTICE AND THEORY. 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER i. 
 The steam engineer holds a responsible position. 
 He must know more than just enough to start and 
 stop his engine. What constitutes a ( 'practical 
 engineer. ' ' The "theoretical engineer, ' ' and why- 
 he is so called. A combination of the two is de- 
 sirable. Different kinds of steam and why they 
 are so called. How water circulates in a boiler. 
 The unit of measurement. Pounds pressure and 
 what the term means. Molecules of water Heat 
 a form of motion. 
 
 CHAPTER 2. 
 Safe pressures for our boilers and how to calculate 
 them. Strength of joints. Pitch of rivets and 
 thickness of plates. Why braces are used. Pitch 
 of braces. Hollow stay bolts and their uses. 
 Water legs. Fusible plugs and where they should 
 be located. Troublesome plugs and a heroic 
 remedy. A comparison. 
 
 CHAPTER 3. 
 
 Safety valves and their location. Rules. Distance 
 from fulcrum to weight. What is the fulcrum. 
 Why this rule is given. Proving the rule. De- 
 termining the weight to be put on the lever. Cal- 
 culating the pressure at which a valve will lift. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Length of lever. Determining the proper area of 
 safety valve. Lever and pop valves. Caring 
 for safety valves. 
 
 CHAPTER 4. 
 Heating surface of boilers and how to calculate it. 
 Water tube boilers. What is the horse power of 
 a boiler. Heating surface necessary. Latent, 
 sensible and total heat. Proving the latent heat 
 theory. How to condudl a test. Equivalent 
 weight of wood and coal. 
 
 CHAPTER 5. 
 Calculating the duty of a boiler. Conducting a cal- 
 orimeter test, and determining the water in steam. 
 Water evaporated per pound of coal, and per 
 pound of combustible. Equivalent evaporation. 
 A problem in proportion. Another rule to pro- 
 duce the same result. Percentage of moisture 
 in steam. Its effect on the process. Accounting 
 for the heat absorbed. 
 
 CHAPTER 6. 
 Two standards. A comparison. Heat units re- 
 quired to evaporate one pound of water. Either 
 standard may be used. Actual horse power of 
 boilers. Actual and assumed conditions. Forc- 
 ing boilers. Changing firemen often. Refusing 
 to carry overpressure. A live engineer better than 
 a dead hero. Penalty for carrying excessive pres- 
 sure. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER 7. 
 
 Beginning of the day's work. Warming the cylin- 
 der. The air pump should be started. Opera- 
 ting the valve gear by hand. Starting a com- 
 pound condensing engine. Water in the cylinder. 
 The steam is admitted slowly. Calculating the 
 power of engines. Single and double acting en- 
 gines. 
 
 CHAPTER 8. 
 
 The indicator a recording steam gage. The pres- 
 sure and the time important factors. A defective 
 diagram. The loop and what it shows. The 
 crosshead and the indicator drum. The mean ef- 
 fective pressure. Dividing the diagram. Any 
 accurate rule or scale may be used 
 
 CHAPTER 9. 
 Too slow a process for this age. Planimeters and 
 their use. Power of a double engine. The com- 
 pound engine and how to calculate its power. All 
 of the steam not used. Objedl in building com- 
 pound engines. Expansion in a single cylinder. 
 Two kinds of constants. Horse power constant 
 of the low pressure cylinder of a compound en- 
 gine. 
 
 CHAPTER 10. 
 Estimating the power of a compound engine by us- 
 ing one cylinder. Proportion of the two pressures. 
 Adding them together. An illustration. Volumes 
 
CONTEXTS. 
 
 of the two cylinders. Ratio of expansion for each 
 cylinder. Adding the clearance. Another rule 
 for the combined ratio of expansion. Ratio di- 
 rectly from the diagrams. 
 
 CHAPTER ii. 
 Receivers. Great variation in sizes. Ratio of cyl- 
 inders. One to seven. Converting a simple into 
 a compound engine. When it will pay. Tandem 
 and cross compound engines. Advantages and 
 disadvantages. The steeple compound engine. 
 Engineers have a choice of styles. 
 
 CHAPTER 12. 
 Horse power of a triple expansion engine. Care 
 must be exercised when taking diagrams. The 
 load will change. One indicator may answer ev- 
 ery purpose. Calculating the combined ratio of 
 expansion from the diagram. Making the'calcu- 
 lation without using the intermediate cylinder. 
 Four cylinder triple expansion engines. 
 
 CHAPTER 13. 
 Quadruple expansion engines. Condensing and non- 
 condensing. Total expansion rate. Several forms 
 of condensers. Advantages and disadvantages. 
 The hot well. Air and circulating pumps. Us- 
 ing condensing water several times over. Cool- 
 ing towers. Great economy of water. Intelli- 
 gent supervision needed. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER 14. 
 
 Weight of water. Temperature at maximum dens- 
 ity. A pint and a pound. Foot pounds. Duty 
 of a pumping engine. 100 pounds of coal and 
 1000 pounds of steam. Various heights of reser- 
 voirs. Pressure and height of a column of water. 
 Weight and fri<5tion. Indicating the water cyl- 
 inder. Improvements in pumping engines. 
 
 CHAPTER 15. 
 
 When it is not necessary to weigh the coal. Time 
 required to use iooo pounds of steam. Steam and 
 water. Pounds of coal burned and pounds of wa- 
 ter evaporated. The Corliss pumping engine. 
 The George F. Blake engine. The Allis triple 
 expansion pumping engine. The high duty at- 
 tachment on the Worthington pumping engine. 
 Philosophy of its operation. Result when the 
 water main bursts. The engine at New Haven > 
 Conn. 
 
 CHAPTER 16. 
 The pressure that a pump will work against. Boil- 
 er feeders. Pressure required to run a pump. 
 Diameter of water piston required. Diameter of 
 steam piston. Four rules and their application. 
 Piston, plunger and power pumps. Capacity of 
 pumps. Size of pump required to raise a given 
 quantity of water. Diameter of water pipe. Speed 
 
CONTEXTS. 
 
 of water in pipes. Air-tight covering for suction 
 pipes. 
 
 CHAPTER 17. 
 Lifting and nonlifting injectors. Double tube, sin- 
 gle tube, fixed and automatic injectors. Peculiar- 
 ities of the different kinds. Effect of varying 
 steam pressure. Internal parts must bear a cer- 
 tain relation to each other. Wear of tubes and 
 accumulation of scale. Cleaning an injector. It 
 must be properly connected. Cause of failure to 
 force hot water. A high and a low lift. Taking 
 water under pressure. Operating against a higher 
 pressure than is carried on the boiler. Theory of 
 the injector. Loss of heat. Calculating the ve- 
 locity of steam. Discharge of steam through an 
 orifice. Weight of steam and of water delivered 
 to the boiler. Foot valves. 
 
 CHAPTER 18. 
 
 Object sought in covering a steam pipe. Amount 
 of steam condensed in a pipe. Square feet of sur- 
 face and degrees difference of temperature. 
 Amount of coal wasted. Porous coverings. Sen- 
 sible and latent heat. Heat lost. Equivalent in 
 horse power. Saving effected by using pipe cov- 
 ering. 
 
 CHAPTER 19. 
 Heating with exhaust steam. Removing cylinder 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 oil and grease. Live steam heating. Varying 
 amounts needed. Reducing valves. Back pres- 
 sure on the piston and pressure in the system. 
 Loss of heat in doing work. Power used. Steam 
 used per minute. Heat units disappear in doing 
 work. The indirect system of heating with forced 
 blast. 
 
 CHAPTER 20. 
 Reducing pressure by the engine and by the reduc- 
 ing valve. Temperature of steam after passing 
 the reducing valve. Explanation of the phenom- 
 enon. Specific heat of steam. Condensation in 
 the radiators. Open tanks. Return traps. The- 
 ory of their operation. Receivers and pumps. 
 Heating the cold water. Steam users should ap- 
 preciate a good engineer. 
 
 A NATURAL CONSEQUENCE. 
 When people visit the engine and boiler rooms of 
 a mill, factory or electric station, they form opin- 
 ions of the ability and general qualifications of the 
 engineer in charge, and these opinions are based on 
 the general appearance of the rooms and the ma- 
 chinery in them, therefore every engineer should 
 care for his plant to the best of his ability, regard- 
 less of the compensation received, for this is the best 
 way to secure a better situation. 
 
When an engine revolves in the direction indicat- 
 ed by the arrow, it runs "over." This is theprop- 
 er way for an engine to run. 
 
 i 
 
 :3 
 
 1 k ^ l^ 
 
 When an engine revolves in the direction indicat- 
 ed by the arrow, it runs "under." This plan should 
 be avoided whenever it is possible to do so. 
 
CHAPTER i. 
 
 DUTIES OF THE STEAM ENGINEER. 
 
 When we consider the great variety of conditions 
 under which the steam engineer of the present time 
 is called upon to pursue his labors, the different 
 kinds of machines that he is expected to understand, 
 and the weight of responsibility that rests upon 
 him, the necessity of a thorough knowledge of the 
 principles which govern the action of all his ma- 
 chines and appliances is at once recognized. 
 
 It is not enough for him to know how to start and 
 stop his engine day after day, but he must under- 
 stand its construction, and also have a complete 
 knowledge of his boilers and every adjundl of his 
 plant, not only that he may properly care for this 
 important machinery, but that it may be operated 
 in the most economical way, and when repairs be- 
 come necessary they may be made in the best and 
 least expensive manner. 
 
 To do all that is required along these lines calls 
 foi a cool head, steady nerves, good judgment and 
 that self-confidence which only comes through a 
 knowledge of every detail of the work in hand. 
 
l6 ENGINEERING PRACTICE 
 
 This constitutes what is very properly called a 
 c 'practical engineer. n When a man thoroughly 
 understands why it is that certain causes produce 
 certain effects throughout the plant, it is proper to 
 call him a "theoretical engineer," and a combina- 
 tion of the two makes a very desirable man to have 
 in charge of a steam plant. 
 
 We frequently find ourselves unable to readily re- 
 ply to questions, the answers to which we naturally 
 think are familiar to us, but find it otherwise at 
 times. 
 
 Every engineer knows what steam is, but not all 
 can define it when the matter is referred to them. 
 Steam is an elastic fluid resulting from the combi- 
 nation of heat with water. When steam is in con- 
 tact with the- water from which it was generated, 
 but without water held mechanically in suspension, 
 its temperature corresponds to its pressure, and it 
 is known as saturated or dry steam. 
 
 If it holds water in suspension it is called wet 
 steam, but if subjected to more heat after being sep- 
 arated from the water that it was generated from, 
 its temperature is then increased, without producing 
 a corresponding increase of pressure, and it is then 
 called superheated steam. In other words, super- 
 heated steam has a higher temperature than its pres- 
 sure calls for, and in this condition it is nearly a 
 perfect gas, so that it is sometimes called gaseous 
 steam. 
 
AND THEORY. 1 7 
 
 When we build a fire under a horizontal boiler the 
 water directly above the fire is heated first, and as 
 a natural consequence rises to the highest point pos- 
 sible. The space vacated by this water is at once 
 filled by water rushing forward from the rear part 
 of the boiler, and the space vacated by this water is 
 in turn filled by the heated water that first arose to 
 the surface. This process will be continued as long 
 as heat is applied to the water. 
 
 In order that we may make necessary calculations 
 it is advisable for us to have some standard unit for 
 the measurement of heat, and this is known as the 
 British Thermal Unit, and is often designated by 
 its initial letters B. T. U. 
 
 It means the amount of heat required to raise the 
 temperature of one pound of water at 39 Fah. one 
 degree, or from 39 to 40 . It is assumed that the 
 temperature of the water is 39 because at that 
 point it has attained its maximum density. The 
 Universal Heat Unit would be a more appropriate 
 name. 
 
 After a great many heat units have been added 
 to the water in the boiler, steam is generated, and 
 as more heat is applied the pressure increases, the 
 amount being indicated by the pointer of the steam 
 gage. Here another problem is presented, for we 
 may be asked to explain what it means when the 
 pointer indicates 50 pounds pressure. We should 
 
i8 ENGINEERING PRACTICE 
 
 reply that it means 50 pounds to the square inch on 
 the surface of the boiler, and the pounds are so 
 much weight just as when tea and sugar are weighed. 
 A column of water 1 inch square and 27.7 inches 
 high at a temperature of 62 weighs one pound, and 
 50 pounds would be 50 x 27.7 = 1,385 inches, or 
 115 feet high. If we had suitable appliances for 
 holding this in place, and allowing the steam pres- 
 sure to act on the bottom of it, we could measure 
 the pressure by observing the height, but this would 
 be higher than some of the water gages on vertical 
 boilers, and they are too high for convenience. 
 
 If a steam gage was connected at the base of this 
 column it would indicate 50 pounds, and if the size 
 of the column was changed the pointer would still 
 indicate 50 pounds as long as the height remained 
 the same, for the simple reason that the height in- 
 dicates the pressure per square inch. 
 
 A molecule of water is the smallest particle of 
 water that can exist, and when water is at 39 Fah. 
 it is at its maximum density, because these mole- 
 cules lie as closely together as possible. 
 
 If heat is applied until 212 at sea level is reached 
 they continue to separate, and if more heat is then 
 applied they are forced much farther apart, and the 
 water is turned into steam. The pressure is light 
 at first, but as more water is evaporated in a closed 
 vessel the pressure increases, the molecules are 
 
AND THEORY. I( j 
 
 forced closer together, and the steam becomes more 
 dense. Heat is a form of motion, hence the greater 
 the temperature the more rapid will be the motion 
 of the molecules. 
 
 A TYPE OF BOILER THAT WILL NOT BECOME OBSO- 
 LETE FOR MANY YEARS TO COME. 
 
20 ENGINEERING PRACTICE 
 
 CHAPTER 2. 
 SAFE WORKING PRESSURE. STAY BOLTS AND BRACES, 
 
 FUSIBLE PLUGS. 
 
 We do not wish to raise more pressure on our 
 boiler than it will safely stand, hence must under- 
 stand something of the rules that are given us for 
 the purpose of determining the safe working pres- 
 sure of any boiler. The following is a very good 
 one : 
 
 Multiply one-fifth of the tensile strength of the 
 iron or steel by the strength of the joint and by the 
 thickness of the plate. Divide by the radius, or 
 one-half the diameter of the boiler. The quotient 
 will be the safe working pressure. 
 
 Suppose that the tensile strength is 50,000 
 pounds, the joint has .70 of the strength of the solid 
 plate which is .5 inch thick and the diameter is 72 
 inches. Then (50,000 -r- 5) X .70 X .5 -f- (72 -*- 2) 
 = 97 pounds safe working pressure. 
 
 The strength of the riveted joint may be found 
 as follows : 
 
 From the pitch of the rivets subtract the diam- 
 
AND THEORY. 21 
 
 eter of rivet, and divide the remainder by the pitch 
 of the rivets. Multiply the quotient by 100 and the 
 produdl will be the strength of the plate at the joint. 
 Multiply the area of one rivet by the number of 
 rows of rivets, and by the shearing strength of riv- 
 ets, which may be taken at 38,000 pounds. Divide 
 the product by the pitch of rivets multiplied by the 
 thickness of plate, and by the tensile strength of 
 plate. Multiply the quotient by 100 and the prod- 
 uct will be the strength of the rivets. In each case 
 the result will be the per cent of the strength of 
 the solid plate, and the lowest must be used in the 
 calculation. 
 
 For illustration, suppose that the pitch is 2 
 inches, the rivets .75 inch in diameter, the area of 
 which is .44 square inch, and the plate is .5 inch 
 thick. The joint has two rows of rivets. 
 
 2 — .75 
 Then X 100 = 63 per cent for the strength 
 
 2 of the plate. 
 
 .44X2X38,000 
 
 X 100 = 67 per cent for strength 
 
 2X.5X 50,000 of rivets. 
 
 In this case we should call the strength of the 
 joint 63 per cent of the solid plate, as the lowest 
 must be taken. To compute the area of rivet, 
 square its diameter and multiply by .7854 the same 
 as for the area of any circle. 
 
22 ENGINEERING PRACTICE 
 
 Braces are put into a boiler to strengthen the flat 
 surfaces, as they are weak parts. They must be lo- 
 cated near enough to each other to prevent the plate 
 between them from springing. The following is 
 one of the U. S. Government rules for determining 
 the proper distance from center to center of braces 
 or stay bolts : 
 
 Multiply the area of cross section of brace or stay 
 bolt by 6000. Divide by the steam pressure and 
 extract the square root of the quotient. Applying 
 this to the case of a head f inch thick, using braces 
 i£ inch in diameter, where we wish to carry 100 
 pounds pressure gives the following, the area of the 
 brace being 1 square inch : 
 
 1 X 6000 -5- 100 = 60 the square root of whicfr is 
 7.75 therefore the braces should be 7.75 inches from 
 center to center. The only real difference between 
 a brace and a stay bolt is that the former is longer 
 than the latter. 
 
 Stay bolts are sometimes made hollow so that 
 when corrosion has weakened them sufficiently to 
 allow the water to enter the hollow part the appear- 
 ance of it w r ill warn the engineer of the dangerous 
 condition of them. When hollow stay bolts are put 
 in above the grates of an internally fired boiler they 
 admit air above the fire and promote combustion. 
 As complete combustion prevents smoke they an- 
 swer a double purpose. 
 
AND THEORY. 23 
 
 The water leg of a boiler refers to that part of a 
 locomotive, vertical or marine boiler in which an 
 outer and an inner shell are parallel, or nearly so, 
 making it necessary to conned! them with stay bolts. 
 Some tubular boilers are made with water fronts 
 extending down below the shells, forming water 
 legs below the furnaces. 
 
 A fusible plug is a hollow isesrplug, which should 
 be filled with pure tin, and in the case of a tubular 
 boiler it had ought to be located in the rear head 
 about 3 inches above the upper row of tubes, so that 
 if the water level falls until the plug is uncovered 
 the filling of tin will be melted out, and the escap- 
 ing steam will give sufficient notice of the condition 
 of affairs. In other forms of boilers it is located in 
 some convenient place just above the lowest water 
 level that can be permitted, so that it will melt out 
 before the boiler is burned for lack of water. 
 
 The hollow part of the iron plug should be larger 
 on the side that is exposed to the boiler pressure, so 
 that there will be no danger of its being blown out 
 before it melts. Care should be taken to keep the 
 internal part of it free from scale and sediment, as 
 otherwise it may not melt out as soon as the water 
 level falls below it. 
 
 I have heard of an engineer who was troubled 
 with fusible plugs, as he found it necessary to renew 
 them at short intervals. Desiring to make a per- 
 manent job of it he drove in tapering iron plugs in- 
 
24 ENGINEERING PRACTICE 
 
 stead of putting in the tin filling. He succeeded in 
 preventing further failure of the plugs, but his ac- 
 tion was on a level with that of the man who re- 
 moves the low water alarms from his boilers, or fixes 
 the whistles on them so that they cannot sound an 
 alarm, even if there is great need of one. Or it 
 might be compared to the work of the man who 
 fastened a piece of timber between his safety valve 
 lever and the floor timbers above it, in order to pre- 
 vent the annoying noise caused by the steam blow- 
 ing into the room. 
 
 ADVICE BASED ON EXPERIENCE. 
 If you are an engineer in charge of a steam plant, 
 and have decided to leave your present situation, 
 give your employer due notice that you are going 
 to leave, and recommend a suitable man to take the 
 place. Dishonorable acts on his part in the past 
 does not excuse you from this duty, as your reputa- 
 tion for honorable dealing is at stake. 
 
AND THEORY. 
 
 25 
 
 STEAM 
 
 A VERTICAL TUBULAR BOILER WITH BRICK SETTING. 
 
 This type of boiler has no water leg to corrode, 
 or stay bolts to break. The tubes are so arranged 
 that a large steam space is secured, and it supplies 
 dry steam. 
 
26 ENGINEERING PRACTICE 
 
 CHAPTER 3. 
 
 SAFETY VALVE RULES. 
 
 Every boiler should have a safety valve located 
 on a separate outlet from the shell, and there 
 should be no stop valve between it and the boiler. 
 Where an engineer takes charge of a new plant he 
 may wish to know whether the weights are properly 
 adjusted on the safety valves or not, and to deter- 
 mine this the following rule applies : 
 
 Multiply the area of valve by the pressure to be 
 carried, and by the distance from the valve to the 
 fulcrum. Call this answer No. 1. Multiply weight 
 of valve and stem by their distance from the ful- 
 crum, and call this No. 2. Multiply one-half of 
 length of lever by its weight, and call this No. 3. 
 Add No. 2 and No. 3 together and subtracl the sum 
 from No. 1. Divide the remainder by the weight 
 of ball, and the quotient will be the distance from 
 the fulcrum to the ball. 
 
 The fulcrum in this case is the bolt which passes 
 through the end of lever, fastening it to the bonnet 
 of the safety valve. I give this rule for two reas- 
 
AND THEORY. 2J 
 
 ons. First, because it was found in a standard book 
 of reference supposed to be corredl, and second, be- 
 cause I have proved it and found that it gives very 
 good results. 
 
 It is not such a hard matter to prove some of these 
 rules as might be supposed, for in this case all that 
 was required was to improve the chance when one 
 of my boilers was cool and empty to make some 
 measurements and prove some weights. Taking the 
 ball from the lever and weighing it I found that it 
 balanced the scales at 76 pounds. The valve and 
 its stem weighed 4 pounds, and the lever which was 
 34 inches long weighed 5.5 pounds. As the valve 
 was 4 inches in diameter its area was 12.56 square 
 inches, and the distance from stem to fulcrum is 2 
 inches. The pressure to be carried is 65 pounds. 
 Applying the foregoing rule we have 12.56 X 65 
 X 2 = 1,632.8 for answer No. 1. 4X2=8 for an- 
 swer No. 2 and (34 -f- 2) X 5.5 = 93.5 for answ r er 
 No. 3. Then8 + 93.5 = 101.5 and 1,632.8 — 101.5 
 = 1,531.3 Dividing this by 76 shows that the ball 
 should be set at 20.15 inches from the fulcrum. 
 
 Putting the valve together I placed the weight as 
 near to this distance from the fulcrum as could be 
 determined in the case of such a rough casting as 
 we usually find a safety valve ball to be, got up 
 steam and noted the effe<?t. When the steam gage 
 pointer indicated 65 pounds the valve commenced 
 to blow off steam. 
 
28 ENGINEERING PRACTICE 
 
 In using the rule for determining the weight to be 
 put on a safety valve lever the same process is em- 
 ployed as above described, except that in the latter 
 part of it we divide by the distance from the ful- 
 crum to the ball, and the quotient is the w T eight of 
 the ball to be put on the lever. In this case it is 
 I o3 I -3 -*■ 20.15 = 76 pounds. 
 
 The rule for determining the pressure at which a 
 safety valve will open is as follows : 
 
 Multiply weight of ball by its distance from the 
 fulcrum, and call it answer No. 1. Multiply weight 
 of valve and stem bv their distance from the ful- 
 crum, and call it answer No. 2. Multiply one-half 
 of the weight of lever by its length, and call it an- 
 swer Xo. 3. Add these three answers together and 
 divide the sum by the area of the valve, multiplied 
 by its distance from the fulcrum, and the quotient 
 will be the pressure in pounds. 
 
 Applying this rule to the valve already men- 
 tioned gives the following result: 76 X 20.15 = 
 1,531.4 for No. 1. 4 X 2 = 8 for No. 2. (34 -£- 2) 
 
 X 5-5 = 93-5 for No - 3- Then z>53 z -4 + 8 +93-5 
 -7- (12.56 X 2) = 65 pounds pressure. 
 
 When designing a lever for a safety valve of this 
 boiler we take the maximum pressure that the boil- 
 er can safely withstand, and proceed as directed in 
 the first rule in this chapter. In this case as we do 
 not know what the length of the lever is, we will 
 
AND THEORY. 29 
 
 assume a length for it, and give it a trial. Taking 
 the pressure at 100 pounds, and the extreme length 
 of lever at 34 inches, we proceed as follows : 12.56 
 X 100 X 2 = 2,512 for No. i. 4 X 2 — 8 for No. 2. 
 (34-^-2) X 5-5 = 93-5 for No. 3. 8 + 93.5= IOI -5 
 and 2,512 — 101.5 = 2,410.5. Dividing this by 76 
 shows that the ball should be 31.7 inches from the 
 fulcrum for this pressure. As the lever must pro- 
 ject beyond this, 34 inches will be right for it. It 
 will be noted that the addition of 2 or 3 inches af- 
 fects the result but very little. 
 
 It is a good plan to base the calculations for de- 
 termining the necessary area for a safety valve on 
 the grate surface, assuming a good natural draft. 
 A lever valve should have one square inch area for 
 each two square feet of surface. If a grate is 5 feet 
 square, then 5X5-^-2 = 12.5 square inches. Re- 
 ferring to a table of areas of circles we find that this 
 corresponds to a 4 inch circle, therefore the valve 
 should be 4 inches in diameter. 
 
 If a pop valve is used, one square inch for each 
 3 square feet will answer, because this kind of valve 
 is more efficient than a lever valve, and 5X5-^-3 
 = 8.3 square inches, which calls for a 3^ inch valve, 
 or the next size larger, if this cannot be procured. 
 
 Safety valves should be kept free from dust and 
 dirt, they should be tried every day to demonstrate 
 that they will lift at the required pressure, and when 
 found leaking they should be ground in without de- 
 lay. 
 
3° 
 
 ENGINEERING PRACTICE 
 
 This pop safety valve has no lever to be overload- 
 ed, and its nickel seat prevents it from sticking, thus 
 giving it a clear title to the name, "safety valve. n 
 The short lever shown is for the purpose of testing 
 the valve by hand. 
 
 AN AXIOM. 
 When an engineer is notified that after a certain 
 date his services will no longer be required, he should 
 run his engine to the specified time, and leave ev- 
 erything in good order for his successor. 
 
 ' mww % 
 
AND THEORY. 3 1 
 
 CHAPTER 4. 
 
 HEATING SURFACE OF BOILERS. CONDUCTING TESTS. 
 
 The heating surface of a steam boiler refers tc 
 those portions of the shell and tubes which are ex- 
 posed to the action of fire on one side, and covered 
 with water on the other. If we take a horizontal 
 tubular boiler 66 inches in diameter and 15 feet long, 
 with 96 three inch tubes, we may calculate the heat- 
 ing surface in it as follows, assuming that one-half 
 of the shell is exposed to the fire : 
 
 The circumference of a circle is found by multi- 
 plying its diameter by 3.1416 and 66 X 3.1416 = 
 207.34 inches, or 17.28 feet. Multiplying by the 
 length we have 17.28 X 15 = 259 square feet, one- 
 half of which is 129.5 square feet in the shell. 
 There are 96 tubes each 15 feet long, making 1,440 
 feet in length. It requires 1.373 ^ eet ^ n length 
 of 3 inch tubing to make one square foot of heat- 
 ing surface, therefore 1,440 -f- 1.373 = 1,049 
 square feet of heating surface in the tubes. There 
 is but a small amount in the heads, and they may 
 be omitted, for it cannot be called very effective 
 heating surface. Then 129.5 + I >°49 = 1,178.5 
 square feet of heating surface in the boiler. 
 
32 ENGINEERING PRACTICE 
 
 When calculating the heating* surface of other 
 boilers, if the tubes are 3? inches in diameter, divide 
 the total length by 1.17 and if they are 4 inches di- 
 vide by 1.02 to obtain the square feet in them. 
 
 In the case of water tube boilers ascertain the 
 length of all the tubes in inches, multiply by the 
 circumference in inches, divide by 144 and the quo- 
 tient will be the number of square feet of heating 
 surface. 
 
 Or multiply the length of one tube in feet by the 
 number of tubes in the boiler, and in the case of 4 
 inch tubes, which are very commonly used, divide 
 by -955 The quotient will be the number of square 
 feet of heating surface. 
 
 Where tubes of other sizes are in use their surface 
 may be determined by the following table, taking 
 the inside surface for fire tube, and the outside for 
 water tube boilers : 
 
 EXTERNAL DIAMETER. INSIDE SURFACE. OUTSIDE SURFACE. 
 
 I 
 
 4.46 
 
 3.82 
 
 1.25 
 
 3-45 
 
 3.06 
 
 i-5 
 
 2.86 
 
 2-55 
 
 i-75 
 
 2-45 
 
 2.18 
 
 2 
 
 2.ir 
 
 1. 91 
 
 2.25 
 
 1.85 
 
 i-7 
 
 2-5 
 
 1.67 
 
 i-53 
 
 3 
 
 t-37 
 
 1.27 
 
 3-5 
 
 1. 17 
 
 1.09 
 
 4 
 
 1.02 
 
 •95 
 
AND THEORY. 33 
 
 The horse power of a boiler is its power to evap- 
 orate a given amount of water per hour under stated 
 conditions, which are explained in chapter 6. 
 
 No inflexible rule for the amount of heating sur- 
 face required per horse power can be given, but the 
 following will be found convenient in making esti- 
 mates where the amount of water evaporated is not 
 known : 
 
 Tubular boilers, 
 
 15 square feet 
 
 Locomotive " 
 
 1 5 
 
 » rr 
 
 Vertical 
 
 18 
 
 rr rr 
 
 Flue 
 
 10 
 
 rr // 
 
 Cylinder 
 
 8 
 
 // // 
 
 Water tube '' 
 
 12 
 
 n rr 
 
 The latent heat of steam is the heat that is not 
 indicated by the thermometer, and the sensible heat 
 of steam is that which is indicated by the thermom- 
 eter. When reference is made to the total heat of 
 steam we mean the latent and sensible heat added 
 together. 
 
 Some people tell us that there is no such thing 
 as latent heat, but as the following experiment has 
 been tried it will be rather hard to explain it away. 
 Two glass vessels were provided and made to connedt 
 with each other by means of a tube connected into 
 the top of each. One pound of water w r as put into 
 one, and 5^ pounds into the other, the temperature 
 of both being 32 Fah. Heat was applied to the 
 lighter one until all of the water was evaporated and 
 
34 ENGINEERING PRACTICE 
 
 passed over into the heavier one. Then it contained 
 6? pounds of water at 212° Fah. 
 
 To raise one pound of water from 32° to 212 re- 
 quires 180 heat units, and to raise 5? pounds calls 
 for 5^ X 180 = 990 heat units. These must have 
 come from the one pound of water that was evapo- 
 rated into steam, for they could not have come from 
 anywhere else, therefore the claim that steam does 
 possess latent heat is proved to be correct, although 
 the tables give the number of heat units at 966 in- 
 stead of 99c. 
 
 The objects sought in conducting boiler tests are 
 to determine the comparative efficiency of steam 
 boilers, and the power that they are developing. 
 
 When a test is to be conducted the water level 
 may be at any convenient point, and the steam 
 should be raised to a working pressure. All of the 
 fire should then be withdrawn, and the weight of dry 
 wood used to build a fresh fire carefully noted. When 
 this is multiplied by .4 it gives the equivalent weight 
 of coal, which must be added to the actual weight 
 of coal used. 
 
 The height of the water in the glass should be 
 carefully noted, and the coal to be burned weighed 
 as it is brought to the furnace for use. A sample of 
 it should be weighed, then dried, weighed again 
 and the moisture it contains calculated from this. 
 The per cent of moisture so obtained must be sub- 
 tracted from the total weight of coal as brought to 
 
AND THEORY. 35 
 
 the boiler room, for if the sample contained, say 2 
 per cent of moisture, then 2 per cent must be sub- 
 tracted from the total weight of coal delivered. 
 
 All of the water must be weighed, and the quality 
 of the steam tested by means of a calorimeter, that 
 we may know how much water it contains. This 
 water- must be deducted from the total amount 
 pumped into the boilers, for it is not evaporated, 
 but inasmuch as its temperature has been greatly 
 increased due credit should be given for the heat so 
 used. 
 
 At the conclusion of the test the fire should be run 
 down as low as possible, and the remainder drawn 
 out. The unburnt coal remaining must be deducted 
 from the amount charged to the test, and all of the 
 ashes weighed, so that when their weight is sub- 
 tracted from the weight of coal charged we may 
 know how much combustible was consumed. The 
 water level should be brought to the same point that 
 it was at the commencement of the test. We are 
 now ready to make our calculations. 
 
 ADVICE BASED ON OBSERVATION. 
 If you own a steam plant and have decided to dis- 
 charge your engineer, tell him so in a straightfor- 
 ward manner, giving him reasons for your decision, 
 and allow him a reasonable time in which to secure 
 another situation. 
 
36 
 
 ENGINEERING PRACTICE 
 
AND THEORY. 37 
 
 IMPROVED VERTICAL BOILER. 
 The vertical boiler illustrated on the opposite 
 page has hollow stay bolts above the grate, does not 
 require a brick furnace, and it supplies dry steam. 
 The tubes are spaced so that it is possible to keep 
 the crown sheet clean, and hand holes are properly 
 located for this purpose. 
 
 "LEST WE FORGET." 
 When a steam user is notified that after a certain 
 date his engineer will be found in the service of an- 
 other party, he should allow the engineer to run his 
 engine to the specified time, then give him a suit- 
 able recommendation, in writing, and speak a few 
 words of encouragement to show that past services 
 are not forgotten. 
 
 / 4|v 
 
38 ENGINEERING PRACTICE 
 
 CHAPTER 5. 
 
 CALCULATING THE DUTY OF A BOILER. 
 
 A calorimeter is an instrument or a device for de- 
 termining the percentage of moisture in steam. 
 There are several kinds of calorimeters, but the use 
 of the most simple form will be explained here, as 
 it is easily understood and the results obtained by it 
 are correct for all practical purposes. 
 
 Care must be taken to secure a sample of steam 
 that correctly represents the quality that is generat- 
 ed by the boiler, and in order to accomplish this a 
 long thread should be cut on a small pipe, so that 
 it may be screwed into the large pipe from which 
 the sample is to be taken, until the end of it reaches 
 the center of the large pipe. This is necessary be- 
 cause there is always at least some water on the 
 bottom of a horizontal pipe, and frequently drops of 
 water will trickle down the sides of a vertical pipe. 
 
 Having inserted the small pipe and provided a 
 valve for regulating the flow of steam through it, a 
 calorimeter test may be conducted in the following 
 described way : Take a keg, or a tub that will hold 
 about ten gallons, set it upon a pair of scales and 
 
AND THEORY. 39 
 
 carefully note its weight. Fill it about three-quar- 
 ters full of clean water, note the weight again, sub- 
 tract the former from the latter and the remainder 
 will be the weight of water, the temperature of 
 which must be noted. Blow steam into it until the 
 temperature is raised to about 125 Fah., stir it 
 thoroughly and note its exact temperature. Weigh 
 the heated water, subtract the weight of cold water 
 from it and the remainder will be the weight of 
 steam used, or condensed. 
 
 From the temperature of the water as it now 
 stands subtract the temperature of the cold water, 
 multiply the remainder by the weight of cold water 
 and divide the produ6l by the weight of condensed 
 steam. To the quotient add the temperature of the 
 heated water, and subtract the sum from the total 
 heat of steam at the pressure carried on the boiler, 
 reckoned from zero. If this total is taken from a 
 table that gives it above 32 it will be necessary to 
 add 32 to the number found. Divide the remainder 
 by the latent heat of the same steam, and the quo- 
 tient will be the percentage of moisture in the steam. 
 
 In order to illustrate the operation of this rule I 
 took a piece of f inch pipe, cut a long thread on it, 
 and screwed it into a 3! inch pipe in the plant that 
 I have charge of, until it would take steam from the 
 center of the large pipe. Using a pair of scales that 
 are graduated to tenths of a pound, I found that the 
 tub it was convenient to use weighed 6.25 pounds. 
 
4-0 ENGINEERING PRACTICE 
 
 Pouring in a quantity of cold water the whole 
 weighed 35.68 pounds, so that the weight of cold 
 water was 29.43 pounds, and its temperature was 
 13 Centigrade, or 55. 4 Fahrenheit. Steam was 
 blown into this cold water until its temperature was 
 raised to 55° C. or 131 Fah. The temperature in- 
 dicated by the Centigrade scale may be changed to 
 the Fahrenheit by multiplying the former by 1.8 
 and adding 32 to the product. 
 
 The whole now weighed 38.4 pounds, showing 
 that 2.72 pounds of steam were condensed. The 
 pressure carried at this time was 70 pounds abso- 
 lute, the total heat of which from zero is 1,205.8 
 heat units, and the latent heat is 900.8 heat units. 
 Carefully following the rule already given it was 
 found that the steam contained .28 per cent or about 
 -] of 1 per cent of moisture. Steam for use in this 
 plant is supplied by two horizontal tubular boilers 
 without domes. 
 
 If we divide the number of pounds of water evap- 
 orated by the pounds of coal shoveled into the fur- 
 nace, minus the weight of moisture it contains, the 
 quotient will be the pounds of water evaporated per 
 pound of coal. 
 
 When we take the weight of coal shoveled into 
 the furnace, minus the moisture, and subtract from 
 it the weight of coal, clinkers and ashes left in the 
 furnace and ash pit, the remainder will be the weight 
 of combustible used. 
 
AND THEORY. 41 
 
 When we divide the total weight of water evap- 
 orated by the weight of combustible used we have 
 the pounds of water evaporated per pound of com- 
 bustible. 
 
 When we ascertain the weight of water that would 
 have been evaporated if the feed was at 212 Fah. 
 and the pressure at zero by the gage, and divide it 
 by the weight of combustible used, we have the 
 pounds of water evaporated from and at 212 per 
 pound of combustible. 
 
 The latter is used almost exclusively for compar- 
 ing the efficiency of different boilers, and as they are 
 seldom or never used under these conditions, an ex- 
 planation of the process for reducing their actual 
 performances to its equivalent from and at 21 2° is 
 here given. 
 
 Let A equal the total heat of steam under the as- 
 sumed conditions, minus the temperature of the feed 
 water. Let B equal the total weight of water evap- 
 orated under the actual conditions. Let C equal 
 the total heat of steam under the actual conditions. 
 Let D equal the weight of water that would have 
 been evaporated under the assumed conditions. 
 Then A : B : : C : D. 
 
 To solve a problem of this kind, multiply B by C, 
 divide the produdl by A, and the quotient will be D. 
 The total heat of steam is reckoned from zero in 
 this case. 
 
42 ENGINEERING PRACTICE 
 
 For illustration, take steam at o pounds pressure, 
 or zero by the gage, which contains 1,178 heat 
 units per pound above zero. The temperature of the 
 feed water is 212 . Then 1,178 — 212 = 966 which 
 is the value of A. The water actually evaporated 
 was 20,000 pounds, which is the value of B. The 
 pressure on the boiler at the time of test was 80 
 pounds by the gage, or 95 pounds absolute, the total 
 heat of which is 1,212. The feed water was sup- 
 plied at 190 , and 1,212 — 190 = 1,022 which is 
 the value of C. When we have solved the problem 
 it stands as follows : 
 
 966 : 20,000 : : 1,022 : 21,159. 
 Therefore the evaporation of 20,000 pounds of water 
 under the actual conditions is equal to evaporating 
 21,159 pounds under the assumed conditions. 
 
 Suppose that the weight of coal used during this 
 test, taking it as it came from the coal yard, was 
 2,052 pounds, audit contained 5 per cent of mois- 
 ture. The actual weight of coal would then be 
 2,052 — (2,052 X .05) = 1,950 pounds. The rule 
 foi determining this is as follows : 
 
 Weigh a sample of coal as delivered, then thor- 
 oughly dry it and weigh it again. Subtract the 
 latter weight from the former, divide the remainder 
 by the weight of moist coal, multiply the quotient 
 by 100, and the product will be the percentage of 
 moisture. 
 
AND THEORY. 43 
 
 In order to illustrate this rule I took a small box, 
 weighed it, filled it with a sample of coal and 
 weighed both together. They were then kept in a 
 warm place until all of the moisture was evaporated, 
 when they were weighed again, after which the coal 
 was emptied out and the box weighed with the fol- 
 lowing result : 
 
 The box originally weighed 4.9 pounds and when 
 filled with moist coal the weight was 18. 1 pounds, 
 showing that the box contained 13.2 pounds of coal 
 and moisture. When the whole was dry it weighed 
 16.9 pounds and the empty box weighed 4.4 pounds, 
 showing that the actual weight of coal was 12.5 
 pounds. The moisture in the coal weighed 13.2 — 
 12.5 = .7 pound, which is .7 -f- 13.2 X 100 = 5 per 
 cent of moisture, or in other words the moisture 
 amounts to .05 of the total weight. 2,052 X .05 = 
 102 pounds, and 2,052 — 102 = 1,950 pounds of dry 
 coal. This shows that the box lost .5 pound weight 
 by the drying process. 
 
 As 1,950 pounds of dry coal were used, then 21,159 
 -f- 1,950 = 10.85 pounds of water evaporated from 
 and at 212 per pound of dry coal. 
 
 If the refuse weighed 187 pounds, then 1,950 — 
 187 =1,763 pounds of combustible. 21,159 -1- 1,763 
 = 12 pounds of water evaporated from and at 21 2° 
 per pound of combustible. 
 
 There is another way in which this may be com- 
 puted, as follows : 20,000 pounds of water were 
 
44 ENGINEERING PRACTICE 
 
 evaporated and 1,763 pounds of combustible were 
 used, therefore 20,000 -f- 1,763 = 11.34 pounds of 
 water evaporated per pound of combustible under 
 actual conditions. If we call this the value of B our 
 problem is as follows : 
 
 966 : 11.34:: 1,022 : 12 
 showing as before that 12 pounds of water would be 
 evaporated under assumed conditions. 
 
 In the foregoing calculation it is assumed that the 
 calorimeter test showed the steam to be dry, or in 
 other words all of the water pumped into the boiler 
 was evaporated into steam, but frequently this is 
 not the case as some of it passes off in the form of 
 water. 
 
 If the calorimeter showed that there was 5 per 
 cent of moisture in the steam, then 20,000 X .05 = 
 1000 pounds of water passed off without being evap- 
 orated, so that 20,000 — 1000 = 19,000 were actu- 
 ally converted into steam. 
 
 This water entered the boiler at a temperature of 
 1 90° and as it passed out with the steam at 95 
 pounds absolute pressure its temperature was 324. 8° 
 so that each pound of it had absorbed 324.8 — 190 
 = 134.8 heat units, or 134,800 heat units for 1000 
 pounds. 
 
 The total heat of this steam is 1,212 and the tem- 
 perature of the feed water is 190° therefore it re- 
 quires 1,022 heat units more to evaporate each pound 
 of it. As 134,800 heat units have been absorbed it 
 
AND THEORY. 45 
 
 is equivalent to evaporating 134,800 -r- 1,022 = 132 
 pounds of water, making a total of 19,132 pounds. 
 
 This is corre6l for cases where the feed water is 
 pumped through an exhaust steam heater, or through 
 an economizer, as the heat thus put into the water 
 would otherwise be a waste product. Where a live 
 steam heater is used, or an injector puts water di- 
 rectly into a boiler without a heater, the tempera- 
 ture of the water must be taken before artificial heat 
 is applied, or in other words when it is in its natu- 
 ral state. 
 
 Where an injector is used and the water is forced 
 through an exhaust steam heater the temperature 
 of the water must be taken both before and after it 
 passes through the injector. Subtracting the for- 
 mer from the latter gives the number of heat units 
 that is put into each pound of it by live steam which 
 is not a waste product. This difference must be 
 subtracted from the temperature of the water as it 
 leaves the heater, and the remainder is the amount 
 to be subtracted from the total heat of the steam. 
 
 Suppose that in the case previously mentioned 
 where 19,000 pounds of water were evaporated, an 
 injector was used to feed the boiler, the water enter- 
 ing it at 50 Fah., and it was forced directly into 
 the boiler. The total heat of the steam is 1,212 
 and subtracting the temperature of the water shows 
 that 1,162 heat units more are required to evapo- 
 rate each pound. 134,800 -^ 1,162 = 116 pounds, 
 
46 ENGINEERING PRACTICE 
 
 and adding this to the amount evaporated shows that 
 it is equivalent to evaporating 19,116 pounds under 
 these conditions. 
 
 If the water had been forced through an exhaust 
 steam heater, entering it at no Fah. and leaving 
 it at 190 3 then no — 50 = 60 and 190 — 60 = 130 
 heat units to be subtracted from the total heat. 
 1,212 — 130 = 1,082 heat units to evaporate each 
 pound. 134,800 -T- 1,082 == 124 pounds. There- 
 fore under these conditions it would be the same as 
 evaporating 19,124 pounds of water. 
 
 These rules may be applied to any test by using 
 the figures which correspond to the conditions under 
 which the test is conducted, and by comparing the 
 results secured in different cases the comparative 
 efficiency of any number of boilers may be deter- 
 mined. 
 
 The process of determining the amount of water 
 that would be evaporated from and at 212° when 
 the amount evaporated under actual conditions is 
 given is called "Finding the equivalent evapora- 
 tion." 
 
 If some other standard is adopted the reduction 
 of actual results to this standard comes under the 
 same general head, but in such a case the preferred 
 standard must be clearlv stated. 
 
AND THEORY. 
 
 47 
 
 This water tube boiler has a horizontal steam 
 drum and inclined water tubes. Steam may be 
 raised in it quickly from cold water, and it gives 
 good results in practice. 
 
 A SUGGESTION. 
 When you are in charge of a plant where the con- 
 ditions are unsatisfactory, and the pay is small, 
 then is the time to qualify for a better situation. 
 
 f^t^ f*v* irir 
 
 '«% r*r* rmrm 
 
48 ENGINEERING PRACTICE. 
 
 CHAPTER 6. 
 
 ACTUAL HORSE POWER OF BOILERS. 
 
 There are two standards for calculating the actual 
 horse power that a boiler is developing. 
 
 The standard adopted by the American Society 
 of Mechanical Engineers calls for the evaporation 
 of 344 pounds of water per hour, from feed at 2i2 D 
 Fah. into steam at o pounds pressure. 
 
 The standard adopted at the Centennial Exposi- 
 tion at Philadelphia, Pa., in 1S76, is the evapora- 
 tion of 30 pounds of water per hour, from feed at 
 100 D Fah. into steam at 70 pounds gage pressure. 
 Let us compare them and note the difference. 
 
 To evaporate one pound of water at 21 2° Fah. 
 into steam at o pounds pressure requires 966 heat 
 units, as explained in Chapter 5, and 34} pounds 
 requires 34' x 966 = 33,327 heat units. 
 
 The total heat of steam at 70 -f- 15 = 85 pounds 
 absolute pressure is 1,210 and as the feed is sup- 
 plied at ioo : we subtract that amount, and find 
 that it requires 1,110 heat units to evaporate one 
 pound of water under these conditions. To evapo- 
 
AND THEORY. 49 
 
 rate 30 pounds requires 30 x 1,110=33,300 heat 
 units, showing that there is practically no differ- 
 ence between the two standards, so that the engi- 
 neer may use either one at his discretion. The 
 Centennial Standard will be used in these calcula- 
 tions. 
 
 The rule for finding the actual horse power that 
 a boiler is developing is as follows : 
 
 Divide the number of pounds of water evaporated 
 into dry steam, by the number of hours covered by 
 the test, and the quotient will be the amount evap- 
 orated per hour. Reduce this to its equivalent 
 evaporation from feed at ioo° into steam at 70 
 pounds gage pressure, and divide the answer by 
 30. The quotient will be the actual horse power 
 developed by the boiler. 
 
 Suppose that while running n hours we pumped 
 30,306 pounds of water into the boiler, and on test- 
 ing the steam according to the rule given in Chap- 
 ter 5 we find 2 per cent of moisture present. 
 30,306 x .02 =606 pounds of water in the steam. 
 Then the amount actually evaporated would be 
 30,306 — 606= 29, 700 pounds. Dividing this by 11 
 shows that 2,700 pounds were evaporated per hour. 
 The steam pressure was 95 pounds by the gage, 
 and the feed water was supplied at 195 Fah. Ap- 
 plying the formula given and explained in Chapter 
 
5<3 ENGINEERING PRACTICE. 
 
 5, which is A : B : : C : D. we have 1,110 : 2,700 
 :: 1,021 : 2,483 pounds, which is the amount that 
 would have been evaporated from feed water at 
 100 into steam at 70 pounds gage pressure. 
 
 It must be noted, however, that during the test 
 of 11 hours, 606 pounds of water were carried off 
 in the steam, or 55 pounds per hour. This was 
 raised from the temperature of the feed water, 
 which was i95°tothetemperatureof the steam which 
 was 334° therefore each pound of water took up 
 334 — 195 = 139 heat units, and 55 pounds would 
 take up 7,645 heat units. Under the assumed con- 
 ditions it requires 1,110 heat units to evaporate one 
 pound of water, therefore the heat taken up by this 
 water is equal to the evaporation of 7,645 -f- 1,110 = 
 7 pounds nearly, which must be added to the 
 amount already found, and 2,483 + 7 = 2,490 
 pounds evaporated per hour. As 30 pounds con- 
 stitute a horse power 2,490 -f- 30 = 83 horse power 
 actually developed. 
 
 From the foregoing it will be seen that the horse 
 power of a boiler is a clearly defined quantity, and 
 may be calculated at pleasure, provided the neces- 
 sary data are supplied. 
 
 The practice of forcing boilers beyond their rated 
 capacity is a pernicious one, and should be discoun- 
 tenanced on every convenient occasion. It is true 
 that where boilers are forced, the first cost of a 
 
AND THEORY. 51 
 
 plant is less than if sufficient boiler power had been 
 provided to allow the fires to be run at a moderate 
 rate, but this advantage is more than overbalanced 
 by the reduction of time that boilers may safely be 
 used under such conditions, by large repair bills 
 made necessary, and the hardships to men who 
 operate the plant, causing frequent changes in the 
 force, which, as a rule, does not operate to the 
 advantage of the owners. All of these are but the 
 natural consequences of operating a plant on this 
 basis. 
 
 It seems to be the opinion of some steam users 
 that their engineers should carry whatever pressure 
 is necessary to do the work required of the engine, 
 and instances are known w r here men have been dis- 
 charged for refusing to carry more pressure than 
 they believed to be safe. 
 
 When the safe working pressure of a boiler has 
 been decided in an intelligent manner by a compe- 
 tent engineer or inspector, it should never be 
 exceeded. Where an engineer is called upon to 
 decide between ruining his boiler and losing his sit- 
 uation, it should not require very much time to set- 
 tle the question,' for a live engineer is better than a 
 dead hero every day in the week, and where a man 
 loses his life without becoming a hero, he is more 
 than unfortunate. 
 
52 ENGINEERING PRACTICE. 
 
 The penalty for carrying excessive pressure on a 
 boiler should be severe, and it should be applied to 
 both owner and engineer alike, forever disqualify- 
 ing them from owning or operating steam boilers. 
 We deal sternly with a man who takes the life of 
 one person, but what shall we do w r ith those who 
 willfully cause the loss of many lives? 
 
 v V^^ / 
 
 / /^^Tv \ 
 
 /W®^ 
 
 A MISTAKEN IDEA. 
 
 People frequently think that an engineer in 
 charge of a steam plant has but little to do, because 
 there are times when he is not actively engaged 
 in manual labor. This certainly is a wrong idea of 
 the situation, because there are many days when the 
 engineer must be at work long before the other 
 men are required to be in the mill or factory, and 
 he must also remain after they have gone home. 
 When this is taken into consideration it will be 
 plain that the engineer has a full day's work of 
 manual labor to perform, and in addition to this he 
 has the care of the plant continually on his mind. 
 
AND THEORY, 
 
 53 
 
 AN EFFICIENT SAFETY BOILER. 
 
54 ENGINEERING PRACTICE 
 
 CHAPTER 7, 
 
 STARTING THE ENGINE. HORSE POWER 
 DEVELOPED. 
 
 The first duty of an engineer, when coming into 
 his plant in the morning, is to see that his boilers 
 are in proper condition to furnish steam, and that 
 the firemen are in their places, ready for the work 
 to be done. The engine may next receive atten- 
 tion, and he should note carefully whether there 
 are any indications of the derangement of the valve 
 gear or other parts. The oil cups should be in- 
 spected and every part properly oiled, ready for 
 duty. While this is being done, the drip valve on 
 the main steam pipe should be left open, and all of 
 the water in the pipe allowed to escape. If the 
 design of the engine admits of it, he should open 
 the steam and exhaust valves, and blow steam 
 through the steam chest and cylinder, for the pur- 
 pose of thoroughly warming these parts before an 
 attempt is made to start the machinery. 
 
 Where it is not convenient to open all of the 
 valves together, one steam valve should be opened 
 
AND THEORY. 55 
 
 and steam admitted to warm that end of the cylin- 
 der, after which the other should be opened and 
 the other end warmed. This refers to an ordinary 
 non-condensing engine, but if there is a condenser 
 the air pump should be started at the same time 
 that steam is admitted, provided it can be run inde- 
 pendently of the engine, in order that the v/ater 
 of condensation may be disposed of. 
 
 Having warmed the cylinder by blowing steam 
 through it, the valve rod should be hooked on to 
 the stud made for it, and enough steam admitted 
 to start the engine slowly. It is the practice of 
 some engineers to operate the valve gear by hand 
 during several revolutions of the engine. It is 
 claimed that this is done for the purpose of work- 
 ing water out of the cylinder, but this is not rea- 
 sonable, for if any one who is interested will follow 
 out the operation they will discover that to throw 
 the wrist plate of a Corliss engine, over in advance 
 of the motion of the eccentric, closes the exhaust 
 valve while the piston is advancing towards it, thus 
 not only failing to assist the water to escape, but 
 closing the only exit for it, before it would be 
 closed were the valve gear in proper place for 
 running. 
 
 The process of starting a compound condensing 
 engine is very similar to starting a simple condens- 
 ing engine, as the air pump should be running 
 
56 ENGINEERING PRACTICE 
 
 that the water of condensation may be removed, 
 but care must be taken to see that both cylinders 
 are well warmed before the wheel makes a revolu- 
 tion. If the low pressure cylinder contains water 
 at this time, the pressure on the high pressure piston 
 and the momentum of the fly wheel may cause the 
 low pressure piston to be driven against this water 
 with sufficient force to result in making a wreck of 
 some of the parts. With whatever kind of engine 
 the engineer may have to deal, he should admit 
 steam very gradually at first, allowing the fly wheel 
 to revolve slowly until the whole machine is well 
 warmed, then its speed may be slowly increased 
 until the regular number of revolutions per minute 
 are secured, when the throttle valve should be 
 opened wide enough to give full capacity of the 
 pipe, and the governor allowed to control the speed. 
 
 The rule for determining the power of any double 
 acting engine may be briefly stated as follows: 
 
 Multiply the area of piston, minus one-half the 
 area of piston rod, by the speed of piston in feet 
 per minute, and by the mean effective pressure. It 
 is not proper to take the average pressure for this 
 purpose. Divide the product of these three num- 
 bers by 33,000 and the quotient is the horse power 
 developed. 
 
 If the engine is single acting, calculate the speed 
 of piston while the steam is acting on it. If the 
 
AND THEORY. 57 
 
 steam acts on the head end only, it will not be nec- 
 essary to make any deduction on account of the 
 piston rod. 
 
 If the engine has two single acting cylinders, cal- 
 culate the piston speed the same as for one double 
 acting cylinder, and proceed as before. If the 
 steam acts on the head end of both cylinders, it will 
 not be necessary to deduct one-half the area of pis- 
 ton rod from the area of piston, as in the case of an 
 ordinary double acting engine. 
 
 There is but one way to determine the mean 
 effective pressure of an engine while in service, and 
 that is by means of the steam engine indicator. 
 There are ways of calculating what this should be 
 theoretically, but these rules are based on the 
 assumption that all of the conditions are perfect, 
 which is seldom or never the case. If the admis- 
 sion line was square with the atmospheric line, the 
 steam showing no evidence of wire drawing, the 
 actual point of cut off and clearance known, the 
 expansion line a perfect hyperbola, there was no 
 back pressure, or if the actual back pressure was 
 known, and there was no compression, then we 
 could calculate the mean effective pressure without 
 an indicator, but until all of the conditions are 
 known this instrument will be in demand. 
 
 It is possible to secure a diagram that will show 
 a mean effective pressure corresponding to that 
 
58 
 
 ENGINEERING PRACTICE 
 
 secured by a theoretical calculation, but while this 
 may seem to prove accuracy in measuring and cal- 
 culating, it is quite possible that an imperfection 
 in one part may be offset by a fault in another part, 
 in order to show this result. 
 
 A CONDENSING ENGINE AND ACCESSORIES. 
 
 The boiler feed pump is on a level with the 
 engine, the feed water heater is between the engine 
 and the independent jet condensingapparatus, which 
 is set lower than the engine. 
 
AND THEORY. 59 
 
 CHAPTER 8. 
 
 THE STEAM ENGINE INDICATOR. 
 
 The steam engine indicator is an instrument for 
 determining the mean effective pressure of an 
 engine, and it resembles a recording steam gage. 
 Where a recording gage is attached to a boiler it 
 registers the steam pressure for a certain length of 
 time. Where an indieator is attached to an engine 
 it registers the steam pressure for a certain length 
 of time, the only difference being that in the former 
 case, the time is usually much longer than in the 
 latter. In the case of the boiler the diagram may 
 record the variations in pressure during 12 hours> 
 or for a week, while with the engine the changes in 
 pressure during one revolution of the fly wheel is 
 all that is necessary, as a rule. It is absolutely 
 necessary, however, that not only the changes in 
 pressure be considered, but the exact time that 
 these changes take place enters into the calculation 
 as an important item. 
 
 The diagram at the end of this chapter shows 
 several defects in valve setting, which may be ex- 
 
60 ENGINEERING PRACTICE 
 
 plained as follows. The horizontal line at the bot- 
 tom is the atmospheric line, and if we lay a small 
 square on this line, we shall find that the admission 
 line is not square with it, but that it leans in the 
 direction in which the piston was traveling when 
 the diagram was taken, thus proving that the steam 
 valve was not open at the beginning of the stroke 
 as it should have been. The steam line is not par- 
 allel to the atmospheric line, but falls as the piston 
 advances, showing that the full pressure is not 
 maintained, but that the steam is wiredrawn. The 
 point of cut off is not clearly defined, showing that 
 the valve does not close as rapidly as good practice 
 calls for. 
 
 The expansion line is higher than it should be, 
 which tells us that more steam* is admitted after the 
 cut off takes place, or in other words the valve 
 leaks. The loop at the right show r s that the pres- 
 sure does not fall at the end of the stroke as it 
 should. The rise indicates that the steam is not 
 released at the proper time, but the exhaust valve 
 remains closed until the piston has traveled a por- 
 tion of the return stroke, when it is opened and the 
 pressure falls. As it does not fall to the atmos- 
 pheric line, it shows that there is some back pres- 
 sure above the atmosphere. The sharp corner at 
 the left shows us that the exhaust valve does not 
 close as soon as it should in order to shut in some 
 
AND THEORY. 6l 
 
 of the exhaust steam, and provide a cushion for the 
 piston. 
 
 This demonstrates that in order to give correct 
 readings, the indicator must be attached to the 
 engine in such a way as to cause the irregular 
 motion of the cross head to be transmitted to the 
 drum of the indicator. This may be accomplished 
 by means of a pendulum suspended directly over 
 the middle of the travel of that part of the cross 
 head to which it is attached, or a pantograph may 
 be used for this purpose, in which case the stand 
 should be so located that the cross head will travel 
 an equal distance on each side of it. The most con- 
 venient way, however, is to use a reducing w^heel 
 that is attached directly to the indicator, so that it 
 is only necessary to attach a cord to the cross head, 
 after having adjusted it to the wheel. 
 
 After a diagram is secured for the purpose of 
 determining the power developed by an engine, 
 the next step is to determine the mean effective 
 pressure shown by it. If no instrument made for 
 this purpose is at hand, it may be done by setting 
 up lines at right angles to the atmospheric line, 
 one at each end of the diagram to be measured, and 
 dividing the distance between the two into 10 equal 
 spaces, aud measure the distance at each space 
 between the steam or the expansion line at the top 
 and the counter pressure line at the bottom, with a 
 
62 ENGINEERING PRACTICE. 
 
 scale which corresponds to the spring used in the 
 indicator when the diagram was taken. These 
 measurements should be taken directly in the center 
 of each space in order to secure a correct average. 
 Add the results of the ten measurements together, 
 divide the sum by ten, and the result will be the 
 mean effective pressure. Although any number of 
 spaces may be laid off for this purpose, it is not 
 advisable to make the number less than ten, and 
 with some diagrams it would be better to make it 
 twenty, remembering that the sum of the measure- 
 ments must be divided by the number of measure- 
 ments' taken. The gre*ater number of divisions is 
 recommended in cases where the lines of the dia- 
 gram are very irregular, because by their use a bet- 
 ter average is secured. 
 
 If the expansion line falls below the atmospheric 
 line in the case of a non-condensing engine, form- 
 ing a loop, the sum of the measurements of that 
 part which is below the line must be subtracted 
 from the sum of those above it, and the remainder 
 divided by the total number of measurements taken. 
 
 The mean effective pressure may be determined 
 by means of any accurate rule or scale, in which 
 case the average height in inches must be multi- 
 plied by the number of the spring in the indicator, 
 when the diagram was taken. 
 
AND THEORY. 63 
 
 A DEFECTIVE INDICATOR DIAGRAM 
 
 (For explanation see Chapter 8). 
 
 A GOOD ENGINEER SHOULD BE 
 APPRECIATED. 
 
 The engineer in charge of a steam plant has many 
 cares and responsibilities on his mind that are not 
 appreciated by the general public, because they do 
 not understand them, and some owners of steam 
 plants appear equally ignorant on the subject. 
 When a faithful and competent engineer has held 
 a position for many years, and always has his plant 
 ready for use when it is wanted, his services are 
 sometimes undervalued, but when a new man takes 
 the position and has trouble with the machinery, 
 the owner begins to realize that his former engineer 
 was more valuable than he supposed. 
 
64 ENGINEERING PRACTICE 
 
 CHAPTER 
 
 PLANIMETERS, COMPOUND ENGINES, HORSE 
 POWER CONSTANTS. 
 
 The process of dividing a diagram into a number 
 of spaces, and taking measurements in order to 
 determine the mean effective pressure, is a slow 
 one — altogether too slow for this age of the world 
 — and to shorten it, instruments called planimeters 
 have been devised. Among the most prominent of 
 these may be found the Coffin, Amsler, Lippincott 
 and Willis. Where an engineer has many of these 
 diagrams to make calculations for, one of these 
 instruments proves to be a great convenience, as it 
 will save much time. Full directions for their use 
 may be found in catalogues illustrating them, pub- 
 lished by manufacturers or dealers. The mean 
 effective pressure of both single diagrams should be 
 added together, and the result divided by two. 
 
 When we know the mean effective pressure of an 
 engine, we multiply the area of piston, speed of 
 piston and mean effective pressure together, divide 
 the product by 33,000 and the result is the power 
 developed, as already explained. 
 
AND THEORY. 65 
 
 If we have a double engine we proceed in the 
 same way with each of them, and add the results 
 together, the final sum being the total power of the 
 engine. If we have a compound engine each cyl- 
 inder may be treated as if it were a separate engine, 
 and the results added together. The fact that in 
 such an engine the steam is used in one cylinder 
 and then exhausted into another, seems to be a con- 
 fusing element, but it shouid not be, for the back 
 pressure in the high pressure cylinder of a com- 
 pound engine is always high, showing that the full 
 benefit of the steam has not been realized here, con- 
 sequently we are in no danger of calculating on the 
 same steam twice. The foregoing statement con- 
 cerning a high back pressure applies to a compound 
 engine that is properly designed for the load put 
 upon it. If an engine of this type is too large, the 
 back pressure in the first cylinder is low, and it had 
 better be exhausted into the air at once. 
 
 The object in designing and building compound 
 engines is not necessarily to get more power, but to 
 save steam, which means coal. If more power is 
 wanted a larger single cylinder could be built, but 
 this might mean a larger consumption of steam, 
 while the adoption of a compound engine might 
 result in more power being obtained at less cost. 
 
 With a simple engine having a large cylinder, 
 and short cut off in order to profit by the expansive 
 
66 ENGINEERING PRACTICE 
 
 qualities of steam, the condensation is great be- 
 cause the initial pressure is high, and the terminal 
 pressure is low, or it might be more comprehensive 
 to say that the terminal pressure of one stroke is 
 low, and the initial pressure of the next one is high, 
 thus making a great difference in temperature, 
 hence great condensation. Where this difference is 
 divided between two cylinders, the condensation is 
 much less, therefore the compound engine is eco- 
 nomical in the use of steam. 
 
 The horse power constant of a simple engine is 
 found by multiplying the area of piston, by its 
 travel in feet per minute, and dividing the product 
 by 33,000. For illustration let us take a 24 by 48 
 inch engine running 70 revolutions per minute. 
 24x24 x .7854=452.4 area of piston in square 
 inches. 48x2-^12=8 feet travel per stroke, and 
 8x70=560 feet per minute. Then 452.4 x 560 
 = 253,344. Dividing this by 33,000 shows us that 
 7.677 is the horse power constant. To find the in- 
 dicated horse power, multiply the horse power con- 
 stant by the mean effective pressure. Suppose the 
 latter to be 40 pounds, then 7.677 x 40 =307 horse 
 power. Where great accuracy is desired, the area- 
 of piston rod must be taken into account, and one 
 half of it subtracted from the area of the piston. 
 
 Another constant of this kind is found by multi- 
 plying the area of the piston by its travel during 
 
AND THEORY. 6j 
 
 one revolution, and dividing the product by 33,000. 
 With the engine before referred to it would be 
 452.4 x 8 -T- 33,000 = .10967 To find the horse 
 power from this we must multiply it by the num- 
 ber of revolutions, and by the mean effective pres- 
 sure, and .10967 x 70x40 =307 horse power as 
 before. 
 
 Such a rule would be convenient in estimating 
 the power of an engine before its exact speed was 
 determined, or in places where different speeds are 
 employed to meet the requirements of the service. 
 
 The horse power constant of the low pressure 
 cylinder of a compound engine, may be found in 
 either of the above ways. 
 
 Suppose that the engine we have been consider- 
 ing is the high pressure side of a compound engine, 
 and the low pressure side has a cylinder 48 inches 
 in diameter with the same stroke. Area of cylin- 
 der 1,809.56 square inches, and 1,809.56x560^ 
 33,000=30.707 which is the horse power constant 
 for the low pressure cylinder. 
 
 If the mean effective pressure is 10 pounds, then 
 30.707 x 10 = 307 horse power. Adding these two 
 together we find the total power to be 307 +3°7 = 
 614 indicated horse power. 
 
 The intermediate and low pressure cylinders of 
 triple and quadruple expansion engines may be 
 treated in the same way, whether they are run con- 
 densing or non-condensing. 
 
68 
 
 ENGINEERING PRACTICE 
 
 THE LIPPINCOTT PLANIMETER. 
 
AND THEORY. 
 
 6 9 
 
 THE WILLIS PLANIMETER. 
 O 
 
 TESTING GOVERNORS. 
 
 The governor of a throttling engine and the cut 
 off mechanism of an automatic engine, should be set 
 so that with the highest available steam pressure on 
 the boilers, and the lightest load on the engine, the 
 speed of the crank shaft will not be excessive. 
 Some engines regulate so closely that the variation 
 under extreme conditions is less than 2 per cent, 
 while in others it may amount to 5 per cent. 
 
 Engines should be tested for this defect at short 
 intervals in regular service, also whenever repairs 
 or changes of any kind have been made. The 
 practice of lengthening or shortening the rods 
 which connect the governor to the cut off mechan- 
 ism of a Corliss, or any similar engine, in order to 
 increase the speed, is dangerous, because the point 
 of cut off, when the balls are in their highest posi- 
 tion, may be long enough to cause the engine to 
 race, if all of the load is suddenly removed. 
 
JO ENGINEERING PRACTICE 
 
 CHAPTER 10. 
 
 MORE ABOUT HORSE POWER CONSTANTS. 
 
 CALCULATING THE RATIO OF EXPANSION FOR 
 COMPOUND ENGINES. 
 
 When estimating the power of a compound 
 engine we may assume that all of the power is 
 developed in the low pressure cylinder, and one 
 way to do this is to reduce the mean effective pres- 
 sure of the high pressure cylinder to its equivalent 
 to that of the low pressure cylinder, and add the 
 two together. In other words, we may take a por- 
 tion of the mean effective pressure of the high pres- 
 sure side, and add it to the mean effective pressure 
 of the low pressure side, then multiply the sum by 
 the horse power constant of the low pressure cylin- 
 der, and the result will be the total power of the 
 engine. 
 
 The number by which to divide the mean effec- 
 tive pressure of the high pressure side, is found by 
 dividing the area of the large piston by the area of 
 the small piston. 
 
AND THEORY. Jl 
 
 With the engine referred to in the previous chap- 
 ter it is 1,809.56-^452.4=4. We have assumed 
 the mean effective pressure to be 40 in one cylinder 
 and 10 in the other. Then 40 -=- 4 — 10 and 10 -f- 
 10 = 20 pounds mean effective pressure for the com- 
 bined cylinders. The horse power constant of the 
 low pressure cylinder is 30.707 and 30.707 x 20 = 
 614 horse power as before. 
 
 The foregoing may be applied to any compound 
 engine, if the data for its particular case are used 
 in place of that assumed in the above illustration. 
 
 In this calculation the strokes of both sides are 
 assumed to be equal, but occasionally an engine is 
 built where they are different, and in such a case 
 the cubical contents of the cylinders must be used 
 instead of the areas of the respective pistons. 
 
 The ratio of expansion for each cylinder of a 
 compound engine is found in the same way that it 
 is for a simple engine, namely, by dividing the 
 whole stroke in inches by the number of inches 
 traveled by the piston when the cut off takes place. 
 
 If greater accuracy is desired the clearance must 
 be added to the stroke, and also to the distance 
 traveled ap to the point of cut off. Where the stroke 
 is 48 inches, and the cut off is at 12 inches, not con- 
 sidering the clearance it would be 48 -7- 12 =4 which 
 is the iatio of expansion. Calling the clearance 
 equal to .5 inch, the example would be 48.5 -f- 12.5 
 
72 ENGINEERING PRACTICE 
 
 = 3.88 It is customary to omit the clearance in 
 these calculations. 
 
 If the stroke is not given in inches, and the point 
 of cut off is stated in decimal parts of the stroke, 
 then call the stroke 1 and divide it by the given 
 decimal. The quotient will be the ratio of expan- 
 sion. Suppose that the cut off takes place at .25 
 of the stroke, then 1 -f- .25 = 4. 
 
 When we wish to determine the combined ratio 
 of expansion for a compound engine, or in other 
 words the total number of times that the steam is 
 expanded, the ratio for one cylinder must be multi- 
 plied by that of the other. It will not answer to 
 add them together, for the simple reason that the 
 result will not be correct. In the case of an engine 
 whose cylinders are as 1 is to 4, the volume of the 
 high pressure cylinder is equal to the volume of the 
 lowpressure cylinder uptoone-quarterstroke. When 
 the low pressure piston has advanced to one-half 
 stroke the volume is double that of the high pres- 
 sure cylinder. At three-quarters stroke it is three 
 times as great, and at full stroke it is four times as 
 large, hence the expansions must be multiplied 
 together instead of added. If it is 4 for each cyl- 
 inder, then 4x4= 16 for the whole engine. 
 
 Another rule for ascertaining the combined ratio 
 of expansion is as follows: 
 
 Divide the volume of the low pressure cylinder 
 by the volume of the high pressure up to the point 
 of cut off, and the quotient will be the combined 
 
AND THEORY. 73 
 
 ratio of expansion. In the case of an engine such 
 as we have been considering, with cylinders 24 and 
 48 inches in diameter, with a stroke of 48 inches, 
 cutting off at one-quarter stroke, the calculation is 
 as follows: 
 
 The area of a 24 inch circle is 452.4 square 
 inches, and the cut off is at 12 inches, therefore 
 452.4 x 12 == 5,428.8 cubic inches, which is the vol- 
 ume of the high pressure cylinder up to the point 
 of cut off. The area of a 48 inch circle is 1,809.56 
 square inches, and 1,809.56x48=86,858.88 cubic 
 inches, which is the volume of the low pressurecyl- 
 inder. 86,858.88 -~ 5,428.8=16 which is the com- 
 bined, or total ratio of expansion as before. 
 
 The actual combined ratio of expansion may be 
 found directly from the indicator diagram as 
 follows: 
 
 Divide the absolute initial pressure of the high 
 pressure cylinder, by the absolute terminal pres- 
 sure of the low pressure cylinder, and the quotient 
 will be the actual combined ratio of expansion. 
 
 Suppose that the initial pressure by the gage is 
 160 pounds, making the absolute pressure 175 
 pounds, and the absolute terminal pressure is 11 
 pounds, then 175 -f- 11 = 16 expansions. 
 
 Examine the lacing in your main belt every night, 
 and renew it before it fails when power is wanted. 
 
74 
 
 ENGINEERING PRACTICE 
 
 A CROSS COMPOUND ENGINE. 
 
 THIS SHOWS A CONVENIENT ARRANGEMENT OV 
 THE BY-PASS VALVE. 
 
 A GOOD PLAN. 
 
 As it is practically impossible to secure natural 
 water for steam boilers that will not form scale on 
 the sheets and tubes, it becomes necessary in many 
 cases, to blow down one gage of water each day. 
 Thebest time to do this is in the morning, when the 
 fire is banked, because the sediment has then set- 
 tled to the lower parts of the boiler, whence it will 
 pass out with the water, and if it is impossible to 
 close the blow off valve or cock, for any cause, the 
 boiler will not be burned, as it would be if the fire 
 was burning briskly. 
 
AND THEORY. 75 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 RECEIVERS. CROSS AND TANDEM COMPOUND 
 
 ENGINES. 
 
 The term " receiver," when applied to a com- 
 pound engine, refers to a steam drum between the 
 high and low pressure cylinders, the former ex- 
 hausting into it, and the latter taking steam from 
 it. The size of the receiver, when compared with 
 either of the cylinders, varies greatly in the differ- 
 ent types of engines, ranging from the volume of 
 the high pressure cylinder in some cases, to five 
 times this volume in others. 
 
 With this great variation in practice, and good 
 results being obtained from all of them under vari- 
 rious conditions, it is impossible to give any rule 
 that will fix the capacity of receivers for different 
 engines. The comparative position of the cranks 
 will affect the results, but the larger the receiver 
 is, the less the pressure in it will fluctuate. The 
 condensation of steam is greater in a large than in 
 a small receiver, and as this is an important factor, 
 it limits the capacity of them. 
 
76 ENGINEERING PRACTICE 
 
 It is equally difficult to fix the comparative sizes 
 of cylinders for compound engines, when run con- 
 densing or otherwise, as different builders present 
 a variety of sizes, ranging from a proportion of 1 to 
 3, to 1 to 5 in general practice, and even a propor- 
 tion of 1 to 7 being favored in some cases. Those 
 who favor the latter combination claim that it has 
 never been proved to be wasteful of steam in prac- 
 tice, therefore there is no good reason for rejecting it. 
 
 The plan of converting a simple engine into a 
 compound by adding another cylinder may be a 
 good one, and it may be otherwise, for it depends 
 on the conditions under which the engine is run. 
 If the simple engine is underloaded, it is obvious 
 that the cut off will be short and the terminal pres- 
 sure low, so that there will be little force left in the 
 steam when it is exhausted from the cylinder. If 
 another cylinder should be added under such con- 
 ditions it would be a detriment, for instead of assist- 
 ing in doing work, the low pressure piston 
 would be an additional load on the high pressure 
 side. If the simple engine is overloaded it will pay 
 to make further use of the steam rather than to 
 exhaust it into the atmosphere. 
 
 A tandem compound engine is one in which one 
 cylinder is located directly behind the other, both 
 pistons being attached to one piston rod. With 
 this engine but one crank, cross head and one pair 
 
AND THEORY. 77 
 
 of guides are necessary. It occupies less room than 
 a cross compound engine, and its first cost is less. 
 It cannot be so conveniently operated, however, 
 for it is liable to stop on the center after steam has 
 been shut off, the same as a simple engine is, and 
 when made in large sizes, as they frequently are, 
 this is an objection. If one cylinder becomes dis- 
 abled from any cause, it is seldom practical to dis- 
 connect it and use the other until repairs can be 
 made. 
 
 The cross compound engine consists of two cyl- 
 inders, one larger than the other, each having its 
 own valve gear, the pistons of which drive separate 
 cranks on one crank shaft. It occupies a little 
 more room than the tandem, and its first cost is 
 somewhat greater where everything else is equal. 
 It has the great advantage of not being totally dis- 
 abled if an accident happens to one of its cylinders, 
 as it is usually practical to disconnect one connect- 
 ing rod and run with the other cylinder until re- 
 pairs can be made. In this way a portion of the 
 works can be kept in operation. 
 
 It is a very convenient engine to handle, for when 
 the cranks are set at an angle of 90 degrees, or even 
 at 120 degrees, if the high pressure crank stops on 
 a center, steam may be admitted to the low pres- 
 sure cylinder, and the engine started up, provided 
 the valve gear is designed to admit steam full 
 
78 ENGINEERING PRACTICE. 
 
 stroke. This is accomplished by means of a steam 
 pipe of comparatively small diameter, leading from 
 the main steam pipe directly to the low pressure 
 cylinder. A suitable valve being placed in this 
 pipe it may be used at pleasure for this purpose, 
 and also for admitting steam to the low pressure 
 cylinder when running, if for any reason it is desir- 
 able to do so. Such a pipe is called a "by-pass." 
 
 A steeple compound engine is one in which the 
 cylinders are placed directly above the crank, as in 
 the case of a simple vertical engine. The low pres- 
 sure cylinder is usually placed next to the frame, 
 and the high pressure above it. It possesses the 
 same advantages that any vertical engine does, in 
 occupying but a small floor space, and as the pis- 
 tons do not rest on the bottoms of the cylinders, 
 the friction and wear are possibly somewhat less. 
 Some of these engines have proved to be very 
 efficient. Their disadvantages are more in the line 
 of inconvenience in making repairs and adjustments, 
 and their unconventional general appearance rather 
 than any real objection that can be mentioned. 
 
 However, engineers always have a choice in such 
 matters, and the author is no exception to the gen- 
 eral rule, but does not hesitate to state his prefer- 
 ence for the horizontal, cross compound engine. 
 Although many advantages are claimed for vertical 
 engines, still it is a significant fact that they are 
 
AND THEORY, 
 
 79 
 
 still in the minority, and are liable to be for many 
 years to come. In marine service the vertical style of 
 engine, both simple and compound, has an excellent 
 record for economy of fuel, but this is due to favor- 
 able conditions which are more frequently found at 
 sea than on land, and to these conditions, rather 
 than to the particular style of engine, must the 
 credit be given. If the load on a horizontal engine 
 that is properly proportioned for its load is constant, 
 and the proper pressure and quality of steam is 
 available, the results will show that it is very eco- 
 nomical in the use of fuel. 
 
 A MODERN HORIZONTAL HIGH SPEED TANDEM 
 COMPOUND ENGINE. 
 
8o ENGINEERING PRACTICE 
 
 CHAPTER 12. 
 
 TRIPLE EXPANSION ENGINES. 
 
 The power of a triple expansion engine is deter- 
 mined by ascertaining the power developed in each 
 cylinder separately, the same as if it w r ere a single 
 engine, and adding the results together, as men- 
 tioned in a previous chapter, but when taking dia- 
 grams from these engines care must be taken to 
 secure those that faithfully represent the power 
 developed at the same time. It will net answer to 
 take a diagram from one cylinder, and then take 
 them from the others at convenient seasons, for 
 even if one minute elapses between the two opera- 
 tions there is no way of knowing whether the results 
 are correct or not, taking the engine under normal 
 conditions, for the load may have changed in the 
 meantime, so that the diagrams will not correctly 
 represent the load on the entire engine. 
 
 This may be accomplished by having an indicator 
 on each cylinder, and taking diagrams simultane- 
 ouslv, but as only one end of each cylinder can be 
 
AND THEORY. 8l 
 
 indicated at once, (unless two indicators are pro- 
 vided for each cylinder), care should be taken to 
 get diagrams from corresponding ends, so that 
 reliable results may be secured. 
 
 It is quite possible to do this with one indicator, 
 provided the cut off mechanism for all of the cylin- 
 ders is controlled by one governor, or it may be 
 done if the cut off devices for the second and third 
 cylinders are fixed, so that the same results will be 
 secured from them, provided the conditions in the 
 first cylinder are the same. 
 
 A diagram may be taken from the high pressure 
 cylinder, and the exact position of the governor 
 noted, provided it is of the fly ball type, so as to 
 make it possible to do so, and when diagrams 
 are taken from the other cylinders, the governor 
 must be brought to the same position that it was 
 when the first diagram was taken. This will give 
 correct results if the boiler pressure is the same in 
 both cases. 
 
 The actual combined, or total ratio of expansion 
 may be ascertained from the diagrams by dividing 
 the initial pressure in the high pressure cylinder, 
 by the terminal pressure in the low pressure. 
 
 For illustration, suppose that the initial pressure 
 by the gage is 175 pounds, and the terminal pres- 
 sure is 7 pounds absolute ; then 175 -f- 15 ~ 7 = 27 
 expansions. 
 
82 ENGINEERING PRACTICE 
 
 If we wish to calculate the ratio of expansion for 
 each cylinder separately and from them obtain the 
 total ratio, we must multiply the ratiostogether and 
 the result will be the total ratio for the engine. 
 Suppose that the conditionsare such that the expan- 
 sion ratio for each cylinder is 3 and there being 
 three cylinders 3x3x3 = 27 expansions. 
 
 In order to illustrate this we may assume that the 
 first, or high pressure cylinder is 11 inches in diam- 
 eter, and the cut off takes place at one-third of the 
 stroke, making the expansion rate 3. 
 
 If the second, or intermediate cylinder is three 
 times the area of the first, or 19 inches in diameter, 
 aud the cut off takes place at one-third stroke, the 
 expansion rate will be 3 for this cylinder, and for 
 the two it will be 3 X3 =- 9. 
 
 If the third, or low pressure cylinder is three 
 times the area of the intermediate, or 33 inches in 
 diameter, and the cut off takes place at one-third 
 stroke, the expansion rate for this cylinder will be 
 3 and the combined ratio Avill be 3 x 3 x 3 = 27. 
 
 In order to calculate the total expansion rate, or 
 ratio, without bringing the intermediate cylinder 
 into the calculation, proceed as follows: 
 
 Divide the volume of the low pressure cylinder, 
 by the volume of the high pressure cylinder up to 
 the point of cut off, and the quotient will be the 
 total ratio of expansion. If the engine that we 
 
AND THEORY. 83 
 
 have just been considering has a stroke of 30 inches, 
 then the volume of the low pressure cylinder is 
 33 X33 x .7854 x 30 = 25,650 cubic inches. The 
 volume of the high pressure cylinder up to the 
 point of cut off is nxnx .7854 x(30 -7- 3) = 950 
 cubic inches. Then 25,650 -7- 950 =27 as before. 
 
 All triple expansion engines are not constructed 
 with three cylinders, however, for some of them 
 have four. The advantage of this is as follows: 
 
 If we want to design an engine larger than the 
 one that we have been considering, we may make 
 the first cylinder 30 inches in diameter, the second 
 52 inches and the third 90 inches, and still preserve 
 the same proportions nearly. 
 
 But a 90 inch cylinder is a lather large size and 
 it may be advisable to avoid its use, especially if it 
 is to be a horizontal engine. If we divide the area 
 of it into tw r o equal parts, and make two low pres- 
 sure cylinders each 63.75 inches in diameter, we 
 shall secure the desired result with much smaller 
 cylinders. This makes a more symmetrical engine 
 and will give good results in practice, but it has a 
 greater number of parts, or in other words, it is 
 more complicated than the three cylinder triple 
 expansion engine. 
 
 To determine the total ratio of expansion for this 
 engine, divide the cubical contents of the two low 
 
84 
 
 ENGINEERING PRACTICE 
 
 pressure cylinders by the contents of the high pres- 
 sure cylinder up to the point of cut off. 
 
 Assuming the stroke to be 60 inches, each low 
 pressure cylinder contains 191,520 cubic inches or 
 383,040 cubic inches for both. The high pressure 
 cylinder, up to the point of cut off, which is assumed 
 to be at one-third stroke, contains 14,136 cubic 
 inches. Then 383,040 -r- 14,136 = 27 expansions. 
 
 A TRIPLE EXPANSION ENGINE. 
 
 This illustrates a modern high speed, triple ex- 
 pansion engine, with four cylinders, arranged as a 
 double tandem compound, showing a very compact 
 and convenient arrangement of the several parts. 
 As the cranks are set at right angles, the motion 
 imparted to the crank shaft is uniform, therefore 
 very desirable for electric lighting. 
 
AND THEORY. 85 
 
 CHAPTER 13. 
 
 QUADRUPLE EXPANSION ENGINES. VARIOUS TYPES 
 
 OF CONDENSERS. 
 
 A quadruple expansion engine is one in which 
 the steam is expanded and used in four cylinders. 
 When speaking of compound, triple or quadruple 
 expansion engines, it is proper to state whether 
 they are run condensing or not. It is customary to 
 assume that a condenser is employed, for it effects 
 a greater saving with them than with a simple 
 engine, but at the same time if a quadruple engine 
 is used, strictly speaking it does not mean that it is 
 run condensing, for if it is, then the machine should 
 be referred to as a quadruple expansion condensing 
 engine, and this applies to the others mentioned. 
 
 The ratio of expansion is found by multiplying 
 the number of expansions in each cylinder together, 
 as in the case of the compound or the triple expan- 
 sion engine. 
 
 To determine the actual ratio in every day prac- 
 tice, divide the initial pressure of the high pressure 
 
86 ENGINEERING PRACTICE 
 
 cylinder by the terminal pressure, both absolute, of 
 the low pressure cylinder. 
 
 There are several forms of condensers used in 
 connection with these engines, as follows: 
 
 The jet condenser is so constructed that a pump, 
 which is commonly called an air pump, draws the 
 exhaust steam, water and air from the engine cyl- 
 inder, and also pumps water from a river or other 
 source of supply, bringing them together in the 
 condenser. As the exhaust steam meets this jet of 
 water it is condensed, and usually allowed to run 
 to waste, except a small portion of it that is used 
 for boiler feeding. 
 
 A short distance from the condenser, a compara- 
 tively small well is provided, into which the con- 
 densed steam and water flows on its way to the sewer 
 or river, and this is called the hot well, for out of 
 it the boiler feed pump takes its supply. 
 
 A surface condenser resembles a small tubular 
 boiler in some respects, but the tubes are usually 
 made of brass. The exhaust steam to be condensed 
 is pumped through the tubes, while the cold water 
 fills the body of the condenser, or the steam may be 
 drawn through the body of it, while the water cir- 
 culates through the tubes. The pump which 
 draws, or forces water through the condenser, is 
 called the circulating pump. An air pump is used 
 to create a partial vacuum in the exhaust pipe. 
 
AND THEORY. 87 
 
 The jet condenser system is simple in construc- 
 tion, and low in first cost, but comparatively pure 
 water must be used with it, as a portion of it is 
 used for boiler feeding. 
 
 The surface condensing system is more compli- 
 cated and consequently more costly, as it requires 
 two pumps and a more elaborate condenser, but 
 salt or impure water may be used where it is em- 
 ployed, as the condensed steam does not come into 
 contact with it, and consequently the feed water for 
 the boilers remains pure. As all of the water 
 resulting from the condensation of steam is pumped 
 back into the boilers, precautions must be taken 
 to remove the cylinder oil from it. 
 
 With either of these systems, or any other that 
 is in use, a large quantity of water is needed for the 
 condenser, where it is used but once and then 
 allowed to go to waste. The quantity varies from 
 20 to 30 times the amount needed to generate the 
 steam, but if it is allowed to run into a pond and 
 remain there until cool, it may be used over again. 
 
 Sometimes this hot water is pumped into the air 
 in jets similar to fountains on a large scale, in order 
 to facilitate the cooling process, and in other places 
 where floor or ground space is very valuable, cool- 
 ing towers are employed, in which the water is 
 pumped to the top and allowed to fall in thin sheets, 
 being met by a current of air which is forced up- 
 
88 ENGINEERING PRACTICE 
 
 ward by a fan. Where this plan is adopted, it is 
 claimed that no more water is needed to run con- 
 densing than non-condensing without it, after the 
 tower is once supplied with sufficient water to start 
 with. 
 
 Sometimes siphon, or injector condensers are 
 employed, and the principle on which they operate 
 is to utilize the drafting power of a column of fall- 
 ing water to create a partial vacuum in the exhaust 
 pipe of an engine, and also to raise the water nec- 
 essary for condensation. They give good results in 
 practice, are simple in construction, easy to oper- 
 ate and their first cost is not excessive. 
 
 We are sometimes told that condensing engines 
 are objectionable because they require more intelli- 
 gent supervision, and consequently the salary of 
 the engineer will be more than where they are not 
 used. This is poor policy, because an intelligent 
 engineer should be employed in every case, and a 
 fair salary paid for good service, as it will prove to 
 be a paying investment. 
 
 Some of the engines in mills and factories could 
 not be run condensing, for the stuffing boxes and 
 joints are in such poor condition as to make it 
 impossible to maintain sufficient vacuum to be prof- 
 itable, but this fact does not prove that it is eco- 
 nomical to run plants in this condition. 
 
AND THEORY, 
 
 8 9 
 
 In many cases it would pay to remodel old plants 
 that are now run in a wasteful condition, or throw 
 them out entirely, and install new ones of modern 
 design. With the best available engineer in charge, 
 more satisfactory power would be secured at less cost. 
 
 i/)iil)i»iiiiimimiiiiwii">»Vii 
 
 SURFACE CONDENSER AND COOLING TOWER. 
 
 This illustrates a surface condenser which may 
 be used to good advantage where there is an abun- 
 dant supply of impure water, as none of it is used to 
 feed the boilers. It also shows a cooling tower, by 
 the aid of which the same water may be used many 
 times over. This makes it practical to use pure 
 water from the city mains in cases where it is desired 
 to do so, for after the tower is once filled it requires 
 no more than is necessary to feed the boilers of a 
 non-condensing plant. The fan is driven bv an 
 independent engine. 
 
90 ENGINEERING PRACTICE 
 
 CHAPTER 14, 
 
 PUMPING MACHINERY. CALCULATING THE DUTY 
 OF A PUMPING ENGINE. 
 
 A cubic foot of pure w r ater at a temperature of 
 39 c Fah., at which point it reaches its greatest den- 
 sity, weighs 62.425 pounds, and at 62 which is 
 called the standard temperature, it weighs 62.355 
 pounds, but for all ordinary calculations its weight 
 is taken at 62.5 pounds for all temperatures that 
 we find in practice where artificial heat has not been 
 applied. There are 7.5 gallons in a cubic foot, and 
 by diYiding 62.5 by 7.5 we find that one gallon 
 weighs 8.3 pounds, and as there are eight pints in a 
 gallon it is sometimes said that 
 
 11 A pint weighs a pound 
 The world around," 
 
 which is nearly correct but not absolutely so. This 
 refers to the United States standard gallon of 231 
 cubic inches. 
 
 A foot pound is one pound in weight raised one 
 foot high, therefore if we raise one gallon of water 
 
AND THEORY. 91 
 
 one foot high, we have developed 8.3 x 1 = 8.3 foot 
 pounds, and if we raise it 100 feet high we have 
 developed 8.3 x 100 = 830 foot pounds. 
 
 The duty of a pumping engine is usually rated 
 by the number of foot pounds it will develop while 
 100 pounds of coal are burned under the boilers, 
 provided it is desired to take into consideration the 
 efficiency of the boilers and the engine together, 
 but if the engine is to be taken separately, the duty 
 is based on the number of foot pounds developed 
 while a given number of pounds of steam are passing 
 through the engine. This number is frequently 
 taken at 1000, for if the boilers evaporate ten 
 pounds of water for each pound of coal burned, it 
 is equivalent to burning 100 pounds of coal under 
 the boilers. 
 
 If all of the pumping engines in use were raising 
 water to a given height under exactly similar con- 
 ditions, then all that would be necessary to do 
 would be to ascertain the number of gallons pumped, 
 and make the standard allowance for friction, when 
 the duty would be known, but inasmuch as the 
 engine builder rates his machine by the foot pounds 
 developed in the water cylinder, we must take into 
 account the number of gallons raised, the height 
 to which it is elevated, the height of the source of 
 supply, and the friction of the water in the pipes. 
 
92 . ENGINEERING PRACTICE 
 
 When the height in feet of a column of water is 
 known, we may calculate its pressure by dividing 
 by 2.304 If it is 125 feet high, then 125 -f- 2.304 = 
 54.3 pounds. If the pressure is given and we wish 
 to know the height, multiply the pressure by 2.304 
 and 54.3x2.304=125 feet. Therefore if the res- 
 ervoir is 125 feet above the pump, the pressure on 
 the water piston due to the height of the column of 
 water will be 54.3 pounds, but we cannot calculate 
 on that alone, because the friction of the water in 
 the pipes must be accounted for, and if there was 
 any way of calculating it definitely we could add 
 the two together and the sum would be the total 
 pressure, but from the above it is plain that the 
 easiest and best way is to attach a gage to the water 
 pipe close to the water cylinder, and the pressure 
 that it indicates tells us the resistance per square 
 inch at once. 
 
 If the source of supply is above the pump, the 
 pressure in the supply pipe must be subtracted from 
 the pressure in the delivery pipe, and if the supply 
 is below the pump a vacuum gage may be attached 
 to the suction pipe, and the quotient found by 
 dividing the vacuum in inches by 2.04 must be 
 added to the pressure in the delivery pipe. 
 
 In order to determine whether this resistance is a 
 constant factor or not, an indicator should be 
 
AND THEORY. 93 
 
 applied to the water cylinder of the pump, just as it 
 is to the steam cylinder of an engine. 
 
 When calculating the horse power of an engine, 
 we multiply the area of the piston by its travel in 
 feet per minute, and by the mean effective pressure, 
 the result being the number of foot pounds devel- 
 oped. We may treat the pumping engine in a 
 similar way by multiplying the area of the water 
 piston by the distance that it travels while ioo 
 pounds of coal are burned, and by the resistance in 
 pounds per square inch. The result will be the 
 foot pounds developed per ioo pounds of coal. 
 
 The time that it takes to burn ioo pounds 
 of coal may be found by dividing the number of 
 minutes covered by the test, by the total pounds 
 of coal burned, and multiplying the result by ioo. 
 Suppose that during a test lasting 9.5 hours four 
 tons of coal, containing 2,240 pounds each are 
 burned. How long did it take to burn 100 pounds? 
 9.5 hours equals 570 minutes, and four tons of coal 
 makes 8,960 pounds. Then 570 -=- 8,960 =.0636 
 minutes required to burn one pound, and .0636 x 
 100= 6.36 minutes required to burn 100 pounds. 
 
 If we have a pumping engine whose water piston 
 is 24 inches in diameter its area will be 24 x 24 x 
 .7854=452 square inches. If the stroke is 54 inches 
 and it makes 50 single strokes per minute, the 
 travel of the piston will be 54 x 50 ~ 12 = 225 feet 
 
94 ENGINEERING PRACTICE 
 
 per minute, and for 6.36 minutes it will be 
 225 x 6.36 = 1,431 feet, which is the piston speed 
 for this calculation. We will assume the water 
 pressure to be 85 pounds, and our calculation 
 then is 452 x 1 ,431 x 85 = 54,979,020 foot pounds. 
 If it is a duplex pump and both pistons make full 
 strokes, we multiply this by 2, which gives 
 109,958,040 foot pounds developed per 100 pounds 
 of coal. 
 
 Great improvements have been made in the past 
 few years, so that at present these machines are 
 very efficient, and although their first cost is large, 
 it proves to be a good investment. 
 
 The load on a pumping engine is constant, or 
 nearly so, for a given piston speed, and as this load 
 may be estimated in advance, an engine can be 
 designed accordingly, thus securing economy in 
 fuel, for the steam pressure can usually be varied 
 to suit unforeseen conditions. 
 
 o 
 
 VERTICAL CROSS COMPOUND PUMPING ENGINE. 
 
 The illustration on the opposite page shows a 
 vertical, cross compound pumping engine with one 
 high pressure and two low pressure cylinders. 
 This design makes it possible to deliver a nearly 
 constant stream of water into the main, thus avoid- 
 ing the shocTcs and vibration inseparable from the 
 single engine type. 
 
AND THEORY, 
 
 95 
 
 •»■ * 
 
 -^■=j!- u --?--:,-- 
 
 VERTICAL CROSS COMPOUND PUMPING ENGINE. 
 
g6 ENGINEERING PRACTICE 
 
 CHAPTER 15. 
 
 MORE CALCULATIONS CONCERNING PUMPING 
 
 ENGINES. 
 
 Where the duty of a pumping engine is based 
 on the time that it requires for 1000 pounds of 
 steam to pass through the cylinders, it is not nec- 
 essary to weigh the coal, nor give particular atten- 
 tion to the way in which the boilers are run, but 
 the water used for making steam must be weighed, 
 and the time that it requires for 1000 pounds of it 
 to pass through the cylinders carefully noted. 
 This may be determined by the following rule : 
 
 Divide the total number of minutes covered by 
 the test, by the total pounds of water evaporated, 
 and multiply the result by 1000. The product 
 will be the required time. The water that passes 
 off with the steam must be deducted from the 
 amount fed to the boilers. 
 
 For illustration, suppose that during a test last- 
 ing nine hours and fifteen minutes, 91,840 pounds 
 of water are fed to the boilers, but 5 per cent of it 
 
AND THEORY. 97 
 
 passes off with the steam without being evapo- 
 rated. 91,840 x .05 = 4,592, and 91,840 — 4,592 = 
 87,248 pounds evaporated. Nine hours and fifteen 
 minutes are equal to 555 minutes. Then 555 -=- 
 87,248 = .00636 and multiplying this by 1000 
 shows us that 1000 pounds of steam will pass 
 through this engine in 6.36 minutes. 
 
 This is the same length of time that it required 
 to burn 100 pounds of coal in the case of the engine 
 mentioned in Chapter 14, and if, for illustration, 
 we take the same engine here, the calculation 
 and resulting duty will be the same. The pounds 
 of water in this case is found by assuming that 
 four tons, or 8,960 pounds of coal were burned dur- 
 ing the test, and for each pound of coal burned 
 10.25 potmds of water were fed into the boilers* 
 
 A duty of 100,000,000 foot pounds is considered 
 a very good result in a pumping engine, but while 
 many fail to show such efficiency, others exceed it. 
 One that was designed several years ago by that 
 eminent engineer, George H. Corliss, has greatly 
 exceeded this in actual practice. It is a cross com- 
 pound engine, with the regular Corliss cylinders 
 and valve gear. Steam is used at 142 pounds abso- 
 lute pressure, and the ratio of expansion varies 
 from 15 to 20. This is one of the first pumping 
 engines built that showed such excellent results, 
 and is located ar Pawtucket, R. I. A large bal- 
 
98 ENGINEERING PRACTICE 
 
 ance wheel is mounted on a suitable crank shaft 
 located above the water cylinders, and a bell crank 
 lever and suitable links connect the balance wheel 
 to the reciprocating parts of the engine, thus ena- 
 bling it to pass the dead centers. 
 
 A crank and fly wheel pumping engine has also 
 been put on the market by The Geo. F. Blake Man- 
 ufacturing Co., which is very efficient. 
 
 The Edward P. Allis Co. build a vertical triple 
 expansion pumping engine, with crank and fly 
 wheel, that shows very good results in practice. 
 The fly wheel, or balance wheel arrangement is, 
 however, of necessity, a somewhat cumbersome 
 affair, and to overcome this objection, and provide 
 other good features, the xi High Duty Attachment^ 
 is used on the Worthington pumping engines. It 
 consists of a pair of oscillating cylinders in which 
 plungers work, that are connected to the cross 
 heads on the piston rods which are common to the 
 steam and water cylinders. The pressure acting 
 on these plungers, opposes the action of the engine 
 from the beginning of the stroke in a gradually 
 decreasing ratio, until half stroke is reached, when 
 it is neutralized by the position of the plungers. 
 
 During the latter half of the stroke it assists the 
 action of the engine, more effectively as the end of 
 the stroke is approached, thus enabling steam of a 
 high pressure to be used to a good advantage, by 
 
 V<; 
 
AND THEORY. 99 
 
 cutting off short and utilizing the benefits of expan- 
 sion, which is the chief object in adopting the 
 device. 
 
 Pressure is furnished to these plungers from an 
 accumulator, or a reservoir, and this in turn receives 
 it from the water main. The pressure of the 
 main is multiplied in the lower part of the accu- 
 mulator by means of two pistons connected by a 
 rod, and working in vertical cylinders, the upper 
 piston being much larger than the lower one, hence 
 the multiplication of pressure. As a body of water 
 is not elastic, some means must be provided for 
 cushioning the accumulator, and this is done by 
 pumping air into it with a small pump provided 
 for the purpose. 
 
 This attachment possesses one great advantage 
 in case the water main bursts. With a fly wheel 
 and fixed cut off without a throttling governor, if the 
 main bursts, thus relieving the engine of its load, 
 the speed is increased at once, so that if the engi- 
 neer is not at hand to immediately shut off the 
 steam, the engine may be wrecked. If the same 
 accident happens to a high duty engine, as above 
 described, it stops at once, because the release of 
 the pressure in the mains relieves the plungers of 
 their motive power. Such accidents seldom hap- 
 pen, but when they do the results are disastrous, 
 therefore every precaution should be taken to pre- 
 vent them. 
 
 LofC. 
 
ICO 
 
 ENGINEERING PRACTICE 
 
 An engine of this type, located at New Haven, 
 Conn., developed a duty of 116,000,000 foot pounds 
 at a carefully conducted trial, exceeding the guar- 
 antee of its builder by 11,000,000 foot pounds. 
 
 <JT 
 
 znzn: 
 
 . , i . 1 
 
 I_j 
 
 COMPOUND CONDENSING DUPLEX PUMPING ENGINE, 
 
 WITH HIGH DUTY ATTACHMENT BETWEEN 
 
 THE STEAM AND WATER CYLINDERS. 
 
 CAPITAL. 
 An engineer's reputation is his capital, there- 
 fore it should be carefully guarded at all times, 
 
AND THEORY. IOI 
 
 CHAPTER 16. 
 
 HYDRAULIC PUMPS. BOILER FEEDERS AND TANK 
 
 PUMPS. DATA CONCERNING PUMPING 
 
 MACHINERY. 
 
 When we speak of a hydraulic pressure pump, it 
 refers to a type of pump made to operate against 
 a much greater pressure per square inch than the 
 steam pressure which drives it. This is made pos- 
 sible by having a larger steam piston, when com- 
 pared with the water piston, than would otherwise 
 be required. The pressure that a pump will oper- 
 ate against may be calculated as follows : 
 
 Multiply the area of the steam piston by the steam 
 pressure acting on it, and divide by the area of the 
 water piston. This will give the pressure that 
 will equalize the forces, and in order to allow the 
 pump to operate, an allowance in the water pres- 
 sure must be made according to conditions. Twen- 
 ty-five per cent will be necessary in some cases. 
 
 For illustration, suppose that the steam piston 
 is 10 inches in diameter, the pressure 90 pounds, 
 
102 ENGINEERING PRACTICE 
 
 and the water piston 2 inches in diameter. The 
 area of the steam piston is 10 x iox .7854 = 78.54 
 square inches, and 78.54 x 90 = 7,068 pounds. The 
 area of the water piston is 2 x 2 x .7854 = 3.1416 
 square inches. 7,068 -5- 3.1416 = 2,249 pounds. 
 
 If we make an allowance of 25 per cent, then 
 2,249x^5 = 562 and 2,249 — 562=1,687 pounds 
 hydraulic pressure. By increasing the compara- 
 tive area of pistons, almost any pressure may be 
 secured, for pumps are in operation daily working 
 against more than 10,000 pounds to the square inch. 
 Boiler feed pumps are designed with a larger water 
 piston, when compared with the steam piston, than 
 the above, as the difference in pressure is not so 
 great, for they are usually calculated to work 
 against the same pressure that drives them, plus 
 the friction. 
 
 The steam pressure required to drive a boiler 
 feed pump may be calculated as follows: 
 
 Multiply the area of the water piston by the 
 pressure in the boiler, plus 50 per cent for friction 
 and necessary difference in pressure to allow the 
 pump to run at the required speed. Divide the 
 product by the area of the water piston. 
 
 For illustration take a pump with a steam piston 
 10 inches in diameter, and a water piston 6 inches, 
 with a boiler pressure of 80 pounds. The area of 
 a 6 inch water piston is 28.27 square inches. 50 
 
AND THEORY. IO3 
 
 per cent of 80 is 40 and 80+40=120. Then 28.27 
 x 120 = 3,392.4 The area of a 10 inch steam piston 
 is 78.54 square inches and 3,392.4 -5- 78.54 = 43 
 pounds. This is a light pressure, but the pump 
 works better and proves more durable where a good 
 margin is allowed. 
 
 A tank, or light service pump, is made with 
 steam and water pistons of the same diameter, or 
 with but slight difference either way, as they are 
 not intended to work against heavy pressures. 
 
 To determine the diameter of water piston suit- 
 able for a given steam piston, when both steam and 
 water pressures are known, proceed as follows: 
 
 Multiply the area of the steam piston by the 
 available pressure, and divide by the water pres- 
 sure plus 50 per cent. Divide by .7854 and extract 
 the square root of the quotient. 
 
 For illustration, suppose that we have a pump 
 
 with a 12 inch steam piston, a boiler carrying 90 
 
 pounds pressure, so that 50 pounds are available in 
 
 he cylinder, and the water pressure is 25 pounds. 
 
 The area of a 12 inch steam piston is 113 square 
 inches, and 113 x5o = 5,65<>. 25+ (25X -5o)=37.5 
 Then 5 650 -=- 37.5 -7- .7854 = 191 tha square rootof 
 which is 14 nearly, which is the required diameter 
 of the water piston. 
 
 If we wish to determine the diameter of a steam 
 piston necessary to drive a water piston of given 
 
104 ENGINEERING PRACTICE 
 
 area, when the steam and water pressures are 
 known, proceed as follows: 
 
 Multiply the area of water piston by the water 
 pressure plus 50 per cent, and divide by the steam 
 pressure. Divide by .7854 and extract the square 
 root of the quotient. 
 
 For example, suppose that the water piston is 10 
 inches in diameter, the water pressure 40 pounds, 
 and the steam pressure 60 pounds. Then 78.54 x 
 (40 + 40 x .50) -=- 60 = 78.54 and 78.54-^.7854 = 
 100 the square root of which is 10, therefore the 
 steam piston should be 10 inches in diameter. 
 
 Application of the four rules given in this chap- 
 ter will enable the engineer to determine the water 
 pressure that a pump will work against, the steam 
 pressure necessary to run a pump, the required size 
 of water piston, and the diameter of steam piston 
 for any case. 
 
 A piston pump has a water piston working in a 
 cylinder similar to a steam piston and cylinder, with 
 a piston rod packed in the same way. 
 
 A plunger pump is fitted with a plunger work- 
 ing through a large stuffing box, into the water 
 casing of the pump. These are more suitable for 
 pumping gritty water than a piston pump. 
 
 A power pump is run by a belt, or by gears from 
 the main shaft, or from some countershaft in the 
 mill or factory. 
 
AND THEORY. 105 
 
 Pump manufacturers advise us not to run pumps 
 more than 100 feet of piston speed per minute, but 
 if their speed does not exceed 50 feet per minute, 
 they will last longer and give better satisfaction, 
 especially if the water is to be pumped against a 
 heavy pressure. 
 
 It is very convenient to calculate the capaci- 
 ties of pumps in gallons, at 100 feet piston speed 
 per minute, and for this purpose the following rule 
 may be used, as it is very nearly correct. 
 
 Square the diameter of the water cylinder and 
 multiply by 4. The product is the number of gal- 
 lons discharged per minute, and it may be explained 
 as follows : 
 
 When it is desired to compute the capacity of a 
 pump cylinder, square its diameter, multiply by 
 .7854 and by the length in inches. This gives the 
 cubic inches per stroke, and to find it for any given 
 number of strokes per minute, multiply by the 
 number of strokes. With the rule just given it is 
 assumed that the piston has traveled 100 feet or 
 1 , 200 inches per minute . Multiplying this by the area 
 
 in square inches, or in other words by d x .7854 
 gives the cubic inches per minute, and dividing by 
 231 reduces it to United States gallons. 
 Put into a formula it is as follows : 
 
 d x .7854 xioo x 12 
 
 — gallons per minute. Mul- 
 
 231 
 
106 ENGINEERING PRACTICE 
 
 tiplying together the figures above the line gives 
 
 2 
 
 d X942 
 
 the following: = gallons per minute, and 
 
 231 
 
 2 4 
 
 proceeding to cancel results as follows: d x^42 
 
 >5* 
 
 d x 4 = gallons per minute. 
 
 While this is not absolutely correct, it is very 
 nearly so, for although 231 will go into 942 a frac- 
 tion over 4 times, making the result larger, when 
 the cubical contents of the rod are taken out, as 
 occupying space during one-half of thepiston travel, 
 it reduces the result, so that one offsets the other. 
 
 To determine the diameter of water piston that 
 will raise a given quantity of water per minute, the 
 following rule may be used, assuming the piston 
 speed to be 100 feet per minute. 
 
 Divide the number of gallons by 4 and extract 
 the square root of the quotient, which will be the 
 diameter in inches. 
 
 For illustrationf assume that 100 gallons permin- 
 ute are to be raised. Then 100 -=- 4 = 25 the square 
 root of which is 5, therefore the water piston should 
 be 5 inches in diameter. 
 
AND THEORY. IO/ 
 
 When a certain quantity of water is to be moved 
 per minute, to find the speed of water in the pipe, 
 the following rule may be used. 
 
 Multiply the quantity in cubic feet by 144 and 
 divide the product by the area of the pipe in square 
 inches. 
 
 For illustration, suppose that we wish to move 
 25 cubic feet per minute through a 3 inch pipe, 
 the area of which is 7 square inches. Then 25 x 
 144 -=- 7 = 514.3 feet per minute. 
 
 In order to determine the diameter of pipe re- 
 quired to deliver a certain quantity of water per 
 minute, multiply the number of cubic feet by 144 
 and divide by the velocity of the water in feet per 
 minute. Divide by .7854 and extract the square 
 root of the quotient. 
 
 Using the above data for illustration results as 
 follows : 25 x 144 -7- 514.3 -T- .7854 — 9 the square 
 root of which is 3. 
 
 When erecting a pump it is necessary to have a 
 perfectly tight suction pipe, that no air may enter 
 to partially displace the water, but in some cases, 
 where long lines of pipe are carried over hills and 
 through valleys, the water under pressure may 
 cause pounding in the pipes. Under such condi- 
 tions it is beneficial to admit air to the suc- 
 tion pipe by means of a small valve provided for 
 that purpose. The philosophy of the plan is that 
 
IOS ENGINEERING PRACTICE 
 
 while water is solid, air is elastic, and the air so 
 admitted cushions the water and prevents blows 
 that would otherwise cause pounding. 
 
 When the speed of a pump is slow, a small leak 
 in the suction pipe may cause trouble, because the 
 amount of air admitted is larger in proportion to 
 the water than it would be were the speed greater. 
 
 Wheie there is any trouble in locating a leak in 
 a suction pipe, it is a good plan to cover the joints 
 with a mixture of rosin and tallow. Heat the rosin 
 in an iron ladle, and as it melts, add the tallow, 
 until the proper proportions are secured. This can 
 be determined by taking a small amount of it out 
 and spreading it on a piece of iron. If it proves to 
 be brittle when cool, and does not adhere to the 
 iron, add more tallow, but if it is too soft, add more 
 rosin and apply it hot. This forms a perfectly air- 
 tight coating that is not expensive, and can be 
 easily applied. It can only be used on cold pipes, 
 as heat will melt it off. 
 
 When a pump is drafting water on a high lift, 
 the exhaust steam may be turned into the suction 
 pipe, where it will be condensed, and a partial 
 vacuum formed on the exhaust side of the steam 
 piston. This idea is patented, therefore its use is 
 restricted. 
 
 It is claimed that by this device all of the heat in 
 the steam coming from the boiler is returned to it, 
 
AND THEORY, 
 
 IO9 
 
 but this is a mistake, for some of it disappears in 
 developing power, and can never be recovered. 
 Every heat unit used in this way is equal to 772 
 foot pounds, therefore when 43 heat units disap- 
 pear in one minute it is equal to 1 horse power. 
 
 AN ALTITUDE GAGE, 
 
 This indicates the height of water in a tank, 
 thus showing when it is nearly full, and preventing 
 the necessity of causing it to overflow. 
 
IIO ENGINEERING PRACTICE 
 
 CHAPTER 17 
 
 INJECTORS. 
 
 An injector is the smallest and most convenient 
 device for forcing water into steam boilers, now in 
 use. The success attained by the inventors who 
 produced some of the earlier types, and later on 
 improved their design, has brought many kinds 
 into the market at the present time. These may 
 be classed under two heads, namely, the lifting and 
 the non-lifting injector. 
 
 The lifting injector will take water from any 
 source located below the machine, or will take it 
 under pressure and deliver it into the boilers. The 
 depth from which it will raise water will depend 
 upon the steam pressure employed^ but it is not 
 practical to lift it more than about 20 feet, so that 
 if the supply is much lower than this below the 
 boilers, it is advisable to locate the injector so that 
 it will not be more than about 20 feet above the 
 surface of the supply, as it will force water to any 
 reasonable height, and put it into the boilers. 
 
AND THEORY. Ill 
 
 The non-lifting injector must be supplied with 
 water under a head, and answers a very good pur- 
 pose for use under this condition, as it is simple in 
 construction. 
 
 Injectors may be subdivided into the following 
 classes : double tube, single tube, fixed and auto- 
 matic. The lines which separate these classes are 
 not always strongly defined, as many combinations 
 are formed in which the object sought by the 
 inventor is not clearly shown, unless it is a desire 
 to produce a machine that differs from others in 
 use. 
 
 The double tube, lifting injector will continue 
 to operate under a widely varying steam pressure, 
 as the work is divided between two sets of tubes, 
 one of which does the lifting, while the other forces 
 water against pressure. They are valuable for use 
 in plants where the engineer attends to other duties, 
 and consequently allows the pressure in his boiler 
 to fluctuate more than he would if allowed to give 
 it proper attention. They are also used and highy 
 prized in many of our best and most carefully oper- 
 ated plants. 
 
 Some of the single tube injectors lift very well, 
 but a slight variation in the steam pressure will 
 stop their operation, and unless they are automatic 
 in action, the process of starting them must be 
 repeated. This applies to the fixed injectors also. 
 
112 ENGINEERING PRACTICE 
 
 The automatic or re-starting injector is usually 
 fitted with but a single set of tubes, although all 
 single tube injectors are not automatic. The auto- 
 matic injector has grown very rapidly in the favor 
 of engineers, owing to its peculiar operation, for 
 when steam is admitted to it, water will be taken 
 from a tank, or under pressure, at pleasure; then, 
 as soon as the valve in the feed pipe is opened, the 
 water will be forced into the boiler, for there is no 
 overflow valve to close. 
 
 After it is started, if the steam pressure rises, it 
 will continue to work, but the temperature of the 
 feed water will be raised. It is possible to raise 
 the pressure so high that the water admitted by an 
 ordinary injector will not condense it, and thus its 
 operation will be stopped, but this does not apply 
 to general practice with an injector in good order. 
 If the steam pressure falls, less water will be deliv- 
 ered to the boilers, but the injector will not 
 "break," because the supply will be discharged 
 through the overflow pipe. If the water supply is 
 shut off, steam will appear, but as soon as the 
 water supply is restored it will take it up and 
 discharge it into the boilers, hence the name 
 "automatic." 
 
 The internal parts of an injector must bear a cer- 
 tain relation to each other, or else it will not deliver 
 water against pressure. This comparative size is 
 
AND THEORY. 113 
 
 determined by the manufacturers, according to ser- 
 vice for which the machine is designed, and it will 
 operate indefinitely if these proportions are pre- 
 served, but unfortunately this is not easily done, 
 for the passage of water and steam at great velocity 
 wears some of them larger, while the accumulation 
 of scale reduces the size of others. As this is a 
 slow process, the injector becomes less and less 
 reliable, soon declines to start at the first trial, and 
 finally refuses to force water into the boilers. 
 
 This is always a source of perplexity to the engi- 
 neer, especially if his experience is limited, because 
 there are no moving parts that he can adjust or 
 change, therefore he feels helpless. When an 
 injector begins to fail in this way it should be dis- 
 connected, filled with a solution consisting of 1 
 part muriatic acid and 5 parts of water, allowed 
 to stand about 12 hours, and then be thoroughly 
 washed out. This will frequently make it almost 
 as reliable as a new one. 
 
 Failure to properly connect injectors is a prolific 
 source of trouble and annoyance, for dry steam at 
 full boiler pressure must be supplied, hence it w T ill 
 not do to take steam from any pipe that happens to 
 be convenient, without regard to other conditions. 
 
 The best plan is to take it directly from the steam 
 space of the boiler, but where this is not practical, 
 a pipe that is of ample size for its required service 
 
114 ENGINEERING PRACTICE 
 
 may be tapped on the side, or the top. Connec- 
 tion should not be made into the bottom, because 
 the steam will be wet on account of the condensa- 
 tion in the big pipe, preventing the best results 
 from being secured. 
 
 Sometimes an injector will stop working, and 
 steam will be blown into the tank from which the 
 water is taken, so that it will be heated, and when 
 the engineer tries to start the machine it will not 
 respond because the water is too warm to condense 
 the steam. 
 
 The capacity of an injector is usually based on 
 the amount of water it will deliver on a lift of 
 about 2 feet, so that if it is used on a lift of 18 or 20 
 feet it will not deliver its full capacity, and if the 
 water is delivered to it under pressure, its rated 
 capacity will be exceeded. Experiments made by 
 the writer show that with a water pressure of 35 
 pounds the capacity was increased more than 15 
 per cent over what it was on a lift of less than 2 
 feet. 
 
 The ordinary injector will not deliver water 
 against a pressure that is much higher than the 
 steam pressure used to operate it, but it is possible 
 to design one that will work against four times the 
 steam pressure. This is done in the case of in- 
 jectors used to test boilers with the hydrostatic test, 
 and some engineers prefer them to test pumps, 
 
AND THEORY. 115 
 
 because they deliver warm water for testing pur- 
 poses. 
 
 This brings us to a consideration of the theory 
 of the injector, and the principles which cause it to 
 operate. Some engineers claim that as the steam 
 enters the combining tube its velocity is very great, 
 and as at least a portion of this velocity is imparted 
 to the water, its momentum carries it into the 
 boiler. Others have claimed that inasmuch as the 
 steam is immediately condensed its volume is greatly 
 reduced, hence the total force of the steam jet is 
 concentrated on a comparatively small area on the 
 water, therefore the excess of pressure forces it into 
 the boiler. 
 
 Experiments that have been carefully conducted 
 by reliable engineers, show conclusively that both 
 of these principles combine to render the injector 
 effective. As the jet enters the combining tube its 
 velocity is very great, but it rapidly decreases as the 
 tube expands. At the entrance of this tube the 
 pressure is low, but it increases rapidly as the tube is 
 traversed until its maximum is reached at the large 
 end of it, and the water is forced into the boiler. 
 
 Injectors that are commonly used for boiler feed- 
 ing will not work against a pressure much higher 
 than that on the boiler which supplies them with 
 steam, because if designed to do this it would 
 result in a waste of fuel on ordinary work, for the 
 
Il6 ENGINEERING PRACTICE 
 
 idea that all of the heat in the steam taken from a 
 boiler to run an injector is returned in the feed 
 water, regardless of conditions, is not correct, be- 
 cause some of it must disappear in doing work, and 
 this cannot be reclaimed. Furthermore, one that 
 is properly proportioned for the service required is 
 the most economical, and not one that is intended 
 to work against four times the boiler pressure. 
 
 It has been demonstrated by experiments that 
 steam at 25 pounds absolute pressure flows into the 
 atmosphere at the rate of 864 feet per second, and 
 as the pressure is raised the velocity increases slow- 
 ly, until at a 100 pounds it is 900 feet per second, 
 therefore the statement that the velocity of steam 
 at ordinary working pressures is 900 feet per second 
 is approximately true. 
 
 The velocity of steam at any pressure may be 
 calculated by the following rule, which is based 
 upon the experiments above mentioned : 
 
 Multiply the square root of the height in feet, of 
 a column of steam one inch square, of uniform den- 
 sity, the weight of which is equal to the absolute 
 pressure per square inch on the boiler, by 3 .6 The 
 product is the velocity in feet per second. 
 
 The height of this column may be determined by 
 dividing the absolute pressure by the weight of one 
 cubic foot of steam at the given pressure, and mul- 
 tiplying the quotient by 144. 
 
AND THEORY. 117 
 
 For example, suppose that the pressure is 60 
 pounds by the gage, or 75 pounds absolute, the 
 weight of which is .1759 pound per cubic foot. 
 The height of the column of steam is found as fol- 
 lows: 75-^.1759x144 = 61,397 the square root of 
 which is 247.8. Then 247.8x3.6 = 892 feet per 
 second. 
 
 When this steam is discharged into the atmos- 
 phere it immediately begins to expand at a ratio of 
 1.624 therefore the velocity of the expanded steam 
 at 75 pounds absolute pressure is 892 x 1.624 = 1,448 
 feet per second. 
 
 When making calculations to determine the 
 weight of steam that will be discharged through an 
 orifice of given size, under a stated pressure, the 
 velocity and the weight at the given pressure 
 should be taken, for if the velocity of the expanded 
 steam is used, it should be remembered that the 
 pressure is reduced to that of the atmosphere, and 
 the weight at atmospheric pressure must be used 
 in the calculation. 
 
 Due consideration of the above shows that the 
 velocity of steam, as it enters an injector, is very 
 great, so that under ideal conditions it should handle 
 a very large quantity of water compared with the 
 weight of steam used, but in practice this is reduced 
 to about 15 times the weight of steam on a lift of 
 2 feet, and to about 7 when the lift is increased 
 
nS 
 
 ENGINEERING PRACTICE 
 
 to 20 feet. This reduction is due to decreased 
 velocity of steam as friction reduces it to .6 of the 
 above calculated speed under fair conditions, also 
 to the presence of water in the steam, and other 
 unavoidable conditions. 
 
 A leak in the suction pipe of an injector may not 
 prevent it from lifting the water and discharging 
 it at the overflow valve, but when an attempt is 
 made to force it into the boilers, the jet may 
 u break," so that the steam will be forced down 
 the suction pipe. If a foot valve is put on the 
 lower end of this pipe, the leak may be located by 
 the escaping steam. With a perfectly tight suc- 
 tion pipe, the foot valve should be omitted. 
 
 DUPLEX HANCOCK IXSPIRATOR, 
 
AND THEORY. 119 
 
 CHAPTER 18. 
 
 STEAM PIPE COVERING. 
 
 The object of covering a steam pipe with some 
 non-conducting material is to prevent the escape of 
 heat, and reduce the condensation of steam and 
 accumulation of water in the pipe as much as pos- 
 sible. In order to appreciate the value of a good 
 pipe covering we must understand something about 
 the amount of steam that will be condensed in an 
 unprotected pipe, and while carefully conducted 
 experiments give somewhat different results, still 
 we may learn much from them. 
 
 Taking the average of four that are reported by 
 the same number of very good authorities, we find 
 that one, four hundred and twentieth part of a 
 pound of steam was condensed for each square foot 
 of surface per hour, for each degree difference of 
 temperature, hence the rule to determine the 
 amount of steam condensed per hour: 
 
 Multiply the number of square feet exposed to the 
 air, by the difference between the temperature of 
 
120 ENGINEERING PRACTICE 
 
 the air and steam, and divide the product by 420. 
 The quotient will be the number of pounds con- 
 densed. 
 
 For example, suppose that we have 150 feet of 6 
 inch pipe, carrying 75 pounds pressure, in air 
 whose temperature is 50 Fah. How much steam 
 will be condensed per hour ? We will assume that 
 the external diameter of the pipe is 6.5 inches 
 when its circumference will be 6.5 x 3.14^ = 20.4 
 inches, and for each foot in length there will be 
 20.4x12 = 244.8 square inches, or 1.7 square feet. 
 The pipe being 150 feet long, 1.7 x 150=255 square 
 feet exposed to the air. The temperature of steam 
 at 75 + 15 = 90 pounds absolute pressure is 320 
 and the difference between that and the air is 320 
 — 50=270° Then 255 x 270-^-420=164 pounds of 
 steam condensed per hour. 
 
 If the boilers evaporate 8 pounds of water per 
 pound of coal burned, there are 164 -=- 8 =20.5 
 pounds of coal lost per hour, or 205 pounds per 
 day of 10 hours. Under some circumstances, how- 
 ever, the condensation will be going on for 24 hours 
 per day, making 492 pounds. 
 
 The engineer should not make the mistake of 
 saying that a pipe covering will save all of this, 
 for it will not, as some will be condensed even then, 
 but a good covering will reduce the condensation 
 to about one-third of the above. A dead air space 
 
AND THEORY. 121 
 
 between the pipe and covering proves a very good 
 non-conductor of heat, but the outer part of it 
 must not be porous, for if it is air will circulate and 
 the covering prove less efficient accordingly. 
 
 The number of heat units lost by condensation 
 may be determined by adding the sensible and the 
 latent heat of the steam together, and subtracting 
 the temperature of the condensed steam. In or- 
 dinary practice, where the water passes off with 
 the steam, this amounts to the same as simply tak- 
 ing the latent heat of the steam. 
 
 The latent heat of steam, of 90 pounds pressure, 
 is 889 heat units, and its sensible heat is 320 or 
 1,209 total. (Some tables give it as 1,211). The 
 temperature of the water remaining in the pipe 
 with the steam is the same as the steam. Then 
 1,209 — 320 = 889 heat units lost for each pound 
 of steam condensed. 
 
 Furthermore, as this water at 320 is sometimes 
 not used for any good purpose, still more heat is lost, 
 which may be calculated by subtracting the tem- 
 perature of the water as it enters the boiler from 
 the temperature as above stated. If it leaves the 
 heater and enters the boiler at 210 then 320 — 210 
 = no° more for each pound, or no heat units. 
 
 This is assuming that the water is heated by ex- 
 haust steam, or by a flue heater where heat is util- 
 ized that would otherwise be wasted. Then 889 + 
 
122 ENGINEERING PRACTICE. 
 
 no =999 heat units lost for each pound, and as 
 we have 164 pounds per hour 999 x 164 = 163,836 
 per hour or 2,730 per minute. If we base the 
 calculation on the temperature of the water 
 as it enters the heater, the loss will be greater 
 still. 
 
 Now a heat unit is stated to be equivalent to 
 772 foot pounds by some authorities, and 779 by 
 others, but taking the former as correct we have 
 2,730x772=2,107,560 foot pounds. As 33,000 
 foot pounds per minute constitute a horse power, 
 we may determine the horse power lost by dividing 
 this by the number and 2,107,560 -s- 33,000 = 63.8 
 horse power. 
 
 It is not correct to say that this might be saved 
 by using pipe covering for a large portion of 
 it will be lost under the best conditions found. If 
 we assume that but ten per cent, of the value of the 
 steam is utilized in the engine, then 63. 8x .10 = 
 6.38 horse power lost at the engine, on account of 
 condensation in the pipe. 
 
 The result of experiments made to determine 
 this point is, that a pipe covering 1 inch thickwill 
 give good results, if made of the best materials, 
 but for general practice this should be increased to 
 1 1 inches. A style of covering that can be removed 
 and replaced at pleasure is very convenient when 
 repairs are to be made, but some of them burn and 
 
AND THEORY. 123 
 
 char so easily that when they are once removed 
 they cannot be put back again. 
 
 The saving made by using a good pipe covering 
 is sometimes much greater than is accounted for by 
 the above calculation, for if the condensed steam or 
 hot water collects in one part of the main steam 
 pipe of an engine, on account of the pipe being 
 highest near the engine, it may be thrown forward 
 in a body, causing a cylinder head to be blown off. 
 If a separator is attached to the pipe, the water of 
 condensation may be returned to the boilers by 
 means of a steam loop, which is an arrangement of 
 piping whereby the weight of a column of water 
 will cause it to be discharged into the boiler by 
 force of gravity, the steam pressure being equalized. 
 If a trap that discharges into the sewer is used to 
 take the water of condensation out of a heating 
 system, the drip from the separator may be attached 
 to the receiver of the trap. 
 
 LABOR. 
 
 When an engineer has no special interest in his 
 plant, or his work, then the employment that 
 should be an agreeable occupation, becomes hard 
 labor. 
 
124 
 
 ENGINEERING PRACTICE 
 
 THE BRAINERD STEAM TRAP, 
 
 STEAM APPLIANCES. 
 Steam users sometimes think that appliances 
 such as steam traps, damper regulators, high and 
 low water detectors, feed water heaters, injectors 
 for use when exhaust steam is not available for 
 heating the feed water, sight feed lubricators, and 
 indicators are not worth as much as they cost, but 
 this is a mistake, for the most successful plants are 
 equipped with those above mentioned, also others, 
 and it is difficult to effectively argue against any- 
 thing that is successful. A plant can be run with- 
 out them, but that does not prove that it is 
 economical or wise to do so. 
 
AND THEORY, 1 25 
 
 CHAPTER 19, 
 
 STEAM HEATING APPARATUS. 
 
 Where a building is piped for steam heating by 
 direct radiation, and one or more engines are used 
 for power purposes, the exhaust steam from the 
 engines, and also from the pumps, should discharge 
 into the heating system. It should all pass into a 
 separator, however, in order that the cylinder oil 
 may be extracted, because it is not needed on the 
 inside of the pipes, neither is it wanted in the boil- 
 ers. A good separator will so effectually remove 
 it that scarcely any traces of it will remain, pro- 
 vided the drip from the separator is constantly 
 open. It is the custom of some firemen and jani- 
 tors to close this drip for the greater portion of the 
 time, opening it occasionally to allow the water and 
 oil to run to the sewer. This is a great mistake, 
 for the body of the separator will soon fill with 
 water, then the oil will pass over into the system. 
 
 There is, or should be, a glass gage on every sep- 
 arator, and if there is never any water in this glass 
 
126 ENGINEERING PRACTICE 
 
 it is a good sign that there is none in the separa- 
 tor. The drip valve need not be always wide open, 
 as that would cause a loss of steam, but it should 
 be left partly open, and occasionally opened wide 
 for an hour or more, in order that the accumulated 
 grease may be blown out. 
 
 Probably the exhaust steam will not be enough 
 to heat the building, in which case live steam must 
 be used to make up the deficiency. x\s the amount 
 of steam needed will vary with the weather, and 
 as the amount furnished by the engines and pumps 
 will change with the load on them, the amount 
 needed directly from the boilers will vary constantly, 
 so that some means must be provided for furnish- 
 ing this automatically, or it will require constant 
 attention from the engineer. 
 
 To avoid this a reducing valve must be provided 
 which will reduce the boiler pressure to from 2 to 
 10 pounds, according to what is required. The 
 pressure in the heating system represents the back 
 pressure on the engine, above the atmosphere, and 
 there is a constant controversy among engineers as 
 to w T hether it pays to use this steam or not. It 
 appears to be a very simple matter that should be 
 easily settled. 
 
 If an engine is exhausting into the atmosphere 
 direct, and we add 5 pounds to the back pressure, 
 the governor immediately adds 5 pounds to the 
 
AND THEORY. I2J 
 
 forward pressure, and the loss in power may be 
 calculated by multiplying the horse power constant 
 at the given speed, by the increase in the back 
 pressure. If the piston is 20 inches in diameter 
 and travels 480 feet per minute, then 20x20 x .7854 
 X480 -T- 33,000 = 4.567 which is the horse power 
 constant. (See Chapter 9). If the back pressure 
 is 5 pounds, then 4.567x5 = 22.835 horse power 
 lost. 
 
 When the engine exhausts into a heating system 
 the case is different, for nothing is lost except what 
 disappears in the act of doing work, provided there 
 is radiating surface sufficient to condense all of the 
 steam. 
 
 If the engine was already working up to its full 
 capacity, it might not be expedient to add five or 
 ten pounds back pressure, as it would cause the 
 speed to be reduced, but such cases are seldom 
 found in practice. Judging from the way this 
 question is frequently discussed, it might be sup- 
 posed that all of the steam required to overcome 
 the added backpressure, is lost, but this is far from 
 true. 
 
 The power actually used in passing steam through 
 an automatic engine, on its way to a heating sys- 
 tem, may be computed by the following rule : 
 
 Multiply the weight of steam used per minute by 
 its total heat, minus the total heat at release pres- 
 
128 ENGINEERING PRACTICE. 
 
 sure, and the product will be the heat units lost. 
 Multiply this by 772, because one heat unit is equal 
 to 772 foot pounds, and the product will be the 
 number of foot pounds. Divide by 33,000 and the 
 quotient will be the horse power. 
 
 The weight of steam may be determined as fol- 
 lows : 
 
 Multiply the area of the cylinder in square inches, 
 by the distance in inches traveled by the piston 
 when the cut-off takes place, and divide by 1,728. 
 Multiply by the number of strokes per minute, and 
 by the weight of one cubic foot at given pressure. 
 The product will be the number of pounds used 
 per minute. 
 
 For illustration, take an engine 20 by 48 inches, 
 at 60 revolutions per minute, using steam at 105 
 pounds initial pressure and releasing it at 21 pounds 
 pressure, both of which are absolute. The ratio 
 of expansion would be 105 -f- 21 =5 or in other 
 words the cut off would take place at one-fifth 
 stroke, and 48 -=-5 = 9.6 inches. Area of cylinder 
 is 314 square inches and 314x9.6 = 3,014 cubic 
 inches or 1.744 cubic feet. There are 120 strokes 
 per minute, and the steam weighs .2414 pounds per 
 cubic foot. Then 1.744 x 120 x .2414=50.52 
 pounds used per minute, the total heat of which is 
 1,214 heat units. This steam is expanded to 21 
 pounds pressure, the total heat of which is 1,183 
 
AND THEORY. 129 
 
 above zero. In some cases it is necessary to take 
 the heat units above 32, but in this case it makes 
 ho difference in the result whether one or the other 
 is taken, provided the same is used for both initial 
 and release pressures. 1,214 — 1,183 = 31 heat 
 units difference for each pound, and as 50.52 pounds 
 are used per minute, the total is 50.52 x 31 = 
 1,566.12 heat units used. 1,566.12x772-1-33,000 
 = 36.64 horse power. 
 
 This is a theoretical calculation, in which all of 
 the conditions are assumed to be perfect, and the 
 effects of condensation and re-evaporation are not 
 taken into account. It also differs from a calcula- 
 tion made to determine the number of heat units 
 used where an engine is exhausting into the atmos- 
 phere. 
 
 This engine, under given conditions, assuming 
 the back pressure to be 15 pounds above a vacuum, 
 will develop 181. 7 horse power, 20 per cent of the 
 heat being used and 80 per cent going to the heat- 
 ing system. 
 
 In the case of a throttling engine, where the 
 terminal pressure is nearly or quite equal to the 
 initial pressure, the heat units used, or absorbed, 
 may be calculated as follows : 
 
 Determine the number of foot pounds developed 
 in one minute, and divide by 772. The quotient 
 will be the units used. 
 
130 ENGINEERING PRACTICE 
 
 If the area of a piston is 201 square inches, the 
 stroke 3 feet, the speed 80 revolutions per minute, 
 and the mean effective pressure 45 pounds, then 
 201 x3x2x8ox45-r 772 = 5,624 heat units used per 
 minute. 
 
 The number of heat units passing to the heating 
 system in this case is found as follows : The cylin- 
 der contains 4.1875 cubic feet, and it is filled 160 
 times per minute, making 670 cubic feet at .1425 
 pound per cubic foot. Then 670 x .1425 =95.475 
 pounds per minute. This steam contains 1,170 
 heat units above 32 Fah., therefore 95.475x1,170 
 = 111,705 heat units per minute. 
 
 When we add the tw r o quantities together we find 
 that 117,329 heat units are accounted for, and that 
 95.2 per cent of them pass to the heating system 
 while 4.8 per cent are lost, or disappear in doing 
 work. If this engine exhausted directly into the 
 atmosphere 4.8 per cent would be utilized, and 
 95.2 per cent lost. 
 
 The indirect system of steam heating, including 
 a large fan for forcing the heated air where it is 
 wanted in the several rooms of a building, is very 
 popular at the present time, and justly so, on 
 account of its efficiency and convenience. 
 
 As the air is forced into the building, it not only 
 heats it rapidly, but also provides for necessary 
 ventilation, which is an important point in its favor. 
 
AND THEORY. 131 
 
 Calculations made to determine the amount of 
 steam condensed per hour in a steam pipe, or in a 
 radiator, under conditions relating to the direct 
 system of heating, will not answer for use in con- 
 nection with the forced blast system, because the 
 condensation is much more rapid when the air cir- 
 culates so much faster. 
 
 The amount of steam condensed in the direct sys- 
 tem may be multiplied by a factor for the forced 
 blast system, but this factor cannot be stated arbi- 
 trarily because it will vary with all changes in 
 speed of the fan. The only practical way to deter- 
 mine it is by experiment in each particular case. 
 
 Where the speed of fan is slow this factor will be 
 about 2, but when run at a fast speed it may be 
 increased to 5. 
 
 The steam used to operate one of these fans is 
 not all lost, because the exhaust steam is used in 
 the tempering coil, which is a coil used to heat the 
 air slightly before it goes to the regular heating 
 coils. 
 
 A QUERY. 
 Some engineers are qualified for better positions 
 than they now hold, while others are not compe- 
 tent for their present situations, hence find it diffi- 
 cult to hold them. Which condition is the most 
 desirable ? 
 
rx2 
 
 ENGINEERING PRACTICE 
 
 A DIRECT CCNNECTED FAN. 
 
 An apparatus for forcing hot air into a building 
 for heating and ventilating purposes, driven by a 
 double horizontal engine, either side of which may 
 be disconnected and the fan run by one side only. 
 
 o 
 
 THE SAFE SIDE. 
 
 When an engineer leaves his situation on account 
 of unsatisfactory treatment, and his successor has 
 trouble with some of the machinery, the retiring 
 engineer is usually blamed for neglecting his duties, 
 or for malicious conduct. In order to prevent this 
 unpleasant state of affairs he should assist the new 
 man at least one day, and then leave him to operate 
 the plant according to his own judgment. This is 
 honorable, and should be satisfactory to all con- 
 cerned. 
 
AND THEORY. 133 
 
 CHAPTER 20 
 
 REDUCING VALVES, TRAPS AND RECEIVERS. 
 
 Inasmuch as passing steam through an engine 
 on its way to a heating plant results in the produc- 
 tion of power, it has been assumed by some that 
 when a reducing valve is used to reduce the pres- 
 sure for heating, it absorbs the power in some mys- 
 terious way, and consequently causes a great loss. 
 This is a mistake, for the conditions are very dif- 
 ferent from those found when an engine is the re- 
 ducing medium. 
 
 Take the case used for illustration in the preced- 
 ing chapter, where steam at 105 pounds absolute is 
 reduced to 21 pounds, but using a reducing valve 
 instead of an engine, we find that while the steam, 
 before it enters the valve, has a temperature of 
 331 Fah., the temperature corresponding to the 
 pressure after it leaves the valve is 228 , but it 
 really possesses a much higher temperature, which 
 is explained as follows: 
 
134 ENGINEERING PRACTICE 
 
 When the steam at 331° passes through the valve, 
 it does not leave this heat behind it, but it passes 
 through with the steam, although the pressure is 
 reduced, and this heat raises the temperature of the 
 low pressure steam, or in other words it super- 
 heats it. 
 
 The difference in temperature is 103° if we take 
 the pressure as a basis, but the lew pressure steam 
 contains more heat than this accounts for, which 
 is due to the low specific heat of steam. 
 
 The specific heat of any body, liquid or gas, is 
 the amount of heat required to raise the tempera- 
 ture of one pound of it one degree, when compared 
 with the heat needed to raise the temperature of 
 one pound of water from 39° to 40" Fah., as stated 
 by some authorities, while others take it from 32 D 
 to 33 . The difference is practically of no account, 
 but inasmuch as water reaches its maximum den- 
 sity at 39^ it is well to use that as a standard. 
 
 The specific heat of steam is about one-half that 
 of water, or, to be exact, it is .475 hence, when 
 we wish to determine the temperature due to super- 
 heating, we must divide the difference in tempera- 
 tures corresponding to the pressures by .475 In 
 this case it is 103 and 103 -r .475 = 2i6 : . Then 
 228 + 216= 444° temperature of the low pressure 
 steam. The whole of this will probably not be 
 realized in practice, for some of it will be lost by 
 
AND THEORY. 135 
 
 radiation, and if there is any water in the steam 
 after it passes through the reducing valve, the 
 extra heat passing over will be partially or wholly 
 absorbed in evaporating this water, so that it is not 
 lost, although the thermometer may not indicate 
 all of it. 
 
 After steam has passed the engine or the reduc- 
 ing valve, it is conveyed to the radiators, or coils 
 of pipe located in the building to be heated, where 
 it is condensed, during which process the latent 
 heat of it is given out and is utilized in heating 
 the rooms. The water naturally seeks the lowest 
 point in the system, and if the pipes are not prop- 
 erly pitched, so that the drainage is perfect, water 
 will stand in the low places, and pounding and 
 thumping will be the result. 
 
 The plan of using an open tank to receive the 
 water, is seldom adopted at the present time, be- 
 cause it allows so much heat to escape to the at- 
 mosphere. A closed receiver is usually provided 
 for this purpose, and the water in it may be put 
 back into the boilers by means of a return trap 
 located above the water line of the boilers. A 
 mixture of water and steam passes from the re- 
 ceiver to the trap, where the water settles in the 
 bowl of the trap, and its weight causes a valve 
 called an equalizing valve to be opened, admitting 
 live steam to the space above the water. This 
 
136 ENGINEERING PRACTICE 
 
 equalizes the pressure, when the weight of water 
 causes it to flow to the boilers. 
 
 Another very good plan for returning this water 
 is to provide a large cast iron receiver at the lowest 
 point in the system, and in this receiver there is a 
 hollow copper float which rises and falls with the 
 water level. By means of suitable levers and a 
 small shaft, this float is connected to the throttle 
 valve of a duplex pump, located on the same base 
 with the receiver, and when this float rises the 
 throttle valve is opened and the pump starts up. 
 When the water is pumped out, the float falls and 
 the throttle valve is closed. 
 
 The amount of steam that will be condensed un- 
 der given conditions was illustrated and explained 
 in Chapter 18, and this rule applies to heating sys- 
 tems where forced ventilation is not used. 
 
 Suppose that we have 5,000 feet of ii inch 
 pipe, filled with steam at 5 pounds gage pressure, 
 the temperature of the room being 6o° Fah. How 
 much steam will be condensed per hour ? If the 
 outside diameter of a ij inch pipe is if or 1.62 
 inches, its circumference will be 5.09 inches. 
 5.09 x 12 -f- 144 = .424 square feet per foot in 
 length. As there are 5,000 feet, then 5,000 x 
 .424 = 2,120 square feet. The difference in tem- 
 perature is 228 — 60 = 168 and 2,120 x 168 -f- 420 
 = 848 pounds per hour. 
 
AND THEORY. 1 37 
 
 When a trap is used to return the water to the 
 boilers, it is a good plan to put a tee in the pipe 
 between the trap and its receiver, for the following 
 reason. When steam is first admitted to a heating 
 system on a cold morning, the return water is cold 
 and there is some air mixed with it. If this goes to 
 the trap it frequently causes pounding in the pipes 
 which is both unpleasant and dangerous. Where this 
 occurs a nipple may be put into this tee followed by 
 a valve which may be opened to allow the water to 
 escape to the sewer, or to a tank provided for the 
 purpose, if it is desired to save it. When the re- 
 turning water is warm this valve may be closed, 
 and the trap will put the water into the boilers 
 without trouble. 
 
 When a duplex pump is used to return the water 
 of condensation, it will pump this water without 
 trouble, but some provision should be made for 
 heating it, as pumping cold water into hot 
 boilers causes uneven contraction of the plates, 
 bringing more stress upon them than would ever 
 be caused by any ordinary steam pressure. 
 
 An outlet should be provided between the pump 
 and the check valves near the boilers, so that the 
 water may be allowed to go to the sewer, for this 
 will be badly needed when the system is new, or 
 when additions have been made to it, for iron chips, 
 red lead and other undesirable matter is sure to be 
 
i33 
 
 ENGINEERING PRACTICE 
 
 found on the inside of new pipe, and it is not want- 
 ed in the boilers, but should be sent into the sewer. 
 
 I have seen a pump partially disabled by leaky 
 valves, yet it discharged it into the sewer until 
 there was a chance to make repairs, thus allowing 
 the building in which it was located to be occupied 
 without interruption, w T hich could not have been 
 done had this outlet been omitted. 
 
 In concluding this work the author would say to 
 the steam maker, study the theoretical, as well as 
 the practical part of your business, and to the 
 steam user, when you secure an engineer that is 
 competent, and works for your interests, show ap- 
 preciation of his services. 
 
 PUMP AND RECEIVER. 
 
AND THEORY. 
 
 139 
 
 QUADRUPLE SIGHT FEED LUBRICATOR. 
 
 This lubricator has four separate sight feeds, and 
 by a very ingenious arrangement of the internal 
 parts it is possible to lubricate the cylinders of a 
 quadruple expansion, or a four cylinder triple 
 expansion engine from it, although the pressures 
 may range from the lowest to the highest required. 
 
140 
 
 ENGINEERING PRACTICE 
 
 o 
 
 o o Jl . 
 
 o Q ^fP 55 
 
 O I 
 
 Left Hand Engine: 
 
AND THEORY. 
 
 I 4 I 
 
 Right Hand Engine: 
 
T42 
 
 ENGINEERING PRACTICE 
 
 i.i I r tffrrir 
 
 (Pfejf 1 • ' Wt 
 
 A VERTICAL CROSS COMPOUND ENGINE, DIRECT 
 CONNECTED TO LINE OF MILL SHAFTING. 
 
APPENDIX. 143 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 POUNDING IN STEAM ENGINES. 
 
 Sometimes it is more difficult for the physician to 
 properly locate the name and nature of the disease 
 from which his patient is suffering, than it is for 
 him to apply efficient remedies after it is located, 
 and frequently it is more difficult for the steam en- 
 gineer to locate the cause of a pound in his engine, 
 than it is for him to stop it, after its true cause is 
 discovered. 
 
 When the engineer in charge of a steam plant, 
 having every opportunity to examine each part of 
 the same, and profit by suggestions of his assistants 
 and friends, finds it difficult to locate the cause of 
 a pound in his engine, it is plainly much more diffi- 
 cult for an engineer living at a distance to do so, as 
 all of his information is from letters, instead of be- 
 ing able to profit by a personal inspection of the 
 machine. 
 
 It is, however, frequently very beneficial to relate 
 the experience of others along this line, as this 
 
144 APPENDIX. 
 
 serves to remind the engineer in trouble of possible 
 ways out of it. For this purpose the following 
 ideas, suggestions, and practical points are offered, 
 as they are sure to prove valuable. 
 
 i. In one case an engine was pounding badly, 
 and after trying in vain to locate the cause, the 
 engineer sent for the engine builder and referred 
 the case to him. After a long search, in which 
 both of them took an active part, it was discovered 
 that the key in the fly wheel was loose, and a few 
 blows with a hammer stopped the pounding. As 
 the noise caused by this loose part would telephone 
 along the crank shaft, crank, connecting rod and 
 piston, it made the location of its cause quite diffi- 
 cult. 
 
 2. I once had charge of an engine on which the 
 eccentric was not round, and the only way to keep 
 it quiet was to use heavy grease on it instead of oil. 
 When the engine was stopped in proper position, 
 the eccentric straps were loose, so that they could 
 be shaken by hand. It was possible to adjust them 
 so that they would be tight enough to prevent 
 noise, but when this was done and the eccentric 
 rod disconnected from the rock shaft, and the end 
 of it raised, the straps soon bound on the eccentric, 
 thus showing that if the engine had been started 
 up without this test, some part of it would have 
 been broken. 
 
APPENDIX. 145 
 
 3. If there is lost motion in the main bearing it 
 may cause a pound. As this is so apparent, it may 
 be considered unworthy of mention by some, but 
 nevertheless there are cases in which it is not so 
 easily discovered as might be expected. Where 
 the engine is fitted with a valve gear that may be 
 worked by hand, the crank should be placed on a 
 center, and while an assistant admits steam to al- 
 ternate ends of the cylinder, the engineer may 
 detect the lost motion by feeling of the shaft and 
 box. In other cases it may be discovered by run- 
 ning the engine slowly, with as heavy a load as can 
 be utilized. If the engine is new, and the shaft 
 perfectly round, the quarter boxes may be set up to 
 the shaft snugly, and then slackened until the shaft 
 can revolve freely, but if the engine has been in 
 use a long time it is quite possible that the shaft 
 maybe worn flat, so that it will be impossible to 
 stop the pounding without making the shaft round, 
 and rebabbiting the quarter boxes. 
 
 4. Sometimes the crank will become loose on the 
 shaft and thus cause a pound. 
 
 5. When crank pins are put in place they are 
 supposed to remain there until taken out, but they 
 do not always do so, for sometimes they work loose 
 and cause a pound. When this defect is discov- 
 ered it is well to expand the end of pin in the crank 
 by means of a peen hammer, as a measure of tern- 
 
146 APPENDIX. 
 
 poiary security, but the only way to secure a per- 
 manent job is to make a new pin, bore out the hole 
 in the crank , and force the pin into place. 
 
 6. Lost motion in crank pin boxes quite fre- 
 quently causes pounding, and sometimes this is the 
 case when the key is driven down as far as it will 
 go, because the boxes come together at top andbot- 
 tom before they make a proper fit on the pin. For 
 the larger portion of stationary work it is better to 
 take one of the boxes out and plane it off, so that 
 the same trouble will not appear again in the near 
 future, although in some cases it may be necessary 
 to file the boxes until they will come together and 
 still fit nicely on the pin. If a crank pin heats it 
 is not proof that there is no lost motion in the 
 boxes, as it is quite possible for it to heat on ac- 
 count of the pounding. 
 
 7. Sometimes a noise is caused by lost motion 
 endwise on the pin, because the boxes are not wide 
 enough to fill the space between face of crank and 
 head of the pin. In one case I succeeded in stop- 
 ping a pound of this kind by cutting a washer out 
 of sheet bi;ass, separating it at one side and spring- 
 ing it over the pin. It filled the space next to the 
 crank and lasted for a long time. 
 
 8. The above suggestions apply equally well to 
 the wrist pin, for although it is supported at both 
 
APPENDIX. 147 
 
 ends, still it sometimes works loose in the cross- 
 head and causes a pound. 
 
 9. The cross-head may be responsible for a 
 pound, where it does not travel over the ends of the 
 guides, for many years of service may leave small 
 shoulders at the end of its travel, and when some 
 adjustment of the crank or wrist pin boxes is made, 
 it may cause the cross-head to strike one of these 
 shoulders and make trouble. 
 
 10. It is sometimes said that where an engine 
 runs "over," or in other words when the top of 
 the fly wheel travels from the cylinder, the pres- 
 sure of the cross-head is downward on the guides 
 throughout the whole stroke, but this is not always 
 true, for when the effects of compression in the cyl- 
 inder are felt, it causes the cross-head to be lifted, 
 and when it comes down it causes a pound. This 
 can be easily demonstrated on the engine I have 
 charge of at the present time. 
 
 11. When an engine of the Corliss type runs 
 Cl under," or, in other words, when the top of the 
 fly wheel travels toward the cylinder, the effect 
 of steam operating on the piston is to lift the cross- 
 head and, as a rule, this will make an annoying 
 pound, unless adjustments are very nicely made. 
 It is not always practical to so make these adjust- 
 ments, as I once found in the case of a new engine 
 of this kind in a silk mill, for when the engine was 
 
148 APPENDIX. 
 
 cold the distance between the guides was the same 
 at both ends of the stroke, but when well warmed 
 up in service it was greater at the cylinder end, 
 hence the crosshead would lift at every revolution. 
 
 12. Many of the crossheads now in use are sup- 
 ported by a single stud of proper size, which sets 
 into the lower " shoe " like the end of a vertical 
 shaft into a step. After many years of service they 
 become worn, so that there is lost motion between 
 the two parts, and this makes its presence known 
 by heavy pounds at both ends of the stroke. Some- 
 times a hole is drilled from the end of the u shoe M 
 to the stud, and a long set screw put in to stop the 
 noise, but while this may answer the purpose for a 
 time, still the proper way is to turn the stud down 
 in a lathe, bore out the hole, and bush it to fit the 
 stud. 
 
 13. Sometimes when a piston rod is fastened into 
 a crosshead by means of a key, said key becomes 
 worn in the center, and when steam acts on the 
 crank end of the cylinder, the rod is pulled out as 
 far as the key will allow it to come, and when 
 steam acts on the other end, the rod is forced 
 in as far as the shoulder on it will admit of, and the 
 result is a pound that can be heard all through the 
 engine room. It may be impossible to drive the 
 key any farther, hence the engineer will conclude 
 that the trouble is elsewhere. 
 
APPENDIX. 149 
 
 14. In one case that I knew of, where the piston 
 rod screwed into the crosshead, there was a bad 
 pound, but it was not heard continuously. It would 
 appear for a short time, and then disappear with- 
 out apparent cause. Investigation showed that the 
 jam nut was loose, and when the piston rod un- 
 screwed for perhaps quarter of a turn, the pound 
 would appear, and when it screwed up again it dis- 
 appeared. The remedy was easily applied, but it 
 was a narrow escape from serious accident. 
 
 15. Sometimes when the packing in a piston rod 
 stuffing box becomes hard and stiff from long use, 
 and on account of the gland being screwed down too 
 tight, it will cause a pound, but to this rule there 
 are some exceptions. 
 
 16. All modern engines have counterbores, the 
 object of which is to prevent shoulders being left 
 at each end of the cylinder as it becomes worn from 
 long service, but in many of them this object is not 
 realized on account of a miscalculation somewhere, 
 the result being that the packing rings do not 
 travel to the counterbore as was intended, and 
 shoulders are left where none are needed. When 
 lost motion in the main bearing, the crank pin or 
 the wrist pin boxes is taken up, it may change the 
 position of piston when the engine is on either cen- 
 ter. When in motion the rings strike one of the 
 shoulders and a pound is the consequence. 
 
150 APPENDIX. 
 
 17. I never knew of but one case in which a ring 
 traveled wholly over into the counterbore, and it 
 made a bad pound during the process. 
 
 18. It is well for the rings to travel flush with 
 the counterbore, but they should not go much 
 beyond this point. If the counterbore is too deep, 
 and half of the ring travels over the edge of it, the 
 steam is given a chance to act on the surface so 
 exposed, and may cause the ring to collapse, mak- 
 ing a well defined pound. The remedy is to bore 
 small holes through the piston and the follower 
 plate, to admit steam to the under side of these 
 rings, thus causing them to be balanced. This is 
 frequently resorted to in cases where the Dunbar 
 or similar rings are in use. The objection to it is 
 that it causes the cylinder to wear larger at the 
 ends than it does in the middle. 
 
 19. If the piston has been in service for many 
 years, the rings may be worn so that they are a 
 loose fit in their places, and when their motion is 
 reversed they are thrown from one side of the 
 grooves in which they work, to the other, hence 
 the noise. 
 
 20. On the other hand, if the piston has been 
 repaired, it is possible that the rings are clamped 
 between the spider and the bull ring on one side, 
 and the bull ring and the follower plate on the 
 other, so that they cannot expand and contract to 
 
APPENDIX. 151 
 
 follow the bore of the cylinder. In either of the 
 two preceding cases the piston should be taken out 
 and all of its parts put together while on the bench, 
 so that the exact state of affairs may be known. 
 
 21. When making repairs it sometimes happens 
 that the bull ring and the packing rings are not 
 replaced in the same position from which they 
 were taken, but are turned in the cylinder, or they 
 may be moved intentionally by the engineer, the 
 result being a pound that it is difficult to account for, 
 especially as it may appear to be in the crank pin 
 boxes, or at some other point between the two 
 extremes. The remedy is to replace the rings in 
 their original positions, and in a large majority of 
 cases it is better to let them remain in one position 
 indefinitely. 
 
 22. Sometimes a follower bolt will become loos- 
 ened and strike the cylinder head, thus making a 
 sharp pound. 
 
 23. A certain engine was pounding badly, and 
 all efforts to find the cause were fruitless until the 
 piston was taken out and the rod placed in a ver- 
 tical position with the piston on top, when the 
 piston was found to be loose on the rod. It 
 was thoroughly riveted in place and the trouble 
 disappeared. 
 
 24. In another case the low pressure piston of a 
 tandem compound engine became loose, and after 
 
152 APPENDIX. 
 
 the cause of the trouble was located it was an easy 
 matter to tighten up the nut which was intended 
 to hold it firmly in place, but the difficulty was in 
 locating the disturbance. 
 
 25. It was necessary to put a bushing in the low 
 pressure cylinder of another compound engine, but 
 it was made a trifle shorter than the cylinder, and 
 becoming loose, moved endwise, making a pound 
 that was exceedingly difficult to locate. 
 
 26. The piston of another engine was taken out 
 for inspection, cleaned and replaced, but the engi- 
 neer did not center it accurately, hence when it 
 reached the crank end of cylinder it did not move 
 freely, the consequence being that a bad pound 
 developed where there was none before. 
 
 27. Some engines are so designed that steam is 
 admitted to the cylinder through ports located on 
 the under side of it, so that if the follower plate 
 projects over the port when the engine is on the 
 inside center, the steam being admitted very rap- 
 idly and at very nearly boiler pressure, strikes the 
 plate, and if the bull ring is not a close fit in the 
 cylinder, it may be lifted up and cause a heavy 
 pound. It is possible for this to take place where 
 the ports are located on the side of cylinder, but 
 not if they are on the top, as in Corliss engines. 
 
 28. Slide valves are frequently designed to travel 
 between two pairs of jam nuts on the valve rod, 
 
APPENDIX. 153 
 
 and these are supposed to be adjusted so that there 
 will be no lost motion and yet the valve will be free 
 to travel on its seat, but unfortunately this is not 
 always done, and if there is much lost motion here 
 it will cause a pound if the steam pressure is high 
 enough to cause much friction of the valve. 
 
 29. With valves of the Corliss type, the stems 
 are sliding fits in the valves when new, but as time 
 advances they become worn, resulting in lost motion. 
 As the pressure in the steam chest is high, and the 
 valves are opened very rapidly, a pound is the con- 
 sequence. 
 
 30. Some of the vacuum dash pot plungers descend 
 rapidly and with some force, so that if proper air 
 cushions are not provided they cannot be expected 
 to operate quietly. 
 
 31. If the valves of an engine are not set so as 
 to give a reasonable amount of compression, and 
 also with sufficient lead to fill the cylinder with 
 steam at nearly boiler pressure, it is only natural 
 to expect a pronounced pound as each center is 
 passed, although there are some exceptions to this 
 rule. 
 
 32. In a large majority of cases the pound in a 
 engine is heard when the crank is on one or the 
 other of the centers, and perhaps on each alter- 
 nately, but in one case that I have good reasons for 
 remembering, it put in an appearance when about 
 
154 APPENDIX. 
 
 half of the stroke was completed. An application 
 of the indicator showed that the exhaust valve on 
 one end, closed at about half stroke, thus taking 
 up lost motion in the crank pin and wrist pin boxes 
 in the opposite direction, and, as a matter of course, 
 making some noise about it. 
 
 33. As usually made, the valve rod hook of an 
 engine soon becomes worn where it bears on the 
 stud in the wrist plate, and this makes a disagree- 
 able noise. 
 
 34. The lost motion in connections between the 
 several parts of the valve gear of an engine, includ- 
 ing the rockers, which are usually several feet dis- 
 tant from the cylinder, will cause numerous pounds 
 and knocks, and as the sounds are conduced to 
 other parts of the engine, it adds to the difficulty 
 of locating them. 
 
 35. This list of causes was begun by mentioning 
 one in a fly wheel, and it will be ended by calling 
 attention to the fact that an unbalanced fly wheel 
 on a high speed engine will cause pounding, and 
 as none of the parts are loose or broken in such a 
 case, it may cause a long search before the trouble 
 is found. 
 
 It is the sincere wish of the author that the fore- 
 going suggestions may prove valuable to those 
 whose duty it is to care for this class of machinery, 
 and be appreciated accordingly. 
 
QUESTIONS. 155 
 
 ENGINEERING PRACTICE AND THEORY. 
 
 Answers to the following questions may be found 
 in the chapters under which they appear in the list. 
 The reader is advised to study the book carefully, 
 then write out answers to the questions, and com- 
 pare them with those found in the several chapters. 
 
 Chapter i — Page 15. 
 
 1. Why should an engineer thoroughly under 
 stand his plant ? 
 
 2. What is a practical engineer ? 
 
 3. What is a theoretical engineer? 
 
 4. Is a combination of the two desirable? 
 
 5. What is steam? 
 
 6. What is saturated steam ? 
 
 7. What is wet steam? 
 
 8. What is superheated steam ? 
 
 9. What is gaseous steam ? 
 
 10. How does water circulate in a boiler ? 
 
 11. How long will the circulation continue? 
 
 12. What is a heat unit ? 
 
 13. At what temperature does water attain its 
 greatest density ? 
 
I56 QUESTIONS. 
 
 14. What is meant by the pressure of steam in 
 pounds per square inch ? 
 
 15. Could the steam pressure be determined by 
 means of a column of water ? 
 
 16. Does the height, or the diameter of a col- 
 umn of water determine the pressure per square 
 inch at the base of it ? 
 
 17. What are molecules of water? 
 
 18. What effect does heat have on these mole- 
 cules ? 
 
 19. Which is the more dense, steam of high or 
 low pressure ? 
 
 20. What is heat ? 
 
 Chapter 2 — Page 20. 
 
 21. How do you calculate the safe working pres- 
 sure of a steam boiler ? 
 
 22. How do you calculate the strength of a plate 
 at the joint ? 
 
 23. How do you calculate the strength of rivets 
 at the joint ? 
 
 24. If the strength of plates and rivets is not 
 equal, which should be taken as a basis for the cal- 
 culation ? 
 
 25. Why are braces used in a boiler ? 
 
 26. How do you determine the pitch of braces or 
 stav bolts ? 
 
QUESTIONS. 157 
 
 27. What is the difference between a brace and a 
 stay bolt ? 
 
 28. Why are stay bolts sometimes made hollow? 
 
 29. When do they answer a double purpose ? 
 
 30. What is the water leg of a boiler? 
 
 31. What is a fusible plug? 
 
 32. What should it be filled with? 
 
 33. Where should it be located ? 
 
 34. In what form should it be made ? 
 
 35. How should it be cared for ? 
 
 Chapter 3. — Page 26. 
 
 36. Where should a safety valve be located ? 
 
 37. Give a rule for locating the weight on a 
 safety valve lever. 
 
 38. What is the fulcrum ? 
 
 39. Is it difficult to prove these rules ? 
 
 40. Describe a way to prove safety valve rules ? 
 
 41. How would you determine the weight nec- 
 essay to put on a safety valve lever ? 
 
 42. Give a rule for determining the pressure at 
 which a safety valve will lift ? 
 
 43. When designing a safety valve, how would 
 you determine the length of the lever ? 
 
 44. How large should a safety valve be for a 
 given boiler ? 
 
158 QUESTIONS. 
 
 45. Which is the most efficient for a given diam- 
 eter, a pop or a lever valve ? 
 
 46. How should safety valves be treated ? 
 
 Chapter 4.— Page 31. 
 
 47. What is meant by the heating surface of a 
 boiler 9 
 
 48. How can the amount of heating surface in a 
 tubular boiler be calculated ? 
 
 49. How many feet in length of a three inch tube 
 makes a square foot of heating surface ? 
 
 50. How can the amount of heating surface in a 
 water tube boiler be determined ? 
 
 51. What is the horse power of a boiler ? 
 
 52. Can a rule be given for determining the horse 
 power of a boiler by the heating surface it contains ? 
 
 53. What is latent heat ? 
 
 54. What is sensible heat ? 
 
 55. What is the total heat of steam ? 
 
 56. Explain a way to prove that latent heat 
 exists. 
 
 57. What are the objects sought in conducting 
 boiler tests ? 
 
 58. Explain the proper way to conduct a test ? 
 
 Chapter 5. — Page 38. 
 
 59. What is a calorimeter? 
 
QUESTIONS. 159 
 
 60. How can a good sample of steam for testing 
 be secured ? 
 
 61. Explain one way to conduct a calorimeter 
 test? 
 
 62. How would you determine the pounds of 
 water evaporated per pound of coal ? 
 
 63. How may the weight of combustible used be 
 determined ? 
 
 64. How may we determine the weight of water 
 evaporated per pound of combustible ? 
 
 65. How may we determine the weight of water 
 evaporated from and at 21 2° per pound of combusti- 
 ble ? 
 
 66. How are the efficiencies of boilers compared ? 
 
 67. How may the actual performance of boilers 
 be reduced to a standard for comparison ? 
 
 68. How would you proceed to find the equiva- 
 lent evaporation of a boiler ? 
 
 69. How would you determine the per centage 
 of moisture in coal ? 
 
 Chapter 6. — Page 48. 
 
 70. How many standards are there for deter- 
 mining the power developed by a boiler ? 
 
 71 • Can you explain both of them ? 
 72. How much difference is there between the 
 results obtained by them ? 
 
 C 
 
l6o QUESTIONS. 
 
 73. Explain the way to account for heat con- 
 tained in water that passes off with the steam ? 
 
 74. Is the horse power or a boiler a definite quan- 
 tity ? 
 
 75. Is it advisable to force boilers beyond their 
 rated capacity ? 
 
 76. What are the advantages and disadvantages 
 of such a course ? 
 
 yy. Should an engineer carry whatever pressure 
 is necessary to do the work put upon his engine ? 
 
 78. Is a live engineer better than a dead hero ? 
 
 79. Should there be a penalty for carrying ex- 
 cessive pressure on a boiler ? 
 
 80. Should it apply to owner and engineer alike ? 
 
 Chapter 7. — Page 54. 
 
 81. What are the first duties of an engineer when 
 coming into his engine and boiler rooms in the 
 morning ? 
 
 82. How would you proceed to start a simple > 
 non-condensing engine ? 
 
 83. How would you proceed to start a condens- 
 ing engine? 
 
 84. What is the effect of operating the valve gear 
 by hand ? 
 
 85. How would you proceed to start a compound 
 condensing engine ? 
 
QUESTIONS. l6l 
 
 86. Should the throttle valve be wide open while 
 the engine is running ? 
 
 87. Give the rule for determining the power of 
 a double acting engine ? 
 
 88. How do you calculate the piston speed for a 
 single acting engine ? 
 
 89. How do you calculate the power of a single 
 acting engine with two cylinders ? 
 
 90. How would you determine the mean effective 
 prsssure of an engine while iu service ? 
 
 91. Can you calculate the mean effective pressure 
 of an engine without an indicator ? 
 
 Chapter 8. — Page 59. 
 
 92. What is a steam engine indicator? 
 
 93. How does it resemble a recording steam gage? 
 
 94. What must be considered in connection with 
 the change of pressure during the stroke ? 
 
 95. Explain how the indicator shows defects in 
 valve setting ? 
 
 96. How should it be attached to an engine ? 
 
 97. Mention three forms of reducing motions ? 
 
 98. How would you determine the mean effective 
 pressure shown by a diagram, without a planime- 
 ter? 
 
 Chapter 9. — Page 64. 
 
 99. What are planimeters used for ? 
 
162 QUESTIONS. 
 
 ioo. How is the horse power of a double engine 
 determined ? 
 
 101. How is the horse power of a compound en- 
 gine determined ? 
 
 102. What is the object in building compound 
 engines ? 
 
 103. Why are they more economical than simple 
 engines ? 
 
 104. How do you find the horse power constant 
 of a simple engine when the speed is given ? 
 
 105. Is there another constant of this kind? 
 
 106. How is it found and for what purpose is it 
 used ? 
 
 107. How do you determine the horse power con- 
 stant of the low pressure cylinder of a compound 
 engine ? 
 
 108. Does this rule apply to triple and quadruple 
 expansion engines ? 
 
 Chapter 10. — Page 70. 
 
 109. Give another rule for determining the power 
 of a compound engine ? 
 
 no. What change must be made here if the 
 stroke of the high pressure is not equal to that of 
 the low pressure side ? 
 
 in. How would you determine the ratio of ex- 
 pansion for each cylinder of a compound engine ? 
 
QUESTIONS. 163 
 
 112. Give a rule for calculating the combined 
 ratio of expansion? 
 
 113. Give another rule for determining the com- 
 bined ratio o*f expansion ? 
 
 114. How can the actual combined ratio of expan- 
 sion be determined from the indicator diagrams. 
 
 Chapter ii. — Page 75. 
 
 115. What is a receiver ? 
 
 116. Why is it impractical to give a rule for 
 determining the necessary size of receiver ? 
 
 117. In general practice, how does the size of the 
 high pressure cylinder of a compound engine, com- 
 pare with the low pressure ? 
 
 118. Is it always a good plan to convert a sim- 
 ple engine into a compound ? 
 
 119. Under what conditions will it be a paying 
 investment ? 
 
 120. What is a tandem compound engine ? 
 
 121. What is a cross compound engine ? 
 
 122. What are their advantages and disadvan- 
 tages ? 
 
 123. What is a u by-pass n on a compound en- 
 gine ? 
 
 124. What is a steeple compound engine ? 
 
164 questions. 
 
 Chapter 12. — Page 80. 
 
 125. How do you determine the power developed 
 by a triple expansion engine ? 
 
 126. What precautions should be taken when 
 indicating these engines ? 
 
 127. How may this be accomplished ? 
 
 128. Can reliable results be obtained with one 
 indicator ? 
 
 129. How would you determine the actual com- 
 bined ratio of expansion of a triple expansion 
 engine, from the iudicator diagrams ? 
 
 130. How would you calculate the total ratio of 
 expansion for an engine of this type, without bring- 
 ing all of the cylinders into the calculation ? 
 
 131. What is the object inbuilding four cylinder 
 triple expansion engines ? 
 
 132. How would you determine the total ratio of 
 expansion for a four cylinder, triple expansion 
 engine ? 
 
 Chapter 13. — Page 85. 
 
 133. What is a quadruple expansion engine ? 
 
 134. How do you determine the combined ratio 
 of expansion for an engine of this type ? 
 
 135. How do you determine the actual expansion 
 rate in practice ? 
 
 136. What is a jet condenser? 
 
QUESTIONS. 165 
 
 137. What is an air pump? 
 
 138. What is a hot well ? 
 
 139. What is a surface condenser? 
 
 140. What is a circulating pump ? 
 
 141. What are the advantages and disadvantages 
 of the two systems of condensing the exhaust steam 
 from an engine ? 
 
 142. How much water is required to operate a 
 condenser, compared with the amount used to gen- 
 erate the steam ? 
 
 143. What plans are adopted for the purpose of 
 saving water ? 
 
 144. What other kinds of condensers are some- 
 times used, and what are their advantages ? 
 
 145. What objections are sometimes made to con- 
 densing engines ? 
 
 Chapter 14.— Page 90. 
 
 146. How much does a cubic foot of water weigh ? 
 
 147. How many gallons are therein a cubic foot ? 
 
 148. How much does a gallon of water weigh ? 
 
 149. How many cubic inches are there in a U. S. 
 standard gallon ? 
 
 150. What is a foot pound ? 
 
 151. How is the duty of a pumping engine rated ? 
 
 152. Is there more than one method for this pur- 
 pose ? 
 
1 66 QUESTIONS. 
 
 153. If the height of a column of water is given, 
 how would you calculate its pressure per square 
 inch ? 
 
 154. If the pressure is given, how would you 
 determine the height? 
 
 155. How would you determine the total resist- 
 ance per square inch that a water piston must over- 
 come ? 
 
 156. If the source of supply is above, or below 
 the pump, will it affect the result ? 
 
 157. How would you determine the number of 
 foot pounds developed by a pumping engine ? 
 
 158. How would you determine the time re- 
 quired to burn 100 pounds of coal ? 
 
 159. How would you determine the travel of the 
 water piston while burning 100 pounds of coal ? 
 
 Chapter 15. Page 96. 
 
 160. How would you determine the time required 
 for 1000 pounds of steam to pass through the cyl- 
 inders ? 
 
 161. What allowance should be made for the 
 water that passes off with the steam ? 
 
 162. What would you consider a satisfactory re- 
 sult of a pumping engine test ? 
 
 163. What is the objection to a fly wheel on a 
 pumping engine ? 
 
QUESTIONS. 167 
 
 164. What device has been adopted whereby a 
 fly wheel is dispensed with ? 
 
 165. Can you explain the design and operation 
 of the "high duty attachment ?" 
 
 166. What is the chief object in adopting it ? 
 
 167. How is it cushioned ? 
 
 168. How does it operate in case the water main 
 bursts ? 
 
 Chapter 16. — Page ioi. 
 
 169. How do you calculate the pressure that a 
 pump will work against ? 
 
 170. How do you calculate the steam pressure 
 necessary to operate a boiler feed pump ? 
 
 171. How do you determine the diameter of 
 water piston for a pump ? 
 
 172. How do you determine the diameter of 
 steam piston for a pump ? 
 
 173. What is the limit of speed for a pump ? 
 
 174. How do you calculate the capacity of pumps 
 at 100 feet piston speed per minute ? 
 
 175. How do you determine the diameter of 
 pump piston to move a given quantity of water per 
 minute ? 
 
 176. How do you determine the speed of water 
 in a pipe ? 
 
 177. How do you determine the diameter of pipe 
 to deliver a certain quantity of water per minute ? 
 
l68 QUESTIONS. 
 
 Chapter 17. — Page iio. 
 
 178. What causes an injector to become unreli- 
 able and finally worthless ? 
 
 179. Why does an injector refuse to start when 
 hot water is supplied to it ? 
 
 180. Does the height of the lift affect the capacity 
 of an injector ? 
 
 181. Is it practical to design an injector that will 
 deliver water against a much higher pressure than 
 the steam pressure used to operate it ? 
 
 182. Explain the theory of the injector ? 
 
 183. How do you calculate the velocity of steam 
 under given conditions ? 
 
 Chapter 18. — Page 119. 
 
 184. What is the object in covering a steam pipe 
 with a non-conductor of heat ? 
 
 185. How do you determine the amount of steam 
 condensed per hour in an uncovered pipe ? 
 
 186. How do you compute the amount of coal 
 wasted in this way ? 
 
 187. How do you calculate the number of heat 
 units lost ? 
 
 188. How is the horse power lost by condensation 
 in pipes determined ? 
 
questions. 169 
 
 Chapter 19. — Page 125. 
 
 189. What appliance should be provided for 
 reducing the boiler pressure to a low pressure for 
 heating purposes ? 
 
 190. What is the effect of adding 5 pounds back 
 pressure to an engine ? 
 
 191. Is there any loss when an engine exhausts 
 into a heating system ? 
 
 192. How would you calculate the power actually 
 absorbed in doing work when exhausting into a 
 heating system, or into the atmosphere ? 
 
 Chapter 20. — Page 133. 
 
 193. Is the temperature of steam raised by pass- 
 ing it through a reducing valve ? 
 
 194. What is specific heat ? 
 
 195. What becomes of the latent heat of the 
 steam, after it passes to the rooms to be heated ? 
 
 196. How is the water of condensation returned 
 to the boilers by means of a trap ? 
 
 197. When a closed receiver and a duplex pump 
 are used, how does the appliance operate ? 
 
 198. When a trap is used what should be done 
 with the cold water that returns when steam is first 
 admitted to a heating system ? 
 
 199. If a duplex pump is used to return the water 
 of condensation, will it pump this cold water ? 
 
 200. What is the object in heating it before it is 
 pumped into the boilers ? 
 
SHUTTING DOWN A STEAM PLANT. 
 
 As the time approaches for the machinery to be 
 stopped, the engineer of the plant should see that 
 the water level in the boilers is raised as high as it 
 is safe to carry it while the engine is running, and 
 after it is shut down the injector should be run 
 until the gage glass is nearly full, in order to pro- 
 vide for the loss of water while the boilers are shut 
 down. If the plant is not provided with an in- 
 jector the pump must be used, and steam turned 
 into the heater, so that no cold water will reach 
 the boilers. 
 
 The fires should be banked, so that steam will 
 not be generated until it is wanted, all of the damp- 
 ers and doors closed, and the water columns shut 
 off, so that if a gage glass breaks during the absence 
 of the fireman, no further damage will result. 
 
 During the last five minutes that the engine is 
 run, more oil should be fed thrcugh the lubricator, 
 or through a special hand pump, than is required 
 at other times, so that all of the internal parts will 
 be protected from rust while at rest. Before the 
 throttle valve of a condensing engine is closed care 
 should be taken to know that the injection water 
 is shut off so that it cannot be drawn into the cyl- 
 inder. After the engine is shut down it should be 
 nicely cleaned with waste, and all of the sight feed 
 oil-cups filled ready for use. An inspection of the 
 steam and water valves, to see that they are open 
 or closed, as the case requires, completes the work. 
 
 170 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 1. The Workshop of the Author, 4 
 
 2. High-Speed Engine with Corliss Valve Gear 6 
 
 3. Engines Running " Over" and u Under,". . 14 
 
 4. Tubular Boiler 19 
 
 5. Vertical Boiler With Brick Setting 25 
 
 6. Pop Safety Valve 30 
 
 7. Vertical Boiler Without Brick Setting .... 36 
 
 8. Water Tube Boiler 47 
 
 9. An Efficient Safety Boiler 53 
 
 10. A Condensing Engine 58 
 
 11. A Defective Indicator Diagram 63 
 
 12. The Lippincott Planimeter 68 
 
 13. The Willis Planimeter 69 
 
 14. Cross Compound Engine 74 
 
 15. Tandem Compound Engine 79 
 
 16. Triple Expansion Engine 84 
 
 17. Surface Condenser and Cooling Tower 89 
 
 18. Vertical Cross Compound Pumping Engine, 95 
 
 19. Duplex Pumping Engine . 100 
 
 20. An Altitude Gage 109 
 
 21. Duplex: Hancock Inspirator 118 
 
 22. The Brainerd Steam Trap 124 
 
 23. Direct Connected Fan . 132 
 
 24. Pump and Receiver 138 
 
 25. Quadruple Sight Feed Lubricator 139 
 
 26. Left Hand Engine 140 
 
 27. Right Hand Engine 141 
 
 28. Vertical Cross Compound Engine 142 
 
 1 
 
INDEX OF CHAPTERS 
 
 Chapter i Page 15 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 6 
 
 7 
 8 
 
 9 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 x 3 
 14 
 
 15 
 16 
 
 17 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 Appendix 
 
 Examination Questions 
 
 20 
 26 
 
 3i 
 38 
 48 
 
 54 
 
 59 
 64 
 
 70 
 
 75 
 80 
 
 85 
 90 
 
 96 
 
 101 
 
 no 
 
 119 
 125 
 
 1 33 
 !55 
 
 2 
 
INDEX OF SUBJECTS 
 
 In the following index the page on which the 
 chapter begins, containing the subject referred to, 
 is given because the author wishes to have enough 
 of the matter read and studied to give a clear idea 
 of the information contained. Reading a single 
 page does not always accomplish this, and as it re- 
 quires but a short time to read each chapter the in- 
 dex is arranged so as to encourage a complete study 
 of the whole book, and at the same time it locates 
 each subject in its proper place. 
 
 A 
 
 CHAPTER 
 
 Accumulator for high duty attachment, 15 
 
 Air pump, . . , 13 
 
 Amount of steam condensed in uncovered pipes, 18 
 
 radiators, 20 
 
 Area of rivet, to calculate, 2 
 
 safety valves, . . 3 
 
 A. S. M. E. rating for powei of boilers, ........ 6 
 
 Attachment, high duty, 15 
 
 Automatic injector, 17 
 
 B 
 
 Boileis, safe working pressure of, 2 
 
 strength of joint in, 2 
 
 horse power of , . . . 6 
 
 heating surface of, « .... 4 
 
 3 
 
INDEX. 
 
 CHAPTER 
 
 Boiler, water leg of, 2 
 
 tests, how to conduct, 4 
 
 duty of a, 5 
 
 circulation of water in a, 1 
 
 feed pump, 16 
 
 Bolts, stay, why made hollow, 2 
 
 Braces, distance between, 2 
 
 British Thermal Unit, 1 
 
 By-pass valve, 11 
 
 C 
 
 Calculating area of rivet, 2 
 
 moisture in steam, 5 
 
 Capacity of injectors, 17 
 
 pumps, 16 
 
 Calorimeter, 5 
 
 Centennial rating for power of boilers, 6 
 
 Circulation of water in a boiler, 1 
 
 Cleaning injectors, 17 
 
 Column of water, pressure of a, 14 
 
 Condenser, injector, 13 
 
 Conducting boiler tests, 4 
 
 Constant, Horse Power, 9 
 
 Compound engine, horse power of a, 10 
 
 horse power constant of a, . . 9 
 object sought in building, ... 9 
 
 receiver for a, 11 
 
 size of cylinder for a, n 
 
 tandem, 11 
 
 4 
 
INDEX. 
 
 CHAPTER 
 
 Compound engine, cross, n 
 
 steeple, n 
 
 Combined ratio of expansion for a compound 
 
 engine, 10 
 
 Combined ratio of expansion for a triple expan- 
 sion engine, .12 
 
 Combined ratio of expansion for a quadruple ex- 
 pansion engine, 13 
 
 Condenser, jet, 13 
 
 surface, 13 
 
 siphon, 13 
 
 Cooling towers, 13 
 
 Cylinder, warming a, 7 
 
 D 
 
 Defective diagram, 8 
 
 Density, maximum of water, 20 
 
 Diameter of pipe for a given quantity of water, . . 16 
 
 water piston, 16 
 
 steam piston, .16 
 
 Distance of weight from fulcrum on safety valve 
 
 lever, 3 
 
 Distance between braces, 2 
 
 Double acting engine, rule to calculate power of a, 7 
 Double engine, rule to calculate the power of a, 9 
 
 Duty of an engineer, 7 
 
 Duty of a boiler, 5 
 
 Duty of a pumping engine, 14 
 
 5 
 
INDEX. 
 
 CHAPTER 
 
 E 
 
 Engineer, practical, i 
 
 theoretical, i 
 
 first duty of an, 7 
 
 Engine, starting an, 7 
 
 single acting, to calculate horse power 
 
 of a, 7 
 
 single acting with two cylinders, to cal- 
 culate the horse power of a, 7 
 
 double acting, to calculate the horse 
 
 power of a, 7 
 
 double, to calculate the horse power of a, 9 
 compound, to calculate horse power of a, 9 
 compound, object sought in building, . . 9 
 
 simple, horse power constant of a, 9 
 
 compound, horse power constant of a, . . 9 
 compound, combined ratio of expansion 
 
 for a, 10 
 
 compound, receiver for a, 11 
 
 compound, size of cylinders for a, n 
 
 tandem compound, 11 
 
 cross compound, 11 
 
 steeple compound, 11 
 
 triple expansion, horse power of a, .... 12 
 triple expansion, combined ratio of ex- 
 pansion for a, 12 
 
 quadruple expansion, 13 
 
 6 
 
INDEX. 
 
 CHAPTER 
 
 Engine, quadruple expansion, combined ratio of 
 
 expansion for a , 13 
 
 pumping, duty of a, 14 
 
 pumping, foot pounds developed by a • • 14 
 
 steam, indicator, 8 
 
 Equivalent evaporation, 5 
 
 weight of wood, 4 
 
 Excessive pressure, penalty for carrying, 6 
 
 Expansion, ratio of, 10 
 
 Exhaust steam, heating by, 19 
 
 F 
 
 First duty of an engineer, 7 
 
 Fixed injector, 17 
 
 Foot pound, 14 
 
 valve, • 17 
 
 Fusible plug, . . 2 
 
 Fulcrum of safety valve, 3 
 
 G 
 
 Gaseous steam, 1 
 
 Gear, valve, 7 
 
 Greatest density of water, 14 
 
 H 
 
 Heat, specific, . . . . , ... 20 
 
 sensible, of steam, , . . 4 
 
 latent, of steam, 4 
 
 total, of steam, 4 
 
 unit, 1 
 
 units used in developing power, 19 
 
 7 
 
INDEX. 
 
 CHAPTER 
 
 Heat units lost by condensation, , 18 
 
 Heating by exhaust steam, 19 
 
 surface of boilers, 4 
 
 High duty attachment, ....... 15 
 
 accumulator for, 15 
 
 Hot well, 13 
 
 Hollow stay bolts, 2 
 
 Horse power of boilers, 1 6 
 
 standards for calculating the, 6 
 
 of a single acting engine, ,7 
 
 of a single acting engine with two 
 
 cylinders, 7 
 
 of a double acting engine, 7 
 
 of a double engine, 9 
 
 of a compound engine, 9 
 
 of a triple expansion engine, 12 
 
 constant of a simple engine, 9 
 
 of a compound engine, . 9 
 
 Hydraulic pump, .' 16 
 
 I 
 
 Indicator, the steam engine, 8 
 
 diagram, a defective, 8 
 
 Injector condenser, 13 
 
 Injector, lifting, 17 
 
 nonlifting, 17 
 
 automatic, 17 
 
 fixed, 17 
 
 theory of the, 17 
 
 8 
 
INDEX. 
 
 CHAPTER 
 
 Injector, to clean an, 17 
 
 J 
 
 Jet condenser, 13 
 
 Joint, strength of a, in a steam boiler, . 2 
 
 L 
 
 Latent heat of steam, 4 
 
 Lever, distance of weight on, from fnlcrnm on 
 
 safety valve, 3 
 
 weight on safety valve, , . . 3 
 
 length of a, for safety valve, 3 
 
 Lifting injector, 17 
 
 Loss by condensation, 18 
 
 by using reducing valve, 20 
 
 Loop, steam, 18 
 
 M 
 
 Maximum density of water, ... 1 
 
 Measurement, unit of, for heat, 1 
 
 Mean effective pressure, 8 
 
 Molecules of water, 1 
 
 Moisture in steam, 5 
 
 N 
 
 Nonlifting injector, 17 
 
 P 
 
 Penalty for carrying excessive pressure, . . : 6 
 
 Piston, steam, for pump, 16 
 
 water, for pump, 16 
 
 pump, 16 
 
 Pipes, uncovered, steam condensed in, 18 
 
 9 
 
INDEX. 
 
 CHAPTER 
 
 Pipe covering, thickness of, ... 18 
 
 Pipes, velocity of water in, 16 
 
 diameter of, for given velocity of water, . . 16 
 
 Plug, fusible, 2 
 
 Plunger pump, 16 
 
 Pounds pressure, i 
 
 foot, 14 
 
 Power pump, 16 
 
 Practical engineer, % 1 
 
 Pressure, safe working, of steam boilers, 2 
 
 to lift safety valve, 3 
 
 mean effective, 7 
 
 of a column of water, 14 
 
 that a pump will work against, 16 
 
 Pump, air, 13 
 
 hydraulic, 16 
 
 boiler feed, 16 
 
 tank, 16 
 
 pressure necessary to drive a, 16 
 
 diameter of steam piston for a, 16 
 
 diameter of water piston for a, 16 
 
 pressure that a, will work against, ... .16 
 
 and receiver, 20 
 
 Pumps, speed of, 16 
 
 capacity of, 16 
 
 Pumping engine, foot pounds developed by a, . 14 
 
 duty of a, 14 
 
 10 
 
INDEX. 
 
 CHAPTER 
 
 Q 
 
 Quadruple expansion engine, 13 
 
 combined ratio of 
 
 expansion for a, 13 
 
 R 
 
 Ratio of expansion, 10 
 
 combined, for a compound en- 
 gine, 10 
 
 combined, for a triple expan- 
 sion engine, 12 
 
 combined, for a quadruple ex- 
 pansion engine, 13 
 
 Radiators, steam condensed in, 20 
 
 Receiver and pump, 20 
 
 for a compound engine, n 
 
 Return traps, 20 
 
 Reducing valves, 20 
 
 loss by using, . . . . 20 
 
 Rivet, area of a, ... 2 
 
 S 
 
 Safe working pressure of steam boilers, 2 
 
 Safety valve lever, distance of weight from ful- 
 crum on a, 3 
 
 weight on a, 3 
 
 pressure to lift a, 3 
 
 length of a, 3 
 
 Safety valve, rule to determine area of a, 3 
 
 Sensible heat of steam, 4 
 
 11 
 
INDEX. 
 
 CHAPTER 
 
 Separator, use of a, 19 
 
 Simple engine, horse power constant of a, 9 
 
 Single acting engine, to calculate the horse pow- 
 er of a, ..... 7 
 
 with two cylinders, the 
 horse power of a, . . . 7 
 
 Size of cylinders for a compound engine, 11 
 
 Siphon condenser, 13 
 
 Specific heat, i : 20 
 
 Speed of pumps, 16 
 
 Stay bolts, why are, made hollow, 2 
 
 Standards for calculating horse power of boilers, 6 
 
 Starting the engine, 7 
 
 Steam, what is, 1 
 
 saturated, 1 
 
 wet, 1 
 
 superheated, , 1 
 
 gaseous, ,\ 1 
 
 velocity of, 17 
 
 moisture in, 5 
 
 Steam engine indicator, 8 
 
 Steam piston for pump, 16 
 
 Steam condensed in uncovered pipes, 18 
 
 in radiators, 20 
 
 Steam loop, 18 
 
 Steeple compound engine, 11 
 
 Strength of joint in a steam boiler, 2 
 
 Surface condenser, 13 
 
 12 
 
INDEX. 
 
 CHAPTER 
 
 T 
 
 Tandem compound engine, . ...... n 
 
 Tank pumps, ..'../. : , .... 16 
 
 Test of boiler, how to conduct a, . . . , 4 
 
 Theoretical engineer, . , .;.... 1 
 
 Thermal Unit, British, . . . ........ 1 
 
 Theory of the injector, /. 17 
 
 Thickness of pipe covering, . . . 18 
 
 Total heat of steam, .,.;.. 4 
 
 Towers, cooling, . . , 13 
 
 Traps, return, 20 
 
 Triple expansion engine, the horse power of a, 12 
 
 combined ratio of ex- 
 pansion for a, .... 12 
 U 
 
 Unit of measurement for heat, 1 
 
 of heat, , . ... 1 
 
 British Thermal, 1 
 
 Units, heat, lost by condensation, 18 
 
 used in developing power, -.19 
 
 Uncovered pipes, steam condensed in, 18 
 
 Use of separators, ,19 
 
 V 
 
 Valve, safety, to determine the area of a, 3 
 
 to determine pressure that will lift a , 3 
 to determine length of lever for a, 3 
 to determine distance from fulcrum 
 to weight, 3 
 
 i3 
 
INDEX. 
 
 CHAPTER 
 
 Valve, safety, to determine weight for a, 3 
 
 by pass, ...,..' . . u 
 
 reducing, 20 
 
 foot, , 17 
 
 gear, 7 
 
 Velocity of steam, 17 
 
 water, 16 
 
 W 
 
 Water, weight of, 14 
 
 pressure of a column of, . 14 
 
 piston for a pump, . 16 
 
 pressure that a pump will work against, 16 
 
 circulation in a boiler, 1 
 
 molecules of, . . 1 
 
 maximum density of, 20 
 
 leg of a boiler, ,,,...... 2 
 
 velocity of, r . . 16 
 
 Warming the cylinder, 7 
 
 Weight, distance of, from fulcrum on safety valve 
 
 lever, 3 
 
 on safety valve lever, 3 
 
 of water, .14 
 
 Well, hot, , 13 
 
 What is steam ? 1 
 
 What is the fulcrum on a safety valve ? 3 
 
 What is a calorimeter ? , . 5 
 
 Working pressure for steam boilers, 2 
 
 Wood, equivalent to weight of coal, 4 
 
ADVERTISEMENTS. 
 
 q^HE FOLLOWING PAGES contain the adver- 
 tisements of reliable parties who deal in the 
 specified goods. They are cordially recommended 
 to steam users, engineers and others interested, as 
 giving satisfaction to all who deal with them. 
 
 When you send orders for their goods, or re- 
 quests for their catalogues, you are earnestly re- 
 quested to state that you saw their advertisements 
 in this book. 
 
 By doing so, you will confer favors on adver- 
 tisers and the publisher. 
 
Repairing Valves. 
 
 What we now call common brass valves, in order to dis- 
 tinguish them from those with disks that are easily 
 removed, were almost universally used to control the flow 
 of steam in both large and small pipes, when the writer 
 secured his first situation as an engineer. 
 
 When new they were not always tight enough to entirely 
 shut off the steam when closed, and those that were in 
 good order when first put into service seldom remained 
 so. The natural consequence was that they were allowed 
 to leak until the waste of steam was excessive. Then 
 emery, ground glass, or some other abrasive substance was 
 applied to both disk and seat, and the process of grinding 
 in commenced. It proved to be both tedious and expen- 
 sive, but was the best way known at that time. 
 
 When a better globe valve was invented, the body con- 
 sisting of steam metal and the disk made of hard rubber, 
 all this was changed. A new valve of this kind is put 
 into service, steam is admitted until it is thoroughly 
 heated, the wheel turned and the disk pressed firmly to its 
 seat. This makes a perfectly tight joint that remains so 
 until the disk is worn out, when the bonnet is removed, a 
 new disk put in, the bonnet replaced and the valve made 
 as good as new. 
 
 The disk holder is grasped by a pair of gas tongs, and 
 the nut which holds the disk in place unscrewed with a 
 wrench, bringing the disk with it, thus making the re- 
 moval of a worn-out disk a very simple matter. 
 
 New disks of proper sizes should always be kept on hand 
 ready for immediate use, as leaky valves cause the loss of 
 many dollars worth of steam every year, therefore a valve 
 that can be easily repaired is the best to purchase, as it will 
 soon save enough to pay its cost. 
 
 2 
 
JENKINS BROTHERS' YALYES 
 
 *+ 
 
 f < $ 
 
 Globe, Angle, Check, 
 Cross, Y, Safety, &c, 
 both screwed and flanged, 
 are extra heavy and are 
 made of the best steam 
 metal. 
 
 Have the genuine Jenkins Disc, Disc Removing Lock 
 Nut and Patent Keyed Stuffing Box. If you want the 
 genuine ask your dealer for Valves manufactured by 
 Jenkins Brothers, which are always stamped with Trade 
 Mark like cut. 
 
 JENKINS BROS., New York, Boston, Philadelphia, Chicago. 
 
PACKING FLANGED JOINTS. 
 
 »•« 
 
 One of the unpleasant jobs that an engineer has to do is to 
 pack the flanged joints in his plant. These joints are fre- 
 quently located in inconvenient places, and as the old pack- 
 ing fails when the machinery is required for use, it must be 
 renewed while the parts are as hot as steam can make them. 
 
 One kind of packing that the writer has used many 
 times, became soft as soon as steam was admitted to the 
 newly packed joint, making it necessary to screw up the 
 nuts until the two flanges were nearly in contact with each 
 other. This caused all of the hollow spots and the space 
 around each bolt to be nicely tilled with the packing, re- 
 sulting in a perfectly tight joint in which the smallest pos- 
 sible amount of packing was exposed to pressure, thus in- 
 suring its durability. However, the necessity of following 
 up a joint after steam was admitted to it was an objection 
 in the estimation of some engineers, therefore the manu- 
 facturers of this kind of packing improved their product 
 until they produced an article that needs no attention after 
 once fitted into place, with the nuts on the bolts properly 
 adjusted. 
 
 The actual cost of the sheet packing required for a joint 
 is small when compared with the cost of labor required to 
 get the packing into place, and the inconvenience of shut- 
 ting off the steam while doing the work, but still there is 
 no economy in buying heavy packing, when thickness and 
 surface are considered, if a lighter kind will answer every 
 purpose. 
 
 The ordinary rubber packing with cloth insertion, made 
 by nobody in particular, or at least we never find the mak- 
 er's name stamped on it, is fast becoming obsolete and justly 
 so too, for it is usually made of inferior materials and is 
 not worthy of comparison with an improved kind that 
 always has its maker's name upon it as a guarantee. 
 
 4 
 
Makes perfect joint immediately ; does not have to 
 be followed up. 
 
 Makes joint that will last for years on all pressures of 
 steam. 
 
 Does not rot, burn, blow or squeeze out. 
 
 Weighs 30 per cent, less than many other packings, 
 therefore the cheapest and best. 
 
 JENKINS BROS., New York, Philadelphia, Boston, Chicago. 
 
GRAPHITE LUBRICATION 
 
 -*♦*- 
 
 The first experience of the writer with graphite was under the fol- 
 lowing circumstances: The oil cup on the main bearing of his engine 
 failed to feed properly, and it was not discovered until the iron was 
 almost hot enough to melt the Babbitt metal. The cap was taken off, 
 the shaft wiped clean, and beef tallow T or suet, just as it came from 
 the store was coated thickly with graphite and laid on the shaft. The 
 cap was replaced and the engine started up at once. At the usual 
 time for shutting down, that bearing was at its normal temperature, 
 and there was no more trouble with it. 
 
 In another case a large bronze bearing located in the upper part of 
 a mill was not sufficiently lubricated, and it was not accessible while 
 the machinery was in motion, it took fire and made it necessary to 
 shut down. It was cooled off with water, and the shafting started up 
 with no other precaution than to provide plenty of ordinary tallow 
 and graphite for lubrication. During the first hour it was quite warm, 
 
 but gradually cooled down until it was perfectly safe, and it gave no 
 more trouble. It w^ould have cost many dollars to have taken down 
 this bearing and repaired it. 
 
 These two extreme cases are sufficient to show the real value of this 
 lubricant. 
 
 When mixed with cylinder oil it makes an excellent lubricant for 
 
 steam pipe threads, and when it is desired to take the pipes down, it is 
 
 possible to do so without breaking the fittings. 
 
 6 
 
A NEW TRICK. 
 
 HAVE YOU TRIED IT? 
 
 A bright engineer said, "Do I use Dixon's Flake 
 Graphite ? You bet I do and I use it in a squirt can. 
 I take a new, clean can and fill it with Dixon's Flake 
 Graphite and I find it will squirt it easier than oil. It is 
 the most convenient way to use Graphite. If the end of 
 the spout is a trifle too small a bit of it can be filed off." 
 
 [£!P Be sure you get Dixon's Pure Flake Graphite in 
 the original can — the one with the red label. Then you 
 will have the genuine. 
 
 SEND FOR OUR PAMPHLET. 
 
 JOSEPH DIXON CRUCIBLE CO. 
 
 JERSEY CITY, N. J. 
 
 7 
 
The Inspection and Insurance 
 of Steam Boilers. 
 
 When a steam boiler explodes and causes the loss of much property, 
 it affords some satisfaction to know that it was insured and that the 
 claim will be paid promptly. It is much better and cheaper, how- 
 ever, to dispense with the explosion altogether, and for this reason the 
 word "inspection" is placed before the word "insurance" in the 
 above title, because careful and conscientious inspection will prevent 
 many of the explosions that prove so disastrous. 
 
 Trained inspectors while examining the internal and external parts 
 of steam boilers find many defects that would not be discovered by 
 anybody that has given less attention to this important work, and 
 when these are pointed out, remedies can be applied before the faults 
 become dangerous. 
 
 During these inspections, the effects of improper management of 
 steam boilers are frequently apparent to the inspector, who points 
 them out so that the objectionable practices may be discontinued be- 
 fore serious trouble results. 
 
 This is the most important part of the whole system, but when 
 some hidden defect in a boiler so weakens the structure that it fails 
 and does much damage, the indemnity paid by the insurance company 
 may make all of the difference between success and failure in busi- 
 ness on the part of the unfortunate owners. 
 
 The moral support afforded under such circumstance is also worthy 
 of consideration, for if an exploded boiler was insured in a reliable 
 company, who employ only the best inspectors, it shows that all 
 reasonable precautions along this line had been taken. 
 
 8 
 
THOROUGH INSPECTIONS 
 
 AND 
 
 Insurance against Loss or Damage to Property 
 and Loss of Life and Injury to 
 
 Persons Caused by 
 
 Steam Boiler Explosions. 
 
 ► ♦ ■« 
 
 J. M. ALLEN, President. 
 
 WM. B. FRANKLIN, Vice-President 
 
 F. B. ALLEN, Second Vice-President. 
 J. B PIERCE, Secretary, 
 
 L. B. BRAINERD, Treasurer. 
 
 L. F. MIDDLEBROOK, Asst Secretary. 
 
 9 
 
BENEFITS TO BE DERIVED 
 
 FROM THE USE OF 
 
 POP SAFETY VALVES. 
 
 On account of the vibration and unsteady motion to 
 which locomotive and marine boilers are subjected, it is 
 necessary to use Pop Safety Valves on them, but there are 
 benefits to be derived from their use on stationary boilers 
 that are worthy of careful consideration. 
 
 It is desirable, if not actually necessary, in a large ma- 
 jority of cases, to carry the highest safe pressure on boilers 
 now in use, therefore safety valves that will open and 
 close promptly, with a slight variation of pressure, give 
 the best satisfaction, because they remain tightly closed 
 until the maximum pressure is reached, then they open at 
 once, discharge enough steam to slightly reduce the pres- 
 sure, after which they close promptly and thus prevent un- 
 necessary waste of steam, hence they are the most economi- 
 cal kind to use. 
 
 When a Pop Valve opens it discharges steam very rapid- 
 ly, so that there is little danger of the pressure increasing 
 after the safe limit is reached. This gives it a right to the 
 name " safety valve," and this has undoubtedly prevented 
 many boiler explosions. 
 
 A valve of this kind may be locked up so that it cannot 
 be overloaded, either accidentally or intentionally, which 
 is a valuable feature, for when an engine is overloaded, 
 there is a great temptation for the engineer to increase the 
 pressure to meet the conditions, and in this way boilers 
 are subjected to more stress than they can safely stand. 
 
 10 
 
ASHTON POP VALVES. 
 
 Guaranteed to Give Perfect 
 
 Satisfaction. 
 
 Made of Best Material. 
 
 Insuring Greatest 
 
 Efficiency and Durability. 
 
 Indorsed .and recommended by leading- 
 Engineers and Architects. Superior in 
 quality. 
 
 THE BEST AND CHEAPEST. 
 
 MERITS AND REPUTATION UNEQUALED. 
 
 Ashton 
 
 ■es. 
 
 Have Non-Corrosive Move- 
 ments and Seamless Drawn 
 Tubes. Are Accurate, Dura- 
 ble and Strictly High Grade. 
 
 Send for Catalogue W. 
 
 * i^i t- 
 
 THE ASHTON YALYE CO., 
 
 BOSTON. 
 
 NEW YORK. 
 11 
 
 CHICAGO. 
 
The Use of Sheet Packing. 
 
 When the writer was first employed as a steam engineer, 
 it was not possible to get such good sheet packing as is 
 found in common use at the present time, therefore it was 
 necessary to spend much more time packing joints than 
 w r e have to at the present time. There was one joint in 
 the plant that he had charge of that was a source of much 
 trouble, as it would frequently blow out, and it took two 
 men half a day to pack it, because it could not be reached 
 readily. 
 
 All this is changed now for sheet packing that will last 
 for years can easily be procured, and consequently is used 
 extensively. 
 
 The flanged joints on the plant in charge of the writer 
 have been in use nearly seven years and show no signs of 
 failure yet, which is a source of satisfaction to both 
 owners and engineer. 
 
 Where a rough joint is to be packed, thick packing 
 should be used, but where the parts are smooth it is ad- 
 visable to use thin packing, not only on account of saving 
 the cost of too thick material, but because there is less 
 liability of failure by blowing out, as there is less surface 
 exposed to pressure. 
 
 In these days of high pressures and long runs, it is 
 especially advisable to use only sheet packing that is guar- 
 anteed to withstand a high temperature, and that is known 
 to be durable. 
 
 12 
 
W/1/B0W PACKING 
 
 The Best Flange Packing Made. 
 
 32 
 
 O 
 
 c3 
 
 a 
 
 V2 
 
 a 
 
 O 
 
 Eh 
 
 CO 
 
 pa 
 
 too 
 -i— i 
 
 W 
 
 o 
 H 
 
 — ! 02 
 
 tzi £ £ 
 
 a 
 
 
 «rT 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 H o P 
 
 O 
 
 2%$ 
 
 r-»- 
 
 tt ^ © 
 
 Cf 
 
 o 
 
 c-r 
 
 use wi 
 o hold 
 OW 
 
 
 CD 
 
 THE COLOR OF RAINBOW PACKING IS RED. 
 
 Notice our trademark of Three Rows of Diamonds extending throughout the entire 
 length of each and every roll of Rainbow Packing. 
 
 This Packing is especially adapted for very high pressure, and is 
 not affected by any degree of steam heat. It will not harden under 
 any degree of heat, or blow out, under the highest pressure, and will 
 make an air, steam, hot or cold water joint equally well. 
 
 Sole manufacturers of the well known Peerless Piston and Valve 
 Rod Packing, Eclipse Sectional Rainbow Gasket, Hercules, Combina- 
 tion, Honest John, Zero, Arctic, and Success Packings. 
 
 Insist on having goods made by us, which are absolutely the highest 
 grade in the market. 
 
 MANUFACTURED EXCLUSIVELY BY 
 
 PEERLESS RUBBER MFG. CO. 
 
 16 WARREN STREET, NEW YORK. 
 
 16-24 Woodward Ave., 202-210 S. Water St., 
 
 Detroit, Mich. Chicago, 111. 
 
 17-23 Beal St. and 18-24 Main St., San Francisco, Cal. 
 
 For Sale By All First-class Dealers. 
 
 13 
 
The Value of 
 
 FEED WATER HEATERS. 
 
 In many of our large steam plants the value of feed water heaters 
 is recognized and the best to be found are in constant use. This is 
 very proper, but there are many small plants in which a heater is 
 looked upon as a luxury rather than a necessity. It is quite possible 
 to save 15 per cent, or more of the coal bill, by the use of this valu- 
 able appliance, which is certainly sufficient to warrant its adoption in 
 every case, but there is a much more important reason for its great 
 popularity among those who understand the benefits to be derived 
 from it. 
 
 When a fire is built under a boiler the sheets expand according to 
 the heat applied. If cold water is pumped into this boiler through a 
 feed pipe that is connected into the bottom of the shell, the high 
 temperature is reduced in one place, leaving the other parts as hot as 
 they formerly were. The result of this is that while a part of the 
 boiler remains expanded portions of it are contracted by the fall in 
 temperature, and thus a great stress is brought to bear on portions of 
 the shell and tubes. 
 
 It is difficult if not impossible to determine the amount of stress so 
 applied, but it is quite possible for it to exceed the stress that is 
 caused by any ordinary working pressure of steam, and when we 
 consider that this comes in addition to the steam pressure, it will be 
 plain that to dispense with a Feed Water Heater is both expensive and 
 dangerous. 
 
 14 
 
The National Feed Water Heater 
 
 Supplies Water to Boilers at 212°. 
 
 mmmter It is Efficient, Reliable and 
 8 Reasonable in Price. 
 
 1,000,000 Horse Power Sold, 
 
 Proves its Quality and 
 
 Efficiency. 
 
 Made in 30 Sizes, 5 to 6,000 
 Horse Power. 
 
 Material First Class and 
 Guaranteed. 
 
 -*♦+- 
 
 THE KATIOWAL PIPE BEMLIN& CO.. 
 
 145 LLOYD STREET, 
 
 15 
 
OLD 
 
 JOLLY 
 
 That it's "just as good " as EUREKA 
 don't work, if you have tried EU- 
 REKA. It cures squeaky squirty 
 engines. Prevents good engines from 
 getting squirty and squeaky. 
 
 Outlasts two 
 or three times. 
 Gives more pow- 
 er. Costs one- 
 half less in sea- 
 son's run. 
 
 Hine Eliminator. 
 
 A Watch Dog, 
 
 preventing 
 water entering 
 engiue cylinder 
 and keeping 
 oil out of boil- 
 er. An insur- 
 ance at moder- 
 ate cost. Worth 
 your consider- 
 ation. 
 
 The troublesome 
 problem — how to lubri- 
 cate the eccentric 
 crank pin, etc., — in an 
 economical, positive 
 and cleanly manner at 
 one-third the cost— is 
 solved in this device. 
 
 There are 
 many imitations, 
 but none with 
 red diamond la- 
 bel. Specify 
 " Genuine." 
 
 ROBERTSON 
 Feed Water Heater. 
 
 The Loop on 
 
 top of copper 
 coil returns the 
 water down 
 through and 
 out where 
 steam is the %i 
 hottest. No 
 higher in price 
 than any other. 
 
 Sent out on trial with 
 sufficient grease for 
 trial period, should 
 warrant every one in 
 trying one. An at- 
 tractive booklet is 
 yours for the asking. 
 
 ► • * 
 
 JAMES L. ROBERTSON SONS, 204 Fulton Street, 
 
 hsiie'W" yoirjk: 
 
 16 
 
A 
 WATCH 
 
 an INDICATOR should be good 
 years hence as at first. Some INDI- 
 CATORS like some watches are made 
 by contract to sell, and are dear at any 
 price. A few dollars more will purchase 
 an IMPROVED ROBERTSON 
 THOMPSON. 
 No indicator made has the same care in all details, particularly 
 testing the springs. U. 8. Navy method and standard of 2% 
 variation is followed. Sold at a price within reach of every engineer. 
 
 in 
 
 IMPROVED 
 
 WILLIS 
 
 PLANIMETER 
 
 in velvet-lined, 
 leather case. 
 
 A marvel for 
 accuracy, con- 
 struction and 
 durability. 
 
 M. E. P. Read Direct from Scales. 
 Price $18.00. 
 
 THREE WAY VALVES. STRAIGHT WAY VALVES. 
 
 ELBOW COCKS. NICKLED PIPING. 
 
 TESTING OUTFITS, ETC. 
 
 IMPROVED VICTOR 
 
 REDUCING WHEEL 
 
 always readj r for any speed or any 
 stroke up so 6 ft. Fits any* indi- 
 cator. Can be adjusted in five 
 minutes ready for work. 
 Price $15.00. 
 
 ►"♦-*- 
 
 JAMES L. ROBERTSON SONS, 204 Fulton Street 
 
 USTZE-W ^OZRZKI. 
 
 17 
 
Show This 
 
 To Your Friends . 
 
 Purchasers of Wakernan's " ENGINEERING PRACTICE 
 AND THEORY FOR STEAM ENGINEERS" ought 
 
 also to be subscribers to SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY, a 
 
 monthly magazine devoted to practical articles on the theory 
 and practice of steam engineering and electricity. The articles are 
 interesting, instructive and ABSOLUTELY ACCURATE. Each 
 issue contains several engineering articles, and also includes an 
 " Answers to Inquiries" department in which you can have perplex- 
 ing questions about steam engineering fully and accurately answered 
 and often illustrated. Send for a free sample copy of SCIENCE 
 AND INDUSTRY. The subscription price is $1.00 a year. 
 
 SPLENDID COMBINATION OFFER. 
 
 A years subscription to SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY and a 
 copy of Wakeman's " ENGINEERING PRACTICE AND THEORY," 
 for $1.70. 
 
 CANVASSERS WANTED. 
 Any purchaser of this book who will visit, on our behalf, steam 
 engineers aud firemen, mechanical and electrical engineers, elec- 
 tricians, dynamo tenders, and others interested in steam engineering 
 can retain twenty-five cents, as his commission, on all orders for this 
 combination offer, sending us $1.45. A first-class chance to make 
 money. 
 
 SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY, 
 
 SCRANTON, F>A. 
 18 
 
Our Students Succeed. 
 
 >-^- 
 
 THOUSANDS of students of The 
 International Correspondence 
 Schools, Seranton, Pa , are receiv- 
 ing higher wages for fewer hours' 
 work than when they enrolled. The 
 courses in Steam Engineering are 
 intended especially for Engineers 
 and Firemen who desire to qualify 
 for advanced positions. 
 
 Circulars and local ♦ <■ 
 References free. 
 
 <r <£♦ 
 
 TZHZIE 
 
 International Correspondence Schools, 
 
 SCRANTON, F»A, 
 
 19 
 
ONE CANNOT 
 
 keep pace with the advantages of his 
 profession unless he reads — reads — 
 reads. Some of the technical press, pub- 
 lish articles that are so full of math- 
 ematical demonstrations, that very 
 few receive any knowledge what- 
 ever. The "Engineers' List" pub- 
 lishes only such matter as will in- 
 terest the actual operating Engineer. 
 84 pages, well illustrated. Issued 
 monthly for One Dollar a year. 
 
 Sample copies sent on application 
 
 We also have a complete line of 
 Engineering books. 
 
 If you want a paper that will 
 thoroughly interest you subscribe for 
 the "Engineers' List." 
 
 Address all communications to 
 
 ENGINEERS' LIST, 
 
 471 FOURTH AYE., 
 
 NEW YORK CITY. 
 
 20 
 
IT HAS always been our policy to LET OUR 
 LIGHT SHINE so that ENGINEERS, 
 STEAM and ELECTRIC USERS of the 
 WORLD might know that we make a SPMC- 
 IALTY OF CATERING to their wants. 
 
 We carry a FULL LINE OF ELECTRIC- 
 AL SUPPLIES. 
 
 We CONSTRUCT HEATING AND POW- 
 ER PLANTS, and ALWAYS CARRY 
 goods of the latest and best manufacture for STEAM, 
 GAS, WATER and ELECTRIC PLANTS. 
 
 Send for Catalogue. 
 
 GEORGE I. ROBERTS & BROS. 
 
 IN CORPORATED, 
 
 471 & 473 Fourth Ave., Netv York City. 
 
 21 
 
Engineers in 
 Wood-working 
 Establishments and 
 Saw Mills 
 
 Will find in the M ENGINE ROOM " Department 
 
 OF 
 
 the Wood-Worker 
 
 Much that will interest them. MR. W. H. WAKEMAN, author of 
 this volume, is a regular contributor to this department. 
 
 THK WOODAYORKER is published monthly, at 
 $1.00 a year. Samples are free on application to 
 
 S. H. SMITH, Publisher, 
 
 INDIANAPOLIS, IND. 
 22 
 
Rockland, Me. 
 Cling-Surface Mfg. Co., Boston Branch. 
 
 Gentlemen : — Enclosed find photo, of two of my 16 in. belts which have been 
 treated with Cling-Surf ace for some time but are in such fine shape that they have 
 needed no application for the past two months. 
 
 They run 3D in. slack and ail the time as here shown. The load sometimes jumps 
 from zero to full load but there is no slip. If their work were different I could run 
 them much slacker L. C. JACKSON, Ch. Engr., 
 
 Rockland, Thomaston & Camden St. Ry. 
 
 THESE BELTS ARE FULL OF CLING=SURFACE. 
 
 They are merely examples of what Cling-Surface can do, as is the letter (to us) of 
 Mr. W. H Wakeman, the very well informed author of this book : " An old belt so 
 thoroughly soaked with oil that it was useless, after being washed with benzine, was 
 treated with the Cling-Surface and in a short time it was doing good work. 
 
 More than two months ago I put on a new belt and it has been treated with 
 Cling-Surface exclusively. As it has not been taken up it is quite slack on account 
 of its stretching as was expected, but the Cling-Surface prevents it from slipping 
 although the belt is short with the working side on top, which I consider to be un- 
 favorable conditions." 
 
 Cling-Surface permanently stops all belt slipping and yet preserves the belt. Be- 
 cause they will not slip they can be run easy or slack with all the advantages which 
 this gives. And power will be much increased. 
 
 Order. Test it in vour belts. Pav us onlv if results are as we sav. 
 
 CLING-SURFACE MFG. CO., 
 
 140-14~> Virginia St., Buffalo, X F, 
 
 Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Chicago, St. Louis and New Orleans. 
 
Modern Machinery. 
 
 A Monthly Mechanical Magazine Devoted to the 
 Latest Advancement in 
 
 Machinery and Machine Tools, 
 Shop Equipments, 
 Power Transmission, 
 Steam and Gas Engines, 
 Electrical Inventions, 
 
 Mining and Metallurgy. 
 
 Practical Hints on Steam Engine Practice comprise a 
 valuable feature of each issue. 
 
 " IMPROVEMENTS IN STEAM ENGINES," 
 
 Is the subject of a Series of Articles by W. H. Wakeman, 
 which will extend through the year 1901. 
 
 SXJBSOBIPTIOIT: 
 $1.00 PER YEAR IN ADVANCE 
 
 218 La Salle Street, Chicago. 
 
 24 
 
PUTNAM AUTOMATIC CUT-OFF STEAM ENGINE 
 
 FITTED WITH THE 
 
 NEW PUTNAM FLY-BALL GOVERNOR, 
 
 With Link Attachment. 
 
 PERFECTION of 
 
 Steam Engine Catalogue and Full Information on Application. 
 
 PUTNAM MACHINE CO., FITCHBURG, MASS., U. S. A. 
 
 Long Distance Telephone 353-2. 
 25 
 
THE ENGINEER 
 
 Published Twice a Month, Cleveland, 
 
 i.oo a Year. 
 
 i immt » 
 
 Devoted to Power Plant Engineering, 
 Mechanical and Electrical. 
 
 A Journal of Practice for Chief Engineers 
 and Superintendents. 
 
 ■ <^> » 
 
 Sample copies sent from 
 
 The Engineer Publishing Co., 
 
 BLACKSTONE BUILDING, - - CLEVELAND. 
 
 26 
 
A 
 
 Few 
 
 Of 
 
 POWELL'S 
 
 STEAM 
 
 SPECIALTIES, 
 
 POWELL'S 
 
 Class " A " 
 
 SIGHT FEED 
 
 Lubricator, 
 
 for steam engines of all grades. In use on 
 engines throughout the world. Try one when 
 next in need. The Filler costs extra, but 
 what a labor and profanity saver. 
 
 Re=grinding Star Valves best for controlling 
 steam and other fluids. Used wherever the 
 initial cost is not the only consideration. 
 Wearing qualities and re-grinding principle 
 insure a long service, thus saving money. 
 
 SIGNAL OILER. 
 
 Lever Up, oil dropping. 
 Lever Down, oil shut off. 
 Operation of lever doesn't 
 interfere with adjustment. 
 A great oil saver. 
 
 Signm. 44 Oiler 
 
 OUR POCKET CATALOGUE 
 Should be in the pocket of all engineers. A 
 most complete reference. Its yours for the 
 asking. Send for copy to-day. 
 
 The WM. POWELL CO., 
 
 CINCINNATI, OHIO. 
 
 27 
 
VACUUM OILS. 
 
 A EE MADE to fit every condition. They lubricated 
 ^ *• the Electric Light Plant in Pekin, and lubricated 
 boats that brought the Allies. Besieger and besieged used 
 them in South Africa. Ninety per cent, of the machinery 
 at Paris turned on Vacuum Oils. In peace or war, all the 
 same, they lubricate most on every kind of machinery ; 
 not the same oil for all machines, but the right oil for 
 each class. They do their work better and cheaper than 
 all others ; that is why they are used in every corner of 
 the world where machinery runs. 
 
 VACUUM OILS are made only at our own works 
 at Rochester and Olean, N. Y. Abroad they are distrib- 
 uted from one hundred and thirty-three warehouses, and 
 at home are sold in every city. 
 
 VACUUM OIL COMPANY 
 
 ROCHESTER, W. Y. 
 
 28 
 
The Oil Filter 
 of To-day. 
 
 An Oil Filter that, meets every requirement 
 of the practical up-to-date plant. 
 
 CROSS OIL FILTERS 
 
 Are the best, most durable, most practical, 
 most economical Oil Filter on the market. 
 
 Send for catalogue. 
 
 THE BURT MFC. CO., 
 
 Akron, Ohio, U. S. A. 
 
 Largest Mfrs. of Oil Filters in the World. 
 
 Not Theoretical 
 But Practical. 
 
 Not built to compete with others 
 
 THE BURT EXHAUST HEAD 
 
 Is in a class by itself. Condenses 
 more steam, saves more time, trouble 
 and mone} r than any other. 
 
 Send for catalogue. 
 
 THE BURT MFG. CO., 
 
 Akron, Ohio, U. S. A. 
 
 Largest Mfrs. of Oil Filters in the World. 
 
 
 l l Cline M>y 
 
 29 
 
Modern Examinations 
 
 OF" 
 
 STEAM ENGINEERS, 
 
 Or Practical Theory Explained and Illustrated. 
 
 mm 
 
 By W. H. WAKEMAN. 
 
 Size 6x8 Inches. 272 Pages. Handsomely Bound in Cloth. 
 
 This book was written for engineers, firemen and others who are 
 preparing to take an examination for a license wherever one is re- 
 quired, and to enable them to do better work wherever a steam engine 
 is found. It gives in a plain, practical way the information required 
 for this purpose. 
 
 It is divided into fifty-three chapters, which treat of the various 
 parts of the steam plant, from a practical standpoint. Beginning with 
 the steam engine, there are twelve chapters treating of the valves and 
 other parts This part of the boo*: contains numerous numerical 
 examples of the calculations for the various parts, which puts the sub- 
 ject before the reader in a manner that is easily understood. 
 
 Under the subject of boilers, the matter will be found of special 
 interest, as numerous examples are fully worked out and explained. 
 After covering the subjects of piping, exhaust steam heating, strength 
 of materials and other allied subjects, 300 examination questions are 
 given, with an index which shows where the answers can be found. 
 
 ENGINEERING PRACTICE AND THEORY 
 
 is not a duplicate of the above described work, therefore both books 
 should be in the possession of everybody interested in steam engineer- 
 ing, as they contain 500 examination questions, which are fully 
 answered. Modern Examinations of Steam Engineers, will be 
 sent to any address on receipt of $2.00. 
 Direct orders to the author, 
 
 W. H. WAKEMAN, 
 04 Henry Street, NEW HAVEN, CONN. 
 
Stop Wasting Fuel!! 
 
 And utilize the waste heat going up your chimney 
 SAVING 10 TO 20 PER CENT. 
 
 This should be worth consideration by any engineer, and 
 the only practical way to do it is by using 
 
 GREEN'S fuel 
 ECONOMIZER, 
 
 Which is to the boiler what the fly wheel is to the engine 
 or the storage battery to the generator — uniformity of 
 operation being a great factor of economy — purer feed 
 water — saving of boiler repairs — more steam and less 
 coal and ashes to handle — general satisfaction all 
 around in the boiler room — can be applied to any type of 
 boiler without stoppage of works — used successfully with 
 natural, forced and induced draft — over 30,000,000 H. P. 
 in use. 
 
 THE GREEN FUEL ECONOMIZER CO. 
 
 MATTEAWAN, IN. Y. 
 Write for Booklet. 
 
 31 
 
PRACTICAL 
 
 Guide for Firemen, 
 
 CONTAINING 
 
 Instructions and Suggestions for the Care and Management 
 of Steam Boilers, Pumps, Injectors, Etc. 
 
 By W. H. WAKEMAN. 
 
 65 Pages, 4 x 6^ inches. 14 Illustrations. Bound in Cloth. 
 
 This book is an elementary treatise, and is intended to give the 
 duties of a fireman, or one in charge of a small steam plant, in as sirn- 
 pie and concise a manner as possible, and to furnish information that 
 will enable him to operate such a plant successfully and economically. 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 I. Introduction. 
 
 II. First duties in the morning. 
 
 III. Carrying fires and removing ashes. 
 
 IV. Steam pressure and water level. 
 V. Boiler feeders. 
 
 VI. Receivers and return traps. 
 
 VII. Caring for water and steam gages. 
 
 VIII. Leaving the boiler at night. 
 
 IX. Incrustation and scale. 
 
 X. Accidents. 
 
 XL Preparing for inspection. 
 
 XII. Boiler inspection. 
 
 XIII. Suggestions. 
 
 XIV. The prevention of smoke. 
 
 Sent to any address on receipt of 50 cents. 
 
 Direct orders to the author, 
 
 W. H. WAKEMAN, 
 
 €4 Henry Street, NEW HAVEN, CONN* 
 
INDICATORS 
 
 1 
 
 BACHELDER, EXCELSIOR, "I. H." THOMPSON. 
 
 PLANIMETERS, 
 
 REDUCING WHEELS, 
 
 Ideal and Peerless, 
 
 Polar, Lippincott. 
 
 OIL FILTERS, 
 
 SEPARATORS, 
 
 OIL EXTRACTORS, 
 
 GRATE BARS, 
 
 DAMPER REGULATORS, 
 '< SOOT-SUCKER" TUBE CLEANERS, TUBE BLOWERS. 
 
 "BEE 
 
 99 BRAND PACKING, GUM CORE, SQ. 
 FLAX AND RING. 
 
 Send for Catalogue. 
 
 JOHN S. BUSHNELL CO., 
 
 120 LIBERTY ST., N. T. 
 
 33 
 
BOOKS 
 
 IFOR ENGINEERS, FIREMEN ^NID 
 STEAM USERS. 
 
 THE STEAM ENGINE INDICATOR AND ITS APPLIANCES. 
 
 Being a comprehensive treatise for the use of Constructing, Erecting and Oporat. 
 ing Engineers, Superintendent-. Master Mechanics, Students, etc., describing in a 
 clear and concise manner the Practical Application and Use of the Steam Engine In- 
 dicator, with many Illustrations. Rules, Tables and Examples for obtaining th< 
 results in the Economical Operation of all classes ot Steam. Gas and Ammonia En- 
 gines, together with original and Correct information on the Adjustment of Valves 
 and Valve Motion, Computing Horse Power of Diagrams, and extended instructions 
 for Attaching the Indicator. Its Correct Use, Management and Care, derived from 
 the author's practical and professional experience, extending over many years, in the 
 Construction and Use of the Steam Engine Indicator, by Wm. Houghtaling. 300 
 pages. Nearly 150 Engravings. 20 full page tables. Handsomely bound in silk 
 cloth, Price $2.00. 
 
 HANDBOOK OF CORLISS STEAM ENGINES. 
 
 By F. W. Shillitto. Jr., describing in a comprehensive manner the erection of 
 Steam Engines, the adjustment of Corliss Valve Gear and the care and management 
 of Corliss Steam Engines ; with full page illustrations and complete descriptions of 
 the leading Corliss Engines. Illustrated by 64 original engravings, 2-24 page?, hand- 
 somely bound in green silk cloth, Price $1.00, 
 
 THE DESTRUCTION OF STEAM BOILERS. 
 
 Being a Practical treatise on the Destruction of Steam Boilers from the effects of 
 Incrustation and Corrosion, with Simple Methods for Preventing the same, etc. By 
 W. H. Wakeman. Pamphlet 6 in. by 9 in., illustrated. Price 25 cents. 
 
 REFRIGERATION AND ICE MAZING AND REFRIGERATING 
 
 MACHINERY. 
 
 Being a Practical Treatise on the Construction, Operation and the Care and Man- 
 agement of Refrigerating Machinery. By \V. H. Wakeman. Pamphlet 6x9 inches, 
 fully illustrated. Numerous valuable tables, etc. Price 25 cents. 
 
 STEAM BOILER CARE AND MANAGEMENT. 
 
 By Frederick Keppv. M. E Beinsz useful, common sense information on the 
 practical and safe operation of Steam Boilers on Land and Sea. Intended for th< 
 of Engineers. Firemen and Steam users. Illustrated by 41 engravings, BO pi 
 6x9 inches. Price 25 cents. 
 
 The above or any of our books sent by mail, at the publication price, free of postage, 
 
 to anv address in the world. 
 
 THE AMERICAN INDUSTRIAL PUBLISHING CO., 
 
 Publishers, Booksellers and Importers. 
 BRIDGEPORT, CONN., - - - U. S. A. 
 
 34 
 
The BRAINERD STEAM TRAP. 
 
 Patented in United States and Foreign Countries. 
 A simple and absolutely reliable Machine. 
 Compare the capacity of the BRAINERD STEAM TRAP 
 with many of other make. 
 
 We guarantee to discharge condensation as fast as received into Trap. We guar- 
 antee the Trap valves on our different size Traps to be equal to the areas of the inlet 
 and outlet standard pipe sizes. We guarantee to elevate water from 10 to 200 feet 
 above level of Trap. We guarantee our Copper Floats to withstand 300 pounds 
 steam pressure per square inch. Our valve gear is made of special phosphor Bronze 
 Metal. Our Traps fitted with by-pass strainer and mud drain, and we claim for 
 this Trap to discharge from 90 to 500 per cent, more water than any other float-trap 
 on the market— based on its discharge — the cheapest Trap built in this country. To 
 responsible parties Traps sent out on 30 days trial. We renew the valve gear at 
 cost when worn out. Here is the guaranteed capacity of these Traps under 110 
 pounds steam presssure. One-half inch, 1,080 gallons per hour; three-quarter inch, 
 2,680 gallons per hour; one inch 3,840 gallons per hour; one and one-half inch, 
 7,790 gallons per hour. In use by the War Department shore service. U. S. Govern- 
 ment war ship equipment, bleacheries, power houses, sugar refineries, breweries, 
 and in foreign service. Write to us for circulars, references, prices and discounts. 
 Your favors will receive our prompt attention. 
 
 BRAINERD STEAM TRAP CO., 
 
 12 HOWES ST., 
 
 Boston, Mass. 
 
 35 
 
Sellers' Restarting Injector. 
 
 IS RECOMMENDED to users who desire a strictly 
 first-class machine at moderate cost. It is per- 
 fectly automatic, has wide range of capacities and 
 raises water promptly with hot or cold pipes. Ex- 
 tremely simple, has few parts and easily repaired. 
 All parts interchangeable and made of best bronze 
 which insures good wearing qualities. The workman- 
 ship is perfect. The overflow valve is on combining 
 and delivery tube which leaves overflow open so that 
 a leaky valve in steam pipe will not over-heat water 
 in feed pipe when Injector is shut off. Send us a 
 postal, and let us mail you a Bpecial catalogue de- 
 scribing this Injector. 
 
 JENKINS BROS,, New York, Philadelphia, Chicago, Boston 
 
 36 
 
Mar- 12 19OI 
 
\