Orchard and Garden 
 
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Dear apple lands, where soft 'wnds bring 
 The first sweet fragrance of the Spring 
 And o'er the warm ground softly fling 
 
 The petals snow. 
 Thou art a garden fairly dressed, 
 Where song birds live and love and nest, 
 And children come to play— «r rest, 
 
 When breezes blow. 
 
 
Orchard and Garden 
 
 A Guide Book for Beginners 
 
 BENJAMIN WALLACE DOUGLASS 
 
 1918 
 
 Federal Publishing Company 
 
 Indianapolis 
 
-^ 
 
 M 
 
 APR 19 1918 
 
 ©CI.A494659 
 
 ^. <P I 
 
The writer desires to acknowledge the use of a number 
 of photographs of school gardens furnished by Miss Rousseau 
 McClellan, Director of Gardening in the Indianapohs Schools. 
 Mr. C. B. Durham, Landscape Architect of Indianapolis, also 
 furnished several pictuj-es showing the use of shrubs around 
 the home. 
 
 Copyright 1918, 
 Fkderal Publishing Company 
 
Introduction 
 
 For a good many years, as State Entomologist of Indiana, 
 I )3reached the doctrine of better fruits and better gardens 
 and better farm crops. During the past six years I have been 
 taking my own medicine — practicing what 1 had formerly 
 preached. It has been a satisfaction to know that in most 
 cases at least I "had the right dope" and in the places where 
 theory did not accord with practice it has been a joy to work 
 out new methods that would fit the case. 
 
 It is not claimed that the subject matter of this book is 
 entirely new. Very few books are really new— they only state 
 in new terms things that we have known before. However, 
 what new material is presented is such that has been thor- 
 oughly worked out in actual practice and tested during a 
 period of several seasons. 
 
 It is hoped that this book may prove a safe guide to the 
 beginner and an inspiration to support him during the dark 
 hours of doubt that come to all beginners in any field. 
 
 Owing to the scope of the subject treated and the limits 
 of space, it has not been possible to digress very much from 
 the main topics to dwell on the charms of life in the country 
 and on the fascination of growing things. Farming, in^ any 
 form, whether on a thousand-acre i-anch or in a city back 
 yard,' is a creative industry and all creative industries are 
 inevitably interesting. The man who paints a picture, or 
 writes a poem, or grows a prize box of apples, or is the father 
 of a fine baby, is each interested in his respective creation — 
 vitally interested. The man who is selling city lots or auto- 
 mobiles or shoes, or is practicing law, or teaching school, is 
 doing his useful work in the world, but at no time can he 
 be as interested in his calling as is the man who is actually 
 creatino- soniething new. The man who can make two blades 
 
Introduction 
 
 of grass grow where only one grew before is a wizard, but 
 not nearly so much of a wizard as he who makes one blade 
 grow where before there had been none. In this country we 
 need both kinds. We already have some grass growing, — 
 considerable in fact, — but we need more, and there are two 
 ways to secure it. One is by doubling the present production, 
 or at least increasing it (we can not all be wizards), and the 
 other is by developing the waste places. 
 
 We have too much waste land, too many fence corners 
 and abandoned farms and neglected pastures and half cleared 
 timber tracts. We must learn to make use of the soil in its 
 entirety and we must learn to use the same soil over and over 
 again without appreciable loss of its fertility. We have been 
 doing with our farms too much as the greenhouse man 
 does with his benches — using one lot of soil for a limited time 
 and then abandoning it and taking a fresh supply. We have 
 moved west year by year to virgin soil and left behind us a 
 trail of abused land. All of the land must be used and used 
 intelligently — farmed, not mined of its fertility and cast aside. 
 
 These conditions are certain to come about in America. 
 All of the land is going to be used to the best advantage. There 
 is no question about it except the question of time. There is 
 another question, however, that is not so settled and that is 
 the question of who is to use this land. Will it be intelligent 
 Americans, with insight enough to know that tilling the soil 
 in one form or another constitutes one of the best "jobs" that 
 an American can have, or will it be ignorant foreign laborers ? 
 Will Americans choose to become in fact a ''nation of shop- 
 keepers" or will they truly inherit the earth? American agri- 
 culture should be built up by and for Americans. Our fore- 
 fathers in this country were an agricultural race and the na- 
 tional stamina that we have today is distinctly traceable to 
 that old stock that developed its power by living close to the 
 earth and breathing the clean air of Heaven. 
 
 Recent generations have shown a tendency to migrate to 
 the centers of population. Farm boys have become lawyers 
 and doctors and "captains of industry" and too often the 
 father of the boys has followed them to the bright lights and 
 
Introduction 
 
 rented the farm to anyone who would pay him a grain rental. 
 The fathei' and the boys had been on such intimate terms with 
 the real things that count in life that they had become callous 
 to them just as the city man becomes callous to the smoke in 
 the air and the pasty black muck on the pavements. They 
 rented tlie fai'm on the basis of what it would produce in grain 
 and ovei'looked all of the life-giving elements that were free 
 for the taking. 
 
 On the other hand, we are beginning to see doctors and 
 lawyers and even "captains of industry" returning to the 
 land and, without exception, — and this is the encouraging 
 part, — these city men invariably go to the country and remain 
 there with far more enthusiasm than the farm folk exhibit 
 when they move to town. The country, the open air, the hills, 
 the sky and the smell of fresh turned earth, these are the real 
 spice of life that make it worth the living. 
 
 You may ask if the country will afford the bread and 
 meat of existence as well as the spice. That is a question that 
 only the questioner can answer. Some people fail at every- 
 thing, but the man who could make a success in the city can 
 usuall}^ do the same in the country. There are exceptions of 
 course. Some men would go mad in the country from the lack 
 of noise — though the probabilities are they are already mad 
 but no one has discovered it as yet. Some men have so com- 
 pletely sold their birthright that all they can see is their 
 mess of pottage and their understanding fails to grasp the 
 essential joys of country living. 
 
 For six years now, I have lived in the country. I have 
 often wished that more of my friends lived near me, but never 
 have I regretted that I had put the city behind me, as I hope, 
 for the rest of my days. As for my friends, I know too well 
 that they are inoculated with the idea of country life and 
 only bide their time. So it is the hope that this book may 
 serve to pass the inoculation along, as well as make it easier 
 for those who already have the habit. 
 
 Benjamin Wallace Douglass, 
 
 Hickory Hill, Trevlac, Indiana. 
 
 December 17, 1917. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 PART I— THE ORCHARD. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 PLANNING THE ORCHARD. 
 
 Location — Roads — Relative position on the farm — High 
 ground — Character of soil — Direction of slope — Water 
 supply — Laying out the orchard — Fillers — Planting 
 distances — Varieties — Pear planting — Plums — Cherries 
 — Grapes — Strawberries — Raspberries — Currants — 
 Gooseberries 1 
 
 CHAPTER n. 
 
 PROPAGATING FRUIT PLANTS. 
 
 Seedlings — Cross-fertilization — Horticultural varieties — 
 Grafting — Root grafts — Top grafting — Budding — Cut- 
 tings — Layering — Pedigreed trees 15 
 
 CHAPTER m. 
 
 SOILS AND SOIL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 Drainage — Depth of soil — Orchard soils — Renewed fertility — 
 Fertilizers — Cultivation — Dust mulch — Cover crops. 
 25 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 PLANTING TPIE ORCHARD. 
 
 Soil preparation — Selecting trees — Age of trees to plant — 
 Staking the orchard — Dynamite — Inspecting trees — 
 Planting 37 
 
Orchard and Garden 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 pruning. 
 
 Need for pruning- — Time to prune — Stubs — Painting wounds 
 — Apple pruning — Pruning old trees — Pruning peaches 
 — Plums and cherries — Pears — Grapes 45 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 INJURIOUS INSECTS. 
 
 Sucking and chewing insects — Codling moth — Lesser apple 
 worm — Plum curculio — Peach borer — Apple borers — 
 Currant worm — Grape moth — Canker worms — Bud 
 moth — Yellow-necked caterpillar — Tent caterpillar — 
 Pear slug — Bark beetle — Flea beetles — White grubs — 
 Scale insects — San Jose scale — Scurfy scale — Oyster 
 shell scale — Apple aphis — Peach aphis — Phylloxera — 
 Leaf hoppers 59 
 
 CHAPTER Vn. 
 
 PLANT DISEASES. 
 
 Causes of disease — Bacteria and fungi — Apple scab — Bitter 
 rot — Black rot — Blotch — Blight — Sun scald — Illinois 
 canker — Crown gall — Peach scab — Brown rot — ^Leaf 
 curl — Peach yellows — Black knot — Leaf spot — Grape 
 diseases 81 
 
 CHAPTER VHL 
 
 SPRAYING 
 
 Need for spraying — Spray materials — Contact insecticides — 
 Lime sulphur — Tobacco — Oil emulsions — Internal poi- 
 sons — Arsenate of lead — Paris green — Fungicides — 
 Stock solutions — Bordeaux mixture — Self-boiled lime 
 sulphur — Dusting — Spray machinery — Nozzles — Power 
 sprayers Winter sprays — Summer sprays 99 
 
Contents 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 SMALL FRUITS. 
 
 Soils— Soil preparation— Time to plant— Strawberries- 
 Raspberries — Pruning: — Blackberries — Currants — 
 Gooseberries — Novelties 119 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 HARVESTING. 
 
 Picking — Time to pick — Picking peaches — Pears— Plums — 
 Cherries — Grapes — Small fruits— Packing sheds — Ap- 
 ple packages— Box packing— Barrel packing— Peach 
 packages— Plums— Grapes — Small fruits 131 
 
 CHAPTER XL 
 
 MARKETING. 
 
 Uncertainty of conditions — I\Iethods of marketing — Parcels 
 post — Commission men — Association selling — Soft 
 fruits — Apples 14''' 
 
 PART II— GARDENING. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 PLANNING THE GARDEN. 
 
 The family garden — Foreign gardens — Vacant lot gardens — 
 Farm gardens — Soils — Location — Arrangement — 
 Manure — Double crops — Fencing 155 
 
 CHAPTER IT. 
 
 SEED SELECTION. 
 
 Flower parts — New varieties— Saving seed — Buying seed — 
 Testing seed 1^^ 
 
Orchard and Garden 
 
 CHAPTBIR III. 
 
 spring vegetables. 
 
 Asparag-us — Beets — Corn salad — Lettuce — Onions — Parsley — 
 Parsnips — Peas — Spinach — Radish 171 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 SUMMER GARDEN. 
 
 Beans — Cabbage — Chinese cabbage — Cauliflower — Collards 
 — Corn — Cucumbers — Egg plant — Kale — Muskmelon — 
 New Zealand spinach — Okra — Peppers — Potatoes — 
 Squashes — Sweet potatoes — Turnips 181 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 SPECIAL CROPS FOR CANNING AND MARKET 
 
 Truck crops — Selling special crops — Soils — Canning crops — 
 Home hampers — Tomatoes — Growing plants — Trans- 
 planting — Setting- plants — Cultivating and fertilizing 
 — Peas — Sweet corn — Potatoes — Scab — Seed potatoes 
 Formalin treatment — Celery — Blanching 195 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 INDOOR GARDENING. 
 
 Greenhouse management — Forcing — Imitating out-door con- 
 ditions — Soil — Watering — Hot-beds — Cold frames — 
 House plants — Mushrooms 207 
 
 CHAPTER Vll. 
 
 GARDEN INSECTS. 
 
 Chewing insects — Sucking insects — Cabbage worm — Corn ear 
 worm — Stalk borer — Tomato worm — White grubs — 
 Cucumber beetle — Flea beetles — Potato beetle — Squash 
 bug — Harlequin bug — Plant lice — "Kaiser" bug 219 
 
Contents 
 CHAPTER VITI. 
 
 HOME STORAGE OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES. 
 
 General methods — Pits — Surface mounds — Cellar storage — 
 Temperature control — Concrete cellars — Screens — Ven- 
 tilators — Roof — Apples — Beets — Cabbage — Carrots 
 — Celery — Onions — Parsnips — Pears — Potatoes — 
 Sweet Potatoes — Turnips 229 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 THE BACK YARD GARDEN. 
 
 Present waste of good land — Patriotic gardens — The city gar- 
 den — Lettuce — Spinach — Asparagus — Chinese Cabbage 
 — The soil — Building up the soil — Its preparation for 
 seed — Fertilizers — Cultivation of the growing crops — 
 Vegetables for city cultivation — Asparagus — Beans — 
 Beets — Cabbage — Carrots — Corn — Cucumbers — Kale — 
 Lettuce — Onions — Parsnips — Peas — Potatoes — 
 Radishes — Spinach — Squash — Tomatoes — Turnips_241 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 AN ORCHARD AND GARDEN CALENDAR. 
 
 A few timely suggestions for work to be performed in the or- 
 chard and garden during each month of the year 257 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 THE VALUE OF A FLOWER GARDEN. 
 
 The ethical and economical value of flowers — America should 
 be a land of flowers — Cosmopolitan character of the 
 American flower garden — Planning the flower garden 
 — Lawns — Soil for the lawn — The seed — Clover — 
 Weeds — Vines — Large growing shrubs 281 
 
Orchard and Garden 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 annual flowers. 
 
 Hardy annuals — Tender annuals — Soil — A list of satisfactory 
 annuals — Acroclinium — Ageratum — Alyssum — An- 
 tirrhinium — Asters — Balsam — Calendula — Calliopsis 
 — Candytuft — Celosia — Centaurea — Cosmos — Eschs- 
 choltzia — Euphorbia — Four-o'clock — Globe Amaranth 
 — Helianthus — Helichrysum — Kochia — Larkspur — 
 Marigold — Mignonette — Pansy — Petunia — Phlox 
 Drummondii — Poppies — Portulaca — Rhodanthe — 
 Ricinus — Salvia — Scabiosa — Stocks — Verbena — 
 Xeranthemum — Zinnia — Vines — Balloon vine — Cobaea 
 — Dolichos — Echinocystis — Humulus — Ipomoea — 
 Nasturtium — Sweet peas 291 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 PERENNIALS. 
 
 Permanent perennials — Soil — Propagation — Vines — Achillea 
 — Anemone — Aquilegia — Asclepias — Aster — Campanu- 
 la — Chrysanthemum — Coreopsis — Delphiniums — Dode- 
 catheon — Hepatica — Hollyhocks — Iris — Linum — 
 Lobelia — Monarda — Pentstemon — Peonies — Phlox 
 — Physostegia — Rudbeckia — Tradescantia — Trillium 
 — Verbena — Yucca — Dutch bulbs — Narcissus — 
 Daffodils — Tulips — Perennial vines — Ampelopsis 
 — Celastrus — Clematis — Lathrus — Wisteria 305 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 SHRUBS. 
 
 Value of shrubs — Native shrubs — Soil — Planting — Shrubs of 
 known value — Amelanchier — Barberry — Calycanthus — 
 Cercis — Cornus — Corylus — Crataegus — Cydonia 
 
Contents 
 
 — Forsylhia — Hamamelis — Hydrangea — Lilac — 
 Philadelphus — Physocarpus — Rhododendron — Rose 
 — Location — Soil — Planting — Spirea — Symphori- 
 carpus — Viburnum — Weigela — Wi How 327 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 Grafting wax — Number of plants to acre — Amount of seed to 
 100 feet of row — Packing table for apples 351 
 
PART I 
 
 THE ORCHARD 
 
THE ORCHARD 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 Planning the Orchard. 
 
 Location. — The first thing to consider in planting an 
 orchard is the location. This subject must be studied from 
 several different standpoints. 
 
 An orchard must be located close enough to the market 
 that the fruit from the trees may be transported to the place 
 of sale without too much expense. It is useless to attempt to 
 grow fruit at such a distance from the market that the rail- 
 road charges will consume all possible profits. 
 
 Roads. — An orchard, then, should be located within rea- 
 sonable distance of city markets and it must be located in a 
 country where the roads leading to the railroad are suflnciently 
 good that they will insure cheap and easy hauling. Bad roads 
 are difficult for any kind of transportation and a load of fruit 
 may sometimes be decidedly damaged by long hauling over 
 them. 
 
 Relative position on farm. — The second point in regard 
 to the location of an orchard is the selection of the actual site 
 on the farm. Usually a spot can be found that is better suited 
 to the growing of fruit than any other place on the farm. If 
 the entire farm is located on high ground and in a climate 
 where fruit-growing has proved profitable, then the entire 
 farm might be converted into a commercial orchard. 
 
 In locating the position of the orchard the elements of 
 
2 Orchard and Garden 
 
 elevation, soil, slope, water supply and convenience to the home 
 buildings must be considered. 
 
 High ground. — No orchard should ever be planted on low 
 ground ; select the highest land that is available. The reason 
 for choosing this situation is that the high land is better pro- 
 tected from cold in winter and from frosts in spring. Cold 
 air is heavier than warm air and settles to the lowest level, 
 leaving the hill tops much warmer than the valleys. In gen- 
 eral it may be stated that the difference in temperature will 
 
 Tlie orchard road. 
 
 amount to one degree to every ten feet of elevation. This 
 variation applies, of course, only when there is no wind. On 
 windy nights the temperature will be about the same at the 
 top of a hill as at the bottom, because all the air is stirred up 
 and an even temperature results. Frost, therefore, seldom 
 occurs on windy nights. Frequently a very slight elevation 
 will make all the difference between a full crop of fruit and 
 none whatever. 
 
 The character of the soil must be considered before the 
 orchard is planted. Almost any soil will prove satisfactory 
 for fruit growing except rich black prairie soil and t'^e soil 
 
Planning the Orchard 3 
 
 of drained swamps. In general the richer the soil the slower 
 the trees will be in starting to bear fruit. All forms of sandy 
 soils are adapted to fruit growing and heavy clay loam soils 
 are excellent. Pure clay soils are usually deficient in humus, 
 that is, decayed vegetable matter, but this deficiency can be 
 supplied by growing and turning under such crops as rye, 
 oats, cowpeas, and clover. 
 
 The direction of the slope of a hill is of less importance in 
 the location of an orchard than has sometimes been supposed. 
 Formerly it was a common practice to plant orchards on north 
 slopes with the expectation that such a form of planting would 
 prevent the trees from starting into bloom quite so early in 
 the spring and thus save the fruit from injury by spring 
 frosts. It is doubtful if this theory will work out in actual 
 practice. On the other hand a south slope will receive more 
 sunlight and as a result the fruit will be better in color than 
 it will on north slopes. In most hilly sections it will be found 
 that the soil on the slopes toward the prevailing winds will be 
 much poorer in quality than that on opposite slopes. For 
 instance, if the prevailing winds are from the west, then the 
 best soil will be found on the east side of the hills. The reason 
 for this condition is that a large part of the fallen leaves are 
 carried by the winds over the crest of the hill and deposited 
 on the opposite slope where they decay and form part of the 
 soil. This process being carried on year after year ultimately 
 results in a very great improvement of one slope to the detri- 
 ment of the other. 
 
 The question of water supply must not be overlooked in 
 the location of the orchard. An abundance of water must be 
 available even in the summer months so as to provide an 
 ample supply for spraying purposes. 
 
 Neai' the house. — The orchard should be located as con- 
 veniently near the house as the other considerations will 
 allow. An orchard filled with ripe fruit is always a temptation 
 to the passerby ; and, since it is not intended to grow fruit 
 for the free use of the public, it is well to have trees so located 
 
4 Orchard and Garden 
 
 that they can be watched at all times. Convenience to the 
 house will also often mean convenience to the water supply 
 and also make it easier to gather the fruit. Incidentally, if the 
 orchard is located where it can be seen every day, it will be a 
 constant reminder that it should have its share of attention. 
 "Laying Out." — After deciding just where to plant the 
 orchard, the question of how to plant it arises. There have 
 been various methods of ''laying out" an orchard and of 
 
 •p P -p 
 
 Diagram showing planting' methods. P. Permanent trees. F. Filler trees. 
 
 these the commonest and perhaps the best is what is known 
 as the square system. In this system the trees are planted 
 equal distances apart and are located at the corners of an 
 imaginary square. This method may be modified by planting 
 a "filler" tree in the center of the square and sometimes this 
 plan is still further changed by planting additional fillers be- 
 
Planning the Orchard 
 
 tween the permanent trees and in line with them. The tri- 
 angular system differs from the square system in that the 
 trees are planted at the corners of an equal-sided triangle 
 
 
 A six-year-old "Winesap in Indiana. 
 
 instead of at the corners of a square. Thus the trees of the 
 second row in the orchard will not come in line with the trees 
 of the first row, but midway between them. This system is 
 suitable only for level ground. All other systems of orchard 
 
6 Orchard and Garden 
 
 planting are simply variations of these two methods. The 
 accompanying diagrams illustrate the two arrangements, 
 while their application will be taken up in the next chapter. 
 
 Varieties. — In planning the orchard we must give a great 
 deal of attention to the consideration of varieties. This is 
 a subject on which the individual grower must be guided 
 largely by the experience of other growers in his locality. If 
 certain fruits have been a success under neighboring condi- 
 tions, then it is a safe risk to plant those kinds unless it is 
 known that the varieties in question are no longer in demand 
 in the big markets. The Ben Davis apple can be grown suc- 
 cessfully over a la/-ge extent of territory, but it is no longer 
 planted to any degree, because growers have found that al- 
 though they can grow Ben Davis apples to perfection, they 
 can not sell that variety readily. 
 
 Fillers. — As a general rule, commercial fruit growers try 
 to plant only those fruits that can be grown with a minimum 
 amount of labor and that are at the same time of the highest 
 quality. Some high quality fruits have faults which unfit 
 them for the commercial grower ; but they may be included in 
 the list for the small home orchard, because such an orchard 
 is not designed primarily to be a source of profit. It has been 
 suggested that filler trees may be planted between the perma- 
 nent trees of an orchard. For this purpose it is essential to 
 select varieties which come into bearing at an early age. Fre- 
 quently summer apples are planted as fillers, because many 
 of them will bear fruit almost as early as peach trees. The 
 early apples are also valuable to the orchardist in that they 
 require less spraying and the crop is sold early enough in the 
 season that the money can be used to pay the expenses of the 
 main crop. Sometimes this consideration is of prime im- 
 portance to the planter. 
 
 Peach filler. — Peaches, plums and cherries have been used 
 as fillers, but their use is not to be encouraged unless the 
 grower has had considerable experience in the management of 
 orchards. There is always a tendency to let the filler trees 
 
Planning the Orchard 
 
 Stayman 
 
 (Stayman Winesap), the most promising' apple of tlie Winesap 
 family. 
 
8 Orchard and Garden 
 
 stand for "just one more season," and in this way they do con- 
 siderable damage to the permanent trees. 
 
 Planting distance. — The following table shows the proper 
 distances for planting the various fruit trees and small fruit 
 plants. 
 
 yoiiefij. Distance to Plant. 
 
 Apples 40 feet 
 
 Peaches 2(1 feet 
 
 Plums 20 feet 
 
 Clierries 20 to 30 feet 
 
 Pears 30 feet 
 
 Quiuces 15 feet 
 
 Grapes S to 10 feet 
 
 Currants 4 feet 
 
 Gooseberries 5 feet 
 
 Raspberries 3x6 feet 
 
 Blackberries 5x8 feet 
 
 Strawberries 4x4 feet or in rows four feet apart 
 
 Va7'ieties. — It is sometimes possible to make an orchard 
 pay its way by planting filler trees between the permanent 
 trees, and then interplanting with berries or other small 
 fruits between the filler trees. The following lists of varieties 
 indicate in a general way what varieties of large and small 
 fruits m.ay be expected to succeed in the zone for which they 
 are suggested. The north zone includes the New England 
 states, New York, and the northern part of Ohio, Indiana, 
 Illinois, Iowa, and Nebraska and the territory to the north of 
 these states. The central zone includes the territory between 
 the thirty-fifth and fortieth parallels of latitude, and the 
 south zone includes all the country to the south of the central 
 zone. The varieties listed are those that are considered suit- 
 able for commercial purposes. 
 
 The letter N, C and S after the name of a variety indi- 
 cates the zone for which it is suggested. Apples for the ex- 
 treme north are indicated by NN. 
 
Planning the Orchard 
 
10 
 
 Orchard and Garden 
 
 Xame. Zone. 
 
 Akin S. C. 
 
 Arkansas S. 
 
 Baldwin N. 
 
 Ksopus Spitzenberg N. 
 
 Faila water N. 
 
 Grimes S. C. 
 
 Hubbardston X. C. 
 
 Ingram S. 
 
 Jonathan C. 
 
 King David C. S. 
 
 Northern Spy N. 
 
 Northwestern (JreeninL' N. NN. 
 
 Khode Island (Jreening N. 
 
 Rome Beauty C. 
 
 Stark C. N. 
 
 Stavman S. C. N. 
 
 \anic. Zone. 
 King N. 
 
 Wagener N. 
 
 Willow Twig S. 
 
 Winesap S. C. 
 
 Yellow Newton N. 
 
 York Imperial S. C. 
 
 Benoni S. C. 
 
 Hibernal NN. 
 
 Delicious C. 
 
 Lowland Raspberry S. C. 
 
 Mcintosh N. NN, 
 
 Oldenburg S. C. N. 
 
 Patten Greening NN. 
 
 Red June S. C. 
 
 Wealthy C. N. NN. 
 
 Yellow Transparent S. C. N. 
 
 In general it is advisable to plant yellow peaches for 
 market. A few local markets will take white peaches, but, as 
 a rule, they are not in great demand regardless of quality. 
 
 Nuntc. 
 
 Flesh. 
 
 Zone 
 
 Alexander 
 
 ..White 
 
 
 s. 
 
 Arp 
 
 .-Yellow 
 
 S. 
 
 c. 
 
 Alton 
 
 -White 
 
 s. 
 
 c. 
 
 Belle of Georgia- 
 
 -.Yellow 
 
 s. 
 
 c. 
 
 Carman 
 
 . White 
 
 s 
 
 c 
 
 Champion 
 
 White 
 
 s. 
 
 c 
 
 Elbert a 
 
 -Yellow 
 
 s. c. 
 
 N. 
 
 Early Elberta 
 
 -A'ellow 
 
 s. c. 
 
 N. 
 
 Fitzgerald 
 
 -.Yellow 
 
 c. 
 
 N. 
 
 yunie. Flesh. 
 
 (ireensborough White 
 
 ,J. H. Hale Vellow 
 
 Health Cling White 
 
 Kalamazoo Yellow 
 
 Krununel Yellow 
 
 Ray White 
 
 Red Bird Cling White 
 
 Sol way Yellow 
 
 Snioek Yellow 
 
 S 
 
 Zone. 
 
 S. C. N. 
 
 C. N. 
 
 s. c. 
 
 C. N. 
 
 C. N. 
 
 s. c. 
 
 s. c. 
 
 C. N. 
 
 C. N. 
 
 Commercial pear planting is decidedly on the decrease on 
 account of the difficulty of controlling the pear blight. This 
 is a bacterial disease for which there is no known control. 
 At times new varieties of pears have been offered by nursery- 
 men who claimed that the new productions were "blight 
 proof." So far all these wonderful new productions have 
 failed to make good and the blight proof trees seem to die 
 just about as quickly as the old varieties. Many of the blight 
 
Planning the Orchard 
 
 11 
 
 proof varieties were so poor in quality that they were worth- 
 less as commercial fruit. A few pears might by planted for 
 home use, but the planter runs the risk of exerting himself 
 uselessly. The following sorts are recommended if the or- 
 chardist feels that he must have a few pears: Bartlett, Lin- 
 coln, Seckle, Duchess, Cornice, Sheldon, Kiefer. 
 
 Pbinis. — The following plum list is designed especially 
 for the districts east of the Rocky mountains. On the Pacific 
 
 coast there are cer- 
 tain places where it 
 is possible to grow 
 varieties that are 
 not suited lo East- 
 ern conditions. Plums 
 are among the most 
 variable of our fruits. 
 Some varieties have 
 come to us from 
 Europe and Western 
 Asia, many from 
 Japan and not a few 
 have been developed 
 from our native wild 
 plum. The common 
 blue Damson is said 
 to have come from the 
 old world city of 
 Damascus and its 
 present name is sup- 
 posed to have been 
 derived from the city 
 near which it was first 
 cultivated. Plums are 
 of the easiest culture 
 and will often grow 
 where no other fruit 
 
 Well-grown Burbank Plums. 
 
12 Orchard and Garden 
 
 would survive. There is probably no place in the United States 
 where some variety of plum could not be grown. The follow- 
 ing list includes only varieties known to succeed in commer- 
 cial orchards : 
 
 'Name. Zone. Name. Zone. 
 
 Abmulance S. C. X. DeSoto C. N. 
 
 America S. C. N. Lombard C. N. 
 
 Burbank S. C. N. Wild Goose S. C. N. 
 
 Damsou S. C. N. 
 
 Cherries. — There are two general classes of cherries, 
 known as sweet cherries and sour cherries. The sour cherry 
 will grow almost anywhere, but the sweet varieties are much 
 more difficult to produce to perfection. It is probable, how- 
 ever, that the sweet cherry will succeed in many more places 
 than is usually thought, because it has not been extensively 
 tested under modern methods of cultivation. 
 
 Sour Cherries — Early Richmond, Montmorency. These 
 two sorts are excellent wherever cherries are grown. 
 
 Sweet Cherries — Black Tartarian, Lambert, Royal Ann, 
 Schmidt, Governor Wood, Windsor. 
 
 Grapes are the poor man's fruit, because they v/111 grow 
 anywhere and with very little trouble. In some sections 
 commercial vineyards are planted. In the East tne com- 
 mercial varieties are limited to a very few sorts. Concord, 
 Campbell's Early, Catawba and Worden are among the best 
 sorts planted for market. In a few districts Delaware is 
 planted. It is a small but very fine red grape. The follow- 
 ing list includes varieties worthy of the home vineyard, al- 
 though some of them will not prove profitable. 
 
 Nit inc. Color. Zone. 
 
 Herbert Black C. S. 
 
 Diamoml Wbite C. 
 
 Niagara Wbite C. N. 
 
 Lady Washington Wbite C. S. 
 
 Brighton Red C. S. 
 
 Brilliant Red C. S. 
 
 Woodruff Red Red C. 
 
Planning the Orchard 
 
 13 
 
 Straivberrie.s. — It is impossible to give definite lists of 
 strawberries in a book of this sort for the reason that varie- 
 ties of this fruit do not give equal satisfaction in sections 
 often only slightly removed from one another. Then, too, 
 there is no other fruit in v^^hich kinds go out of fashion so 
 promptly and generally as in the cases of the luscious straw- 
 berry. New and excellent varieties are being introduced 
 
 A two-year-old vineyard. 
 
 every year and the student of fruit culture must study nurs- 
 ery catalogs and consult with his berry-growing neighbors 
 before he can decide what will probably succeed on his 
 ground. To give a list of sorts suitable for different places 
 would mean several different lists for nearly every state in 
 the Union. If there are no successful berry growers in your 
 section, it is advisable to plant a number of varieties and 
 watch their growth a year or two before trying this fruit on 
 a commercial scale. 
 
14 Orchard and Garden 
 
 Raspberries. — A list of a very few varieties will cover 
 all the commercial sorts of this fruit. The black varieties of 
 raspberries that are universally planted are the Cumber- 
 land and the Kansas. The Hoosier, a new kind, is attracting 
 much attention and may prove better than the two former. 
 The Cuthbert is the most widely planted of all the red ber- 
 ries and the Columbian and Haymaker are the best purple 
 sorts. White or yellow raspberries are seldom planted ex- 
 cept as novelties. The St. Regis, an ever-bearing red variety, 
 is proving to be an excellent sort. It bears all through the 
 summer and is a decided addition to our list of fruit. 
 
 The Blackberry will succeed over a wide range of terri- 
 tory. This popular bush fruit grows wild in many places and 
 in a few localities great quantities from this source are gath- 
 ered and shipped each year. Among the most popular cul- 
 tivated varieties are the following: Early Harvest, Eldorado, 
 Snyder, and Wilson. 
 
 The Currant will thrive on many soils, but will not endure 
 dry weather well. As far as climatic conditions are con- 
 cerned it will survive great extremes of temperature. The 
 sorts most widely planted are London Market, Perfection 
 and Wilder. The best black variety is probably Black Naples 
 and the best white sort is the White Grape. 
 
 Gooseberries. — The Houghton is probably the most 
 widely planted of any gooseberry, but there are some prom- 
 ising new sorts that will undoubtedly become prominent be- 
 fore long. The English varieties are quite subject to mildew 
 and are not regarded as profitable, although the fruit is 
 superior. 
 
CHAPTER IT. 
 Propagating Fruit Plants. 
 
 Seedlhigs. — All fruit plants produce seeds of some sort 
 and from these seeds new plants can be grown. These new 
 plants, however, are very seldom as good as the original 
 plant that first produced the seed. For instance, the seed 
 from a Grimes Golden apple will not be apt to produce fruit 
 that even remotely resembles the parent fruit. For this reason 
 fruit growers are forced to resort to artificial methods of per- 
 petuating their varieties. 
 
 There has been a tremendous amount of experimental 
 work done looking toward the production of new varieties 
 of all sorts of fruit. Some of this work has been productive 
 of results, but much of it has been in vain. Nature does not 
 seem to respond readily to attempts at improving on her 
 handiwork. She is slow in her methods, but ultimately sure. 
 Out in Iowa nature took things into her own hands and in an 
 old orchard produced a seedling tree that bore the first 
 "Delicious" apples. This apple, probably the best single 
 variety in existence, is a chance seedling. On the other hand, 
 in Indiana the State Horticultural Society tested more than 
 ten thousand carefully selected seedlings and out of the entire 
 lot did not secure more than half a dozen apples that seemed 
 worthy of further testing — none of them to compare with 
 the chance work in the old Iowa orchard. 
 
 Cross fertilization. — One reason that the seeds of a 
 fruit fail to produce similar fruit is that the seed has been 
 fertilized by pollen from some other variety and as the two 
 varieties mix they produce something that is entirely differ- 
 
 (2) 
 
16 Orchard and Garden 
 
 ent from either parent. This mixture of qualities might be 
 compared to the mixing of certain pigments, A yellow and a 
 blue paint when mixed will produce a green color. The green 
 does not in the least resemble either of the colors that were 
 used to produce it. Different kinds of blue or yellow will 
 produce different sorts of green and even the expert painter 
 must experiment with each particular batch of green in order 
 to match a previous shade. In the mixing of pollen the same 
 mixture will seldom occur twice and, therefore, it is rare that 
 any two seedlings will even remotely resemble each other. 
 
 Horticultural Varieties. — It must be remembered, too, 
 that all our fruits are very much improved over the wild 
 form. Our common varieties of cultivated fruit are what are 
 known as "horticultural" varieties ; that is, they are not true 
 varieties as found in a wild state, but they are kinds that 
 have been improved by much careful, patient work on the 
 part of plant breeders. 
 
 All these so-called horticultural varieties have a decided 
 tendency to revert to the original type from which they were 
 developed. Their development has been simply a matter of 
 selecting the best seedlings from time to time. The original 
 wild apples of Europe were carefully watched for genera- 
 tions, and whenever a better sort was found, that particular 
 sort was taken by the fruit grower and carefully tended. In 
 time perhaps it was found to have produced a new seedling 
 that was still better than its parent. In this way the develop- 
 ment of varieties has progressed for many years. Great ad- 
 vance has been made in America in the evolution of new 
 sorts of fruit during the past century. 
 
 American Grapes. — Many, if not most, of the grapes 
 grown in the eastern United States have been developed from 
 native vines that formerly grew in the American woods. The 
 widely planted Concord is simply a chance seedling of the 
 native wild Fox grape that still grows over New England 
 and westward to the Central states. 
 
 Since we know that these improved varieties do not 
 
Propagating Fruit Plants 
 
 17 
 
 reproduce themselves from seed, we are ready to consider the 
 methods that are employed in their propagation. 
 
 Grafting. — The chief means of growing fruit is per- 
 haps that of grafting. In this process a twig or scion of the 
 desired variety is inserted in a stock of some common sort 
 or into the root of a seedling. Accordingly grafts are spoken 
 of as root grafts or top grafts. 
 
 R<u)t graft. — The root graft is used mostly in propagat- 
 ing the apple and similar fruits. Top grafting is used in top 
 
 working orchard trees 
 to change the va- 
 riety and in a few 
 cases to improve the 
 tree qualities of a va- 
 riety. Some varieties 
 that are otherwise ex- 
 cellent have poor root 
 systems. This state- 
 ment is true particu- 
 larly of the Grimes. 
 In order to improve 
 the tree, it is custom- 
 ary to graft a Grimes 
 scion on a young tree 
 of some vigorous sort. 
 Various methods are 
 employed in making 
 grafts. The method 
 used in the prepara- 
 tion of root grafts for 
 
 Top grafting a young apple tree. nursery Stock is COm- 
 
 monly called whip grafting. A small, one-year-old apple 
 seedling is selected and the top is cut off with a smooth long 
 cut. This operation leaves the top of the root with a beveled 
 end about an inch or an inch and a quarter long. This bevel 
 is then split the long way of the root for a distance of about 
 three-quarters of an inch. A scion of the desired variety is 
 
18 
 
 Orchard and Garden 
 
 next selected and a piece of twig of last year's growth is cut 
 such length that not more than two buds are included. The 
 lower end of this scion is cut exactly as the root of the seed- 
 ling was cut. The two beveled and cleft pieces are then fitted 
 together and the union is tightly bound with a bit of waxed 
 yarn. This work can be done in a warm place just at the 
 close of winter and the prepared grafts packed in moist saw- 
 dust until the ground is in fit condition for planting. As 
 soon as the ground can be worked easily the grafted seedlings 
 are planted in rows about three or four feet apart and about 
 six to ten inches apart in the row. They should be planted 
 so deep that just one bud will be above the surface. Constant 
 cultivation throughout the summer is required in order to 
 insure a vigorous growth. 
 
 hh top g^'afting the process is similar ; but, since a young 
 scion is inserted in a much older stock, some preparation must 
 
 be made to prevent 
 the loss of moisture 
 through the large ex- 
 posed wound. In the 
 case of the root graft 
 the wound was cov- 
 ered with earth so 
 that very little mois- 
 ture was lost. 
 
 After selecting the 
 tree to be grafted, the 
 branches should be cut 
 back with a sharp saw 
 and only the stubs 
 left. If it is not de- 
 sired to insert grafts 
 in all the main 
 branches, part of them 
 can be left during the 
 first summer and re- 
 moved after the grafts 
 are well established. 
 
 Apple tree showing the growth from grafts in 
 one season. 
 
Propagating Fruit Plants 
 
 19 
 
 First split the stub of the branch with a sharp tool for a 
 distance of from an inch and a half to two inches. Then 
 select the scion and cut the lower end to a wedge shape about 
 an inch and a quarter in length. This wedge should be 
 
 slightly thicker at one side than 
 at the other, and at the base of the 
 thick side of the wedge should be 
 one of the three buds. Then pry 
 the split stub open far enough to 
 admit the wedge of the scion. In 
 inserting the scion be sure to place 
 it with the thick side of the wedge, 
 on which the bud is located, to the 
 outside of the stub. Also be sure 
 to see that the inner bark of the 
 stub and of the scion exactly co- 
 incide. It is from the line be- 
 tween the inner and outer bark 
 
 Li^gC- ^f'MS^"*''^ ^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^ growth starts, and 
 ««' *--x. ir^ i unless these lines are adjusted 
 
 exactly, the graft will make a poor 
 growth. 
 
 After the graft is finished the 
 stub of the tree should clamp it 
 tight enough to hold it firmly. It 
 is then ready to be waxed. This 
 operation is done by covering all the cut surfaces with graft- 
 ing wax, which should be applied evenly over the cut end of 
 the stub and extend down the split sides as far as the bark is 
 broken even slightly. The top end of the scion should also be 
 carefully waxed to prevent the loss of moisture from that 
 point. This precaution may seem trifling ; but, if one should 
 ever try to make a graft grow without this bit of w^axing, it 
 will soon be seen how very important it is to heed such ad- 
 
 
 A grafted apple tree one yea 
 after grafting (pruned). 
 
 Vice. 
 
 Budding is the term applied to a certain form of graft- 
 
20 
 
 Orchard and Garden 
 
 ing, because it involves the use of buds instead of the use of 
 scions. Budding is a very easy method of propagation and is 
 employed in relation with practically all fruits, including even 
 those that are more often grafted. Peaches and other stone 
 fruits are almost always budded. 
 
 Al)ple tree two years after grafting". 
 
 In nursery work it is customary to plant the seeds of 
 peaches in the fall of the year or very early in the spring. By 
 early summer the young seedling trees are large enough to 
 bud. The buds are secured from trees of known variety and 
 are cut in the form of "bud sticks," which are simply twigs 
 of the present season's growth from which the leaves have 
 been clipped. The buds are always located just above the 
 
Propagating Fruit Plants 
 
 21 
 
 base of the leaf and in the angle which the leaf makes with 
 the stem. In removing the leaves it is customary to leave a 
 short ])iece of the leaf stem by which to handle the bud more 
 conveniently. The bark on the seedling tree is split with a 
 sharp knife and laid open so that the clean white wood is 
 exposed. Then a bud is removed from the bud stick and in- 
 serted under the bark of the seedling. In this way the bark 
 surrounding the bud is brought in contact with the wood of 
 the seedling. The flaps of seedling bark are tightly bound 
 around the bud to hold it in close contact with the wood. 
 Aften ten days or two weeks the cords binding the bud are 
 cut, because, at that time, the bud and the wood should have 
 grown together and further use of the bindings might injure 
 the tree. In cutting the bud from the bud stick be careful 
 
 to remove the wood from the 
 bud. Sometimes in cutting the 
 buds the wood has a tendency 
 to adhere to the bark and in 
 such cases it is difficult to secure 
 good results. In moist weather the 
 buds will slip from the stick 
 easier than in prolonged dry 
 weather. 
 
 This bud will not grow during 
 the summer in which it is inserted. 
 Early the next spring the nursery- 
 man cuts off the old seedling top 
 at a point just above where the bud 
 was inserted. When the growth 
 does start it must start from the 
 single bud ; as a result, this bud 
 forms the young tree. 
 
 Budding is not so often prac- 
 ticed in top working trees, because 
 
 A four-year-old peach tree. ^t is difficult tO SeCUre gOOd re- 
 showing the growth which was a„lfo with thi<; nrarfirp pvpn nn 
 made from three buds inserted ^UUS Wliri LHlb prdCllCe even On 
 
 the year before. Lines indicate frpp« frniT nr fi\7P vpnvc nlrl 
 wliere buds were inserted. ireeS lOUl Or DVe yearS OIQ. 
 
22 
 
 Orchard and Garden 
 
 Cuttings. — Another method of propagation is by the use 
 of cuttings. The cuttings are simply twigs, usually of the 
 previous season's growth, and they are induced to grow by 
 planting them quite deep in the earth. Only one or two buds 
 should show above the surface. It is from these buds that 
 the new plant is formed, while the buds below the surface 
 provide points from which new roots develop. This method 
 
 is not usually employed by nurs- 
 erymen except in the case of 
 grapes, currants and gooseberries. 
 Other fruits do not form roots 
 readily from cuttings. 
 
 Layering. — Still another means 
 of increasing the numbers of a cer- 
 tain variety is by the practice of 
 layering. In this case a shoot or 
 branch of the plant desired is bent 
 down to the ground and a section 
 of the stem is covered with earth. 
 Under this mound of earth new 
 roots will form and ultimately the 
 bent stem may be severed from the 
 parent plant and the new indi- 
 vidual taken up and transplanted 
 elsewhere. This practice will work 
 nicely with grapes, and it is used 
 almost entirely in the propagation 
 of raspberries and strawberries. 
 In the case of strawberries, this 
 system is the natural one by which 
 means the plant is enabled to 
 Grape cuttings. Spread rapidly. The "runners" of 
 
 the berry plant are shoots which, on being brought in con- 
 tact with the soil, develop roots and start a new plant. 
 
 Dividing the roots of certain plants is another manner 
 of propagating, but it is not largely used in fruit growing, 
 because so few plants lend themselves to this method. 
 
Propagating Fruit Plants 23 
 
 Effect of Stuck on Scioyi. — It will be noticed in all 
 methods of propagating that the process is purely a vegeta- 
 tive one ; that is, the question of seed does not enter into 
 consideration at any point. When a scion is taken from a 
 certain apple tree and made to grow by being placed in the 
 root stock of some inferior seedling, that scion and the tree 
 which it may make are not altered in the least. If the scion 
 is taken from a Baldwin tree, the resulting tree is certain to 
 be a Baldwin and to produce fruit exactly like the parent 
 tree. Of course, it is assumed that the soil and climatic con- 
 ditions are the same in each case. But nothing has been done 
 to that scion to change its character in any way, and the 
 fruit is bound to be just as good, but no better, than that pro- 
 duced on the tree from which the scion was taken. 
 
 "Pedigreed" Trees. — These considerations are of inter- 
 est because there are always people who attempt to deceive 
 the public by offering what they are pleased to term "pedi- 
 greed" trees. A pedigree always implies two parents. In 
 fruit tree propagation no real parent exists. The business' of 
 propagating is a scheme of the horticulturist to induce the 
 tree to make a more extended vegetative growth. Under 
 such conditions any talk of possible pedigree is foolish. A 
 seedling apple might be said to have a pedigree, but it would 
 be of one generation only, with a mother of one sort and a 
 father of another, which would mean very little in horticul- 
 tural values. Under no condition could a budded or grafted 
 tree be said to have a pedigree. 
 
 Conclusive Proof. — The Purdue Agricultural Experiment 
 Station has recently published the results of many tests along 
 this line and all of their experiments tended to show that bud 
 variations in apple stock were very rare. The following ex- 
 tracts ai'e fi-om the report on this work, which was done by 
 Mr. Joe A. Burton : 
 
 "One of the first things undertaken in the experimental 
 orchard was to graft Yellow Transparent and Chenango on a 
 wild crab to observe the influence of the stock on the scion. 
 
-? 
 
 24 Orchard and Garden. 
 
 When these scions set fruit all the leaves were removed from 
 the graft and the apples were compelled to grow from sap 
 elaborated by the crab leaves. The fruits were perfect speci- 
 mens of Transparent and Chenango." 
 
 "As regards the variation in size and color of fruit, scions 
 v/ere grafted from Ram bo trees which grew very large and 
 fine fruit; and another lot from trees which grew small and 
 inferior fruit ; also scions from Ben Oavis, which grew highly 
 colored fruit and some from trees which grew poorly colored 
 fruit, were top-worked on the same tree. When brought to- 
 gether on the same tree, the fruit from scion wood from trees 
 producing large sized and highly colored specimens were indis- 
 tinguishable from the fruit borne on the scions which had been 
 taken from trees which grew small and poorly colored fruit. 
 This was repeated in practically the same manner with Ralls 
 with results verifying the above. 
 
 "These tests in the opinion of Mr. Burton would seem to 
 indicate that the observed variations between varieties is 
 probably due, in almost every case, to environment rather 
 than to bud variations." 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 Soils and Soil Management. 
 
 Drainage. — There is one quality that any soil must have 
 if it is to be used for the production of fruit. It must be well 
 drained. All varieties of fruit are injured if they are sub- 
 jected to the discomfort of "wet feet." If the natural sur- 
 face of the land is not such as will cause all surplus rain to 
 run off, then some provision must be made for drainage. A 
 very simple and cheap method of drainage is to plow the 
 
 A hillside orchard cultivated in strips. 
 
 land so that a "dead furrow" will come between the rows 
 of trees. This will form a shallow ditch which will carry off 
 much of the surplus water. This plan has some serious ob- 
 jections, but it has been successfully used by practical fruit 
 growers. 
 
 Tile drainage. — A better, but more costly, way to drain 
 is to install a tile system throughout the orchard. Tile 
 
26 Orchard and Garden 
 
 should be placed not less than thirty inches below tiie sur- 
 face and on some occasions deeper. It must be remembered 
 that the proper placing and laying of a drain is a matter 
 generally requiring expert attention. The planter would bet- 
 ter consult some local authority who not only knows the 
 character of the soil in question but who also has had ex- 
 perience in laying tile in that particular kind of soil. 
 
 Depth of soil. — The expression "depth of soil" is some- 
 times used in speaking of particular pieces of land. This 
 term usually means the depth of that portion of the soil 
 which is capable of growing crops. Often a soil may be 
 several feet deep before rock or gravel is encountered, but 
 more frequently only the few inches of top soil are fit for 
 agricultural purposes. The deeper soil can be made avail- 
 able by deep plowing or by the use of dynamite in some con- 
 ditions. A deep soil usually has more plant food in the form 
 of available chemicals, than a shallow soil. Deep soils also 
 act as sponges to take up and retain moisture during the 
 growing season. 
 
 Orchard soil. — As a rule the same high degree of fertil- 
 ity is not desired in orchard soils that is so important in 
 general farming soils. Fruit trees planted on such rich land 
 will make a rank growth, but will be slow in starting to bear 
 fruit. Such trees, too, are more liable to be injured by some 
 of the plant diseases than are trees that have made a more 
 normal growth. This statement is particularly true of the 
 blight of pear trees. 
 
 Orchards on poor land. — On the other hand, it would 
 be unprofitable to plant an orchard on the poorest land to be 
 found. Some ground is too barren for any agricultural use. 
 Extremes in both situations must be avoided. Many persons 
 do not stop to consider that a crop of fruit removes certain 
 chemical elements from the soil just as surely as a crop of 
 corn or wheat removes other elements. It has long been a 
 popular notion that orchards do not require fertilization, 
 and this idea seems to account in some measure for the many 
 
Soils and Soil Management 
 
 27 
 
 Jj;; cc 
 
28 
 
 Orchard and Garden 
 
 neglected and deserted old orchards to be found over the 
 country. The trees simply used up all available plant food, 
 and when the supply was exhausted, they naturally 
 failed to bear any more fruit. The chemical elements in most 
 soils are of two classes, that is, available (ready for use) and 
 unavailable materials. There is nearly always much more 
 unavailable matter than that which is ready for the plant to 
 use. 
 
 A covi r crop of rye in a young' orchard. 
 
 Reneived fertUitij. — By the action of roots, by the decay 
 of leaves, and by the action of frost and air, the unavailable 
 material is slowly made over into the other form which the 
 plants can take up and use. In the case of old orchards that 
 have ceased to be profitable, it is often surprising to find 
 them unexpectedly producing a fair crop. This apparent 
 exception means that while the old trees have been marking 
 time for a number of years, the available chemical elements 
 
Soils and Soil Management 29 
 
 in the soil have been accumulating until they reach a point 
 where they are able to force the trees to bear another crop 
 of fruit. 
 
 Fertilizers. — In modern practice the wise orchardist an- 
 ticipates this demand on the soil and provides his trees with 
 the chemical elements which they need before they begin to 
 slacken in the production of fruit. It is impossible to lay 
 down rules for the fertilization of orchards, because the 
 chemical needs of different soils will vary with the different 
 localities. In fact, different soils within the same orchard 
 will often have different fertilizer requirements. The best 
 way to determine what to use is to start an experimental 
 block of trees and use several different mixtures in order to 
 decide just which fertilizer provides most nourishment. 
 
 Barnyard manure. — As a rule, it is well to avoid the use 
 of barnyard manure, because in many instances it has seemed 
 to induce root trouble, A few good orchardists use it, how- 
 ever, and apparently have no annoyance. In any event, if 
 manure is used, it should never be applied close to the trees. 
 
 The three elements that are usually found in all com- 
 mercial fertilizers are potash, nitrogen and phosphorus. 
 
 Potash is mined in Germany in large quantities and 
 practically the world supply formerly came from that coun- 
 try. This element is also contained in unleached wood ashes. 
 In order to secure this element, orchardists have scattered 
 ashes over the surface of the ground for many years. Potash 
 is now obtained from sea weed and recent investigations indi- 
 cate that we have in our southwestern states deposits that 
 rival those of Germany. 
 
 Nitrogen is found in the soil in the form of nitrates, of 
 which there are several different kinds. The name itself 
 simply means that the nitrogen, which in its pure state is a 
 gas found in the atmosphere, is combined with some other 
 element. For instance, nitrate of soda is a chemical in which, 
 sodium, nitrogen and oxygen are combined in given propor- 
 tions. Although nitrogen is a common gas. and is to be found 
 
30 Orchard and Garden 
 
 everywhere in the air about us, it is of no value as a plant 
 food unless it is chemically combined with some other ele- 
 ment. Certain kinds of bacteria have the power to take the 
 atmospheric nitrogen and combine it with other elements, 
 thus making it available for the use of all plants. These par- 
 ticular bacteria are found growing on the roots of clover and 
 similar members of the bean family. Wherever they grow 
 on the clover roots they form small nodules or lumps. When 
 the clover plant dies or is plowed under, these nodules decay 
 and liberate a very considerable amount of nitrogen in the 
 form of nitrates. This method of securing nitrates in the 
 soil by the growing of clovers is an almost universal prac- 
 tice in general agriculture. It is by far the cheapest means 
 of supplying nitrogen to the soil. 
 
 Phosphorus as an element of commercial fertilizers is 
 found in the form of a soft rock in some of the Southern 
 states. In this form it is combined with other elements just 
 as the nitrogen was combined in the case of nitrate of soda. 
 The use of phosphorus as a fertilizer element appears to be 
 increasing in most sections. 
 
 Cultivation. — Any orchard that is worth planting 
 is worth cultivating. Fruit trees respond to cultivation in 
 just the same way that corn or potatoes answer to attention. 
 No good farmer would attempt to grow a crop of corn with- 
 out thorough cultivation, but these same good farmers some- 
 times think that an orchard needs no care from the time it 
 is planted till it begins to bear fruit. 
 
 Orchard cultivation should start in the spring just be- 
 fore the time when rye or wheat is starting to head out. 
 These two grains are often used as cover crops in orchards 
 and just before they start to head they should be cut up with 
 a heavy disc harrow. The use of the plow is not necessary in 
 most orchards, and, in fact, may cause some injury by cutting 
 the roots of the trees. The disc stirs the soil just deep enough, 
 and, unless the rye is permitted to grow too tall, the disc 
 will turn it under sufficiently. After the orchard has been 
 
Soils and Soil Management. 
 
 31 
 
 (3) 
 
 Nitrogen nodules on roots of clover. 
 
32 
 
 Orchard and Garden 
 
 gone over with the disc in at least two directions, it should 
 be ready for some tool which will still further pulverize the 
 surface. Any kind of harrow is good for this purpose, but 
 most orchardists use either a spring tooth or one of the 
 patent Acme harrows. The latter is designed especially for 
 orchard work and is a very excellent tool, A common board 
 drag will help to keep the top soil pulverized and in a good 
 state of tillage. 
 
 The chief object of cultivation is to retain moisture in 
 the soil. This is done by forming what is known as a dust 
 
 The dust mulch. 
 
 mulch over the surface. The dust mulch acts like a great 
 blanket of felt laid over the orchard. Very little moisture 
 can escape from the soil if the surface is protected by such 
 a mulch. In a well cultivated orchard damp earth should be 
 reached easily by heaping up some of the mulch with the toe 
 of the shoe. To emphasize this point, go into an uncultivated 
 field with a pick and shovel and find how deep one must go 
 before reaching moist dirt. 
 
 Cultivation also kills all weeds. Since weeds need mois- 
 ture in order to grow, it is reasonable to expect that, if they 
 
Soils and Soil Management 
 
 33 
 
 are kept down, more moisture will be conserved for the use 
 of the trees. 
 
 Dust 7nnlcli. — Any rain that might fall on a dust mulch 
 will be gradually absorbed and a paste will be formed, which, 
 if permitted to dry, will cause a crust over the soil. As this 
 condition is exactly the one not desired, cultivation must con- 
 tinue, especially after each rain or even shower. By this 
 
 Clean cultivation in a young orchard. 
 
 means the dust mulch is kept in good condition to protect 
 the soil moisture for the sole use of the trees. 
 
 Cultivation should be stopped about the middle of sum- 
 mer in order to give the trees opportunity to harden their 
 wood before the approach of winter. If the trees were made 
 to grow till frost — which might easily be done — the newest 
 growth would be found too tender to survive the cold weather. 
 
 Cover crop. — At the time cultivation is stopped a cover 
 crop should be planted. This crop still further checks the 
 
Orchard and Garden. 
 
 I 
 
Soils and Soil Management 35 
 
 growth of the trees and also furnishes a protecting cover for 
 the ground during the winter. Land so sheltered will not 
 freeze as deep and will also catch and hold the snow better. 
 The snow itself is, of course, a protecting cover for the ground, 
 and, as a result, the roots are less likely to be winter injured. 
 Another function of the cover crop is to prevent the soil from 
 washing away in winter. On hillsides this washing process 
 may become a very serious problem which may necessitate 
 planting the cover crop somewhat earlier to insure a heavier 
 ground protection. In neglected orchards such erosion of the 
 land has sometimes ruined a fine planting in one winter. Any 
 of the winter grains, such as rye, wheat or barley, will make 
 a good orchard cover. Rye is especially good because it makes 
 a sturdy growth and is quite hardy. In some sections crim- 
 son clover can be planted with the rye, thus affording the 
 benefit of the rye as a protection and of the clover as an aid 
 to fertilization. Winter vetch can be used in this same way. 
 It must be understood that these cover crops are not planted 
 as a source of direct profit. It is most unwise to attempt to 
 take a crop of grain from land between the trees. It simply 
 means stealing some of the fertility from the soil, which in 
 order to insure a profitable orchard, must be replaced in some 
 way later. 
 
 Throughout the entire subject of soil management we 
 must not lose sight of two facts. The first is that by good cul- 
 tivation we retain moisture for the use of the growing plants. 
 The second is that any crop that is harvested removes some- 
 thing from the soil which must in some way be returned. If it 
 is not returned, then it is but a question of a short time until 
 the soil becomes "worn out" and unproductive. In America 
 we have been too much inclined to mine our soils rather than 
 till them. Starting with a natural rich soil, we have taken 
 crop after crop from the same piece of land with no attempt 
 to return some of the fertility we have each year removed. 
 
 It is for this reason that we find in our older sections 
 "abandoned farms." Most of them should never have been 
 
36 Orchard and Garden. 
 
 abandoned. Many of them are even now beinp: reclaimed. An 
 abandoned farm in Massachusetts was bought by a modern 
 cultivator who was willing- to give the soil a fair chance. It 
 took him about two years to get the old place back in such 
 shape that it could be profitably handled. After that time he 
 regularly harvested 500 bushels of potatoes to the acre — on 
 land that had been abandoned because it was unproductive. 
 
 There are very few places on the face of the earth where 
 the soil is so poor that it can not be made to yield a crop of 
 some sort and even the poorest land and that which has long 
 been neglected responds to intelligent care with a buoyancy 
 that is at once the surprise and the delight of the agriculturist. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 Planting the Orchard. 
 
 Soil preparation. — Many orchards are planted on poorly 
 prepared land, but in order to secure the best results the 
 preparation of the soil should be considered as of vast im- 
 portance. As a rule, the best preparation consists of fall plow- 
 ing when the trees are to be planted in the spring following. 
 Then as soon as the ground can be worked it should be gone 
 over once or twice with a disc harrow. It should next be 
 smoothed with a drag or spike tooth harrow. Except in the 
 South, the best time for planting nearly all fruits is in the 
 spring. When planted in the fall, trees frequently perish 
 unless the succeeding winter proves mild. However, spring 
 planting should be done early — the earlier, the better. 
 
 Selecting trees. — Trees should be selected just as early 
 in the season as possible. In fact, it is better to buy stock 
 in the fall, and have the nursery man deliver it early in the 
 spring. In this way the planter has the privilege of selecting 
 the best, while if he waited until later in the spring he would 
 have to take what was left. If the trees arrive before the 
 ground is ready for planting, they should be carefully un- 
 packed and heeled in. Heeling in is just another name for 
 deep planting. A trench should be dug on the side of a hill, 
 with the lower end left open to afford the best drainage pos- 
 sible. Place the trees in this trench, with their tops slanting 
 to the southwest. Fill in the trench, covering the trees with 
 earth so that only a part of the tops show above ground. 
 
38 
 
 Orchard and Garden 
 
 Trees can also be heeled in temporarily in the spring by plac- 
 ing them flat on the ground and shoveling some earth over 
 the roots. But this method is not sufliicient if trees are to 
 remain so all winter. 
 
 Age of trees to plant. — In selecting trees for the orchard 
 always select one-year-old trees. They are the best from 
 every standpoint, and will prove more satisfactory than trees 
 of any other age. This statement applies to all varieties of 
 fruit trees. Small fruit plants are always sold when one year 
 old. Some of the advantages of buying one-year-old trees are 
 
 A nursery storage house where trees are kept ovei' ^\'inter. 
 
 that they will stand transplanting better, that the grower 
 can prune the heads of his trees to suit his own tastes, and 
 that the cost of freight on a shipment is much less than for 
 older trees. It is often thought that an orchard can be made 
 
Planting the Orchard 
 
 39 
 
 to bear earlier by using two- or three-year-old trees, but such 
 is not the case. A one-year-old tree will get its bearings so 
 much more quickly that it soon outstrips its older neighbors. 
 Stakiug an orchariL — The orchard was planned in a 
 previous chapter and now comes the actual realization of 
 putting those plans into practice. First of all, a base line 
 must be established as a starting point. A base line is simply 
 a line of stakes set the given distance apart, with all of them 
 in a perfectly straight row. A surveying instrument is very 
 convenient in establishing this base line. With its help a 
 
 straight line can be 
 quickly located. Then 
 a right angled turn is 
 made and a parallel 
 line of stakes set. 
 With these two lines 
 of stakes placed it is 
 an easy matter to set 
 up tall sighting stakes 
 along the rows where 
 trees are to be placed. 
 Individual stakes are 
 not required for each 
 tree. The holes are 
 dug in line with the 
 sighting stakes and the required distances apart. Then the 
 planter follows and sets the trees in the holes ; and, as he does 
 this he can easily sight back to the old sighting stakes and in 
 this way keep each tree exactly in line with the rest. This 
 system has been used in some of the largest commercial or- 
 chards in the country. While it is not as accurate as is some- 
 times deemed necessary, it is sufficiently good for any real 
 need. After the trees have been set a short time, some of them 
 are always sure to lean a trifle, so they can really not be ex- 
 pected to remain in perfectly straight rows. 
 
 Planting an orchard. One man unpacks and 
 
 trims roots and tops. Anotlier is seen dipping 
 
 til? roots in a thick paste of mud, wliile a third 
 
 is Just starting out with a bundle of trees. 
 
40 
 
 Orchard and Garden 
 
 Another method of staking an orchard is with the help 
 of a long wire. This wire should be long enough to reach 
 entirely across the field to be planted. If trees are to be 
 planted twenty feet apart, a small copper band should be 
 soldered to the wire at twenty-foot intervals. In practice this 
 wire is stretched across a field and a stake set for each tree 
 at the points where the copper bands are soldered on. After 
 the first row is set, the wire is moved over the desired dis- 
 tance at each end and another row of stakes placed. 
 
 Digging the holes; Dynamite. — In digging the holes care 
 should be exercised to make them large enough to accommo- 
 date all the roots without cramping. The topsoil should be 
 piled at one side of the hole and the subsoil at another. The 
 
 ^ use of dynamite has been suggested 
 
 in connection with the planting of 
 trees and the mistaken idea is 
 prevalent that with its use the cost 
 of digging holes is eliminated. As 
 a matter of fact, more time and 
 labor are necessary to dig a proper 
 hole for tree planting when dyna- 
 mite is employed than otherwise. 
 If dynamite is used, a hole is bored 
 at the place where the tree is to be 
 planted and a small charge of 
 powder exploded about thirty 
 inches under ground. The surface 
 of the ground should not even be 
 blown away by this explosion, but 
 simply heaved a bit, with the top- 
 soil loosely piled up and no opening 
 visible. Then a hole must be made 
 with a spade just as if no dynamite 
 had been used. In addition to the labor of digging an ordinary 
 hole, the planter must dig to the bottom of the blasted area to 
 
 f 1 
 \i1 
 
 An example of inipropei' plant- 
 ing. No air space should 
 be left. (After Wallace.) 
 
Planting the Orchard 
 
 41 
 
 r "li 
 
 
 
 
 fc^/l 
 
 1^'- 
 
 L. 
 
 ...; 
 
 1 
 
 vk 
 
 - 
 
 <^ 
 
 1 
 
 Hf 
 
 
 ^ «■ 
 
 
 
 
 
 make sure that no air 
 cavity has been left by 
 the explosion. If the 
 ground is even moist 
 when dynamite is used, 
 a hard walled pocket 
 will be left at the point 
 of discharge. A care- 
 less planter might eas- 
 ily set a tree over this 
 air pocket and would 
 wonder what caused 
 the tree to die during 
 
 Planting- with dynamite. Inserting the charge. ^r^ first drV Weather 
 
 In soils having a stiff 
 "hard-pan" below the 
 surface a short dis- 
 tance, the use of dyna- 
 mite is advisable, but 
 must never be used 
 when the ground is 
 wet. It is a good plan 
 to prepare the ground 
 for tree planting by 
 using dynamite in the 
 places where trees are 
 to stand, providing the 
 work can be done dur- 
 ing the dry weather of 
 the summer previous to the actual planting. The use of dyna- 
 mite in the spring is almost always a mistake. 
 
 Inspecting trees. — When the ground is ready to receive 
 the trees, they should be unpacked or dug up, as the case may 
 be, and one man should be given the task of examining each 
 tree and pruning the roots preparatory to planting, which is 
 just as important as pruning the tops afterward. Each tree 
 
 The blast. 
 
42 
 
 Orchard and Garden 
 
 should be taken up separately, and examined root, stem, and 
 branch for insects and mechanical injuries. If many trees are 
 found defective, they should be saved out and the grower 
 should refuse to pay for them. It is against the law for any 
 
 nursery to sell defect- 
 ive stock, and no 
 buyer who permits an 
 unscrupulous dealer to 
 impose on him is doing 
 his duty. 
 
 All broken roots 
 should be pruned to a 
 smooth, clean cut, and 
 in the case of the apple, 
 all small fibrous roots 
 should be pruned en- 
 tirely away. These 
 small roots are usually 
 matted together and 
 when the tree is plant- 
 ed they frequently die 
 and cause the tree to 
 suffer or perhaps per- 
 ish from the disease 
 known as root rot. It 
 has been found that, 
 if these small fibrous 
 roots are taken away, 
 the possibilities of 
 avoiding root rot are greatly increased. 
 
 Planting. — After the trees are inspected, and tiie roots 
 are pruned, they are dipped into a thick paste made of earth 
 and water. This gives the roots a coating of mud and prevents 
 their drying out before they are planted. The planter sets the 
 tree in the hole prepared for it and arranges the roots to the 
 
 ri'unins' tlie roots. 
 
Planting the Orchard 43 
 
 best advantage. If the hole is not large enough for this pur- 
 pose, it should be enlarged to suit. The topsoil is then thrown 
 about the roots of the tree and tramped down as firmly as pos- 
 sible with both feet. More soil is added and again tramped 
 solid. But the last soil placed around the tree should not be 
 tramped down, but should be scattered in loosely. After the 
 tree is planted it is a good idea to try to pull it up with the 
 hands, and if it gives too easily it should be planted again more 
 firmly, in order to be a well planted tree. 
 
 Planting ^mall fniit.. — The general principles just de- 
 scribed apply to the planting of all trees and nearly all fruit 
 plants. Strawberries especially require great care in planting. 
 
 If i *^- 
 
 JL' 
 
 ••iKirtVw^'- i-'ta*- ■■ ■■ iX .■>v 
 
 Planting with dynamite. Boring the holes. 
 
 The young plants as they are received from the nursery always 
 have plenty of leaves and more roots than they possibly need. 
 The plants are tied together in bunches and the roots of an 
 entire bunch can be cut with one blow of a hatchet. All the 
 older leaves should be removed also. As a rule, about one-third 
 to one-half of the roots should be removed from strawberries. 
 The plants are set out by pushing a spade into the ground at 
 the place intended for the berry plant and making a wedge- 
 shaped opening by working the spade back and forth. The 
 
44 Orchard and Garden 
 
 roots of the plant are then spread out in fan shape and inserted 
 into the wedge-shaped opening. Then the earth is drawn over 
 the roots and tamped down firmly. Care must be exercised not 
 to get strawberries set too deep or too shallow. The crown of 
 the plant must come exactly at the soil line to be right. 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 Pruning. 
 
 Need for Pruning. — Under modern conditions of fruit 
 growing-, pruning is just as necessary and inevitable as spray- 
 ing. Trees that grow wild in the woods prune themselves. The 
 strong branches crowd out the weak ones and slowly but surely 
 the tree develops the form that nature intended it to assume. 
 The fruit grower finds it imperative to hasten the pruning 
 process instead of waiting for nature. Modern fruits are more 
 subject to insect and fungous injury than are the wild fruits of 
 the woods, and for that reason everything possible must be 
 done to help withstand injurious assaults from insect pests. 
 If a tree were left unpruned, it would soon become a thicket 
 of branches and leaves, and as a result, light and air are shut 
 out from the center of the tree. A dense growth of this sort 
 is always favorable to the development of fungous diseases. 
 Sunlight and air are great disease preventers, whether in rela- 
 tion to the human system or plant life. A man closed up in a 
 damp house may well be compared to an unhealthy tree in mat- 
 ters pertaining to light and ventilation. We must realize then 
 that pruning is needed to give the tree light and air. 
 
 Another reason for tree pruning is the need of building 
 the size and shape of the tree. In the first place spraying is 
 now considered one of the essentials of successful orchard 
 work ; and a tall, overgrown tree cannot he sprayed to advan- 
 tage, so it is incumbent upon the grower to keep his trees 
 headed low to facilitate this work. Apples from low growing 
 trees are also much easier to harvest than those from tall, over- 
 grown specimens. The modern tendency is to prune fruit trees 
 
46 
 
 Orchard and Garden 
 
 so that they will assume the form of a large bush rather than 
 the tall form that was so common in the older orchards. 
 
 Priming is also used to stimulate the tree or even check 
 its growth. Winter pruning can stimulate a weak tree toward 
 making a sturdier growth. A tree of strong growth that tends 
 to produce wood at the expense of fruit can be made to form 
 fruit buds by early summer pruning. 
 
 A thiiit\" \'mm,i 
 
 ucliai'd. 
 
 Time to prime. — We are now ready for the question re- 
 garding the best time to prune. An old adage says that the 
 time to prune is when your knife is sharp. While this saying 
 is not accepted at its face value, still it contains much wisdom. 
 If all pruners were particular to see that they used only sharp, 
 clean tools, that work would be accomplished with much 
 greater neatness and dispatch. Probably the best time to 
 prune any kind of tree is just at the end of winter and before 
 
Pruning 47 
 
 the buds have started to open in the spring. By pruning at 
 this time, when the trees are just ready to start a vigorous 
 growth, the wounds made in pruning will heal over much more 
 easily. 
 
 Stubs. — Regardless of the season at which the work is 
 done, there are a few rules that must be kept in mind con- 
 cerning this practice. In removing a branch from a tree care 
 must be exerted to cut just as close to the body of the tree as 
 possible. Never cut branches so as to leave stubs. They will 
 not grow and simply die back to the main branch where, as 
 they decay, they carry infection into the heart of the tree. 
 Many orchards have been ruined by carelessness in this detail. 
 
 L(()ge bmriches; Painthu) ivounds. — When a large branch 
 is to be cut off, it is best to make two cuts. The first cut should 
 be made eighteen inches or two feet from the place at which 
 the branch is to be removed. In this way the weighs of the 
 branch is eliminated and the stub can be sawed off without 
 danger of splitting the bark on the underside. After large 
 branches have been taken off, the wounds should be painted 
 with something to prevent them from drying out and also to 
 prohibit rot. If the orchard displays any evidences of blight, 
 bitter rot, or black rot, all the large cuts should be washed 
 with a disinfectant solution and permitted to dry before they 
 are painted. It is especially important that all pruners keep 
 this point in mind. The best disinfectant to use for this pur- 
 pose is a one to one thousand solution of corrosive sublimate. 
 This is deadly poison and the bottle containing it should be so 
 labeled. This solution will kill the spores of any diseases that 
 are liable to be carried from tree to tree on the pruning tools. 
 Where small shears are used to work in diseased trees they 
 should be dipped into the disinfectant before a new tree is 
 touched. A few hours may be given for the cuts to dry after 
 they have been washed with the disinfectant, and they should 
 then be painted to protect the surface from further sources 
 of infection. Orchardists have used various substances for 
 this purpose, and the list of paints or "daubs" will include 
 
 (4) 
 
48 
 
 Orchard and Garden 
 
 everything from mud to grafting wax. Mud is about the poor- 
 est material and grafting wax about the best for this purpose. 
 If grafting wax is used it should be handled hot enough to be 
 
 Two-year-old apple tree before and :ill« i- inimiiiy. 
 
 applied with a brush. However, excessive heat is to be avoid- 
 ed also. A wax can be made with linseed oil as one of the in- 
 gredients which resembles a thick, sticky paint. Such wax is, 
 of course, not suitable for grafting. White lead and linseed oil 
 
Pruning 49 
 
 make a good tree paint, and there are several brands of pre- 
 pared tree paint on the market. These legitimate paints must 
 not be confused with the so-called "tree paint" sometimes sold 
 by fakers who claim such wonderful results if trunks are 
 painted with their mixture. Trunks of trees should never be 
 painted with anything that even remotely resembles paint un- 
 der any circumstances. 
 
 The ivork of priming begins early in a young orchard. In 
 fact it begins as soon as the trees are planted. 
 
 Apple Priming. — In the first place we will consider the 
 pruning of the apple tree. If one-year-old trees have been 
 planted, they will consist of a single "whip" from four to six 
 feet in height. This whip should be cut back to a stub thirty 
 inches in height. During the growing season this stub will 
 throw out several branches which will be utilized in forming 
 the permanent framework of the tree. At the beginning of 
 the second year these new branches must be examined and 
 three or four of the most vigorous selected to become perma- 
 nent. All others are cut off. Those that are permitted to re- 
 main are then headed back much as the original tree was 
 pruned the year preceding. It will be seen that the work of 
 training each particular branch of this small tree is but a 
 repetition of training the tree in the first place. If this first 
 pruning is done intelligently and carefully it will reduce future 
 work in this respect to a minimum. 
 
 If the planting consists of two-year-old trees, the first 
 pruning will be, in general, the same as that given to a younger 
 tree after it had grown for a year. A few sturdy branches 
 are chosen to represent the permanent limbs of the tree and 
 these are left after being cut back to a strong bud. It might 
 appear that by planting two-year-old trees, the planter might 
 gain a year's time. This supposition is not true, however, for 
 the older tree never makes the same vigorous growth that is 
 accomplished by a one-year-old tree. Of course there are occa- 
 sional exceptions ; but exceptions do not always make rules — 
 they usually prove them. After the young tree is well started, 
 
50 
 
 Orchard and Garden 
 
 the pruning should average about the same each year. It will 
 be necessary to keep the centers of the trees from becoming too 
 thick, and no crossed branches should be permitted to remain. 
 Different varieties often require separate attention, so sugges- 
 tions for their treatment v^ill be given at this point. 
 
 Pruning different varieties. — Since the Grimes Golden 
 does not require so much light and air as most other varieties, 
 it v^^ill need consequently less attention. A bright red apple 
 
 Before and after pruning- a four-year-old apple tree. The tree was started 
 
 as a "leader" tree, but at this pr-uning it was decided to change it 
 
 to an open center tree. The pictures show how this was done. 
 
 will never acquire its full color unless it has plenty of sunshine. 
 As a result, red varieties should be so pruned that every apple 
 on the tree will have its proper share of light. Some of the 
 Russian varieties, like the Yellow Transparent, have a ten- 
 dency to grow upright, much as a pear tree grows. Severe 
 pruning sometimes fails to correct this inclination and accord- 
 ingly this variety constitutes one of the severest trials of the 
 fruit grower. The Winesap is by nature an open-headed tree. 
 With but a little training it will cause less work in an orchard 
 than any other sort; but if neglected, it has a habit of tying 
 
Pruning 51 
 
 knots in its branches. A long- neglected Win.esap is indeed one 
 of the most trying trees imaginable to prune. 
 
 Pruning old trce^. — The work of pi'uning any old neglect- 
 ed tree often presents very difficult problems. If the branches 
 are thinned out enough, too much direct sunlight will result in 
 the injury known as "sun scald." Sun scald is simply tiie sun- 
 burning and killing of bark that has grown too long in the 
 shade. Old trees should have all dead wood and all water 
 sprouts taken out. Water sprouts are the vigorous upright 
 sprouts found on the trunk and large limbs of neglected trees. 
 Next all crossed branches that seem to interfere with each 
 other should be removed. Time and care should be taken to 
 study the tree as it is shaped. It should always be borne in 
 mind that the object of pruning is to enable that particular 
 tree to bear the greatest number of perfect apples possible. 
 Apples can not be perfect if grown in a tangle of brush. They 
 must have air and sunlight. Good pruning of old trees is 
 largely a matter of wise judgment and common sense. I have 
 seen men prune satisfactorily who could scarcely tell an apple 
 tree from a peach tree. Those men were not backward in using 
 their brains on so common a proposition as the best way to 
 saw out a superfluous limb. 
 
 Pruning peaches is a much different proposition from the 
 pruning of apples. The peach bears its fruit on wood of the 
 previous season's growth. Consequently, in order to have an 
 abundance of fruit-bearing wood each year, the peach tree 
 must constantly be cut back so as to make it throw out a vigor- 
 ous growth of new wood. In this instance the production of 
 wood and fruit are synonymous. When the young tree is 
 planted it is cut back to a stub from eight to eighteen inches 
 in height. Authorities disagree as to the best height, but the 
 author finds that height most advantageous. From this stub 
 the new growth starts vigorously and the next season the tree 
 must be thinned out so that only three or four sturdy shoots 
 are left. These shoots are then cut back about the same way 
 that the shoots on fie young apple were cut back or preferably 
 
52 
 
 Orchard and Garden 
 
 farther. During the second year the peach will grow to be 
 quite a tree, and again the extra branches are removed and the 
 remaining ones are cut back from one-half to two-thirds their 
 original length. If this practice be neglected, the tree will 
 soon be out of reach of the grower and all new wood will be 
 produced so high above ground that a ladder will be needed 
 to harvest the fruit. There should be but little use for lad- 
 ders in the modern peach orchard if the trees are proprly 
 pruned from the start. If they are not pruned right at first, 
 there is no tree that will grow to more ungainly proportions. 
 After the third year the peach tree should not be pruned so 
 heavily. At about that time it may be expected to bear a few 
 peaches, and if too much of the previous season's wood is re- 
 moved, the fruit buds are also decreased in number. 
 
 The vigor of old peach trees may sometimes be renewed 
 by heading them back to stubs. This process is called "de- 
 horning," or, better, "deheading." All the upper part of the 
 
 tree is taken off except the stubs 
 of the main branches. Under fav- 
 orable conditions these stubs will 
 throw out strong shoots that will 
 replace much of the fruit-bearing 
 wood that was removed. This pro- 
 cess may also be used on peach 
 trees after they have been severely 
 injured by a very cold winter. As 
 a general rule it is a good policy to 
 prune any peach tree severely that 
 has had its fruit buds killed during 
 the winter. At such time there is 
 no sacrifice of fruit bearing wood 
 because under those conditions no 
 fruit buds exist. The heavy prun- 
 ing will result in a vigorous growth 
 that will reproduce most of the 
 fruit bearing area that was re- 
 
 Severe heading back of a peach 
 tree after a cold winter. 
 
Pruning. 
 
 53 
 
 f 
 
54 Orchard and Garden 
 
 moved and at the same time serve to bring the bearing portion 
 of the tree nearer the ground and within easier reach. 
 
 Plums and cheryies differ from the peach in that they do 
 do not require such severe pruning. Some growers never 
 prune their cherry trees except to remove weak branches or to 
 open the head of the tree slightly. The sweet cherries are 
 quite a problem to the orchardist on account of the fact that 
 they tend to grow in an upright form with a main stem. It is 
 difficult, if not impossible, to change this habit of the sweet 
 cherry tree, and, as a result, the growers of this class of fruit 
 simply make the best of circumstances. Sour cherries natur- 
 ally form a low, open top and require practically no pruning. 
 Plums are sometimes seriously injured by too much pruning. 
 A few vai-ieties of Japanese plums seem to be moderately ben- 
 efited by pruning, but in no case should it be as severe as that 
 outlined for peaches. 
 
 Pears should not be pruned at all, if the greatest protec- 
 tion from blight is desired. Blight is a disease that seems to 
 attack the more tender growth, and, as pruning tends to stim- 
 ulate growth, such work should be avoided. Sometimes it is 
 necessary to remove a few branches to improve the shape of 
 the tree ; but, aside from this, the general pruning of the pear 
 should be avoided. 
 
 The pnining of grapes is an art in itself. There are many 
 systems in vogue and each grower thinks his method best. As 
 a matter of fact, many systems have given admirable results 
 and it is a choice of which system is better suited to a given 
 district. In this text space can be devoted to only one of the 
 many different methods of grape training and this particular 
 form is known as the "Knifin" system. There are even varia- 
 tions of the Knifin system, but the general idea is the same. 
 
 When grapes are planted, from one-third to one-half the 
 roots are cut away. This is perhaps the first pruning to which 
 the vines are subjected. After planting, the vines are cut back 
 to one or two buds. The vines are permitted to grow the first 
 year without supports. At the end of the first season they are 
 
Pruning 
 
 55 
 
 ag'ain cut back to the ground and during the second summer 
 thoy should be induced to form only one or two upi'ight canes. 
 When these canes have reached a height of four to six feet they 
 should be cut back and made to throw out side branches. 
 Wires are then stretched on posts at a height of from four to 
 six feet from the ground. If two canes have been allowed to 
 develop, one of them should be tied with its lateral branches 
 to the top wire and the other to the lower wire. The vines 
 should be ready to fruit during the third year. In the case of 
 
 Illiistiating- tho Knifln system of grape training'. The same vine pruned 
 
 and unpruned. 
 
 grapes the fruit is borne on shoots which grow from buds 
 located on the previous year's growth. This is always an im- 
 portant point to remember in this connection. The lateral 
 branches that are tied to the wires will throw out numerous 
 shoots on which the grapes will be produced. The shoot near- 
 est the main cane should not be permitted to bear any grapes, 
 for it is reserved for next season's crop. At the end of the 
 season all the fruiting portion of the vine is cut off with the ex- 
 ception of the shoot that was not permitted to bear. This shoot 
 is bent upward and tied to the wire. It is then headed back for 
 a distance of from one-third to one-half its length. This cane 
 
56 Orchard and Garden 
 
 then becomes the renewal branch for the crop of the succeed- 
 ing- year. The accompanying photograph taken in a large com- 
 mercial vineyard illustrates this entire process perfectly. 
 
 The pruning of small fruits will be taken up in the chapter 
 devoted to them. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 Injurious Insects. 
 
 Al! injurious insects of the farm may be roughly divided 
 into two classes known as the chewing insects and the sucking 
 insects. Chewing insects secure their food by eating the tis- 
 sue on which they feed, while the sucking insects insert their 
 mouth parts into the plant tissues and withdraw the juices. 
 
 Sucking and cl)cw'ui(j insecl>i. — It will thus easily be seen 
 that the two classes of insects must be controlled in entirely 
 different ways. It would be useless to try to kill plant lice, 
 which are sucking insects, by applying to the trees or plants 
 any poison such as Paris Green. Paris Green is an "internal" 
 poison and must be taken into the system with the food, if it 
 is to kill the pest in question. Since it is impossible to inject 
 the Paris Green into the juices of the plant, it is self-evident 
 that the plant louse would not have access to any of the poison, 
 and might continue to feast on a sprayed plant with entire im- 
 punity. Consequently, Paris Green, arsenate of lead, and sim- 
 ilar insecticides are used only for those insects that actually 
 eat the tissues of the plant. For the sucking insects sprays 
 must be used that will kill as they come in contact with the 
 insects. This latter class of sprays is called "contact insecti- 
 cides." 
 
 Codlinrj moth. — Probably the best known orchard insect 
 
 in America is the codling moth. It is found wherever apples 
 
 are grown. No section is free from its ravages and each year 
 
 it does thousands of dollars worth of damage 
 
 in every state in the Union. This insect may 
 
 be taken as a type for its entire class and a 
 
 brief outline of its life history will serve as 
 
 an example of the many chewing insects. The 
 
 i.aiva of codiins- adult (mature) codling moth is a small, 
 
 '"ot'^- brownish winged insect about three-quarters 
 
58 
 
 Orchard and Garden 
 
 Adult codling' moth (enlarged 
 4 times). 
 
 to the species of insect. 
 
 of an inch in length. The female lays her eggs on or near the 
 young apples and as soon as the eggs hatch, the tiny worm 
 
 (larva) eats its way into the fruit 
 and remains there until it attains 
 its full growth. The full grown 
 larva then emerges from the apple 
 and spins for itself a small cocoon 
 under a scale of bark or in some 
 other well protected place. Within 
 the cocoon the larva changes 
 into still another form called the 
 "pupa." In the case of butterflies 
 the pupa 's called a chrysalis. The 
 insect remains in the pupa form, 
 which is purely a resting stage, for 
 various periods of time according 
 In every case, however, the pupa 
 eventually transforms into the adult or mature insect. 
 
 For the most part, chewing insects do their greatest dam- 
 age while they are in the larval state, because it is during that 
 period that they make their greatest growth. Very often the 
 adults do not feed at all and in some cases only to a very small 
 extent. These changes which the insect experiences trom the 
 time it hatches from the egg until it assumes adult form are 
 called the life cycle. 
 
 CocUing Moth control. — The codling moth lives over the 
 winter in the pupa stage and early in spring the adult appears 
 in orchards. The eggs are laid as above indicated at about the 
 time that the trees come into bloom. It is the problem of the 
 orchardist to poison the young worms before they can get 
 inside of the fruit. This is accomplished by spraying the trees 
 soon after they bloom, with a solution of arsenate of lead. Most 
 of the young moths enter the fruit at the blossom end and one 
 of the objects of spraying is to fill the blossom or calyx end of 
 the fruit with poison. If the spraying is properly done, prac- 
 tically all the worms will be killed before having an oppor- 
 
Injurious Insects. 
 
 59 
 
 The Sfcund brood of codling ui..Lii usuall.\ niters the apple at 
 the side or wheie the apples touch. 
 
60 
 
 Orchard and Garden 
 
 tunity to damage any fruit. Actual experiments have shown 
 that it is possible to prevent over 98 per cent, of the injury 
 caused by this insect. If neglected it is one of the most de- 
 structive insects known ; but with a little careful work it is 
 easily controlled. 
 
 Second brood. — The codling moth has a second brood ar- 
 
 Flakes of bark from an aple tree showing- cocoons of the codling' moth on 
 the underside. A and B — Cocoons unopened. C — Cocoon containing a pupa. 
 D — Cocoon containing an as yet untransformed larva. E — Shows a small 
 hole through the flake of bark. Thi-ough this hole one of the smaller 
 winter- woodpeckers has extracted the insect. 
 
 riving the last of June or early in July. This second brood con- 
 sists of individuals that were not killed by the poison or that 
 developed in some nearby neglected orchard. If all orchards 
 were thoroughly sprayed, the second brood would be insig- 
 nificant in numbers. Some orchardists are not as careful as 
 they should be, however, and as a result even the careful grow- 
 
Injurious Insects 
 
 61 
 
 ers must spray for the second brood. It is the adults of this 
 second brood that winter over and deposit their eggs the fol- 
 lowing spring. 
 
 The lender apple worm is often mistaken for the codling 
 moth. It bears a striking resemblance to the latter, but ap- 
 pears much later in the season and can always be recognized 
 by its peculiar method of injuring the fruit. The codling moth 
 makes its way directly to the core of the fruit. The lesser 
 apple worm makes a tortuous mine or tunnel under the skin of 
 Che fruit. The lesser apple worm is a very destructive pest in 
 stored fruit for the reason that it will migrate from one apple 
 to another. In this way one wormy apple may be the cause of 
 injury to several apples in the same barrel. Since the eggs are 
 laid late in the season, it is often hard to see any signs of the 
 insect when the fruit is gathered. The only remedy is to spray 
 with arsenate of lead later in the summer than is usually done 
 for the codling moth, and by all means to do a thorough job of 
 spraying. 
 
 The plum curculio is perhaps the most destructive of all 
 insects affecting fruit. While its name might lead one to be- 
 lieve that it damaged only plums, it is also found destructive to 
 
 peaches, cherries and apples and oc- 
 casionally other fruits as well. The 
 adult insect is a small beetle that 
 appears in the very early spring 
 and lays its eggs in crescent shaped 
 slits which it makes in the fruit. 
 The eggs are deposited within the 
 flesh of the fruit, so that poisoning 
 with any of the ordinary sprays is 
 impossible. In a few cases growers have devised a means of 
 collecting the insects from the trees by placing canvas under 
 the trees and then jarring them. The beetles fall into the can- 
 vas, where they are readily gathered up and destroyed. This 
 method is not entirely effective and so expensive as to be pro- 
 
 Plum curculio (natural 
 and enlarged). 
 
62 
 
 Orchard and Garden 
 
 hibitoiy to the average grower. The most progressive or- 
 chardists are now controlling the curculio by spraying the 
 trees very early in the spring, just as soon as the first leaves 
 open. A strong solution of arsenate of lead is used. This 
 spray, which is intended to kill the adult insects before they 
 have an opportunity to lay their eggs, is found very effective. 
 The peach borer is the name given to an insect that bores 
 into the base of the trunk of the peach tree. The borer is the 
 
 Work of the curculio on iti'ach. 
 
 larva of a small moth. The adults emerge about the first of 
 June and from that time until September mature individuals 
 may be found. They probably lay eggs all summer long. In 
 the fall the larvae are to be found in all stages from very 
 small "worms" to nearly full grown borers an inch or more 
 in length. All sorts of plans have been devised to control this 
 pest ; but. from the standpoint of the practical fruit grower, 
 there is only one method of control that is practical. This 
 consists of simply digging the borers out with a sharp knife. 
 They sometimes extend into the roots of the tree and the soil 
 must be removed from about the trunk to a depth of five or 
 six inches. This method may injure the tree more or less, but 
 
Injurious Insects 63 
 
 not nearly as much as the borers would if they were unmo- 
 lested. 
 
 The flat headed apple hover is the larva of a beetle about 
 an inch in length. These beetles are widely distributed and 
 probably injure many kinds of trees. It is certain that they 
 sometimes appear in isolated orchards that 
 have been newly planted in cleared spots 
 in the woods. As a rule, this borer will 
 not attack a tree unless it has been pre- 
 viously weakened from some other cause. 
 They are seemingly on the lookout for 
 trees that have been reduced in vitality for 
 The flat-headed apple ^^j^^^ reasons, and, when they once attack 
 
 a young tree, they usually make short 
 work of it. There is no known remedy except to keep the trees 
 in a state of good health, and if they should be attacked the 
 borers should be cut out. Of course if the tree is badly dam- 
 aged it must be replaced. 
 
 The imported currant ivorm is the most common of the 
 insects injurious to currants and gooseberries. The larva is 
 about three-quarters of an inch in length and a pale green in 
 color. Like all leaf eaters, it may be controlled by the use of 
 arsenate of lead. If the fruit has started to ripen, powdered 
 hellebore should be substituted for the arsenate. It is not quite 
 so effective, but there is less danger of poisoning the persons 
 who use the fruit. 
 
 The grape berry moth is the most serious insect enemy of 
 the fruit of the grape. It causes the common injury known as 
 wormy grapes, that are to be found in most places where the 
 vine is grown. The insect passes the winter in its cocoon at- 
 tached to dead leaves on the ground. Cleaning up the vineyard 
 will do much to keep this pest in check, but thorough and fre- 
 quent spraying must be practiced in badly infested vineyards. 
 The arsenate of lead may be combined with Bordeaux mixture 
 and the spray made effective for both the grape berry moth 
 
64 
 
 Orchakd and Garden. 
 
 (Jrapes that )i,-i\ L Lh-'Ii sucked nrv usually free from insect injtiiiea and dirt. 
 
Injurious Insects 65 
 
 and for several fungous diseases. In small vineyards and in 
 home grape arbors the fruit can be easily protected by tying 
 a paper bag over the bunches. This should be done soon after 
 the grapes bloom and before there is any sign of injury on 
 them. 
 
 Canker ivormss are sometimes very injurious to apple or- 
 chards. The larva is a brownish measuring worm and the in- 
 jury consists of eaten foliage. Entire orchards may be defol- 
 iated by this pest, but the ordinary spray as for the codling 
 moth will usually prevent any serious damage. 
 
 The so-called bud moth is one of the insects that has re- 
 cently attracted the attention of fruit growers and each year 
 it becomes more common. The larva of this moth is a brov^i 
 caterpillar with a black head and measures about half an inch 
 in length. The caterpillars winter over in small nests and in 
 early spring they emerge and eat into the opening buds. An 
 application of arsenate of lead just as the buds are opening 
 will usually control the bud moth satisfactorily. 
 
 The ijeUoiv necked caterpillar is easily recognized by the 
 fact that there is a band of bright yellow just back of the head. 
 It is a large worm, measuring nearly two inches in length, and 
 feeds in colonies. In young orchards these colonies can be 
 easily seen and the worms killed. In older orchards that are 
 regularly sprayed most of the pests will be controlled inci- 
 dentally. 
 
 The tent caterpillar builds a nest in the forks of small 
 branches on many kinds of fruit trees. The worms are about 
 one and a half inches in length, blue black in color, thinly cov- 
 ered with yellowish hairs and marked by a white stripe down 
 the back. Their nests may be burnt out or arsenate of lead 
 may be sprayed on the surrounding foliage where they feed. 
 The fall web worm is similar in all respects to the tent cater- 
 pillar except that it occurs in the fall, while the tent caterpillar 
 is found only in the spring. 
 
 The pear slug is a slimy, soft bodied larva which attacks 
 
66 
 
 Orchard and Garden 
 
 the foliage of pear, 
 plum and cherry. It 
 usually eats only the 
 upper surface of the 
 leaf, leaving the skel- 
 eton of the veins. Ar- 
 senate of lead will con- 
 trol it; but, owing to 
 the fact that the body 
 of the insect is sticky, 
 it may be more easily 
 destroyed by dusting 
 the trees lightly with 
 powdered lime. Place 
 the lime in a burlap 
 bag. tie the bag to a 
 pole and shake over 
 the trees. The lime 
 sticks to the body of 
 the larva and quickly 
 kills it. I have known 
 fruit growers to get 
 the same results from 
 a handful of road dust 
 sprinkled over the in- 
 sects, A little watchfulness early in the season will save much 
 damage later. 
 
 The fruit tree hark beetle is a small insect that bores holes 
 in the trunk and branches of most any fruit tree. It has been 
 claimed that this insect will never attack a healthy tree, but 
 prefers to work on some other tree that has been previously 
 damaged by another agency. This is probably true, although 
 trees are sometimes found infested with this form which ap- 
 pear to be perfectly healthy in every other way. At any rate, 
 when the beetles once get started there is no cure for the 
 trouble. The tree should be cut and burned at once. 
 
 The pear slug and its work. 
 
Injurious Insects 67 
 
 The blue flea beetle is one of the commonest pests in the 
 vineyard. It winters over in leaves and rubbish on the ground 
 and comes out in very early spring to feed on the new shoots 
 of the vine. In a few days it may entirely destroy all pros- 
 pects for the year's crops. Clean cultivation in the vineyard 
 and early spraying with arsenate of lead are the only means 
 of keeping this beetle in check. 
 
 White grub ivorms, the larvae of the common brown "June 
 beetles," are frequently injurious in strawberry fields. They 
 are more common in land that was previously in sod, and for 
 that reason it is unwise to plant strawberries in sod land. If 
 the sod can be pastured to hogs for a few months in the fall, 
 they will usually clean out most of the grubs. The use of 
 tobacco stems will also make the soil distasteful to them, and it 
 has been suggested that strawberries be mulched with these 
 stems instead of straw. The cost will be somewhat more, but 
 if injury can be prevented, the extra expense may be justified. 
 
 Sucking insects. — The second great group of insects that 
 are to be considered are those which obtain their food by suck- 
 ing the juices from the plant. As has been mentioned before, 
 these insects can not be killed except by the use of some spray 
 material which will kill when it comes in contact with their 
 bodies. These are called contact insecticides. The sucking 
 insects include many of the worst pests with which the orchard- 
 ist has to deal. All the scale insects and the plant lice are true 
 sucking insects. 
 
 The scale insects are so named, because when they attach 
 themselves to a tree or plant, they secrete a plate or scale which 
 completely covers their bodies and aflfords them much protec- 
 tion. It is this scale which makes the insects difficult to control, 
 for any insecticide must first penetrate through or under the 
 protective covering before it can come in contact with the 
 body of the insect itself. 
 
 The Sam Jose scale (pronounced San Hosay) is easily the 
 worst and most widely distributed of our scale insects. It was 
 imported on nursery stock from China many years ago and has 
 
68 
 
 Orchard and Garden 
 
 since been distributed generally over the country by careless 
 nurserymen. The insect itself is a small sulphur-yellow crea- 
 ture, but is covered from sight by the circular scale plate. The 
 young scales are not hatched from eggs, but are born alive and 
 immediately begin to crawl about in search of a place to which 
 to attach themselves. This continues for about twenty-four 
 hours, when the insect attaches itself to a portion of the bark 
 and inserts its beak into th.e living tissue. Very soon after- 
 ward the secretion of the scale covering begins and this scale 
 covering increases in size as the young insect grows. Under 
 the magnifying glass the individual scales appear to be per- 
 fectly round and with concentric rings extending from the out- 
 side to the center. The center is slightly raised or pointed. 
 The first young are produced with the first warm weather in 
 spring, and they continue to multiply all summer. A few 
 scales on a tree in the spring may be the means of completely 
 covering it before fall. The accompanying picture shows a 
 portion of bark from an apple tree that is crusted over with the 
 San Jose scale. In the picture they are 
 magnified about ten times or about as 
 they would be enlarged with a strong 
 hand magnifying glass. At one time it 
 was feared that this scale would de- 
 stroy all the orchards in this country. 
 After a vast number of them were for- 
 feited, experimenters found that the 
 pest could be kept in check by the use 
 of a spray made from lime and sul- 
 phur. This material is very caustic and 
 will injure the foliage, if applied during 
 the summer; so that work toward exter- 
 minating the San Jose and other scale 
 insects must be confined to the winter 
 season. 
 
 GraTpe Scale. — Some times grape 
 The grape scale. vines, especially in cities, are infested 
 
Injurious Insects 
 
 69 
 
 San Jose Scale (enlarged). 
 
70 Orchard and Garden 
 
 with a scale insect that closely resembles the San Jose 
 scale. This is the grape scale, and it is to be found only 
 on these vines. On the other hand, San Jose scale seldom 
 attacks the grape. This insect on the vines is particularly 
 difficult to control because of the fact that it works its way 
 under the thin, scaley bark and is protected from any spray 
 solution that may be applied. However, the lime sulphur 
 solution will kill it, but it must be applied thoroughly and with 
 a good deal of pressure so as to penetrate all of the irregulari- 
 ties of the vine. 
 
 Spraying to control scale insects. — In spraying for the con- 
 trol of any scale insect the fact that these insects can be killed 
 only by the contact of the spray dope with their bodies must be 
 kept constantly in mind. Every portion of the tree must be 
 completely covered with the mixture. Remember that these 
 scale insects are firmly attached to the bark, and, even if they 
 were not, they would probably not be so obliging as to crawl 
 about and wallow in the insecticide. It is the business of the 
 man doing the spraying to be sure that every portion of the 
 tree is absolutely covered. 
 
 The Scurfy scale is a whitish scale much larger than the 
 San Jose. It is to be found in nearly all apple orchards, but 
 seldom does much damage. The scale insect lays eggs in the 
 fall of the year and these eggs are protected by the same scale 
 plate which formerly covered the old female scale. The eggs 
 are somewhat more difficult to kill than are the insects under 
 the scale plates of the San Jose. Whenever this scurfy scale 
 does become a serious pest, it is often more difficult to kill than 
 is its Chinese relative. 
 
 The oyster shell scale is a common form which is some- 
 times serious in nurseries and orchards. It is also to be found 
 in the woods, as it is a native scale. I have found it as far 
 north as Canada, growing on some of the shrubby dogwoods. 
 It is fully illustrated in the accompanying cuts. Like the 
 scurfy scale, this insect lives over winter in the Qgg state and 
 is quite difficult to control. One of the most effective means 
 
Injurious Insects 
 
 71 
 
 Oyster Sliell Scale (enlaiged). 
 
72 
 
 Orchard and Garden 
 
 Typical plant lice. 
 
 Tlie large, rounded ones were brmvii in color and 
 were inhabited by parasites. 
 
Injurious Insects 
 
 73 
 
 Scurfy scale. 
 
 to the opening buds where they begin to feed 
 
 of controlling it is to spray the 
 trees with whale oil soap or coal oil 
 emulsion just as the young scales 
 are emerging in the spring. At that 
 time they are very easily killed. 
 
 Plant lice. — There are many 
 forms of plant lice, all of which are 
 highly injurious to the plants on 
 which they feed. They are small, 
 soft-bodied insects which obtain 
 their food by sucking the juices 
 from the more tender parts of the 
 plant. The plant lices are called 
 "aphids" (singular, aphis). 
 
 Green apple aphis. — One of the 
 commonest and most injurious of 
 the plant lice is the green apple 
 aphis. It is green in color and 
 feeds on the under sides of apple 
 leaves and on the stems and leaf 
 stalks. It is usually found on 
 the tender, growing tips of the 
 branches and after it has been at 
 work on a branch for a short time, 
 it causes the leaves to curl under 
 from the edges. In this way the 
 insect is greatly protected against 
 any spray material that might be 
 used. It winters over in the egg 
 form. The eggs may be found dur- 
 ing the winter on the younger 
 branches. They appear as very 
 small, glossy black objects, often 
 gathered together in some num- 
 bers. These eggs hatch early in 
 spring and the young aphids crawl 
 The orchardist 
 
74 
 
 Orchard and Garden 
 
 should always be on the lookout for these eggs while he is prun- 
 ing the trees in the winter. By being watchful, he can tell which 
 trees are infested. If no eggs are found, no control measures 
 are of course necessary, but if eggs are present, tn^a trees 
 should be sprayed with either a strong lime sulphur solution, 
 such as is used for the San Jose scale, or with a tobacco solu- 
 tion soon after the buds open. If this work is neglected until 
 after the lice have had a chance to curl the leaves any control 
 measure will naturally be less effective than if the pest were 
 given prompt attention. 
 
 The rosy apple aphis differs from the green form in habits 
 as well as in color. It is supposed to spend part of its life on 
 
 some other plant; but 
 up to the present time 
 entomologists have not 
 discovered what this 
 plant is. At any rate 
 the insect does not ap- 
 pear on the apple until 
 some time in the early 
 spring and leaves the 
 tree after a few weeks. 
 As a rule it is not so 
 injurious as the green 
 louse, because it does 
 not remain on the tree 
 during the entire sea- 
 son. Both this and 
 the former insect feed 
 on clusters of small 
 fruit and cause them 
 to become permanent- 
 ly dwarfed. Apples in- 
 jured in this way will 
 never develop into 
 marketable fruit and 
 
 Early infestation by plant lice produce these 
 clusters of dwarf apples. 
 
 should always be removed and destroyed. 
 
Injurious Insects 
 
 75 
 
 The black peach aphis feeds on the roots of peach trees 
 and at certain seasons it ascends to the top of the tree and 
 feeds on the branches. It is during the period spent on the 
 branches that it breeds and spreads to other trees. It is easily 
 
 controlled by spraying 
 with a tobacco solu- 
 tion and the root form 
 may be eradicated by 
 the use of ground 
 tobacco stems worked 
 well into the soil. If 
 this is done in dry 
 weather, the first rain 
 will wash the extract- 
 ed poisons into the 
 ground where they 
 will kill the insects. 
 
 The woolly aphis is 
 another form that lives 
 on both the tops and 
 the roots of trees. It 
 is most commonly as- 
 sociated with the ap- 
 ple. On the roots this 
 louse will form small 
 knots or galls and 
 around these will usu- 
 ally be found the white 
 woolly covering of the 
 lice. The insect itself 
 is of a dark color, but 
 is so completely cov- 
 ered with the white "wool" that it has the appearance of being 
 a white insect. This pest is often sent out on young trees 
 from the nursery. The planter should exercise great care in 
 examining all trees before planting to be sure that none of the 
 
 Plant lice on "Golden Glow. 
 
76 Orchard and Garden 
 
 unwelcome aphids are present. If, however, they once become 
 established in an orchard very little can be done to exter- 
 minate them. They can not be readily killed in the ground, 
 and the best thing the grower can do is to keep the trees other- 
 wise healthy and to try to force them into a vigorous growth 
 in spite of the woolly aphis. The insects as they appear above 
 ground, on the branches, can be killed by the use of tobacco 
 solutions. 
 
 The phylloxera is one of the very small aphids that attack 
 the grape. It is a native American insect and does not do any 
 great damage to our native varieties of grapes. European 
 varieties are badly injured by it. The first vineyards of Euro- 
 pean grapes that were planted in this country were all killed 
 by this pest. Then it was sent across the ocean to be- 
 come established in France, where it threatened to wipe out 
 the grape industry in that country. At last growers adopted 
 the expedient of grafting the European varieties to Anierican 
 stocks, and in this way the pest was outwitted. Since all 
 grapes grown in the Eastern states are of practically pure 
 American strain, the damage done by the phylloxera does not 
 count for much. Some varieties that have been produced by 
 crossing American and European sorts are badly injured. 
 The most serious work of the phylloxera is on the rooi-S, but 
 infested plants may usually be detected by the presence of 
 small and inconspicuous galls on the leaves. The leaf form 
 does not do much harm and is even sometimes found on Amer- 
 ican sorts. The insect itself is so small as to require a strong 
 glass for its examination. 
 
 The grape leaf hopper is an insect that differs from both 
 the scale insects and the plant lice. It secures its food in the 
 same manner, however, and has been a most difficult form to 
 control. It is an unusually pretty insect that by feeding on 
 the leaves of the grape causes them to turn brown. They are 
 extremely nervous and when a vine so infested is shaken, the 
 hoppers will leap off in large numbers. These insects are very 
 hardy and it requires a vigorous contact insecticide to exter- 
 
Injurious Insects 77 
 
 minate them. This has been the main difficulty, in fact, con- 
 nected with the control of this species. Any insecticide that 
 would kill the pest would also kill the vines. One of the most 
 approved and by far the most practical method is to spray the 
 grapevines with a solution of Bordeaux mixture. This spray 
 should be directed in such a way as to dislodge the hoppers 
 from the vines, knocking them to the ground. Another spray 
 machine should follow close behind the first and spray the 
 ground with a coal oil emulsion or other strong insecticide, 
 killing them before they can get back to the vines. 
 
 There are many other insects to be encountered in orchard 
 work, but lack of space will not permit a description of them 
 all. There are none, however, that will not fall naturally into 
 one of the groups here mentioned ; and, if the student masters 
 the different forms and learns to recognize them as well as to 
 prevent them from doing injury, he should have no difficulty 
 in providing adequate treatment for any other insect that may 
 come to his attention. 
 
 Not all insects are injurious. Some are beneficial in 
 that they get their living by eating other insects. Those 
 forms which prey upon others are called parasites and they 
 do a most useful work in the world. If it was not for the 
 parasites among the insects it would not be possible for 
 human beings to exist, for the injurious forms would quickly 
 overrun everything and destroy every vestige of vegetation. 
 Consequently it is wise for us to know and to protect those 
 forms that we know to be beneficial. , 
 
 Lady Birds. — Nearly all lady bird beetles are parasites 
 on other insects. These are usually small, bright-colored 
 beetles, more or less round in shape and having a rather 
 characteristic tortoise eff"ect. One of the best known of these 
 is the "twice stabbed lady bug," a beautiful little insect, coal 
 black in color and having on each of its wing covers a bright 
 red spot. This form feeds on the scale insects and it has 
 been known to keep the San Jose scale in check. Other lady 
 birds feed on plant lice and are largely instrumental in pre- 
 venting very serious injury from these destructive forms. 
 
78 
 
 Orchard and Garden 
 
 The golden-eyed lace-winged fly is another curious and 
 interesting parasite of the plant lice. The adult of this insect 
 is a gauzy winged flying creature with bright golden eyes. 
 The eggs are among the most curious structures to be found 
 in the insect world. They are white in color and are attached 
 
 Eggs of the lace winged fly. 
 
 Blister beetles attacking- plum 
 
 bloom. Arrows indicate position of 
 
 beetles. This twig was stripped in 
 
 thirty mjnutes. 
 
 to leaves, twigs or grass by means of a slender stalk several 
 times longer than is the Qgg itself. The larva of this insect 
 is often called the "aphis lion" because it is so savage in its 
 attack upon the plant lice. 
 
 Blister Beetles. — Some of the blister beetles are parasitic 
 and do much to keep in check the various grasshoppers. How- 
 ever, most of these same blister beetles are also leaf eaters 
 
Injurious Insects 79 
 
 at some stage in their life history and it is sometimes dim- 
 cult to decide whether they do more harm or good. One 
 form in particular feeds upon the opening liowers of fruit 
 trees and it has been known to appear in such numbers as 
 to strip every bloom from an orchard. They are particu- 
 larly injurious to plums. The orchardist must decide for 
 himself whether or not such a form as this is doing enough 
 damage to warrant control measure. If the blister beetles 
 are doing serious damage, then the trees should be promptly 
 sprayed with a mixture of arsenate of lead at the rate of 
 four pounds to fifty gallons of water. 
 
 Other parasites. — There are innumerable small liies that 
 prey upon insects, most of them so small that they will often 
 be overlooked. One of these lays its eggs in the skin of the 
 common green tomato worm. The larva lives inside the 
 body of the worm and eventually emerges and spins a white 
 cocoon on the outside of the worm. Often tomato worms 
 may be found that are simply covered with these cocoons 
 and some people have had the fanciful notion that they were 
 the "eggs" of the worm and attempted to destroy them. 
 Nothing could be more foolish, as these white cocoons will 
 each produce a single small fly, w^hich, in its turn, will attack 
 hundreds of other worms. 
 
 Most of these flies are so small and inconspicuous, how- 
 ever, that they will readily be overlooked, so they can take 
 care of themselves. Very few parasites are destroyed through 
 the ordinary processes of spraying. 
 
 One of the most interesting cases of insect control by para- 
 sites that I ever saw was in a large nursery where cherry trees 
 were being grown in great numbers. The one-year-old trees 
 were loaded with the black cherry aphis. These were confined 
 to the tips of the branches. There were quite a lot of lady bird 
 beetles feeding on the aphids, but not enough to get all of them. 
 The nurseryman started a gang of men out, each with a bucket 
 of oil emulsion. Each tree had to be treated and before dip- 
 ping the infested tops into the insecticide the workman would 
 
 shake the trees slightly to dislodge the beetles. The tips of 
 
 (fi) 
 
80 Orchard and Garden 
 
 the branches were then submerged in the emulsion and the hce 
 killed. This work was not quite finished by Saturday night 
 and the nurseryman had scruples against asking his men to 
 continue the work on the Sabbath. Accordingly the block of 
 infested trees was allowed to stand untouched until Monday 
 morning. 
 
 When the workmen started out the first of the week they 
 were surprised to find that there was not a single live aphis 
 left on the trees, where Saturday night they had been abundant. 
 Since much of this infested block had been gone over with the 
 insecticide and at the same time the lady birds had been saved 
 by being shaken to the ground, it followed that the propor- 
 tion of parasitic insects had materially increased. All day 
 Sunday these little beetles, not knowing it was Sunday doubt- 
 less, had concentrated on the untreated corner of the block 
 and had made a grand finish of the lice that were sapping the 
 vitality of the trees. 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 Plant Diseases. 
 
 Cause of disease. — The San Jose scale is often mentioned 
 by the uninformed as a disease. It is not a disease any more 
 than the fleas on a dog are a disease. In either case the condi- 
 tion is called an infestation. A plant disease is a sickness or 
 disorder of the plant caused by the action of some bacteria 
 or fungus which is growing on or in the plant. In this regard 
 that condition in human beings and lower animals which is 
 instantly recognized as a diseased condition has its resem- 
 blance in plants. In addition, plants also have diseases of 
 which the cause is as yet unknown. One general term covers 
 all of these as well as our ignorance of them. They are called 
 "physiological diseases." The peach yellows, which ras puz- 
 zled scientists for years, is in this class. 
 
 Bacteria and fungi. — It may be well to secure some idea 
 of the nature of bacteria and fungi before proceeding to con- 
 sider the various diseases which they cause. Both bacteria 
 and fungi are very low forms of plant life and in most cases 
 they are almost microscopic in size. Bacteria are always 
 microscopic. Fungi are frequently large enough to be seen 
 and easily handled. 
 
 Bacteria are one-celled organisms which possess remark- 
 able powers of increase. A single bacterium may, in the space 
 of a few hours and under the proper conditions of growth, give 
 rise to thousands like it. Bacteria multiply either by simple 
 division, i. e., pulling apart of the minute cell plant, or by the 
 
82 
 
 Orchard and Garden 
 
 formation of spores within the cell. In the latter case each 
 spore is capable of developing into a bacterium. This process 
 of spore fo];;mation is common whenever the conditions for the 
 growth of the bacteria become impoverished. The spore is re- 
 sistant to adverse conditions and will endure more heat, more 
 cold, and any general abuse than will the active bacteria. 
 
 Fungi. — In order to obtain a good idea of what the plant 
 body of some common fungi looks like and of the way in which 
 it grows, a piece of stale bread should be moistened slightly, 
 placed under a cover, and kept in a warm place for a few 
 days. A white mold will be seen to form over the bread, and, 
 if close examination is made, this mold will seem to penetrate 
 into the bread mass. In due time tiny black specks will appear 
 on the surface of the mold. If these are closely examined, they 
 will be found to consist of a small black ball surmounting a 
 stiff, straight stalk growing up from the mass of white 
 threads. The white threads are called the "mycelium" of the 
 
 fungus ; and the little 
 black specks are the 
 cases in which the 
 plant produces the 
 spores. The spores 
 themselves are micro- 
 scopic in size, but 
 serve the purpose of 
 seeds, A microscope 
 should be used to ex- 
 amine the fruiting 
 bodies and their con- 
 tents of spores. 
 
 Apple scab. — Of 
 all apple diseases the 
 one known as apple 
 scab is probably most 
 widely distributed. It 
 is to be found in every 
 
 
 f 
 
 H^H^B^^^^^^ 
 
 1 
 
 \ 
 
 
 Ki 
 
 fyf^ 
 
 
 ^♦1^'' «'*^|B 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Apple scab. 
 
Plant Diseases 
 
 83 
 
 place that apples are neglected. It is essentially a disease 
 of neglect and, like tuberculosis, can be easily prevented. 
 In fact most of the control work with plant diseases is 
 work of prevention rather than of cure. The apple scab 
 fungus lives over the winter in the dead leaves on the 
 ground. With the first warm weather in the spring 
 this fungus begins to develop. The fungus in the leaves 
 starts to grow and soon develops fruiting bodies containing 
 countless spores. These spores are carried in the wind and 
 deposited all over the trees. As soon as the young fruit is 
 
 formed, as soon even as the young 
 leaves begin to peep out of the 
 buls, the apple scab fungus is 
 awaiting them. It will attack the 
 fruit, the leaf, and the young 
 branch, although its injury to the 
 latter is of minor importance. The 
 characteristic appearance of scab 
 on mature fruit is well shown in 
 the accompanying cut and no 
 especial description is needed. 
 This affliction can be controlled 
 by an application of dilute lime 
 sulphur just before the flower buds 
 open and another after the petals 
 fall, using the same material. 
 
 Bitte7- rot is another disease of 
 the apple that is more common in 
 the southern districts. It is more 
 difficult to conquer than scab, but appears later in the year. 
 The fungus that causes this disturbance lives from year to 
 year in large, rough cankers on the large branches of the 
 tree. Each summer a crop of spores is produced and 
 
 Apple scab as it appears on 
 the leaf. 
 
84 
 
 Orchard and Garden 
 
 sprinkled downward through the 
 tree, falHng- on the fruit which 
 hangs below. Wherever these 
 spores fall on an apple, they may 
 develop the rot which is so charac- 
 teristic of the disease. The rotten 
 area is brown in color and it 
 spreads from the surface towards 
 the core just as fast as it spreads 
 on the surface. This will usually 
 serve to distinguish it from black 
 rot. The dilute lime sulphur solu- 
 tion will not control bitter rot. 
 Bordeaux mixture applied at inter- 
 vals, starting about five or six 
 weeks after the petals fall, is the 
 common procedure. If the dis- 
 eased areas on the branches are 
 also cut out and painted with 
 melted grafting wax. the disease 
 will be still more easily kept in 
 check. 
 
 Black rot resembles bitter rot, 
 but it is not such an important 
 fruit disease, as it is a leaf dis- 
 ease. The fungus causes limb 
 cankers that are difficult to dis- 
 tinguish from the cankers of bitter 
 rot and these cankers furnish the 
 infection for the leaves. The dis- 
 eased leaves usually fall about the 
 middle of the summer, and in this 
 way cut off much of the food supply 
 from the tree during the fall months. This nourishment ob- 
 tained in the fall is most essential for the fruit crop of the 
 ensuing year. Thus the effect will be secondary, but is a 
 
 A canker on a small limb 
 apple. 
 
Plant Diseases 
 
 l>eft apple alTectcfl with bloldi, Ifinlit, witli bitter i-dI. Aitow sIkjws 
 location of blotch. Notici- lliat it is a siiiieilicial or .sl-iiii disease. 
 
 serious damage nevertheless. The usual sprays, as for apple 
 scab, will generally control black rot, but in addition to that 
 precaution all branch cankers should be carefully removed. 
 
 Blotch is a disease of the fruit of the apple that has at- 
 tracted much attention in recent years, and has apparently 
 been spreading rapidly enough to warrant any amount of 
 notoriety. It is another southern disease that has been grad- 
 ually making its way 
 northward. Blotch win- 
 ters over in small cin- 
 namon brown cankers 
 on the twigs and small 
 branches. These can- 
 ker^ disseminate 
 spores about the mid- 
 dle of June. Soon after 
 this tim-^ small brown- 
 ish patches may be 
 noted on the fruit. 
 The disease on the 
 fruit is superhcial as 
 it does not extend far 
 below the skin. On 
 the surface the indi- 
 
 Apple blotch. 
 
86 Orchard and Garden 
 
 vidual blotches appear as if they might have been caused by 
 some Hght brown liquid splashed on the skin. As the disease 
 progresses these blotches become hard and much darker in 
 color. Eventually they crack open and the fruit is ruined. 
 The first method of control used on blotch consisted of re- 
 peated sprays applied every two weeks after about the middle 
 of June. Bordeaux mixture was preferred to the dilute lime 
 sulphur for this purpose. Recently it has been found that the 
 disease can be absolutely controlled by spraying the trees in 
 winter with a solution of commercial lime sulphur diluted at 
 the rate of one part lime sulphur to five parts of water. This 
 spray also controls scale insects. 
 
 One characteristic of apple blotch is its aptitude for at- 
 tacking certain varieties and avoiding others. Almost all 
 greenish or yellow apples, except possibly Grimes, are more 
 subject to blotch than are the completely red apple. A very few 
 red apples are injured by this malady, however, and vhe fol- 
 lowing varieties, none of which are first rank commercially, 
 are much more subject to this disease than others : Northwest- 
 ern Greening, Mann, Smith Cider, Stark, Missouri Pippin, 
 Ben Davis. 
 
 Sooty blotch and fly speck are two minor fungous affec- 
 tions that sometimes attack apples. The name of each 
 describes its appearance fully. In the former, evidence of dis- 
 ease appears like a small dab of soot spread evenly over the 
 fruit. The fly speck looks exactly like what its name implies. 
 They are both controlled in regularly sprayed orchards. 
 
 Blight is a bacterial disease that affects both the apple and 
 the pear. It is so much more common on the pear that com- 
 mon usage has given it the popular name of pear blight. The 
 disease is identical whether it happens to be on either the apple 
 or the pear. This disease lives through the winter in the in- 
 fected twigs and branches and in the spring these infected 
 parts exude a sticky substance that is filled with the organism 
 that causes the disease. Insects, including the honey bee, visit 
 this sticky exudate and carry away a supply of spores on their 
 
Plant Diseases 
 
 87 
 
 bodies. Then in crawling about over the blossoms and twigs 
 of the apple and pear, they start the trouble in some new local- 
 ity. Probably, if the honey bee were to be exterminated, the 
 spread of blight would be greatly checked ; but the bee is so 
 necessary in carrying pollen from one flower to another that 
 
 A good wax til I'liiKixi' (list-ased trees in tlie in'chard. 
 
 no good fruit grower should ever discourage it in that task. 
 We are obliged to have the bees in the orchard and so must 
 risk having them carry the germs of the deadly blight vdth 
 them. There is no cure for blight. Diseased branches can be 
 cut off and burned, but must be taken off much below the place 
 
88 Orchard and Garden 
 
 giving evidence of affection. Be sure to cut down into the 
 clean, healthj^ wood or the malady will simply follow the stem 
 and eventually kill the entire tree. There can be no mistaking 
 a tree or branch that has been killed by blight. From no other 
 cause do the leaves turn black and remain on the tree. In 
 pruning a blighted tree, the contagious nature of the disease 
 must be constantly kept in mind. Always disinfect the pruners 
 with a solution of corrosive sublimate made by dissolving one 
 part of the chemical in one thousand parts water. This solu- 
 tion will kill the germs of the disease, but it is highly poison- 
 ous and must be handled accordingly. After pruning, wash 
 the wounds with the same solution and when they are dry, 
 paint them with a good lead paint or with melted grafting 
 wax. 
 
 Blight seems to occur in different forms at different times. 
 Sometimes an attack will be very severe ; and at another it will 
 result in killing a few twigs. In this respect there is a resem- 
 blance to certain bacterial diseases that attack the human 
 family. In some years the epidemic of grip is very sweeping, 
 while in other seasons the disease will seem more like a severe 
 cold. Sometimes blight will attack only the twigs and again 
 only the trunks and large branches. Sometimes it attacks 
 the trunk near the surface of the ground and kills a ring of 
 bark around the tree. Such conditions are nearly always 
 found in orchards in which raw stable manure has been used 
 around the trees. 
 
 Sun-scald. — Blight injury must not be confused with sun- 
 scald which is in reality a mechanical injury and not a dis- 
 ease. It is caused by the alternate freezing and thawing of the 
 trunk. The wood of a tree freezes every winter with very 
 little effect. When, because of severe pruning or some other 
 reason, the trunk of the tree is exposed to full sunlight sud- 
 denly, especially on the southwest side, sun-scald may nearly 
 always be expected to result. If one should freeze his ear and 
 use warm water in thawing it, he would probably be so unfor- 
 tunate as to lose part of his ear. But if cold water or snow 
 were used, the after-effect would be slight. The sun-scalded 
 
Plant Diseases 
 
 89 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 HP 
 
 •*:*■/' •■■■'3'/ 
 
 
 
 
 
 Hairy root on apple. 
 
90 Orchard and Garden 
 
 tree experiences this same situation. The winter sun is warm- 
 est at about 2 or 2 :30 o'clock in the afternoon. At that 
 time it is in the southwest and strikes that side of the tree 
 with its full force, so that the juices are suddenly thawed out 
 on that side of the tree. Then the sun sets and the tree just 
 as suddenly freezes again. As a result the tissues at that period 
 are minutely ruptured — torn to pieces — and die. A similar re- 
 sult doubtless follows severe pruning when the southwest side 
 of a tree is exposed to the scorching, hot summer sun. This 
 is often the case with young nursery trees. Apple trees more 
 than one year old will have become tender from their two years' 
 growth in the shaded nursery row and when they are planted 
 in the open orchard they fall an easy victim to the hot sun. 
 One of the worst features of this scalding is that it provides 
 exactly the right conditions for the entertainment of the flat- 
 headed apple borer that was mentioned in an earlier chapter. 
 
 Tlie lU'mois canker is a disease of the trunk and branches 
 of the apple tree. The fact that the cankered areas appear to 
 be blistered should afford easy recognition of this affliction. 
 When these blisters are shaved off" with a knife, they will be 
 found to extend into and through the inner bark. Each indi- 
 vidual blister will show as being marked with a black ring. 
 There is no known control for this disease and whenever it is 
 found, it should be cut out and burned to prevent spread. 
 
 Croivn gall, or hairy root, is a disease that is not confined 
 to the apple alone. It attacks the roots, usually just at the 
 surface of the ground or a little below. The characteristic 
 evidence is the formation of large, warty knots, often over- 
 grown with masses of hair-like roots, that are easily seen 
 and surely identified. This affection almost always starts in 
 the nursery. It is bacterial in origin and the bacteria gain 
 entrance to the plant at the point where the graft is made. All 
 trees that show any evidences of this affliction should be re- 
 jected, for they never make satisfactory orchard trees. It is 
 against the law for any nursery to sell trees having this dis- 
 ease, and money paid for such stock should most certainly be 
 refunded. 
 
Plant Diseases 
 
 91 
 
 Peach scab is among the most common diseases of the 
 peach. A peach so infected becomes mottled with black spots, 
 which eventually cover the peach, finally turning it completely 
 black and during this process cracking it open. This disease 
 is widely distributed over the country, so that there are few 
 peach orchards not suffering from scab. It is easily controlled 
 by spraying with a self-boiled lime sulphur solution. 
 
 Broivn rot is another disease of the peach that also attacks 
 the plum and cherry. It attacks the fruit in very much the 
 
 same way that the 
 mold affected the bread 
 as described in the 
 early part of this 
 chapter. The disease 
 starts with the plant- 
 ing of the spore of the 
 fungus on the fruit, 
 usually by the wind or 
 by some insect. Bees 
 are a pest in a peach 
 orchard at harvest 
 time, because they are 
 always crawling about 
 over whatever rotten 
 fruit is present, and 
 then drag their bodies 
 over the sound peaches 
 in their search of the 
 sweet juices of the 
 fruit. In this way they 
 spread serious infec- 
 tion. When the spore 
 starts to grow, the 
 fungus causes a dis- 
 coloration of the fruit 
 in a constantly widen- 
 
 
 Brown rot of the peach. These dried peaches 
 
 luing on the tree all winter and cause infection 
 
 the following year. 
 
92 Orchard and Garden 
 
 ing circle. Eventually the peach becomes brown all over and 
 then the grayish spore bodies appear on the surface. These 
 rotten fruits will remain on the trees all winter and are a fer- 
 tile source of infection for the next year. This disease is 
 always much worse if there is warm, wet weather at the time 
 of harvest. This assertion recalls the fact that in growing 
 mold on bread the moisture was kept in by a glass cover. 
 Many plant diseases will thrive under similar conditions. 
 Spraying the peaches with the self-boiled lime surphur early 
 in the season will remove much danger of infection. In the 
 case of cherries, especially sweet cherries, this disease is sus- 
 pected of causing unfruitfulness in some localities. In such 
 circumstances the fruit was all destroyed before it was given 
 opportunity to develop. A few applications of self-boiled lime 
 sulphur have been known to correct this condition so that 
 trees that had been barren for years, produced a record- 
 breaking crop. 
 
 Leaf curl is a fungous disease of the peach that would be 
 quite serious if it were not so easily controlled. It manifests 
 itself by curling the leaves of the plant as soon as they come 
 out of the buds in the spring. In fact the spores of the disease 
 are present on the twigs all winter, seemingly waiting for the 
 leaves to give them a chance. Late winter spraying with 
 strong lime sulphur will kill the spores of the disease and at 
 the same time eradicate any San Jose scale that might be 
 present. This point illustrates the fact that the business of 
 spraying is not a simple one and the grower must have the 
 situation well in hand if he desires to accomplish most work 
 with the least expenditure of money and labor. 
 
 The peach yellows is a highly important disease, so im- 
 portant, in fact, that it deserves special attention. It is a 
 physiological affection, which means that nothing tangible 
 is known about it. Scientists have studied it for thirty years 
 or more and it still remains as little understood as it did at 
 first. Many growers and some scientists are beginning to 
 
Plant Diseases 
 
 93 
 
 Brown rot "muniniies" on peach tree in winter. 
 
94 Orchard and Garden 
 
 feel that yellows has a distinct relation to winter killing. It 
 it known that the yellows is more likely to appear after a 
 severe winter. It is also claimed that potatoes grown in the 
 peach orchard will cause the yellows. Scientists have scouted 
 that theory, but it has recently been suggested that it agrees 
 with the belief regarding winter injury. When potatoes are 
 planted in an orchard, they are cultivated until midsummer 
 and then permitted to rest. The stoppage of cultivation nat- 
 urally checks the growth of the peach trees. Later in the 
 fall the potatoes are dug and in digging them, the peach trees 
 are incidentally given the most severe cultivation to which 
 they have yet been subjected. Growth naturally starts again 
 and the tree enters the winter in a vigorous growing condi- 
 tion — entirely unseasoned against the severity of the winter. 
 The next year yellows often appears in the orchard. This 
 riddle of peach yellows will undoubtedly be solved in the near 
 future, but in the meantime nothing can apparently be done 
 as a corrective. 
 
 The black knot on the plum is a disease that affects the 
 twigs and branches of the tree. The Japan varieties are 
 almost never affected by it, and, since it is difficult to control, 
 the wise orchardist will avoid planting the sorts that are 
 subject to it. The only means of controlling it is to cut out 
 and burn the affected branches. 
 
 The leaf spot, or shot hole fungus, causes spots to appear 
 in plum leaves. Later these spots fall away, leaving a round 
 "shot hole." To remedy this the trees should be sprayed with 
 strong lime sulphur solution before the leaves open, and dur- 
 ing the summer they should have several applications of self- 
 boiled lime sulphur. 
 
 The black rot of grapes causes the berries to turn brown 
 at first, then black, and finally to shrivel away. The spores 
 develop on these first berries attacked and the disease will 
 soon spread over an entire vineyard. Some varieties are 
 much more liable to rot than others. For relief the vines 
 
Plant Diseases 
 
 95 
 
 (7) 
 
96 
 
 Orchard and Garden 
 
 must be sprayed in the winter with strong Bordeaux or with 
 winter strength Hme sulphur. During the summer the vines 
 must be sprayed regularly as directed in the chapter on spray- 
 ing. 
 
 Anthracnose on grape causes a circular spot on the ber- 
 ries and also forms a small canker on the canes. Severe 
 pruning to remove the damaged canes and spraying as for 
 black rot will help control the infestation. 
 
 Anthmcuosc on berries. — Another disease, also called 
 
 CJrapG anthracnose. 
 
 anthracnose, appears in whitish spots on the canes of rasp- 
 berries and blackberries. Eventually the canes die, and the 
 fruit is always much poorer in quality and less in quantity 
 on diseased plants. The old canes should be cut out and the 
 new ones sprayed with Bordeaux. 
 
 The leaf spot of straivbo'nj is sometimes a serious dis- 
 ease, although it does not damage the fruit directly. The 
 
Plant Diseases 
 
 97 
 
98 
 
 Orchard and Garden 
 
 fungus forms small 
 spots in the leaf and 
 weakens the structure 
 so that it is unable to 
 continue in its normal 
 functions. Badly in- 
 fested beds should be 
 plowed under or burnt 
 as soon as the crop of 
 fruit has been har- 
 vested. Sometimes the 
 practice of burning 
 over is decidedly ben- 
 eficial, as it kills not 
 only the diseased 
 leaves, but also eradi- 
 cates numerous leaf- 
 eating insects. In new- 
 ly planted strawberry beds the plants should be sprayed with 
 Bordeaux mixture at frequent intervals. 
 
 strawberry leaf spot. 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 Spraying. 
 
 Need fo) 
 horticultural 
 
 spruijing. — Of all the recent developments in 
 practice, none is of more significance than 
 
 spraying. Not so many 
 years ago it was pos- 
 sible to grow most 
 fruits without any spe- 
 cial attention other 
 than an occasional 
 pruning and cultiva- 
 tion. This time is now 
 past and fruit growers 
 everywhere recognize 
 the fact that the trees 
 must be sprayed thor- 
 oughly, if a first-class 
 crop is to be produced. 
 Very often the applica- 
 tion of the right spray 
 at the right time 
 makes all the differ- 
 ence between a full 
 crop of -fruit and none 
 at all. In one instance 
 a large sweet cherry 
 tree illustrated this 
 point very forcibly. The tree was unusually large and each year 
 it bloomed freely, but had never ripened any fruit. The owner 
 of the farm declared that in his twenty years proprietorship 
 
 Perfect apples are obtained only by spraying'. 
 
100 Orchard and Garden 
 
 he had never seen any ripe sweet cherries on the tree. By the 
 form alone it was decreed a sweet cherry in the neighborhood, 
 but no one knew whether the color of the fruit was yellow or 
 deep black. This tree was sprayed and produced that year 
 over sixty gallons of fine Royal Ann cherries. With similar 
 spraying it has done equally well ever since. 
 
 Spray materials. — In order to understand spraying fully, 
 a general knowledge of spraying materials must first be ob- 
 tained. These may conveniently be divided into three classes, 
 viz., contact insecticides, internal poisons, and fungicides. The 
 word "insecticide" simply means a preparation that will kill 
 insects. Fungicide is the term applied to those solutions used 
 to kill fungus. 
 
 Contact insecticides. — There are three contact insecticides 
 in almost universal use in orchards. The practical grower 
 must know what they are and how they are prepared and used. 
 
 Lime sulphur solution. — The first and most important of 
 this group is the lime sulphur solution. This is a mixture of 
 lime and sulphur in which the sulphur, or part of it, is brought 
 into solution by boiling it with lime. Sulphur by itself is only 
 slightly soluble in hot water. By mixing it with lime and boil- 
 ing vigorously, the lime and sulphur form a combination that 
 is soluble. It is this combined sulphur and lime that consti- 
 tutes the insecticidal part of the mixture. 
 
 The common method of preparing the solution is to take 
 fifty pounds of good unslaked lime and add enough water to 
 cover. Then add fifty pounds of sulphur and stir well. As 
 soon as these ingredients are well mixed, enough water should 
 be added to make one hundred and fifty gallons altogether, and 
 the entire mass should be boiled until it develops a deep coffee 
 color. This process will take from thirty minutes to one hour, 
 according to the intensity of heat applied. The solution may 
 be prepared in large iron kettles or might better be made in 
 wooden tanks into which steam pipes from a small boiler are 
 permitted to discharge. By using live steam in this manner 
 the amount of heat may be easily controlled at all times. 
 
Spraying 
 
 101 
 
 Concentrated lime .mlphur.— There is now on the market 
 a preparation known as concentrated lime sulphur solution 
 
 which many orchard- 
 ists have adopted in 
 place of makmg the 
 mixture as it is need- 
 ed. If properly used, 
 the commercial solu- 
 tion is just as good as 
 the home-made and all 
 the labor of making it 
 is avoided. Since the 
 home-made material 
 should be freshly pre- 
 pared as it is used, it 
 will be easily seen that 
 it will require time for 
 preparation just when 
 the fruit grower can 
 least spare it. By us- 
 ing the commercial 
 solution all the avail- 
 able time is devoted 
 to spraying instead of 
 being taken up in the 
 preparation of the 
 spray. The commer- 
 
 Using the hydrometer. cial SOlutlon iS USUally 
 
 of a uniform strength and can easily be tested to make sure 
 that one quantity is exactly like every other. ' For this pur- 
 pose an instrument, called the hydrometer, is used. The 
 hydrometer is made of glass and is so constructed that it 
 floats in any solution in an upright position. A graduated 
 scale on the glass indicates the strength of the solution. There 
 are many different hydrometers made for testing various sub- 
 stances, but the one used in connection with lime sulphur is 
 
102 Orchard and Garden 
 
 known as the "Baume" hydrometer. On this scale the fresh, 
 undiluted commercial lime sulphur should test not less than 
 32 degrees. When diluted for use it should test not less than 
 ly^ to 8 degrees. The directions put out by most manufac- 
 turers will advise diluting the material till it tests only 5 
 degrees, but this recommendation should not be followed, if 
 good work is to be expected. It is generally conceded that 5 
 degree lime sulphur will not kill all the San Jose scale; and 
 so the wise orchardist will use his material at the higher 
 strength. 
 
 Tobacco is the base of another kind of contact insecticide 
 that is used for summer spraying against soft-bodied insects 
 like the plant lice. The lime sulphur solution at winter 
 strength can not be used while the trees are in foliage because 
 it is so caustic that it will burn the leaves. It is for this reason 
 that the tobacco preparations are used during the summer. 
 Tobacco tea may be prepared by boiling stems and refuse 
 leaves in water, but the ordinary grower has no means of 
 knowing whether his solution is sufficiently strong. Here 
 again the manufacturing chemists have been of good service 
 by preparing a tobacco solution of known and uniform 
 streng'th. There are several preparations on the market 
 which contain not less than 40% of nicotine sulphate, which 
 is the important ingredient in the solution. This is the strong- 
 est preparation of tobacco that has yet been made and it is a 
 very violent poison. It should be handled with care and 
 stored out of reach of children. The solution is diluted for 
 use by adding from 500 to 1000 parts of water according to 
 the insect that is being eradicated. Since these preparations 
 vary somewhat with the different brands, it is safest to follow 
 the directions provided by the manufacturer. These strong 
 preparations should not be confused with the weak and mostly 
 inert mixtures, that are offered by some firms. It is a wise 
 precaution to examine the label on any tobacco preparation 
 and assure one's self that the article contains not less than 
 40% nicotine sulphate. 
 
Spraying 103 
 
 Coal oil emulsion is a contact insecticide that is not as 
 popular as formerly. At one time it was widely employed for 
 the control of the San Jose scale in winter, and, in a dilute 
 form, for the control of plant lice in summer. At the present 
 time it has been largely supplanted by the lime sulphur solu- 
 tion and the tobacco preparations. There are still a few situ- 
 ations in which the kerosene emulsion may prove of value. 
 This is particularly true in regard to some of the scale insects 
 like the oyster shell scale, which are most easily destroyed 
 when the eggs are hatching in the spring. The emulsion is 
 made as follows: 
 
 ("hiplied Imrd soil) V2 pound 
 
 Water 1 gallon 
 
 Kerosene 2 gallons 
 
 Heat the water and dissolve the soap in it. Add the coal 
 oil and churn vigorously. At first the mixture becomes milky, 
 but soon becomes quite as thick as soft butter. As it grows 
 cold it hardens and may be kept some time without having the 
 oil separate out. For summer use it should be diluted with 
 from twelve to fifteen parts of soft water. If soft water is not 
 obtainable, a small portion of borax must be added to make a 
 smooth solution. In use this preparation must be carefully 
 observed as it is likely to injure tender foliage. This possi- 
 bility varies with the weather conditions, and, because a cer- 
 tain strength solution failed to injure a certain plant on one 
 day, is no assurance that it will not injure the same sort of 
 plant the next day. As a rule, warm, dry weather is favorable 
 to its use, because under such conditions the oil is evaporated 
 more quickly. On cool, moist days the oil will remain on the 
 foliage longer and to most plants kerosene is a positive poison. 
 
 TJie "miscible oils" are very similar in their action to 
 the coal oil emulsion. There are several brands made by 
 various manufacturers. They are all prepared under the 
 same principle and as purchased they all appear to be a heavy 
 dark oil. This oil, when mixed with water, makes a milky 
 
104 Orchard and Garden 
 
 solution. If used strong enough, 
 these solutions will kill most varie- 
 ties of scale insects ; but they have 
 an unfortunate record of having 
 killed many trees also. Their use 
 is generally regarded as danger- 
 ous, and careful fruit growers are 
 avoiding them whenever possible. 
 The lime sulphur solutions will ac- 
 complish all and more than any of 
 Spray injury on apple. ^^^ miscible oils and without any 
 
 of the element of risk attached to the employment of the latter 
 class of insecticides. 
 
 hiternal poisons. — There are only two internal poisons 
 sufficiently important to be mentioned here. They are arsen- 
 ate of lead and Paris Green. Arsenate of lead is a chemical 
 preparation of arsenic and lead. During the past few years 
 it has come into almost universal use as the best internal 
 poison. It can be prepared at home, but the home-made sub- 
 stance varies in strength to such an extent that no practical 
 orchardist will attempt to make his own. The commercial 
 composition has been standardized and all that is sold must 
 come up to United States government inspection. As a result 
 the orchardist is protected from getting an impure chemical 
 regardless of the brand he purchases. As supplied by the 
 trade, arsenate of lead is a pure white paste containing about 
 50% water. A newly-opened package will resemble a package 
 of ready-mixed paint in that the heavy portion will be settled 
 and more or less caked at the bottom. This hard cake should 
 be carefully stirred up until the contents of the original pack- 
 age is of a uniform consistency. None of the water in the 
 package should be poured out as it is all counted in with the 
 weight of the substance, and, if part of the contained water 
 should be poured off, a paste would result which would be ma- 
 terially stronger than would be anticipated. The well-mixed 
 paste is to be applied at the rate of from two to three pounds 
 to each fifty gallons of spray solution. 
 
Spraying 105 
 
 Dry arf<enate of lead. — Recently some manufacturers have 
 been making a feature of dry powdered arsenate of lead. In 
 most cases this is simply the ordinary paste form, dried and 
 ground. As a result this product is not so finely divided as is 
 the paste — that is, the particles of arsenate of lead are larger 
 in the dried form and consequently do not remain in suspen- 
 sion as long as the paste does. Thus the poison settles in the 
 spray tank and the solution as it goes on the tree is not uni- 
 form in strength. The saving in freight, the convenience in 
 handling, and the accuracy in weighing are all in favor of the 
 dried substance ; but until the present time at least, the paste 
 form has procured the best results in the orchard. With im- 
 proved methods of manufacture the dry form will soon doubt- 
 less be made quite as effective as the paste. 
 
 Paris Green is a combination of arsenic and copper. It 
 was widely used before arsenate of lead came into general use. 
 It is not now so extensively employed as formerly except for 
 certain pests. It is more likely to injure the fruit and the 
 foliage, and it is altogether more expensive than the newer 
 poison. 
 
 Fungicides. — The preparations that are used as fungi- 
 cides are interesting on account of the methods which occa- 
 sioned their discovery. Many years ago the grape growers 
 near Bordeaux, in France, were much annoyed by having their 
 fruit stolen by tramps. They made a mixture of lime and 
 copper sulphate and sprinkled it on the vines nearest the road 
 to make it appear as if the grapes had been poisoned. After 
 this had been done several times they discovered that the 
 vines that had been sprinkled were not only unmolested by the 
 thieves, but were growing more vigorously than their neigh- 
 bors farther from the road. In this accidental way was dis- 
 covered the preparation which has ever since been known as 
 Bordeaux mixture. It is probably the best general fungicide 
 that is now known in spite of the fact that it has some unde- 
 sirable characteristics. It consists simply of the mixture of 
 two solutions, one of copper sulphate and the other of lime. 
 
106 
 
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Spraying 107 
 
 The solutions are prepared separately, and then diluted and 
 mixed. The following formula is in general use: 
 
 Water HO gJiHons 
 
 Copper sulphate J Itoiinds 
 
 Lime 4 poiiiids 
 
 Stock solutions of both lime and copper should be pre- 
 pared in advance, as the copper is not easily brought into solu- 
 tion. The best way to prepare these stock solutions is to weigh 
 out a given number of pounds of copper sulphate, place it in 
 a burlap bag, and suspend it in a barrel containing the same 
 number of gallons of water as pounds of the chemical. After 
 the copper is all dissolved the resulting solution will repre- 
 sent one pound of copper for each gallon of water. Similar 
 measures should be taken in the preparation of the lime solu- 
 tion. When ready to start spraying, take four gallons of each 
 of the solutions, dilute them separately and then mix. Unless 
 special diluting tanks are at hand, this is somewhat trouble- 
 some and the same results can be obtained in the following 
 manner. Take four gallons of the copper solution, place it in 
 the tank of the spray machine which has been previously 
 almost filled with water, and stir vigorously. If the machine 
 is equipped with an agitator, this solution may be easily mixed 
 by working the pump a few moments. While the solution is 
 being stirred vigorously, add the four gallons of the lime solu- 
 tion. The solutions should never be mixed in the concentrated 
 form, as the resulting combination is not nearly so effectual. 
 If the spray tank holds more than fifty gallons, proportionate 
 quantities of the stock solutions can easily be used. 
 
 Self-boiled lime sidpJiur. — Probably second in the list of 
 fungicides comes the self-boiled lime sulphur mixture. Its 
 value as a fungicide was discovered from the fact that it was 
 at first thought to be a means of controlling the San Jose scale 
 in the summer time. It failed to accomplish the latter pur- 
 pose, but proved itself to be admirably adapted to the work of 
 
108 Orchard and Garden 
 
 controlling certain plant diseases. The self-boiled lime sul- 
 phur mixture differs from the lime sulphur solution in that it 
 is simply a mixture of the two chemicals made in a specific 
 way, and not a chemical combination. It is prepared in the 
 following way : 
 
 Good unslaked stone lime S pounds 
 
 Flower sulphur S pounds 
 
 Wnter 50 gallons 
 
 The lime is placed in a barrel and enough hot water added 
 to slake it. Hot water increases the heat which is normally 
 generated in slaking. As soon as the hot water is poured on, 
 the sulphur must be added and the entire mass stirred for a 
 few moments. It should boil vigorously from its own heat 
 so that no artificial heat need be applied. If the solution is 
 permitted to boil long enough, some of the sulphur will com- 
 bine with the lime and the resulting compound will be a clear 
 coffee-colored liquid which rises to the top. This action may 
 be remembered as very similar to the one obtained in the 
 preparation of the lime sulphur solution. For fungicidal pur- 
 poses it is not desired that the cooking should progress farther 
 than this stage. Just as the brown liquid begins to form, cold 
 water should be added to stop the boiling. In practice, it is 
 customary to add enough water to complete the required fifty 
 gallons. The preparation is then ready to spray on the trees. 
 Care and judgment are necessary in the preparation of self- 
 boiled lime sulphur, but if the fruit grower learns to check 
 the boiling at the proper time, he may well believe that his 
 undertaking is becoming successful. This fungicide has an 
 advantage over Bordeaux mixture in that it can be applied to 
 any kind of foliage without the danger of burning. It is also 
 the only satisfactory spray for use on peaches and plums. It 
 is not so vigorous in action, however, and has not proven that 
 it will perfectly substitute the Bordeaux in the apple orchard. 
 
 Commercial lime sulpliur. — A dilute solution of the com- 
 mercial lime sulphur is another fungicide with which every 
 
Spraying 
 
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 fruit grower should be 
 familiar. All the lime 
 sulphur solutions have 
 the power of killing 
 fungous growths or 
 preventing such dis- 
 eases. The commercial 
 lime sulphur, however, 
 is so strong in its ac- 
 tion that it must be 
 greatly diluted when 
 used in the summer as 
 a fungicide. The usual 
 method of employing it 
 is to weaken the com- 
 mercial material with 
 forty parts water. At 
 this strength it is not 
 injurious to the apple tree, but will probably cause serious 
 burning on the leaves of the trees bearing stone fruits. Dilute 
 lime sulphur solution is extensively used as a first spray on 
 apples and the Bordeaux is applied later. 
 
 Dusting. — Formerly spray materials were much employed 
 in the form of powder or dust which was blown over the trees 
 by special blowing machines. There have been recent at- 
 tempts to revive this form of treatment ; but, for the most 
 part, the agitation has been made by the manufacturers of 
 dusting machines. In practically every instance the use of 
 dust has not given as good results as the wet spray. 
 
 Spray machinery is now made in a great variety of styles, 
 but the most common outfits are the barrel and power rigs. 
 The barrel outfit is designed to be used by hand. It consists 
 of a barrel to contain the spray material, a pump to force the 
 liquid out, and a stirring device to agitate the solution in the 
 barrel. Many spray materials tend to settle if allowed to 
 stand and the agitator, as a consequence, is a highly essential 
 
110 
 
 Orchard and Garden 
 
 part of the outfit. The pump should by all means be made of 
 brass, and should have a sufficiently large air chamber to 
 maintain a uniformly high pressure. Most barrel outfits will 
 furnish enough force to supply only one line of hose. In fact, 
 it is unwise to attempt to make them supply more than one 
 line, for a lowered pressure would most assuredly result which 
 would be greatly detrimental to eflficient service. All pumps 
 should be provided with a gauge to determine pressure, which 
 
 Winter spraying-. 
 
 should never read below 100 pounds on hand pumps and 175 
 pounds on power pumps. But higher pressure can be main- 
 tained at whatever point the power plant is able to furnish. 
 More solution is required if applied at a low pressure, and it 
 will not prove so eflfectual. The high pressure breaks the 
 spray substance up into small particles and provides a very 
 thin coating for the entire tree. 
 
 The barrel and pump can be mounted on a low sled or set 
 in a small wagon. If the ground is rough, the sled is much to 
 be preferred for it is less likely to upset. The spray outfit 
 
Spraying 111 
 
 must also include fifty feet of good half-inch rubber hose, an 
 extension rod and a good nozzle. The hose should not be 
 shorter than the length specified, because a shorter hose will 
 prove a handicap for good work. When a tree is being sprayed 
 the workman must go completely around and spray all sides 
 of it before he can consider his work well done. The long 
 hose will enable a man to spray an ordinary tree without mov- 
 ing the machine. The hose should have been made for spray- 
 ing and should not be an adapted garden hose, which can not 
 endure the high pressure and which will quickly be rotted by 
 the chemicals. Good half-inch spray hose should last for three 
 years and should not cost more than from fifteen to seventeen 
 cents per foot. Extension rods are made of bamboo, lined 
 with a thin brass tube. The brass tube is threaded at both 
 ends so that the nozzle can be attached to one end and the hose 
 to the other. There should be a good brass cut-off valve be- 
 tween the hose and the rod. All these parts can now be pro- 
 cured of standard size, so no difficulty should be encountered 
 in the matter of proper fittings. Nearly all bamboo rods are 
 made alike, and, as a rule, are perfectly satisfactory. Never 
 use an iron pipe as an extension rod, because it is heavy and 
 difficult to handle and flakes off inside, thus clogging the 
 nozzle. Iron extension rods are furnished only with the 
 cheapest outfits. Nozzles are of various styles, which differ 
 with the manufacturer. The nozzle known as the double 
 Vermorel has long been popular with fruit growers, and is 
 capable of extremely effective work. Its only possible objec- 
 tion is the ease with which it becomes entangled in the 
 branches, but this has no weight with the careful workman. 
 
 The disc type of nozzle has come into general use in the 
 past few years, and is steadily gaining in popularity. To the 
 experienced, however, its only obvious advantage is that it 
 does not catch in the branches, thus facilitating speedier work, 
 but this fact might easily become a disadvantage since careful 
 spraying is to be encouraged rather than speedy work. 
 
 The Bordeaux nozzle throws a fan-shaped sheet of spray, 
 
 (8) 
 
112 Orchard and Garden 
 
 It is not used to any great extent by practical growers, but is 
 often used in spraying shade trees because it throws a large 
 volume of spray, thereby insuring quick work. 
 
 Potver sprayers are built on the same principle that is 
 used in the hand pumps except that the power for running 
 them is supplied by a gasoline engine. This type of outfit is 
 usually provided with a tank which will hold from one hun- 
 dred to two hundred and fifty gallons of spray material. The 
 smaller sizes are best adapted for hillside work, as they are 
 much more easily handled. 
 
 Power pumps are built with either one, two, or three 
 cylinders. The three cylinder pump, called a triplex, has prac- 
 tically three times the capacity of the single cylinder and is a 
 very efficient pump. The engine used on any spray machine 
 should be constructed as light as possible and should not be 
 larger than is absolutely needed for the work. It is absurd 
 to haul a heavy four or five-horse-power engine about over the 
 orchard when one of half that capacity and weight would do 
 the work just as well. Experienced orchardists find that a 
 small one and a half or two-horse-power engine gives all the 
 power needed and has the added advantage of lightness. In 
 every case the engine should be just as simple in construction 
 as is possible, for fewer parts to become deranged means less 
 delay on such account. Any gas engine, even the best of them, 
 will need attention from time to time. Keep the machine well 
 oiled and clean it thoroughly after each spraying. It will then 
 require the minimum care and attention. 
 
 Small hand sprayers are made in a great variety of de- 
 signs. Most of them are but little more than playthings, but 
 occasionally such a sprayer will be found most convenient for 
 small work. One of the best types is that known as the com- 
 pressed air sprayer which is made by a number of different 
 firms. It consists of a tight, brass cylinder holding three or 
 four gallons. The pump is inside the cylinder and is operated 
 much like a bicycle pump. The cylinder is filled partly full 
 of material and the cap screwed into place. Several pounds 
 
Spraying 113 
 
 of pressure are then pumped up in the can over the liquid, 
 and this pressure forces the spray substance out through the 
 nozzle. For small shrubs and vines around the house, this is 
 quite a convenient outfit, but it does not supplant the larger 
 machine in the orchard or the fruit garden. 
 
 Freak sprayers. — There have been, from time to time, 
 several kinds of "freak" sprayers on the market. Most of 
 these are run on the same theory as the little hand sprayer 
 above described, and none has proven in the least satisfactory. 
 The prime objection to them all is that they have no means 
 of agitating the spray liquid. In this respect they have all 
 failed. 
 
 Careful spraying. — Regardless of the kind or type of 
 spray machine used, there is one point which the fruit grower 
 must always bear in mind, which is that his work must al- 
 ways be done thoroughly. A man may own the finest spray- 
 ing machine on earth, and still make a failure of his spraying. 
 I have seen this proposition work out so often in actual prac- 
 tice that I cannot make the argument strong enough. Suc- 
 cess in spraying does not depend so much on the kind of ma- 
 chine used as it does on the man who is directing the nozzle. 
 If trees are to be slighted, the money wasted in such manner 
 might better be saved and put into some other business. But 
 the future will be the harvest time to the careful fruit grower 
 — to the one who knows how to spray and is not afraid of 
 work. 
 
 Spraying is not a disagreeable task if proper preparation 
 for it is made. In the first place, old clothes must be worn 
 that can be discarded at the end of the season. If the sprayer 
 is not afraid of his work, he will undoubtedly be covered with 
 the spray material. However, the spray solution has no in- 
 jurious effects on the human animal except a most discourag- 
 ing odor. The winter strength lime sulphur solution is rath- 
 er caustic and sometimes burns a tender skin. To avoid any 
 discomfort, everyone who sprays should take the precaution 
 to oil his hands and even his face before starting work. Tal- 
 
114 Orchard and Garden 
 
 low is a good thing to use for this purpose and vaseline is ex- 
 cellent. If glasses are not worn, a pair of large amber glasses, 
 such as are used on bright days in winter or on the water, 
 should be secured. They will most admirably serve the double 
 purpose of protecting the eyes from the strong light as well 
 as the spray. They are better than goggles because the latter 
 fit so tight that they permit no circulation of air about the 
 eyes, which soon become very tired and hot. 
 
 Winter' or dormant sprays are usually applied for the con- 
 trol of scale insects and for certain plant diseases. The strong 
 lime sulphur solution will control most scale insects and also 
 help control various fungous diseases. Besides it acts as a 
 cleansing wash to the trees, which would make its application 
 profitable even if there were no scales present in the orchard. 
 By cleaning the bark of the tree it seems to put new vigor into 
 every branch. Any spray applied in winter should be used 
 at a high pressure so as to drive the liquid under the small 
 flakes of bark and into all the cracks and crevices. Scale in- 
 sects prefer such sheltered places, which are also convenient 
 for the lodgment of the spores of diseases. 
 
 The first spray to be applied to apples is usually put on 
 when the buds are first showing their pink color. This should 
 consist of the commercial lime sulphur solution diluted with 
 forty parts water. To this is added two pounds of arsenate of 
 lead to each fifty gallons of solution. The combination makes 
 a spray solution that is effective against leaf-eating insects 
 and against such fungous diseases as the apple scab. This 
 spray is designed to eradicate the scab, the curculio and the 
 bud moth. 
 
 The second apple spray is applied just after the petals 
 fall. This spray is intended primarily to control the codling 
 moth and is often called the codling moth spray. It will be re- 
 membered that the codling moth usually enters the fruit at the 
 blossom end. The object of this treatment is by using high 
 pressure to force the spray substance into the calyx cup of 
 every blossom. A little later in the season, as the young 
 
Spraying 
 
 115 
 
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116 Orchard and Garden 
 
 apple begins to grow, the lobes of the calyx curl inward and 
 close the cup. Unless the fruit is sprayed before these lobes 
 close, very limited opportunity remains for controlling this 
 pest. A dose of spray poison must be inserted into each calyx 
 and the young codling moth will be poisoned at its first bite 
 toward eating his way into the apple. The dilute lime sul- 
 phur is used as a basis in this spray which is identical with 
 the first spray. 
 
 The third application is made about two weeks after the 
 second and has the same object in view. It is to a certain ex- 
 tent a "good measure" spray, so if any of the spray work is 
 to be left undone, this third spray should be the one neglected. 
 The identical dilute lime sulphur solution is used as in the 
 first two instances. 
 
 In spraying for the lesser apple worm a very high pres- 
 sure should be maintained and a nozzle used that will form a 
 very fine mist. In the codling moth spray a high pressure 
 was used to drive the poison into the calyx cup. In the con- 
 trol of the lesser apple work a spray will be needed to coat all 
 parts of the tree and all parts of the fruit as well. For this 
 purpose I have found that the triple Vermorel nozzle, with a 
 pressure of at least 200 pounds, will give by far the most sat- 
 isfactory results. Other attempts at controlling this pest with 
 a disc nozzle have absolutely failed. 
 
 Peaches should be sprayed just as the calyx cups are being 
 crowded from the growing fruit. These little husks protect 
 the young fruit until it is two weeks or more old. In this 
 early stage spraying would do no good because the poison 
 could not be brought into contact with the young fruit. This 
 spray controls the scab and in a measure it also controls brown 
 rot. Where the latter disease is serious the trees should have 
 a second, and perhaps a third, application later in the season. 
 The self-boiled lime sulphur solution with three pounds of 
 arsenate of lead paste to each fifty gallons, is the spray used 
 in all summer sprays for the fruit. 
 
 In vineyard spraying it is customary to mount the noz- 
 
Spraying 
 
 117 
 
 The propel' time for the peach spray. 
 
118 Orchard and Garden 
 
 zles in such manner that they do not need to be turned, and 
 are permanently fixed in position. Enough nozzles are used 
 so that the entire vine surface on both sides is coated at one 
 trip between the rows. This is a similar arrangement to that 
 used in spraying field crops, except that nozzles can be placed 
 in such a way for field work as to cover several rows at a time. 
 The chief points to remember in connection with any kind 
 of spraying are : first, know what you are spraying for ; 
 second, know what you are to spray with, and third, do the 
 work thoroughly. 
 
CHAPTER IX. 
 
 Small Fruits. 
 
 The term small fruits is applied to the various berries, 
 such as strawberries, raspberries, and blackberries and to cur- 
 rants and gooseberries. All small fruits require special care in 
 planting and cultivating, but ar.e otherwise easy to raise. They 
 seldom require much spraying and are so productive that they 
 are a source of profit to growers. They all come into bearing 
 at an early age, and for this reason they make admirable crops 
 to grow between the rows of trees in an orchard. Strawber- 
 ries are a practical intercrop in vineyards. 
 
 Rich soil is to be preferred in the commercial production 
 of any of the small fruits. They adapt themselves to a wide 
 variety of soils provided that there is enough available fertil- 
 ity present to force them into a sturdy growth from the start. 
 Like all other quick crops, they demand that the fertility be 
 available in order to be of immediate use. On poor soils the 
 plants very often succumb before they are able to establish 
 themselves. It is not advisable, therefore, to attempt the 
 growth of berries on any but the best soil obtainable. New 
 ground, that is, ground which has been recently cleared, is 
 nearly always suitable for small fruits, because it contains 
 plant food in large quantities and is usually in a condition 
 which favors the retention of moisture during dry weather. 
 
 Soil 'preparation. — Next to the fertility of the soil comes 
 the preparation. The ground must be thoroughly prepared 
 before attempting to plant small fruits. Apple and peach 
 trees sometimes grow well in newly cleared ground with very 
 little preparation, but the same is not true of the berries. If 
 
120 Orchard and Garden 
 
 it is planned to use small fruits as an inter-crop in orchards 
 that are planted on new ground, it will be wise to cultivate 
 the land in some other crop for a year before the berries are 
 planted. This practice will insure much better cultivation 
 when small fruits are planted. Without cultivation they are 
 sure to perish. If small fruits are planted on old ground that 
 has been cultivated for many years, some measure should be 
 adopted to restore fertility. A good plan is to sow a crop of 
 cow peas or soja beans and turn them under some time dur- 
 ing the fall previous to the planting of the berries in the 
 spring. If old pasture land is used, it should be plowed in the 
 fall and frequently gone over with a spike tooth harrow to 
 break up the sod and to kill the white grubs that are always 
 present in such land. The white grub is one of the chief ene- 
 mies of the strawberry and also injures some of the other 
 small fruits. 
 
 The best time to plant any of the small fruits is in the 
 spring. Assuming that the ground and especially the surface 
 of the ground, has been as well prepared as if a garden crop 
 were to be planted, the actual work is ready to be started. 
 The plants should be kept moist until they go into the ground 
 and should be inspected as carefully as fruit trees. In all 
 cases the roots should be pruned and the tops cut back. The 
 principle involved is exactly the same as in the case of fruit 
 trees. The roots as they come from the nursery are always 
 more or less imperfect and sometimes in small fruits the roots 
 are matted together in a tight mass. These must be thinned 
 out and the top reduced so as to restore the balance between 
 top and root. In planting the various berries the plants should 
 be set just about as they grew in the nursery and the soil 
 must be firmed about the roots. This is one of the most vital 
 points in securing a good stand of plants. After planting, the 
 berries should be regularly cultivated and no weeds should be 
 permitted to grow near them. The cultivation should start 
 within a very short time after the plants are set. Some 
 strawberry growers cultivate the day after the plants are set 
 
Small Fruits 
 
 121 
 
 The ultimate aim of the berry grower — shortcake. 
 
122 Orchard and Garden 
 
 and keep the ground loosened throughout the season. A safe 
 rule is to cultivate about as for a crop of corn or potatoes. 
 Strawberries are an interesting crop, easily grown, and, on 
 good land, they are very profitable. A single acre has been 
 known to clear as much as five hundred dollars, but the aver- 
 age profit is much less than this, owing to poor culture, poor 
 varieties, or low market prices. 
 
 Strawherry varieties must be given special attention, be- 
 cause a variety that is a success in one section may prove a 
 disastrous failure in another. Do not plant too large an acre- 
 age until you know what varieties are suited to your ground 
 and climate. If no neighbor has made a success of strawber- 
 ries, it will be best to plant a single row of several varieties 
 and observe results. The next season suitable varieties can 
 easily be selected and may be safely planted. A few old varie- 
 ties have succeeded in many different localities. New varie- 
 ties especially should be carefully tested before being exten- 
 sively planted. This last precaution applies to all sorts of 
 fruits, but particularly to strawberries, A new variety may 
 prove a wonder for its originator so as to cause him to be per- 
 fectly honest in advertising it as a splendid new production. 
 In the adjoining state, however, it may prove worthless, dis- 
 appoint the planter and give the originator a bad name. 
 
 Straivheiiy plants come from the nursery tied in small 
 bunches of about twenty-five plants each. These bunches 
 should be packed for shipment in crates so that the green 
 leaves are exposed to air. If they were packed in tight boxes 
 like dormant trees many of them would die. As soon as they 
 are received they should be planted, and, if it is impossible 
 to take care of them at once, they should be heeled in. This 
 is done by digging a narrow trench and opening the bunches 
 so that all the roots come in contact with the soil. Lay the 
 plants in the trench and cover the roots and crown with earth, 
 firming it with the foot. In planting see that the plant is set 
 just as deep as it formerly grew. Many strawberry plants 
 
Small Fruits 123 
 
 are lost each year by being' set too deep or not deep enough. 
 And lastly clip off all but one or two leaves before planting. 
 
 Suste7ns of planthKj. — Strawberries may be planted either 
 in hills four feet apart or in matted rows. In the latter case 
 the rows are four feet apart and the plants arc set about 
 twelve to fifteen inches apart in the row. The runners from 
 the plants in the row are kept trained in the row and a mat of 
 plants is formed which will vary in width according to the 
 vigor of the variety. In the hill system the runners are con- 
 fined to a small space in order to form a compact clump. This 
 method produces very fine fruit, but not nearly so much to the 
 acre as the row system. 
 
 Some varieties of strawberries produce flowers with im- 
 perfect flower parts. That is, the flowers of certain varieties 
 do not contain pollen-bearing organs and so must depend upon 
 the flowers of other varieties to furnish the fertilizing ele- 
 ments. Other varieties produce flowers that are perfect, con- 
 taining pollen-bearing organs. Those sorts which produce no 
 pollen are called sterile varieties to distinguish them from the 
 perfect varieties. In growing sterile varieties it is necessary 
 to plant them in close proximity to plants that are perfect, or 
 there will be no fruit or at best only imperfect fruit. This is 
 an important thing to remember, as some of the best varieties 
 are imperfect or sterile. 
 
 Straw mulch. — In the fall of the year, at the approach 
 of cold weather, the plants should be given a cover of straw. 
 This protects them during the winter and prevents severe 
 injury to the roots caused by the alternate freezing and thaw- 
 ing in the spring. The straw should be permitted to remain 
 until severe night frosts are past. When the straw mulch 
 is taken off" in the spring, it should be piled in the space be- 
 tween the rows and left. A slight covering of straw should 
 be left through which the plants will be forced to push, in 
 order to keep the fruit oflf the ground, thereby keeping it 
 cleaner and making it easier to handle. The bulk of straw 
 which is left in the space between the rows will be convenient 
 
124 Orchard and Garden 
 
 to protect the blossoms from possible frosts by covering the 
 plants again whenever such emergency threatens, thus sav- 
 ing the crop. 
 
 Burning old beds. — Strawberry beds will bear a crop one 
 year after they are planted ; but, as a rule, they are not con- 
 sidered profitable for more than two or three crops. Some 
 growers are satisfied with only one crop from a given plant- 
 ing, while a few permit their beds to stand several years. In 
 such cases it is customary to burn the beds over after they 
 have fruited. The old plants are mowed close to the ground, 
 dried for a few days, and then burnt. This treatment kills all 
 leaf-eating insects and eliminates much of the leaf spot dis- 
 ease. Afterward the space between the rows should be well 
 cultivated and manured. Such precaution will sometimes 
 rejuvenate an old bed and make it profitable. 
 
 Everhearing strawberries. — A recent introduction in the 
 strawberry line has been the everbearing variety, which is 
 simply a sport from the older sorts that tends to produce its 
 fruit in the fall instead of the spring. As a matter of fact, 
 such varieties product berries in small quantities all summer, 
 but never enough to make them profitable. They are of value 
 chiefly to the man who grows only a small amount of fruit 
 for home use. In some seasons the ordinary varieties pro- 
 duce fruit in October, often enough to make a profitable har- 
 vest, and they have even been known to ripen under a light 
 fall of late October snow. Such occasions are experienced 
 only rarely, but it is probable that in some favorable year, 
 the everbearing varieties may yield a profit. The cautious 
 grower, however, will permit others to do the experimenting. 
 
 Raspberries. — There are two main classes of raspberries 
 — the red and the black. The red and black varieties are 
 also crossed with each other, producing a purple sort that is 
 quite popular. Red raspberries are propagated by separat- 
 ing the suckers from the old plants. These suckers or sprouts 
 are generally produced in great abundance, even resulting in 
 one of the great sources of trouble in planting this sort of 
 
Small Fruits 
 
 125 
 
 strawberries in a young orchard. Notice straw mulch. 
 
126 
 
 Orchard and Garden 
 
 fruit. By this method of propagating, the nurseryman also 
 propagates and distributes the root gall disease. As a con- 
 sequence root galls are to be found almost everywhere that 
 red raspberries are grown. In some sections the disease has 
 wiped out the red raspberry industry. All plants of this 
 variety should be carefully examined to make sure that the 
 roots are in a healthy condition before they are planted. The 
 
 Clean culture among- i-aspberries. 
 
 black raspberries are propagated by layering and are, there- 
 fore, much less annoyed with root disturbances than are the 
 red sorts. The tips of the black raspberry canes are per- 
 mitted to grow until they touch the ground when they are 
 covered with earth. In a short time they take root. The fol- 
 lowing spring they may be separated from the parent plant 
 and dug for transplanting. 
 
 Raspberries should be planted in rows above five feet 
 apart and about three feet apart in the row. Some growers 
 
Small Fruits 127 
 
 place them even farther apart than this distance. Constant 
 cultivation is necessary to insure a good growth. The plants 
 w^ill produce a few berries the next year after planting and 
 should be ready for a full crop in two years from planting. 
 Wires are sometimes used to support the canes, but most of 
 the large growers depend on pruning to secure a stout stem 
 which will hold up its load of fruit without artificial sup- 
 port. No mulch is required on raspberry plantations until 
 the second summer. Then a light mulch of straw should be 
 placed around the plants to help hold the moisture during the 
 dry weather. At this time the plants are so outspread that 
 they can not be cultivated as closely as during the first sum- 
 mer and the straw mulch simply takes the place of cultiva- 
 tion. If preferred, the mulch may be placed next the plants 
 and a space left between the rows in which the cultivator may 
 continue its work. 
 
 Raspberries should be pruned in the spring before 
 growth begins. If pruned in the fall they are liable to die 
 back from the point where they were cut, thus causing a still 
 further loss of fruit bearing wood. As a rule they may be 
 shortened from one-third to one-half their length. The re- 
 sulting fruit will be better and the stem stouter. After fruit- 
 ing, the old cane should be cut out and all the strength of the 
 plant permitted to go into the new shoots. 
 
 Blackberries grow wild over a large part of the eastern 
 United States. They prefer a clay loam, but sometimes are 
 found growing in quite sandy places. They grow best in 
 those soils in which they grow wild. This is one reason why 
 they are not more extensively cultivated. The wild crop in 
 favorable years amounts to enough to keep the price of the 
 cultivated fruit so low that the grower makes no profit. In 
 sections that have been settled for a long time and where 
 there is no waste land, it may prove advisable to plant black- 
 berries commercially, but there is still a great quantity of 
 wild fruit supplied to the markets each year. This supply 
 in some cases is so great that the fruit is shipped by country 
 
 f9) 
 
128 Orchard and Garden 
 
 buyers to distant markets. They are there doubtlessly sold 
 as cultivated berries. Blackberries are propagated in much the 
 same manner as are raspberries. Their culture is about the 
 same as that of the raspberi-y except that they should be plant- 
 ed farther apart (from six to eight feet) and they should be 
 pinched back each summer as soon as the canes are about three 
 feet high. Such pruning causes the canes to branch and become 
 very stiff in order to hold up a great load of fruit. Dew- 
 berries are a species of blackberries, but are produced on 
 vines that run on the ground. They are not commercially im- 
 portant. 
 
 Currants are easily grown except in heavy clay soils. 
 They require plenty of moisture and do not endure drouth 
 well. Their cultivation is the same as for raspberries, but 
 they should be planted four feet apart each way. They are 
 propagated by cuttings taken from the old plants in the fall. 
 These cuttings should be planted at once and they will start 
 to grow the following season. In some conditions they are 
 permitted to grow for two years before planting. The fruit 
 of the currant is produced on old wood and for that reason 
 very little pruning is desirable. The important facts con- 
 cerning their culture are to keep the plants from crowding 
 and take out all dead wood. Borers may woi*k in the older 
 canes and give cause for their removal. The red currants 
 are the most popular and are by far the most easily grown. 
 There is always a ready market for them and the supply 
 never seems to be able to keep up with the demand. 
 
 GoosebcD'ie,'^ are grown much the same as currants. The 
 European varieties are subject to mildew and for that reason 
 they should not be planted. A few good crosses between 
 American and English varieties have resulted in a fruit that 
 is of high quality and still fairly free from mildew. The 
 variety known as Downing is said to be such a cross. The 
 demand for gooseberries is not so great as that for currants 
 and they are not being so widely planted. A few plants will 
 furnish all the fruit that an ordinary family will possibly use. 
 
Small Fruits 129 
 
 Novelties. — There are frequently new varieties or new 
 kinds of berries brought to the grower's attention, and some 
 of these deserve a slight notice on account of the fact that 
 they are usually downright fakes. A few years ago a so- 
 called plant wizard heralded what he was pleased to call a 
 new garden huckleberry. It proved to be a member of the 
 nightshade family, devoid of flavor, utterly useless and en- 
 tirely unlike any known huckleberry, to which family it did 
 not even belong. More recently the Himalaya berry has been 
 widely advertised. All trials of it seem to indicate that it is 
 a totally worthless variety and that it usually kills to the 
 ground each winter except in the extreme south. So instead 
 of being a hardy plant from the highest mountains of India, 
 it is so tender that it can not withstand the mild winters oi 
 the south central states. All novelties that are advertised 
 as being "the greatest ever" should be regarded with sus- 
 picion until their worth is proven. 
 
 Small fruits for back yards. — Nearly any of the small 
 fruits can be grown with success in a city back yard with the 
 possible exception of the blackberry. All of the others are 
 small growing plants or bushes and do not require much room. 
 Currants and strawberries can also be grown in portions of 
 the yard too shady for other uses. They will not do so well as 
 if they had full exposure to sunlight, but in a shaded strip 
 along the north side of a board fence or shed they will pro- 
 duce a very fair crop. 
 
 A bed of everbearing strawberries ten feet square has 
 been known to supply enough fruit for a small family in the 
 city. For city growing it is probable that the everbearing 
 strawberries are the best. At no time will they bear as full 
 a crop as the older commercial sorts, but they will produce 
 a small amount of fruit over a long period. 
 
 This is also true of the everbearing raspberries, of which 
 the St. Regis is the best. Twenty-five plants of this variety 
 will supply more fruit than the average family can use and 
 its production will be extended throughout the entire summer. 
 
130 Orchard and Garden 
 
 Cuthbert is another good red raspberry that has been a suc- 
 cess in city gardens. Raspberries, however, should only be 
 planted where they can have full sunlight throughout most of 
 the day as they are not shade enduring. 
 
 The successful growing of any of these small fruits in a 
 city back yard depends upon the use of exactly the same sort 
 of care in the preparation of the soil, planting, cultivating, 
 etc., as is necessary when the same fruits are grown on a 
 commercial scale in the country. Accordingly all that has 
 been said of their general culture is applicable to their suc- 
 cessful growing in the city. 
 
CHAPTER X. 
 Harvesting. 
 
 Under the heading- Harvesting, will be considered the 
 picking and packing of fruit. This subject is highly im- 
 portant to the grower, because, if proper attention is not ac- 
 corded this phase of the business, an entire season's work 
 might be lost. Many good crops of fruit have been ruined 
 because they were not properly picked and many more have 
 been seriously injured by improper packing. 
 
 Picking. — No other feature of fruit growing requires 
 more careful attention than the picking of the fruit. In the 
 "good old days" apples were shaken to the ground and gath- 
 ered into piles in the open, where they were permitted to re- 
 main until the necessary time was found to put them under 
 
 Women and girls make successful apple pickers. 
 
132 
 
 Orchard and Garden 
 
 shelter. These methods are always wasteful. No grower 
 need expect to realize a profit from fruit handled in such 
 manner. Unfortunately, however, a few men still persist in 
 trying to harvest their fruit in such a way. One of the first 
 points to learn about harvesting any fruit is the proper time 
 to pick it. Some crops are ruined if allowed to hang too long, 
 while others will yield greater returns and will be of better 
 quality if they are permitted to stay on the tree as long as 
 possible. The market should, in some cases, be considered, 
 because fruits intended for the use of a nearby market can 
 
 The crop from an avei'ag-e seven-year-old tree in a well-cared-for orchard. 
 
 be permitted to ripen more fully on the tree than if they 
 were to be shipped a great distance. 
 
 Twie to pick. — Apples will vary in the time of picking 
 with the variety. Ordinarily they should be gathered as soon 
 as they acquire their full color, but there are some excep- 
 tions to this rule, which will be dwelt on at greater length. 
 Some growers prefer to have their apples remain on the trees 
 till the stems part readily from the twig. This condition 
 usually means full maturity of the fruit. In some cases, 
 nevertheless, it is not desired that fruit should be fully ripe 
 at picking time. If part of the crop begins to fall to the 
 ground of its own accord, that is an indication that the fruit 
 
Harvesting 
 
 133 
 
 should be picked. Most growers do not wait for the fruit to 
 reach this state of maturity. The Ben Davis should hang as 
 long as possible, for the color and quality are thus improved. 
 This variety will keep better, however, if picked as soon as 
 it is well colored. The Winesap should not be gathered until 
 it acquires full color and the stem parts from the twig easily. 
 The Grimes should be picked before it becomes clear yellow 
 
 Perfect finit lepresents a profit. Imperfect fruit is often a loss. 
 
 in color ; in fact, it is better picked while the skin is still per- 
 fectly green. A yellow Grimes will rot easily, while if picked 
 green, it will sometimes color well in storage. The Delicious 
 should be gathered as soon as it is well colored. Like the 
 Grimes, it is a poor keeper if allowed to hang too long, but if 
 picked while still hard and firm, it will keep till May in cold 
 storage and come out in perfect condition. The Jonathan 
 must be picked even before it is well colored, for it will be 
 much less likely to develop the Jonathan fruit spot if gath- 
 
134 Orchard and Garden 
 
 ered slightly green. The Stayman resembles the Winesap 
 in that it should be allowed to hang as long as possible, other- 
 wise it sometimes withers in storage. Summer apples are 
 usually picked as soon as they will do to cook regardless of 
 their state of maturity. A few varieties, such as Red June 
 and Liveland, grown chiefly as eating apples, should be al- 
 lowed to color well before being gathered. Yellow Trans- 
 parent and Duchess may be picked as soon as they are well 
 grown. It is a good practice to make several pickings of 
 summer apples because they do not all ripen at the same time 
 on the same tree. The last picking may be left to mature 
 more fully and be disposed of in local markets. 
 
 Picking peaches. — The proper time to pick peaches will 
 vary slightly with the variety and the distance shipped to 
 market. Ordinarily the fruit is given opportunity to soften 
 a bit without becoming ripe enough to eat. The average 
 commercial peach as it comes from the tree is certainly far 
 from being a tempting fruit. Some varieties, like the El- 
 berta, can be picked quite green, will ripen in transit, and 
 will open up on the market perfectly ripe. Other sorts, like 
 the Greensborough, which is a splendid peach when ripened 
 on the tree, will not ripen rapidly after being picked. The 
 variety has this defect and many growers will not plant it 
 for this reason. Peaches allowed to ripen on the trees are 
 always of much better flavor than those shipped to market 
 green or half -green. If they were left to become soft on the 
 tree, however, they would be too ripe for use by the time 
 they were purchased by the city customer. So few city 
 people know the flavor of the fine orchard-ripened fruit, that 
 they accept the ripened-in-transit peach without question. It 
 is a safe guess, however, that the experienced fruit grower 
 would not eat his own product if he had to take what arrives 
 in market. It is one of the rewards of the fruit grower to 
 have all the fine fruit he wants as nature intended he should, 
 direct from the tree. 
 
 Pears are almost always picked green and ripened in 
 
Harvesting 
 
 135 
 
 storage. They are better in flavor and in quality when 
 handled in that way than if they were permitted to ripen on 
 the tree. Western growers pick some varieties as soon as 
 they are large enough to sell readily, and they invariably 
 reach the eastern market in good condition. 
 
 Plums are usually gathered before they become fully 
 ripe. The Japan sorts color well after being picked. They 
 
 should be quite firm if 
 they are to be shipped 
 any distance. 
 
 Cherries should be 
 picked as soon as they 
 become well colored. 
 The sweet kinds 
 should be taken off as 
 soon as they develop 
 the sweet flavor, but 
 before they become 
 fully ripe. 
 
 Grapes should ripen 
 well on the vines, as 
 they do not change 
 much after picking. 
 
 Small fruits must 
 be picked when they 
 are well colored, 
 Stra wherries are 
 sometimes picked be- 
 fore they acquire 
 much color, because 
 they do not bear up 
 well under shipment. 
 Raspberries are gath- 
 ered when they sep- 
 arate easily from the 
 stems. Blackberries 
 
 The America plum — a cross between the 
 American native and the Japanese type of fruit. 
 
136 Orchard and Garden 
 
 aie similar to raspberries in this respect. Currants are taken 
 off while still slightly green, or at least as soon as they show 
 color. Their chief use is for jelly-making and, if too ripe, 
 they are less desirable for that purpose. Gooseberries must 
 be plump, but quite green, for in this condition they are most 
 salable. 
 
 Care needed. — There are several points in regard to the 
 picking of the various fruits that must be borne in mind. In 
 picking apples the fruit must be firmly grasped in the hand, 
 with the thumb pressed against the stem forcing it tight 
 against the apple, and then the fruit is given a slight twist, 
 thus causing the stem to separate from the twig. Care should 
 be used to pick the apple with the stem entire, but with no por- 
 tion of the twig. The next year's fruit bud is often formed 
 close to the stem of the apple, and careless picking will cause 
 the spur bearing the new fruit bud to break off and remain 
 attached to the apple. Such a practice will not only lessen 
 the chances for a plentiful crop the following year, but also 
 furnishes a bit of sharp cornered twig that will puncture the 
 skin of the apple wherever it touches other apples. Apple 
 pickers should always have their finger nails closely trimmed. 
 A very slight injury might result from a sharp nail which will 
 readily provide a place for the spores of rot-producing fungi 
 to enter. The apples should be picked preferably in baskets 
 or in specially constructed canvas picking bags, but never 
 in grain sacks. Apples gathered in sacks will not only bruise 
 each other, but risk greater injury from being crowded 
 against the branches by the picker. Remember that the apple 
 is a valuable fruit and accord it the same treatment as any 
 other high-grade product. The fruit should be gently laid in 
 the receptacle — not thrown. And when containers are emp- 
 tied the fruit should not be poured out, but should be lifted 
 out carefully. 
 
 Peaches are picked with the same care as apples. Having 
 very short stems, they should better be twisted off so as to 
 separate cleanly from the tree. If they do not part from the 
 stem easily they are probably too green to be harvested. 
 
Harvesting 
 
 137 
 
 Women pickers. — Small fruits are usually gathered by 
 women and children and picked directly into the packages in 
 which they are to be marketed. The customary package is 
 the quart box, and a tray is generallj^ provided for the pickers 
 which will hold four or six of these boxes. The pickers fill 
 the boxes in the field, but the careful grower will repack each 
 
 A packing- table. 
 
 box to assure himself that the bottoms are filled with goo^ 
 clean fruit. 
 
 Packing sheds. — As soon as any fruit is picked it should 
 be taken to some central point, usually a packing shed, and 
 there packed for shipment. Packing sheds are of any size, 
 shape or arrangement according to the individual needs of 
 the grower. Sometimes a tent erected in a berry field will 
 
138 Orchard and Garden 
 
 serve as a small fruit packing center, to which all fruit will 
 be brought to be crated. Some small fruit growers build 
 sheds, and the apple and peach growers will, of course, have 
 extensive facilities for the handling of their fruit under 
 cover. Apple packing houses are generally much larger than 
 those for peaches, because the peach crop moves in and out 
 of the packing shed promptly, while the apple crop may be 
 permitted to accumulate for several days before being 
 shipped. 
 
 Apple packages. — There are two standard packages for 
 apples. The barrel has for years been the standard package 
 in the East and the bushel box in the West. Recently there 
 has been a tendency on the part of eastern growers to adopt 
 the box as a standard package and it is gaining in popularity 
 every year. One fact that has hindered the general adoption 
 of the box in the East is lack of information on the part of 
 eastern growers. Through inexperience they have lacked the 
 skill required in packing boxes and they have not realized that 
 the box package is suited only to strictly fancy fruit. Old- 
 fashioned methods which still prevail over a large part of the 
 eastern apple districts have resulted in the production of large 
 quantities of poor fruit. Imperfect fruit is not suitable for 
 box packages and it is a great mistake to attempt to market 
 it as such. Wherever good fruit is produced, it will pay the 
 grower to investigate and learn how to pack the box. This 
 skill can not be accomplished by reading the directions in a 
 book and can be learned only by actual first-hand experience. 
 There are a few principles of box packing, however, that can 
 be stated concerning the proper procedure and which when 
 mastered will do much to assist the practical application of 
 such knowledge. 
 
 Apples for box packages should be sorted for size, color, 
 and condition. Apples of different sizes can not be packed 
 in the same box and be expected to result in a standard pack. 
 The color should be uniform throughout the box. Concerning 
 condition, it should be emphatically borne in mind that no im- 
 
Harvesting 
 
 139 
 
 A well-packed box of apples. 
 (Photo by H. H. Coburn.) 
 
140 Orchard and Garden 
 
 perfect fruit can be tolerated in a box package. Boxes must 
 be packed with perfectly clean fruit, entirely free from rot, 
 scab, worms or any mechanical blemish. Each apple should 
 be wrapped separately in paper. The box should be lined 
 with paper. 
 
 The standard apple box measures lOV-iXlli/^xlS inches, 
 inside measurements. The top and bottom must be made of 
 thin, flexible boards. Place the empty box so that the bottom 
 is inclined from the back towards the front. Line it wtih 
 white paper, ordinary unprinted newspaper stock, in such a 
 way that two flaps of paper are left to cover the top of the 
 box. Have a supply of thin, soft paper cut about ten by ten 
 inches in size, to wrap the fruit. A rubber finger tip pulled 
 over the thumb of the left hand will enable the sheets of 
 paper to be picked up easily and quickly. Take up a sheet 
 of paper so that it lies flat in the left hand, select an apple 
 with the right hand, place it in the center of the paper with 
 the blossom end down, and twist the flaps over and around the 
 fruit. Be sure that the stem of the apple comes at the point 
 where the corners of the paper are folded or twisted, for if it 
 were placed in the center of the sheet, it would perforate the 
 paper and possibly injure the apple next to it. There are sev- 
 eral systems of placing the apples in the box which vary with 
 the size of the apple. The pack known as the "three-two" 
 pack is an easy one for beginners and is adapted to several 
 sizes of fruit. First apples are placed in the two lower 
 corners of the box. Then one is paced midway between these 
 two, which leaves short spaces between the end apples and 
 the middle one. The next row consists of only two apples 
 which occupy the spaces mentioned. The next row repeats 
 the arrangement of the first row, consisting of three apples, 
 and so oh alternately. When the first entire layer has been 
 arranged in the box, the apples should be so tightly packed 
 that there can be no possible movement of one apple against 
 the other. When the box is completely filled, the apples 
 should extend above the top of the box for a distance of one- 
 
Harvesting 141 
 
 half inch at each end and one and one-half inches in the 
 middle. This bulge is produced by turning some of the apples 
 in the middle of the box so that their longest diameter will 
 extend perpendicularly. Some packers use a slightly larger 
 apple in the center of the box, but the really fancy packs are 
 made bj^ using apples that are quite uniform in size. When 
 the box is full the paper is folded over the fruit and the lid is 
 nailed in place. A box press is generally employed in nailing 
 on lids. The reason for making the top and bottom of the box 
 of thin material is to accommodate the bulge in the pack. 
 When the lid is pressed on, some of the bulge is pushed down 
 to the bottom so that both top and bottom will bulge approxi- 
 mately the same. The thin, flexible top and bottom act as 
 springs to hold the fruit firmly in place and prevent it rolling 
 about and becoming bruised. If there should be any shrink- 
 age in storage, the top and bottom boards will still keep the 
 package tight. In storing and shipping boxed apples they 
 should always be piled on the sides, which are of thicker ma- 
 terial and will prevent the fruit from being crushed. Other 
 styles of pack include what is known as the "straight" pack, 
 the "two-two," the "four-three," the "off'set" and other packs. 
 Most of these are good, but the straight pack should never be 
 used unless the size being handled can not be packed in any 
 other way. The objection to the straight pack is that each 
 apple bears directly on its neighbors, thus almost certainly 
 bruising the fruit. The various styles of packs are dia- 
 grammed in the accompanying illustrations. 
 
 The barrel package is adapted to apples that do not grade 
 high enough to be put into boxes, although some eastern grow- 
 ers still pack their finest fruit in barrels. Formerly there was 
 no standard size for apple barrels, and, as a result, fruit 
 reached the market in barrels that held from two and a half 
 to four bushels. The barrel has now been standardized in 
 most apple-producing states and, while the prescribed meas- 
 urements will vary slightly in the diflferent states, the barrels 
 all hold practically the same, viz., three bushels. A barrel of 
 
142 
 
 Orchard and Garden 
 
 Showing- tlie start of four different paclvs for box apples. 
 
Harvesting 143 
 
 that capacity will measure about sixty-four inches around 
 the bulge, seventeen inches across the ends, and have staves 
 twenty-eight and a half inches in length. The government 
 has adopted a certain standard for the packing of apples in 
 barrels, and fruit so packed and so labeled must come up to 
 certain requirements. This rather absurd standard is not 
 much used by growers because it tolerates the presence of 
 ten per cent, wormy apples. The box has not yet been stand- 
 ardized by the government, and still it is practically impos- 
 sible to find an imperfect apple in a box packed in any of the 
 sections which have familiarized themselves with the smaller 
 packages. Growers realize that good fruit is their best ad- 
 vertisement, better even than any artificial government stand- 
 ard. Every grower should attempt to pack his fruit in such 
 a way that it will be above suspicion rather than in accord- 
 ance with a special standard. If it is perfect fruit, then it will 
 be above any standard yet established. 
 
 In packing a barrel of apples, a layer of corrugated paper 
 should be placed in the bottom of the barrel. Then a layer 
 of apples is laid in with the stems down. In fancy barrel 
 packs two layers are placed in this manner. Then the fruit is 
 carefully poured in from containers that can be lowered into 
 the barrel. The barrel should be shaken frequently to settle 
 the apples as much as possible. It should be remembered that 
 wnen they are shipped, they will receive rough handling so 
 it is necessary that they be packed solid to avoid bruising. Fill 
 the barrel and then carefully put on another layer of apples 
 with the stems toward the top. Lastly place another sheet of 
 corrugated cardboard on top and then head the barrel. Place 
 the barrel in a barrel heading press, loosen the top hoops and 
 force the head into place. This process will crowd the fruit 
 down into the barrel and no doubt injure some of it slightly, 
 but will not damage it as greatly as if it were permitted to 
 rattle around loosely in the barrel on account of slack pack- 
 ing. After the head is forced into place, tighten the hoops. 
 Some practice is, of course, needed in order to do this quickly 
 
 (10) 
 
144 
 
 Orchard and Garden 
 
Harvesting 145 
 
 and neatly. Do not use too many nails in fastening- the heads, 
 only enough to hold the hoops securely in place. Remove the 
 press and tack lining hoops in the head at each end. Lining 
 hoops are sections of curved wood to fit inside the staves on 
 the head of the barrel, to prevent the head from working loose. 
 Lining hoops should always be used, if the barrel is to be 
 shipped. The label should be put on the end of the barrel 
 which was down while the fruit was being packed. That end 
 will open with a more uniform show of fruit and create a 
 better impression than will the other end. Neatness of pack 
 is an important feature in selling fruit. 
 
 Early apples are often sold in bushel baskets, which are 
 convenient containers for such fruit, but should not be used 
 for winter packages. 
 
 Peach packages will vary in different localities. Some 
 sections ship all peaches in bushel baskets, while others ship 
 in crates containing six small baskets. For fancy fruit the 
 latter is a very attractive and popular package. But it is 
 slightly more expensive than the bushel basket and requires 
 more skill and experience in packing. Its relation to the 
 peach trade is the same as that of the box to the apple trade, 
 i. e., it is adapted only to fancy fruit. 
 
 Plums are shipped in a variety of packages. In the West 
 they are marketed in small crates containing several small, 
 square baskets. In the East the Climax basket is a popular 
 package. It is a veneer basket with a handle, resembling the 
 grape basket, but much larger. 
 
 Grapes are packed in four- and eight-pound baskets, 
 which are fitted with a thin, wooden top to be held in place 
 with a specially bent wire staple. 
 
 Small fruits and cherries are sold by the case or crate, 
 which contain either sixteen or twenty-four quart boxes. Red 
 raspberries are often sold in pint boxes. Formerly this class 
 of fruit was sold by the "drawer," which was a large flat tray 
 holding as much as the grower desired. The drawers were 
 returned to the grower and used over and over again. They 
 
146 
 
 Orchard and Garden 
 
 soon became dirty and unsightly, and their use has been dis- 
 continued by all progressive growers. The crates of small 
 boxes always present a neat, clean appearance and while they 
 cost more, they nevertheless demand a better price for fruit. 
 Tight pack. — No matter what kind of fruit is being 
 packed, or what sort of a package is being used, fruit must be 
 packed tight. The package must be completely full and must 
 be filled in such a way that there will be the minimum of set- 
 tling in transit. All packages should be neat and clean and 
 should bear the name of the grower and the name of the 
 variety of fruit contained. The ultimate aim of the fruit 
 grower is to sell the fruit he produces. A clean, honest pack- 
 age is the best advertisement possible in the selling of fruit. 
 
 An old orchard in full bloom. 
 
CHAPTER XI. 
 Marketing. 
 
 Uncertainty of conditions. — After a crop of fruit is 
 grown and packed, it remains to be marketed and this detail 
 is often by no means a small part of the year's work. The ex- 
 perienced fruit grower does not purchase a luxurious new 
 automobile as soon as he learns that his peach crop has not 
 been killed by cold weather ; nor does he begin to plan an ex- 
 tensive pleasure trip when the buds begin to show color. He 
 realizes instead that his year's work is not assuredly safe until 
 he has the money from its disposition in his pocket. Profits 
 on fruit are often very large, much larger than on any other 
 crop taken from the soil, but the grower remembers from ex- 
 perience that there are many chances of loss. A hail storm 
 may ruin a fine crop of fruit on the day before it was to have 
 been harvested. Then, a crop may be gathered, escaping the 
 hail, only to encounter overstocked markets with prices so low 
 that the returns will not pay the freight. Fruit may spoil in 
 transit, or it may rot in storage ; and last of all, dishonest 
 commission men are still doing business. Loss from that 
 source is probably now less than formerly, and as time goes 
 on, there is every indication that the dishonest dealer will be 
 eliminated, so that the sale of fruit will be conducted on a 
 basis that is fair to both the producer and the middleman. 
 
 Methods of marketing. — There are a number of ways of 
 disposing of a crop of fruit. If the grower does not have too 
 large an acreage, and has easy access to markets, he may 
 peddle his products from door to door. It is probable that 
 this method yields the best returns, because it eliminates the 
 
148 Orchard and Garden 
 
 cost of transportation, commission, and multiple handling. 
 Of course such methods are impossible if the orchards are 
 extensive or if they are far from market. 
 
 Parcel post. — Some growers sell their fruit direct to the 
 consumer by advertising in local papers and magazines. Since 
 the advent of parcel post this scheme has gained considerable 
 favor and has been reported as giving excellent results. If 
 fruit is to be sold by parcel post it must be packed in a light, 
 tight package that comes within the size and weight limits of 
 the postoffice regulations. Since these regulations are as yet 
 frequently changed by the postoffice department, it seems un- 
 wise to publish any measurements that may be in effect at 
 the present time. The grower who contemplates sending fruit 
 by parcel post should consult the local postoffice authorities re- 
 garding permissible sizes of packages and rates to various 
 points. In advertising fruit for sale the grower must first 
 decide on a fair price for the fruit itself. The first expendi- 
 ture will be for the corrugated cardboard packages in which 
 the fruit is to be packed, the packing of the fruit and the 
 postage. Then the cost of advertising should be estimated and 
 the sum of expenditures incident to shipping, added to the 
 actual value of the fruit itself, should give the proper price at 
 which to quote the fruit in the advertisements. For instance, 
 if the orchardist thinks he should secure forty cents net for 
 his fruit, he must add to that forty cents the cost of the pack- 
 age, about seven cents, the cost of packing, about three cents, 
 and the postage, about fifteen cents. This gives a total of 
 sixty-five cents, which is the theoretical price at which he 
 should advertise his fruit, but the cost of advertising must not 
 be overlooked. It has been found that the cost of advertising 
 on this class of produce amounts to from fifteen to twenty-five 
 per cent, of the selling price. Consequently the above-de- 
 scribed peck of apples could not safely be advertised at less 
 than seventy-five cents per peck. 
 
 Consider the cost. — There is a large and growing demand 
 for apples and other fine fruits supplied from the producer 
 
Marketing 149 
 
 direct to the consumer, and it is probable that the parcel post 
 will help develop this class of trade. The grower must exer- 
 cise care that his selling expense does not eat up his profits ; 
 and the illustration just given will furnish a fair idea of the 
 relation between the net selling price of the grower and the 
 actual purchase price of the consumer. Many orchardists do 
 not stop to figure the cost of growing and packing their fruit. 
 They think that a certain sum of money returned on a crop of 
 fruit should be all profit. But a record should be kept of the 
 work done on the orchard. Accounts of the costs of pruning, 
 spraying, cultivating, picking, packing, and selling should be 
 filed so an intimate knowledge of the selling price can be ob- 
 tained in order to estimate a profit. Producing a crop of good 
 fruit is an .expensive process. But a good product is, at the 
 same time, very valuable. When a selling price is set, see that 
 it is high enough to make a fair return on the investment, and 
 is also a reasonable price for the consumer to pay. It is human 
 to expect to sell more low-priced apples than high-priced ones, 
 but, if a customer cultivates the habit of buying fruit, he will 
 soon find himself unable to do without it. If the public would 
 form the habit of eating fruit not once in a great while, but 
 every day, such a condition would not only help sell fruit, but 
 would not be a detriment to the victims of the habit. It will be 
 one of the habits that will be of untold benefit to the ones who 
 practice it. 
 
 Commission men. — Probably the most common way of dis- 
 posing of fruit is through the medium of the commission man. 
 A commission merchant is one who receives fruit from the 
 grower, sells it for him and then sends the receipts, less the 
 commission, back to the grower. Often the commission firms 
 are blamed for failures of which they are not guilty, but some 
 authentic cases on record prove that the dealer, evidently not 
 satisfied with receiving his rightful commission, tried to ap- 
 propriate the entire shipment. However, for the average 
 grower the services of the commission man are indispensable. 
 He is the only means of communication between the producer 
 
150 Orchard and Garden 
 
 and the consumer, and in nearly every case the price expected 
 for his work is very low, when the amount of work and worry 
 involved is considered. A commission man will receive a ship- 
 ment of fruit from the grower, pay the transportation charges, 
 drayage charges and in some cases will have to repack the 
 fruit. These costs are charged against the selling price of the 
 fruit and are deducted from the amount finally sent the grower. 
 No charge for store room, salesmanship, book-keeping, or ad- 
 vertising is entered, for these items are all covered by the ten 
 per cent, com.mission which the dealer extracts from the selling 
 price as his pay. In return for this ten per cent, commission, 
 the grower secures the equivalent of a store of his own in the 
 city, with the added advantage of not being confined to any 
 one store or any one citj^ So the middleman appears to be a 
 very useful link in the chain between the orchard and the city 
 purchaser. 
 
 Association selling. — In some localities a different system 
 of selling has been organized, known as association selling. 
 The growers form an association which will sell all fruit 
 produced under their brand and guarantee. In the northwest 
 and in California this plan has been developed most satisfac- 
 torily, so that the growers have been enabled to secure better 
 prices for their fruit as well as to reach distant markets with 
 relative safety and ease. The influence exercised on the grow- 
 ers by these associations has also been highly beneficial, because 
 such organizations have adopted a very high standard of qual- 
 ity and have insisted that fruit sold under the association brand 
 must meet those requirements. This idealism has resulted in 
 making the growers more alert in the control of pests and 
 more careful in the packing of boxes and crates. As an extra 
 precaution every package that is sold has an identification 
 number on it so if its contents caused complaint, the source can 
 be easily traced. The cost of selling through associations is 
 not quite so high as the cost of selling through the agency of 
 commission dealers, but, on account of a recent increase, a few 
 growers in the Northwest have indicated their dissatisfaction 
 
Marketing 151 
 
 with association methods. Probably association plans have not 
 yet been developed to their utmost perfection and will steadily 
 increase in popularity. The association plan is not practical 
 unless there are a number of growers located near each other, 
 all of whom are experts capable of producing the very highest 
 grade of fruits. Association methods are not adapted to the 
 selling of low class produce, because one of the features of the 
 plan is the advertising which the fruit receives, and it is very 
 poor policy to advertise worthless commodities. Any article 
 .should be just as good or preferably a bit better than described 
 by the advertisement, in order to realize the best returns. 
 
 Soft and quickly perishable fruits are, of course, sold as 
 soon as they are ripe enough to ship. A few growers sell their 
 fruits on the tree, with the stipulation that the purchaser 
 should manage the picking and packing. The price received in 
 such an arrangement must be low enough so that the buyer 
 has a safe margin to cover any possible risks, for none are as- 
 sumed by the seller in this case. Occasionally, however, the 
 grower will sell his fruit for less than it actually cost him to 
 prune, spray, and cultivate, merely because he had no means 
 of ascertaining these costs. 
 
 Apples are often sold on the tree, but more frequently the 
 grower chooses to pick and pack his own crop. Then the prob- 
 lem of the proper time to sell confronts him, for which there 
 is only one solution. The best rule to follow is to sell when- 
 ever a price is offered which will pay a reasonable profit. There 
 is sometimes heavy loss connected with the continued storage 
 of fruit. There has been a tendency toward planting apples 
 that are known to keep well with the expectation of holding 
 them in storage until spring, when a good price will be demand- 
 ed. This practice is often a great mistake. One grower picked 
 and sold his Jonathans before they were much more than half 
 colored, as cooking apples. Since the market for such apples 
 was brisk at that time, he realized five dollars per barrel for 
 his crop. His neighbors laughed, held their apples until spring, 
 paid storage on them and finally sold the crop for three dol- 
 
152 Orchard and Garden 
 
 lars per barrel. It is not an unusual experience to find that 
 storage charges have consumed the profit on a crop, with the 
 storage bill amounting to as much as the cost of producing the 
 fruit. Such exorbitant charges should be controlled by a state 
 public utilities commission, with the hope that in the future 
 these gross over-charges will be righted. In some localities the 
 growers have combined to build small storage houses of their 
 own, thus reducing the costs to a minimum. All old horticul- 
 tural books for three-quarters of a century have presented 
 plans for the construction of apple store houses, but the idea 
 has never become popular possibly on account of uncertain 
 conditions. 
 
 Altogether, there is no branch of the business of fruit 
 growing that requires as much judgment as the selling of the 
 crop. It is the final test of the grower's ability, in which too 
 many growers fail. 
 
PART II 
 
 GARDENING 
 
GARDENING 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 Planning the Garden. 
 
 The family gaideyi is a universal institution, but is not 
 developed to the same state of perfection in our United States 
 as in foreign countries. Very fev^ farm homes exist at the 
 present time without the customary kitchen garden, but in 
 rare cases are they cultivated to the best advantage. In most 
 situations the entire management of the garden is left to the 
 women of the household. The men have not realized that the 
 returns from a well-kept garden are just as valuable and 
 more important than from any similar area on the farm. As 
 a result the status of the American garden has remained very 
 much as it was a century ago. We have not been so alive to 
 the improvement of the quality, quantity and variety of our 
 vegetables as of our fruits. In many instances the garden 
 space is still devoted to a few staple vegetables, such as beans, 
 corn and cabbage. 
 
 Foreigfi gardens produce not only a great quantity of the 
 old standard foods, but in addition they grow a much greater 
 variety of vegetables than are ever found in the American 
 garden. Numbers of old farmers are known to exist who have 
 never eaten asparagus and seemed to consider it as an orna- 
 mental shrub to be grown in the door yard by the "women- 
 folks." As a rule the improvement of the varieties in our 
 American gardens has been the result of the work of a few 
 
156 Orchard and Garden 
 
 specialists and the commercial seedsmen. After a nev/ sort is 
 introduced and cataloged for a number of years the seedsmen 
 have gradually retired the less worthy sorts, and the public 
 has blindly purchased whatever was offered. Fortunately the 
 public has benefited by the outcome, which has been evolved 
 with very little cooperation on the part of the individual 
 planter. This statement is not meant to reflect on the success 
 of the occasional progressive grower, but to stimulate the lag- 
 gard into a realization of what he is losing. 
 
 Vacant lot gardens. — Practically every farm has its own 
 garden. Recently many city folk have taken up gardening, 
 and as a consequence, the vacant lot garden idea has spread 
 rapidly. In most of our American cities enough vacant land 
 exists which, if cultivated, would supply vegetables to the 
 entire town. It has been said that the entire Japanese nation 
 could live on the products from the waste land in our Ameri- 
 can fence corners. This theory is especially true in regard to 
 waste land in cities. Most cities enlarge their boundaries in a 
 manner that exceeds all normal demand. A land owner at the 
 edge of town will decide to dispose of his holdings in the shape 
 of a new city addition of lots, so the ground is taken out of 
 cultivation and divided into small parcels. It is not, as a rule, 
 rapidly taken for building purposes, so for a period of years it 
 lies idle, when it could very well be used for garden space. The 
 idea of vacant lot cultivation is a worthy one that should be en- 
 couraged to increase in popularity. Such work will be a step 
 toward the highest economic development. It will mean the 
 production of a crop on ground that was previously sterile. 
 The idea of the family garden is not primarily to produce 
 foodstuffs to sell, but to furnish fresh vegetables to the family. 
 If a market can be found for any surplus supply, that will 
 yield additional profit. 
 
 Farm gardens. — On the farm there is generally a choice 
 of locations for the family garden. It is extremely advisable 
 not to situate it in an out-of-the-way corner which can not be 
 used for any other purpose. Put it where its importance de- 
 
Planning the Garden 157 
 
 serves, on the best ground that is available. Choose for the 
 garden a location that has a favorable exposure, where the 
 sun will strike it early in the day and as late as possible. If 
 a slope is used, choose one which inclines toward the east or 
 south, as soil on such slopes will become warm earlier in the 
 spring than it will on a north or west slope. A garden on a 
 hill will be ready for planting earlier than one in a valley and 
 it will not have its plants killed so early in the fall. One season 
 in a garden extending along a hillside the plants at the foot of 
 the hill were killed three weeks before those on top of the hill. 
 In this manner the yield of tomatoes and other plants may be 
 greatly extended. 
 
 The soil for the garden should be as rich as possible, and 
 in addition to the native fertility it should be well enriched 
 with stable manure each year. Stable manure is much better 
 than any other form of garden fertilizer for general use, for 
 it not only adds the chemical elements most needed, but also 
 furnishes plenty of humus, which must be present to keep the 
 garden in good physical condition. A well manured garden 
 soil will retain moisture longer and will require less cultivation 
 than one that has been given little or no manure. Chemical or 
 commercial fertilizers should be avoided in garden work as 
 they have never proven better than manure and in many cases 
 their long continued application tends to destroy the texture 
 of the soil, causing it to become pasty. 
 
 Locate the garden as conveniently to the house as can be 
 managed. As the products of the garden are to be used 
 chiefly by the family, the site chosen should be close enough to 
 the home to be easily and quickly reached from the kitchen. 
 Such a location will prove not only a convenience, but a great 
 time-saver for the women of the house whose time and labor 
 should be conserved as carefully as that of the men. 
 
 Arrangement. — In arranging the different plants in the 
 garden it is well to have the perennials at one side along with 
 the space for hot beds or cold frames. Perennial plants are 
 those that live from one year to the next, planted perma- 
 
158 Orchard and Garden 
 
 nently in the garden. Among them are asparagus, rhubarb 
 and the herbs, such as sage. Some herbs are annuals, but it is 
 well to have them occupy the same space from year to year. 
 The portion of the garden that is devoted to annual crops 
 should be arranged in long rows or in flat beds. The old style 
 of making garden provided for raised beds, with paths be- 
 tween them. These raised beds were objectionable in several 
 ways. In the first place they were adapted to hand cultivation 
 only. It was impossible to use a horse in such an arrange- 
 ment and even the modern wheel hoes were found impractical 
 for use in such beds. Then, too, much good space was wasted 
 by the large number of patches that were necessary, and 
 moisture was wasted as well. By raising the beds, a greater 
 amount of surface was exposed for evaporation and, as a re- 
 sult, the soil dried out very quickly. 
 
 Manure. — The garden plot should be given a heavy cover 
 of well rotted manure in the fall of the year, which may be 
 plowed under either at that time or very early in the spring. 
 Whenever it is plowed, it must be plowed deep, for that is 
 one of the secrets of good gardening. Unless the soil is turned 
 to an unusual depth the garden will suffer during the hot 
 weather which is likely to appear any summer. After the 
 ground is plowed it must be worked down well with a good 
 harrow. Some gardeners use a disc harrow after the plow 
 and follow the disc with a spike tooth harrow and a board 
 drag. The intention is to secure a well packed seed bed that 
 has been loosened to as great depth as possible. Such soil 
 conditions provide for the prompt germination of the seed and 
 for its continued growth during the season. 
 
 Long roivs in the garden reduce cultivation work to the 
 minimum. Every farmer knows that it is much easier to cul- 
 tivate a field of corn in which the rows run the long way of 
 the field than one in which they run the short way. When the 
 roM^s are long, fewer turns of the cultivator will be needed, 
 and it is on the turns that the most time is consumed. This 
 fact is particularly true of gardens in which a horse is used 
 
Planning the Garden 
 
 159 
 
 The wheel hoe is a great convenience and labor saver. 
 (11) 
 
160 
 
 Orchard and Garden 
 
 to cultivate the crop. It is also true of those gardens in which 
 wheel hoes are used. Another advantage of the long row is 
 that it economizes more space than the short row. Low-grow- 
 
 Plant the g-arden in long rows so as to make cultivation easy. 
 
 ing plants should never be planted between rows of tall grow- 
 ing crops. Plant low growers at one side of the garden and 
 tall growing vegetables, like corn and pole beans, at the other 
 side. Rotate the planting each year so that the same crops 
 will not occupy the same soil twice in succession. This prac- 
 
Planning the Garden 
 
 161 
 
 H^rb^ 
 
 T^hu ^^r ^ 
 
 /^i ^^.ra-f i/i 
 
 
 7^«.<<i-j'i 
 
 ^trr„^^ Oh...^> 
 
 Pca-^ 
 
 ZjS e_ -^ >L-~s' 
 
 ^SweCT^ Cov-vv, 
 
 C^ ^ ^ -^r^ 
 
 / 'o y^ a-""^ " t-s" 
 
 
 T^awijr^e.^ f 0--1. f e».ea "J j 
 
 ^I^U-^-k. Jj:^ e. ■^ -y^ s 
 
 
 "Pa-f k 
 
 {2. « ^ ^^ 7«N 
 
 Beets 
 
 T.K. <,-/... («>. -fe-^te.^ 1 
 
 Upper — Suggested plan for a farm garden. 
 
 Lower — Suggestion for a garden in a city back yard. 
 
162 Orchard and Garden 
 
 tice is simply good farming, but is not really so necessary in 
 the growth of garden crops as it is with the usual farm fields, 
 for the reason that a more liberal supply of manure is pre- 
 supposed for the garden than for the regular crops of farm 
 grains and grasses. 
 
 Double crops. — Often the garden space can be so arranged 
 that two crops of vegetables can be secured from the same 
 ground in the same year. There are many combinations that 
 can be used to secure this result. By obtaining an early start, 
 many of the spring vegetables will be harvested before it is 
 too late to plant the customary summer garden. As an ex- 
 ample, sweet corn may follow a crop of early peas. The peas, 
 being a legume, really improve the soil to a certain extent, 
 making it more productive for the crop of sweet corn which 
 follows. Lettuce and radishes are quick-growing, cool weather 
 crops which mature early and which are worthless if per- 
 mitted to stand too long. The plan, then, is to force them to 
 a quick growth early in the spring, use them while they are 
 prime, and finally utilize the space for later vegetables. Beans 
 are a good crop to follow these spring relishes, but cabbage 
 or tomatoes may be used. Later sowings of lettuce may be 
 planted to follow the early crop of the same vegetable and 
 the same theory is true of sweet corn. If the first planting of 
 sweet corn is of an early maturing variety, it will ripen in time 
 to make way for a later planting of the same sort which can 
 be used in the fall. Crops which mature about midsummer, 
 such as early cabbage, corn and some kinds of beans, can be 
 succeeded by plantings of kale or spinach for fall use. The 
 accompanying diagrams indicate some plans for the average 
 garden, but they are, of course, to be modified to suit the indi- 
 vidual tastes of the growers. Crops to follow early seedings 
 are also indicated. 
 
 Fencing. — The garden should by all means be enclosed by 
 a good fence, which should be so constructed as to exclude all 
 farm animals and especially chickens. Small mesh wire fence 
 is most often used for this purpose and is probably the best 
 
Planning the Garden 
 
 163 
 
 and cheapest material. Some gardeners prefer to build a tight 
 board fence, but such a protection is expensive to build, and 
 has the added objecton of providing too much shade for 
 economical planting. Gates must be furnished large enough 
 to permit the entrance of the manure wagon and enable cul- 
 
 The garden drill. 
 
 tivation by horses. Some growers have designed their fences 
 in such a way that the fence at either end consists of a series 
 of removable panels which can be quickly taken down while 
 the garden is being plowed and cultivated. Such an arrange- 
 ment enables the horse to be turned outside of the garden and 
 results in clean cultivation to the ends of the rows with no 
 danger of uneven rows where the horse turns. This kind of 
 
164 Orchard and Garden 
 
 fence costs but little more than the ordinary tight fence, and 
 if it is built properly, is just as serviceable as if it were made 
 of continuous wire. At all events a garden fence should be 
 built substantially and permanently. A few growers believe 
 in changing the location of the garden every limited number 
 of years, but there is no good reason for such a theory. Well- 
 kept gardens will continue to increase in productiveness each 
 year, if they are properly tilled and regularly manured. Old 
 garden soil should be very rich and warm. Why should years 
 be spent in building up a productive soil only to change the 
 garden to a new locality? The gardens of Europe have been 
 in use for generations and without exception they are more 
 fruitful than any of our American gardens. With them inten- 
 sive gardening has become a necessity, while with us it should 
 be practiced before it is our last resort. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 Seed Selection. 
 
 Seeds. — During recent years a great deal of attention has 
 been given to the question of seed selection and, as a conse- 
 quence, many important discoveries have been made. In the 
 discussion of the propagation of fruit plants the point was 
 developed that it was impossible to pedigree fruit trees, be- 
 cause of the fact that reproduction in the nursery is purely 
 vegetative. The blossom with its attendant mixture of pollen 
 does not play any part in the growing of a young fruit tree, 
 A scion (twig) is simply cut from the tree which it is desired 
 to propagate, and this scion is induced to grow in a seedling 
 root. The young fruit tree is merely an extended growth of 
 the tree from which it came. In this same relation the point 
 was established that fruit trees that grew from seed seldom 
 produced fruit similar to that of their parents. These two 
 points should be kept in mind when considering the selection 
 of garden seeds. 
 
 Flower parts. — In order to understand the manner in 
 which a seed is produced, a fundamental knowledge must be 
 first established concerning the typical flower parts of a 
 plant. On examining any common flower it will be found that 
 it consists of certain very definite parts whose shape and ar- 
 rangement may vary somewhat on comparison with other 
 flowers, but whose functions are similar in nearly all cases. 
 On the outside of the flower, and often covering it in the bud, 
 will be found certain green leaf-like divisions. These parts 
 are called sepals and together they form the calyx. Inside the 
 calyx is another row or rows of divisions forming in most 
 
166 
 
 Orchard and Garden 
 
 cases the showy part 
 of the blossom. These 
 parts are called petals 
 and when considered 
 as a whole, they form 
 the corolla. Inside the 
 corolla is a row of 
 slender stalks sur- 
 mounted by a cap of 
 powdery yellow or 
 orange. These are the 
 stamens and in the 
 center of the group of 
 stamens is found a 
 heavier stalk, usually 
 with a sticky end, 
 which is called ttie pis- 
 til. The parts which 
 are the important ones 
 in the work of the 
 flower are the stamens 
 and the pistil. The pistil is connected directly with the ovary in 
 which the seeds are produced, but the seeds can not be devel- 
 oped until some of the pollen which is produced in the stamens 
 is transplanted to the sticky top of the pistil. When the pollen 
 reaches that point, it quickly develops a microscopic tube which 
 passes down through the stalk of the pistil and unites with the 
 embryo seeds in the ovary. In some plants only pistils are found 
 present and the plant is forced to depend on the pollen of its 
 neighbor of the same species. The pollen from one species 
 will not fertilize seeds of another species. Radish pollen will 
 not fertilize lettuce seed, but pollen from yellow corn will 
 readily fertilize the seed of white corn. In a few cases it is 
 found that, while both stamens and pistils are found in the 
 same flower, the seeds are more readily fertilized by pollen 
 from some other individual plant. This general mixing of 
 
 Flower Parts: 
 Stamens. 
 
 C. Corolla. 
 O. Ovary. 
 
Seed Selection 167 
 
 pollen results in seeds almost hopelessly mixed and it also 
 accounts for the great variation found in plants grown from 
 seed. 
 
 New varieties. — At this point the question naturally 
 arises relating to long established varieties that have re- 
 mained the same for many years, such as Burpee's Bush Lima 
 bean, Livingston's Stone tomato, Golden Bantam corn, etc. 
 The first step toward answering this question is to ascertain 
 how these varieties originated. To begin with, some gardener 
 or seed grower probably noticed a particular plant in his 
 garden which seemed to be better in some respects than 
 others of its kind. Sweet corn is a good plant to consider as 
 an example. In a field of mid-season corn a grower finds a 
 stalk which ripens its corn earlier than the rest and is of a 
 golden color. He saves the seed from this stalk, plants it by 
 itself the next year, and awaits results. Part of the resulting 
 corn proves to be similar to the original stalk and the rest is 
 quite diflferent. The grower then selects those ears which 
 come nearest to the type that he is trying to develop and makes 
 another planting the succeeding year, again thinning out all 
 the ears but those which approach his type. After a few 
 years of this selection he finds that practically all his seed 
 comes true to type, and he can then claim to have developed a 
 new variety. A similar process was no doubt followed in the 
 development of all our named varieties of vegetables. As a 
 matter of fact, there is a constant tendency on the part of a 
 plant to change its characteristics, sometimes for the better 
 and sometimes for the worse. This fact furnishes one reason 
 why so many seed catalogs are continually advertising what 
 they choose to call improved varieties. It is also one reason 
 why individual growers who are careless about saving their 
 own seeds, do not have much success in perpetuating varieties. 
 
 Advantage of large seed. — Recent investigations have in- 
 dicated that improved yields might be expected by using only 
 the largest and plumpest seeds of a given variety. Experi- 
 ments were conducted by planting both small and large seeds 
 
168 
 
 Orchard and Garden 
 
 of various kinds. In every case the large seed showed a de- 
 cided advantage over the small seed. Just how valuable this 
 discovery will be in practice remains to be seen, but it is cer- 
 tainly worth further investigation which can easily be pur- 
 sued by any one with the inclination. 
 
 Saving seed. — If the gardener expects to save his own 
 seeds, he must select samples from those plants which have 
 shown themselves to be true to the variety or an improve- 
 ment on it. Do not let only the poorest and scrubbiest speci- 
 mens remain for seed. Let the fine big heads of lettuce stand 
 so that next year a larger percentage of the whole crop will 
 
 A simple form of seed tester. 
 
 resemble them. Do not try to gather seeds from the tag ends 
 of the garden, but leave a few plants especially for seed pro- 
 duction and make sure they are good plants. 
 
 Buying seed. — If the grower does not save his own seed, 
 it must be bought from a reliable dealer. Plenty of seedsmen 
 sell good seed, but some also sell very poor seed. As a rule, if 
 a firm has been established in one locality for a long time and 
 has built up a big business, its reliability can be depended 
 upon. Some of the ordinary faults of seed dealers are that 
 they do not keep fresh stocks, they adulterate high-priced seed 
 
Seed Selection 169 
 
 with cheap seed, and they do not exercise care to label their 
 seeds properly on the packages. It is a known fact that sev- 
 eral varieties of lettuce often come out of the same lot of seeds. 
 The cost of good seed is very little more than the cost of poor 
 seed. It is expensive economy to attempt to save on the cost 
 of seed. 
 
 Testifig seed. — All seeds should be tested before planting 
 them. In order to have plenty of time for this work the 
 season's supply of seeds should be ordered early in the year. 
 The gardener can test them himself or he can have samples 
 tested at his state experiment station free of charge. Experi- 
 ment stations are equipped to examine the purity of seeds and 
 also their germinating qualities. If germinating qualities are 
 to be tested at home, one of the devices to secure quick sprout- 
 ing of seeds is illustrated herewith. It consists of two plates, 
 one of which is slightly smaller than the other, and a fold of 
 cloth placed between them. The cloth is dampened, the seeds 
 placed between the folds, and the smaller plate is used as a 
 cover. Blotting paper may be substituted instead of the cloth. 
 The top plate retains the moisture. Put the plates in a warm 
 place and examine from day to day. 
 
 The ''rag doll" seed tester- is one of the most convenient 
 devices for the testing of the larger garden seeds such as corn, 
 peas or beans. It is especially valuable in the work with corn 
 because it enables the grower to make an accurate test of each 
 ear before planting. All that is needed is a strip of cloth, a 
 black pencil and a water pail. Take any strip of white cloth 
 and mark it off in squares about four inches across. Leave a 
 strip of six inches at each end that is unmarked and allow a 
 wide margin along each edge. Then take ten grains from 
 each ear of corn or from each lot of seed to be tested and 
 place these grains in a bunch on one of the squares. When 
 all of the squares have been filled fold the edges of the cloth 
 carefully over the seed from each side, taking care not to 
 molest the grains or to mix them. Then very carefully roll 
 the whole strip up and tie it securely with string. It is now 
 
170 Orchard and Garden 
 
 ready to be soaked in warm water for a few hours. After 
 it has been soaked for from three to five hours it can be placed 
 in a bucket or pail with a little water in the bottom and a cover 
 over the top. It is well to place a stick of wood in the bottom 
 of the pail so that the "rag doll" does not actually lay in the 
 water. At the end of a week the tester can be carefully 
 unrolled and each lot of seed can be examined to detrmine 
 the percentage of germinable grains. Each square of course 
 will represent an ear or a lot of seed and the ears or lots 
 tested should bear numbers and the corresponding numbers 
 should appear on the cloth. 
 
 Seeds should not be gathered until they are fully ripe, 
 when they should be put into envelopes, properly labeled and 
 stored in a cool, dry place. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 Spring Vegetables. 
 
 Certain spiing vegetables may be planted very early in 
 the season before danger from frost is over. This chapter is 
 concerned only with these plants. 
 
 The spring garden. — The time for planting the spring 
 garden must be determined by the progress of the season and 
 by the condition of the soil. The rule is to plant the very 
 hardy vegetables, like onions, radishes and lettuce, just as 
 soon as the ground is in fit condition to be worked readily. 
 A wet season will retard this planting time and a dry season 
 will advance it sometimes considerably. No garden should be 
 planted at any time unless it is possible to work the soil deep 
 and pulverize it to a fine, firm seed bed. 
 
 The plants suitable for the early garden will be consid- 
 ered in alphabetical order and not in the order of their sea- 
 sonal appearance in the garden. 
 
 Asparagus. — This vegetable is a perennial, that is, it lives 
 in the soil from year to year. It is customary to have the as- 
 paragus bed at one side of the garden where it will not be dis- 
 turbed. The plants form thick mats of roots from which 
 heavy stalks are sent up early in the spring. These stalks are 
 the parts to be eaten and constitute a delicate vegetable that 
 should be in every garden. 
 
 Its culture is quite easy. It is customary to plant one- 
 year-old roots instead of seeds in order to gain time in the 
 preparation of the bed. These roots should be planted in rich 
 earth at a depth of about six inches. For garden culture they 
 may be planted in rows about three feet apart and placed 
 
172 
 
 Orchard and Garden 
 
 from twelve to fifteen inches apart in the row. Asparagus 
 will not thrive in poor soil, and, if the soil is not naturally 
 light and rich, it should be made so by the addition of an 
 abundance of well-rotted manure. Keep down the weeds, 
 especially during the first two seasons. Mulch with stable 
 
 Asparagus roots, showing' where the shoots originate. 
 
 manure in the fall and permit the manure to remain on per- 
 manently, for it adds to the depth of the soil over the crowns 
 as well as furnishes much needed fertility. Shoots should not 
 be taken off during the first year and only sparingly the sec- 
 ond year. If cut before the plants are well established, there 
 will be a tendency to weaken the roots and cause the bed to 
 
Spring Vegetables 
 
 173 
 
 be unprofitable. Favorite varieties of asparagus are Con- 
 over's Collosal, Barr's Mammoth, and Reading Giant. 
 
 Beets. — While beets are not among the very early gar- 
 den vegetables, they are sufficiently hardy that they should 
 
 be planted soon after 
 the ground is thor- 
 oughly warmed. Some 
 growers even plant 
 part of their seed be- 
 fore the ground is 
 quite warm. Beets 
 are quite easily grown. 
 They should be planted 
 in rows from twelve 
 to fifteen inches apart, 
 several inches apart in 
 the row, and about an 
 inch deep. By making 
 successive plantings 
 about a month apart, 
 beets may be had 
 throughout the sum- 
 mer. The tops are 
 sometimes eaten as 
 greens, but the form 
 knowai as Swiss Chard 
 is much more adapted 
 for this purpose. Swiss 
 Chard is a kind of beet 
 that does not develop a 
 fleshy root. The leaf 
 stalk and the leaves 
 are eaten, the former 
 to be prepared as asparagus and the latter to be boiled and 
 served as spinach or kale. Beets planted late in summer will 
 
 A good type of garden beet. 
 
174 
 
 Orchard and Garden 
 
 usually keep through 
 the winter if gathered 
 after cool weather sets 
 in and stored in a dry, 
 cool place. 
 
 Coj-n Salad. — This 
 plant should be more 
 generally known, as it 
 furnishes a substitute 
 for lettuce before that 
 crop is ready for use. 
 It may be planted in 
 the fall of the year and 
 protected during the 
 winter with a light 
 mulch of straw. It 
 will start to grow as 
 soon as the least warm 
 weather approaches 
 and will be ready for 
 use before other vege- 
 tables. It may also be 
 planted in early 
 spring. In either case 
 it should be planted in 
 drills about a foot 
 apart. Its culture is otherwise the same as for lettuce. 
 
 Lettuce. — A garden would not be worthy the name if it 
 did not include its rows of lettuce. This salad vegetable may 
 be had in a great many varieties which are suited to differ- 
 ent purposes. Some varieties form tight heads almost like 
 small cabbages, some are collections of large loosely curled 
 leaves and others are a combination of the two forms. 
 
 Since lettuce is eaten green, it is necessary to force the 
 leaves to a quick growth, thus insuring their crispness and 
 tenderness. Accordingly the soil should be loose and rich 
 
 ■hard. 
 
Spring Vegetables 
 
 175 
 
 (12) 
 
 Kvery garden should have its row of lettuce. 
 
176 Orchard and Garden 
 
 and cultivation should be very thorough. Often lettuce is 
 planted by sowing the seed broadcast on a small plot of 
 ground. But this method crovv^ds the plants and prevents 
 both perfect development and cultivation. It is a much better 
 plan to plant the seed in rows and thin out as the plants in- 
 crease in size. In this way the small plants can be used while 
 quite young and the plants which are left will have more 
 space in which to develop. The varieties that form heads 
 are grown to perfection only by transplanting. The seed 
 should be sown in a cold frame and as soon as the plants are 
 large enough and the outside earth warm enough, the small 
 plants can be transplanted to the permanent row. The rows 
 should be a foot apart and the heads should be set from 
 eight to twelve inches apart in the row. They should have 
 constant cultivation. Plants of head lettuce may be set in 
 any vacant space in the garden. If there is a vacancy in a 
 row of some other vegetable use that space to set out a few 
 heads of lettuce. They mature rapidly and can always be 
 disposed of for some later crop. In the South, lettuce may 
 be planted in the fall and permitted to remain in the ground 
 over the winter. This practice is not successful in the North. 
 The best varieties of leaf lettuce are Black Seeded Simp- 
 son and Grand Rapids. The best of the heading forms are 
 Big Boston and All Heart. 
 
 Onions. — Onions may be grown from sets, which are 
 merely small onions, or from seed. They require the very 
 best cultivation if grown from seed. Those produced from 
 the sets are used extensively for green onions eaten raw in 
 the spring. The sets may be planted as soon as the ground 
 is in condition to work and will grow rapidly. The seed may 
 be sown in the open ground or it may be started in a hot bed 
 and the seedlings transplanted after the arrival of warmer 
 weather. Such an arrangement hastens the crop quite de- 
 cidedly. When grown on a large scale the seed is sown in 
 drills and the young seedlings thinned out so that they stand 
 a few inches apart in the row. Frequent shallow cultivation 
 
Spring Vegetables 177 
 
 is essential for this crop. If the onions are grown for winter 
 use, they should be harvested as soon as the tops are dried 
 and stored in a cool, dry place. Distinct varieties of onion 
 sets are difficult to obtain so they are generally sold by the 
 color as white, red, or yellow. 
 
 The best varieties to plant from seed are the Prizetaker 
 and the Yellow Globe Danvers. 
 
 Parsley. — This small and very ornamental plant is used 
 as a garnish and as a flavor in soups. The seed should be 
 sown very early in the spring in permanent rows or may be 
 planted in a cold frame and the young plants later set out in 
 rows a foot apart and about four inches apart in the row. 
 When once set, the plants may remain in the ground over the 
 winter if they are protected with a slight mulch. A few of 
 them can be potted at a time if wanted for winter use. and 
 brought into the house where they will continue to grow. A 
 pot of parsley in the kitchen window is attractive as well as 
 useful for whenever leaves are taken off, they are rapidly 
 replaced by new ones. 
 
 Parsnip. — The seeds of this vegetable should be sown 
 as early in the spring as possible in rows about two feet 
 apart and the plants should })e thinned so as to stand several 
 inches apart in the row. This plant is grown for its edible 
 roots and should be given frequent shallow cultivation. 
 While the parsnip is included among the early spring vege- 
 tables, it is so listed merely because it must be planted early. 
 The roots are not ready for use until late summer and are 
 improved if permitted to remain in the ground till after the 
 first freeze. They may even remain in the ground over the 
 winter without injury, but they must be dug before any 
 growth starts in the spring or they will be unfit for use. If 
 permitted to remain neglected in the soil, they produce quan- 
 tities of seed and may become a pest in the orchard. 
 
 The variety known as the Hollow Crown is perhaps the 
 best. 
 
 Peas. — Among the first seeds to be planted in the spring 
 
178 Orchard and Garden 
 
 are the peas. Some varieties may be planted earlier than 
 others. The smooth peas are, as a rule, regarded as more 
 hardy than the wrinkled varieties, although some of the 
 wrinkled sorts are quite hardy and of superior quality. If 
 the ground is too heavily manured, a heavy growth of vine 
 will be forced at the expense of the pods. Moderate fertility 
 is to be preferred. Fertilizers rich in nitrogen are to be 
 avoided. The rows should be three feet apart for most sorts, 
 although the dwarf kinds, like the American Wonder, may 
 be planted more closely. Sow the seeds so that the plants will 
 be a few inches apart in the row. Some growers plant two 
 rows together about six inches apart and use the same sup- 
 port for both rows. Where space is limited, this is a good 
 plan. Three-foot poultry netting makes an ideal support for 
 peas, but small brush from the woods is just as good if prop- 
 erly selected and firmly stuck into the ground. Peas will 
 succeed better if planted several inches deep than if drilled 
 with an ordinary garden drill. Some gardeners dig a trench 
 about six inches deep and plant the peas in the bottom, cov- 
 ering them with two inches of dirt. As the peas appear 
 through the surface, more soil is filled in until the trench is 
 filled. This method causes deep rooting, thereby avoiding 
 danger from drouth. 
 
 Sugar peas are a variety used much like green beans, 
 the entire pod and its contents are cooked and eaten. This 
 sort is popular in some parts of the South. 
 
 The best standard varieties are (early) Gradus, (me- 
 dium) American Wonder and (late) Telephone. All varie- 
 ties may be planted at intervals of a few weeks to insure a 
 succession of crops throughout the season. 
 
 Radi.'ih. — This vegetable is one of our most hardy spring 
 sorts and may be planted as early as any vegetable grown. 
 In most parts of the North it may be grown all winter in hot 
 beds and in the South it will grow all winter out of doors. 
 In every case the radish should be planted in warm, rich soil 
 where it will mature quickly, in order not to become tough. 
 
Spring Vegetables 
 
 179 
 
 Plant radishes in permanent rows about a foot apart and thin 
 to one to two inches apart. As they grow, the largest may 
 be pulled for use. They thus receive the desired thinning. 
 Radishes do not thrive after hot weather starts; so it is in- 
 advisable to attempt to plant them for successive crops. Win- 
 ter radishes are planted late in August or early in September 
 and are ready for use before frost. Some varieties are very 
 fine and firm and with care can be stored for winter use. 
 They are usually dug at the first indication of cold weather 
 
 Several types of radish. 
 
 and either stored in a cool cellar or placed in a pile and cov- 
 ered with earth to a depth of two feet. 
 
 The Cardinal Globe, Icicle and Long Scarlet Short Top 
 are some of the popular sorts. White Chinese is a good winter 
 variety. 
 
 Spinach. — These most delicious greens may be very easi- 
 ly grown. The seed is planted either early in the spring or 
 late in the fall. If planted in the fall, the plants will live 
 over winter and furnish an abundance of greens as soon as 
 
180 
 
 Orchard and Garden 
 
 Victoria spiiiacli. 
 
 growth starts in the spring. The spring-planted seed will 
 furnish a plentiful supply of summer greens. Spinach does 
 not succeed well in warm weather and for this reason the 
 fall planted seed is usually more successful. The New Zea- 
 land spinach is a variety that thrives in warm weather and 
 is recommended for planting for the summer crop. 
 
 The best variety of the ordinary spinach is the Victoria. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 The Summer Garden. 
 
 Certain vegetables are regarded as being strictly adapted 
 to warm weather, so an arbitrary form of dividing them into 
 classes has been adopted. Those vegetables for the spring 
 garden have been considered in the previous chapter and now 
 the various plants suitable for the summer garden will be dis- 
 cussed. 
 
 Beans. — Any garden worthy of the name must contain 
 some beans, and often in the country, when a good idea is 
 carried to an extreme, a garden contains little else. There 
 are many varieties of beans and several distinct classes, such 
 as pole beans, kidney beans, lima beans, etc. The soil re- 
 quirements for all beans does not vary to any extent. The 
 seed should be planted in well-prepared soil which is mod- 
 erately rich, and given good cultivation. Beans of all varie- 
 ties are very tender, so that they should never be planted until 
 all danger of frost is past and the ground is thoroughly 
 warmed. Beans planted in cold, wet soil are slow to germinate 
 and usually rot before they sprout. In planting the larger 
 beans, when only a small quantity is to be grown, it is advis- 
 able to place each seed in the soil with the fingers, using care 
 to place the scar on the side of the bean down. If the bean is 
 laid on its ''back," it will sprout only with great difficulty. 
 Try planting some lima beans in a box of soil in the house in 
 various positions and see which position furnishes the first 
 plant above ground. 
 
 Pole beans should be planted in hills not less than three 
 feet apart. As their name implies, they must be provided with 
 
182 Orchard and Garden 
 
 some sort of support. This support may be poles of any 
 description, strings, or the stems of some other growing crop 
 such as corn. Often certain varieties of pole beans are 
 planted in the same hill with corn and permitted to climb the 
 stalks. 
 
 For the small garden the bush beans are more satisfactory 
 than the pole beans, because they do not require so much at- 
 tention or need support of any kind. They form a low bush 
 and the beans are usually produced in great abundance. 
 
 The snap beans are grown for their edible pods, although 
 many sorts can be allowed to ripen their seeds which are 
 then used dried. Some of the snap beans are green in color 
 and some are yellow or white. The latter are generally called 
 wax beans. 
 
 The following varieties are the best of their respective 
 classes for general planting : Bush beans : Refugee, Golden 
 Wax, Valentine. Pole beans : Kentucky Wonder, Lazy Wife, 
 Golden Cluster. Lima beans : Burpee's Improved Bush, Ford- 
 hook Bush, Carpentaria, and Early Leviathan. The last two 
 are tall-growing varieties. 
 
 Cabbage. — This vegetable may be grown as an early sum- 
 mer crop or it may be planted later and harvested late enough 
 so that it may be stored for winter use. Early cabbage must 
 be used promptly after the heads form or they will crack and 
 spoil. 
 
 Cabbage seed should be planted in a hot bed, if early 
 cabbage is desired, or in a prepared seed bed in the open 
 ground, if it is desired to grow a crop for storage. The seed 
 bed should be carefully worked up and the soil made very rich 
 and fine. The seed may be sown broadcast or planted in rows 
 a few inches apart. As soon as the young plants show above 
 the ground they should be thinned so as to develop strong 
 individual plants. They are allowed to remain in the seed 
 bed or hotbed until they are ready for planting in the open 
 ground. They should not be too large at planting time. It 
 takes some experience to know just how early to plant the 
 
The Summer Garden 
 
 18J 
 
 'Kentucky Wondei'" is the best green pole bean. 
 
184 Orchard and Garden 
 
 seed in order to have plants of the right size at the proper 
 time. The permanent plants should be set in rows about three 
 fCiSt apart and about eighteen inches apart in the rows. Some 
 growers space them farther apart than this ; but in garden 
 culture it is usually desirable to economize as much space as 
 possible. In setting the plants in the open ground the tops 
 must be clipped back so that the leaf surface is reduced at least 
 half. This pruning enables the plant to become established 
 quicker, and, if well watered at the time of planting, young 
 cabbage plants seldom wilt. If they are not cut back, many 
 plants will die, because the large leaf expanse gives off 
 moisture more rapidly than the recently disturbed roots can 
 gather it. 
 
 Some quick-acting fertilizer, such as sheep or hen 
 manure, should be placed in each hill in order to stimulate a 
 good vigorous growth at the start and cultivation should be 
 constant from the time the plants are set out until they begin 
 to form heads. If they are cultivated after the heads begin 
 to form, a new growth might be stimulated and, as a result, 
 the heads will split. The same effect may be expected if the 
 cabbage is grown during a dry summer and heavy fall rains 
 set in before the heads are harvested. Winter cabbage may 
 be stored in a cool cellar or it may be placed in piles and cov- 
 ered with earth. In the latter method the plants are placed 
 in rows with the heads down and with the roots up. The en- 
 tire plant should be pulled up instead of cut off when so stored. 
 
 Danish Ball Head, Flat Dutch, and Charleston are stand- 
 ard varieties of merit. Savoy cabbage is a form with curled 
 leaves and is of very good quality, but is not easily grown by 
 the amateur. 
 
 Chinese cabbage is an entirely different vegetable, al- 
 though it belongs to the same botanical family. It resembles 
 a large bunch of celery, and, like celery, it is grown for its 
 stalks. The leaf stalks of the Chinese cabbage are prepared 
 for the table in the same way that ordinary cabbage is served. 
 Its taste is similar, too, but in cooking, it lacks the familiar 
 
The Summer Garden 
 
 185 
 
 A good head of early cabbage. 
 
186 Orchard and Garden 
 
 cabbage odor so often found objectionable. It is of the easiest 
 culture and is grown as a distinctly late summer crop. The 
 seed is planted about the middle of August and the plants are 
 thinned to stand about twelve to eighteen inches apart each 
 way. Their cultivation is similar to that of ordinary cabbage, 
 for they must not be permitted to dry out. Chinese cabbage 
 makes a very handsome vegetable and the ease with which 
 it can be grown and the excellence of its table qualities should 
 make it more generally used in this country. 
 
 Cauliflower. — The care of this vegetable is the same as 
 the cultivation of cabbage. Everything that has been said 
 concerning cabbage culture will apply to this crop except that 
 it is often necessary to tie up the outer leaves of the plant in 
 order to blanch the large flower bud in the center. This flower 
 head forms the edible part of the plant. Dwarf Erfurt is a 
 choice variety for home use. 
 
 Collards. — A form of the kale plant is much grown in the 
 Southern states under the name of collards. It is planted in 
 rows about two feet apart with the plants about two feet apart 
 in the row. The leaves are eaten as greens. 
 
 Com. — Sweet corn is one of the most valuable of all our 
 summer vegetables, and it should have a place in every gar- 
 den. Since it requires as little attention as any crop that can 
 be grown, it is by no means difficult to grow. The ground for 
 sweet corn should be rich and well prepared. If this condi- 
 tion is observed, any one can grow corn to perfection. 
 
 Most varieties of sweet corn are rather tender and should 
 not be planted until all danger from frost is past, and the 
 ground is thoroughly warmed. The seed may then be planted 
 in rows two or three feet apart and stand from one to two 
 feet apart in the row. Closer planting is permissible for the 
 smaller growing kinds like Golden Bantam and for most any 
 kinds in small gardens where space is at a premium. 
 
 As soon as the corn shows above the ground it should be 
 well cultivated and during the season the rows should be hoed 
 after each shower. If showers are not plentiful, it should be 
 
The Summer Garden 187 
 
 cultivated occasionally in order to keep down the weeds. Suc- 
 cessive plantings should be made at intervals of ten days to 
 two weeks so as to have tender corn throughout the season. 
 The later plantings can be made in the ground which was oc- 
 cupied by early garden crops such as radishes, lettuce and 
 onions. 
 
 Golden Bantam is a very fine early variety that is more 
 hardy than many other sorts and can often be planted to ad- 
 vantage long before other kinds could be safely started. This 
 variety, as its name implies, is small both in stalk and in ear 
 and the grain is golden yellow in color. The color has helped 
 prevent its popularity on the markets ; but growers generally 
 are learning that it is one of the very best kinds to grow for 
 home use. Undoubtedly there will be a strong market demand 
 for this sort after the public becomes educated to its excellent 
 flavor. 
 
 Early Adams is also a good early variety, while StowelFs 
 Evergreen will yield an excellent main crop. Country Gentle- 
 man is a corn of fine flavor, although the grains are not ar- 
 ranged in regular rows, but are distributed over the cob in an 
 irregular fashion. Mammoth Late is a good variety to grow 
 for late summer and fall use, but, while it is large in size, it 
 lacks much in quality when compared with the better sorts. 
 
 Cucumber. — The cucumber belongs to the same family to 
 which the melons, squashes and gourds belong. It is a hot 
 weather plant, so, therefore, the seed should not be planted 
 until danger from frost is past. Like all members of the melon 
 family, it demands good soil that has been well prepared. If 
 not already rich, the soil must be made fertile by the liberal 
 use of manure. The seeds should be planted in hills about 
 six feet apart and cultivated constantly till the vines reach 
 such size as to interfere with the work. About a dozen seeds 
 should be planted in each hill. The young plants can then be 
 uhinned out so as to leave only two or three of the strongest 
 vines. Thinning will preferably be done only after all danger 
 from the striped beetle is past. If desired the young plants 
 
188 
 
 Orchard and Garden 
 
 1 
 
 ^M 
 
 
 "1 
 
 pi^^^' ^ 
 
 Wf,y n 
 
 
 iHIB 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 can be started in the house by planting the seeds in old berry 
 boxes or on square chunks of sod turned bottomside up. There 
 
 is also a very convenient paper pot 
 manufactured for this purpose of 
 transplanting plants. In any case 
 the plants are set out without dis- 
 turbing the medium in which they 
 have been started. This method 
 results in the production oi cucum- 
 bers somewhat earlier in the sea- 
 son than if they were planted in 
 the open ground. A few very early 
 cucumbers may also be grown in 
 the hotbed by planting several 
 seeds in the center of each bed 
 where other early crops are grow- 
 ing. The cucumbers will not begin 
 to cover much ground until the 
 other crops are disposed of, when 
 they can be alloted the entire space 
 if necessary. 
 The White Spine is one of the 
 favorites for general cultivation, although there are many 
 good varieties offered by seedsmen. The Boston Pickling and 
 Chicago Pickling are widely grown for the purpose of secur- 
 ing the small cucumbers for use in making pickles. 
 
 Eggplant. — This vegetable belongs to the same family as 
 the tomato. It is grown in the same way. The cultural direc- 
 tions for tomato will apply to the eggplant except that the 
 seeds of the latter are to be planted earlier in the spring. The 
 young plants are very tender, but, after they are planted out 
 in the open ground and become established, their culture is 
 not difficult. 
 
 Kale. — The edible part of this vegetable is the leaves, 
 which are eaten as greens. The name is sometimes applied 
 loosely to several members of the cabbage family, but the true 
 
 Melon plant started in an old 
 tin can. The can has had the 
 top and bottom melted off and 
 one side has been split so as to 
 facilitate the removal of the 
 ball of earth. 
 
The Summer Garden 189 
 
 kale is a distinct plant of much merit. It is easily grown by 
 sowing the seeds broadcast like turnip seeds during the month 
 of August. It thrives without transplanting and will furnish 
 an abundance of greens during the fall months. If the earth 
 is lightly raked over the seed, germination is more satisfac- 
 tory than if the seed is merely left on the surface of the 
 ground, although in favorable seasons it will grow with no 
 further attention. It may thus be planted among late sweet 
 corn and will yield greens until freezing weather. By cover- 
 ing with a light mulch of straw, it may be kept in condition for 
 use far into the winter. When kale is to be grown in a small 
 space, the seeds should be planted the middle of August in 
 shallow drills about eighteen inches apart. The plants may 
 then be thinned to stand a foot apart in the row. This style 
 of planting coupled with good culture will produce larger 
 heads than the easy method first discussed. 
 
 The Scotch Curled Kale is regarded as the tenderest and 
 best flavored of the several varieties oftered. 
 
 Muskmelon. — This most delicious of all garden products 
 should find a place in every garden except those of the far 
 North. Like most members of its family, it requires warm 
 weather to develop successfully. The soil should be rich and, 
 in fact, can hardly be too rich. The culture of the plant is 
 exactly the same as for cucumbers. If ground mice are abund- 
 ant, some care must be used in planting muskmelon seed, as 
 the mice are extremely fond of them. There is on record 
 a five-acre field that was replanted to muskmelons three differ- 
 ent times. The third planting was eaten just as promptly as 
 the first ones and by that time it was too late in the season to 
 try again. Some gardeners claim that such damage can be 
 avoided by supplying an abundance of seed and leaving part 
 of it on top of the ground for the use of the mice. It has 
 been also suggested that the seeds be lightly coated with tar 
 to make them distasteful to the mice. It is probable that a 
 few traps and a little poisoned seed might be useful in a 
 field that was previously known to be infested with mice. In 
 
190 
 
 Orchard and Garden 
 
 harvesting muskmelons they should remain on the vine until 
 the stem separates readily from the melon. When grown for 
 market they are always to be gathered before they are fully 
 ripe. This fact constitutes another good reason for growing 
 muskmelons in one's garden instead of buying those that were 
 picked green. 
 
 Watermelons. — These melons are grown in exactly the 
 same manner as cucumbers and muskmelons except that the 
 
 vines require some- 
 what more space. All 
 directions concerning 
 the culture of musk- 
 melon will apply also 
 to this splendid fruit. 
 
 The following varie- 
 ties are good: Sweet 
 Heart, Watson, Ice- 
 berg, and Rattlesnake. 
 New Zealand Spin- 
 ach. — This form of 
 spinach is suitable for 
 hot weather culture. 
 The seed is to be plant- 
 ed in May after no 
 more frosts are to be 
 expected and will fur- 
 nish an abundance of 
 excellent greens dur- 
 ing the hot months. 
 Otherwise its culture 
 is similar to that of the 
 ordinary spinach. 
 
 Ok)'a. — As this is a 
 southern plant it is not 
 as well known in the 
 North as it should be. 
 
 Tliere is no doubt but that the watermelon is 
 a splendid "fruit." 
 
The Summer Garden 
 
 191 
 
 (i:^) 
 
192 Orchard and Garden 
 
 In the South it is a staple article of food and is served in sev- 
 eral ways, but chiefly in soups. The tender green seed pods 
 are the parts to be used. The seed is planted in rows about 
 eighteen inches apart, with the plants about six inches apart 
 in the row. As the young plants are tender, the seed should 
 not be planted until the earth is warm. Good cultivation will 
 assure an abundant crop. The seed pods must be used before 
 they become too hard, when they are unfit for food. The 
 flower is large and quite showy, so the plant is sometimes 
 grown for its ornamental effect. 
 
 The varieties known as Long Green and Perkins are best. 
 
 Pepper's. — Peppers are used mostly in pickling. Their 
 cultural directions are the same as for tomatoes. 
 
 Potatoes. — Most average gardens do not boast of sufficient 
 acreage for growing potatoes so they are hardly to be classed 
 as a garden crop. They will be discussed in detail in the chap- 
 ter on special crops. 
 
 Squashes. — The care of squashes is the same as for cu- 
 cumbers and the other members of the family already men- 
 tioned. For serving they are baked, or cooked for pies like 
 pumpkin. 
 
 The White Bush Squash is a summer sort that is easily 
 grown and exceedingly prolific. The vines grow somewhat in 
 the shape of a bush, occupying but little space. They may be 
 planted three or four feet apart. The Hubbard is a very fine 
 black-shelled variety that is grown largely for market. This 
 variety requires a long, warm season in which to mature its 
 fruit properly and after which they can be safely stored all 
 winter. The Cushaw or crook necked squash is a favorite in 
 the South, where it is universally grown. Directions for its 
 culture are the same as just described. 
 
 Sioeet Potatoes. — In the South sweet potatoes are a com- 
 mon garden crop and in favorable sections are extensively 
 raised as a field crop. They are easily grown on any light soil. 
 The tubers of the previous season are planted in a hotbed in 
 
The Summer Garden 193 
 
 the early spring, and, as the green shoots appear, they are 
 pulled from the parent potato and used as sets for the garden 
 planting. These sweet potato plants are merely sprouts from 
 the old tuber and they are produced in large numbers. They 
 should be planted to a depth of several inches, and, as the 
 season advances, the soil should be drawn toward the rows 
 so that ultimately the plajits will stand on the top of a slight 
 ridge. If there has been a shortage of plants for the earliest 
 setting, more can be obtained by cutting off the tips of the 
 growing vines as soon as they are well started. These tips 
 should be about a foot long, and are to be used in the same way 
 as the sprouts produced from the tubers in the hotbeds. This 
 method is, of course, of value only in sections having a long 
 season and would perhaps, be useless in the North owing to 
 the fact that the plants set late would not have time to ripen 
 their crop before frost. As a rule, the plants are left undis- 
 turbed from the time the vines cover the ground until frost. 
 At the first slight frost the vines are likely to be killed. The 
 potatoes should then be dug and removed to a dry frost-proof 
 storage room. They are often successfully stored in dry sand ; 
 but under ordinary conditions they are somewhat difficult to 
 keep without rotting. 
 
 Tomatoes will be considered under a separate chapter on 
 special crops. 
 
 Turnips. — These vegetables are usually planted on ground 
 that was occupied by another crop earlier in the season. They 
 may be planted in rows ten inches apart or they may be sown 
 broadcast over the soil to take care of themselves. The latter 
 method is most widely used and produces very good results. 
 The turnip is such a hardy, vigorous vegetable that it requires 
 but little attention after the seed is planted. If the ground has 
 been planted to other crops during the summer, it should be 
 fairly free from weeds and the soil should be loose. Other- 
 wise the ground must be especially prepared in the same way 
 advised for the preparation of the spring garden. Then the 
 
194 Orchard and Garden 
 
 seed may be scattered over the surface and afterward lightly 
 covered with a rake. If, after this preparation, the gardener 
 can be favored with a good shower to start the seed, he may 
 rest assured that he will harvest a crop of turnips. Perhaps 
 the assurance that they require so little attention is the main 
 reason that turnips are so universally grown. 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 Special Crops for Canning and Market. 
 
 Truck crops. — Any garden crop can be and often is grown 
 as a special crop for the market. In most instances the grow- 
 ing of these special crops is managed by trained men who 
 have had experience along their particular line and have be- 
 come expert in the cultivation of certain vegetables. Success 
 with some particular crop in a small garden does not neces- 
 sarily imply success with the same crop when grown on a 
 large scale. Because a man has grown very excellent rad- 
 ishes or cabbage or onions in his home garden, he should not 
 feel too confident about attempting to grow the same crops 
 on a large area with the idea that he can market them profit- 
 ably. There are many items to be considered in the growing 
 of the truck crop. 
 
 Selling special crops.— The first point to consider is the 
 ability to dispose of the crop after it is sold ; because, if it is 
 impossible to sell what has been grown, it would be more pref- 
 erable never to have planted the seed. Selling vegetables is 
 not an easy matter to accomplish for several reasons. In the 
 first place, the question of transportation is an important fac- 
 tor. The successful truck growers are usually situated close 
 to some large city where they can sell their products imme- 
 diately after gathering and no unreasonable transportation 
 bill will absorb the profits of the crop. Some truck growers 
 of the South ship their vegetables great distances North every 
 spring, but always very early in the season before northern- 
 grown crops are available. Crops of lettuce and other tender 
 vegetables grown in California are often marketed in the East 
 
196 Orchard and Garden 
 
 in spite of the great distance to be transported ; but this 
 produce also is sold at a time when no similar vegetables are 
 obtainable in the East. 
 
 Soils. — The question of soils is important in connection 
 with commercial gardening. Almost any farm contains a 
 small plot of ground sufficiently rich for a successful garden ; 
 but, if the entire farm were utilized for gardening, the quality 
 of the soil would probably fall far short of expected standards 
 for growing a profitable crop. 
 
 TJie previous experience of the grower will also have 
 much influence with the measure of success which the busi- 
 ness of trucking may bring. Most successful commercial 
 gardeners are men who have had long experience in the busi- 
 ness and who have gradually extended their plantings of cer- 
 tain crops from year to year until they became proficient in 
 handling the large area of some one commodity to the best 
 of their ability. Many of the most successful market garden- 
 ers in this country are foreign born. The fact has been men- 
 tioned before that gardening in Europe and in Asia is much 
 more efficiently done than in this country, but this statement 
 does not infer that Americans do not make good gardeners. 
 Until this time the massing of our population has not been 
 crowded enough to force excellence in this branch of agricul- 
 tural work. Gardening in any form constitutes hard labor. 
 The American farmer finds it easier to devote his time to such 
 crops as corn and small grains than to develop a backache over 
 a truck farm. Conditions have arisen, however, that are caus- 
 ing American farmers to turn their attention to market gar- 
 dening and, of course, our Americans will ultimately make as 
 good gardeners as they are general farmers. 
 
 Sometimes a lack of capital will cause failure in truck 
 growing. This kind of farming requires more labor, more 
 men employed and more money for handling the crop than any 
 other branch of our agricultural activity. Consequently those 
 who enter into the business with small means may find that 
 
Special Crops for Canning and Market 197 
 
 they are unaljle to grow and harvest a crop which they planted 
 with the highest hopes. 
 
 Canning cro?j.s-.— Probably the simplest form of market 
 gardening is the growing of special crops for canning fac- 
 tories. Strictly speaking, this work can hardly be called mar- 
 ket gardening, because it is restricted to certain specified crops 
 that are capable of being preserved in cans. Among the.se are 
 tomatoes, corn, beans, peas, and, to a lesser extent, spinach, 
 pumpkins, etc. In growing such crops it is customary to .sell 
 the entire yield to the canning factory before the seeds are 
 planted. That is, the grower makes a contract to supply the 
 factory with the entire product from a certain acreage at an 
 agreed price. A contract of this .sort .should be .so drawn that 
 it will protect both the grower and the factory, and in filling 
 the contract the grower should exercise care not to violate a 
 clau.se or phrase which might render the contract void. If he 
 agrees to deliver the entire marketable crop from a given area, 
 he should be sure that this crop really is delivered and that no 
 shortage in the measurement of the land exists. Sometimes a 
 grower is tempted to .sell a portion of such a crop to another 
 cannery at a higher price, only to find that he has broken his 
 contract thereby and so can not compel the factory manage- 
 ment to live up to its side of the bargain. Most of the crops 
 gi-own for canning are of fairly ea.sy culture and for the most 
 part they do not require the soil, care or capital necessary for 
 the smaller crops. Some of these crops will be mentioned in 
 detail later. 
 
 "Home Hampers.'' — On Long Island a method of market- 
 ing produce direct to the consumer has been developed. This 
 "Home Hamper" .system involves the use of a kind of crate or 
 hamper in which are packed an assortment of fresh vegetables. 
 The collection is planned to supply families of diff'erent sizes 
 and contents vary as the season changes. The hampers are 
 shipped direct from the farm to the consumer, the vegetables 
 arrive clean and fresh and the city cu.stomer pays less for his 
 garden truck than if he had bought it from the local market 
 
198 Orchard and Garden 
 
 or grocer. On the other hand, by eliminating a middleman 
 the producer is enabled to realize more for his produce than 
 if he sold it through a commission house. The plan has been 
 such a pronounced success that it is worth trying in any local- 
 ity where vegetables are produced in commercial quantities. 
 Such a system of marketing, of course, necessitates the pro- 
 duction of a complete list of vegetables and small fruits, so 
 that the individual grower has no opportunity to specialize in 
 any one crop. 
 
 It should be kept in mind that gardening on a large scale 
 is not different from family gardening in method. All the care 
 necessary in the small garden is also demanded in commercial 
 planting. This occupation means much physical labor, which 
 can, however, usually be made lighter by the use of drills, 
 horse cultivators and other special farm machinery adapted to 
 this particular branch of agriculture. 
 
 Tomatoes. — Among the most important vegetables that 
 are grown commercially are tomatoes. Until comparatively 
 recent years this attractive and valuable fruit was regarded 
 as unfit for food and was grown only for ornament in gardens. 
 This old-time prejudice has been completely overcome, till 
 today the tomato, either fresh or canned, is known everywhere 
 and is increasing in popularity each year. Thousands of acres 
 are grown annually for the exclusive use of canning factories, 
 while the product of other thousands of acres is shipped to the 
 market for immediate use. The demand for tomatoes seems 
 to be growing constantly each year. 
 
 Growing the plants. — Tomato seed is sown very early in 
 the spring in specially prepared beds in the open ground, in 
 hotbeds or cold frames, or in boxes in the house. The earlier 
 the plants are started, the better are the prospects for an early 
 crop of ripe fruit. For the most part the canning factories 
 prefer to have their tomatoes delivered later in the season 
 after other crops have been canned. On this account tomatoes 
 that are intended for the canning factory are frequently grown 
 from seed planted in beds in the open ground. Regardless of 
 
Special Crops for Canning and Market 199 
 
 where the seed is started, the soil must be rich so as to give 
 the young plants sufficient nourishment for a sturdy growth. 
 
 Transplanting. — When they have thrown out one or two 
 permanent leaves, they should be transplanted so that they 
 stand not closer than three inches apart. Some growers trans- 
 plant a second time, claiming that they thereby secure an addi- 
 tional yield that more than pays for the cost of growing the 
 plants. A few growers even advocate the method of planting 
 the seeds in paper bands placed in the hotbed. These bands 
 take the place of small flower pots and serve to hold the soil 
 about the roots when the time comes to set the plants in the 
 field. While this system may seem a rather elaborate prac- 
 tice for a commercial grower, its value has been proven in 
 some cases. The amount of work involved by this method is 
 so great as to make it prohibitive for most commercial grow- 
 ers, but it is doubtless a good plan to follow in setting only a 
 small patch. 
 
 Setting the phuits. — The plants are set in permanent 
 ground as soon as danger from frost is past. In the latitude 
 of central Illinois tomato plants should be in the field not later 
 than May twentieth. Danger from frost is over in that local- 
 ity by the tenth of May and an interval of ten days is avail- 
 able in which to do the planting. For home use a few plants 
 may be set out as soon as the ground is warm and the plants 
 large enough to be set out. If cold weather should follow, they 
 may be protected by placing some temporary shelter over 
 them. Fruit jars make good covers, or any one of several 
 patent plant protectors may be purchased. One or two layers 
 of newspaper placed over tender plants in the early spring 
 will often save them when frost is threatening. As a rule, it 
 does not pay to attempt to grow early tomatoes in the North, 
 because the southern crop is available long before the earliest 
 grown northern fruits can be marketed. The commercial 
 grower in the North will meet with more success if he con- 
 fines his attempts to the main crop, which, as a rule, is mar- 
 keted after the southern crop is exhausted. 
 
200 Orchard and Garden 
 
 Cnltivating and fertilizing. — The plants are set in the 
 field four feet apart each way and they should be in checked 
 rows so as to enable cultivation in both directions. No crop 
 responds more readily to cultivation than the tomato and with- 
 out cultivation it is a commercial failure. The fields should be 
 cultivated from six to eight times during the growing season, 
 with a frequent hoeing by hand to kill whatever weeds were 
 missed by the cultivator. Good stable manure makes an ex- 
 cellent fertilizer for a crop of tomatoes ; but, when that is not 
 available, it may be substituted by a commercial fertilizer con- 
 taining two per cent, of nitrogen, eight to ten per cent, of 
 available phosphoric acid and ten per cent, of potash. About 
 five hundred pounds of such fertilizer to the acre will produce 
 satisfactory results on average soils. After the crop has been 
 harvested in the fall, the land should be plowed so that all 
 remaining vines and unripe fruit are turned under. In this 
 way injury from some of the insects and diseases attacking 
 the tomato is prevented to a certain extent. 
 
 Varieties. — The variety known as Livingston's Stone has 
 been a favorite for canning during the past years and remains 
 the best sort that can be planted for this purpose. Many new 
 varieties are introduced each year, but the sensible planter will 
 not use new sorts until they have been thoroughly tested and 
 their value demonstrated. The Earliana is a good variety for 
 the home garden when early fruit is desired. Ponderosa pro- 
 duces a very large, but somewhat irregular fruit. 
 
 Peas are often grown in large quantities for canning fac- 
 tories and make a profitable crop. Frequently the ground de- 
 voted to peas can be utilized for a second crop of some other 
 vegetable, such as potatoes or late corn. Commercially, peas 
 are drilled in rows about six inches apart, and, when the ma- 
 jority of the pods are well filled out, the entire vines are cut 
 like hay. They are hauled to the factory on hay wagons and 
 threshed. The grower should provide for the return of the 
 vines and empty pods, for they make good feed for animals. 
 Before this fact was known, managers of canning factories 
 
Special Crops for Canning and Market 201 
 
 were often at a loss for the best means of disposing of the 
 vines and empty pods. By accident a farmer learned that the 
 refuse could be stored so that it would provide an excellent 
 cattle feed. Now some factories are retaining this refuse to 
 sell at a good price. 
 
 S2veet corn is sometimes a profitable crop either for the 
 factory or for market. When growing it for the factory, the 
 grower should inform himself concerning the type of corn de- 
 sired by the canner and then plant the variety which is wanted. 
 Field cultivation of sweet corn does not differ from the care of 
 other corn, except that it is much more subject to the corn ear 
 worm so that in some localities it must be sprayed in order to 
 produce perfect ears. This situation will be further discussed 
 in the chapter on insects. 
 
 Potatoes were merely mentioned in the list of garden veg- 
 etables because they are more truly a field crop than a garden 
 crop, perhaps one of our most necessary vegetables. The fol- 
 lowing directions are intended to cover their cultiv&tion on 
 either a large or small scale. 
 
 5-0^7 — Scab. — Although land for potato growing must be 
 rich, it is not advisable to apply a dressing of manure to the 
 potato field. Manure, as a fertilizer, will predispose the crop 
 to the disease known as potato scab. While it does not exactly 
 cause the scab, it will bring about proper conditions for the 
 scab to develop. The disease is really caused by spores which 
 remain in the ground from year to year. A field that has pro- 
 duced scabby potatoes should not be used again for that pur- 
 pose for several seasons, as these spores live about five years. 
 In preparing the soil it should be plowed deep and the ground 
 well worked until it is soft and friable. If a potato planter is 
 used, no furrowing off will be required, otherwise the ground 
 should be marked with furrows about three feet apart and 
 four or five inches deep. The seed potatoes are dropped in the 
 furrow at distances of about eighteen inches and covered by 
 hand or with a drag. 
 
 The seed potatoes should be selected from the very best 
 
202 Orchard and Garden 
 
 stock obtainable. Saving small potatoes for seed is poor econ- 
 omy as they will never produce the best results. The careful 
 grov^^er will select his seed in the fall when the potatoes are 
 
 The two lower specimens show poor types to select for seed. The upper 
 is a g-Qod seed potato. 
 
 dug, choosing the largest specimens from those plants which 
 produce large and uniform potatoes in the greatest abundance. 
 By this method of seed selection the yield of potatoes can be 
 very materially increased. The selected seed should be care- 
 
Special Crops for Canning and Market 203 
 
 fully stored during the winter. The best means of storing 
 on the farm is by placing them on the ground, covering them 
 with straw and then piling at least eighteen inches of good 
 soil on top of the straw. Potatoes have been known to keep 
 perfectl}^ in this way through a winter when the thermometer 
 registered thirty degrees below zero. Stored in this manner 
 they will be in better condition for planting than if kept in a 
 cellar, unless the cellar contains the right amount of moisture 
 and is frost proof. To define the right amount of moisture 
 is a difficult matter, which is even more perplexing to main- 
 tain. It is safer, therefore, to resort to the outside system of 
 storage for seed potatoes. If stored in the ground they will 
 not sprout so readily as in the cellar and may keep perfectly 
 dormant until the first of June. 
 
 Cutting the seed. — In preparing the potatoes for planting 
 they should first be cut so that there are not more than two 
 or three eyes to each piece. However, cutting the potatoes 
 into very small pieces is also inadvisable. It is much more 
 preferable to have a fair-sized piece with several eyes too 
 many than to shave the piece down to secure a given number 
 of eyes. The potato plant will secure its start from the food 
 that is in the piece of seed potato that is planted. If this piece 
 is shaved down to a small quantity of food material, it will 
 result in giving the potato vine a poor start in life and per- 
 haps seriously affect the ultimate yield. Some growers have 
 even planted potato peelings bought from hotels. That these 
 peelings will produce potatoes is true, but the yield will be so 
 light that it would more than pay to put the money in good 
 seed. 
 
 Formalin treatment. — After the seed is cut it must be 
 soaked for two hours in a solution consisting of one pint for- 
 malin to thirty gallons of water. This treatment is to kill the 
 spores of scab, if any be present, and is a safe practice for all 
 seed. After soaking, the potatoes must not be returned to the 
 bags that previously held untreated potatoes or they may 
 become reinfected with the disease. It is a good plan to have 
 
204 Orchard and Garden 
 
 a place where the potatoes may be poured out to dry, after 
 which they should be put into containers that have been 
 treated with the same disinfecting solution. Every precaution 
 should be taken to be sure that only clean potatoes are planted, 
 that is, potatoes that are free from disease. In no other way 
 can the earth be kept free from scab, and, of course, no kind 
 of treatment for seed put into infected land can be expected 
 to produce a crop of clean potatoes. 
 
 Cultivation. — The potatoes should be cultivated at fre- 
 quent intervals and the surface of the ground around the 
 plants should be kept level. The level cultivation has the ad- 
 vantage of being cheaper, of conserving more moisture and of 
 disturbing the root system less. After the first few cultiva- 
 tions some tool should be used which will not disturb the 
 ground deeper than an inch or two. Deep cultivation 
 is injurious to the potato, and, if the ground was properly 
 prepared in the first place, it is not necessary. Shallow culti- 
 vation is kept up to eliminate weeds and to maintain a mulch 
 during dry weather, thus conserving the moisture in the soil. 
 The fine feeding roots of the potato plant spread a consider- 
 able distance through the soil, so that, if cultivation is deep, 
 many of these roots may be cut. As a consequence, the plant 
 is deprived of a certain amount of food and must in addition 
 make an effort to replace the roots which were injured. 
 
 The time of planting potatoes varies with the locality and 
 the intention of the grower. If early potatoes are desired, 
 they must be planted as soon as the ground is warm and in 
 fit condition to work. Potatoes for storing must be planted 
 much later or they will ripen so early in the fall that they will 
 not keep during winter. Sometimes, too, a crop of late potatoes 
 will ripen early and then make a second growth, which will 
 cause them to be misshapen. In the latitude of central Indiana 
 late potatoes should not be planted before the middle of June 
 and fine crops have been grown which were planted the tenth 
 of July. In southern Indiana late potatoes may be put in after 
 
Special Crops for Canning and Market 205 
 
 the wheat is cut and still have time to mature a full crop before 
 frost. 
 
 For early potatoes the Irish Cobbler, Early Ohio and 
 Early Rose are favorites. For main crop purposes Green 
 Mountain, Rural New Yorker, Sir Walter Raleigh, Carmen, 
 and Duchess are grown. The Early Rose is also often planted 
 as a late potato and can be depended upon for a full crop even 
 if planted a considerable length of time after the other varie- 
 ties are in the ground. 
 
 Potatoes are harvested either by hand digging, by plowing 
 and hand picking or by use of one of the improved machines 
 designed to dig and sort them. Large growers in the North 
 prefer to use the digging machines, while in the South, where 
 labor is cheap and plentiful, hand digging will prove more 
 economical. Potatoes are shipped and stored either in light 
 barrels covered with burlap or in burlap bags. The legal 
 weight for a bushel of potatoes is sixty pounds, but there are 
 no specially defined standard packages as there are for apples. 
 As a result potatoes are shipped in odd sized barrels and bags. 
 
 Celery is an important field crop in some sections, but will 
 not thrive unless planted in the type of soil demanded for its 
 growth. It requires a rich, black soil that will not bake and in 
 which there is an abundance of moisture. Drained swamp 
 land, with the water table reduced to a point about two feet 
 below the surface, is very satisfactory for this crop. On such 
 areas in the North and in the South celery culture is carried 
 on extensively. In the ordinary garden this crop is often un- 
 satisfactory, but some growers meet with fair success in its 
 culture even under seemingly adverse conditions. 
 
 For the early crop the seed is planted in well-prepared 
 soil in hotbeds, from which the small plants are transplanted 
 into shallow boxes. Transplanting stimulates a better root 
 system so that the plants will more ably endure the ultimate 
 transplanting to the field. The ground must be kept moist 
 after the seed is planted, and one way to accomplish this detail 
 is to cover the soil with a piece of burlap and water the ground 
 
206 Orchard and Garden 
 
 through it, removing the cloth as soon as the seeds germinate 
 in order not to injure the young plants. 
 
 The plants are set in the open ground as soon as the earth 
 is well warmed. Planting at that time will insure an early 
 crop. In the North it is customary to grow late celery as the 
 main crop and often seed for this yield is planted in the open 
 ground after danger from frost is past. The treatment of the 
 young seedlings is the same as for plants grown in hotbeds. 
 When plants are set in the open ground, the tops should be 
 sheared off or the leaves will evaporate moisture faster than 
 the recently transplanted roots can secure it from the soil. 
 If permitted to follow its own inclination celery would spread 
 out with the leaves lying flat on the ground. To prevent this 
 result, the soil should be worked up close to the plants in order 
 to hold the leaves in an upright position. 
 
 Blanching. — After the plants have made their growth, 
 they must be blanched or whitened, which may be accom- 
 plished in several ways. Some growers merely use boards 
 along each side of the rows. Others place the celery in pits, 
 while some sorts can be blanched by the use of the ever-ready 
 newspaper. A few varieties, known as self-blanching, pro- 
 duce white stalks normally, but is not regarded as fine in 
 flavor as the older kinds. 
 
 The culture of celery is a highly developed business to be 
 undertaken only by those who have had previous experience 
 with the crop. The varieties most widely grown are Giant 
 Pascal, Boston Market and Golden Self-blanching. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 Indoor Gardening. 
 
 INDOOR gardening is a comprehensive 
 subject in itself, and in a book of this 
 size little more can be accomplished than 
 the establishment of some of the prin- 
 ciples underlying the successful man- 
 agement of those crops which are grown 
 under shelter. These principles will 
 apply to the growing of any indoor crop, 
 whether it be in a green house, hotbed 
 or in a box in the kitchen window. A 
 man, to be an expert gardener, must 
 first be an expert in growing plants in 
 the open, because success under shelter 
 depends on the grower's knowledge of the needs of growing 
 crops. 
 
 In greenhouse management two primary rules must al- 
 ways be kept in mind. Unless the conditions mentioned in 
 these two rules are met, no grower can hope for any success 
 for any crop grown under glass. The first of these is that 
 every plant has its normal season to rest and to bloom and 
 produce fruit. The grower must have a working knowledge 
 of which plants to grow during a certain season so as to pro- 
 duce the greatest returns. Plants that are entitled to their 
 period of rest must not be crowded into active growth. Grow- 
 ing plants in a greenhouse does not imply that the same plants 
 are to be kept in a condition of active growth from one year's 
 end to the next. They must be provided with a season during 
 
 (14) 
 
208 Orchard and Garden 
 
 which they may take the rest which would be accorded them 
 if growing in a natural state. Even the plants of the tropics 
 are not in a constantly equal stage of growth at all seasons of 
 the year. They have periods during which they slacken their 
 efforts and recuperate in preparation for another season of 
 active growth. 
 
 Indoor seasons — Forcing. — By a close knowledge of the 
 habits of the different crops, the indoor gardener can arrange 
 his seasons so that his greenhouses will have a succession of 
 profitable crops instead of a large quantity of idle space while 
 some certain crop is apparently sulking. A few indoor crops 
 are very peculiar in that they absolutely refuse to be forced 
 into bloom ahead of their time unless given some special treat- 
 ment. In an attempt to grow strawberries under glass in a 
 small way, the plants were taken up in the fall before the 
 ground froze, and placed in a house where carnations were 
 growing. It was presumed that the temperature of the car- 
 nation house would be right for the berries, but the plants not 
 only refused to bloom but even declined to grow, because they 
 had not had their normal winter's rest. They eventually 
 bloomed at about the same time the berries bloomed in the 
 garden. Since then it has been discovered that this temporary 
 resting period can be greatly shortened by using ether on the 
 plants. In this treatment the plants are put into a tight box 
 and subjected to the fumes of ether for several hours, after 
 which they are potted and placed in suitable houses. Such 
 treatment has enabled florists to force the blooms on lilacs, 
 hawthorns, lilies-of-the-valley and other plants. The ether 
 fumes merely take the place of the normal resting period 
 which the plant would have if left in the open ground. Un- 
 doubtedly the same plan would have worked on the strawberry 
 plants. 
 
 Some varieties of plants bloom at different seasons than 
 other varieties of the same plants. Accordingly the florist 
 must plan to have his roses of a certain kind planted so that 
 they will produce a crop that will be available at a certain 
 
Indoor Gardening 
 
 209 
 
210 Orchard and Garden 
 
 time. If he fails to secure a crop of bloom at Christmas or 
 at Easter when flowers are in great demand, he may lose his 
 entire season's profit by a week's miscalculation of the proper 
 season of growth. 
 
 Imitating outdoor conditions. — The second rule always to 
 be kept in mind is that the weather conditions inside the house 
 must imitate as closely as possible the weather conditions of a 
 typical day of the growing season out of doors. Thus the 
 florist must try to maintain in his rose house the same condi- 
 tions of temperature and moisture that he would expect to find 
 out of doors on an ideal June day. Roses out of doors are at 
 their best during the month of June when the day temperature 
 is relatively high, with cool nights and abundant rainfafl. 
 Many amateurs make the mistake of supposing that ihe day 
 and night temperature of a greenhouse should be approxi- 
 mately the same. In every case the night temperature should 
 be lower than that maintained during the day, because this is 
 the condition of the natural air temperature out of doors in 
 all climates ; and an attempt must be made to imitate in the 
 house the ideal out-of-door conditions. Carnations require a 
 much lower temperature than roses, so they can not be suc- 
 cessfully grown in the same house. The temperature of the 
 ideal carnation house will follow closely the temperature of a 
 typical day late in May when the thermometer does not reach 
 above seventy degrees at any time. At night it may lall low 
 enough to be fatal to good results with roses. Vegetable 
 growing furnishes as many problems as flower growing under 
 glass. Different vegetables require different weather condi- 
 tions, but the principle is the same in both cases. Lettuce, for 
 instance, is a well known cool-weather crop which succeeds 
 best in the early spring before the days have become very 
 warm. Grown inside, it requires similar temperatures. It 
 will grow in a house that is suited to carnation culture, but 
 since cool nights are really beneficial to it, lettuce can endure 
 more cold than carnations. On the other hand, tomatoes 
 under glass require a high temperature. They will endure as 
 
Indoor Gardening 211 
 
 much heat as the rose, but usually require a drier atmosphere. 
 In this detail they conform to the rule just quoted in that they 
 succeed best in the late summer when the normal outdoor 
 climate is hot and rather dry. 
 
 Soil for' use indoors should be selected with great care, 
 for richness and adaptability to the particular crop to be 
 nourished are demanded. Richness alone is not always enough 
 to suit some particular crops. In a few favored localities soil 
 is found exactly right for some one plant. For instance, the 
 clay soil at Newcastle, Indiana, has proven to be exceptionally 
 well adapted to the culture of roses, and as a consequence, a 
 great industry devoted to this beautiful flower has been de- 
 veloped at that town. This soil is so well adapted to its pur- 
 pose that it has been shipped great distances to other rose 
 growers. In general, the best indoor soil is a mixture of good 
 loam or clay loam with well rotted manure and rotted sod. 
 Florists often make a compost pile of manure and thick sods 
 and permit this pile to rot for a year or two before using it in 
 the greenhouses. It pays to devote a little extra time to the 
 preparation of the soil for use indoors in order to make every 
 square foot as productive as possible. This advice, of course, 
 applies to soil that is used for any sort of indoor work, 
 whether it be greenhouse or hotbed. 
 
 Watering. — Plants grown indoors require more water 
 than the same plants when grown outdoors. This statement 
 is particularly true concerning greenhouses and plants kept 
 in the living rooms of dwellings. The greenhouse beds are 
 usually made on benches, with a circulation of air on all sides 
 and beneath them. This condition is conducive of great evap- 
 oration and water lost from the soil must be replaced promptly 
 and regularly. House plants demand a great deal of water 
 because the air in the house is always too dry for the most 
 favorable growing condition and moisture must be supplied 
 to meet this deficiency of the atmosphere. On this account 
 furnace-heated houses are very unsatisfactory for the grow- 
 ing of plants. Most farmers' wives have success with indoor 
 
212 Orchard and Garden 
 
 plants, because the average farm house in warmed by means 
 of stoves, and consequently the air in the house is not as 
 thoroughly dry as when a furnace is used. In greenhouse 
 work it may be said that the amount of water needed, as well 
 as expert care, is proportionate to the height of the tempera- 
 ture. The high temperature tends to produce a quick, rank 
 growth which is more subject to fungous diseases and to 
 insect attacks. The beginner in greenhouse work will do 
 well to start with crops requiring a moderate temperature and 
 after he has become familiar with them, he can gradually as- 
 pire to the crops needing a high temperature. 
 
 Moisture in the air. — The need of moisture in the air as 
 well as in the soil can easily be proven by a simple experiment 
 that can be made by any one. Take two small potted plants of 
 any sort, but of similar size and condition. Place them in a 
 warm, dry room where they will have plenty of light. Invert 
 a glass fruit jar over one of the plants, and leave the other 
 exposed to the air. Give each plant the same quantity of 
 water daily and note the difference in growth. This experi- 
 ment is especially successful with hyacinths and with some 
 of the other Dutch bulbs. Indoor plants should always be 
 watered in the morning and preferably on bright days. Never 
 water plants late in the afternoon or on very cloudy days or 
 when the temperature is falling. 
 
 Hotbeds are simply greenhouses in miniature, with an- 
 other means of supplying heat than the use of steam or hot 
 water. They are usually heated with fresh manure packed 
 under the soil of the bed, but they may also be kept warm by 
 building a brick flue under the frames. The popular method 
 is to heat with manure. In preparing a hotbed the soil should 
 be excavated from a pit slightly larger than the desired size of 
 the bed. This pit should be about three feet deep and filled 
 with fresh manure that has been permitted to heat once. 
 Fresh horse manure is the best to use and it should be piled in 
 a heap until it heats thoroughly. After heating, it is to be 
 well stirred and mixed with from half to two-thirds its bulk 
 
Indoor Gardening 213 
 
 of leaves or short straw. The mixture may then be packed 
 down into the hotbed. When in a short time it begins to heat 
 again, it can be covered with about six inches of good soil. 
 Hotbeds prepared in this manner should be good for about two 
 months, and, if started the first of March, they will keep the 
 plants in good growing condition until warm weather. The 
 hotbed should be managed exactly like a small greenhouse 
 and be watered and ventilated on the same principle. 
 
 The chief value of the hotbed is in the production of early 
 vegetables and in starting some of the long season plants such 
 as tomatoes and melons. Lettuce is a very satisfactory crop 
 when grown in hotbeds and is largely grown under such 
 methods of cultivation. It can be grown at either the begin- 
 ning or the end of winter with perfect assurance of success. 
 When grown in the fall it should be planted at intervals from 
 the time of first frost until the first or middle of November in 
 order to insure a succession of good crops. Each new plant- 
 ing should be made in a separate hotbed so that the last plant- 
 ing will have at least six weeks of strong hotbed heat to pro- 
 tect it from the cold weather. 
 
 Hotbed protection. — In severe weather, hotbeds should be 
 provided with some kind of covers to furnish additional pro- 
 tection. The customary cover consists of a shutter made of 
 light lumber, matting, straw mats or simply large sheets of 
 heavy burlap. The straw mats aflford the most eff'ective shel- 
 ter and can either be bought at a low price or made at home 
 very cheaply. Make a frame the same width as that desired 
 for the mats, w^hich is generally determined by the length of 
 straw available. If rye straw is used, for it is considered the 
 best for the purpose, the mats can be made from four to 
 four and a half feet wide. Lay the frame on two supports 
 high enough to assure a comfortable position while at work 
 and stretch six pieces of binder twine lengthwise of the frame. 
 Secure the twine to nails driven at each end of the frame, in 
 such a manner that it can be readily loosened. Then wind 
 six balls of binder twine small enough for skillful handling. 
 
214 Orchard and Garden 
 
 and attach their loose ends to the nails at one end of the frame. 
 Now lay a wisp of straw across the stretched strings, take each 
 ball in turn and draw the string tight over the wisp of straw, 
 bring it once around the stretched string and lay on another 
 wisp of straw and proceed. When the mat is the size of the 
 wooden frame, the strings may be loosened, the mat rolled up. 
 and the strings restretched ready for another section of mat. 
 In this way long pieces of matting may be made which will be 
 found very convenient for covering a whole row of hotbeds. 
 Some growers use these mats in addition to the board shut- 
 ters, placing the shutters on top of the mats. This shelter 
 keeps the straw dry, thus preventing complications in freez- 
 ing weather. In late spring the glass sash can often be re- 
 moved from the hotbed and be replaced by unbleached muslin. 
 This arrangement is particularly useful in growing tomato 
 plants, for when they are transplanted, the cloth furnishes 
 enough shade to prevent the wilting of the plants. 
 
 Cold frames are quite similar to hotbeds except that no 
 means of heating them is provided. They are used in early 
 spring after the severe weather is over and their value is 
 chiefly in protecting tender plants from late frost. A hotbed 
 that has ceased to give out heat practically becomes a cold 
 frame for the rest of the season. Tomatoes, cabbage and 
 similar plants can often be started to advantage in cold 
 frames. 
 
 House plants of some sort should be in every home, for 
 they require so little care that there is no excuse for being 
 without them. The chief requisites for success with piants in 
 the home have already been mentioned, but too great stress 
 can not be put on their need of moisture as contrasted with the 
 usual lack of moisture in the average dwelling. Geraniums 
 are old-time favorites for house culture because they are so 
 easily grown and so hardy that they will grow under all sorts 
 of adverse conditions. Various begonias and palms are per- 
 haps next in popularity. In some places the culture of Dutch 
 bulbs is well understood and these beautiful flowers are a con- 
 
Jnijoor Gardening 215 
 
 stant Hourt-je of deli^^ht durinj^ the winter month.s. They are 
 so easily ^own that with a little care they will supply con- 
 tinuous bloom from December until spring. Most of the varie- 
 ties of narcissus are suitable for house culture, as are hya- 
 cinths and a few of the tulips. The big yellow daffodils are 
 such favorites that they are universally grown to supply win- 
 ter cut flowers. The varieties known as Emperor, Empress, 
 and Sir Watkin are all excellent for ordinary- house culture. 
 The pretty and reliable paper white narci.ssus is perhaps 
 easiest of all the Dutch bulbs to grow. All these bulbs may 
 be grown under the same conditions. They are produced for 
 the mo.st part in Holland, but more are being propagated in 
 our country each year. When they are offered in market in 
 the early fall, good sized, clean ?julh»s should be selected and 
 planted in pots or boxes. They .should be covered with about 
 two inches of good soil and then set away in a cool, dark place 
 for several weeks. The best success is had rjy placing the 
 boxes out of doors and covering them with six inches of rich 
 soil. This soil does not freeze readily and furnishes all the 
 protection needed until the boxes can be brought into the 
 hou.se. They should V^e brought in as soon as the ground out- 
 side is well frozen, but before the fro.st penetrates to the boxes 
 containing the bulbs. The boxes are then placed in a cool dark 
 Cellar, and as they are wanted, they are brought into the 
 warmth and light where they bloom in the course of a few 
 weeks. 
 
 The accompanying illustration shows a hotbed that can 
 easily be built in the furnace room of any modern home. The 
 bed is glazed with double glass .sa.sh and the heat is supplied 
 from the furnace. Such a bed is not practical for the culture 
 of ro.ses or other greenhou.se stock requiring much heat, light 
 or moi.sture, as none of these elements are well supplied. It 
 serves admirably, however, as a place to store hou.se plants in 
 winter and to grow Dutch bulbs, violets, parsley, etc. 
 
 MvAihroom.H. — In recent years much attention has been 
 given to the growing of mushrooms for either home or market 
 
216 
 
 Orchard and Garden 
 
Indoor Gardening 
 
 217 
 
 supply. The preparation of a mushroom bed is not by any 
 means a complicated task, and, as the average farm supplies 
 the material in abundance, there is no reason for such slight 
 recognition of the crop. While mushrooms do not have the 
 high food value that was once accorded them, they furnish an 
 excellent change in the winter diet on the farm. Mushrooms 
 are simply the fruiting bodies of a certain fungus which can 
 
 As the hot bed appears from the outside. 
 
 best be grown on fresh stable manure. The manure for this 
 purpose should be stored in a dry place and should be forked 
 over every day until it has ceased to heat violently, when it 
 is ready to be packed into the mushroom bed. The location for 
 this bed is best in a warm sheltered place where it will not be 
 subjected to drying winds. Even moderate air currents are 
 to be avoided. A basement under a residence often furnishes 
 an admirable situation for a mushroom bed. A crib or box 
 should be prepared on the floor of the cellar the size of the 
 
218 
 
 Orchard and Garden 
 
 bed desired. This box is then packed full of manure, which is 
 tamped down hard and firm. It is then lightly sprinkled so as 
 to cause it to become quite hot again in a few days. When 
 this heat subsides and the temperature is falling, the mush- 
 room spawn is planted in the beds. The spawn is merely a 
 
 prepared form of the fungus 
 used to start a new growth. 
 It is purchased in the form of 
 bricks which are to be cut into 
 two-inch squares and planted 
 in the bed in ten-inch inter- 
 vals, about two inches below 
 the surface of the soil. In two 
 weeks the beds should be 
 cased or covered with one 
 inch of good, garden loam, in 
 order to help retain moisture 
 and induce the fungus to pro- 
 duce more mushrooms. After 
 the spawn is put in the bed 
 it should not be watered 
 The cultivated mushroom. Until after the mushrooms 
 
 begin to appear, which will be from six weeks to two months. 
 As they appear they should be gathered each day and no 
 specimens should remain on the bed after they are large 
 enough for use. If the beds become dry at this time, they 
 should be watered with slightly warm water, but not soaked. 
 After the bed has ceased to produce, the manure and soil must 
 be removed preferably to the garden to be used as fertilizer, 
 and the frames of the bed should be well scrubbed with white 
 wash. 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 
 Garden Insects. 
 
 Need for spraying. — The control of insect pests in the 
 garden is so important that no gardener should neglect to pro- 
 vide means of eradicating the various pests as they appear. To 
 fail to spray certain crops or to take other necessary measures 
 of precaution may make all the difference between success and 
 absolute failure. Each year garden pests seem to be more 
 numerous and require more prompt measures of control. This 
 same condition has been noticed in connection v^^ith orchard 
 insects, so the conclusion is reached that the men wJio make 
 provision for controlling attacks of pests will win success, 
 while those who neglect this duty will certainly fail. Every 
 garden should be equipped with a small sprayer and the gar- 
 dener should be familiar with its use in controlling injurious 
 insects. 
 
 Chewing insects. — One great class of insects feeds by 
 eating the substance of the plant on which they exist. The 
 Colorado potato beetle, commonly known as the potato bug, 
 is an example of this class. Such feeders are controlled by 
 the use of arsenate of lead applied in the form of a spray. 
 
 Sucking irisects. — The other class of insects secures its 
 food by sucking the juices from the plant. Food for these in- 
 sects can not be poisoned because it is obtained from beneath 
 the surface of the leaf or stalk. A good example of this class 
 of insects is the squash bug. These sucking insects can be 
 controlled only by some poison that kills as soon as it touches 
 them. The best contact insecticide for use on garden crops 
 is a solution of tobacco. This preparation may be obtained by 
 
220 Orchard and Garden 
 
 boiling tobacco stems or one of the commercial products may 
 be purchased. Black Leaf 40 is one of the best preparations, 
 for it contains forty per cent, of nicotine sulphate. As it is a 
 very violent poison, it must be handled with extreme caution. 
 In use it is diluted several hundred times according to the 
 plant and pest that are receiving treatment. 
 
 The imported cabbage worm is v^ell known to everyone 
 who has tried to grow cabbage. The adult of this insect is a 
 white butterfly, with black m^arkings on the wings. The insect 
 is not a native of this country, but was imported from Europe 
 many years ago. There are also some native butterflies thai 
 lay their eggs on the cabbage, but they are not sufficiently 
 numerous to be of any serious consequence. The butterfly lays 
 its eggs on the young cabbage plants and from the egg 
 hatches the familiar green worm. All the actual damage is 
 done while the insect is in the worm or larval stage. At this 
 stage the insect is a voracious feeder, eating the substance of 
 the leaves and frequently eating into the heads as they form. 
 Arsenate of lead sprayed on the plants while they are young 
 will kill the first larvae that appear, but as the plants grow, 
 the leaves become more waxy on the surface and the spray 
 solution will not stick. At such times it is far better to use a 
 poison in powder form. Arsenate of lead can now be secured 
 in a dry state. Mix powdered arsenate with dry slacked lime 
 and dust the compound lightly over the plants. Dry lime alone 
 has been used with fair success, for the larva or worm is very 
 thin skinned. Some growers have reported success in con- 
 trolling the cabbage worm by the use of hot water. It would 
 appear, however, that the objection to this measure might be 
 in the diflTiculty in having the temperature of the water right 
 to kill the pests without injury to the plants. 
 
 The corn ear worm is too well known to need any descrip- 
 tion. It is the larva of a moth that is widely distributed, but 
 that has been more injurious in recent years than in the past. 
 The eggs are laid on or near the tips of the ears at about the 
 time when the silk is showing and the young larva eats its 
 
Garden Insects 
 
 221 
 
 Corn ear worm and its work. 
 
222 
 
 Orchard and Garden 
 
 way into the tip of the ear of corn. It is usually not satisfied 
 to remain in that position, but must advance along the entire 
 
 Arsenate of lead sprayed in the corn when it is first showing- the silk will 
 prevent the ear worm injury. 
 
 length of the ear and ruin the entire structure. Other crops 
 are also sometimes damaged by this pest. 
 
 Arsenate of lead applied in the form of powder at the time 
 
Garden Insects 223 
 
 the silk is showing will eradicate the ear worm in most cases. 
 The powder should be dusted over the entire ear of corn as 
 the insect sometimes eats its way through the husks and en- 
 ters the ear at the side. Fall plowing will also tend to reduce 
 the number of insects, for they live in the ground over the 
 winter and the adult moths emerge in the spring. 
 
 The stalk borer is the larva of a moth which lives in the 
 vines of the cucumber, melon and squash. The eggs are laid 
 on the stems of these plants and when they hatch, the larva 
 at once bores into the stalk and makes a tunnel lengthwise 
 through the stalk. Late in the season the borers emerge from 
 the stems, spin their cocoons, and spend the winter on or near 
 the top of the ground. Since the insect lives and feeds on the 
 interior of the plant, it can not be reached with any kind of 
 poison, so that preventative measures of control must be re- 
 sorted to. The presence of the borers can always be detected 
 by the wilting of the vines and all such injured vines must be 
 removed and burned in order to destroy the pest. This prac- 
 tice will also help to control the melon wilt, a bacterial disease 
 which might be mistaken for the work of borers. A few grow- 
 ers have reported success by cutting out the borers as soon as 
 any wilt appears. In this manner a vine can sometimes be 
 saved, but the practice is not universally a success. 
 
 The common green tomato ivorm is the larva of the to- 
 mato sphinx moth and is widely distributed. It can be found 
 in every garden and field where tomatoes are grown and is a 
 close relative of the tobacco worm. The eggs are laid on the 
 leaves of the plants on which it feeds and hatch in a few days. 
 The larva is deep green in color, marked with oblique white 
 stripes on the sides of the body. A spine or horn is present 
 on the tail end of the larva which is commonly supposed to be 
 the stinger. The insect is quite harmless, however, and the 
 spine is provided by nature to make the inoffensive larva ap- 
 pear terrible to its enemies. The winter is passed in the pupa 
 or resting stage in the ground. The accompanying cut fur- 
 nishes a good illustration of the insect in its larval stage. Fall 
 
 (In) 
 
224 
 
 Orchard and Garden 
 
 plowing will kill many of them in the soil. If this measure 
 should fail to keep them in check, the fields may be sprayed 
 with arsenate of lead at the rate of three pounds to fifty gal- 
 lons of water. 
 
 Tomato worm and its work 
 
 White grubs are the larval forms of various species of 
 June beetles, or June "bugs," as they are commonly called. 
 For the most part the damage from these pests is done when 
 
Garden Insects 225 
 
 they are in the larval stage, although in other cases the adult 
 beetles seem to be the offenders. The larvae eat the roots of 
 many kinds of garden vegetables and sometimes become a 
 serious problem to the gardener. Fall plowing, followed by 
 pasturing hogs in the field, will be of much assistance in elimi- 
 nating the pest. The use of fertilizers containing refuse to- 
 bacco is to be encouraged, for the tobacco makes the soil dis- 
 tasteful to the larvae. They are usually more obnoxious in a 
 field that has been heavily manured or an old pasture field. 
 Wire worms are the larvae of various click beetles whose life 
 history and control resembles that of the white grub. 
 
 The striped cucumhe^^ beetle is perhaps the most serious 
 pest with which the melon grower has to contend. It is a small 
 yellow beetle with three black stripes running the length of 
 the body. In this adult stage it feeds on the young melon 
 plants and will often destroy an entire crop. It is customary 
 to plant more seeds in each hill than are necessary in order 
 to make allowance for the damage from this insect. Thorough 
 and early spraying will provide the best means of extermina- 
 tion, however. The plants should be sprayed with arsenate of 
 lead at the rate of three pounds to fifty gallons of water as 
 soon as the first leaves appear above ground. They should be 
 treated again as soon as more leaves form and the entire 
 plant should be kept covered with the poison until the plants 
 begin to form running vines. After that time there is little 
 danger of injury from these beetles. Air-slacked lime, dusted 
 on the young plants, will also serve to repel the insects, but 
 will not kill them. Another disadvantage in using it, is its 
 inclination to be washed off in the first rain, leaving the plants 
 unprotected, while the arsenate of lead will stick to tne leaves 
 indefinitely. 
 
 Flea beetles are very small, active beetles that often dam- 
 age garden plants early in the spring. They are especially 
 destructive on young cabbage and tomato plants that are be- 
 ing grown in a prepared seed bed. If the seed bed is pro- 
 vided with tight board walls and covered with cheese cloth, 
 
226 Orchard and Garden 
 
 the insects may be excluded. In actual experiments the plants 
 inside the protected area were not touched, while those out- 
 side were almost entirely destroyed. 
 
 The Colorado potato beetle is the most injurious insect 
 that the potato grower has to fight. It is now universally dis- 
 tributed wherever potatoes are grown. The eggs are laid on 
 the leaves almost as soon as the young plants api^ear above 
 ground and the larva begins to feed as soon as it is well out 
 of the Qgg shell. The insects eat the entire plant, seldom mov- 
 ing to another while there is still green forage on the first vic- 
 tim. Early in the season, when the damage first becomes no- 
 ticeable, the larvae can easily be picked off by hand; but, if 
 they are neglected for a few days, they will multiply so numer- 
 ously that hand picking is not only difficult but ineffective as 
 well. The best method of control is by spraying with arsenate 
 of lead added to Bordeaux mixture. The Bordeaux itself is 
 beneficial to the potato plant as it prevents leaf diseases and 
 stimulates the plant into a more vigorous growth. The neces- 
 sity for using Bordeaux on potatoes makes the control of the 
 insect very simple, as the only expense is the cost of the poison. 
 The application of the spray solution is indispensable, so that 
 the expense of adding the arsenate is negligible. The Bor- 
 deaux is prepared as directed for controlling fungous dis- 
 eases. 
 
 The squash hug, or "stink" bug, is a familiar insect to 
 every farm boy. It belongs to the group of insects known as 
 true bugs (Hemiptera, or half-winged insects). The adult 
 is grayish brown in color and one-half to three-quarters of an 
 inch in length. It feeds by sucking the juices of all members 
 of the melon family, including melons, cucumbers, squashes 
 and pumpkins. It is doubtless responsible to a great extent 
 for the rapid spread of the melon wilt, a bacterial disease. The 
 insect will feed on an infected plant and later on a healthy 
 one, transferring the bacteria from one to the other. The in- 
 sect is controlled by gathering the eggs by hand or by trapping 
 the adults. The eggs are large for the size of the insect and 
 
Garden Insects 227 
 
 are laid on the under side of the leaves. They are bright yel- 
 low in color, so are not readily overlooked. The adults may be 
 trapped by placing boards near the melon vines, under which 
 the insects will seek shelter at night. If the boards are lifted 
 each morning, large numbers of the beetles can be taken in 
 this manner. 
 
 The harlequin bug is very injurious on cabbage in the 
 South and is now found as far North as south central Indiana. 
 The adult winters over in trash on the ground and begins to 
 lay eggs early in the spring. The eggs hatch after a short pe- 
 riod of incubation and the young grow with amazing rapidity. 
 Many broods are produced each season and by fall the cabbage 
 field may become a swarming mass of harlequin bugs. Since 
 the insect secures its food by sucking the juices of the plant, 
 it can not be eradicated by the use of arsenates, but must be 
 reached by contact insecticides. Another problem is presented 
 here because the bugs are so resistant that they will not yield 
 to any contact poison except those strong enough to injure the 
 cabbage plant. It has been observed that the bugs prefer 
 mustard to cabbage and that one of the best methods for con- 
 trolling them is to plant a row of mustard about and occasion- 
 ally through the rows of cabbage. When the bugs have gath- 
 ered on the mustard, they may be sprayed with pure coal oil. 
 The oil will not only kill the bugs, but will also injure, if not 
 kill outright, the m.ustard as well. Where this pest is estab- 
 lished, a community should cooperate to destroy it completely. 
 If an entire neighborhood would work together in this way, 
 many common pests would be much more easily controlled. 
 
 Plant lice of various kinds are often encountered in the 
 garden, and, in most cases, they can be controlled by the use 
 of Black Leaf 40, a preparation of nicotine sulphate. The cab- 
 bage aphis lives over the winter on the old stubs left in the 
 garden. These old roots should be removed and burnt, or 
 plowed under deep. The corn root louse sometimes becomes a 
 troublesome pest on sweet corn. The insect is colonized by 
 ants, for, by itself, it is quite helpless. The ants carry the lice 
 
228 Orchard and Garden 
 
 about, permitting them to become established on the roots of 
 the corn plants. The use of kainit, crude potash salt, or of 
 nitrate of soda will discourage these pests. Fall plowing of 
 the corn fields will also tend to check the spread of these in- 
 sects, as it will result in breaking up many of the ant nests. 
 
 Kaiser Bug. — In the summer of 1917 a new aphid pest 
 appeared in many sections of the country on potato and tomato 
 plants. This aphid was in some sections given the name of 
 "Kaiser bug," on account of the suddenness and insidiousness 
 of its attack. This was a case of a previously unimportant 
 insect suddenly becoming a dangerous pest. The insect was 
 first described in Florida thirty-five years ago and since that 
 time has been observed as an occasional obscure louse. Sud- 
 denly it appeared in enormous numbers and caused tremen- 
 dous damage. It will yield to the usual treatment of a tobacco 
 spray (Black Leaf 40 diluted 1 to 500) , but the treatment must 
 be very thorough and must be repeated at intervals of not 
 more than three days. As the insect attacked not only pota- 
 toes, but many other plants as well, there were always plenty 
 of specimens to crawl back on the vines that were cleaned by 
 spraying. Hence the necessity for repeated spraying. This 
 particular aphis has a tendency to "let go all holts" and fall to 
 the ground when the plants are disturbed. As a result of this 
 habit we have another method of control that is available to 
 the small grower. Take a shallow pan, such as an ordinary 
 wash basin, and put in it about an inch of kerosene. Hold 
 the pan under the side of the infested plant, bend over the tops 
 and give them a shake. With a little practice the gardener 
 may treat quite a patch in a surprisingly short time. JSome of 
 the insects are sure to miss the pan and fall to the ground, but 
 they will crawl back to the growing tips as soon as possible 
 and the next day the treatment can be repeated. One gardener 
 in Indianapolis who used this method kept his vines practically 
 free from the pest, while his neighbors who were doing only 
 indifi'erent spraying lost most of their crop. 
 
CHAPTER VIII 
 
 Home Storage of Fruits and Vegetables 
 
 After a crop of fruit or vegetables has been produced for 
 home use it will pay to use exceptional care to have it properly- 
 stored for winter. Many fresh fruits and vegetables can, of 
 course be kept only by canning them; but that is an activity 
 apart from the design of this book. Those crops which can 
 be stored in a fresh state will be mentioned in detail at the end 
 of this chapter. 
 
 There are three general methods of storing fruits and root 
 crops out of doors as follows : Storage in pits, in surface 
 mounds and in special cellars. 
 
 Pits are simply trenches dug in the ground at any con- 
 venient place where good drainage can be secured. The lower 
 end of the trench should always be open so as to allow water 
 that has run in to drain off, for no crop should be stored in a 
 place in which water is standing. The vegetables to be stored 
 in the pits are placed there in the fall as soon as cool weather 
 approaches, after which the pits are covered with straw to a 
 depth of eighteen inches. Over the straw is placed a covering 
 of boards to shed the water. This method of storage is par- 
 ticularly adapted to the preservation of celery. 
 
 Surface mounds present the easiest method for storing 
 many kinds of fruits and vegetables. The mound should be 
 made in a portion of the garden or other place where the soil 
 is mellow and where good drainage can be secured. The land 
 should slope in all directions from the location of the mound. 
 
230 
 
 Orchard and Garden 
 
 It is usually preferable, but not necessary, to place on the 
 ground a layer of clean straw. On this is heaped the fruit or 
 
 
 Wr 
 
 « 
 
 ^* . i^ir*^ *'^^' ■:^^;-U' 
 
 
 
 Turnips prepared for wintering. They are ready to be covered with earth. 
 
 vegetables to be protected. They should be arranged in the 
 form of a rough cone and covered with straw to a depth of 
 about six inches. If heavy paper is available it should now be 
 
Home Storage of Fruits and Vegetables 231 
 
 placed around the cone of straw in such a way as to shed the 
 water and keep it from running down over and through the 
 pile of vegetables. Paper for this purpose should be strong 
 and water proof. Red builders' paper will answer the pur- 
 pose, but tarred paper should never be used. The writer once 
 used tarred paper to cover several barrels of apples that were 
 stored by this method and when the fruit was removed in the 
 spring every apple had acquired a moth ball taste that no 
 amount of exposure to the air would remove. After the build- 
 ing paper has been applied over the straw, earth should be 
 heaped upon the mound. Begin at the bottom of the mound 
 and work completely around the pile, making a wall of earth 
 of definite thickness and gradually build up this wall from the 
 bottom toward the top. Do not attempt to cover the mound 
 by throwing the earth on top of the pile and allowing it to run 
 down the sides ; always build the earth walls from the bottom. 
 In that way you can always be sure of the thickness of the 
 covering. Apples will not require to be deeply covered, be- 
 cause slight freezing does not affect them. A four- to six-inch 
 wall of earth on top of the straw will keep apples perfectly. 
 Potatoes, however, require much heavier covering, as do all 
 root crops. The earth covering for potatoes should be at 
 least as thick as the average frost depth in the locality in 
 which the potatoes are stored. If the ground commonly 
 freezes to a depth of twelve inches, then the earthen walls 
 should be twelve inches thick. However, some growers avoid 
 the use of thick coverings by applying a light cover of manure 
 on top of the earth. By this method the thickness of the wall 
 may be reduced at least one-half. 
 
 Apples or potatoes in barrels or boxes may be stored on 
 the same principle as the surface mounds. Instead of building 
 a mound of the fruit or vegetable, the boxes or barrels are 
 merely laid on the ground with a few short pieces of timber un- 
 der them to prevent actual contact with the soil. They are then 
 covered with straw and treated in the same manner as the 
 mounds. The use of paper in these mounds prevents the water 
 
232 
 
 Orchard and Garden 
 
 from leaking down over the stored product. If the mounds leak 
 the fruit is almost sure to have a mouldy taste imparted to it by 
 the water that has run through the soil covering. 
 
 At the door of a modern apple cellar in February. The heavy screen door 
 can be seen in the background. 
 
Home Storage of Fruits and Vegetables 233 
 
 Cellar storage is by far the best method for keeping the 
 majority of fruits or vegetables. The cellar under a dwelling 
 may be used to keep all sort of fruits and vegetables, but, as a 
 rule, such cellars are not adapted to this purpose and so it 
 nearly always pays to build a separate outside cellar for this 
 especial purpose. 
 
 Air and moisture are the two essentials to the successful 
 storing of most fruits and vegetables and unless these two fac- 
 tors can be supplied in controlled quantities the cellar will 
 never be a success. Air is needed because of the fact that all 
 fruits or vegetables are still parts of living plants. They are 
 actually alive and the life processes of plants are still going on 
 in them. The skin of an apple takes in oxygen and gives off 
 carbon dioxide gas just as the skin of an apple leaf does. If 
 fresh air is not supplied, this carbon dioxide gas may accum- 
 ulate in sufficient quantities actually to injure the fruit. It is 
 now supposed that this action causes most of the injury known 
 as "storage scald." The theory is further strengthened by the 
 fact that apples that are picked slightly green, i. e., those 
 that are still more actively engaged in doing leaf work, are 
 much more liable to this injury than are apples that have been 
 allowed to become fully colored, fully ripe and more or less 
 dormant so far as their plant activity is concerned. 
 
 Moisture must be supplied in any cellar where apples are 
 stored because of the fact that the fruit may dry out if it is 
 kept in too dry an atmosphere. Moisture is also necessary 
 early in the season in order to reduce the cellar temperature. 
 If plenty of dampness is supplied to the walls and floor and an 
 abundance of ventilation is provided, the temperature of the 
 cellar will be greatly reduced by the evaporating moisture. In 
 Mexico water jars are made with slightly porous walls 
 through which a portion of the water seeps to the outside sur- 
 face. These jars may be placed in the hot sun and the water 
 will always remain cool due to the loss of heat through the rap- 
 idly evaporating moisture. It is this principle that is used in 
 
234 Orchard and Garden 
 
 reducing- the temperature of an apple cellar in the early fall ; 
 and unless both moisture and air can be supplied in liberal 
 quantities one of the chief objects of the cellar will be defeated. 
 
 Temperature Control. — In the early fall the temperature 
 of storage cellars may also be reduced by opening the door at 
 night and closing it during the day. This should be done some 
 time in advance of the actual use of the cellar for storage so 
 that the place may be as cool as possible when the fruit is 
 put in. 
 
 It is also advisable to place the fruit in the cellar in the 
 morning and not in the latter part of the day. If fruit is put 
 in the cellar late in the day it will have become warm with 
 the sun and will accordingly tend to raise the temperature of 
 the cellar atmosphere. Some growers leave their fruit in an 
 open shed until the first very cool night and the next morning 
 place it in the cellar. This pre-cooling of the fruit before plac- 
 ing it in storage is important enough to be given some extra 
 care. 
 
 Material. — Storage cellars may be built of brick, stone or 
 concrete. Stone cellars are open to the disadvantage of being 
 accessible to mice unless the joints are very thoroughly and 
 carefully pointed. Brick cellars are mouse and rat proof, but 
 are not as strong and usually not as cheap as concrete cellars. 
 
 Concrete cellars should be built with walls of sufficient 
 thickness to support the roof, as the entire weight is thrown 
 on the side walls. The accompanying plan for a concrete cel- 
 lar has been thoroughly tested and several structures have 
 been built to the specifications mentioned. The walls are 
 twelve inches thick and the roof is built of hollow tile twelve 
 by twelve by twelve inches. These tiles are covered by a three- 
 inch layer of concrete. 
 
 The wall forms are first built and then the inside form is 
 roofed over with tight fitting boards. This wooden roof is to 
 form the support for the tile roofing. The square tiles are laid 
 across the cellar in courses, with a four-inch space between 
 each course. These spaces are to form concrete beams be- 
 
Home Storage of Fruits and Vegetables. 235 
 
 tween the rows of tile. Near the bottom of each of these beams 
 should be placed a twisted steel bar, U inches thick, to serve 
 for reinforcing. 
 
 pi 
 
 
 
 ^^!'^ff^^t:^%>j-:^-/?" 
 
 ^'-^/o'Tilt^ 
 
 
 ^iK^ 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 H 
 
 
 ''^■^^ ^ ' ^r^ '^'' 
 
 '«' 
 
 
 Some construction details for a concrete cellar. 
 
 r/ze Uoor should be of concrete and should have one or 
 more openings connected with a ten-inch drain tile to afford 
 
236 Orchard and Garden 
 
 both drainage and ventilation. Most of the ventilation can be 
 obtained through the door. In very cold weather it is necessary 
 to shut off much of the air circulation in order to retain the 
 proper temperature. Consequently a ten-inch drain will sup- 
 ply all the air that is needed when the weather is so cold that 
 the door should be closed. 
 
 Screens must be provided over the drain tile and also over 
 the ventilators in order to exclude mice. It is also very im- 
 portant to provide a heavy screen door that will close neatly. 
 All of these screens may be made of ^j-inch mesh galvanized 
 wire cloth, which will last for years. They form one of the im- 
 portant items in the construction of a successful storage cellar. 
 
 If the walls are built one foot thick they will support a 
 roof span of fourteen feet with perfect safety. The cellar 
 can then be built fourteen feet wide and as long as may be 
 desired. These proportions have been found to be very satis- 
 factory in actual practice. 
 
 Ventilators should be placed in the roof at intervals of 
 about twenty feet. These are best built in the form of con- 
 crete flues at the time the roof is made. The concrete should 
 extend about eighteen inches above the top of the roof and 
 should be capped with a galvanized iron extension three feet 
 long. This extension should have a hood and the air openings 
 at the side should be covered with screen to prevent mice from 
 entering. 
 
 The door need not be built unusually heavy. In some 
 cellars it has been the practice to use heavy refrigerator 
 doors, but a simple door made of two thicknesses of inch 
 boards, with an air space between, will answer every purpose. 
 
 Roof. — After the concrete work is finished and before 
 the earth is put over the cellar, the roof should be given a 
 heavy coat of pitch, to enable it to turn the water. It is 
 immaterial how much water comes through the walls or runs 
 over the floor, but it is not desirable to have any leaks in the 
 roof. Such leaks cause water to run down over the fruit and 
 if it is stored in barrels or other packages the moisture will 
 
Home Storage of Fruits and Vegetables. 
 
 237 
 
 spoil the appearance of the package even if it does not injure 
 the fruit. Where tile has been used in the roof as above de- 
 scribed, it will not require a very heavy covering of earth to 
 make the roof frost proof. The walls, of course, will be cov- 
 ered completely to a depth beyond the possible frost line. Six 
 inches of earth on the roof has kept one of these cellars warm 
 
 Apples in a concrete cellar. This cellar is fourteen feet wide and eighty- 
 feet long-. 
 
 in weather that caused the thermometer to register ten to 
 twenty blow zero for more than a week. 
 
 The accompanying chart will give some idea of the tem- 
 perature range inside one of these cellars as compared with 
 the range outside. It is desirable to hold the temperature as 
 near one place as possible. 
 
 The following notes on the storing of various fruits and 
 vegetables will serve as a guide in the matter of keeping the 
 different sorts for winter. 
 
238 
 
 Orchard and Garden. 
 
Home Storage of Fruits and Vegetables. 239 
 
 Apples. — The fruit should be well grown, have reached 
 its full size, but not necessarily its full color. Grimes should 
 be fairly green. Delicious must be picked while still very hard 
 and firm. May be kept in either surface mounds or cellars, but 
 preferably in cellars. There must be a surplus of moisture in 
 the air or they will wilt and lose quality. 
 
 Beets may be kept in pits, mounds or in moist cellars. 
 They should be fully grown before harvesting and should 
 have the tops cut off about an inch or two from the root to 
 prevent too much loss of moisture. 
 
 Cabbage. — Store in pits or mounds. Cellar storage is not 
 uniformly successful. A common method is to pile the heads 
 in a long "rick," with the roots sticking up. (For storing in 
 this way the plants should be pulled root and all.) Then cover 
 the rick with earth just heavily enough that the roots stick out 
 of the ground. 
 
 Carrots. — Store in mounds or in a cellar having plenty of 
 moisture. 
 
 Celery. — This is best stored in pits. The trench should be 
 made deep enough to receive the entire plant. Plants are 
 transplanted to these pits and are packed in them just as close- 
 ly as possible. The roots should be well covered with earth in 
 order to maintain an abundant supply of moisture to the stalks. 
 
 Onions should be gathered during a dry time and should 
 not be allowed to become moist or they will rot. They can 
 best be stored in a dry room where they will be free from frost. 
 Some varieties are not injured by freezing if they are allowed 
 to thaw out slowly, but the safest plan is to keep them from 
 freezing. 
 
 Parsnips may be dug in the fall and stored in pits, mounds 
 or in moist cellars. However, many growers allow them to 
 remain in the ground over winter. They are perfectly hardy 
 and withstand freezing. The flavor is improved after they 
 have been frozen so that even though they are to be stored they 
 should not be dug until after a severe freeze. 
 
 Pears. — Some of the very late varieties of pears may be 
 
 (16) 
 
240 Orchard and Garden. 
 
 kept in storage until January or February. Each fruit should 
 be wrapped in paper and handled carefully. They require 
 less moisture than apples and can often be stored to advantage 
 in a cellar under a house that would be entirely unsuited for 
 apples. 
 
 Potatoes. — This is one crop that is not in the least par- 
 ticular about the way in which it is stored. If the tubers 
 are kept from frost and at the same time not permitted to get 
 too warm they will remain in good condition. Cellar storage 
 such as is adapted to the keeping of apples will also hold pota- 
 toes in perfect condition. They also endure both more and less 
 moisture than will apples. They can be kept out doors in 
 mounds if protected from freezing and do well in an ordinary 
 house cellar. If the air is too dry they are inclined to wilt and 
 if it is too warm they may sprout. Potatoes stored on the 
 farm by any of these methods make much better seed potatoes 
 than do those which have been kept in chemical cold storage. 
 
 Sweet Potatoes. — Unlike Irish potatoes, these must be 
 stored in a warm, dry place. They may be packed in dry sand 
 and kept in a house cellar. They are difficult to retain in good 
 condition. 
 
 Turnips should be pulled in the fall after cool weather sets 
 in. They will withstand some freezing weather in the field. 
 They are best stored either in mounds or in a moist cellar. If 
 stored in a mound they should be as well protected from freez- 
 ing as potatoes. Although they are not injured by rather cold 
 weather while they are standing in the field, they are soon 
 ruined if allowed to freeze after they have been gathered. 
 
CHAPTER IX 
 TiiE Back Yard Garden 
 
 In an earlier chapter the fact has been mentioned that in 
 all large cities, and in many small towns, a great waste of 
 good land exists through the premature "laying out" of addi- 
 tions to the town. At the edges of all of our towns and cities, 
 more vacant lots are often found than lots on which are houses. 
 This land, often in small parcels, produces as a rule only a 
 crop of weeds — a crop that must be harvested by being cut 
 down, but which produces nothing of value to the community. 
 The majority of our American homes also have in the rear of 
 the house a space of considerable extent designated as the 
 "back yard". Too often the back yards are an expense, when, 
 as a matter of fact, they should be an asset. The recent high 
 prices and general shortage of all sorts of food stuffs has 
 caused a more or less systematic movement throughout the 
 land involving the cultivation of these vacant spaces in our 
 towns. "Patriotic gardens" have sprung up in the most out- 
 of-the-way places and have been tended by people who had pre- 
 viously never thought of themselves as possible agriculturists. 
 
 This movement has been so enthusiastically received by 
 such large numbers of the population that it seems advisable 
 to devote one chapter particularly to the city gardens in order 
 that some of the difficulties beginners experience in this new 
 field may be removed. 
 
 Patriotic gardens are an innovation in America, but they 
 have come to stay. (This is written during the winter of 1917- 
 1918.) I recently heard a woman in one of our large cities re- 
 mark that she "hoped the war would be over before spring so 
 
242 
 
 Orchard and Garden 
 
 that they would not have to bother with a garden again." As 
 a matter of fact, if the war was already over our patriotic 
 gardens would be an economic necessity for several years to 
 come. It will require a number of years for the world to get 
 its balance again after hostilities have ceased and by that time 
 our city people will be so enamoured of their gardens that they 
 
 A city garden of a foreign-born citizen. Tlie surplus from this garden is 
 sold to a local grocery. 
 
 will continue them for the enjoyment in the work if for no 
 other reason. The joy of seeing things grow is one of the gar- 
 dener's rewards. It is not necessary to make "two blades of 
 grass grow where one grew before," but it is quite important 
 to produce something of value where nothing at all had ever 
 been produced. 
 
 Some people have tried to minimize the value of the city 
 garden and to intimate that the general adoption of gardenmg 
 in the city would never be a success, but the results of the past 
 year have proved that quite the contrary is true. Many city 
 gardens failed, but many more were a success and as the years 
 go on the percentage of successes will grow amazingly. 
 
 A city friend of mine sent me his list of seeds that he had 
 selected for his first attempt at back yard gardening. He had 
 
The Back Yard Garden. 
 
 243 
 
 '■.- /'* T^ 
 
 Even the leaf lettuce will form rather compact heads if it is transplanted 
 and given plenty of food and room. 
 
244 
 
 Orchard and Garden 
 
 a large yard, but the list which he presented was large for even 
 such an extensive garden as I have in the country. I discour- 
 
 '■-"'c^ 
 
 
 Big- Boston lettuce. 
 
 aged him about planting so many different things, but he fin- 
 ally made it clear to me that he wanted my advice only in re- 
 gard to the varieties he had selected and that he expected to 
 
The Back Yard Garden. 245 
 
 grow everything that he had listed. Late that summer I had the 
 pleasure of seeing his "plantation" and I was truly surprised 
 at the measure of success he had attained. He had grown 
 everything from radishes to watermelons and had had some 
 of nearly every crop to give to his neighVjors. This was before 
 the popular movement toward city gardens and the same man 
 has repeatedly equaled his first success. During the past year 
 he produced, in addition to his usual summer crops, nearly 
 enough potatoes to supply his family throughout the winter. 
 
 Such a case might seem exceptional, but, as a matter of 
 fact, is not. The school gardens that were started last year in 
 most, if not all, cities proved beyond a doubt that the waste 
 land in our back yards can be made to produce a very consid- 
 erable amount of food. However, the idea of the school garden 
 is not a new one. In many localities such gardens have been 
 long estalished and they have produced more than food. They 
 have taught the children who tended them, the value of labor. 
 To some they have taught a trade ; I know several young men 
 who are now commercial gardeners who obtained their start in 
 a city school garden. To many of these city children the gar- 
 dens have brought the joy of the open air in its best and most 
 valuable form. 
 
 Gardening in the city, however valuable and interesting 
 it may be, has its drawbacks and disadvantages. There are 
 more difficulties to be overcome than there are in the country — 
 difficulties of atmosphere, soil, and experience. Most of these 
 difficulties may be overcome by work and patience. Next to a 
 good soil, sunlight and air are garden requisites. The air is, 
 of course, abundantly provided and in spite of the smoke in 
 some parts of cities it is good enough for most growing plants. 
 Even in the factory districts and near railroad yards I have 
 seen splendid gardens in spite of the smoke; but the sunlight 
 is sometimes a difficult matter to secure. In small lots the 
 houses and fences often shade too large a portion of the avail- 
 able land to enable the amateur gardener to make much head- 
 way, but even here changes may be made to help conditions. 
 
246 
 
 Orchard and Garden 
 
 Board fences may give way to fences built of woven wire and 
 thus provide not only a strip of light, but provide at the same 
 time a support for such things as can be trained to grow on 
 a trellis. Along the fence, if it be of wire, is an admirable 
 place for tomatoes. Pole beans of all sorts can also be planted 
 along such fences and the need for poles vanishes. 
 
 Often in a back yard there is an old tree, a "loafer" tree, 
 that produces nothing but shade and even then sheds its 
 
 A good back yard garden. 
 
 leaves early and stands as an unsightly and useless object. 
 Such old trees should be cut down wherever they interfere 
 with the garden. It is difficult to grow fruit in the city, much 
 more difficult than it is to grow garden stuff ; and a live garden 
 is undoubtedly more beautiful and valuable than a half-dead 
 tree. There will always be some places in a city yard that will 
 be shaded. Buildings can not be removed, and sometimes 
 owing to the contentious dispositions of neighbors wire 
 
The Back Yard Garden. 
 
 247 
 
 fences can not even be erected. In such cases we must make 
 the best of our adverse conditions and plant in the shaded por- 
 tions only such plants as we know are shade enduring. For- 
 tunately there are such plants, about which the gardener 
 should know in order to make the most of his opportunities. 
 
 Probably chief among vegetables that will grow in the 
 shade is lettuce. As a matter of fact, a lettuce bed thrives bet- 
 ter in partial shade than it does in the open sunlight, especially 
 after the weather turns quite warm. In the country it is not 
 an uncommon practice to plant a bed of lettuce under a tree 
 
 A school girl's city garden. 
 
 and in such situations it remains in good condition long after 
 the open-grown lettuce has become tough and bitter. Radishes 
 will also grow in the shade and for this purpose the small Card- 
 inal Globe is one of the best varieties. 
 
 Spinach is another crop that could be grown in shaded 
 areas, though it will not do as well as it would if it had full 
 sunlight. In fact, very few plants will grow as well without 
 plenty of sun as they will in the open, but for the purposes 
 of this chapter a few vegetables are suggested that may be 
 grown with a minimum of light. 
 
248 
 
 Orchard and Garden 
 
 An asparagus bed might well be planted in a shaded cor- 
 ner. I have seen some good asparagus grown on the north 
 sides of buildings, for the nature of the asparagus foliage is 
 such that it can make the most of the light which is available. 
 Swiss chard is another vegetable that will endure a measure 
 of shade without much injury. In fact, chard which is grown 
 in partial shade is more tender than if grown in the open. The 
 same fact is true of Chinese cabbage, one of the newer vege- 
 tables that only requires to be known to be appreciated. Chi- 
 nese cabbage is always planted late in the season and could 
 well occupy the same ground that had previously been produc- 
 ing lettuce and radishes. This form of cabbage, however, re- 
 quires a fertile soil and plenty of moisture, so unless these can 
 
 be supplied the city gardener 
 would better not attempt its 
 cultivation. 
 
 It is with the soil that the 
 city gardener will probably 
 have most his troubles. Some 
 city gardens would try the soul 
 of a saint at spading time and 
 probably later too. 
 
 Most cities are "built up". 
 In an effort to bring the town 
 to a uniform level the city 
 fathers have rearranged the 
 face of nature to such an ex- 
 tent that she would not recog- 
 nize herself. The average back 
 yard, if it is an old part of 
 town, probably has several lay- 
 ers of "made dirt" whose sur- 
 face soil is composed of a 
 choice mixture of brick bats, 
 old plaster, clay, gravel, stones 
 ,, . ,, ' ■ , . and more or less decomposed 
 
 Keeping the rows straight. '■ 
 
The Back Yard Garden. 
 
 249 
 
 tin cans. I have delved in city yards and I have sometimes 
 thought that my feehngs were akin to those of the man who 
 makes a business of digging up buried cities. I have found 
 everything in back yard soils except treasure — that is for the 
 man who will patiently work with such conditions and pro- 
 duce a crop. It is a treasure that must be planted and that 
 will increase each year. 
 
 If a garden is attempted in one of these filled-in yards, the 
 first thing to be done is to have the garden area spaded as 
 deeply as possible. Somewhere below all that rubbish is a lay- 
 er of soil that is probably good. In many cases it is very good. 
 It is indeed buried treasure and will yield up gold in several 
 forms to the patient toiler who will work for it. 
 
 It is not necessary to uncover this deep layer of good soil 
 in order to make its fertility available for your garden plants. 
 
 Loosen the soil deeply and the 
 probabilities are that your 
 plants will send their roots 
 down after that long-covered 
 fertility and bring it to the 
 surface in flowers and fruit. 
 
 Taking out the stones, the 
 bricks and the tin cans is a job 
 that embodies very little of 
 the poetical, yet it is a job 
 that pays good wages. These 
 stones and bricks must be re- 
 moved not only to afford root 
 room, but to facilitate cultiva- 
 tion of the crop. Taking out 
 the foreign matter means sim- 
 ply putting the city soil into 
 good mechanical condition. It 
 is no more rigorous labor than 
 
 The children are always interested "^^ny NeW England farmers 
 
 in what ^^hey^have helped endured when they cleared the 
 
250 
 
 Orchard and Garden 
 
 forest from their hillside farms and then had to remove the 
 stones to obtain access to the soil. Unlike the virgin hillsides 
 of New England, however, the city soil is usually deficient in 
 fei-tility in addition to being in bad physical condition. To 
 improve the fertility and also to help the texture of the soil, 
 a good heavy application of stable manure should be applied 
 and thoroughly turned under. This procedure means that the 
 soil must be worked twice. Once to remove obstructions and 
 again to cover the manure that is applied as a fertilizer. 
 
 In the majority of cases manure is the best fertilizer that 
 can be used in gardens whether in the city or elsewhere. Com- 
 
 
 
 [32^17919^^ 
 
 
 ^» ■■^^rw^flf^ 
 
 
 ^' ■«, . ^^ '^*'^ 
 
 
 
 
 Kentucky M'onder Beans grown on an otherwise useless fence. 
 
 mercial fertilizers have their value in their proper place, but 
 never have they been able to replace advantageous use of 
 stable manure in the growing of garden truck. After the 
 manure has been applied and spaded under, go over the whole 
 surface with a sharp small hoe or with a steel rake entirely 
 pulverizing the clods not only on the surface, but as deep an 
 the ground has been worked. Any air spaces under the roots 
 of your plants must be prevented. Such air spaces allow the 
 
The Back Yard Garden. 
 
 251 
 
 soil to dry out and will cause the plants to perish more quickly 
 than almost any other cause. 
 
 After the seed is planted and the young plants are appear- 
 ing- above the ground be sure that the surface of the soil is 
 
 kept loose and well stirred. If 
 the first preparation of the 
 ground has been correct, cul- 
 tivation need not be deep, two 
 inches is enough, but must be 
 done thoroughly and constant- 
 ly. If the garden is watered 
 with a hose be sure not to wa- 
 ter too frequently. More gar- 
 dens in the city are injured by 
 too frequent watering than by 
 not watering at all. Some 
 gardeners have attempted to 
 water their plants every day. 
 As a result they have applied 
 only a small amount of water 
 each time — not enough to soak 
 into the soil so as to benefit 
 the roots, but just enough to 
 wet the surface. When this 
 wet surface dried a crust was 
 formed and in that way still 
 more soil moisture was allow- 
 ed to escape. The deep moisture in the soil can get away more 
 easily through a hard crust than through a well cultivated sur- 
 face. If artificially watered let it be infrequently, but when 
 it is done the soil must be thoroughly soaked. A garden that 
 is well soaked' once a week is always more greatly benefited 
 than one that is just "sprinkled" every evening. 
 
 The following list of vegetables is given for city cultiva- 
 tion, with a few remarks applicable to city conditions. 
 
 Asparagus. — Except in unusual cases, not advised for city 
 gardens. When the ground can not be well be used for other 
 
 Even the city gardener must spray. 
 
252 
 
 Orchard and Garden 
 
 purposes on account of shade or where there is plenty of room, 
 it might prove a desirable crop. 
 
 Beans. — The bush beans are most desirable for city cul- 
 tivation. The bush lima beans are good and the White Wax 
 
 and Valentine are splendid. As 
 a rule it does not pay to try to 
 grow "navy" beans in the city, 
 as they require too much space 
 for the amount of food pro- 
 duced. 
 
 Beets should be in every 
 city garden, as they are easily 
 produced and seem to thrive 
 on many different soils. They 
 are very hardy and so the seed 
 may be planted early, Swiss 
 chard, a form of beet grown 
 for its edible leaves, is a pop- 
 ular vegetable. It is the most 
 easily grown of all plants used 
 for greens. 
 
 Cabbage. — Not as a rule 
 advised for city cultivation, as 
 it requires too much space. 
 The Wakefield is undoubtedly 
 the best cabbage for city pur- 
 poses. 
 The ground should be kept 
 
 This boy specialized on lima beans. 
 
 Carrots are easily grown 
 loose to allow full development of the roots. 
 
 Corn. — This crop requires much space, also shades other 
 crops near by. However, if a good variety of sweet corn is 
 used it can be planted with some of the pole beans and the 
 corn stalks will not only produce their crop of roasting ears, 
 but will also provide support for the beans. A good combi- 
 nation of this sort is the Stowell's Evergreen corn and Ken- 
 tucky Wonder beans. The very dwarf corns, like Golden Ban- 
 tam, should not be planted with beans. 
 
The Back Yard Garden. 
 
 253 
 
 Cucumbers require less 
 room than almost any other 
 member of the melon family. 
 They may be grown on a 
 trellis or over a wire fence. 
 As a rule, however, they are 
 not desirable in the city gar- 
 den. 
 
 Kale. — As a crop to fol- 
 low early vegetables, kale 
 will produce considerable 
 food. It can be planted in 
 the space formerly occupied 
 by lettuce, radish and beets. 
 
 Lettuce. — By all means 
 every city garden should have 
 its bed of lettuce. Although 
 it is possible to buy fine head 
 lettuce in the markets nearly 
 every day in the year, the city 
 man should know the quality of really fresh lettuce. It is 
 quite diflferent from the quality of lettuce that has been 
 shipped across the continent or stored by the dealer for sev- 
 eral days. Big Boston is a good variety for the beginner. 
 
 Onions from sets can be grown readily and a small area 
 will furnish enough to supply the average family. 
 
 Parsnip. — The parsnip can be grown in most soils, but the 
 grower must have patience with the seed after it is planted. 
 Germination does not take place very promptly and most be- 
 ginners make the mistake of making a second planting, think- 
 ing that the first seed had for some reason been killed. Event- 
 ually both plantings come above ground and the plants are then 
 much too thick. This fact is also true of parsley and carrots. 
 
 p^a. — The dwarf varieties are best for the average city 
 garden. They are an early crop, that can be followed by later 
 crops of other vegetables. 
 
 Real 
 
 I'ood stuff pi-oduced 
 crowded part of town. 
 
254 
 
 Orchard and Garden 
 
 Potato. — The potato is really a field crop, but nearly every 
 amateur gardener feels the necessity of growing a few pota- 
 toes. As a rule, greater value can be obtained from a small 
 piece of ground if it is planted in some other crop. However, 
 some city gardeners produce enough for their own use. If the 
 city man feels that he must grow some potatoes, he should 
 adhere to the well established rules for their cultivation and 
 not experiment with any new schemes which are advertised to 
 increase the production many fold. As far as is now known, 
 
 no successful artificial system 
 exists for speeding up produc- 
 tion with this or any other 
 vegetable. 
 
 Radishes should be in ev- 
 ery home garden. A small bed 
 will supply a large family. 
 
 Spinach. — This is the best 
 of all the "pot herbs" grown 
 for greens. It is of the easiest 
 culture and should be in every 
 garden, especially as it may be 
 taken oflf the ground in time to 
 be followed by later crops of 
 other things. 
 
 Squash — The only squash 
 that is suitable for the city 
 garden is the white scallop 
 bush squash. One hill of this 
 vegetable will not take much 
 space and will produce a sur- 
 prising number of fruits. 
 Tomato. — A few tomato plants should be in every garden, 
 no matter how small. Few plants are so satisfactory and none 
 are more easily grown. They may be trained to a fence or 
 tied to stakes. If allowed to run on the ground they will take 
 up more room than is necessary. 
 
 Real gardening' — -and in a big city. 
 
The Back Yard Garden. 
 
 255 
 
 Turnips are good in a city- 
 garden as they can follow the 
 early vegetables. They will 
 probably produce more food 
 value to the square foot than 
 almost anything else. 
 
 Cooperation. — Owners of 
 city lots who desire to estab- 
 lish back-yard gardens can 
 often cooperate in such a way 
 as to render the work easier 
 and simpler for all concerned. 
 I have already mentioned the 
 fact that fences can be re- 
 moved and either left out 
 entirely or can be replaced 
 with wire fences that will 
 allow the light and air to get 
 in. Other forms of coopera- 
 tion consist of the community 
 ownership of spray machines, 
 plows or even of smaller gar- 
 den tools. Often the purchase 
 of seed may be left to one man in a group, who will buy it in 
 quantities so that lower prices can be obtained. A commun- 
 ity hot bed for producing early plants of cabbage and tomatoes 
 will simplify the production of all plants of this sort and the 
 expense of the hot bed will be distributed between several peo- 
 ple instead of being borne by each individual. Such coopera- 
 tion is urged in every community because it will reduce 
 expense and result in the production of better gardens. 
 
 Tomatoes on stakes. 
 
 (17) 
 
256 Orchard and Garden 
 
 Such cooperation will often result in securing a greater 
 yield from a given area than if the same area was to be culti- 
 vated by one person. The city man who plants a garden for 
 the first time should also guard against trying to do more than 
 he is able. It is far better to have a small garden well tilled 
 than to have a large tract that is neglected. 
 
Orchard and Garden Calendar. 
 
 257 
 
 An Orchard and Garden Calendar 
 
 Kings and Emperors and Popes have fought over the 
 proper arrangement of the months in the year, so it is per- 
 haps unseemly for a tiller of the soil to meddle with a royal 
 quarrel, but to the man who lives with growing things the 
 present scheme seems most illogical. Our year starts long 
 before the first breath of life from the southland stirs the dor- 
 mant plant life into action. The world is wrapped with a 
 blanket of snow when the new year begins and all the noise we 
 may make about it will not stir one leaf into activity or swell 
 one bud upon the sleeping branch. 
 
 To one whose years are measured by the activity of his 
 plants, it would seem that the old Romans, with their new 
 year opening in March, had much the best of the arrangement. 
 
 JANUARY 
 
 Orchard. — Of all months, January is to the orchardist the 
 least active. The weather usually precludes any attempt at 
 out-of-door activity. If warm days come, some pruning may 
 be done in the apple orchard, the vineyard and among some of 
 the small fruit plants. It is not wise to pi*une either peaches 
 or raspberries this early in the year, because the pruned stubs 
 may be injured by severe cold weather later. This sort of in- 
 
258 Orchard and Garden 
 
 jury is of course liable to affect any variety of fruit, but those 
 mentioned are the most apt to suffer. Unless there is much 
 pruning to be done, it would better be deferred this month. 
 Never under any circumstances prune even apple wood while 
 it is frozen, as injury is almost sure to follow. 
 
 This is a good month in which to haul out fertilizer and 
 place it around the trees or on the small fruit blocks. 
 
 Indoor shop work can be accomplished so as to have it out 
 of the way when the season for out-door work opens. Be sure 
 that all tools are properly oiled. Spray machines should be 
 overhauled to see that no parts are broken and that the pump 
 valves are all in good order. Pruning 
 
 be sharpened. Grafting wax can be made and if apples are to 
 be propagated the root grafts can be prepared during this 
 month. Examine the apple trees for eggs of the apple aphis, 
 which will be found in small cracks in the bark and around 
 the buds on last year's wood. 
 
 Garden. — Manure should be hauled to the garden and 
 either left in piles or spread over the surface. Hot bed sash 
 should be repaired and repainted and the frames for the hot 
 beds should be repaired, or if there are none, material should 
 be obtained from which to make them. Seed catalogues should 
 be ordered and studied to ascertain what new varieties have 
 been introduced and the order for the year's seeds should be 
 sent. Do not neglect ordering the garden seed early. It is 
 just as safe in your home as it would be at the dealer's and you 
 are assured of its presence. By placing orders for seed late the 
 dealer is swamped just at the time you are needing your seed 
 and as a result it makes trouble for him, delays you, and per- 
 haps prevents you from getting the choice of varieties desired. 
 
 In the South much preliminary work may be done toward 
 making the garden. Our country is so large and our climate so 
 varied that it is impossible to give exact directions for each 
 month that will fit all sections. In the main, these suggestions 
 are written for the conditions prevailing about the thirty- 
 ninth or fortieth degree of latitude. Allowances can be made 
 for relative differences. 
 
Orchard and Garden Calendar. 
 
 259 
 
 FEBRUARY 
 
 Orchard. — This is the month in which the orchardist 
 should plan to do most of his pruning. Severe weather may 
 prevent the work from progressing as rapidly as it should and 
 may cause it to lap over into March, but as March is a busy 
 time in other ways, it is well to get as much of the pruning out 
 of the way as possible. 
 
 While pruning, watch the trees closely for insects and fun- 
 gous diseases. The San Jose scale can be readily detected by 
 the observant pruner and wherever it is found in an orchard 
 the trees should be marked. Later these known infested dis- 
 tricts can be given extra attention at the spraying time. 
 
 Black rot and bitter rot both form cankers on the twigs 
 and branches. If such cankers or rough, dead areas are found, 
 the branches bearing them should be cut out entirely if pos- 
 sible. Blight cankers are also easily detected at this time and 
 should be removed. Where it is impossible to remove a cank- 
 ered branch without injury to the shape of the tree or where 
 the removal would necessitate taking away too much good 
 fruit-bearing wood, the canker itself can be carefully cut out 
 with a sharp knife, the wound disinfected with corrosive sub- 
 limate solution (1 to 1000) and afterwards painted with white 
 lead and oil or with hot grafting wax. 
 
260 Orchard and Garden 
 
 Notice the peaches particularly before pruning and if the 
 buds have been killed, it will pay to give the trees an extra 
 heavy pruning. The heavy pruning will remove much of the 
 wood which would have borne fruit next summer, but it will 
 induce a vigorous growth that will bear the succeeding year. 
 See that all branches and twigs are carted out of the orchard 
 and burned as soon as possible in order to kill any insects or 
 plant diseases that might infest them. 
 
 In pruning plums look for evidences of black knot, and if it 
 is present have all infected branches promptly cut out and 
 burned. Also gather all dried or mummied plums and peaches 
 and either bury them or, better, burn them. They carry the 
 infection of the brown rot and their removal at this time will 
 simplify spraying later. 
 
 Garden. — Start saving the manure for the hot beds. It 
 should be fresh and mixed with bedding straw. Keep it under 
 shelter where it will not be rained on, or it will lose much of 
 its heating value. Horse manure is the only kind that is en- 
 tirely satisfactory for this purpose. If the hot bed frames are 
 not already built, have them set up without delay, as they will 
 soon be needed. On bad days mats for the hot bed can be pre- 
 pared and stored away ready for use later. They may not be 
 needed at all, but it is best to be prepared in advance. If very 
 cold weather should set in after the hot bed is once started the 
 mats may save the plants from freezing, and such mats can 
 not be prepared in a hurry. 
 
Orchard and Garden Calendar. 
 
 261 
 
 iK-5Vfla«->. "*-iti , »-^»--:i.*» !S ■ 
 
 MARCH 
 
 Orchard. — This is the best of all winter months for the 
 application of the dormant spray. Every twig and branch 
 must be well covered with the spray solution. Those portions 
 of the orchard that have been found to be infested with scale 
 insects or with the eggs of plant lice should be given extra 
 attention. The trees should be examined a few days after they 
 have been sprayed and if any exposed areas of bark are found, 
 the work must be done over in these parts of the orchard. 
 
 After a spray machine has been used for the dormant 
 spraying it should be taken to the shop and thoroughly cleaned 
 and all of the valves examined and oiled. The strong lime sul- 
 phur solution is quite inclined to attack the metal parts of 
 machinery and may cause moving valves and other parts to 
 stick. It will be some weeks before the pumps are again used 
 and if they are oiled now they will be in good shape for the 
 big rush later. 
 
 Tree planting can often be started this month. If the 
 ground is not frozen, this is the best month of the year for set- 
 ting out trees and shrubs. If the ground should freeze again 
 after the trees are planted it will be so much the better for the 
 trees. It will cause the soil to be more firmly fixed around the 
 roots. 
 
262 Orchard and Garden 
 
 If all of the pruning was not done last month it can be car- 
 ried on in March. 
 
 Garden. — The hot beds should be started the first week 
 in March. In some localities it is even better to get them 
 started late in February so that seed can be planted the first 
 of March. The hot beds will usually maintain their heat for at 
 least six weeks and after that they still aff'ord as much or more 
 protection as cold frames. Consequently the starting of the 
 beds should be about two months before the average date of 
 the last severe frost. 
 
 Cabbage and tomato seed may be sown in the hot bed for 
 early plants. Lettuce may be sown in hot beds for the earliest 
 crop. Late in the month onion seed may be sown if it is in- 
 tended to grow a few large onions by the transplanting method. 
 This method has been followed in Bermuda for many years. 
 The seed is grown inside, until strong plants are formed. These 
 seedlings are set in the open ground at the time the regular 
 garden is made and are carefully cultivated and kept free from 
 weeds. The method involves more labor than does the other 
 methods of onion culture, but it enables the season to be pro- 
 longed and thus grow to maturity in the North those varieties 
 that have heretofore only been grown in warm countries. 
 
 If the season is advanced and the ground in such shape 
 that it can be worked, plant a few peas in the open ground for 
 the early crop. Some growers always plant their early pota- 
 toes on March 17th. But the proper time to plant them is when 
 the season is properly advanced and when the ground can be 
 easily worked. 
 
 In the flower garden sweet peas may be planted if the 
 ground is in good condition. 
 
 See that the garden is thoroughly cleaned up and all 
 weeds, trash and stalks of last year's plants are burned. This 
 work should really be done in the fall, but too often it is neg- 
 lected owing to the pressure of other duties. 
 
Orchard and Garden Calendar. 
 
 263 
 
 APRIL 
 
 Orchard. — If the peach trees have had a dormant spray 
 they will not require any more attention until about ten days 
 after the petals fall, but if they did not receive a dormant 
 spray, then they should be sprayed with lime sulphur at the 
 rate of one gallon of commercial solution to nine of water. 
 This treatment controls leaf curl and should be applied just 
 before the buds open. The apples should be sprayed just as 
 soon as any pink shows in the buds. Spraying must stop as 
 soon as the bloom opens. They are sprayed again as soon as 
 the petals fall. This work usually comes the last part of April 
 and usually runs over well into May. 
 
 Grafting may best be done early in April just before 
 growth starts. Be sure the scions are still perfectly dormant. 
 
 Order barrels and boxes for the fall crop. Also purchase 
 crates for small fruits. Packages of this sort can usually be 
 bought now at a lower price than later and the grower is al- 
 ways sure to have them when needed. 
 
 Garde7i. — Apply manure to the asparagus bed and break 
 the surface of the soil so that the sprouts can come through 
 easily. 
 
 Plow the garden and get the soil in condition just as early 
 as possible. 
 
264 Orchard and Garden 
 
 Early beets may be planted if the ground is in good condi- 
 tion. 
 
 Cabbage seed may be sown in the open or in cold frames. 
 If sown in the open, some provision should be made to protect 
 the plants on cold nights. 
 
 Lettuce plants from the hot bed may be set in the open 
 ground the latter part of the month. The onions started m the 
 house should also be ready to set out if the weather is warm 
 enough. Tomato plants should wait for settled weather. 
 
 In the open ground, lettuce and radishes may be sown and 
 also peas, spinach, parsley and parsnip. Parsnips that have 
 remained in the ground over winter should be dug before they 
 start growing or they will be tough. 
 
Orchard and Garden Calendar. 
 
 265 
 
 MAY 
 
 Orchard. — Finish the spraying left over from last month 
 and clean up the machine as soon as you are through with it. 
 This warning can not be repeated too often. 
 
 Remove the wrappers from around the trees, as there is 
 now but little danger of rabbit injury and it is not commend- 
 able to have the trees wrapped during hot weather. Start cul- 
 tivation in the orchards early in the month. If any trees have 
 failed to leaf out examine them for rabbit or mouse injury. If 
 damaged trees are discovered promptly, there may still be time 
 to dig them out and replace them with new trees. 
 
 Cultivate all small fruit plantations except strawberries. 
 These should be mulched between the rows with clean straw 
 until after the crop is harvested. 
 
 Spray grape vines. 
 
 Garden. — This is the busy month in the garden, as nearly 
 everything can be planted now. Early in the month plant 
 beets, peas, lettuce, radishes, onions, sweet corn. All of these 
 can be planted at intervals of two weeks so as to provide a 
 succession of mature crops. 
 
 Tomatoes can be planted in the open ground the last of 
 the month. 
 
 Cabbage plants may be set out. See that they go in rich 
 
266 Orchard and Garden 
 
 and well prepared ground, as this crop needs plenty of fertility 
 to succeed best. 
 
 If the weather is warm, plant melons, cucumbers, 
 squashes, which may have been started in the hot bed or cold 
 frames. Do not plant these warmth-demanding vegetables 
 unless the weather is suitable or more will be lost than gained. 
 
 Plant potatoes for the main crop and be sure that the 
 seed is treated for scab before planting. 
 
 In the flower garden all sorts of annuals may be planted, 
 but the soil must be as well prepared as if a crop of vegetables 
 was to be grown. Perennial plants may be set this month — 
 the earlier, the better. 
 
Orchard and Garden Calendar. 
 
 267 
 
 JUNE 
 
 Orchard. — Grapes must be sprayed again this month. As 
 soon as the grape berries are the size of small peas, select the 
 best bunches for sacking. 
 
 The orchard cultivation must not be allowed to lag this 
 month. Keep at it unless the weather should be very wet. 
 Even then cultivate between showers. 
 
 Gooseberries, strawberries and raspberries will be gath- 
 ered this month. The gooseberries will not need much atten- 
 tion, but the strawberries and raspberries should be given 
 careful work. After the strawberry crop has been harvested, 
 mow the beds, let the leaves dry for a few days and then burn 
 them over. This practice kills many insects and gives the beds 
 a good growth of new leaves. In old patches that have had the 
 rows grown together, plow out paths so as to confine the plants 
 to definite rows. After the raspberries have fruited, cut out 
 all of the old canes so as to force the new canes to make a bet- 
 ter growth. 
 
 Garden. — Asparagus beds should not be cut after the first 
 of June or the roots may become exhausted. After the last cut- 
 ting, apply a light dressing of manure and then keep down 
 weeds until the asparagus shoots have had time to cover the 
 ground. 
 
268 Orchard and Garden 
 
 Keep down weeds in the garden. Plant additional rows of 
 corn, wax beans, beets, etc., to supply fall vegetables. 
 
 Plant navy beans the latter part of the month. If these 
 are planted late they are less apt to be damaged by the bean 
 weevil and also their cultivation is simplified. If they are 
 planted late and the ground has been carefully prepared they 
 will not require much attention after they are above ground. 
 They grow so rapidly that they often cover the ground before 
 the weeds have an opportunity to crowd them. 
 
 In the flower garden the plants should be kept cultivated. 
 Asters should be set in the location in which they are to bloom, 
 as should all other annuals that have been started in special 
 seed beds or in cold frames. Roses should be pruned imme- 
 diately after blooming. 
 
Orchard and Garden Calendar. 
 
 269 
 
 JULY 
 
 Orchard. — July is one of the most trying months on the 
 orchardist because the apples now demand their regular sum- 
 mer spray for the control of the second brood of the codling 
 moth and for various fungous diseases. This spray usually 
 comes just at the hottest part of the summer and spraying 
 under such weather conditions is anything but pleasant. How- 
 ever, it must be done. The Bordeaux spray should be applied 
 with fine nozzles and a good pressure in order to secure a fine 
 mist-like spray, that must reach all parts of the tree. 
 
 Apples and other fruits should be thinned early this month 
 if they are too thick on the trees. Few orchard practices pay 
 better than this usage. As a rule, when two apples hang to- 
 gether one of them should come off. The one that is left will 
 be a better apple and will be worth more money than the 
 two would have been worth if they had been allowed to hang. 
 
 After blackberries have fruited the old canes should be 
 cut out and burned. This custom is a great help toward keep- 
 ing the patch in a healthy condition. As the new blackberry 
 shoots grow they should be cut back as soon as they reach a 
 height of three feet, which causes them to throw out side 
 branches and make more sturdy canes. The first early apples 
 will be ready to be gathered the last of this month. It is 
 
270 Orchard and Garden 
 
 better to make more than one picking with most early apples 
 because they do not ripen uniformly. This fact is especially 
 true of summer apples that show color. The Red June should 
 be picked only when it has developed a good red color. Live- 
 land Raspberry and Chenango are others of this class. The 
 Yellow Transparent, while it is a yellow apple, always yields 
 better if given several pickings. The first picking of the Yel- 
 low Transparent can be made to include only the largest of the 
 apples. It will be found that those that remain will increase in 
 size wonderfully. 
 
 Cultivation must be continued through this month. Keep 
 down weeds. 
 
 Garden. — The garden must be kept cultivated through 
 July. Weeds are the great enemy of the gardener. This rule 
 applies to flower gardens as well as any other kind. 
 
 The ground should be prepared for the planting of turnips 
 and other late crops. See that the surface dirt is made fine and 
 loose. Turnips may be planted the last of the month. 
 
Orchard and Garden Calendar. 
 
 271 
 
 AUGUST 
 
 Orchard. — If the trees show an inclination to turn yellow 
 they must be sprayed again. In apples this yellow leaf may be 
 caused by black rot or by cedar rust. In either event the rem- 
 edy is Bordeaux mixture. Apply it liberally if any leaf trouble 
 exists. Among peaches and plums the leaves often turn yellow 
 through the action of other fungous diseases. These stone 
 fruits should be sprayed with the self -boiled lime sulphur solu- 
 tion. 
 
 Summer apples should be picked this month and peaches 
 also should ripen in some quantity. Harvest them on clear 
 days whenever possible and pack them carefully. Stop culti- 
 vation in the orchards and plant cover crops early in the month. 
 
 Garden. — Plant turnips the first of the month. Also plant 
 Chinese cabbage and kale. Winter radishes may also be 
 planted now. Provide the Chinese cabbage with plenty of 
 moisture and do not let the seeds dry out. After the plants 
 are a few inches high, give them an application of liquid 
 manure. 
 
 James Whitcomb Riley in writing about the month of 
 August said something about "the glorious month of indolent 
 repose". If there is any such thing as "indolent repose" for 
 the orchardist or gardener it probably comes in this month 
 
 (18) 
 
272 Orchard and Garden 
 
 of heat and dust. It is a difficult month for the grower of 
 plants, for often very little can be done to prevent the burn- 
 ing sun from withering the efforts of the preceding months 
 of toil. 
 
 But in such times of drouth it is well to remember that 
 cultivation is a great conserver of soil moisture and the more 
 we can cultivate, the more moisture we retain in the soil for 
 the use of our plants. So that one of the best rules for 
 August in the garden is to cultivate and cultivate and culti- 
 vate. 
 
Orchard and Garden Calendar. 
 
 273 
 
 SEPTEMBER 
 
 Orchard. — Quite a bit of work can be done this month in 
 preparation for the apple harvest. Provide plenty of picking 
 bags or baskets and repair ladders or buy new ones. On 
 rainy days build boxes and remove the heads from barrels in 
 preparation for the apple packing. By doing this work now 
 much time is saved later when the rush is on at harvest time. 
 Clean out apple storage cellars and then spray them thor- 
 oughly inside with good whitewash or, better still, with a 
 strong Bordeaux mixture. This treatment is to kill the spores 
 of rot-producing fungi that are probably on the walls and 
 floor. A little care at this time will pay dividends later. 
 
 Grapes are ripe in September. Pick them and pack care- 
 fully if they are to be shipped. If sold to a local canning 
 factory they can be handled in larger baskets and with less 
 care. Those in paper bags will not ripen so early and will 
 remain in good condition until November. This is usually the 
 busy month for peaches. The Elberta and similar sorts ripen 
 early in the month. Do not allow them to get too ripe. 
 
 Gardeyi. — The early part of September is a rich time in 
 the garden. Melons, tomatoes, late beans and sweet corn 
 are at their best. Now is the proper time to save much of the 
 seed for next year. Select the best melons, tomatoes, cucum- 
 
274 Orchard and Garden 
 
 bers, etc., and from them save the seed. In saving bean seed 
 gather it from pods that are perfectly clean and healthy. This 
 attention will do much toward securing a healthy crop next 
 year. Select the seed corn from vigorous stalks in a crowded 
 part of the patch. It is not best to select corn for seed when 
 it has grown on hills very much exposed. That which has 
 made good ears under average garden conditions is much more 
 liable to yield good seed than that grown under very favorable 
 conditions. In other words, a weak strain of seed might do 
 well where all conditions were favorable, but what is desired 
 is seed that will do well under average or perhaps adverse con- 
 ditions. Navy beans should be ripe enough to pull the last of 
 the month. Pull the entire vine and stack them up in little 
 piles to dry out. If they can be placed under an open shed, it is 
 to be preferred. As soon as they are dry enough to shell easily 
 they can be threshed and the beans spread out in the sun 
 every day for several days to cure thoroughly. Never attempt 
 to put them away for the winter unless they are perfectly dry. 
 
 Dig potatoes. As they are dug, have some one follow along 
 the row and select good specimens from the best hills to save 
 for seed. This method is better than attempting to select seed 
 from a barrel or bin. Sometimes a hill will contain only one 
 large potato. It is not advisable to keep that potato for seed. 
 Take the seed from hills that produce a number of good med- 
 ium sized potatoes. This precaution takes some time, but it 
 will eventually pay. 
 
 Chinese cabbage may be ready for use the last of the 
 month. 
 
Orchard and Garden Calendar. 
 
 275 
 
 OCTOBER 
 
 Orchard. — In the apple orchard this is the culminating 
 month of the whole year. Now the results of all our labors 
 are to be seen and enjoyed, and if we have the good fortune 
 to harvest a crop of clean, perfect fruit we may consider that 
 our work has been well done. The pleasure of picking and 
 packing absolutely perfect fruit is one of the rewards of the 
 fruit grower. Pick apples just as carefully as if they were 
 much more delicate and tender structures. Sometimes a 
 bruise may not show at the time, but it is certain to show 
 later. Handle the fruit gently, do not throw it about or allow 
 it to fall on the ground. As a rule an apple that falls on the 
 ground is not fit to pack, no matter how perfect it may appear. 
 It is almost certain to be bruised. 
 
 Pack the fruit honestly. Be honest with yourself about 
 it. Do not put into a barrel any apples that you would not 
 like to buy yourself if you were getting fruit from the market. 
 Feed the bad ones to the hogs or have them ground into cider. 
 They are worth more money as cider than they are as apples. 
 
 If you have an opportunity to sell your crop at a fair price, 
 sell it. If the price is too low and you are equipped to store the 
 fruit, then by all means hold it. It may even pay to send it to 
 a cold storage plant in the nearest city and have it stored there. 
 
276 Orchard and Garden 
 
 After the crop is harvested the trees should be wrapped 
 with paper to protect the trunks from rabbit injury. At the 
 same time scrape away all trash and leaves around the trunk 
 for a distance of two feet in all directions from the tree. This 
 precaution will discourage the work of mice, which are often 
 very destructive to the roots of apple. 
 
 Garden. — Dig sweet potatoes before they are frosted. It 
 is customary to let them grow till the first frost nips the 
 vines. Then cut oflF the vines at the ground. After this they 
 will stand a severe frost without injury. 
 
 Pot a few plants of parsley to keep in the kitchen. It 
 makes a very pleasant addition to the kitchen window and is 
 useful as a garnish and in soups. 
 
 Onions should be gathered before severe frosts and stored 
 for winter. Turnips may be gathered or may be left till early 
 in November if the weather is not severe. Cabbage should 
 be gathered this month. Chinese cabbage and kale can be 
 lightly covered with straw and will remain in good condition 
 late in the winter. The kale is perfectly hardy and will grow 
 vigorously in the spring. 
 
Orchard and Garden Calendar. 
 
 277 
 
 NOVEMBER 
 
 Orchard. — Early in the month the same activity continues 
 in the orchard as prevailed in October. The two months often 
 overlap and not infrequently is the weather better in Novem- 
 ber than earlier. 
 
 Late in the month is a good time to remove dead trees 
 and burn them. They can often be pulled out by the roots at 
 this season, v\^hile they would be hard to pull at almost any 
 other time. 
 
 If peaches have been used as fillers in an orchard and are 
 old enough to begin to interfere, do not hesitate to pull them 
 out. This is the season to do it. If you allow them to remain 
 over winter the fruit buds may escape damage and then you 
 will not have the courage to take them out — when the good of 
 the orchard demands it. Order fruit trees for next year's 
 planting. By doing so at this time you are sure to get better 
 trees than if you waited until spring after everyone else had 
 placed his order. Have the trees held and shipped in the spring 
 or get them now and heel them in. 
 
 This is a good month to repair the fences around the or- 
 chard and garden. Time is now to be had and posts set at 
 this season will remain solid better than if set in the spring. 
 
 Garden. — After everything has been harvested from the 
 
278 Orchard and Garden 
 
 garden it should be cleaned up and all trash burned. Too often 
 this is left until spring. It is better management to do it now. 
 Tender shrubs should be protected by being mulched with 
 straw. Roses and other plants liable to winter injury should 
 be wrapped with straw saved for the purpose. 
 
Orchard and Garden Calendar. 
 
 279 
 
 ! ,. 
 
 DECEMBER 
 
 Orchard. — If the weather is favorable the first part of the 
 month the November work can extend well into December. 
 
 Haul manure to the garden and orchard. 
 
 Mulch strawberry beds with straw, but not until after the 
 ground freezes hard. Freezing will not hurt strawberries ; in 
 fact, it is beneficial, but freezing and thawing will cause them 
 to pull out of the ground. The straw mulch prevents this pos- 
 sibility. Mulch raspberry patches that were recently planted. 
 Old ones will usually not require it. 
 
 Late in the month the weather often puts a stop to all out- 
 door work in the orchard. 
 
 Garden. — There is not much to do in the garden this 
 month. If parsnips are wanted for winter use they may be 
 taken up after the first hard freeze and stored in sand in a 
 moist cellar. They are best left in the ground over winter, but 
 if this is done they are very difiicult to dig when the ground 
 is frozen. 
 
 Kale that has been protected by straw may be used until 
 late in the month or in some localities all winter. Chinese cab- 
 bage should still be good if it has been protected by straw, but 
 it will not withstand the same amount of cold as kale. 
 
280 
 
 Orchard and Garden 
 
 Hardy perennials and shrubs bordering- a diive. 
 
CHAPTER XI 
 
 The Value of a Flower Garden 
 
 I once came upon a deserted cabin in the woods of north- 
 ern Michigan, miles from any settlement. The roof was fall- 
 ing in and the crude door drooped on its hinges, but by the step 
 bloomed a riot of old-fashioned flowers and I knew that a wo- 
 man had been a member of the household that had once occu- 
 pied that outpost of civilization. She was gone, but her flow- 
 ers remained, seeding themselves from year to year, and as 
 they caught the eyes of those who passed by they proclaimed 
 abroad, 'This house was once a home." 
 
 We have for too long a time considered flowers as unnec- 
 essary luxuries. We have taken them too much for granted. 
 Although v/e have had them about us, we have not felt that 
 they were indispensable. 
 
 Floivei^s help to make life worth the livhig and anything 
 which helps bring this condition about has what we may call 
 a money value. Some people can understand a subject only 
 when it is presented to them in terms of cash. They eat their 
 food by the colorie and do not realize the wealth they miss in 
 the beauty of the life around them. And yet even such as these 
 will pay more for a house that has some trees around it, some 
 flowers in the door yard and a vine over the entrance, than 
 they would for a house that stood out bare and unattractive. 
 They are paying their hard cash for beauty — for flowers — but 
 they probably never thought about it in just that way. They 
 
282 
 
 Orchard and Garden 
 
 would miss the flowers if they were not there, but they do not 
 give them a second thought when present. Railroads and other 
 
 "soulless" corpora- 
 tions have never been 
 known to spend mon- 
 ey unless there was a 
 chance that the same 
 money would come 
 back and bring more 
 with it, and yet we 
 find that railroad 
 companies are among 
 our most extensive 
 flower gardeners. It 
 is not enough to build 
 an attractive station 
 at a promising town ; 
 that station must be 
 adorned with flowers and trees. This is a practice that has 
 grown with the years and it has never failed to pay dividends. 
 A station that makes an instant appeal to the traveler may 
 bring a resident or an industry to the town ; and from thriv- 
 ing towns railroads get their revenue. 
 
 Some of the largest manufacturing plants are situated 
 literally in flower gardens. We have outgrown the idea that a 
 factory must necessarily be a dirty, ugly structure. Plants 
 of Boston ivy are soon grown and flower seeds are not ex- 
 pensive. If these are combined with a little common sense a 
 factory may be converted from a dingy workshop, where men 
 work for a daily wage to a place where the worker will value 
 his job, where he will always be on time and where he will for- 
 get about the time clock. 
 
 America of all places should be a land of flowers. The first 
 Spaniards who landed on our continent were so impressed 
 with the wealth of flowers that they gave the land the name of 
 
 An attractive railroad station. 
 
The Value of a Flower Garden. 283 
 
 "Florida." Florida is still a land of flowers, but if those Span- 
 iards could have gone over the whole country they would have 
 had their first judgment confirmed because, in a slightly lesser 
 degree than Florida and the south, this was, indeed, a land 
 of flowers. The American forests were carpeted with flowers 
 and the streams and marshes were rich with blooming vegeta- 
 tion. The shores of the Great Lakes were blue with the 
 fringed gentian, while in early summer the prairies stretched 
 an unbroken bed of color, not for miles alone, but for hundreds 
 of miles. 
 
 New England's coast was a bleak spot when the Pilgrims 
 landed there, and they had much to contend with in their first 
 winter; but an American flower gave them their first cheer 
 and brought new courage to their hearts — the trailing 
 arbutus. 
 
 In our American flower garden we have opened our 
 hearts to plants from the four corners of the globe. We have 
 flowers from the wind-blown hills of wild Manchuria, from the 
 sunny gardens of Japan, from Europe, from Africa and from 
 the islands of the sea. As time goes on we will add others 
 from far countries, but in the meanwhile let us not forget 
 that our native plants provide us with a wealth of beauty that 
 it ill becomes us to neglect. Let us try to encourage the grow- 
 ing of American flowers and plants in every way possible. We 
 need not shut our eyes to that which is good and beautiful from 
 other countries, but, by all means, let us open our eyes more 
 widely to the wealth of beauty that God placed on this conti- 
 nent in reach of everyone. 
 
 Planning the flower garden amounts in a way to planning 
 the home surroundings, because the flower garden includes all 
 that is planted with the intention of improving the appearance 
 of the house. The way in which the home grounds are planted 
 is often an index of the character of the people who live in the 
 house. Often the owners are too preoccupied with their other 
 affairs or too indifferent to the real meaning of the decorative 
 
284 Orchard and Garden 
 
 planting around the home and so they allow a landscape archi- 
 tect to have entire charge of affairs. 
 
 The landscape architect has his place in modern home 
 building; he is often just as necessary as is the architect who 
 builds the house, but he should stand in the same relation to 
 his client as does the house designer. Only a man devoid of 
 ideas and ideals would say to his architect, "Build me a house", 
 and then give his order no further thought. Of course it has 
 been done — as the houses often testify — but it is a foolish 
 means of securing a place in which to live, although no more 
 ridiculous than telling a man to "Plant me a flower garden". 
 If the owner does not know much about flowers, that is his 
 misfortune, which he should attempt to correct, for he will 
 miss much pleasure. He probably does not know anything 
 about house building either, but he knows enough about what 
 he wants to enjoy the realization of his ambitions. 
 
 The small flower garden that is planted by the owner and 
 tended by him usually shows more character than does the fin- 
 est planted "estate" that is maintained by a force of gardeners 
 and is of interest to the owner only as a show place. 
 
 As for the old-fashioned gardens of our grandmothers, 
 they may have missed much of being artistic successes as 
 judged by present standards, but they reflected the love of flow- 
 ers that was one of the innate characteristics of their owners. 
 Some of these old gardens were positive joys both to their 
 planters and to everyone who saw them. The old-fashioned 
 flowers fitted in with the old-fashioned people who grew and 
 loved them, and it is a wise gardener who has the insight to 
 include plenty of the old favorites in his modern garden. 
 Styles have changed in gardening in recent years just as they 
 have changed in architecture. In the mid- Victorian period, 
 when houses were built with all sorts of "scroll work" and 
 with outlandish lines, the flower gardening coordinated with 
 that type of architecture. It was a favorite plan to project 
 a few gaudy beds of striking color from the midst of an other- 
 
The Value of a Flower Garden. 
 
 285 
 
 A well planned entrance. 
 
286 Orchard and Garden 
 
 wise beautiful lawn and the result was supposed to be beau- 
 tiful. 
 
 We have returned to simpler styles both in regard to our 
 houses and with our ornamental planting. Flowers are used 
 for borders, for back grounds and for hedges. They are 
 planted in long lines and broad masses where they will create 
 an effect that works in with the architectural scheme of the 
 house. The lawn should be kept open and free. There is 
 nothing that finishes a house more than a broad sweep of 
 graceful lawn, whose lines are not marred by flower beds or 
 shrubs in the center. Keep the flowers back away from the 
 lawTi. 
 
 Laivns. — So few people know the value of a good lawn in 
 improving the appearance of a place, and, by a good lawn is 
 meant not only one that is soft, smooth and velvety with a 
 sturdy, healthy growth of grass, but one that is a lawn, not a 
 grass plot in which are studded "specimen" shrubs and cres- 
 cent shaped flower beds. 
 
 Still fewer people know just how to go about starting a 
 good lawn. Primarily a lawn is nothing more than a grass 
 plantation. The grass is a plant requiring the same elements 
 that other plants must have in order to be vigorous. It must 
 have to begin with a good soil, and, after the seed is planted, 
 it must have abundant moisture. Given these two factors a 
 lawn can be grown any place — yes, even under trees. One rea- 
 son why grass sometimes fails to grow under trees is that in 
 the beginning the trees were planted in soil none too rich in 
 plant food and what fertility did exist has been exhausted in 
 tree growth. As a result there is none left for the grass — and 
 grass requires much fertility. 
 
 If the soil is rich enough to grow a fair crop of corn or 
 weeds, it will nearly always grow grass. As a rule grass will 
 not grow well in a soil that contains any free acid and if an 
 acid condition exists it can readily be neutralized by the addi- 
 tion of lime — preferably in the form of ground limestone. 
 
The Value of a Flower Garden. 287 
 
 The soil for the laivn should be prepared with just as 
 much care as if a garden crop was to be grown. Do not lightly 
 rake over the surface, roughing the ground up a bit, and think 
 that your soil is properly prepared for the planting of grass 
 seed. It will sometimes really grow with that sort of prep- 
 aration, but it will flourish much better if started properly. 
 
 . The seed should be sown broadcast, and an abundance 
 should be used. The desire is to have a large number of small 
 plants rather than a few large, coarse ones and if planted too 
 thick the plants will quickly thin themselves out. 
 
 Kind. — For the north only one grass is universally suit- 
 able for lawns and that is the Kentucky blue grass. This will 
 thrive on many soils and will also grow under trees, if the soil 
 is of sufficient fertility to support any grass. However, the 
 Wood Meadow grass is often used for shady situations, but is 
 an expensive seed to buy. Rhode Island bent grass is good, 
 mixed with blue grass, but it also is costly. Red Top will per- 
 haps endure more moisture than blue grass, but otherwise is 
 not superior. If any of the more high-priced grasses are 
 grown they should be mixed with the blue grass. 
 
 It is sometimes desirable to mix a proportion of either 
 timothy or white clover with the grass seed at the time of 
 planting. Blue grass requires about four weeks to germinate, 
 while the timothy will appear in a few days. Timothy, being 
 a strong grower, will act as a shelter crop for the blue grass. 
 Do not expect to produce a finished lawn in one season. It is 
 not done. 
 
 The seed should be sown as early in the spring as the 
 ground can be put in condition. It is a good idea to have the 
 ground prepared in the fall, then it will only need raking over 
 in the spring before the grass seed is sown. 
 
 Clover. — On very difficult clay soils the white clover is in- 
 valuable, as it acts as a nurse crop for the grass during the 
 first two years, during which time it is loosening the soil and 
 
 (19) 
 
288 
 
 Orchard and Garden 
 
 adding fertility to it. 
 When the grass once 
 gets started it will 
 crowd out the white 
 clover and take the 
 space to itself. 
 
 Weeds. — Where 
 much manure has been 
 used in enriching the 
 soil the first year will 
 see more weeds on the 
 lawn than grass. 
 However, weeds need 
 not cause any worry 
 if they are fre- 
 quently mowed. Most 
 of them are annual 
 plants that will die in 
 the fall, so the main 
 object is to keep them 
 from producing seed. 
 
 A newly planted 
 lawn must be kept 
 watered. If allowed 
 to dry out, the grass is 
 given a set back, even 
 if not killed outright, and the finished lawn is removed just 
 that much farther into the future. Where weeds persist in 
 the lawn the best method of destroying them is by the use of 
 a chemical spray. There have been several chemicals recom- 
 mended for this purpose, but the best is undoubtedly iron 
 sulphate. This spray is used at the rate of two pounds to the 
 gallon and must be applied in the form of a fine mist. Heavy 
 applications are to be avoided, as they may injure the grass 
 as well as kill the weeds. Applied properly this solution will 
 not injure the grass but will kill all broadleaved weeds. It 
 should be applied five or six times during the season in order 
 
 White clover used as a nurse crop on a lawn. 
 
 The g-round is entirely covered by the clover, 
 
 makes a good appearance and the grass is 
 
 coming- along nicely underneath. 
 
The Value of a Flower Garden. 
 
 289 
 
 to kill successive crops of leaves produced by the perennial 
 weeds. This treatment is effective against dandelion and dock, 
 two very common pests in lawns. 
 
 After a good lawn is acquired, learn to appreciate it, and 
 value it for what it represents. Do not start cutting up to 
 plant shrubs or to make a rose garden or geranium bed. 
 Flower beds placed about over a lawn are just as much out of 
 taste as bric-a-brac on a billiard table. Shrubs and flowers, 
 however, are just as important to the finished appearance of 
 a place as the lawn. But keep them around the borders of 
 the lawn and not in its midst. 
 
 The garden for annual flowers should have a place by 
 itself, and preferably in a location where it does not form a 
 part of the general picture of the yard as a whole. Annuals 
 have their purpose, but for permanent effects it is better to 
 use perennial plants and shrubs. 
 
 Vines around a 
 doorway are always 
 good and they may 
 often be planted so as 
 to be not only things of 
 beauty, but to furnish 
 shade at a place where 
 it would otherwise be 
 difficult to obtain. 
 
 The foundations of 
 a house, no matter 
 how important they 
 are to the structure, 
 are often more pleas- 
 ing if they are out of 
 sight behind a mass of 
 shrubs or are over- 
 grown by some good 
 clinging vine. For 
 this purpose use shrubs 
 that are p e r fe c 1 1 y 
 A framed doorway. hardy— native shrubs 
 
290 
 
 Orchard and Garden 
 
 if possible. Many hardy plants may be planted among- shrub- 
 bery with charming effect. 
 
 Large groiving shrubs may be used for screens to cut off 
 a portion of the yard or grounds from the public view. There 
 are many native shrubs admirably suited for this purpose and 
 for the most part they grow rapidly and are entirely satisfac- 
 tory. The native "pussy" willow, altho technically a tree, can 
 in effect be used as a shrub, and, as it makes a tremendous 
 growth in one season, it is nicely adapted for the purposes 
 of a screen plant. 
 
 One of the big advantages of using hardy shrubs and 
 plants around the house is that they do not necessitate plant- 
 ing every year, as do 
 annuals, and they 
 nearly all improve 
 with age. The owner 
 learns to watch for 
 their first activity in 
 the spring and thus 
 becomes interested in 
 them so that ultimate- 
 ly they become a reg- 
 ular part of his life. 
 This friendship with 
 growing plants is no 
 small part of the satis- 
 faction that results 
 from having a flower 
 garden, of having 
 one's home surrounded 
 with beautiful plants 
 that faithfully each 
 year present their 
 tribute of beauty in 
 return for the care 
 lavished upon them. 
 
 Daffodils as house plants. 
 
CHAPTER XII. 
 
 Annual Flowers. 
 
 Annuals are those 
 plants which produce 
 a crop during the 
 same season the seed 
 is planted and which 
 die with the approach 
 of cold weather. As a 
 matter of fact, among 
 flowers there are 
 some listed as annuals 
 which do not conform 
 to this rule, but in 
 effect and for all prac- 
 tical purposes they are 
 annuals nevertheless. 
 
 Hardy annuals. — 
 Some of the annuals 
 are perfectly hardy 
 and will not only grow well from seed sown in the open, but 
 will ripen seed and seed themselves for another year. The 
 common corn flower follows this rule and when a red is once 
 started it seems to be able to look after itself indefinitely. 
 
 Tender annuals. — Other annuals are more tender or re- 
 quire a longer season in which to develop their flowers and so 
 must be started indoors in pots or boxes. A good example of 
 such plants is the common "moon flower" and the China asters. 
 Sometimes perennials, such as pansy, are grown as annuals 
 
292 
 
 Orchard and Garden 
 
 when as a matter of 
 fact they are peren- 
 n i a 1 s . Ordinarily 
 they would not pro- 
 duce blooms the first 
 season from seed, but 
 by being started in- 
 doors early in the 
 year the plants gain 
 a season on the ac- 
 tual calendar. 
 
 The soil for 
 growing annuals 
 should be a rich gar- 
 den soil such as would 
 grow good vegetables. 
 If not in that condi- 
 tion plenty of ma- 
 nure must be turned 
 under when the 
 ground is spaded in 
 the spring. One fortunate fact is undeniable concerning most 
 soils. A section of the earth's surface taken almost any place, 
 if not particularly good soil, can always be improved. Nothing 
 seems to respond to good treatment quicker than the face of 
 the earth. 
 
 In the following list of annual flowers I have tried to 
 include only those species that are known to be satisfactory. 
 Most of them are old sorts. Some of them were in our grand- 
 mothers' gardens. These same old sorts are still just as at- 
 tractive and interesting as ever and new "introductions" have 
 not crowded many of the old favorites off the list. In a few 
 cases varieties have been improved by selection and in other 
 cases really valuable additions have been made from other 
 countries, but in the main our annual flowers are flowers that 
 have been grown for generations and have family traditions of 
 
 Moonflowers started in pots on the window 
 sill. 
 
Annual Flowers. 293 
 
 their own. This fact, if no other, should give them a place in 
 our flower beds and in our hearts as well. Figures following 
 names, refer to height in feet. 
 
 Acroclinium. 1.— This genus contains several species 
 grown as "everlastings." The seed should be planted in the 
 open ground after danger from frost is past. They make at- 
 tractive plants for an open border and so are valuable aside 
 from their use as dried flowers. The color varies from white 
 to almost red, through very delicate shades of pink. The 
 beauty of the flowers and their easy culture should include 
 them in every garden. If used for winter bouquets the flow- 
 ers should be cut before they are fully opened. 
 
 Ageratum. 8 to 10 inches.— Blue, light blue or white flow- 
 ers are characteristic of this rather delicate annual which is 
 so extensively used for flower boxes and for garden borders. 
 It is a tender plant, requiring a long season, and the seed 
 must be planted in a hot bed or indoors very early in the 
 spring. Florists grow great quantities of these plants every 
 year for sale with such plants as geraniums, coleus, etc., to 
 be used in ornamental beds. 
 
 Alyssum. :} to 1.— Several varieties of alyssum are 
 offered, all of which are good. The sort sold under the name 
 Little Gem is a dwarf grower that produces an abundance of 
 small white flowers. After blooming, the plants may be cut 
 back, when they will bloom again. The seed may be sown in 
 the open ground where the plants are to remain. It some- 
 times naturalizes itself and comes up in the same place year 
 after year if the ground is undisturbed. 
 
 Antirrhinium (Snapdragon). 2.— Snapdragon is in fact 
 a perennial, but is often treated as an annual and as such gives 
 excellent results. If the seed is sown in the open ground in 
 May the plants will bloom in August if given good care. By 
 planting indoors earlier the season of bloom may be consid- 
 erably advanced. The plants are not entirely hardy, but if 
 given a light covering of straw, will winter in good shape and 
 produce an abundance of bloom the next season. This plant 
 
294 Orchard and Garden 
 
 is now being grown by florists on an extensive scale and is a 
 popular cut flower throughout the winter. There are a variety 
 of colors, varying from scarlet to white with many interme- 
 diate shades. 
 
 Asters. 1 to 2. — Many varieties of asters are grown as 
 annuals and they are among the most successful of all our 
 late blooming plants. Like most desirable things, however, 
 they have their drawbacks and their culture is attended with 
 several difficulties. Fungous diseases pecuhar to the genus 
 sometimes destroy the crop. This misfortune is particularly 
 liable to occur when asters have been grown on the same piece 
 of ground for a number of seasons in succession. It is well 
 to change the location of the beds each year. The aster beetle 
 is often troublesome and eats holes in the flower heads. The 
 only successful way of eliminating this insect is to pick the 
 infested portions and burn them. Root lice are also trouble- 
 some, but they can be killed or prevented by working some 
 tobacco in around the roots of the plants, or spreading it 
 lightly over the surface of the ground. The soil for asters 
 should be well enriched. The seed is planted in boxes in the 
 house or, if late blooms are desired, it may be sown in the open 
 ground. House-grown plants that have been transplanted 
 once or twice often make better flowers. There are many 
 kinds to select from, covering a great variety of color and 
 form. Some of the larger sorts rival the chrysanthemum in 
 their regal beauty. 
 
 Balsam. Vj to 2. — Altho this plant was introduced from 
 India, it has been with us so long that it seems like a regular 
 member of the family. It has long been a favorite in gardens 
 in spite of the fact that the flower habit is such that it is not 
 well suited for cut flowers. Plant the seeds in good soil in 
 May. 
 
 Calendula (Pot Marigold). 1.— This is the "Marygold" 
 that was cultivated in England in Shakespeare's time. It is a 
 very old favorite and has lost none of its ancient charm. The 
 flowers come in various shades of yellow and are produced 
 
Annual Flowers. 295 
 
 continuously from early summer until frost. It is one of the 
 easiest annuals to grow. Plant the seed where the plants are 
 to remain as soon as the ground is well warmed in the spring. 
 By planting a few seeds in pots late in summer the marigold 
 can be used as a house plant and will bloom well during the 
 winter. 
 
 Calliopsis. 1 to 2. — Related to the perennial Coreopsis. 
 Seedsmen offer a number of varieties of Calliopsis, varying in 
 color, form of flower, and size of plant. Most of them are good 
 and some of them are natives of this country. The seed should 
 be sown where the plants are to remain and after they are a 
 few inches high they may be thinned so as to stand about six 
 inches to a foot apart, depending on the size of the variety 
 grown. 
 
 Candytuft. 1. — Seed should be sown from mid- April until 
 June in order to provide a succession of bloom. This is a 
 splendid plant for securing a mass of color and for this reason 
 should be planted in large beds. It is to be had in a variety of 
 shades of red and in white. It is excellent for cut flowers. 
 
 Celosia (Cock'scomb). 1 to 3. — This plant is an old favor- 
 ite in annual gardens, but is inclined to grow rank and coarse. 
 It lacks much of being a desirable plant when grace and color 
 are desired. May be planted in open ground or started in the 
 house and transplanted later. 
 
 Centaurea (Corn Flower). 14. — Seedsmen offer a number 
 of sorts of cornflower, some of them native American wild 
 plants. They are all annuals, but usually re-seed themselves 
 and appear year after year in the same place. Seed should be 
 planted in the open ground early in the spring. The sweet 
 sultans are a form of the cornflower and are more desirable 
 in point of beauty. Shades of color vary from white to rose 
 and lavender. They are excellent for cut flowers and should 
 be grown in every garden. 
 
 Cosmos. 3. — This new introduction to our northern gar- 
 dens has proven of great value. No other plant can take its 
 place for the production of an abundance of graceful bloom late 
 
296 Orchard and Garden 
 
 in the summer. As it is a large growing plant it should be 
 planted behind other lower growing forms and in such 
 situations produces a good back ground for almost any 
 of the earlier llowers. In the latitude of central Indiana 
 cosmos will sometimes re-seed itself and appear in the same 
 place on successive years, but it is not regarded as entirely 
 hardy. Most growers start the plants indoors and set them 
 where they are to remain after danger from frost is past. 
 When the plants are a foot high the central shoot should be cut 
 off so as to make the plants more bushy. If this is not done 
 the plants will often grow so tall that they are unable to sup- 
 port themselves and as a result fall over in great disarray. An 
 early strain has been introduced which produces its bloom 
 from early August until frost. The flowers, however, are not 
 so large as in the late flowering sorts and the variety is other- 
 wise less desirable. It is a good plan to have some of each 
 sort. The colors are chiefly shades of red and a fairly clear 
 white. 
 
 Eschscholtzia (California Poppy). 1. — The California 
 poppies are very bright flowers of the easiest culture. Seed 
 should be sown where the plants are to remain very early in 
 the spring. The variety sometimes re-seeds itself. If the 
 flowers are kept gathered before forming seed the plants re- 
 main in bloom until frost. With a little protection the plants 
 will live over in mild winters. 
 
 Euphorbia (Snow on the Mountain). 2. — This plant is 
 grown for the eflfect of its pretty green and white foliage. The 
 flowers are inconspicuous. Seed may be planted in the open 
 ground where the plants are to remain. It makes a good back 
 ground for other low growing flowers. This species should 
 be handled with care as the juice acts somewhat like that of 
 poison ivy when it comes in contact with a tender skin. Like 
 poison ivy, too, many people can handle it with entire im- 
 munity, 
 
 Foi'.r-O'clock (Marvel of Peru). 11, — An old-fashioned 
 annual not of unusual value except for its associations. There 
 
Annual Flowers. 297 
 
 are other better plants, ?jut this one can be easily grown al- 
 most anywhere by anyone. The seed is sown in the open 
 ground in May. 
 
 Globe Amaranth, li. — This is another flower grown for 
 winter bouquets. The flower heads are composed of many 
 small, bright colored bracts which hide the true flowers. These 
 heads resemble the flower heads of red clover. They should 
 be cut Ijefore the flowers are fully mature and hung up to dry 
 for winter use. They remain attractive long into the winter. 
 They are not as attractive, however, as some of the other ever- 
 lastings. Seed may be planted in the open ground as soon as 
 the danger from frost is past. 
 
 Halianthii^ (Sunflower). — The sunflower, coarse as it is, 
 is not to be despised. It has considerable value in many situa- 
 tions. Nothing will serve quite so well to screen a rough 
 coi-ner quickly — and the flowers are far from being unpleasant 
 to the sight. Another fact that should not be disre- 
 garded, is that the sunflower will provide an abundance of 
 food for many kinds of birds, and it is always interesting to 
 watch the little creatures hanging on desperately trying to get 
 their breakfast from the downward-bent seed heads. Try to 
 find a place for a few at the far end of the garden. The seed 
 can be sown as soon as the danger from frost is past. Need- 
 less to say, they like a sunny situation. 
 
 Hdidirysum f Strawflower). 1^. — This plant is one of the 
 mo.st popular of the everlastings and is grown from seed 
 planted in the open ground. Like all other everlastings, the 
 flowers should be cut before they are fully opened so as to 
 cause them to hold together more firmly. Strawflowers come 
 in various shades from white to crimson. 
 
 Kochia (Summer cypress). 3. — Related to some of our 
 common weeds and, like them, grows very rank whenever it 
 has an opportunity. It is a plant without any particular char- 
 acter to recommend it except that any one can grow it under 
 any sort of condition. It is to the flower garden what the 
 Ailanthus is to the shade trees. The seeds are planted in the 
 
298 Orchard and Garden 
 
 open ground after frost dates are past and it should be thinned 
 to stand two feet apart. Its best use would be as a background 
 for the better low-growing plants. 
 
 Larkspur. 14. — In recent years we have seen remarkable 
 improvement in size and color among the annual larkspurs. 
 These old-fashioned flowers were always favorites and they 
 have good reason to be, for they are easily grown, make a fine 
 appearance in the garden, bloom from early summer until 
 frost, and are excellent for cut flowers. The seed should be 
 sown in the open ground by the first of May or earlier if the 
 weather will permit. In a favorable season the plants will be 
 in bloom by July and will continue to bloom till killed by frost. 
 Frequent cuttings will tend to make the plants bloom better 
 and will keep them in better shape generally. A double sort 
 has become popular and grows nearly twice the size of the 
 single forms. 
 
 Marigold. \ to 1|. — There are a number of flowers that 
 are known by the name of marigold. Calendula was known 
 under this name in old English gardens. The marsh marigold 
 is a native spring flowering plant that grows in swampy places. 
 The marigold of the seedsmen, however, belongs to the genus 
 Tagetes and is quite unlike any of the other plants that some- 
 times bear its name. There are two common forms, the 
 French and the African. The French marigold is a dainty 
 little yellow plant that is excellent where a mass of yellow 
 bloom is desired. It is of dwarf habit and is a splendid thing 
 for edgings and for window boxes. The African marigold is 
 a much larger growing plant and produces a wealth of color, 
 ranging from clear lemon yellow to brilliant orange. In the 
 French varieties these same colors prevail and in addition the 
 flowers are often striped with rich brown. Both forms are 
 excellent plants. The leaves have a distinct odor when 
 crushed that is very unpleasant to some people, but rather at- 
 tractive to others. Probably no other plant can be grown to 
 perfection with as little care. The seed is planted in the 
 open ground early in May and the plants will be blooming by 
 
Annual Flowers. 299 
 
 the last of June and will continue to bloom until after frost. 
 If the seed is scattered in some out-of-the-way corner it will 
 often grow with no attenti")n at all. 
 
 Micjnonette. 1 to 2. — This plant is a native of Africa, but 
 has been in cultivation in flower gardens so long that it is now 
 quite cosmopolitan. The flowers are insignificant in appear- 
 ance and are neither graceful nor beautiful in color, but the 
 fragrance is such that the plant is a general favorite. The 
 seed can be sown in the open ground in late April, and again 
 in June or July to have a late crop. The plants do best if they 
 are grown in partial shade. 
 
 Pansy. — These interesting flowers have been developed 
 from one of the wild violets native to the cooler portions of 
 Europe and have been in cultivation for centuries. They will 
 not withstand hot, dry weather and the plants often perish in 
 midsummer. In the cooler parts of the United States they 
 often thrive from year to year, as they are in fact perennials, 
 I have seen pansy beds in northern Wisconsin that produced 
 an abundance of flowers year after year with practically no 
 attention and no winter protection except the snow. They are 
 often treated as annuals and for that reason are in this list. 
 For such purpose the seed should be sown in a cold frame very 
 early in the spring. The soil should be well prepared and 
 should not be allowed to dry out after the seed is planted. 
 The young plants are very delicate and require careful atten- 
 tion. The seed should be very lightly covered. After they 
 have attained some size the young seedlings are thinned out or 
 transplanted so as to allow each plant plenty of space. They 
 are set in the open ground as soon as they are large enough to 
 withstand handling and will bloom the same season. Pansy 
 plants are produced by the professional growers each year in 
 great quantities and it is probably best for the amateur to 
 purchase his plants from them. Late in summer seed can be 
 planted for early bloom the next spring. The plants should 
 be well grown by the time cold weather appears so as to be 
 
300 
 
 Orchard and Garden 
 
 in good condition for winter- 
 ing. In sections where there 
 is considerable freezing and 
 thawing the plants must be 
 mulched to prevent them from 
 drawing out of the ground. 
 
 Petunia. — These are fa- 
 vorites in nearly every garden 
 because they are so easily 
 grown, are such vigorous 
 growers, and produce an 
 abundance of bloom. The 
 flowers vary in form and in 
 color. The single forms may 
 be planted out of doors in the 
 garden as soon as the ground 
 is warm, but the double and 
 more tender sorts thrive best 
 if started in the house, in a 
 cold frame, or hot bed. The 
 seed is very small and should 
 not be covered deeply. If the 
 ground is pulverized finely 
 and the seed sprinkled over 
 the surface it will usually bed 
 itself. It is best to cover it 
 very lightly by sifting a small 
 amount of good soil over it. 
 Phlox Drummondii. 1. — This annual phlox is a native of 
 Texas, but is a very satisfactory annual well into the north. 
 The seed can be planted in the open ground the first of May 
 and will bloom in about six to eight weeks. Like many other 
 plants, this one does better if started in a well prepared seed 
 bed and transplanted to the desired spot later. It will grow 
 in almost any soil and is a very satisfactory plant. As a bed- 
 ding plant, where a solid low mass of color is wanted, it is 
 
 Petunias. 
 
Annual Flowers. 301 
 
 excellent and is also exceedingly satisfactory in flower boxes 
 or hanging baskets. 
 
 Poppies. 1^ to 3. — There are several kinds of poppies that 
 are grown as annuals, but all of them require about the same 
 care. No class of plants will produce such a brilliant color 
 eff'ect as will the poppies when they are properly handled. 
 They should be planted in large masses where their colors 
 will have an opportunity to show as a whole. Individual 
 plants are not efl'ective. They make great material for bank- 
 ing against the borders of a flower garden where strong effects 
 are desired. For the most part they are not useful as cut 
 flowers because the petals are inclined to fall soon after the 
 flower is picked. Sow the seed very early in spring where 
 the flowers are to bloom, as they do not survive transplanting. 
 If they come up too thick, thin them out so that they stand 
 about six inches apart. The Shirley poppies are among the 
 most popular of the single sorts and "White Swan" and ''Car- 
 dinal" are good doubles. 
 
 Portulaca (Trailing). — This popular dwarf is useful for 
 edging and among rock work. It prefers plenty of sunshine. 
 The flowers are bright and attractive. The seed can be sown 
 out of doors as soon as the ground is warm and danger from 
 frost is past and is another very small one that must be 
 planted carefully. One great danger with small seeds is that 
 they will be planted too thick. With the more careful planting 
 they will usually require thinning. 
 
 Rhodavthe. 1. — This plant is another good everlasting. 
 It is smaller and more delicate than the Helichrysum and is 
 handled in the same manner. 
 
 Rlcinus (Castor Bean). 3 to 10. — This valuable annual 
 is good as a background for flowering plants. There are many 
 horticultural varieties offered by the seedsmen, varying from 
 dwarf plants with variegated foliage to immense plants that 
 would serve well to hide a small barn. Seeds are planted in 
 the open ground after danger from frost is past. 
 
 Salvia (Scarlet Sage). 2.-. — This plant has long been a fa- 
 
302 Orchard and Garden 
 
 vorite for situations where a belt or mass of scarlet color is de- 
 sired. It furnishes a good clear color, but the plants are not par- 
 ticularly attractive in form and is not what could be called 
 "characterful." The seed must be sown early either in the 
 house or in a hot bed for the best results. Florists annually 
 produce thousands of plants of salvia for bedding material. 
 
 Scabiosa. 2. — In spite of its rather unpleasant sounding 
 name, this annual should be more widely grown. It is 
 excellent for cut flowers and is easily grown. There is a 
 range of color from white to scarlet. The seed can be sown 
 in the open beds, but is better to be started in a special seed 
 bed and later transplanted to the place where it is to bloom. 
 This treatment improves the plant habit of many of our an- 
 nuals. 
 
 Stocks. 2.— Popular annuals that are not as widely grown 
 as they might be. They are not only beautiful, but fragrant 
 as well and make excellent cut flowers. Seed should be 
 planted in a hot bed in February or March and transplanted 
 once or twice to develop a good root system before being 
 planted in the open ground. 
 
 Verbena. 1. — Every old garden had its bed of these charm- 
 ing plants. They should be more extensively planted in our 
 modern gardens. Seed may be planted in the hotbed in Feb- 
 ruary for a crop of early bloom or may be planted in the 
 open in May for bloom later in the summer. By keeping the 
 bloom cut, the plants will produce flowers till frost. As a rule 
 they are inclined to trail over the ground and will produce 
 great mats of bloom. 
 
 Xeranthemum. 3. — This is another of the everlastings 
 so is treated in the same manner. It is one of the most at- 
 tractive in the list. 
 
 Zinnia. 2. — The last plant on the list, but by no means 
 the least important. They are old garden favorites and are 
 good both for their appearance in the garden and also as cut 
 flowers. They are offered in a variety of colors and in form 
 ranging from rather interesting single bloom to those which 
 
Annual Flowers. 303 
 
 are very double and with curled petals. The plant has been 
 improved by selection in recent years and some of the newer 
 varieties that are offered are excellent. The seed is planted in 
 the open ground where the plants are to remain about the first 
 of May or whenever the soil is warm and in good condition 
 to work. They will thrive in a variety of soils, but require 
 full sunlight to be entirely successful. 
 
 VINES. 
 
 There are a number of good annual vines, but in most 
 places it will be more profitable to plant perennials for all pur- 
 poses where climbers are desired. The following brief list in- 
 cludes the best of the annuals. 
 
 Balloon vine. — A quick growing vine, with insignificant 
 white flowers followed by expanded seed pods from which it 
 takes its name. The foHage is good. Plant in the open ground 
 in May. 
 
 Cobaea. — A rapid growing vine, but must be started in- 
 doors and set in the open after danger from frost is past. Has 
 interesting flowers. 
 
 Dolichos (Hyacinth bean).— One of the best of the quick 
 growing annual vines. Makes an attractive plant when grown 
 over wire fences. In the south is used as a stock feed plant. 
 
 Echinocystis (Wild cucumber) . — A native wild plant that 
 has much value as a climber. Plant in open ground in May. 
 
 Humulus (Japanese Hop). — A recent introduction from 
 Japan. It has good foliage and in rich soil makes a good 
 growth, 
 
 Ipomoea (Morning glory).— The old-fashioned morning 
 glory is the one best vine for a quick growth to cover some 
 unsightly building or to screen an unsightly corner. This old 
 favorite will re-seed itself, however, and can become a trouble- 
 some weed. The "moonflower," a more recent introduction, 
 blooms after sundown. Its habit of growth is much slower 
 and must be started indoors. The seeds are very hard and a 
 
 (20) 
 
304 Orchard and Garden 
 
 hole should be cut or filed in the outer seed coat before planting 
 to hasten germination. 
 
 Nasturtium. — The nasturtium is one of the best annual 
 climbers, or rather trailers, as it is more inclined to trail than 
 to climb. It demands much moisture so must not be allowed 
 to dry out. Seeds are planted in the open ground in May. A 
 dwarf form does not trail to any extent. 
 
 Sweet Peas. — This is the one annual vine that is entirely 
 justifiable in any garden. In fact it is almost a necessity. The 
 vines are grown not for their value as climbers, but for the 
 bloom, which is as beautiful as that of any flower we have. 
 
 The soil for sweet peas must be rich and deep and should 
 be prepared with the greatest care if success is expected. It 
 is a plant that requires plenty of moisture and does not thrive 
 well in very hot weather. The finest sweet peas are grown in 
 the cooler parts of the country. The flower gardens of north- 
 ern Michigan are noted for the excellence of their sweet peas. 
 
 The seed should be planted as early in the spring as the 
 ground can be put into condition. Some amateurs attempt 
 always to plant the seed on a certain date, but nothing could 
 be more foolish than this practice. The time to plant is when 
 the season is right. Plants do not always accommodate them- 
 selves to the solar calendar. It is often desirable to plant the 
 seed about an inch deep in the bottom of a six- or eight-inch 
 trench. As the plants appear in the bottom of the trench, fill 
 in with good earth, causing the plants to push up through the 
 filling. By the time they have reached the top of the trench 
 their roots are several inches below the surface and they are 
 less apt to be aff'ected by dry weather. Some support must 
 be furnished for the vines, and the flowers are to be kept 
 picked off and no seed allowed to form. This procedure pro- 
 longs the season of bloom much beyond what it would be if 
 seed were to be produced. 
 
CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 Perennials. 
 
 The use of perennials in the flower garden and in con- 
 nection with shrub planting has fortunately been on the in- 
 crease during the past years, and many of our American gar- 
 dens are developing that air of permanence that can not be 
 produced by the use of annual plants. Perennials are plants 
 that live over from year to year. Some of them are perfectly 
 hardy and some require protection in severe winters. With 
 the greatly increased interest in this class of plants nursery- 
 men have introduced a host of forms not generally known 
 and many of them are worthy additions to any garden, but 
 some of them are intended chiefly to grace the pages of the 
 catalogues and it were better for the gardener if they were 
 allowed to remain there. 
 
 Permanent. — Although perennials do not require re- 
 planting each season, the grower must not get the notion that 
 they will succeed under neglect. It is true that they generally 
 require less care than do the annuals, but some rules must be 
 observed and some work must be done if the grower is to 
 secure results of which he can be proud. 
 
 Soil. — When perennials are planted the soil must be in the 
 best possible condition. In growing annuals the soil is worked 
 up each year and mistakes of one season can be corrected the 
 next, but with perennials there is no chance to retrieve an 
 error after it has once been made. For this reason the grower 
 should insist that his soil be stirred deeplj^ and that it be pro- 
 
306 Orchard and Garden 
 
 vided with an abundance of plant food. Turn under plenty of 
 manure and make sure that the soil is well drained. If the 
 subsoil is stiff and hard it should be excavated to a depth of 
 two or three feet and the bottom of the bed filled in with 
 broken jugs, tin cans, pieces of brick and mortar — anything 
 in fact which will provide for the escape of excess moisture 
 in wet weather. 
 
 Propagation. — Perennials in many cases may be grown 
 from seed, but it is best to purchase the young plants from a 
 florist or nurseryman who makes a business of producing this 
 class of stock. It is a business in itself and the young seed- 
 lings invariably require more care than do the plants after 
 they are well grown. Some kinds are best reproduced by 
 making cuttings or by division of the roots. Phlox and 
 chrysanthemums make large clumps that are easily divided. 
 After a clump of this kind has stood for several years it will 
 flourish better if it is taken up, the roots divided and replanted 
 in newly prepared soil. 
 
 Vines. — Many perennials are climbers and are greatly 
 superior to annuals where vines are wanted. Some of them 
 have in addition to their permanence a good winter appear- 
 ance that makes them beautiful throughout the year. 
 
 In the following list an attempt has been made to include 
 only those plants which are of known value and which are 
 sure to succeed in the hands of the average grower. Some of 
 them are native wild plants that can be collected from the 
 woods and fields. This class has been too much neglected, as 
 it furnishes an abundance of good material that is perfectly 
 hardy and is often superior in beauty to some of the horti- 
 cultural varieties put out by plant dealers. The utilization of 
 this class of plants should be encouraged just as much as pos- 
 sible in our American gardens. 
 
 Achillea. — This genus is represented in our woods and 
 pastures by the common yarrow, a plant with finely cut leaves 
 
Perennials. 307 
 
 and flat heads of white flowers. Occasionafly the flowers are 
 a bright pink, but this is not a constant characteristic, as the 
 pink forms often bleach out under cultivation. Another form 
 of the plant offered by plant growers is A. Ptarmica, variety, 
 "The Pearl." This is a double form, producing an abundance 
 of small, double white flowers. The plants are perfectly 
 hardy and will grow in almost any soil. They often grow in 
 old pastures and seem to thrive even with the grass crowding 
 their roots. On that account this is a good plant for natural- 
 izing in places where it can not be regularly cultivated. 
 
 Anemone. — There are some native members of this genus 
 that make admirable hardy plants. There are two common 
 wild flowers often called anemones, but which belong to diff"er- 
 ent genera. These plants are the little wildflowers of the 
 spring woods. One is Syndesmon and the other Isopyrum. 
 They are low growing and will thrive in any moist, rich, 
 shaded soil. They are of value only for their bloom in early 
 spring. The true anemones are larger growing plants, bloom- 
 ing later in the year and with the flowers followed by inter- 
 esting seed heads. A. virginiana is often cultivated. Flowers 
 white. Plant grows to three feet tall. It will withstand some 
 shade. The seed head is cylindrical in shape, while that of 
 the A. canadensis is spherical. This latter form is also culti- 
 vated in gardens and thrives best with a sunny exposure. Of 
 the introduced forms, the Japanese anemones are by far the 
 most beautiful and are worthy of a place in any garden of 
 hardy plants. They are off"ered in a number of varieties. 
 
 Aquilegia. — The common columbine of the American 
 woods makes a good garden plant, although it is not so desir- 
 able as the more ornamental introduced species. All of the 
 columbines are perfectly hardy and will grow in a variety of 
 soils, but prefer one that is not too heavy. If the garden soil 
 contains too much clay it would be well to work in a small 
 proportion of sand to loosen it before planting these flow- 
 ers. The bright colored, drooping flowers are produced in great 
 
308 Orchard and Garden 
 
 abundance in early summer. They prefer a situation which 
 does not receive the full sunlight. 
 
 Asdepias. — This group is the one which the milkweed be- 
 longs. Some people looking at this plant wholly as a weed 
 will feel that it has no place among the aristocrats of the hardy 
 flower garden, but even the more common milkweeds are not 
 to be despised. While it is true that it is an ordinary weed in 
 many localities, that fact does not detract from the beauty of 
 the plant. If it had been imported it would be grown by every 
 florist. The species that has the most value to the plant 
 grower, however, is that known as "butterfly weed," a form 
 most common in low, wet places. It produces great heads of 
 brilliant orange yellow flowers that are as striking and beau- 
 tiful as any of the pampered pets of the most fastidious gar- 
 dener. Although the plant grows wild in rather moist situa- 
 tions, it will thrive in many soils and where a number of 
 plants are set together they furnish a dash of color that cannot 
 be equaled by any other plant. While the plants are in bloom 
 they are constantly visited by hosts of the Monarch butterfly 
 whose orange and black coloring flts in with the general color 
 scheme of the flowers. They must be watched at this time, 
 however, because the butterflies are not there purely for orna- 
 mental purposes. They are usually feeding and incidentally 
 laying their eggs on the foliage. The eggs produce a green 
 and black striped caterpillar which is about the only serious 
 insect enemy of the plant. They are usually not numerous, 
 however, and can be readily picked off by hand. If they are 
 allowed to continue their development they produce, eventu- 
 ally, one of the most beautiful chrysalids. Truly even the 
 pests connected with this plant have an undue share of beauty. 
 
 Aster. — For the hardy garden there is just one best aster 
 and that is the form known as the New England aster. It is 
 perfectly hardy and makes a wonderful show of purple bloom 
 in the fall of the year. It can be planted in clumps among the 
 
Perennials. 309 
 
 shrub border and will furnish a wealth of color just at a time 
 when llowers in such situations are needed. The native form 
 has been improved by selection until now there are several 
 shades of color offered by plant growers. Aside from the 
 variation in color they are all very similar. There are many 
 native asters in our autumn woods, but none of them have the 
 value of the above form. Some of the delicate, small flowered, 
 blue and white kinds are very pretty when naturalized in great 
 masses along ravines in wooded places, but for the average 
 garden they are not particularly commendable. 
 
 Campanula. — Bailey lists forty-nine species of campanula 
 and many varieties under each species, so it will readily be 
 seen that this is a large group. It contains, among others, the 
 bluebell, noted in Scottish literature. Its growth is not con- 
 fined to Scotland however, as it is also native over a large part 
 of the northern United States. The best of the group from 
 the standpoint of the flower gardener are the Canterbury bells, 
 those graceful, bell-shaped flowers which come in a variety of 
 pleasing shades and which are so well adapted to the condi- 
 tions of the average garden. C. persicifolia is a taller and 
 more attractive plant than the Canterbury bell, but the flowers 
 are not quite so attractive. 
 
 Chrysanthemum. — The old-fashioned hardy chrysanthe- 
 mums of the old farm gardens are among the best hardy plants 
 that can be planted. They produce an abundance of bloom 
 long after everything else has been killed by frost and even 
 after a severe freeze they will often continue to open their 
 flowers. If very severe weather should threaten to ruin the 
 bloom, the stems may be cut and brought in the house even 
 long before they are ready to open and when placed in water 
 they proceed to develop their flowers in the most perfect way. 
 Recently too many tender sorts have been oflt'ered in the cata- 
 logues and growers have been disappointed to find that their 
 plants died during the winter or were ruined by early frosts. 
 For that reason the plants from old established patches that 
 
310 Orchard and Garden 
 
 are known to be hardy are the best. Some nurserymen realize 
 this disposition and have collected their stock from plants that 
 have been growing in old gardens for years. Such plants will 
 give universal satisfaction and will make one of the best addi- 
 tions possible to the hardy border. The plants will grow in any 
 good garden soil and require but little attention. They are 
 best planted either in the fall or in the very early spring be- 
 fore they start to grow. The growing of the fancy varieties 
 of chrysanthemum should be left to the commercial grower 
 who is equipped to take care of the plants and who under- 
 stands their requirements. 
 
 Coreopsis. — This bright yellow plant resembles the an- 
 nual cosmos in nearly everything except color. The flowers 
 are splendid for house use and their constant cutting 
 tends to keep the plants in bloom for a longer period. They 
 come into bloom early in the summer and if not allowed to 
 form seed will continue to bloom until frost. 
 
 Delphiniums. — The perennial delphiniums or larkspurs 
 are among the very best of the hardy plants for the flower 
 garden. The Chinese forms are small flowered dwarf plants 
 suitable for any position where a low, dark blue flower is de- 
 sired. The stately English delphiniums are among the most 
 beautiful of the group. They grow from four to eight feet 
 tall and will bloom from early summer till frost if they are 
 properly treated. As soon as a spike of flowers is through 
 blooming, that is when the top flowers are beginning to fade, 
 the flower stalk should be cut to the ground. The plant will 
 then throw up another great spike to repeat the show. They 
 thrive in any good garden soil, but the richer it is, the better 
 flowers will be produced. The colors vary from pure white 
 through various shades of blue. The light, clear blues are very 
 eff'ective, as this color is not at all common in plants capable 
 of producing a large mass of bloom. 
 
 Dodecutheon. — This native American plant, commonly 
 called the "shooting star," is an excellent perennial for situa- 
 
Perennials. 
 
 311 
 
 tions where a spring 
 blooming plant of low 
 growth is required. 
 It is characterized by 
 spikes of white or 
 pinkish flowers of a 
 very intresting shape, 
 growing much after 
 the habit of the Alpine 
 violet or cyclamen. 
 The flower suggests 
 that of the cyclamen 
 very decidedly and no 
 doubt our little native 
 plant would be a green- 
 house favorite if it 
 were not so common in 
 the woods. 
 
 Hepatica. — This is 
 another familiar plant 
 of our woods that de- 
 serves to be recog- 
 nized in our gardens. 
 While it is a spring 
 blooming plant, the foliage is persistent and beautiful all sum- 
 mer, making a ground cover in shady places. The leaves re- 
 main .green, or rather red bronze, all winter and until the 
 flowers come in the spring. It is one of the most desirable 
 plants to mass in beds on the north side of houses where it 
 will have shade and moisture. Plants that will thrive in such 
 situations are needed and the hepatica should prove a wel- 
 come addition to the list. 
 
 Hollyhocks. — Every one loves the good old-fashioned 
 hollyhocks. They are rank growers and are not particularly 
 graceful and many other plants produce colors that appeal 
 more to the artistic eye, but at that there is something stately 
 
 The blouii 
 
 the .shiMiLiny- 
 a Cyclamen. 
 
 star resembles 
 
312 
 
 Orchard and Garden 
 
 about the plants that cannot be overlooked. They recall old 
 gardens and old times and through long association have won 
 
 Good old-fashioned hollyhocks. 
 
Perennials. 313 
 
 the place in the hetirts of flower growers that will cause them 
 to retain their place in the garden. They are splendid to use 
 as a background for other flowers or in a mixed border of tall 
 growing- plants. Their wide range of colors causes a regular 
 riot in the garden — an eff'ect that is often wanted. 
 
 Iris. — The flags are among our most useful perennials 
 because of the fact that they will grow in such a variety of 
 
 Iris bordering- a path. 
 
 situations and are so universally beautiful. There is nothing 
 better with which to border a bed of other flowers or to use 
 along a path or an approach to a house. They grow stitt' and 
 upright and have no tendency to lop over on their neighbors, 
 although the roots will in time spread and cause the indi- 
 vidual patch to enlarge and the border strip to become slightly 
 wider. The German iris, so called, although it is not a native 
 of Germany, is one of the most useful, as it adapts itself to 
 
314 Orchard and Garden 
 
 many types of soil and will do better in poor soil than almost 
 any other perennial. It requires good exposure to sunlight, 
 however. After the first year or two it does not seem to need 
 cultivation and is able to take care of itself very effectively. 
 The Japanese iris is a much more showy plant, producing 
 flowers of great beauty of form and coloring. It is by far the 
 finest of all the group, but unfortunately is a moisture-loving 
 plant and if deprived of its moisture it often fails completely. 
 The same statement is true of the blue flag of our American 
 marshes. It is an attractive plant but it will grow only in wet 
 places. The Spanish iris is a delicate form of easy culture. The 
 bulbs, for this is a bulbous form, are planted early in the fall 
 and bloom the next season. Altogether there are more than a 
 hundred species of iris and many hybrids between species. 
 No flower has been more highly developed and few forms 
 will yield greater satisfaction to the lover of flowers. 
 
 Li num. — The ornamental flax is a pretty little perennial 
 with delicate foliage and covered with a multitude of blue 
 flowers. It comes into bloom early in the spring and remains 
 covered with flowers nearly all summer. The plants are not 
 tall growing and not bold in coloring, but for a situation 
 where delicacy and grace is desired they are splendid. 
 
 Lobelia. — The red flowered lobelia, or cardinal flower, is 
 a beautiful perennial, but requires plenty of moisture. If a 
 place can be secured where moisture is assured throughout 
 the season it would be well to try it, but in the average gar- 
 den there are other plants that are more apt to succeed. 
 
 Monarda. — This is one of the mints that is well worth 
 cultivation in a hardy border. The flower heads are not only 
 interesting, but they also attract numerous butterflies and 
 provide forage for honey bees. It is a wild plant over the 
 most of the country. 
 
 Pentstemon. — There are a number of species of pentste- 
 mon native in the United States, but P. digitalis is the form 
 chiefly cultivated. It produces attractive spikes of white 
 flowers in early summer and is worthy of more extended cul- 
 
Perennials. 
 
 ;i5 
 
 tivation. P. grandiflorus is native in the prairie district. It 
 has larger flowers of light lavender blue. 
 
 Peonies. — Perhaps no other hardy flower is so widely 
 
 A native monarda. 
 
316 Orchard and Garden 
 
 cultivated as the peony. Certainly none is more admired. 
 The bloom exceeds the rose in beauty of form and color and 
 most varieties are equally fragrant. In addition to producing 
 the most splendid flowers, the plants produce clean, vigorous 
 foliage that is seldom attacked by insects or fungous disease 
 and which makes an excellent appearance throughout the sea- 
 son. If only one hardy plant can be selected, let it be, by all 
 means, a peony. The plants that are furnished by nursery- 
 men are usually single roots cut from a large clump. As a 
 rule these single roots will produce only one or two stalks the 
 first season they are planted and the results are apt to be dis- 
 appointing to the amateur, especially when he is told that the 
 plant should not be allowed to bloom the first season. For 
 immediate effects it is best to purchase original clumps of 
 several j'ears' growth, although such clumps will cost about 
 five times as much as the single plants. The roots may be 
 planted either in the fall or in very early spring before growth 
 starts. In any event they should be placed in the best soil ob- 
 tainable and in a situation where they will have an abundance 
 of light and air. They do not succeed in even partial shade 
 and their excellence entitles them to the best location in the 
 garden. No plant is better adapted for grouping around 
 houses and along drives and walks. There are many varie- 
 ties offered and practically all of them are good. Some are 
 single, but the most of them are double. The great white 
 variety, festiva maxima, is one of the finest flowers in exis- 
 tence. 
 
 Phlox. — There are several native species of phlox that 
 are worthy of cultivation. One of these, P. divaricata, is the 
 common wild flower known as blue phlox and is to be 
 found in rich woods over a greater part of the eastern states. 
 It is suitable for garden culture and as a plant for early bloom 
 in a shrub border it is excellent, making large clumps. P. 
 subulata, or moss pink, is a dwarf form, blooming very early 
 in the spring and covering itself with charming little lavender 
 or rose pink flowers. It is a creeping plant, with grass-like 
 
Perennials. 
 
 317 
 
 foliage, and if given an opportunity will form great mats, 
 covering the ground for yards in every direction. There is 
 nothing finer for a ground cover in situations where the soil 
 is poor and where an early show of color is desired. This 
 phlox does not succeed in rich soil. It grows to perfection on 
 
 Phlox divaricata, one of our native plants. 
 
 difficult yellow clay and if it can get its roots in a crevice 
 under a stone it will thrive as well as if it were growing in a 
 rich garden. The tall growing phlox of the garden is either 
 P. paniculata or P. maculata or a cross between the two. 
 Nearly all of our named varieties are such hybrids. From 
 this it will be seen that this is a strictly American family. 
 These tall growing phlox are among our best hardy plants 
 
318 Orchard and Garden 
 
 and if given good soil will soon make large and showy 
 clumps. 
 
 The Missouri Botanical Garden gives the following direc- 
 tions for the cultivation of these hybrid plants : "The garden 
 culture of phlox is very simple. As they are gross feeders, the 
 soil should be worked up to a depth of eighteen inches to two 
 feet and well enriched with well-rotted manure. The manure 
 is especially necessary in light sandy soil to conserve moisture. 
 It should be used sparingly in stiff heavy soil, however, in view 
 of a prevalent spot disease caused by a fungus, Cercospora 
 phlogina. The disease is characterized by circular brown 
 spots on the foliage, which on the upper surface show a dark 
 brown border. The distance of planting should vary from two 
 to three feet, depending upon the effects desired. For color 
 grouping clumps may be set two feet apart without being 
 overcrowded. Phlox suffer in hot weather because of their 
 tendency to form roots at the surface. To avoid this, mulch- 
 ing with well-decayed cow manure should be resorted to in 
 June. Moderate shade is also beneficial during the hot part 
 of the day, so that an eastern or western border is preferable 
 to one facing south. For the best results phlox should be di- 
 vided every three or four years." 
 
 Physostegia. — Another American plant that is widely 
 cultivated in gardens, but not as extensively as it should be. 
 It produces tall spikes of pink or white flowers and makes a 
 graceful addition to the hardy border. 
 
 Rudheckia (Golden Glow). — This perennial is one of the 
 best of the tall growing plants. It is not what could be called 
 a graceful plant, but its vigorous growth and unfailing sup- 
 ply of bright yellow flowers give it a value that a less thrifty 
 plant would lack. Being tall growing, it should be placed 
 where it will have plenty of room. Sometimes the stems re- 
 quire support or they wiU blow over in the wind. They can 
 be strengthened by pinching out the leader when it is about 
 two or three feet high and causing the plant to branch. 
 
 Tradescantm. — The native spiderworts make excellent 
 
Perennials. 
 
 319 
 
 little plants for the hardy border and as they will endure some 
 shade they may be planted among shrubs or under trees. The 
 flowers are blue or purple and last but a short time, but are 
 quickly followed by others. 
 
 Trillium. — For a cool, rich spot in the garden there is 
 no more striking plant for early bloom than the large white 
 trilliums. These are native in our rich woodlands. The tall 
 stalks bearing the three-parted leaves of sturdy green, appear 
 
 Tradescantia, or spiderwoit, makes a fine perennial in a sheltered location. 
 
 early in the spring and the bloom opens soon after the leaves 
 reach their full development. This is one of our most interest- 
 ing native plants and should be more widely grown. Many 
 plant specialists list it in their catalogues, but it can also be 
 obtained direct from the woods in many parts of the country. 
 The bulbs should be planted deep — at least as deep as they 
 grew in the woods, about six to eight inches. There are other 
 
 (21) 
 
320 
 
 Orchard and Garden 
 
 varieties of native tril- 
 lium, but for the most 
 part they are not suit- 
 ed for garden planting. 
 The little snow tril- 
 lium, one of the earl- 
 iest wild flowers, may 
 be naturalized in the 
 border or on the lawn 
 in a sheltered situa- 
 tion. It grows only a 
 few inches high and 
 produces white flowers 
 almost as soon as the 
 snow is off the ground 
 in the spring. 
 
 Ve7'bena Venosa. 
 — This is a hardy form 
 of the verbena and 
 should be more widely 
 grown. It is often 
 found in old gardens 
 where it has been es- 
 tablished for years. 
 When allowed to have 
 its own way it will 
 form large mats of 
 deeply cut foliage and 
 will produce a perfect mass of flowers from early spring until 
 frost. These flowers, a purplish violet in color, attract large, 
 black, swallow-tail butterflies in great numbers. Any bright 
 day in summer will see the plants shadowed over by these in- 
 sects which seem to visit it only for the nectar of the flowers, 
 as the larva of this butterfly feeds on other plants. 
 
 Yucca. — The common yucca is a good evergreen plant, 
 perfectly hardy, and valued not only for its great spikes of 
 
 One of the showy trill iums. 
 
Perennials. 
 
 321 
 
 white flowers, but also for its striking stiff, green foliage, 
 which remains in good condition indefinitely. It is of the eas- 
 
 The Emperor Daffodil. 
 
 iest culture and often escapes from cultivation and runs wild. 
 It is a good plant to give a touch of green in the winter among 
 the shrubbery. 
 
322 
 
 Orchard and Garden 
 
 Paper White Narcissus as grown in the house. 
 
Perennials. 323 
 
 DUTCH BULBS 
 
 There are many sorts of plants commonly sold under the 
 name of Dutch bulbs, because of the fact that their culture has 
 been developed to its highest state in Holland. 
 
 Among: these, the various members of the narcissus fam- 
 ily hold a high place and are among our best perennials for 
 spring bloom. The great yellow daffodils are for the most 
 part perfectly hardy and can be planted among shrubs with 
 very pleasing effect. The variety known as Emperor is prob- 
 ably the best for this purpose. The bulbs should be planted in 
 the fall in soil which has good drainage. It is a good plan to 
 dig a trench about seven or eight inches deep and put an inch 
 or two of sand in the bottom of it. On this sand the bulbs are 
 placed and covered with good earth. 
 
 The paper white narcissus is also an excellent form for 
 naturalizing among shrubs and trees and is handled exactly 
 like the daffodil. The "poet's narcissus" is perfectly hardy 
 and makes a good plant for outdoor culture. 
 
 All of these can also be grown in the house by planting in 
 boxes and pots and allowing them to remain out of doors until 
 cold weather approaches. They are then brought into a cool 
 cellar and later into a warm, lighted room. 
 
 For the hardy border there is no more effective plant than 
 the Darwin tulips, which are just as different from the small 
 early flowering tulips as could be possible. The Darwins pro- 
 duce tall stems, bearing great cup-shaped flowers in a wonder- 
 ful variety of brilliant colors. No hardy garden should be 
 without them. They are planted and treated just as the daffo- 
 dils. Ground mice have a great fondness for the bulbs of the 
 Darwin tulip and the beds should be examined every fall for 
 signs of these pests. If they are present, as will be indicated 
 by their runways, means must be employed to exterminate 
 them. Oatmeal dusted with strychnine can be placed in the 
 entrance to the burrows and the hole covered with a stone or 
 clod. This will prevent birds from eating the grain. If after 
 
324 Orchard and Garden 
 
 a few days the holes are again open the dose should be re- 
 peated. If the holes remain closed and no new openings ap- 
 pear you may feel sure that the mice have perished. 
 
 perennial vines 
 
 Ampelopsis. — The five-leaved ivy of our forests makes a 
 good vine to cover old stumps or to run over a dead tree, but it 
 is not so effective on walls and on foundations as is the A. 
 veitcheii or Boston ivy. This is a splendid plant and makes 
 the best foundation screen in the list. Sometimes it is reported 
 as being difficult to get started clinging to the wall. This 
 nearly always means that it is not making a vigorous growth, 
 as it would if it was planted properly in the right kind of soil. 
 Too often the soil next to a foundation wall is filled with rub- 
 bish from the construction of the building and unless this is 
 removed and good earth supplied it will be difficult to cause 
 anything to grow. Given good soil and a fair amount of mois- 
 ture, the Boston ivy will do its part vigorously. 
 
 Celasirus. — This is the native bitter-sweet and, while it is 
 not a quick growing vine, it is a most excellent one. As a rule 
 the vines do not produce any berries until they are several 
 years old, but the winter beauty of a well-grown specimen is 
 so great that it pays to spend some time in securing this result. 
 In the woods the bitter-sweet will grow in partial shade and 
 cover small shrubs and trees with its long stems. It has been 
 observed, however, that these vines grown in the deep woods 
 seldom produce many berries, while the plants found along 
 the edges of the woods or on fences in the open are usually 
 laden with their attractive seed pods. From this occurrence 
 it would appear that it is a sort that will grow in either shade 
 or sun, but that it produces its truit best when it has a full 
 exposure. 
 
 Clematis. — There are many varieties of clematis offered 
 by nurserymen, but none of them are any prettier than our 
 native C. virginiana. This makes a vigorous growth and bears 
 
Perennials. 
 
 325 
 
 Bitter Sweet. 
 
326 Orchard and Garden 
 
 in profusion small white flowers. The flowers are produced 
 in great feathery masses which make the plant one of our most 
 graceful climbers. The large flowered forms are easily grown, 
 but lack the delicate beauty which marks our native plant. 
 C. paniculata is a newer introduction from that land of plant 
 marvels, Japan. It is similar to our native form, but produces 
 slightly larger flowers and at the same time loses but little of 
 the grace of our own vine. 
 
 Lathriis. — This perennial vine greatly resembles the 
 sweet pea. The flowers, however, are not fragrant. It will 
 grow in any soil and makes an excellent vine where height is 
 not desired, for, like the sweet pea, it does not grow very tall. 
 The flowers are produced all summer and are good for cutting. 
 
 Wisteria. — Two species of wisteria grow wild in America, 
 but the Chinese form is superior to either of them as a culti- 
 vation plant. Few vines make a more rapid growth or are 
 more universally satisfactory. It should be planted in deep, 
 rich soil and allowed plenty of moisture. In dry weather it is 
 well to mulch the surface with leaves or straw to help retain 
 moisture. 
 
CHAPTER XIV 
 
 Shrubs 
 
 Botanically, a shrub differs 
 from a tree in that it has many 
 stems, while a tree has but one. 
 From the standpoint of the gar- 
 dener, however, there is no reason 
 why a small ornamental tree should 
 not be treated as a shrub. What is 
 wanted is a small woody plant that 
 is ornamental and that ¥/ill not 
 grow beyond a certain definite size. 
 The vahie of shrifbs for orna- 
 mental planting can not be over es- 
 timated for no class of plants lends 
 itself to a greater variety of effects 
 nor is any sort of ornamental 
 planting more permanent. Many 
 of our best shrubs are native to 
 this country, but it is only in re- 
 cent years that gardeners have ad- 
 mitted this fact. Years ago the gardens of England and 
 Europe were using great quantities of American material, 
 while at the same time our American nurseries were listing 
 and recommending chiefly varieties that had been introduced. 
 Native Shrubs. — Each year sees a still greater inclination 
 to make use of our own material in this line and some land- 
 scape architects are building an enviable reputation chiefly 
 through the use of native stock. 
 
 There are, of course, many valuable shrubs as well as 
 
328 
 
 Orchard and Garden 
 
 other plants that have been brought to us from far lands and 
 in the course of time others will be brought. It is not the de- 
 sire to minimize the usefulness of any of these, but it is de- 
 sirable that our own plants of value should not be overlooked. 
 Soil. — When a shrub is planted it is expected that it will 
 occupy that particular spot for some time. It is not likely that 
 it will be moved in a year or two. It is a permanent addition 
 to the establishment and for that reason it should be selected 
 and planted with care. The soil should be properly prepared 
 
 The proper protection for tender shrubs in winter. 
 
 to begin with. Do not expect shrubs or any other sort of plants 
 to grow and thrive if the preparation of the ground from 
 which they must get their life is neglected. Most shrubs 
 require a fertile soil if they are to make fine specimens. Do 
 
Shrubs. 329 
 
 not blame the nurseryman if your plants do not look like the 
 pictures in the catalogues. In most cases catalogue pictures 
 are very modest and the failure to exceed them rests entirely 
 with yourself. 
 
 In the actual planting of a shrub use just as much care 
 as though you were planting an apple tree from which you 
 some day hoped to secure part of your sustenance. Have the 
 hole dug deep enough and large enough to receive all the roots 
 without crowding. Then see that the roots are in good condi- 
 tion ; prune off those that are broken or damaged in any way. 
 Set the shrub in the ground as deeply as it grew in the nur- 
 sery or a trifle deeper. Throw in the top soil and tamp it well 
 with the foot, or, better still, work it and pack it around the 
 roots with your hands. Do not allow any air spaces below the 
 roots, for such spaces cause the earth to dry out and may cost 
 the life of the plant. The last soil that is used in filling the 
 hole should not be tramped hard, but should be left loose — and 
 kept loose. 
 
 In most cases the shrub should be pruned immediately 
 after it is planted. In transplanting, the root system has, of 
 course, been damaged to a considerable extent and some of the 
 roots have been lost. Those that are left can not begin to sup- 
 ply moisture to the plant in its accustomed quantity and m 
 order to balance the water supply some of the water using 
 area of the plant must be removed. This is the only reason 
 for pruning either a tree or a shrub at the time it is planted. 
 The rule holds good for any sort of plant, whether it be an 
 oak or a stalk of celery. 
 
 If the plants are not to be moved far, it is sometimes pos- 
 sible to transplant large well-grown shrubs without much 
 pruning, but in such a case the work must be done at the 
 right time and in the right way. The only satisfactory time 
 for such work is in the winter when the ground is frozen hard. 
 It is then possible to dig a trench around the shrub that is to 
 be moved and pry it out of the ground with a large ball of 
 frozen earth. In this way very few of the roots are disturbed. 
 
330 Orchard and Garden 
 
 It is about like setting a pot-grown plant in the garden. Even 
 in such cases, however, the shrubs almost invariably show a 
 tendency to make a weak growth for one or two seasons after 
 they have been moved and the safest way for the amateur is to 
 start with small nursery-grown plants and let them acquire 
 size as they will. 
 
 Most shrubs grow rapidly, so that it does not take a long 
 time for them to begin to repay the labor lavished on their 
 planting and after care. In the following list are included 
 only shrubs of known value and where their culture differed 
 from the normal a note has been made of that fact. 
 
 Amelcinchier (June berry). — This small tree often grows 
 in the form of an open bush, but even where it attains tree size 
 it is always an ''under wood" in the forest. Its principal orna- 
 mental value lies in the fact that very early in the spring it is 
 covered with a multitude of small white flowers. Before the 
 other trees have more than started to leaf out, the June berry 
 has thrown its cloud of misty blossoms to the April air. If 
 grown as a shrub it must be given plenty of room so that it 
 can develop its full beauty. As it is shade-enduring, it may be 
 planted under larger trees with good eff'ect. 
 
 Barberry. — The best of the barberries is the form intro- 
 uced from Japan as B. thunbergii. It makes a graceful shrub 
 if planted in the border or it may be used with fine effect as a 
 hedge plant. The stems are quite spiny and if the plants are 
 placed about eighteen inches apart they will form a low hedge 
 that will turn stray dogs very effectively. One of the chief 
 beauties of the plant lies in the fact that in winter it is cov- 
 ered with loads of bright red berries which retain their plump- 
 ness and color well into spring. It may be propagated by 
 taking dormant cuttings and sticking them in the ground to a 
 depth of several inches. These will quickly take root and in a 
 season or two will make sizable plants. If an immediate effect 
 is desired it is better to buy well grown plants from the nur- 
 sery as quite large bushes can be transplanted with consid- 
 erable success. If the larger plants are set out they should 
 be cut back to the ground after planting. It is shade enduring. 
 
Shrubs. 
 
 331 
 
 June Berry. 
 
332 Orchard and Garden 
 
 Calycanthiis (Sweet Shrub). — This is an old favorite for 
 garden culture and deserves a prominent place in spite of the 
 fact that it is not particularly ornamental and the flowers are 
 not suited for cutting. Its popularity is due entirely to the 
 fact that its dark, brownish red blossoms are extremely fra- 
 grant with a spicy, fruity odor not found in other plants. The 
 twigs of the shrub, when broken, give off a very pleasant odor 
 also. These facts, coupled with the fact that it has long been 
 an inhabitant of our gardens, make it a shrub worth while. 
 It will grow well in the shade of trees and this gives it an 
 added value. 
 
 Cercis (Red Bud). — The red bud of our forests is one 
 of our most valuable shrubs. It sometimes forms a small tree, 
 but it is always attractive. It can be used either as a single 
 specimen or may be planted in groups or in lines to form a 
 screen. It blooms very early in the spring, before the leaves 
 open, and when in full bloom is one of the most beautiful 
 sights of the American forest. In those parts of the country 
 where the red bud is still plentiful it forms one of the chief 
 attractions of the spring landscape. The flowers are small, 
 pea shaped and of a beautiful shade of pinkish lavender. They 
 are produced in such great abundance that they fairly clothe 
 every twig and branch of the entire tree. As they fall they 
 are quickly followed by the glossy, heart-shaped leaves which 
 remain in good condition all summer. By midsummer the seed 
 pods are well grown and take on a beautiful red coppery color 
 so that the tree is only a little less beautiful in fruit than it was 
 in flower. The red bud can be transplanted successfully only 
 when it is quite small. Large specimens are usually ruined by 
 transplanting and it generally pays with this, as with most oth- 
 er plants, to use small healthy specimens to start with. It grows 
 rapidly and a small tree well started will often outstrip a larg- 
 er one that has had its root system damaged in handling. It 
 will grow in the shade, but requires full sunlight to develop 
 to perfection. 
 
Shrubs. 333 
 
 Comas (Dogwood). — The large flowering dogwood is 
 one of the most striking of our native trees — for it is a tree 
 although often used for the purposes of a shrub. The branches 
 are covered each spring with a load of large white blooms that 
 
 Red Bud. 
 
334 Orchard and Garden 
 
 never fail to provoke comment. Once in a long while a single 
 tree is found in the woods bearing flowers of a delicate shade 
 of pink. This pink flowered form is even more beautiful than 
 its parent — for it is considered as only an ofi'shoot from the 
 white variety. Nurserymen now offer both kinds. In autumn 
 the foliage of the dogwood turns from green to a deep rich red 
 and it is then one of the most ornamental trees in the forest. 
 Later the leaves fall and the bright red berries, produced in 
 small clusters, stand out sharp and clear and give the tree an 
 interesting appearance well into the late fall. This plant nas 
 so many good qualities that it should be in every ornamental 
 collection. It is not so large but that it could be grown to 
 perfection even within the confines of the average city yard. 
 Certainly it takes up less room than do many of the exotic 
 magnolias that seem to be so popular and, aside from the fact 
 that it is a native and the magnolias are not, every argument 
 is on the side of the dogwood. For some reason people will 
 buy plants that are introduced from some far-off country and 
 sold under a high-sounding name, while they leave neglected 
 the most beautiful trees and plants of their own state. The 
 dogwood will stand a moderate amount of shade, but in the 
 forest it is at its best when it breaks through the edge of the 
 timber and gets a space of sunshine all to itself. 
 
 There are other members of the dogwood group that are 
 true shrubs. The only ones of these that are extensively cul- 
 tivated are those that have red stems in winter. This red- 
 stemmed character is the most striking feature of this group 
 of plants and it is a valuable one because it produces a note of 
 color in our gardens at a season of the year when color is at a 
 premium. The American species, C. stolonifera, is a good 
 one of this sort, but C. alba, a form introduced from Siberia, 
 has more brilliant red stems and is the more desirable of the 
 two for planting. Both of these have small clusters of white 
 flowers in spring, followed by flat heads bearing white berries. 
 They are useful shrubs, but are not to be compared with the 
 tall-growing form first mentioned. 
 
Shrubs. 
 
 335 
 
 Corylus (Hazel nut). — The common hazel makes an ex- 
 cellent shrub for shady situations, doing well even under old 
 
 Dogwood. 
 
 forest trees. It has many interesting features that recom- 
 mend it to the planter. To begin with, it is probably the first 
 
 (22) 
 
336 Orchard and Garden 
 
 plant of any kind to bloom in the spring. The first warm day 
 of early spring will bring the hazel into bloom and many lov- 
 ers of the out of doors watch for it with eager eyes each year. 
 The flowers, however, are not such as would attract attention 
 from the average person. They are of two kinds, one produc- 
 ing the pollen and the other bearing the ovary from which 
 develops the fruit. The pollen-bearing flowers are catkins 
 which in bloom measure from two to five inches in length. The 
 female flowers, however, are tiny tufts of pinkish pistils that 
 might easily be overlooked. However, they are the flowers 
 and the fact that they brave the season to make their appear- 
 ance so early in the year has made the plant dear to the heart 
 of every nature lover. The foliage of the plant is rather rough, 
 but not unpleasant and the fruit is a delicious, though small 
 nut. The hazel will grow in heavy shade. A northern form 
 of it is similar except that the nuts, instead of being protected 
 by a short envelope or husk, are situated at the base of a long 
 leafy tube. They are interesting in appearance, but difficult to 
 extract from their protective covering. 
 
 Crataegus (The Haws). — We have in America many va- 
 rieties of the haw family and almost without exception they 
 are deserving of more extensive cultivation. A few of them 
 are worthy of special mention. C. mollis is one of the best 
 because of its excellent form, its fine white bloom and its loads 
 of red fruit. This is the only one of the haws that the average 
 person would consider as edible, although small boys have 
 been known to eat with relish the fruit from many kinds. 
 The fruit of this haw ripens in August and September. It is 
 nearly or quite three-quarters of an inch in diameter and is 
 useful in making a clear red jelly of wonderful flavor. C. 
 CGCcinea and C. punctata are both well worth the attention of 
 the grower for both are excellent varieties. C. cordata, the 
 Washington thorn, is one of the most valuable of the group. 
 If allowed to take its natural shape it will form a small tree 
 up to thirty feet in height. However, it can be and often is 
 trimmed to a much smaller size. It makes a good hedge plant 
 and stands trimming well. The foliage turns to a rich red in 
 
Shrubs. 
 
 
 the fall and after the leaves are off the bright red, though 
 small, haws show up to perfection. These are produced in 
 great abundance and remain on the tree all winter, 
 
 Cydon'm (Japan quince). — This shrub is one of the early- 
 introductions from Japan and has remained fairly popular 
 
 An American haw. 
 
338 Orchard and Garden 
 
 although it has many bad characteristics. In early spring it 
 produces an abundance of glowing red flowers, which are fol- 
 lowed in late summer by the fruit, which somewhat resembles 
 the cultivated quince and has an attractive odor. However, 
 the plant sprouts from the root badly and unless given a great 
 deal of care it soon makes an unsightly bush that is devoid of 
 character. It is also very subject to the attack of the San 
 Jose scale. If there is a scale insect within a mile of a Japan 
 quince bush it seems to be able to locate it and settle down 
 there. As a result these are often a source of infestation for 
 the neighboring country. Orchardists have been known to 
 spray their trees thoroughly and wondered how they happened 
 to have so much scale on the trees the next fall. Too often it 
 has happened through the fact that they had a neglected 
 Japan quince in the dooryard. 
 
 Foisythia. — Several forms of this have been introduced 
 and they are all valuable shrubs. Their chief value lies in the 
 fact that they produce a wealth of clear yellow flowers very 
 early in the spring long before other plants have started their 
 work of brightening up the garden. It does not do well in 
 shaded situations. 
 
 Hamamelis (Witch Hazel). — The hazel nut is the first to 
 bloom in the spring and this, the witch hazel, the last to throw 
 its yellow blossoms to the wind in November. They are not 
 related, but both have their value. The individual bloom of the 
 witch hazel is rather insignificant, but it is produced in such 
 quantities that the whole shrub seems crowded with the yel- 
 low flowers. In nature it grows about the edges of rocky 
 ravines, but under cultivation it adapts itself to many situa- 
 tions and is an admirable shrub worthy of more extended 
 planting. The seed pods, which ripen just before the bloom 
 appears, are one of the interesting features of the bush. The 
 seed capsules open in such a way as to shoot the seeds some 
 distance and with considerable force. This is one of the means 
 by which the plant manages to distribute its seeds. 
 
Shrubs. 
 
 339 
 
 Witch Hazel. 
 
340 
 
 Orchard and Garden 
 
 Hydrangea. — The 
 native wild hydrangea 
 is not only a charming 
 plant, but one of value 
 because it can be 
 grown in shady situa- 
 tions. It is a vigorous 
 grower and will pro- 
 duce results in a shad- 
 ed corner about as 
 quickly as any plant 
 that can be used. The 
 most commonly plant- 
 ed horticultural vari- 
 ety is the H. paniculata 
 grandiflora, with its 
 great masses of white 
 bloom. It is a valuable 
 sort, but, unlike the 
 wild kind, it must be 
 grown in full sunlight. 
 Lilac. — The lilac 
 is not a native of this 
 country, but it has 
 been grown here for so long that it seems as though it belonged 
 to us. It was one of the first plants introduced and must 
 have been brought from England and France at a very early 
 date. It is too well known to require description and too valu- 
 able to need any advertisement of its virtues. The lilac 
 reaches its finest development in the cooler parts of the coun- 
 try. On Mackinac island, Michigan, are the finest specimens 
 of this shrub to be found any place. Doubtless the plant was 
 brought to that section by the early missionaries, for certainly 
 some of these specimens are very old. The older ones have a 
 tree-like form and are of such size that they are used as ham- 
 mock supports in some cases. In recent years several named 
 
 Wild hydrangea. 
 
Shrubs. 
 
 841 
 
 varieties of lilac have been introduced. They produce blooms 
 larger and finer in color than the old-fashioned lilac, but with- 
 out exception they lack the vigor of growth that is possessed 
 by the original form. 
 
 Philadelphus (Syringia). — This is another favorite that 
 deserves to be perpetuated because of its wealth of white flow- 
 
 Tree-size lilacs on Mackinac Island. Mich. 
 
 ers in the spring. In habit the shrub is not greatly to be ad- 
 mired and outside of the period when it is in bloom it is not a 
 particularly beautiful object. However, it seems to withstand 
 adverse conditions better than almost any of our shrubs and 
 for the city back yard it is probably the one best shrub. City 
 back yards can not be too partial about their plants anyway 
 and it is well that some forms seem to thrive in spite of the ad- 
 verse conditions. As for the better shrubs, they will revel in 
 the cleaner air of the country. 
 
 Physocarpus (Nine bark). — This attractive plant has 
 
342 
 
 Orchard and Garden 
 
 been brow beaten by the botanists until it probably does not 
 know its own name. The writer learned to know and love it 
 under the generic name of opulaster, which has since been 
 succeeded by that given above. It has also been classed as a 
 spiraea, and nurserymen still offer it under that name. A 
 golden leaved form is listed as "golden spiraea," Regardless 
 of the name, it is a splendid plant and should be in every col- 
 
 Physocarpus. 
 
 lection of shrubs. The branches rise from the ground with 
 a graceful sweep and in spring are covered with white blooms. 
 Later seed pods take the place of these blooms and the plant 
 is then almost as attractive as it was when the flowers were 
 at their best. It is a quick growing form and one that will 
 succeed in many soils and situations. 
 
 Rhododendron. — The rhododendrons, kalmias, azaleas 
 
Shrubs. 343 
 
 and others of this group make wonderful plants for the snrub- 
 bery or for massing against a house or under trees, but they 
 are among the most difficult of all plants to grow. They may 
 be grown almost any place, however, if the bed is properly 
 prepared for them. They grow naturally in a soil composed 
 almost entirely of peat and where this material can be 
 obtained rhododendrons and their allies can be produced. 
 Excavate the place where they are to stand to a depth 
 of at least three feet and fill the bottom with broken 
 stone unless there is a gravel subsoil to provide good 
 drainage. Then fill the excavation with peat mixed with 
 in the soil and if this element is present in any quantity in the 
 surrounding soil it will eventually work into the bed of peat 
 and ruin the planting. To prevent this it is sometimes advis- 
 able to build a thin-walled concrete pit, coat the walls with 
 pitch to keep out the soil water and then fill with peat in the 
 usual way. The plants will do better in a shaded situation, 
 such as the north side of a house and the surface of the soil 
 should at all times be mulched with a layer of leaves to help 
 retain moisture. Some plant growers have at times claimed to 
 have a "secret" for growing rhododendrons and have treated 
 the beds with a chemical to make the soil suitable for the 
 plants. This chemical is usually magnesium sulphate which 
 when carefully used has been known to be of assistance in 
 growing these evergreens on soil that would otherwise 
 promptly kill them. Just as often the use of this or other 
 chemicals has resulted in the very prompt death of valuable 
 plants. There is no secret about growing this beautiful class 
 of shrubs, simply plant them in peat and they will grow. 
 
 Rose. — It is presumptous to attempt to deal with rose 
 growing in the brief space of a paragraph. There are some 
 four or five thousand varieties of roses under cultivation now 
 and single growers list as many as eight hundred diff"erent 
 kinds. Our native wild roses are not particularly rich in 
 garden material when compared with the wonderful horticul- 
 tural varieties that are offered by the trade. Some of the native 
 
344 
 
 Orchard and Garden 
 
 forms are of value when they can be used along fences on 
 large estates, but for the most part they are too rank in growth 
 to be desirable in the average garden. The sweet brier is an 
 old favorite, and though not a native, it has escaped from cul- 
 
 Native American roses. 
 
Shrubs. 345 
 
 tivation and is to be found in many old fields and pastures. It 
 is valued for the fragrance of its foliage and for the bright 
 red "hips" that remain on all winter. The list of climbing 
 roses contain some sorts that are exceedingly beautiful. The 
 crimson rambler has long been a favorite in spite of the fact 
 that its color is against it. The Dorothy Perkins is just as 
 good a climber and the color of its flowers is far superior to 
 that of the older form. A rather new rose is the American 
 pillar, a climber of great vigor. The flowers are single, of a 
 delicate shade of pink with a white eye. It is still further to 
 be desired by the fact that it has unusually handsome foliage 
 that remains bright and green until cold weather. It is quite 
 hardy except in very severe winters. The following notes on 
 starting a rose garden are taken from a publication of the 
 Missouri Botanical Garden : 
 
 Location. — Roses are entitled to the choicest location in a 
 yard. Good exposure to the sun, and proper protection from 
 prevailing winds will do much to make the rose garden a 
 success. While a location with a full-day sun exposure is 
 much to be preferred, it is not absolutely essential, and where 
 a choice must be made it is best to give roses the morning sun. 
 Buds should not be located near trees or shrubbery. Roses 
 are heavy feeders and for their best development require an 
 unusual amount of fertilizer; when planted near trees or 
 shrubbery, the roots of the latter deplete the soil of nourish- 
 ment, with the result that the roses suffer. If, however, plant- 
 ing in close proximity to trees and shrubs is unavoidable, it is 
 advisable each year to dig a trench (about a foot wide and two 
 or three feet deep) around the rose bed and fill with well- 
 rotted cow manure. This procedure will tend to prevent the 
 roots of shrubs from actually entering the rose bed. Some- 
 times a concrete wall is constructed deep enough to prevent 
 this encroachment. 
 
 Soil. — Roses usually do well in any good garden soil, but 
 better results are obtained if considerable care is exercised in 
 the preparation of the ground. Roses require a heavy, well- 
 
346 
 
 Orchard and Garden 
 
 drained soil. To obtain this, the area to be used for a bed 
 should be dug- out to a depth of from eighteen inches to two 
 feet, and if the drainage is not good another six inches should 
 be removed and this space filled with fine broken stone, brick, 
 
 American PiUar Rose. 
 
Shrubs. 347 
 
 or old flower-pots. Upon this porous stratum six inches of 
 well-rotted cow manure should be placed, and finally sufficient 
 heavy soil to finish the bed, raising- it not more than three 
 inches above the surrounding grade. This latter layer should, 
 if possible, be top soil (including sod) from an old pasture. 
 After making the bed it should be allowed to settle for a week 
 before the planting is begun. 
 
 Plantinf). — Roses may be set out either in the fall or in 
 the spring. The spacing depends very largely upon the vari- 
 ety; tea and hybrid tea varieties may be planted about eigh- 
 teen inches apart, but hybrid perpetuals, on account of their 
 more vigorous growth, should be spaced at least two and one- 
 half feet, and ramblers eventually need about four feet. In 
 any case an eight-inch margin from the edge of the bed should 
 be allowed. Where potted stock is being planted, the ball 
 of earth should be placed with its upper surface about two 
 inches below the soil ; field-grown stock may be set two or three 
 inches lower than its former position in the nursery. The 
 holes for receiving the plants should be large enough to admit 
 the stock without bending or crowding the roots, the soil 
 should be firmly packed around the roots, and the plants thor- 
 oughly watered immediately after planting. All stock should 
 be so pruned that but two or three buds remain on each shoot 
 — the upper bud, in each case, pointing outward. 
 
 Spiraea. — There are numbers of spiraeas listed by the 
 plant dealers, but of the entire lot one stands out as being far 
 and away the best. This is the spiraea Van Houtii, which has 
 many points to recommend it. It blooms early in the season, 
 producing a great mass of delicate white. Its brancnes are 
 long and drooping, giving it a graceful appearance not ex- 
 ceeded by any plant of its type. Also it is a quick grower and 
 will produce results in a short time. Probably no other shrub 
 is so largely planted as a foundation screen. S. Anthony 
 Waterer is another good introduction, producing heads of bril- 
 liant red flowers and blooming from July until frost. It is 
 stiflf and erect in habit as compared to the first named. 
 
348 
 
 Orchard and Garden 
 
 Su tnphoricarpas. — This genus contains just two shr^abs, 
 both native and both of decided value. One is the snowberry, 
 a delicate little shrub with long", slender branches. Early in 
 summer the plants are covered with an abundance of tiny 
 pink, bell-shaped flowers, which are later followed by clusters 
 of the most beautiful waxy white berries. These remain on 
 the shrub until cold weather causes them to darken and 
 shrivel. The other plant is the Indian currant, a more robust 
 form than the snowberry, although only growing about thirty 
 inches high at the most. It is covered in the fall with masses 
 of small, dull red berries that might be imagined to resemble 
 currants. The plant is ornamental from the standpoint of 
 form and the berries remain on all winter and give color to the 
 planting just when it is most needed. Both of these forms are 
 made more valuable by the fact that they withstand a consid- 
 erable amount of shade. 
 
 The black haw, one of the viburnums, makes an attractive laige bush. 
 
Shrubs. 
 
 149 
 
 The always welcome "Pussy Willow." 
 
350 Orchard and Garden 
 
 Viburnum. — Probably the best known of the viburnums 
 is that form which is known as the "snowball." It makes 
 an attractive large shrub and, with the syringa, is one of the 
 best shrubs for city planting. The maple-leaved viburnum 
 is good for shady situations. It has flat heads of white flow- 
 ers, followed in the fall by dark bluish-black berries. The 
 "black haw" is a viburnum and a splendid one too. It makes 
 a large bush and is a desirable form to use where it can be 
 given plenty of room. The fruit, which certainly does not 
 resemble a haw in the least, is, nevertheless, edible. 
 
 Weigela. — This was one of the first plants introduced 
 from the orient and has been tested out through a period of at 
 least seventy-five years. It is still a valuable shrub and, al- 
 though many horticultural varieties are offered, the old rosy 
 pink species is still as reliable as any of them. It blooms early 
 in the summer, producing a great mass of bloom on its curved 
 branches. It delights in full sunlight. 
 
 Willoiv. — No list of shrubs and no hardy garden should 
 be complete without a "pussy willow". Although this is tech- 
 nically a tree and will do its best to grow into a tree, it can be 
 kept a shrub by the simple process of keeping it cut back to 
 the ground every few years. Such treatment seems cruel to 
 an ambitious plant, but it is the pussy willow, the shrub, that 
 we desire and not pussy willow, the tree. No other feature of 
 the early spring is more delightful than the soft, silvery-grey 
 catkins on the willow twigs. They are among the "harbingers 
 of spring" that we learn to look forward to with joy and ex- 
 pectation and when they appear we feel that the season of 
 growth is indeed close to us and we can expect before long to 
 see the flood of green sweeping back over the trees and turn- 
 ing our dreary world again into a place of sunshine and of 
 song. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 Grafting Wax. 
 
 Grafting wax is made as follows : 
 
 Melt together four ounces of resin, two ounces of bees- 
 wax and one ounce of tallow. When it is thoroughly melted 
 and mixed, pour it into a pail of cold water and pull it as you 
 would molasses candy. Grease your hands well with tallow 
 before attempting to pull it. If it should become lumpy, melt 
 it over again and let it heat somewhat hotter than it did the 
 first time. After it has been pulled it should develop a smooth 
 texture and a lighter color — just as molasses candy does. 
 
 The tallow should be good beef or mutton tallow. Crisco, 
 a vegetable substitute for lard sold for cooking, can be used in 
 place of the tallow and makes an excellent grafting wax. It 
 is usually more easily obtained than is pure tallow. 
 
 By the addition of a small amount of linseed oil to the 
 above wax while it is still melted, its normal melting point can 
 be lowered. Such wax should not be pulled, but should be kept 
 in a metal pot similar to a glue pot, in which it can be heated 
 and applied to cut surfaces with a paint brush. 
 
 Number of Plants Required to Set One Acre. 
 
 1x1 foot 43,560 2x4 feet 5,445 
 
 1x2 feet 21,780 3x3 feet 4,840 
 
 1x3 feet 14,520 3x4 feet 3,630 
 
 1x4 feet 10,890 3x6 feet 2,420 
 
 2x2 feet 10,890 3x8 feet 1,815 
 
 2x3 feet 7,260 4x4 feet 2,722 
 
 2x2 feet 6 inches 8,712 4x6 feet 1,185 
 
 2x3 feet 6 inches 6,223 5x5 feet 1,742 
 
352 
 
 Orchard and Garden 
 
 5x8 feet 1 
 
 6x6 feet 1 
 
 6x8 feet 
 
 8x8 feet 
 
 8x10 feet 
 
 10x10 feet 
 
 10x12 feet 
 
 12x12 feet 
 
 12x16 feet 
 
 15x15 feet 
 
 16x16 feet 
 
 18x18 feet 
 
 ,089 
 
 20x20 feet 
 
 ,210 
 
 20x30 feet 
 
 907 
 
 24x24 feet 
 
 680 
 
 25x25 feet 
 
 544 
 
 30x30 feet 
 
 485 
 
 32x32 feet 
 
 363 
 
 33x33 feet 
 
 302 
 
 34x34 feet 
 
 226 
 
 36x36 feet 
 
 193 
 
 38x38 feet 
 
 170 
 
 40x40 feet 
 
 134 
 
 
 108 
 72 
 75 
 69 
 49 
 42 
 40 
 37 
 33 
 30 
 27 
 
 Amount of Seed Required to Sow 100 Feet of Drill. 
 
 Beet 
 
 Beans (bush) 
 
 Carrot 
 
 Chard 
 
 Okra 
 
 Onion seed _. 
 Onion sets __ 
 
 1 
 
 oz. 
 
 1 
 
 pt. 
 
 I 
 
 oz. 
 
 1 
 
 oz. 
 
 2 
 
 oz. 
 
 1 
 
 oz. 
 
 1 
 
 qt. 
 
 Parsley 1 oz. 
 
 Parsnip i oz. 
 
 Peas 1 qt. 
 
 Radish 1 oz. 
 
 Spinach 1 oz. 
 
 Turnip i oz. 
 
 Packing Table for Boxed Apples. 
 
 Diameter 
 
 in 
 Inches 
 
 2% 
 
 2% 
 
 2% 
 
 2% 
 
 2% 
 
 2% 
 
 2% 
 
 2% 
 
 3 
 
 3Ys 
 
 31/s 
 
 Style 
 Pack 
 
 5 Straii?ht 
 
 .5 Strai.^lit 
 
 3-2 
 
 3-2 
 
 3-2 
 
 3-2 
 
 3-2 
 
 3-2 
 
 2-2 
 
 2-2 
 
 o.o 
 
 Packed No. 
 
 Flat Unless Apples 
 Marked Per Row 
 
 9-9 
 
 S-S 
 
 8-7 
 
 'Side 
 Side 
 Side 
 
 <-( 
 7-6 
 6-6 
 6-6 
 5-5 
 7-7 
 7-7 
 7-6 
 
 No. of 
 Layers 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 Apples 
 in Box 
 
 225 
 
 200 
 
 1S8 
 
 175 
 
 163 
 
 150 
 
 150 
 
 125 
 
 112 
 
 112 
 
 104 
 
 Standard 
 
 Boxes 
 
 Unless 
 
 Marked 
 
 Siiecial 
 
 Special 
 
 Special 
 
 Special 
 Sjiccial 
 
 ^'Pack 4 to 6 apples flat at the alttinate end of each layer. 
 
•> ,4 
 
 Appendix 353 
 
 2-2 Side 6-G 4 96 
 
 314 2-2 G-6 4 96 
 
 3% 2-2 0-5 4 80 
 
 31/2 2-2 5-4 4 72 
 
 3% 2-2 4-4 4 64 
 
 3% 2-2 4-3 4 56 
 
 3% 3 Stniiiiht Side 6-6 3 54 Specinl 
 378 3 Straight Side 5-5 3 45 — 
 
 Note that all apples are packed flat in standard boxes unless desig- 
 nated otherwise. 
 
 The above table is one prepared by Purdue University. 
 
INDEX 
 
 Achilea 306 
 
 Acroclinium 293 
 
 Ageratum , 293 
 
 Alyssum 293 
 
 Amelanchier 330 
 
 American Grapes 16 
 
 Ampelopsis 324 
 
 Anemone 307 
 
 Annual flowers 291 
 
 Anthracnose 96 
 
 Antirrhinium 293 
 
 Aphis 73, 227 
 
 lion 78 
 
 peach 96 
 
 Apple — 
 
 aphis, green 73 
 
 aphis, rosy 74 
 
 barrels 141 
 
 boxes 138 
 
 harvesting 132 
 
 ])ackages 138 
 
 priming 49 
 
 scab . 82 
 
 storage 239 
 
 varieties 10 
 
 April 263 
 
 Aqulegia 307 
 
 Arsenate or lead 104 
 
 Asclepias 308 
 
 Asparagus 171, 251 
 
 Associations of fi'uit growers. 150 
 
 Asters 294, 308 
 
 August 271 
 
 Bacteria 81 
 
 Balloon vine 303 
 
 Balsam 294 
 
 Barberry 330 
 
 Bark beetle ; 66 
 
 Barrels 141, 143 
 
 Beans 181, 252 
 
 Beets 173, 252 
 
 storage 239 
 
 Beneflcial insects 77 
 
 Bitter rot 83 
 
 Bittersweet 324 
 
 Blackberry 14, 127 
 
 Black knot 94 
 
 Black peach aphis 75 
 
 Black rot 84 
 
 of grapes 94 
 
 Blight 86 
 
 Blister beetles 78 
 
 Blotch . 85 
 
 Blue flee beetle 67 
 
 Bordeaux mixture 105 
 
 Borer — 
 
 peach 62 
 
 apple . 63 
 
 stalk 223 
 
 Box apples 140 
 
 packing table for 352 
 
 Brown rot 91 
 
 Buds I 20 
 
 Budding 19 
 
 Bud moth 65 
 
 Bud sticks 20 
 
 Cabbage 182, 252 
 
 Chinese 184 
 
 worm 2'j'o 
 
 Calendar for orchard and gar- 
 den 257 
 
 Calendula 294 
 
356 
 
 Orchard and Garden 
 
 Callyopsis 295 
 
 Calycanthiis 332 
 
 Campanula 309 
 
 Candytuft 295 
 
 Canker worm 65 
 
 Canning crops 195, 197 
 
 Carrots 252 
 
 Castor bean 301 
 
 Caterpillar — 
 
 tent 65 
 
 yellow necked 65 
 
 Cauliflower 186 
 
 Celastrus 324 
 
 Celery 205 
 
 blanching 206 
 
 storage 239 
 
 transplanting 206 
 
 Cellar storage 233 
 
 Celosia 295 
 
 Centaurea 295 
 
 Cercis 332 
 
 Chard 173 
 
 Cherry 12 
 
 picking 135 
 
 pruning 54 
 
 Chewing insects 57 
 
 Chrysanthemum 309 
 
 Clematus 324 
 
 Clover 287 
 
 Coal oil emulsion 103 
 
 Cobaea 303 
 
 Cockscomb 295 
 
 Codling moth 57 
 
 Cold frame 214 
 
 Collards 186 
 
 Colorado potato beetle 226 
 
 Columbine 307 
 
 Commission men 149 
 
 Concrete cellars 234 
 
 Coreopsis 310 
 
 Corn 186, 201, 252 
 
 ear worm 220 
 
 Corn salad 174 
 
 Corn flower 295 
 
 Cornus 333 
 
 Corylus 335 
 
 Cosmos 295 
 
 Cover crops 33 
 
 Crataegus 336 
 
 Cross fertilization 15 
 
 Crown gall 90 
 
 Cucumber 187, 253 
 
 beetle 225 
 
 Cultivation 30 
 
 Curculio 61 
 
 Currant 14 
 
 borer 128 
 
 soil 128 
 
 worm 63 
 
 Cuttings 22 
 
 Cydonia 337 
 
 Daffodils . 323 
 
 Darwin tulips 323. 
 
 December 279 
 
 Delphiniums 310 
 
 Dehorning peaches 52 
 
 Diseases of plants 81 
 
 Distance for planting 8 
 
 Division of roots 22 
 
 Dodecatheon 316 
 
 Dogwood 333 
 
 Dolichos 303 
 
 Double crops 162 
 
 Drainage 25 
 
 Dusting 109 
 
 Dust mulch 32 
 
 Dutch bulbs 323 
 
 Echinocystis 303 
 
 Egg plant 188 
 
 Escholtzia 296 
 
 Euphorbia 296 
 
 February 259 
 
 Fence for garden 162 
 
 Fertilization of bloom 15, 166 
 
Index 
 
 357 
 
 Fertilizers 29 
 
 garden 158 
 
 Filler trees 4 
 
 Flea beetle 67, 225 
 
 Flower structure 165 
 
 Flowers 281 
 
 annual 291 
 
 Fly speck fungus 86 
 
 Forcing 208 
 
 Formalin 203 
 
 Forsythia 338 
 
 Four-o-clock 296 
 
 Frost 2 
 
 Fruit storage 229 
 
 Fruit tree bark beetle 66 
 
 Fungi 82 
 
 Fungicides 105 
 
 Gardens 155 
 
 arrangement 157 
 
 double crops in 162 
 
 fence 162 
 
 fertilizers 158 
 
 flower 281 
 
 insects 219 
 
 location 157 
 
 seeds 165, 167 
 
 soil 157 
 
 vacant lot 156, 241, 
 
 Garden huckleberry 129 
 
 Globe amaranth 297 
 
 Golden glow 318 
 
 Gooseberry 14, 128 
 
 Grafting 17 
 
 wax 48, 351 
 
 Grape 12 
 
 black rot 94 
 
 berry moth 63 
 
 leaf hopper 76 
 
 packing 145 
 
 phyloxera 76 
 
 pruning 54 
 
 scale 68 
 
 Grass 287 
 
 Greenhouse management 207 
 
 Grub worm 67 
 
 Hairy root 90 
 
 Hamamelis 338 
 
 Harlequin bug 227 
 
 Harvesting 131 
 
 Haw 336 
 
 Hazel 335 
 
 Heeling in 37 
 
 Helianthus 297 
 
 Helichrysum 297 
 
 Hepatica 311 
 
 Himalaya berry 129 
 
 Hollyhocks 311 
 
 Home hampers 197 
 
 Horticultural values 16 
 
 Hot beds 212 
 
 House plants 214 
 
 Huckleberry, garden 129 
 
 Humulus 303 
 
 Hyacinth bean 303 
 
 Hydrangea 340 
 
 Hydrometer 101 
 
 Illinois canker 90 
 
 Imported cabbage worm 220 
 
 Insects 57 
 
 beneficial 77 
 
 garden 219 
 
 Insecticides 100 
 
 Ipomoea 303 
 
 Iris 313 
 
 January 257 
 
 Japanese hop 303 
 
 Japan quince 337 
 
 July 269 
 
 June 267 
 
 June berry 330 
 
 Kaiser bug 228 
 
 Kale 188, 253 
 
358 
 
 Orchard and Garden 
 
 Knifin system 54 
 
 Kochia 297 
 
 Lady birds 77 
 
 Larkspur 298, 310 
 
 Lathrus 326 
 
 Lawns 286 
 
 Layering 22 
 
 Leaf curl 92 
 
 spot 94 
 
 Lesser apple worm 61 
 
 Lettuce 174, 253 
 
 varieties 176 
 
 Lilac 340 
 
 Lime sulphur 100 
 
 self-boiled 107 
 
 commercial 108 
 
 Linum 314 
 
 Lobelia 314 
 
 Location for orchard 1 
 
 March 261 
 
 Marigold 298 
 
 Marketing 147 
 
 apples 151 
 
 by post 151 
 
 cost 148 
 
 methods 147 
 
 perishable fruits 151 
 
 Manure 29, 158 
 
 May 265 
 
 Middlemen 149 
 
 Mignonette 299 
 
 Miscible oil 103 
 
 Monarda 314 
 
 Morning glory 303 
 
 Mushrooms 215 
 
 Muskmelon 189 
 
 Narcissus 313 
 
 Nasturtium 304 
 
 New Zealand spinach 190 
 
 Nicotine 102 
 
 Ninebark 341 
 
 Nitrogen 29 
 
 November 277 
 
 Number of plants to acre 351 
 
 Nozzles 111 
 
 October 275 
 
 Oil sprays 103 
 
 Okra 190 
 
 Onions 176, 253 
 
 storage 239 
 
 Orchard — 
 
 location 1, 3 
 
 roads 1 
 
 slope 3 
 
 soil 2, 26 
 
 Oyster shell scale 70 
 
 Painting wounds 47 
 
 Pansy 299 
 
 Parasites 79 
 
 Paris green 105 
 
 Parsley 177 
 
 Parsnip 177, 253 
 
 storage 239 
 
 Peach 10 
 
 aphis 75 
 
 borer 62 
 
 fillers 6 
 
 harvestins 134 
 
 package^ 1__ 145 
 
 pruning 51 
 
 scab 91 
 
 yellows 92 
 
 Pears 10 
 
 harvesting 134 
 
 pruning 54 
 
 slug 65 
 
 storage 239 
 
 Peas 177, 253 
 
 for canning 200 
 
 sugar 178 
 
 Pedigreed trees 23 
 
Index 
 
 359 
 
 Penstemon 314 
 
 Peonies 315 
 
 Peppers 192 
 
 Perennials 305 
 
 Petunia 300 
 
 Philadelphus 341 
 
 Phlox 300, 316 
 
 Phosphorus 30 
 
 Plylloxera 76 
 
 Physccarpus 341 
 
 Physostegia 318 
 
 Planting 42 
 
 plans 4 
 
 small fruit 43 
 
 distance S 
 
 Plant diseases 81 
 
 Plant lice 73 
 
 Plums 12, 54 
 
 curculio 61 
 
 harvesting 135 
 
 Poisons 57 
 
 Pollen 16 
 
 Poppies 301 
 
 California 296 
 
 Portulaca 301 
 
 Potash 29 
 
 Potatoes 192, 254 
 
 beetle 226 
 
 cultivation 204 
 
 early 205 
 
 for market 201 
 
 formalin treatment 203 
 
 harvesting 135 
 
 planting 204 
 
 scab . 201 
 
 seed 201 
 
 storage 240 
 
 sweet 192 
 
 Pruning 45 
 
 apple 49 
 
 cherry 54 
 
 grapes 54 
 
 peach 51 
 
 Pruning — 
 
 pear 54 
 
 plum 54 
 
 time to prune 46 
 
 Radish 178, 254 
 
 Rag doll seed tester 169 
 
 Raspberries 14, 124 
 
 pruning 127 
 
 Red bud 332 
 
 Rhododendron 342 
 
 Rhodanthe 301 
 
 Ricinus 301 
 
 Roads 1 
 
 Root grafts 17 
 
 Root division 22 
 
 Roots 42 
 
 Rose 343 
 
 Rudbeckia 318 
 
 Rye 30, 35 
 
 Salvia 301 
 
 San Jose scale 67 
 
 Scab 82 
 
 potato 201 
 
 Scabiosa 302 
 
 Scale control 70 
 
 Scarlet sage 301 
 
 Scions 17, 165 
 
 Scurfy scale 70 
 
 Seed 165 
 
 advantage of large 167 
 
 amount needed for 100 ft. of 
 
 row 352 
 
 buying 168 
 
 saving 168 
 
 testing 169 
 
 Seedlings 15 
 
 Selecting trees 37 
 
 September 273 
 
 Shot hole fungus 94 
 
 Shrubs 327 
 
 Slope 3 
 
360 
 
 Orchard and Garden 
 
 Slug, pear 65 
 
 Small fruit 119 
 
 packing 145 
 
 soil 119 
 
 time to plant 120 
 
 Soil 2, 25, 157, 196, 211 
 
 Soil preparation 37, 119 
 
 Sooty blotch 86 
 
 Spiraea 347 
 
 Spraying 99 
 
 Spray materials 100 
 
 machinery 109 
 
 Squash 192, 254 
 
 bug 226 
 
 Staking 39 
 
 Stalk borer 223 
 
 Stocks ^ 302 
 
 Storage 229 
 
 Strawberries 13 
 
 everbearing 124 
 
 leaf spot 96 
 
 mulch 123 
 
 planting 43 
 
 varieties 122 
 
 Strawflower 297 
 
 Sucking insects 57, 67 
 
 Sunflower 297 
 
 Sun scald 88 
 
 Sweet corn 186, 201 
 
 Sweet peas 304 
 
 Sweet potato 192 
 
 Sweet shrub 332 
 
 Symphoricarpus 348 
 
 Syringa 341 
 
 Temperature 2 
 
 Tent caterpillars 65 
 
 Testing seed 169 
 
 Tobacco 102 
 
 Tomato 198, 254 
 
 Tomato — 
 
 growing plants 198 
 
 cultivating 200 
 
 transplanting 199 
 
 varieties 200 
 
 worm 223 
 
 Top grafting 18 
 
 Tradescantia 318 
 
 Tree selection 37 
 
 Trillium 319 
 
 Tulip 323 
 
 Varieties 10 
 
 development of 167 
 
 horticultural 16 
 
 Vegetable storage 229 
 
 Verbena 302 
 
 venosa 320 
 
 Vetch 35 
 
 Viburnum 350 
 
 Vines 303 
 
 Watermelon 190 
 
 Water supply 3 
 
 Weeds 32, 288 
 
 Weigela 350 
 
 Whip grafts 17 
 
 White grubs 67, 224 
 
 Willow 350 
 
 Wisteria 326 
 
 Witch hazel 338 
 
 Women pickers 137 
 
 Woolly aphis 75 
 
 Xeranthemum : — 302 
 
 Yellow necked caterpillar 65 
 
 Yellows, peach 92 
 
 Yucca 320 
 
 Zinnia 302 
 
 3^77