PC 2109 I THE STUDY I or I FRENCH SIMPLIFIED; ! OR, I NEW ELEMENTS I Of the I FRENCH LANGUAGE, ; METHODICALLY DISPLAYED i i IN A COMPLETE COURSE OF PROGRESSIVE PRACTICAL LESSONS, j COMPRISING, I I First ~A brief compendium of the ancient testament, from the creation to the DECALOGl'E, VVRl I'TEN IN AN EASY, NATURAL AND PURE STYLE, IN WHICH THE RULES OF ORaMMAR are set down IN ACTUAL PRACTICE, AND GRADUALLY DEVELOPED AND EX- EMPLIFIED BY THEMSELVES IN THEIR TRUE APPLICATION. Second — A variety of historical and moral pieces, in which the elements op RHETORIC ARE PRACTICALLY COMBINED WITH THOSE OF GRAMMAR, &C. Lectorem delectando, pariterque ;ponendo." — Horace. TO WHICH IS PREFIXED A COMPLETE RATIONAL SYSTEM OP THE CONJUGATIONS, TOGETHER WITH A THEORY OF THE TENSES, &c. THE IVIIOLE OIV A NEW PI.AIV, TENDING GREATLY TO FACILITATE THE STUDY OF THE LANGUAGE, AND DESIGNED FOR THE USE OF COLLEGES, SCHOOLS AND PRIVATE INSTRUCTION. BY C A S I M 1 R L A D R E Y T , FRENCH TEACHER, GRADUATE OF^THE UNIVERSITY AND THE NORMAL-SCHOOL OF PARIS, &C NEW- YORK : PUBLISHED BY H. & S. RAYNOR, No. 76 Bowery. I ^/Uy ^c^. iAiL. , ^ y^cV A c ^ <=- J^-^ •'^ "^ .L3 EnTerbd according to the Act of Congress, in the year 1844, bj Casimir Ladreyt, In the Clerk's Office of Iho District Court of ihe United States, for the Southern District of New- York. 5 i 4,1 James Van Norden& Co., Printers, 60 Williara-Btreet, New-York- OF THE STUDY OF FRENCH IN GENERAL. The degree of importance to which the French tongue has attained, is too well known to require any argument in regard to the utility or necessity of its acquisition ; every one knows that all civilized nations have deemed it proper to make its ac- quirement an essential part of their respective national educa- tion, undoubtedly because it affords them all not only the means of acquiring other branches of useful knowledge more speedily, but also of corresponding and communicating with each other for their common interests, mutual comfort, and general pros- perity. In fact, the constant diffusion of all kinds of knowledge, the rapid progress of civilization and liberty, the continual improve- ments and new discoveries in science and arts, the fast increas- ing facilities for communicating with every living nation, the impossibility for any man to learn so many languages as are in use among the inhabitants of the globe, the interests of com- sn«rce and agriculture, of education and religion, of humanity and Christianity, seem to have rendered necessary the adoption of a language common and intelligible to all classes of the hu- man family — a wise and most natural measure, which promises fco shed a new torrent of light on mankind, and is likely to pro- duce a complete revolution in the intellectual world. The honour of giving this new impulse to the developement of human understanding evidently belonged to the nineteenth century. The state of fixity at which the French tongue has arrived — it having undergone no material change for two hundred years, and there being no probability it ever will — the richness and unlimited extent of its literature, its general use already as a spoken language, the extreme facility with which every foreign nation can acquire and speak French in a short time, when properly taught ; such are probably the principal causes that have contributed to attract the public attention to this language. Some persons, although very few we should suppose, seem to think that this kind of universal thirst for French, is simply due to its being what they are pleased to call a " fashionable or fanciful acquirement ;" but it is not so, and the young students of French ought to be cautioned against that narrow idea, lest they should misunderstand all the importance of this part of their studies, and neglect it until it is too late to perceive their error, and regret it, as the case has occurred to many. IV OF THE STUDY OF They who wish to succeed in that study, undertake it in a more elevated view than that of conforming to custom. People are now generally too wise, too reasonable, to be influenced by a mere caprice of fashion. There is certainly a nobler and more powerful cause than that. The more men become , en- lightened, the more they feel the necessity of understanding each other. Many are anxious to see the world ; some through motives of personal interest, otheis through views of philanthropy, and a third class for the gratification of their curiosity ; but they all want to know French, as they are aware it will serve them as an interpreter. Others wish to study some particular branch of science, or foreign literature, and avail themselves of the re- sources they find in French for that purpose; they see that the public and private libraries of all countries are crowded with French works of all descriptions. Some are induced, if not com- pelled, to learn French, in order to understand their own lan- guage better, for French is constantly intruding itself into the other languages, and is even frequently used by many who are still unacquainted with it. In fact, foreign writers make so frequent use of French in their productions, that it is often difficult to read them without having some notion of it ; they seem to be- lieve that every one knows, or ought to know French. And, furthermore, the extensive libraries, museums and schools for all kinds of learning at Paris, continually open and entirely free to all the nations of the earth, induce a great many foreigners to resort to that capital ; but they must previously learn French, In short, there are now^ very few persons of finished education, in any country, who have not some knowledge of French ; and in many countries the means of education having been placed within the reach of all classes of society, no one is willing to remain behind, or to be thought inferior to his neighbor, and thus a noble and most worthy emulation makes every one de- sirous of knowing French ; the merchant's clerk, the honest mechanic, and even the humblest chambermaid, as well »s the lofty statesman and the learned philosopher, the young and the old, the poor and the rich, all wish to learn Fiench from very laudable motives — hence that increasing popularity of the French lansfuasre.* * We are led to these remarks from the well known fact that this branch of study is often unheeded and neglected by many young persons when at school, because they do not yet know the value of it. But after having left the school, they have no sooner taken their place in .the v^'orld, that they are fully aware of their mistake, and find themselves under the painful necessity of returning to school, to their great annoyance, and at considerable expense of time and money. FRENCH IN GENERAL. V So, every thing that can facilitate the acquisition of this tongue, is, doubtless, an important service rendered to public and private education, and cannot fail to be favorably received, not only by the students themselves, but also by all interested in the success of so great a cause. Nay, in this age of learning and improvement, there being so many things to be taught and learned, a method that smooths and shortens the path to knowledge, is certainly a real public blessing; and still more so at a time when improvements of this kind are so well ap- preciated, and so much needed. For, that there is a considerable deficiency in elementary French works, properly and judiciously adapted to the use of the students of French in this country, there seems to be but one opinion among all competent judges. The various methods that have hitherto been in use for that purpose, appear some- what superannuated, and quite inadequate to the other innume- rable improvements of the age. Numerous attempts are daily made, with the avowed good intention of improving such systems ; but the results that have been obtained to this day prove equally unsatisfactory, and ex- perience, more than ever, demands a reformation in this de- partment. At least, such are the authentic informations which have been lately obtained from various parts of the country, as well as in this city. The new plan of instruction here submitted to the conside- ration of the public, was suggested to the author by many heads of colleges, and schools of the first respectability, and by seve- ral distinguished French teachers, and nothing has been spared to make it correspond with their wishes, and worthy of their suggestion ; and it is confidently expected it will prove to be a little work of great practical utility. However, should it not completely meet the expectations and views of the public, this work, simple as it is, like the author's former publications, seems to have some claim to novelty — there being nothing of a similar kind now before the public that we know — and thus if it can give some one the idea of produ- cing something better, it will have done some good for the noble cause of education, and this is the main object we have hare in view. OBJECT AND CHARACTER OF THE PRESENT WORK. In a country wBere tTie precedence is so jadiciously given to practical and useful knowledge, it is believed that a w^ork of this kind should be in accordance with the wants and taste of the community, and therefore the author's efforts have been directed to this main point. But, although essentially practi- cal, with the assistance of a competent teacher, the system will be found as theoretical and philosophical as any of the elemen- tary works novi^ in the hands of beginners for the same pur- pose. The First Part comprises a rational and methodical sys- tem of the conjugation of the verbs, by means of which, in a few days, any student, even of very ordinary intellect, may acquire a thorough knowledge of this most important subject, without which no one, either a foreigner or native of France, can ever pretend to know French well. And this preparatory study the learner will find the easier, as it requires no effort of memory, the system being founded upon reason, philosophy and judg- ment. Here he will find the irreQ:ularities reduced almost to nothing, the whole number of such verbs as present a few irre- gularities scarcely amounting to two dozen, thus to say, instead of many hundred, as erroneously stated and given in some grammars now in use. The whole of this part of the work is interspersed with criti- cal notes or remarks, illustrated and supported by numerous examples and quotations, which will enable the students them- selves to solve many grammatical points that have been impro- perly called flifficulties, and which have too often embarrassed, even grammarians themselves, without cause, as will be seen. And, besides, a little disquisition or reasoning in an elemen- tary work must necessarily please the young students, and can- not fail to produce good results, as it may lead them to further investigations ; it assists their memory, relieves their miiids^ forms and fortifies their judgment, incites and gratifies their OBJECT &C. OF THE PRESENT WORK. Vll ctirlosity, accustoms them to reflection, and finally throws some charm over a study which has generally so little attraction for youth. Those remarks might have been continued through the whole work, for every part of the discourse ; but this would have been derogatory to our plan, which is essentially prac- tical, inasmuch as there is no occasion for it. When the student is acquainted with the use of the verbs, he wants prac- tice, and in this he will find the best and easiest rules. If fur- ther explanations should occasionally become necessary for certain pupils, they will be more profitably given in a class than in a book. Thus it is left to the discretion and judgment of the teacher. At first, it was not the author's intention to give this treatise of the' verbs in the present work, because he preferred to refer the learner to some French grammar, as we have a numberless variety of them ; but not a single one having been found that could be recommended as presenting the subject in a proper light — and considering that, without a propter knowledge of this fundamental part of the language, it is not only difficult to seize and understand the thoughts of a writer perfectly, bufc that it is even utterly impossible for the student to compre- hend and translate a single sentence, or express one of his own ideas properly — there was no alternative, and these considerations necessitated a little delay in the publication of the work. Now it is believed that the students will not lose by this delay. After acquiring a tolerable knowledge of the inflections and divers forms of the verbs, together with the proper use and signi- fication of each mood and tense, the students can begin to read and understand any French work by means of a dictionary ; they can even express their own ideas intelligibly in the language, on almost any circumstance ; the only thing they want is a sufficient stock of words. But before that previous knowledge, their attempts at either would be in vain. And one will always observe, that it is precisely a deficiency in the knowledge of this part of speech, that prevents beginners and others from understanding when spoken to in French. This cannot be otherwise. Every other word or ex- pression is to be found in the dictionary, or sometimes it only diff*ers in pronunciation from the same word in English, or other lan- guages ; but of the verb we only find the root in the dictionary, and its conjugation has nothing in common with that of the English verb. And if we bear in mind, that one single word, that is the root of each French verb, undergoes or takes above three hundred forms, and serves to express more than three hundred different ideas, or at least distinct modifications of an idea, we may easdy conceive Vlll OBJECT AND CHARACTER OF all the importance and necessity of knowing the secret of creating, at our will and according to our wants, so many hundred thousands of expressions ; and this secret is nothing but what we call the system of conjugation. Then, after this first acquisition, the most important point to be ai tended to by those who wish to progress rapidly in the study of French, and qualify themselves to speak it properly, with ease, in the shortest possible space of time, is to store their minds with words, to ascertain the real meaning and prop r use of each expression, and to familiarize themselves with the construction and idioms of the langruaoe. Now, it is believed, that the quickest and surest way to arrive at this desirable end, is ihe reading and translating of the best possi- blf^ models, with close observation, constant comparison, and persevering practice by imitation ; and this opinion seems to be supported by reason, experience and philosophy. Tub Second axd Tttrao Parts of the work are composed of a series of progressive reading^ and translating exercises, in which tiie most approved principles of the French grammar are set dow.i in actual practice, and developed by themselves in their true application. These practical lessons, it will be seen, are written in a plain, clear, and the easiest possible style, but at the same lime the most natural, and without any apparent preparati(»n. For we must not believe that it suffices to supply beginners with extremely easy books, without any other consideration. An elementary work of this kind, which should have no other meiit than that of its be ng easy, would be unworthy of its object. A language made expressly for the students, and ren- dered easy with too minute care and preparation, constitutes a language which is not the French language by any means, and we should not be surprised at seeing so many persons who, after studying Fiench for several years, with such books, feel at a loss when they ui^dertake to speak, or to understand it when spoken. A language should be studied as it is, and not divested of its natural character. Without speaking of the waste of time, it is rather late to commence the study of a language when the st; dent's taste has l)een spoiled. All such dangers, and many others, have been foreseen and carefully avoided in this work. The language, it is expected, will be found as easy as it can be, but at the same lime natu- ral, pure and correct. Here we have endeavoured to combine the simplicity of style with elegance, perspicuity with accu- racy, freedom of speech with the most refined taste, facility THE PRESENT WORK. IX with the politest mode of expression, brevity with the noble- ness of thoughts and elevation of sentiments ; the whole b(-:inr adapted to the best practice in polite and familiar conversation or any purpose of practical life : and, through these happj combinations, this language of a practical use happens to bt the very language of all the best F'rench writers, from the begin- ning of the seventeeth century to the preserit time, 1844. Yet, had we stopped here, and kept within these highly important improvements, we would have thought our work still imperfect. Therefore we have carried our views a little farther. It was necessary to follow the language through its varied forms, at least, the most common and useful, in order to acquaint the students with some of the modifications of style, which, each kind of composition requires. For, as we have said in the preface of our *' Repertoire," he who studies a language under a single form, can never be a scholar in it. Thus the lessons have been disposed in such a manner, that they gradually rise from the plainest and most ordinary style of polite and familiar conversation to that of the purest elegance and noblest eloquence, as far as the extent and nature of the work could permit. But, even at this point of dignified style, the language never ceases to be simple, natural and easy. In short, in the whole work the author's main object has been to speak, not to the memory, but to the intellect, as the surest way of imparting durable knowledge. Memory is often impotent, always frail, uncertain, and even fallacious; but reason, never so. Such will be_ found to be the principal character of this new system of instruction, and such we believe to be the models the most suitable to the use of the students of French ; and it is by studying works of this kind, that they may expect to acquire speedily a truly useful and really solid knowledge of ,that tongue. But there is still a higher and more important cotisideratioii which should not be overlooked in the selection of books for ths use of the young. It is not sufficient to supply the scholars with the best possible models in the language, with regard to purity and elegance of style ; for a work might be perfect in that respect, and yet quite unfit for the use of schools, or even dangerous in certain points. A young and tender mind is apt to receive good as well as bad impressions, and the latter are often the deeper. If it is admitted that the success of a sound and useful education entirely depends upon its very foundation, it may be observed, that at an early age the study of languages has more influence on the formation of the moral character of man, than is generally sup- posed. X OBJECT AND CHARACTER OP The mind, like the body, wants nourishment, and feeds upon every thing that is presented. Like a young tree, it grows in the direction you are pleased to give it, and when it has acquired a certain degree of force, it is not even in the power of the individual himself to change that direction. Youth is not only the proper time for acquiring the habit of speaking a language in its best forms, it is also the only time when the seed of either good or vicious habits will take effect. It is not very difficult for an at- tentive observer of human nature, to discover in a man what kind of principles his mind imbibed when young. He may acquire vast learning when grown up, but the first impressions of his early edu- cation will still remain. It would be in vain for him to feign, the tendency of his mind would betray him ; his manner of thinking and reasoning, his language and conversation, his prejudices and moral feelings, his tastes and habits, his manner of living or behaviour, his good or bad passions, his whole conduct, will speak the truth. Examine any young man or woman attentively, and yon will soon judge what sort of books they have read, or what kind of parents or instructors they have had, without your having ever known them. Too much care, then, cannot be taken on that point, not only by Ibe students themselves, but also by all those who take an interest in their welfare. if it is the solemn duty of a teacher, whether he speaks to his pupils, or writes for their instruction, to inculcate in their young minds nothing but sound and true principles of knowledge, and to guard them against any thing contrary to good literary tasre, he is not less under the strict and sacred obligation to instill into their tender hearts nothing but pure, generous and noble sentiments. 'I'he writer of this having knowingly placed himself under that double and equally important responsibility, in undertaking this new publication, his unremitted exertions have been directed to the faithful discharge of that public duty to the best of his knowledge, and a longer experience will tell him how far he has succeeded. All he dares now confidently expect is, that the whole work con- tains nothing contrary to the avowed principles of the French grammar and classic taste ; nothing ambiguous, nothing sectarian; not a single idea, or even a word, that can displease the most scru- pulous feeling, or delicate ear, in regard to religion and morality. The subjects of the lessons comprised in the Second Part of the work, are taken from the beginning of the Old Testament, forming a regular and well ordered compendium of that interesting portion of the Scriptures, from the Creation to the Decalogue, Among the many good reasons for selecting this matter in pre- ference to any other is, that the subject qf each exercise being far. THE PRESENT WORK. XI miliar to every learner, it must necessarily facilitate his study, and consequently accelerate his progress considerably ; for, not only every sentence, but every word will be readily inripressed upon his mind without the least effort. Should the pubhc approve of this method, we shall probably complete the publication of that compendium. In order to make a necessary diversion, and render the study more attractive and profitable, the Third Part has been composed of a series of miscellaneous pieces, in which the pre-cepts of Gram- mar have been practically conjbined with those of Rhetoric. So that, from the earliest part of his study, the young pupil will natu- rally form his literary taste, and acquire the invaluable habit of thinking, arjd of expressing himself in the language with propriety, clearness, elegance and accuracy, either in speaking or writing. And with such advantages one may expect to become an excellent judge of French literature. For when the mind has early imbibed sound principles, and become accustomed to nothing but what is good, it feels a natural distaste or dislike for what is contrary to those principles, and cannot even bear what is too common. Whilst, on the contrary, if we commence the study of a language by inculcating in our minds nothing but trifles, or common weak, paltry ideas, we become unable to distinguish what is really bad from what is excellent ; for it seems to be an inherent quality of the human mind, to be irresistibly impelled to adhere to the first im- pressions received, and to believe them the best. In fact, one can only reap according to what was sown. NOTICES. The Fourth Part of the work will shortly be published in a separate volume. It will comprise a complete series of Progressive Exercises, written, in English, to be translated into French by the scholars, which they will find extremely easy and profitable, as soon as they have finished the present course. Nothing will be spared to make this last part correspond in every respect with the character of the three parts contained in this first volume. After having completed this easy course, it is very natural that the young students wish to know something of French literature, and of the history of the language, and it is even necessary that they should have such knowledge if they are willing to become perfect French scholars. In order to save them trouble and time, the author of this published about wo years ago a work entitled " Repertoire de Litterature Francaise," which will prove very useful to them for that purpose. They will there have an op- portunity of becoming acquainted with the most famous French writers in pohte and agreeable literature of the last four centuries, and of reading samples of their own compositions, together with notes on the life and principal works of each individual, and also a brief history of the origin of the language, its progress, &c. The whole on an entirely new plan, the matter being chro- nologically arranged according to the precise time in which each author flourished. The highly flattering unanimous approbation given to this work by all the best qualified and most experienced judges among my professional brethren, and the readiness with which it has been introduced into numerous establish- ments of the first standing, seem to authorize the belief that it has supplied with great advantage the classes of learners who have made some progress in the study of French. This work will also be completed in another volume, as promised in the Preface, as soon as possible. It would have been done before, but for the re- quest made to me to give first this French Simplified for the classes of be- ginners. The work can be had at the Bookstore of Messrs. H. & S. Ratnor, 76 Bowery, New-York. PARTI CONJUGATIONS OF THE VERBS. l, — The definitions of the words verb, noun, pronoun, conjugation, mood^ tense, article, adjective, adverb, &c., ' being the same in English as in French and other languages, we deem it unnecessary to give any of those definitions in the course of this work ; but he who is not perfectly familiar with them, should look at an EngUsh grammar before commencing the study of French. Each language has its idioms and particular rules, but there is one general grammar, which is the same for all languages. And let us observe, that a foreigner who knows his vernacular tongue well, will make more progress in French in one week, than another in three months, or even more ; for it is by comparisons that we learn a language different from our own. And how can one make such comparisons if he does not understand the constituent parts of his own language, and the relation which they have to each other ? Thus, if the pupil does not know what is called a verb, let him have an English grammar, and look at th« chapter which treats of the verb. And if he is not able to recite every English verb throughout from memory, he must keep the English grammar open before his eyes ; because we shall conjugate the English verb in the first person singular of each tense only, which must suffice to enable him to translate the whole of the French into English. This work is intended for teaching or learning French, and not English. Therefore, our object is to show the construction of the French phrase, and the proper use and formation of words, by giving elementary models of every kind, easy to be understood and imitated by beginners. 2« — The verb is the most important part of every language ; and, in fact, it may be said that the verb constitutes the whole discourse, since we cannot com- municate or express a single thought without the assistance of a verb. And that part of the discourse being subject to a great many inflections or varia^ tions, it is necessary to know them all perfectly, in order to make ourselves understood by each other, either in writing or speaking. And let us remark, also, that he who possesses a thorough knowledge of the proper use of thte verbs of any language, knows more than one half of that language ; for the other words are but accessory modifications of the verb, several of them never changing their forms, such as adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, &c., and the others admitting of but very little alteration. 3* — There are about seven thousand verbs in French, of which two or three hundred, perhaps, are of constant use in common conversation or trans- action of business. And lest a beginner should be frightened to death by the mentioning of such a quantity of verbs, it is proper to tell him that, as soon as he knows about a dozen, at most, of them, he will know all the seven thousand pretty well, and this can be accomplished in a very few days. The best and shortest way of learning these few verbs, is to write them down several times through, in all their forms, id est, affirmatively, nega- tively, interrogatively, &c. 4. — The learner will do well to study the first three verbs conjugated here- after, and become entirely master of them, so as to be able to recite them 1 2 FRENCH SIMPLIFIED. without hesitation, and give the real meaningof each tense, person, num- ber and mood, in his vernacular tongue, before undertaking any thing else ; because when he understands the true meaning and use of any tense of these three verbs, he will know the exact meaning and use of any corres- ponding tense of all the others, either regular or irregular, without a single exception, if he only knows the signification of the root or present of the infinitive of each of them, which is to be found in the dictionary. ^, — We shall commence by the two auxiliary verbs Avoir and Et7-e, These are irregular ; and it may be remarked, that the two corresponding verbs are also irregular in almost all languages. The personal pronouns used as subjects to the verbs are, In the singular number, In the plural number, J— je, or j' we — nous ihou — tu you — vous he or it — il tkey — ils, masculine she or it — elle they — eW^s, feminine @,— INFINITIVE MOOD. PRESENT TENSE. To have, Avoir. PRESENT PARTICIPLE. Having, Ayant. PAST PARTICIPLE. Had, Eu or eue. PRETERITS. To have had, Avoir eu." Having had, Ayant eu. INDICATIVE MOOD.* PRESENT TENSE. I have f &;c. (See an English grammar.) J«l nous avons tu as vous avez il or elle a ils or elles ont PRETERIT INDEFINITE TENSE. t I have had, &c. j'ai eu nous avons eu tu as eu vous avez eu il a eu ils ont eu * This mood has eight tenses, and even nine, as will be seen hereafter. t Some call this tense preterit indefinite, others, perfect indefinite, and also past indefinite, which terms have the same meaning ; the first name being, perhaps, the most general and proper, as being almost a Latin word, pr(z. terit, which, on that account, may be understood by all nations. But the learners of French must not attach much importance to those terms of grammar. Instead of preterit, imperfect, pluperfect, participle, subjunctive, article, adjective, subject, &c., they might as well have been called peter^ AUXILIARY VERB AVOIR. PRETERIT IMPERFECT TENSE. I had, or I used to have, or I would have, &c. j'avais nous avions tu avals ^ vous aviez il avait ils avaient PRETERIT PLUPERFECT TENSE Or TIME. / had had, &c. j'avais eu nous avions eu tu avals eu vous aviez eu 11 avait eu ils avaient eu PRETERIT DEFINITE TENSE Or TIME. I had, (not " I used to have,") &c. j'eus nous eumes tu eus vous eutes il eut ils eurent PRETERIT ANTERIOR TENSE 01 TIME. I had had, &c.* j'eus eu nous eumes eu tu eus eu vous eutes eu il eut eu ils eurent eu FUTURE TENSE Or TIME. I shall have, or I will have, &c. j'aurai nous aurons tu aurast vous aurez il aura ils aurontt John, lewis, james, or something else; but, in order to uiiderstand each other, we must agree upon the same appellation, and thus let us call those things by the names they have received. And the pupil must become familiar with those terms, so as to understand perfectly what we mean in using them ; but think that names in themselves are nothing. All those who understand English know what is meant by the name book, and the French have agreed to call the same thing livre, a name still different in other languages, which obliges us to study those languages as they are, if we wish to know them. * Some remarks, which apply to all verbs, respecting the difference and proper use of those divers tenses, will be found under the tenses of the stand- ard verb of the first conjugation, commencing page 12. t Through imitation of the Latin language, the second person of the sin- gular number of every tense, in all French verbs, always takes an s in its termination, except in the imperative of the verbs of the first conjugation, and a few others, only ; and the third person plural of all tenses always ends in nt, without any exception. * FRENCH SIMPLIFIEir, FUTURE ANTERIOR TENSE OF TIME.*^ I shall have had^ or I will have had, &c. j'aurai eu nous aurons eu tu auras eu vous aurez eu il aura eu ils auront eu CONDITIONAL MOOD. PRESENT TENSE Or TIME. I should have, or I would have, or I could have, or I might have, (fee. j'aurais nous aurions tu aurais vous auriez il aurait ils auraient NoTA. — This tense, although called present, is also used in speaking of a future time. PAST TENSE Or TIME. I should have had, or I would have had, or / could, might have had, &c. j'aurais eu nous aurions eu tu aurais eu vous auriez eu il aurait eu ils auraient ea We say, alsa, in this tense, as w^ill be seen in the course of the reading lessons : *Peusse eu, iu eusses eu, il eiit eu, nous eussions eu, vous eus- siez eu, ils eussent eu, IMPERATIVE MOOD. (Only one tense, which is the) PRESENT. No first person in the singular number.t have (thou) aie let him have qu'il ait let us have ayons have (you or ye) ayez let them have qu'ils aient * There are, properly speaking, but three times, the past or preterit, the present, and the future ; but in order better to particularize our ideas, either in speaking or writing, necessity seems to have compelled us to make subdi- ■visions of the same ; hence those divers preterits and futures in our gram- mars ; and yet our languages are very poor in this respect, as in many others ; but if they were more complicated, it would require a long time to learn them. t If the pupil wishes to know how to render in French that first person, let me have, let me be, let me speak, &c., to be found in the English grammars, he may translate it literally, by saying, laissez-moi avoir, laissez-moi purler ; i AUXILIARY VERB AVOIR. 5 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. (It has four lenses.) PRESENT TENSE OV TIME, Also used as a future tense. Thai I have, or that I may have, or that I shall or will have^ or I should have, and sometimes I have, or I will have, S^c* que j'aie que nous ayons que tu aies que vous ayez qu'il ait qu'ils aient preterit tense or time. That I may have had, or that I have had, or Ishall, will have had, 4^. que j'aie eu que nous ayons eu que tu aies eu que vous ayez eu qu'il ait eu qu'ils aient eu imperfect tense or time. That I had, or that I should have, or that I might have, could have, and sometimes, I had, Sfc. quej'eusse . que nous eussions que tu eusses que vous eussiez qu'il eut qu'ils eussent or permettez-moi (f avoir, de parler, &c. But this is neither the imperative of the verb avoir, to have, nor oi parler, to speak, any more than in EngUsh ; it is the imperative of the verb laisser, to let, or of permettre, to permit, to allow, in the second person of the plural number. That first person has not been admitted into French grammars, because the French think that a single man does not want to com.mand or entreat himself, which is the object of the imperative, as its name, derived from the Latin imperare, (to bid, to command,) indicates. * What we call subjunctive of the verb in French, has nothing in common with the same in English, and it is perhaps the case also with regard to the conditional and other tenses ; for the verb will frequently be used in the subjunctive in French, when it must be in the indicative in English ; and when the English verb seems to be in the mood we call here conditional, the French idiom will often require the indicative, according to the rules peculiar to each of the two languages we are now comparing ; for, as already said, it is by comparison that we learn a language different from our own. Thus, the first person of the English verb, given at the head of each French tense, and which must be continued by the pupil as he says the French through, is solely to enable the learner to understand the real meaning of the French perfectly in the reading exercises, and to translate it into English, and vice versa. But the student must not believe there is the least difficulty in this. He will not be a little surprised when he sees how easy it is to know when and why the French verb is to be used in the subjunctive or in the indicative, ^c. ; and that he will find hereafter in some remarks, and still better in the prac tising exercises. He should well remember that two or three English words are rendered in French by one. 1* 6 FRENCH SIMPLIFIED. PLUPERFECT TENSE Or TIME. That I might, should, could, would have had, or I had had, Spc, que j'eusse eu que nous eussions eu que tu eusses eu que vous eussiez eu qu'il eut eu qu'ils eussent eu T, — After reading or reciting that verb several times through, first slowly, then fast, which is a good exercise for pronuncia- tion, the pupil will do well if he writes it down interrogatively, which is done as in English, by placing the pronoun after the verb, in the following way : Havel? Ai-je1 Had I? Avais-je ? Hast thou ? As-tu ] Shall we have ? Aurons-nous 1 Has he? A-t-il '? Will you have ? Aurez-vous? Have you ? Avez-vous 1 Have you had ? Avez-vous eu ? N. B. The imperative and subjunctive moods admit of no interrogative form. §, — Then write it down also negatively. In this case the French always use ne or n' before the verb, and generally pas or point after it ; as I have not, Je n'ai pas. I have not had, Je n'ai pas eu. We had not had. Nous n'avions pas eu. You will not have, Vous n'aurez pas. He would not have had, II n'aurait pas eu. Let us not have, N'ayons pas o?- point. Yet if there is in the phrase one of these negatives, ^'amaw, never, rien, nothing, aucun, nul, no, none, personne, nobody, no one, &c., then pas oi point is left out, but ne or »' always stands before the verb. EXAMPLES. We have never. Nous n'avons jamais. You have nothing, Vous n'avez rien. No man has had, Aucun or nul homme n'a eu. Nobody will have, Personne n'aura. In the present of the infinitive mood, the two negatives may be placed before the verb ; as, not to have, ne pas avoir. 9. — Write it down interrogatively and negatively; as, Have I not ? N'ai-je pas ? Shall we not have ? N'aurons-nous pas 1 Have you not had ? N'avez-vous pas eu ? Would you never have ? N'auriez-vous jamais? Would she have nobody ? N'aurait-elle personne 1 AUXILIARY VERB ETRE. 7 t O. — Those forms of interrogation, negation and affirmation apply to all verbs, and are extremely easy, since the verb never changes its form. The auxiliary do, did, shally will, would, are never used in French. When the English say, I do not speakj we did not speak, do you speak? he, we say, jeneparle pas, nous ne parlions pas, parlez-vous 1 &c. Yet we sometimes use the following form of interrogation for all verbs : Est-ce quej'ai ? est-ce que vous avez eu ? est-ce qu'il parle 1 est-ce que vous existi- ez 1 est-ce que vous n'avez pas ? he. So that when the scholar knows the forms of one verb well, he must necessarily know all those of every verb. Therefore these remarks will not be repeated. N. B. The names of the tenses and moods will now be given in one or two words only. The verb Etre, to he, (Also very irregular.) 11,— INFINITIVE. PRESENT. To be, Etre. PAST PARTICIPLE. Been, £te. PRESENT PARTICIPLE. Etant. PRETERITS. To have ieen, Avoir ete. Having been, Ayant ete. INDICATIVE. PRESENT. lam, &c. je suis nous sommes tu es vous etes ilest ils sent j'ai ete tu as ete il a ete PRETERIT INDEFINITE. I have been, &c. nous avons ete vous avez ete ils ont ete FRENCH SIMPLIFIED. IMPERFECT. I was, or I used to he, or I would he, &c. j'etais* nous etions tu etais vous etiez il etait ils etaient PLUPERFECT. I had heen, Sec. j 'avals ete nous avions ete • tu avals ete vous avlez ete il avait ete lis avalent ete PRETERIT DEFINITE. I was, (not ** I used to be,") &c.t je fus nous fumes tu fus vous fiites 11 fut Us furent. PRETERIT ANTERIOR. I had heen, &:c. j'eus ete nous eumes ete tu eus ete vous eutes ete U-eut ete . lis eurent ete * Remark that, in this tense, all French verbs have the same terminations ; that is, ais, ais, ait, ions, iez, aieni. No exception whatever. Formerly it v^'as spelled, yetois, ils etoient, j^avois, il avoit, je ■parlois ; and in the conditional, ]'aurois, je serois ; and it was the same with all those words having now the termination ais, such as palais, Frangais, Ang. lais, Hollandais, panais ; and even in the middle'oi' words, as je connaissais, connaissance, &c., which are to be found in old books, pahis, Frangois, Ang. lois, je disois, je connoissois, &c. That new orthography was suggested in 1675, by an obscure lawyer of Rouen, named Bezain ; but the poor fellow was laughed at, as it is, and has often been the case with some one who shows more good sense than others, and even with regard to great philosophers, such as GalUleo, and so many others. Yet Voltaire, always ready to attack prejudices, thought it more reasonable to spell those words as they were and are pronounced; therefore, he himself adopted and used that spelling, and it is now called the Voltairian orthography. However, this reformation having been introduced into the dictionary of the French Academy only a few years ago, the old style is still to be found in manj'' books printed twenty or forty years back, and even at this time, in those which have been stereotyped ; and some Frenchmen, educated fifty or sixty years ago, still use the same ; and it makes not the least difference, since the pronunciation is exactly the same. Pupils should not stop at such trifles. t Some explanatory remarks respecting those divers preterits will be found under the verb exister, conjugated hereafter. AUXILIARY VERB ETRE. FUTURE. I shall be, or I will be, &;c. je serai* tu seras il sera nous gerons vous serez ils seront FUTURE ANTERIOR. . I shall have been, or 1 will have been, &c. j'aurai ete nous aurons ete tu auras ete vous aurez ete il aura ete ils auront ete CONDITIONAL. PRESENT. I should be, or I would be, or I could be, might be, &c. je seraist nous serions tu serais vous seriez il serait ils seraient PAST or PRETERIT. I should, would, could, might have been, &c. j'aurais ete nous aurions ete tu aurais ete vous auriez ete il aurait et6 ils auraient ete Here we say also : j'eusse ete, tu eusses ete, il etit H^, nous eussions ete, vous eussiez et^, ils eussent ^t€, IMPERATIVE . (See note, pages 4 and 5.) be (thou) sois let him be qu'il soit let her be qu'elle soit let us be soyons be (you or ye) soyez let them be qu'ils soient or qu'elles soient * AH verbs have the same terminations in this tense, viz : rai, ras, ra, rons, rez, ront. t Same terminations for all verbs : rais, rais, rait, rions, riez, raient. No exception. 10 FRENCH SIMPLIFIED. SUBJUNCTIVE. PRESENT or FUTURE. That I may he, or that lam, that I shall or will he, &c * que J8 sois que nous soyons que tu sois que vous soyez qu'ii soit qu'ils soient PRETERIT. That I have leen, or that I may have heen, &c. que j'aie ete que nous ayons ete que tu aies ete que vous ayez ete qu'il ait ete qu'ils aient ete. IMPERFECT. That I might, could, should^ would he, or that I was, &c. que je fussef que nous fussions que tu fusses que vous fussiez qu'il fut qu'ils fussent PLUPERFECT. That I had heen, or that I might, could, should, would have heen, &c. que j'eusse ete que nous eussions ete que tu eusses ete que vous eussiez ete qu'il eut ete qu'ils eussent ete 12. — Write that verb down interrogatively, negatively, &c., in the same way as the verb avoir, for which see page 6, and read it loud over and over again, in order to acquire a good and free pronunciation. Some have printed the verbs conjugated throughout affirmatively, nega- lively, interrogatively, and interrogatively and negatively, with the whole English of each tense, person and number, which I consider to be injurious to the learners. Half a dozen or more verbs, each conjugated four times in that way, make a huge volume, and the young pupil is induced to believe that the divers forms are as many different verbs, and is afraid to undertake the committing of them to memory; whilst it is constantly the same thing with the transposition of the pronoun, or the addition of the negatives. In making those httle changes, and translating the French into English, the student himself will relieve his mind, exercise his own intellect and judg- ment, and learn French better and sooner, than if he does nothing but to commit to memory, which is not only as hard and tedious, as unprofitable a study, but also a dangerous one. Memory is sometimes too much exercised at the expense of judgment ; and, besides, if w-e depend too much on the former, our acquirements can only rest upon a sandy or moving ground. Reasoning should always assist us in our studies. * See note, page 5. t The terminations of this tense are the same for ail verbs. Mark it well : sse, sses, t, ssions, $siez, sseni. REGULAR VERBS, in ER. 11 CLASSIFICATION OF THE VERBS. 1 2 , — There are in French four conjugations, which are easily distinguished by the termination of the root of each verb. The FIRST ends in cr, as aimer, to love ; louer, to praise. The SECOND ends in ir, asjinir, to finish ; veniv, to come. The THIRD ends in oir, as devoir, to owe ; voir, to see. The FOURTH ends in re, as vcndre, to sell ; plaire, to please. All French verbs have one of these terminations in their roots, as may be seen in the dictionary. Some grammar writers, especially foreigners, not sufficiently acquainted with the subject, have endeavoured to establish as many as fifteen or twenty different conjugations; but such contrivances have only served to complicate the matter, to the great disadvantage of learners. FIRST CONJUaATION. (In ER.) t^, — Then all verbs having in their root, or present of the infinilive, the termination er, such as parler, to speak ; domier, to give ; ?nanger, to eat ; exister, to exist ; creer, to create ; payer, to pay ; conJ2igucr, to conjugate ; trouver, to find ; em- ployer, to employ ; former, to form, and above five thousand more, belong to this conjugation, and when we know one of them we shall know them all. We may take any one of them as a model, it makes no dif- ference ; but as exister happens to be the first in the reading exercises, let us take hold of the same, and make it serve us to conquer the whole army, which will soon be done. 10.— INFINITIVE. PRESENT. PAST PARTICIPLE. To exist, Exister.* Existed, Existe. PRESENT PARTICIPLE. PRETERITS. Existing^ Existfljw^. To have existed, Avoir exists. Having existed, Ayant exists. * The learner will remark that the root (exister) undergoes no other change than that of irs termination er, the other part of the word (exist...) remainr ing constantly the same through all the moods, tenses, numbers and persons ; and this is what constituies the regularity of the verb. He should also pay a great attention to those various terminations, which are purposely printed in italics, because they must be precisely the same for all verbs of this class. 12 FRENCH SIMPLIFIED. INDICATIVE. PRESENT. J exist, or I do exist, or I am existing, and so on for tbe otlier persons, j'existe nous existons tu exist^s vous existe;2r il existe ils existent PRETERIT INDEFINITE. I have existed, I have heen existing, I existed, or I did exist, &c. j'ai existe nous avons existe tu as exists vous avez existe il a existe ils ont existe' IMPERFECT. I existed, I did exist, I was existing, I used to exist, I would exist, &c. j'existaw nous existfon^ tu existais vous existiez il existazi ils existaient (See note, page 8.) PLUPERFECT. I had existed, or I had heen existing, &c. j'avais existe nous avions exist<^ tu avais exists vous aviez existe il avait existe ils avaient existe A NEW THEORY OF THE TENSES. The Bignification given in English at the head of each tense, will show, almost sufficiently, in what cases those various tenses are used, and this will still be more clearly and satisfactorily understood in its true apphcation throughout the reading exercises, in which, after the combination of the pre. sent system, all desirable rules and fundamental principles will be found explained by themselves in actual practice. Yet, as there are some cases in which the two languages essentially differ respecting the use of the same tenses, in order to satisfy the pupil's impa- tience, and keep him on his guard on that point, we shall accompany this conjugation with some remarks which will serve for all verbs, without any exception whatever. I did not intend, at first, to give these remarks, and we shall, perhaps, allude hereafter to the circumstance which induced me to take this course. I think it unnecessary for the learner now to stop at these notes. He should only refer to them in case of need. He will soon be able to write REGULAR VERBS, in ER. 13 PRETERIT DEFINITE. I existed, or I did exist, {not " I used to exist," nor " I was existing.") j'exista* nous existaww tu exist^s vous exista^es il exi&ta ils exist^rewi i>RETERIT ANTERIOR. 1 had existed, &c. j'eus existe nous eumes exists tu eus existe vous eutes existe il eut existe ils eurent existe There is a second preterit anterior for all verbs, (seldom used.) j'ai eu exists nous avons eu exist€ tu as eu existe vous avez eu existe il a eu existe ils ont eu existe future. I shall exist, I will exist, I shall he existing, &c. j'existerai nous existeron^ tu exmeras vous existeres; il existem ils existerowi down for himself, perhaps, better rules than those I am going to give, fo¥ my object is here to avoid speculative discussions, and thus I shall treat the subject very slightly. I only wish to save the teachers a little trouble, by enabling the students to understand the subject by themselves. And in order to keep within my plan, which is essentially practical, I shall proceed by examples as much as possible. INDICATIVE. — The present is used whenever either of the English forms is employed, there being but one form in French. Exception. — The present is frequently used in Enghsh instead of the Future tense ; as, for instance : When we have a good book, we shall make more progress; when he goes to Boston, I will accompany him; as soon as I hM there, I will write to you; I shall he pleased when I speak French ; you will sp€ak it praperly when you iiNDERSTAm) these rules^ <^c. In these cases, and similar ones, the present is seldom used in French. We make use of the future with both verbs, as if it were in Enghsh : when we shall have « good book ; when he will or shall go to Boston ; as soon as I shall be there ; .... when I shall speak French .... However, we do very often use the present, instead of the future, in the following cases : when do you set out /or the country ? Qimnd parte z -vous pour la campage ? 1 set out, or leave to-morrow, next week, in two days, &,c. J e pars demain, la semaine prochaine, dans deux jours, &c. — because there are other words in the sentence that sufficiently indicate futurity ; and yet the future is properly used in such cases : Je partirai demain, &c. We also make use of the present, instead of the future, when the verb is 2 14 FRENCH SIMPLIFIED. FUTURE ANTERIOR. I shall or will have existed, I shall or will have heen existing ^ . FUTURE. je me reposerai nous nous reposerona tu te reposeras vous vous reposerez il se reposera ils se reposeront FUTURE ANTERIOR. je me serai repose nous nous serons reposes tu te seras repose vous vous serez reposes il se sera repose ils se seront reposes CONDITIONAL. PHBSENT. je rae reposerais nous nous reposeiions tu te reposerais vous vous reposeriez il se reposerait ils se reposeraient PAST. je me seiais repose nous nous serious reposes tu te serais reposs vous vous seriez reposes il se serait repose ils se seraient reposes than perfect, or more than preterit, or in other words, preterit before preterit, or still, preterit ante preterit time. In short, that^tense is used to express any- thing as having; taken place before any time past. It presents no difficulty, since it is used in the same way in the English and other languages. Pretkuit Anterior. — This tense, as its name shows, serves also to ex- press an action past or done before another took place. But although it is rendered in English by the same form as the phiperfeci, it does not convey the same idea ia French. The plupejfect, partaking of the same nature of the hnperfect, indicates that something was over before some other event took place, but without precisely determining the time ; whilst the preterit anterior indicates with precision the very moment when the action or state was at an end. For instance, when you say, / had finished yesterday at twelve oWock^ we may here use either the fluperfect or \\\e preterit anterior ; but if we say with the former, f avals firii hier h. midi, the time at whicli I finished is not pre- cise: it is evident that I had finished when twelve oV.lock struck, but I had possi- bly finished ten minutes or an hour before that time; while if one B&.ys,feus Jini hier S- midi, it gives the idea that he finished at twelve o'^clock precisely. If the nature and pro-per use of the imperfect and the preterit definite have been well understood, the difference between the pluperfect s^wd ih& preterit anterior will appear perfectly clear, since it is nearly the same as that be- tween t\iQ imperfect &ndii\it preterit defimte. And, indeed, this seems to be quite natural; for, as we have already remarked, the pluperfect ^aAiokmg oi the nature of the imperfect, as being its compound, the preterit anterior par- takes likewise of the preterit definite, as the former is nothing but the com- pound of the latter ; that is, the preterit definite of the auxiliary verb, com- bined with the past participle of any other verb. Like the imperfect, the pluperfect is also used to express the repetition or recurrency of an action, or something habitual ; whilst the preterit anterior ^ hke ih^ preterit definite, is used to express something that took place but once at a period of time completely past and specified. There is, however, this dif- \ REFLECTED VERBS. Si In this tense we say also : je me fusse repose nous nous fussions repose's Ui te fusses repose vous vous fussiez reposes il se fut repose ils se fussent reposes IMPERATIVE. repose-toi reposons-nous qu'il se repose reposez-vous qu'ils se reposent Li the negative form this tense is : ne te repose pas iie nous reposons pas qu'il ne se repose pas ne vous reposez pas qu'ils ne se reposent pas SQBJUNCTIVE. PRESENT or FUTURE. que je me repose que nous nous reposions que tu te reposes que vous vous reposiez qu'il se repose qu'ils se reposent ference, that the preterit definite may express the fact or action from begin- ning to end, while the preterit anterior only expresses the end or precise con- clusion of the action ; and it is for this that the latter is always accompanied by a determinative, or an adverb of time, such as bientot, soon ; quand lojsque^ des que, when ; aussiioL q^ie, as soon as \ avant, before ; dans un instant, in an instant ; apres que, after ; or the precise time, the day, the hour^ the minute, the week is mentioned. EXAMPLES. J'eus bientot fini, I had soon finished. Quand il eut parl6, When, he had spoken. "Vous eutes dine avant moi, You had dined before me. lis eurent fini a diz heures, They had do7ie at 10 o'clock. Des que nous eumes dine nous Wheii we had dined we set out. partimes, &c. But this tense, like the preterit definite, is used in speaking of something that took place once only, and at a period of time completely past ; such as yesterday, last week, last month,, or at a particular day mentioned. In speak- ing of this day, this week, &c., to express the same thing, we employ the Second preterit anterior, also called preterit anterior indefinite ; as,. aujourd^hwi fi^i eu bientat fini ; il a eu fini dmidi precis. The difierence between those two preterits anterior is nearly the santc as that between the preterit definite and the preterit indefinite ; for, as the first preterit anterior is the compound of the preterit definite, the second preterit anterior is like- wise the compound of the preterit indefinite, as may be seen. The pluperfect ma.y be also accompanied by one of those determinatives,, like the preterit anterior ; but this is the case only when the verb expresses a repetition of the same fact, or a custom without precise limitation of tinie^ks 32 FRENCH SIMPLIFIED. PRETERIT. que je me sois repose que nous nous soyons reposes que tu te sois repose que vous vous soyez reposes qu'il se soit jrepose qu'ils se soient reposes IMPERFECT. que je me reposasse que nous nous reposassions que tu tereposasses que vous vous reposassiez qu'il se reposat qu'ils se reposassent PLUPERFECT. que je me fussse repose que nous nous fussions reposes que tu te fusses repose que vous vousfussiez reposes qu'il se fdt repose qu'ils se fussent reposes The interrogative form is like that of other verbs, the first pronoun, which is the subject, being placed after the verb in this manner — me repose-je ? te reposes-tu ? vous reposez-voiis 1 nous reposerions-nous 1 mc stiis-je repose ? vous etiez-vous reposes ? In the negative form, the first negative is placed between the two pronouns : je ?ie me repose j^c.s ; je ?ie me suis pas repose^ &c. which case the preterit anterior is never used. Plenty of examples -will be found in the reading exercises. Future. — Very little need be said of this tense, besides what we have said of it in treating of the present, page 13. It is used, as in EngHsh, in speaking of something to come, as its name shows. It must only be observed, that whatever the English construction maybe, the French verb is not used in the future when preceded by the conjunction si, if. So it would be bad French to say : " si vous aurez, si nous serons, s'jZ pariera," &c. In such cases, the present must be used instead of the first future ; si vous avez, si nous soni. mes, s'il parle And instead of the future anterior, we employ the pre- terit indefinite ; si vous avez eu, si nous avons he, &c., and not si vous aurez ete But if there is, in tlie same sentence, another verb which imphes doubt, then the future is used with si. Examples : je ne sais pas sHl vien- DKA, I do not knoiD lohetker he will come ; demandez-lm si elle auka hientot FINI, &C. CONDITIONAL. — Tiie verb is used in this mood when there is a condi- tion either expressed or understood in the sentence, and it requires no other remark than that we have made on the future tense. When the verb is pre- ceded by si, the imperfect of tlie indicative is used instead of the present con- ditional, and the pluperfect instead of the past conditional ; except when the preceding verb impfies a doubt, in which case the verb in the conditional can be preceded by si, like the future. But the second past conditiox.\l may always be used with si. The other two are also used with si in the same case as the futures ; as, je ne savais pas si elle vieadrait, &c. Nothing need be said here of the imperative. SUBJUNCTIVE.— This mood is probably so called because any thought expressed by a verb in these forms, is subjoined, connected, subordinate to, or IRREGULAR VERBS, ill ER. S3 Ne me repose-jc yas ? ne me suis-je pas repose 1 &c. 3^. — Conjugate like 56 reposer, se respecter, to respect one's- self ; se lever, to rise ; sliahiller, to dress one's-self ; se promener, to walk (for pleasure or exercise ;) s'appliquer, to apply one's- self; seperfectionner, to improve one's-self; se repentir, to repent ; se souvenir, to remember ; se rejouir, to rejoice ; these last three belonging to the second conjugation, as will be seen hereafter. All those verbs that are essentially reflected in French, aie marked in the dictionary by the pronoun se or s\ one's-self, being prefixed to the root, as is seen by the few we have just men- tioned. In finding them, the student must ascertain to which of the four conjugations they belong, which is easily known, according as they have one of the terminations er, ir, oir, re, and then conjugate each of them accordingly, looking at sere- poser only for the arrangement of the pronouns^ and the auxili- ary in the compound tenses. IRREGULAR VERBS, in ER. 33. — Envoyer, to send, is irregular in \\\q future and condi- tional only; making future, ^''^^everr^i, conditional, enverrais ; and Renvoyer, to send back, has the same irregularity : renverrai^ renverrais, &c. ; all the rest is regular. Tisser, to weave, has its past participle, tissu ; that is all. 34, — Aller, to gO; presents a few irregularities. They are printed in italics. dependent upon another idea, either understood or expressed by another verb, with which the one in the siibjunctive forms a sense; for the verb in this mood has no meaning by itself; it neither affirms in a positive manner, nor admits of an interrogative form, as the indicative does. Much, and too much, perhaps, has been said about this mood. Certain grammarians have laid down no less than twenty-five or thirty rules, and perhaps as many exceptions on the subject. Such a multiplicity of rules only serves to multiply the learner^s trouble, and make him believe in difficul- ties which do not exist. We believe it would not be very difficult to demonstrate that there is but ane single rule to be followed on this point; but this would lead us into a dis- cussion too abstract for young students, and which, conformably to ovu- method, we must avoid as much as possible ; inasmuch as the application of the rules throughout the practising lessons will say more on the subject than the best possible theory. What we are going to say, then, is simply to call or direct the student's attention to the point, and assist him to establish for himself any rule of his own, if he thinks necessary, as the verbs in the sub- junctive will occasionally come under his notice. The French verb is genrrally employed in the subjunctive, when preceded by another verb, or word expressing doubt, fear, wish or desire, will, com- mand, order, negative, interrogation, want, permission, necessity, duty, obli- gation, surprise, admiration, impossibility, uncertainty, and the like. The following examples will fully illustrate the rule. It is unnecessary now to give the translation. See note, page 5. 34 FRENCH SIMPLIFIED. INFINITIVE. PRESENT. To go, Aller. PREs. PARTICIPLE. Going, Allant. PAST PARTICIPLE. Goue, Alle, m. allee f. The compound tenses are conjugated with the auxiliary Hre instead of avoir^ the meaning being the same. PKETERITS. To have gone, Etre alle, or allee. Having gone, fitant alle, or allee. It is unnecessary to give any more of the English, because the learner will easily make the translation by means of the regular verb exisier. INDICATIVE. PRESENT. je vais nous aliens Va vas vous allez il va ils vont. PRETERIT INDEFINITE. je suis alle, or allee, &:c. nous sommes alles, or allees, &c. IMPERFECT. J'allais, &c. [^QQ exister.) PLUPERFECT. J'etais alle, or allcG,. &c. PRETERIT DEFINITE. J'allal, &;C. PRETERIT ANTERIOR. Jc fus alle, or allee, &.c. FUTURE. J'irai, tu iras, &c. FUTURE ANTERIOR. Je serai alle, or allee, &c. Je doute que vous remportiez le prix sans un peu d'application. • Je crains que vous n'etudiiez pas assez, Qn dhire que vous soyez attentifs. Dieu veut que les hommes soient justes. La religion exige que nous soyons charitables. La justice commande que tons les hommes soient libres. La raison ordonne que cela soit. Je ve crois pas qu'on puisse le nier. J'ai besoin que vous me compreniez. Dieu permet quelquefois que les mechans prosperent. Mais il ne permet point que nous les imitions. Voulez-vous que nous ecrivions ? Je prefere que vous lisiez. On est surpris que vous fassiez tant de progres. Souffrez que nous vous en felicitions. II convient que chacun ait son droit. llfaut que nous rendions hommage ^laverit^. II est necessaire que I'homme connaisse ses devoirs, Et il hnportc qu'il les pratique. line suffit pas qu'une fille soit vertueuse en parole ; On aime qu'elle le soit dans toutes ses actions. II est possible que vous deveniez riches, mais il n'esi pas certain que vous soYEZ heureux, si vous devenez riches aux depens de I'honneur et de la vertu. There are already many examples, and we could give ten times more, but IRREGULAR VERBS, ill ER. 35 CONDITIONAL. PRESENT. J^irais, &c. PAST. Je serais alle, or allee, &;c. IMPERATIVE. va allons qu'il aille allez qu'elle aille qu'ils a'dlent. SUBJUNCTIVE. PRESENT or FUTURE. que faille que nous allions que tu allies que vous alliez qu'il aille qu'ils aillent. PRETERIT. Que je sois alle, or allee, &c. IMPERFECT. Que j'allasse, &c. PLUPERFECT. Que je fusse alle, or allee, &c. We have about fifty other intransitive verbs, the compound tenses of which, like those of aller, are used w^ith the aux- iliary Eire, instead of avoir. A list of them vs^ill be found at the end of the irregular verbs of the Fourth Conjugation. Aller is frequently used in a reflective form, vi'hen it means to go away ; but, in this case, it is immediately preceded by en through the v^^hole conjugation : as, s'en aller ^ to go away ; s'en allanty je m'en vais, nous nous en allons ; je rri'en suis alle, it would be superfluous for the moment, for it is easy to perceive that each example comes under the very same rule ; which rule is nothing but the natural order of our ideas, or the uncertainty, the doubt, which exists in the speaker's mind. We might well have dispensed with giving that enumera- tion of cases requiring the subjunctive, for they are all comprised in the word doubt, they all being pretty much synonymous ; but to the young iitudents the expression would perhaps have appeared too general. Yer, what is fear, if not doubt? Wish or desire is the absence of the thing wished for, with the incertitude of realizing such a desire ; order or command is evidently the desire of being obeyed ; possibility is not certitude ; want or 7iecessiiy implies a desire ; surprise or admiration produces a doubt ; interrogation is the result of a desire of knowing, and involves a doubt; in a word, every expression denoting permission, will, duty, fear, want, neces. sity, obligation, uncertainty, possibility, impossibility, &c., implies the idea of some thing or event, the accomplishment or fulfilment of which belongs to futurity, or depends upon some circumstance, over which the speaker has no control, and consequently a (ZouJf remains in his mind in that respect, which doubt he makes known or communicates to others by using the verb in the SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. In all the foregoing examples it is supposed that such doubt exists in the speaker's mind ; but if such should not be the case, as a very natural and forcible consequence of the true fundamental principle we have come to, it 13 evident that the verb is not to be used in the subjunctive. Whence we 36 J'RENCH SIMPLIFIED. or allee ; je ne rrCen vais pas ; elle e'en est aU^e, il s^en Hait alU ; alleZ'Vous-en, va fen ; s'en irmt-il ? ne vous en allez pas ; s'en est-elle alUe ? ne s'en sont-ils pas alUs 1 &c. See se reposer, page 28. 35. — Remark. — It may be well to warn the students of French against a material error, which has been propagated to some extent in this country, re- specting the above verb ; inasmuch as the misconstruction is set forth with such an assurance and emphatic terms but too well calculated to misguide foreigners. In a compilation of the Abbe Levizac's French Grammar, under the title of ^'Bolmar's Levizac's French Grammar, 1834," we are told that there are cases in which the verb " Etre, to be, must he used instead of the verb Al- LER, to go," &LC. Now this cannot be more erroneous ; for the verb Aller is used in all its moods, tenses, numbers and persons, in every case or circumstance, like any other verb, and without any exception %vhatever, as the scholars will observe in reading good French authors, as well as in the conversation of well educated French people. The writer of this has fully refuted that error and others, in a former publi- cation of his, entitled — "Practical System for Teaching the French Pronun- ciation," published by J. Grissy, Philadelphia, 1841, — and therefore he thinks it suffices here to tell the learners, that they will be perfectly correct in their French, if they do precisely the contrary of what they are told in said gram- mar ; otherwise, not quite so. The error is not of Levizac, and is not to be found in his genuine grammar ; he was too good a scholar and grammarian to have ever written such things. Bre led to conclude, that the use of this mood entirely depends upon what is passing in the mind of the speaker or writer. And this most natural princi- ple, unfolded and even unmentioned, or perhaps overlooked by our gram- marians, and consequently unknown to the common of readers, fully ex- plains the reason why our best writers sometimes employ the indicative and sometimes the subjunctive, in the construction of the very same sentence. For instance, the two following sentences : II ne croit pas qu'il y a un Dieu, and, II ne croit pas qu'il y ait un Dieu, are both perfectly grammatical, according to the genius of the language. But what difference of meaning there is between them ! In using the second verb {il y a) in the indicative, he who speaks or writes shows that his opinion or belief is very different from that of the person spoken of; for the true meaning of that first sentence is, he does not believe there is a God, I do believe there is one. Whilst, by using the subjunctive, (il y ait,) as in the second sentence, the spe.aker or writer would give to understand that he entertains the same doubt as the person spoken of; the real signification of the con- struction being, he does not believe there is a God'neither do I (/)- In a word, the second verb in the first sentence contradicts or refutes, whilst in the se- cond sentence it supports or endorses the doubt expres£,ed by the first verb, ne croit pas. And again — Croyez-vous qu'il y a un Dieu ? Croyez-vous qu'il y ait un Dieu ? Ne croyez-vous pas qu'il y a un Dieu ? Ne croyez-vous pas qu'il y ait un Dieu ? THE SECOND CONJUGATION. (In IR.) "30. — Verbs having the termination ir in their roots belong to this conjugation. They are few in number comparatively to those belonging to the first conjugation, and although they present a few more irregularities, it will be seen that their in- flections differ but very little from those of the verb exister, STf* — We shall take finir, to finish, as a standard verb of this conjuga- tion ; and the forms of rendering the divers tenses into English, being precisely the same as those we have given for the verb exister, it is deemed unnecessary now to give any more of the English verb than the ivfinitive. If the scholar should not know the real meaning of any of the tenses, he must look at the corresponding tense of the verb exister. For instance, should he want to know the signification of the present of the indicative, je finis, tu finis^ ■&,c., he will find at the head of the same tense for exister, I exist, I do ■exist, and 1 am existing ; and by changing only one word, he will have, 1 Jinish, or / do finish, or 7 am finishing ; and so on for the other tenses, not only oi finir, but of all verbs, either regular or irregular. 38.— INFINITIVE. PRESENT. PRETERITS. To finish^ FinzV. To have finished, Avoir fini, PRESENT PARTICIPLE. Having finished^ Ayant ^wi. Finishings ¥missant. PAST PARTICIPLE. Finished^ Fini. Admettez-vous que I'ame est immortelle ? Admettez-vons que I'ame soit immortelle ? Fensez-vous que notre ami viendra ? Pensez-vous que notre ami vienne ? Elle ne croit pas que cethomrae est riche. EUe ne croit pas que cet homme soit riche, Tu ne crois pas que je pourrai {aire cela. Tu ne crois pas que je puisse faire cela. All those sentences and similar ones are correct and good French, but they convey different ideas for him who understands French well. Still, a few more examples — IN THE INDICATIVE. IN THE SUBJUNCTIVE. J'achfeterai une maison qui est J'achfeterai une maison qui soit commode, dont la situation me plait, commode, dont la situation me plaise, et k laquelle est attach^ un petit jar- et k laquelle soit attachd un petit jar- din que je pourrai cultiver moi- din que je puisse cultiver moi-meme. meme. Je veux avoir un domestique qui Je veux avoir un domestique qui est fidMe, et que vous connaissez. soit fiddle, et que vous connaissiez. Je cherche un homme qui me ren- Je cherche un homme qui me rende ■dra ce service. ce service. 38 FRENCH SIMPLIFIEB. INDICATIVE. PRESENT. je fim> tu finz's il fimt PRETERIT INDEFINITE. IMPERFECT. FLDPERFECT. nous ^nissons vous finmez ils finissent J'ai finz, &c. Je finissais, &c. (See exisier.} J'avais fini, &c. PRETERIT DEFINITE. je finis tu finz* il finz7 PRETERIT ANTERIOR. The Second. FUTURE. FUTURE ANTERIOR. nous finme^ vous finite* ils finirent J'eus finz, &c. J'ai eu finz, &c. Je finzrcfz, &c. J'aurai fini, &c. CONDITIONAL. PRESENT or FUTURE. PAST. Je finirais, Sec. J'aurais finz, &c., or J'eusse fini, &,c. IMPERATIVE. fmis ^nissons qu'il finme finissez qu'elle linme qu'ils finissent. Je desire trouver quelqu'un qui connait cette affaire, et qui pent la juger. Nous habiterons un pays dont le climat est doux, oil nous pourrons jouir de la liberte, et ou nous serons heureux. Avez-vous un livre qui est meilleur que celui-ci ? Nous suivrons une m^thode qui est conforme aux lois de la raison. Nous donnerons des regies qui se- roni claires et precises, et que vous poiirrez facilement comprendre et retenir. Comment ! vous ne croyez pas que cela est possible ? Je ddsire trouver quelqu'un qui coNNAissE cetie affaire, et qui puisse la juger. Nous habiterons un pays dont le climat soiT doux, oil nous puissions jouir de la libertd, et oh. nous sotons heureux. Avez-vous un livre qui soit meilleur que celui-ci ? Nous suivrons une m^thode qui SOIT conforme aux lois de la raison. Nous donnerons des rfegles qui soiENT claires et precises, et que vous puissiEZ facilement comprendre et retenir. Comment! vous ne croyez pas que cela soiT possible ? REGULAR VERBS, IQ IR. 39 SUBJUNCTIVE. PRESENT. quejefinme que nou3 finissiom que tu ^nisses que vous ^nissiez qu'il finisse qu'ils finissent. PRETERIT, que j'aie fiai, &c. IMPERFECT. que je ^nisse que nous ^nissions que tu finisses que vous finissiez qu'il fim^ qu'ils ^nissent. PLUPERFECT, que j'eusse fini, 6:c. In the same way are conjugated, agir, to act; choisir, to choose ; dejlnir, to define ; cherir, to cherish ; rougir, to blush ; reussir, to succeed ; trahir, to betray ; obeir, to obey ; jouivt to enjoy ; and about 300 more. Je vous donnerai des raisons qui vous convaincront. Nous fesons notre devoir de ma- niere qu'oii lie pent rien nous repro- cher. Ne pensez-vous pas que les exem- ples sont preferabies aux preceptes ? Ces Aleves out besom d'un maitre qui leur ezpliquera et lenr f era cora- prendre les vrais principes de la Ian- gue, et qui ne se bornera pas k un enseignement de simple routine et purement mecanique. lis desirent une methode qui est aisee, qui contient peu de preceptes et beaucoup d'exemples. lis demandent un livre qui est ap. proprie k leura,ge, et lenv fournit des connaissances vraies, utiles et dura, bles. lis veulent un ouvrage qui leur plait, qu'ils liront et etudieront avec autant de fruit que de plaisir, qui leur /or- mera I'esprit et le coeur, et enfin dans lequel ils pourront puiser les princi- pes du bon gotit, &c. Je vous donnerai des raisons qui vous CONTAINQUENT. Nous ferons notre devoir de ma- niere qu^on ne puisse rien nous repro- ctier. Ne pensez-vous pas que les exem- ples soiENT pref(^rables aux preceptes? Ces eieves ont besoin d'un maitre qui leur explique et leur fasse com- prendre les vrais principes de la Ian- gue, et qui ne se borne pas k un en- seignement de simple routine et pure- ment mecanique. lis desirent une methode qui soit aisee, qui contienne peu de preceptes et beaucoup d'exemples. lis demandent un livre qui soiT ap- proprie k leur kge, et qui leur foub- nisse des connaissances vraies, utiles et durables. lis veulent un ouvrage qui leur plaise, qu'ils lisent et etudient avec autant de fruit que de plaisir, qui leur FORME I'esprit et le coeur, et enfin dans lequel ils puissent puiser les principes du bon goixt, &c. Those two ways of expression are admitted to be good and perfectly cor- rect, but each in its place, for they present very different ideas, and cannot be employed indiscriminately. He who uses the indicative shows and af- firms in a positive manner that he perfectly knows that the thing or fact spoken of is or will be as he announces it ; not the least shadow of doubt or 40 FRENCH SIMPLIFIED. OBSERVATIONS ON THE FORMATION OF THE TENSES- 39. — All the divers tenses of regular verbs are formed fr-om their roots,- properly speaking-, as may be seen in exister and Jinir; and in the verbs of the First Conjugation the root undergoes but very little alteration through the whole conjugation. But there being many verbs among the other Conjuga- tions, in which that alteration is more or less considerable, the following ob- servations will prove very useful, if attended to by the learner, as they will greatly assist his memory. Here we shall only give the general rules, and point out the exceptions hereafter, as opportunity will occur or require. It will be well to remember that the verbs of the Third Conjugation are not' comprised in the following rules j some of which,, however, admit of no exception whatever, and others scarcely any. But let us not mind the ex- ceptions now ; they will come and be explained gradually. 40. — In the verbs of the First and Second Conjugations, the FUTURE is formed by adding ai to the root of each verb, which gives one syllable more : as, Exister, yexisterai ; Man- fear remains in his mind with regard to the accomplishment of the fact or wish expressed in the sentence. In the first example, for instance, the person speaking of his intention of purchasing a house, already knows that property, and is sure the situation pleases hira ^ that there is a garden, as he says, &c. ; and being certain that he can have the same, he speaks in the indicative. On the contrary, he who uses the subjunctive in the same sentence, announces his intention or wish of obtaining a similar object, but he has not yet found such a property as he ' describes, and according to his taste in every particular ; he will try to find it, but he is uncertain whether it will be possible for him to satisfy his wish ; for he is perhaps very particular as to the situation, or some of the other con^ ditions required, and therefore he communicates his project by using the sub- junctive. One who says : " Je vous donnerai des raisons qui vous canvaincront,^^ must have no doubt that those reasons will produce the effect he has in view ; he most certainly knows them. But if he says : " Je vous donnerai des raisons qui vous convainquent," by using the verb in the subjunctive, he shows us that he is not sure of the fact ; it seems that he does not know the force of his reasons, but he will try, &c. The same difference exists between all the sentences we have given, and which we could multiply indefinitely. From what precedes, then, we must conclude once more, that the sub- junctive is them^ood. of doubt, as it serves to express what is uncertain,, vague, or dependent upon some future circumstance,. either positive or negative; and that there is but one same rule,, to be fallowed for its use ; which rule is easier to be conceived than to be explained^ since it is in the mind or opinion of him who speaks or writes. In truth, after this new theory on the subjunctive, the numerous rules given in the French grammars now in the hands of the students, are annihilated, and can no longer be depended upon ; it is the fact, and we are very sorry for it, but it is not our fault that such rules are insufficient, or good for nothing. I always like to prove what I advance, and in this case I feel obliged to quote one of our most modern and best known French grammars* FORMATION OF THE TENSES. 41 geVt je mangeraz ; Parler, je parlerai y Flnir, je finivai ; Dor- mir, to sleep, je dormirai ; Souffrir, to suffer, je sou^rhai, &;c. In the verbs of the Fourth Conjugation, the roots of which end in re, we leave off the e, and add ai to the r; thu3, from Rendre, to render, we form the ywe'Mrejje rendraz; Met- tre, to put, je mettrai ; Plaire, to please, plairoe / Craindre, to fear, craindr«z/ jLfre, to read, lira^; Dire, to say, dir(2i, &c. About thirty exceptions in all the conjugations together. 4L1. — And from the future we form the conditional (present) by the addition of an s; J'aurai, j'aurai^; je serai, je serai*; existerai, existerai*; irai, ivB.\s ; Jlnirai, finirai*/ &c. Not a single exception. 49. — From the present participle are formed : 1st. The THREE PERSONS of the plural number of the present of the in- dicative, by changing ant into ons, ez, ent ; as, Existant, exist- ons, e^\s,lez, existew^y Finissant, finisso??*, finisse^r, finisse^e^y Messrs. Noel and Chapsal, in their little French grammar, an edition of which has been published in New- York, give about twenty rules and excep- tions on the subject. The first rule says : " The suhjunctive is required after verbs that express will, command, desire, doubt, fear, &c. &c." This is the rule we have set down, but we have said generally ; for there are innumera- ble exceptions, as may be seen by our examples. When I say, " rendez-moi le livre que je vous ai prete ; faites ce qu'on vous a dit ; lisez les livres qui sont instrustifs," &c., the first verb expresses command, and yet the second verb is not required to be in the subjunctive. When I say : " je veux le livre que je vous ai prete ; je desire un livre que vous avez lu, or que vous con. naissez," &lc., the first verb expresses will or desire, and yet we may use the second in the indicative. How many examples I could give of this kind ! The second rule says : " The subjunctive must be employed after a verb accompanied by a negation, or expressing an interrogation.''^ One example for each case is given. Now, the numerous examples we have given, show how far this rule can be depended upon. And we are not embarrassed to multiply our examples ; our writers are filled with them : " La vertu, monsieur, n^est pas une science qui s^apprend avec tant d'appareil." — J. J. Rousseau. " Mais une verite d'une telle importance N'est pas de ces secrets ju'on croit sans evidence." — ^Voltaire. " On ne peutpas dire de Tacite comme de Salluste, que ce n'esf qu'un par- leur de vertu." — La Harpe. Ce n''est pas moi qui ai rei^ele le secret. Ce n^etaitpas elle qui chantait. Ce ne sera pas vous qui remporterez le premier prix. " Venez, ce n'est pas \h que je vous logerai.^' — Moliere. " Non, ce n'est pas, madame, un baton qu'il/awi prendre, Mais un cceur k leur voix moins facile et moins tendre." — Id. 4* 42 FRENCH SIMPLIFIED. Dormant, dovmons, dormer-, Aorment ; Servant, sevYons . . . . Partant, ipartons .... Rendant,ieu6ons ; Flaisant, ^W\s,ons ; Oraignant, craigno?^5 ; Liwant, \\w7ls, &c. Few exceptions. 2d. The imferfect of the indicative, by changing ant into ais ; Eta7it, y elais ; Existajtt, existaw; Parlant, ^Bxlais ; Fin- issaiit, finissai*/ Dormant, diovmais; Servant, servais ; Tenant, tenais ; Venant, -venais ; Prenant, prenais ; Mettant, mettais / Plaisant, plsiisais ; Craignant, CTSiignais, Sec. Only two excep- tions altogether, which are furnished by two verbs belonging to the third conjugation, viz : avoir, to have, and savoir, to know ; the first has already been conjugated, and the other will be found in its place. Thus, excepting the two cases just men- tioned, no French verbs are irregular in the imperfect, 3d. The PRESENT of the subjunctive, by changing ant into e, es, e,wns, iez, ent ; Existant, existe / Finissant, finissey Disant, disc/ Dormant, dorrae ; Servant, serve ; Partant, parte ; Met- The first verb, in each sentence, is accompanied by a negation, and yet the writers use the second verb in the indicative. Why ? Because they are sure of the negative assertion they make ; they have no doubt about it. In the case of interrogation, the many examples we have given before will show that the rule is still untrue ; and if quotations are necessary, they are not scarce. " Crois-iu que, toujours ferme au bord du precipice, Eile pourra marcher sans que le pied lui glisse ?" — Boileau. Here the poet, speaking of a woman, uses the indicative, pourra, and not the subjunctive, PuissE, although he speaks in an interrogative form, because he firmly believes it is utterly impossible for her to escape from such danger ; no doubt remains in his mind. " Croiriez-vous bien que Louis XIV. a reforme le goCit de sa cour en plus d'un genre ?" — Voltaire. *' Qui eiit cm que les larmes etaient si prfes de la joie ?" — Le Dr. Alibert. " D'ow vient qu'en certains pays chauds les ros^es de la nuit sont si abondantes ?" — Fenelon. " Penses-tu que retir^ chez toi. Pour les tiens, pour I'etat tu n'as plus rien a faire ?" — Voltaire. " Est-ce par I'ongle long qu'il porte au petit doigt, Qu'il s'est acquis chez vous I'estime oil I'on le voit ?'* *' Sont-ce ses grands canons qui vous \e font aimer ?" — MoLIERE^. It is true that the two learned grammarians have given an exception ta their rule on this point. They say : *' The subjunctive ceases to take place, xohe/n the interrogation is an urato. rical figure, which, instead of showing a doubt, serves to afjirm more forci^ hly." And they give the following example : " Madame, oubliez-vous Que Th€s^e est mon pere, et qu'il est votre dpoux ?" — Racine. FORMATION OF THE TENSES. 43 tant, mette ; Craignant^ craigne, &c. Perhaps a dozen verbs are excepted, and yet some of them are but partly so. 4:3. — The IMPERATIVE is formed from the present of the indicative, by suppressing the pronouns tu, nous, vous, observ- ing that verbs ending in e mute in the singular number of the present indicative, do not take s in the second person singular of the imperative, as was said in note, page 3. Examples : tu existes, tu souffres ; imperative, cxiste, soiiffre ; (see the second note, page 4;) tic ouvres, ouvre ; tu 7-is, ris ; tu finis, finis ; tu paries, parle ; vousfinissez, finissez ; nous existons, existons ; vous dormez, dormez ; tu viens, viens ; nous rendons, rendons ; vous venez, venez ; vous dites, dites ; vous faites, faites, &c. Only four verbs are excepted from this rule, viz : avoir, to have ; etre, to be ; savoir, to know ; and vouloir, to be willing. As to the third persons (singular and plural) of the imperative, they are invariably the same as those of the present of the subjunc- tive, as may be seen. Here it is clear, that under the pen of such a master as Racine, Hyppolite could not speak in the subjunctive, for he has no doubt that Thes^e is his father, and Phedre, to whom he speaks, his step-mother. Then the quota, tion is very correct, but it cannot be admitted to be a particular rule in the language ; it comes under the same one which is the object of our present in- vestigations. However, should we admit, for a moment, that exception to be a rule, how easy it would be still to prove it erroneous ! Let us see. But, lest any other writer should be thought inferior to Racine, we shall take two examples from Racine himself: "Entre Taxile et vous s'il fallait prononcer, _. Le croyez-vous, seigneur, qu'on me vit balancer ?" " Mais croyez-vous qu'un prince enfi^ de tant d'audace, De son passage ici ne laissdt point de trace ?" — Racine. There are two cases in which the interrogation is made by way of an " oratorical figure" also, and yet the poet uses the subjunctive. How is it then ? Either our grammarians or Racine must be wrong. Which is it ? Not Racine. He employs the subjunctive, because he speaks conditionally ; and the condition on which he makes the interrogation is somewhat equiva- lent to a doubt in his mind ; whence we are obliged to conclude that the gram- marians' exception to their rule is still exceptionable, and, therefore, nei- ther can be depended upon. Our best writers are filled with such examples as we have given. We may say — Croyez-vous que quelqu'un pent dire que je Vai trompe? or, Croyez-vous que quelqu'un puisse dire que je I'aie trompe ? And both sentences are good, but with a difference of sense, as we have said before, which depends upon the speaker's opinion. Shall we give more authorities ? we have only to open books : " Quel est, au contraire, le Remain qui ait dit k sa repubhque que ses conquetes devaient la mener i sa ruine ?" — Mably. 44 FRENCH SIMPLIFIED. 44. — From the preterit definite is formed the imperfect of the subjunctive, by changing aiinto asse, for the verbs of the First Conjugation ; a.s,fexistai, que j'existawe; parlai, parlasse ; mangeai, mangea^^e ; allai, aWasse ; payai, ^B.y asse, &c., and by adding se, for all the other conjugations : j'eus, que j'eus^e; Jus, fusse ; Jinis, finisse ; rendis, rendis^e; ouvris, ouvris^e ; dormiSf dormisse; vins, yinsse ; craignis, craignis^e/ dis,d.isse; riduisis, reduisis^e / plus, plusse; cow^m, compris^e / misy misse; recus, recusse, &c. No exception. 45. — The PAST participle serves to form all the compound tenses, vs^ith the assistance of the verb avoir or Hre: ^ai ex- ists , nous avons Jini, vous avez jparle ; ^avais Jini, ils avaient donne ; yaurais dormi, il serait alU, vous seriez venu, &c. No exception. " Quoi done ! n^est-ce pas assez que nous soyons attaques au dedans et au dehors par toutes les puissances temporelles ?" — Bossuet. " Pensez-vous que les Anglais memes ne lui aient pas d'obligation ?" Voltaire. " II (Montaigne) avait etudie les grands g6nies de I'ancienne Rome DoiUon s'etonner que son ouvrage porte, pour ainsi dire, leur marque, PARAissE, du moins pour le styie, ecrit sous leur dictee ?" — M. Villemain. The third rule of the grammarians says : " The subjunctive is required after a uni-personal verb, or employed uni-personally : *' il convient ^ il faut I ,., „ il est juste r ^^^^^'^^^^- il semble J And why is it so ? Because neither of those phrases expresses anything certain. On the contrary, in each the speaker announces an event or action uncertain, or dependent upon the will of another person ; he has a doubt with regard to the accomplishment of what he says ; hence the subjunctive is used. II convient implies a duty or wish ; il faut, a necessity ; il est juste, an obligation; il semble most frequently implies some doubt, for what seems might not be real; and the use of the subjunctive in this case depends on what is passing in the speaker's mind ; but if the appearances or circum- stances are such as to leave no doubt, either the indicative or the conditional is used after il semble, and we have a great many examples of it. " II semble qu'on/cfZ un crime au reste des hommes" — Massillon. " II semble, mes freres, que je ne devrais ouvrir la bouche que pour demander grace." .... — Le cardinal Maury. Eloquence. " II semble, qu'un sentiment secret avertit sans cesse le premier (Phi- lippe) qu'il n'est parvenu k cette haute Elevation qu'&, force de travaux." Barthelemy. "IZ semble que la profanation des lois et la corruption des mceurs n'Hai- eni k ses yeux (Alcibiade) qu'une suite de victoires remport^es sur les mceurs et sur les lois.'' — Idem. FORMATION OF THE TENSES. 45 /1,6» — The verbs that are not submitted to the preceding rules in every respect, are more or less irregular, and require particular attention. They are few in number, and none of them is entirely irregular. Every irregularity will come in turn under our notice. 4:T. — We see, then, that there are five tenses v^^hich help to form the others, to wit: the j)?'esent of the infinitive, the present jparticijple, the past participle, the 'present of the indicative, and the preterit definite ; and for that reason they are called 'primitive tenses, and those which they form have been denominated deri- vative tensres. The 'primitive tenses have no other formation than from their roots; therefore, it is necessary to know one verb of each con- jugation, in order to be able to conjugate every verb belonging to the same. When the root of any verb undergoes material alterations in the course of its conjugation, those fiwe primitive tenses are given in the dictionary, (not a pocket dictionary,) and when the verb is quite irregular, every tense and person are given. But, in order better to understand the difference, let us compare the two moods : "WITH THE mDICATIVE. WITH THE SUBJUNCTIVE. " iZ semhle qu'ci mesure qu'il se " II semble qa^'[[{Platon) eut con. d^tache de la terre, il prend quelque temple et vu de pres cette beaut^ chose de cette nature divine et incon- ^ternelle dont il parle sans cesse, et nue qu'il va rejoindre." — Thomas. que par une meditation profonde il Veut transportee dans ses ecrits." — Thomas. The writer is speaking of the death Here, the same writer, speaking of of Marc-Aurele, and what he says the ancient philosopher, and struck seems so true that he can have no with the sublimity of his works, is doubt it is really so ; thus, he says, almost inclined to believe what he prend, and not prenne. says, yet, the probability not being strong enough, he suspends his judg- ment, and remains in a doubt which he expresses twice by the subjunctive eut, and not avait. The same difference exists between the following : WITH THE INDICATIVE. WITH THE SUBJUNCTIVE. *' Il semhle que la nature avail es. II semhlait qu'il (Alexandre) Ti'eut saye do r^unir en lui (Alcibiade) tout conquis que pour etre le monarque ce qu'elle peut produirede plus fort en particulier de chaque nation." . . . . vices et en vertus." — Barthelemy. Barthelemy. *' Il semhle que I'un imite Sopho- II semhle qu'il y ait plus de resem- cle et que I'autre <^0fi plus &, Euripide.'* blance dans les po^mes de Racine* La Bruyere. et qu'ils tendent un peu plus h. une meme chose." — La Bruyere. 46 FRENCH SIMPLIFIED. But he who knows the formation of the tenses well, together with the few exceptions, has no need of a dictionary for that purpose, either in writing or speaking, and is always sure to use every verb properly, whilst one unacquainted with the same will frequently be embarrassed, and perhaps murder the lan- guage. THE SECOND CONJUGATION CONTINUED. 48. — After the principles established in the preceding ob- servations, it is evident that the j^i;e primitive tenses of one regu- lar verb of each conjugation are sufficient to make us acquainted with the conjugation of every regular verb belonging to that conjugation. Thus, the conjugation of all verbs of the first conjugation is reduced to the knowledge of these five words : Exister, existant. exists, yexiste, yexistai. 40, — The same thing happens for the verbs of the Second Conjugation. We find every tense and person of Finir, reca- pitulated in its ^ye primitives, which are : " 11 parait que Bossuet n'etait pas " Ilsemhle que I'un (Corneille) ait moins occupd de ses propres triomphes mis son amour-propre &. d^fier la cri- que de ceux du Christianisme." — La tique, et I'autre (Racine) &- la d^sarm- Harpe. er," — La.Harpe. " II semhle au contraire que Fen^. " 11 semhle que tout se taise au- Ion parlait de la vertu comme on tour de lui." — Idem. parle de ce qu'on aime." — Id. " II semhle que la nature se plait ^ *' Qui n'a pas entendu parler des entasser les germes productifs." chiens de la Siberie ? II semhle Lacepede. neanmoins qu'on h'ait pas assez *' 77 semhle que nous avons suce un celebr6 leur intelligence." — poison lent." — Massillon. ^^ Dr- Alibert. Fhysiologie des passions. After so many examples, which could be easily continued to thousands ; after so much evidence, and agreeably to reason, good sense, and the true character of the language, the writer of these notes may be allowed to say : " 11 semhle que la rfegle des grammairiens est fausse, et qu'elle li'est propre qu'&,induire les el^ves en erreur." The exception to the last rule we have examined, is : — " II semble, ac companied by an indirect personal ohject, il y a, il parait^ il resulte, il est certain, il est vrai, and some other uni-personal verbs which express something positive, require the indicative^ That is to say, uni-personal, as well as other verbs that express doubt, require the following verb to be used in the subjunctive, and such as do not, require the indicative. There are their rules and exceptions together, and such is the principle we are maintaining. If the exception we have just quoted is not useless, it only serves to nullify the rule to which it is appended. // me semble means, and is used for, je crois; how could it then require the subjunctive? REGULAR VERBS, in IR, CONTINUED. 47 Finir, Jlnissant, Jini, je Jinis, ]e finis ^ and with which the whole conjugation, not only of that verb, but of nearly three hundred others, as said before, or rather every one having its root in ir, and not mentioned hereafter, is easily obtained by attending to the rules given on the formation of the tenses. 50« — The following, although perfectly regular, deserve a particular notice; their present participles not ending in issant. It will suffice to give the primitive tenses. 51.— Root. SENTIR, to feel. Tres. Tart. Past Fart. Ind. Pres. Preterit definite. Sentant. Senti. Je sens. Je sentis. Like Sentir, are conjugated : C onsen tir, to consent. Partir,* to set out. Pressentir, to foresee. Repartir,* to set out again, Ressentir, to resent. Departir, to distribute. Mentir, to lie. Sortir,* to go out. Dementir, to give the lie. Ressortir,* to go out again. Se Repentir,* to repent. * Those marked with an asterisk take the auxiliary etre in their compound tenses. But repartir means also to reply ^ and in this sense it takes avoir ; it must not be confounded with Repartir, to distribute, to assess, which is conjugated like^nfr, its present participle he'iwg repartissant, &ce. Assortir., to match, has also its pres. part, in issant, and thus belongs to the same class as finir. The fourth rule of our grammarians tells us to use the subjunctive : — " After a relative pronoun, or the adverb oil, when preceded by either LE SEUL, PEU, le premier, or an adjective in the relative superlative de- gree ;" and the following examples accompany that rule. " Le chien est le seul animal dont la fidelite soiT h I'epreuve." — (Buffon.) '•' II y a peu d'hommes qin sachent supporter I'adversite." — {Massillon.) " C'est la seule place oil vous puissiez aspirer." — (Acad.) " Detestables flatteurs ! present le plus funeste, Que PUissE faire aux rois la vengeance celeste." — (Eacine.) No exception is given to this rule. Very well, then. But read the following quotations, which will show how true such rule is : " Yoilh le premier livre (I'univers) que Dieu a montre aux hommes" .... Massillon. " Le peu d'eau que I'on jetait k la hate ne fesait que nourrir ce vaste embrasement." — Le Dr. Alibert. *' C'est le seul fard que met la Volupt^." — Pakny, La rose. 48 FRENCH SIMPLIFIED. To the preceding list we might add a few more verbs, such as dormiry servir, &c., which undergo precisely the same in- flections as sentir, but it will cost very little to give a few more primitives. 52.— Root. DORMIR, to sleep. Pres. Part. Past Part. Ind. Pres. Preterit Def. Dormant. Dormi. Je dors. Je dormis. And those of the same family : Redormir, to sleep again Endormir, to cause to sleep S'endormir, to fall asleep Se Rendormir, to fall asleep again follow the same inflections. 5Z.—Root. SERVIR, to serve. Past Part. Ind. Pres. Servi. Je sers. And likewise Desservir, to clear the table. Pres. Part, Past Part. Ind. Pres. Pret. Def. Servant. Servi. Je sers. .fe servis. " Et peut-etre ta plume aux censeurs de Pyrrhus Doit les plus nobles traits dont tu peignis Burrhus." — Boileau. " Le pire des etats, c'est I'dtat populaire, Et toutefois le seul qui dans Rome peut plaire." — Corneelle. *' C'est le seul peuple dont les moeurs peuvent se depraver sans que le cceur se corrompe." — DrcLos. " La seule habitude que I'on doit laisser prendre ^ I'enfant, c'est de n'en contracter aucune." — J. J. Rousseau. " Le chien fait tourner tous les jours au profit de I'horame les dons les plus rares dont la nature I'a comble." — Alibert, Pliys. des passions, " Mon cceur est en repos quand il est aupres de vous : c'est son ^tat naturel, et le seul qui peut lui plaire." — 31me. Sevi&ne. " Si vous vouliez leur enlever la senile idee de bonheur a laquelle ils peuvent se prendre, fermez aussi de vos propres mains la seule ouverture qui laisse arriver jusqu'^ eux quelques rayons de lumiere." Necker. Opinions religieuses. " Ce service, monseigneur, n'est pas le seul jw'on attend de vous." BOSSUET. " Locke est le seul que je crois devoir excepter." — Condillac. *' Le peu de commerce que I'on fesait ^tait d^savantageux." — Voltaire. ** Le peu de plaisir que j'y prends." — J. J. Rousseau. " Le peu de bien que j'ai," &c. &c., 1'Academie, Laveaux, and, in short, all our good writers and grammarians. B.EGULAR VERBS, in IR, CONTINUED. 49 54:— Root. BOUILLIR, to boil Pres. P. Past P. Ind. Pres. Bouillant. Bouilli. Je bous. Pret Def. J© bouillis, In the same way we have : Rebouillir, to boil again ; and jfibouilUr, ?o ^oz7 aiuay ; this latter is seldom used, except in its root and past participle ; and bouillir and rebouillir are chiefly used in their third per- sons. 5^» — Root. FUIR, to run away, to shun, to flee. Pres. P. Past P. Ind, Pres. Pret. Def. Fuyant. Fui. Je fuis. Je fuis. This having a y in its pres. participle, it must preserve the same in the derivatives, except when follov/ed by e mute, for which see page 19. On the plan oi fuir we conjugate s'e7ifuir, to fly, to run away. ^^.—Root. VETIR, to clothe. Pres, P. Past P. Ind. Pres. Pret. Def. Vetant. Vetu, Je vets. Je vetis. Rev^tir, to clothe, to invest, and se D^vHir, to divest one's- self, are conjugated like v^tir. Thus, it is clear enough that the grammarians' rule is very far frona being correct ; and the more we examine the subject, the more we are -convinced that there is but one rule to be followed. Either the indica- tive or the subjunctive may be employed ; but, as aforesaid, with an es- sential difference of idea. He who uses the indicative must be quite cer. tain that what he says is really so, or at least he firmly believes it, and has no hesitation in expressing his opinion. On the contrary, he who uses the subjunctive, alihough sometimes pretty sure, perhaps, of the fact, there seem to be cases in which he dares not positively assert or affirm, •and prefers to leave it for the reader to decide the question. Indeed, the subjunctive is very frequently used in such cases as the ex- amples we have just given, and similar ones ; but the reason is most ob- vious : it is because we generally speak in the superlative degree figura- 'tively, or by way of a sort of exaggeration; and this happens in English, as well as in French. When one saya, foT instance, John is the laziest boy that can be seen ; Jean est le gar9on le plus paresseuz qu^on pmssE voir ; who would be bold enough to use the indicative in such case ? And again, if any one should tell me in French, with the indicative : " Here is the sweetest, the most studious and diligent girl that people ever knew," I would say the assertion is untrue and unjust, because I know there are thousands of girls who are as sweet, studious and diligent as any can be, and, in fact, every one «f them who wishes to be, is really so. 5 BO FRENCH SIMPLi:e*lEI>* S7.—Rooi. OUVRIR, to open. Pres. F. Past P. hid. Pres. Pret. Def. Ouvrant. Ouvert. J'ouvre. J'ouvris. On the same plan we have : Couvrir, to.cover. Decouvrir, to uncover. Rouvrir, to open agoin. Offrir, to offer. Entr'ouvrir, to open hut a little. Mesoffrir, to underbid. Kecouvrir, to cover again, SoufFrir, to suffer, ^S.—Root. TRESSAILLIR, to start. Pres. P. Past P. Ind. Pres. Pret. Def. Tressaillant. Tressailli. Je tressaille. Je tressaillis. Assaillir, to assault, adopts the same inflections. 59. — The learner ought to write down several of those verbs, in ordcy to familiarize himself with the rules on the formation of the tenses ; and the reciting of them over and over again, is an excellent exercise for pro- nunciation. They are quite regular, and their roots undergo but very little change, even less than those conjugated like finir. Why then should we Bnake the students believe those thirty-eight verbs are irregular ? It would be unjust. And, to say the least, it must have been through mistake that some persons have endeavoured to propagate such errors, which are calcu- lated to prevent young students from progressing in the language rapidly, by showing them difficulties where none exists at all. When Massillon says : *• II y a peu d'hommes qui sackent supporter I'adversit^," he is compelled to use sachent, and not savent, because it is im- possible for him to know how many men there are who know how to bear or sufier adversity J and besides, the first part of his sentence being negative and doubtful, he could not rriake it affirmative in the latter part, and so on. When Buffi)n used the subjunctive, in the passage already given of him, and also in the following, " La plus noble conquete que I'homme ait jamais faite, est celle du cheval,"he was pretty sure of what he said ; but a secret fear of being questioned, seems to restrain his judgment, and his language is very correct. It is proper to remark, that le seul, le premier, Vunique, &c., are frequently equivalent to a superlative relative, especially when followed by a relative provbiin. The fifth rule of our French grammarians is nothing but a repetition, and even a contradiction of what they have said before. However, we translate it here, because it serves to confirm and strengthen our own principle on this important subject : " The subjunctive takes place after a relative pronoun, or the adverb oil, when the following verb expresses something doubtful, uncertain. Examples .' Je cherche quelqu'un qui me kende ce service ; — je sollicite une place que je PUissE remplir ; — j'irai dans une retraiteowje sois tranquille. Remark, that we may very well say also : qui me rendra ce service ; que je puis rem- plir ; oii']e serai tranquille ; but the sense would not be the satne." It should not be called a particular rule ; all comes within the same. Their sixth rule says that the subjunctive is used. — " After quelque ...» REGULAR VERBS, in IR, CONCLUDED. 51 60. — It has been pretended and asserted that those verbs, not being exactly similar to jinir or punir, must be irregular. Strange reasoning! Indeed, if one considers the subject but mechanically, it may appear so ; but let the reader examine it under a rational and philosophical point of view, and he will see precisely the reverse, that is, if any irregularity exists, it is in the verb jinir and its followers ; for the thirty-eight we have above mentioned, form their present participles, and almost all their other primitive tenses, from their roots most regularly ; as dormir, dormant, sentir, sentant, servir, servant, ouvrir, ouvrant, &c. Whilst Jinir, punir, and the others, having their present participles in issant, as Jinir, Jinissant, choisir, choisis. sant, punir, punissant, take one syllable more. Give to a beginner the roots Jinir, sentir, dormir, servir, offrir, parler, donner, and tell him to conjugate those verbs, when he knows the first conjugation; he will most certainly say and write, " finant, nous finons, je finals, que je fine," sentant, dormant, nous servons, offrant, &c. Thus, he will be correct in all, except in Jinir, Now, where is the irregularity ? Not among those they would make us believe to be irregular. Then the question seems to have been viewed on the wrong side. 61. — After what we have observed in speaking of the first conjugation, and. what we see respecting the second, to judge of the regularity or irregu- larity of a verb by its comparison to another, must be a bad inference and a gross error, which proves to be any thing but beneficial to the students, who, being unable to judge for themselves, are naturally apt to believe every thing they find in a book. A list of five hundred irregular verbs, as given in some grammars, and without a method to learn them, is certainly proper to discourage the most sanguine scholar. To study in such a manner, and without knowing how and why so and so, is wasting time and trouble ; for many years will not suffice to acquire a sound and durable knowledge of the subject. Whilst, if those verbs are presented in a proper light, and studied in a rational and methodical manner, the memory is reheved, the que, quel que, quoi que : examples, quelque riche que vous soyez ; quels que soiENT V03 talents ; quoi que vous disiez." And why is it so ? Because none of those expressions affirms in a positive manner ; they all imply uncertainty or doubt. In another rule we are told that — " Certain conjunctions, such as, ajin que, a moins que, avant que, bien que, de crainte que, pour que, &c.," govern the subjunctive ; and " that others, such as, de jagon que, de sorte que, de mani- ere que, si ee n'est que, si non que, sometimes require the subjunctive, and sometimes the indicative : the subjunctive, when the idea is doubtful and dependent on futurity ; examples : conduisez-wous de maniere que vous ob- TENiEz I'estime des honnetes gens ; and the indicative, when the idea is positive, and relating to the present or past time ; ils'est conduit de mani- ere qu'W a obienu I'estime des honnetes gens." That is all they say in this rule, which, like the others, is very far from being plain and satisfactory. Those rules are pretty much the same in all our French grammars ; in fact, they are compiled from one another. Let us pursue a little further our investigations, without departing from the principle we have adopted and supported from the beginning of the subject. From all that we have already said, it is perfectly clear that the relative pronouns qui, que, dont, oil, &c., or the conjunction que, and many others, by either of which the verb in the subjunctive is always preceded, have not the least influence over it, since the indicative is also used after them. It is the same with conjunctions. It seems to me that conjunctions have nothing to do with the government 52 FEENCH SIMPLIFIED. irregularities or difficulties vanish, and few days suffice to make an intelli- gent learner master of the subject, and he is never liable to forget what he has learned. 62. — The verb finir^ having been conjugated throughout, will serve as a guide for the others, of which only the first person singular of the primitive tenser is given. The three persons singular of the present indicative ending in s, s, t, as je finis, tu finis, ilfinit, when we know the first person of that tense, nothing can be easier than to obtain the two others. For instance, having je dors, we have only to continue, tu dors, il dort; je mens, tu mens, il ment; je sers, tu sers, il sert ; je hous, tu hous, il hout, &c. (For the three persons plural, see the rules of the formation, page 40.) Observing that those having e mute in the first person, continue the same in the two other persons, like the verbs of thei first conjugation j as ]'ouvre, tu ouvres, il ouvre; je souffre, tu souffres, il soufire; je tressaille, tu tressailles, &c., those three persons having always the same number of syllables in every verb respectively. And the preterit ending in is, isf it, imes, ties, irent, as finis, finis, finite fimmes, finites, finirent, it is easy enough to continue, je dormis, tu dormis, il dormit, nous dormimes, vous dormites, ils dormirent, and the rest. 63* Remarks. — Let us observe that, arrived here, we are acquainted with the conjugation of almost all French verbs, >or at least, nearly six tkousand, though we have conjugated but three or four of 4liem, besides the two auxiliaries avoir and etre. The advantage of our system is already obvious of itself, and needs no argument. What can be the use for printing the whole conjugation of each of those verbs, as some have done 1 Such methods only speak to the eyes, fatigue the memory to no purpose, say nothing to the intellect, of the subjunctive ; and the last two examples we have quoted from Messrs. Noel & Chapsal's Grammar serve to support this opinion. " Conduisez-\ous de maniere que vous obteniez I'estime des honnetes gens." Here the speaker cannot use the indicative, according to the genius of the language, because the first verb (conduisez-voiis) expresses command, since it is in the imperative, and therefore it implies the misk or desire of be- ing obeyed ; hence a doubt presents itself. This is not all. Not only the exe- cution or accomplishment of the action ordered or recommended,, depends upon the will or capacity of the person spoken to, but yet the principal object in view, or the efficacy of the action commanded, which is to obtain the es~ teem of good people, depends both upon the judgment and willingness of the many persons spoken of, and futurity ; all is uncertain and doubtful, hence the subjunctive ; but the conjunction, de maniere que, has not the least parti- cipation in it ; and the following example, also given by the same gramma- rians, fully corroborates the fact : " II s'est conduit de maniere qu^W a ohtenu I'estime des honnetes gens." It is the very same conjunction in this latter sentence, and yet the indicative is used, because the speaker or writer simply relates a fact which is past or ac- complished, and well known to him ; there is no command, no fear, no wish, no doubt, and the conjunction has no more to do with the indicative than with the subjunctive. It is true that there are conjunctions after which the verb is always put in the subjunctive, such as : afin que, de crainte que, suppose quc^ soit que, avant que, jusqWd ce que^ quoique, pourvu qucy a moins que, depeurque, bien que, pour que ^ sans que, an cas que^ &c.» IRREGULAR VERBS, in IR. 53 and can give but doubtful and unsatisfactory results. Let the student re- flect on what we have said, and examine for himself what is passing in the course of a conjugation, and instead of taking much pain to commit to memory fifty or a hundred pages of conjugated verbs, he will readily perceive that he knows them perfectly without having ever studied the same. He only wants to remember five words. 64. — It is proper to remark, as we have before said, that we might have dispensed with making separate articles of the verbs Dormir and Servir, and, perhaps, a few others ; for they undergo the very same inflections as Sentir. And the good Abbe de Levizac, in his well known grammar, which has produced so many bad imitations, had judiciously placed those verbs under the same category. The New- York editions of Levizac's- Grammar are genuine. IRREGULAR VERBS OP THE SECOND CONJUGATION. 6S>. — The compound tenses being never irregular, we need not give them ; it is, besides, very easy to have them when the past participle is known. The irregularities are printed in italics. but it is because they are not used except in sentences that imply some degree oi fear, ignorance, desire, supposition, doubt. There are others, such as : ainsi que, attendu que, parce que, aussihien que, vu que, puisque, &c., after which we always use the indicative, because we never employ them except in sentences that express something positive. We are told that some conjunctions sometimes govern the indicative, and sometimes the subjunctive, but this is not true ; they govern nothing. Either of the two moods takes place after such conjunctions, because they are used in sentences that imply doubt, as well as in those which do not. The conjunctions we have mentioned, as well as many others of the same kind, are compound words, of which que forms a part, and it is proper to re- mark that the verb in the subjunctive is always preceded by this conjunction, que, either alone or combined with other words, or by one of the relative pronouns, qui, que, dont, &c., but, as already stated, they precede as often the indicative as the subjunctive. And, therefore, for the proper use of either mood, we must depend neither upon such words, nor upon any peculiar con- struction of a sentence, such as interrogations or negations, and the many other very imperfect rules we find in our grammars. We must not stop at the materiaUty, the external form of words or sentences ; the true and infalli- ble rule is in their real meanings, as our best writers show in their constant practice, and as we observe in the conversation of persons of sound edu- cation, and who know the language thoroughly. We have observed that there are sentences in which either the indicative or the subjunctive may be used, according to the idea one has in view to communicate ; but it must be observed, also, that sometimes there is no al- ternative. For instance, when I say : " Je crois que la regie est facile," here I could not use the subjunctive, soix, without being in contradiction with myself, since I would express a d'oubt in the latter partof ray sentence. 54 FRENCH SIMPLIPIETI?. INFINITIVE. PRESENT. To hold or to kee^), Tenir. PRESENT PARTiCPLE. Holding, Tenant. FAST PARTICIPLE. Held, Tenu. INDICATIVE. PRESENT. je tiens nous tenons tu tiens vous tenez il tient ils tiennent IMPERFECT. Je tenais, &c. (See exister,) PRETERIT DEFINITE. je tins nous tinmes tu tins vous tlntes il tint ils tinrent FUTURE. Je fiendrai, &c. CONDITIONAL. Je tiendrais, &e. while, in the first part, I make a direct and posiiive affirmation by the ex- pression ^'e crois. And, on the contrary, when I say : " Je ne crois pas que la r6gle soix facile," if I should use the indicative, (est,) it is evident that I would also contradict myself, for I would affirm at the end of my sentence what I positively deny at the beginning of it. I may say either with the indicative or the subjunctive : " II ne croit pas que la rfegle est facile," or " II ne croit pas que la rfegle soiT facile." But here I do not contradict myself in using either est or soU, because what is expressed in the first part of the sentence is not my own idea ; it is not I who do not believe, {ne croit pas ;) it is I who am speaking or writing the sentence ; but I am relating or transmitting the opinion of a third person, il, he ; and as the fii'st part of the sentence implies a doubt, if I share that doubt, I use the subjunctive soit ; but if no such doubt exists in my own mind, or in other words, if my opinion is different from that of the person spoken of, I use the indicative est, and in this way I am contradict- ing an individual, but not myself. NoTA. — The French verb Esperer, which we translate by to hope, does not imply such a degree of doubt as to require the subjunctive ; it always expresses a confidence founded on some motive, and therefore the indicative is used after it : "J'esjjere que vous comprendrez les vrais principes de la langue, et que vous ne les oublierez jamais." We make this observation lest those who do not understand the real signification of this verb, should believe it is an exception. The scholar will remark that the first part of the sentence is sometimes understood, as in the following examples : PxjissiEZ-voTTS etre toujours heureux ! PuissENT-iLS apprendre la langue en six mois I PuissiEz-vous r^ussir ! Honni soit qui mal y pense I &c. IRREaULAR VERBS, ill IR. 55 IMPERATIVE. tiens tenons qu'il tienne tenez qu'elle tienne qu'ils tiennent SUBJUNCTIVE. PRESENT. c{MQ '^Q tienne que nous tenions que tu tiennes que vous teniez qu'il tienne qu'ils tiennent. Imperfect. — Que je tinsse, &;c. If the learner should not know how to recite and write down the whole of the tenses of which only the first person is given, he will look at the conjugation of the verb Jinir; and if the first person only is there, he will go to the conju- gation of exister. 66. — Thus we see that the irregularities of that verb are not consider- able. The doubling of n in some cases, takes place in consequence of what v/e have said, page 21 ; and now-a-days we may also spell tiene, tienent, the pronunciation being the same ; but it is as yet but very little the custom among French writers, although it is admitted to be perfectly correct. These are elliptical sentences ; the first parts, je veux,je desire, je souhaite que, . ... or il faut, il est necessaire, important que, .... being understood. Sometimes it happens, also, that the two parts of the sentence are trans- posed, and the verb in the subjunctive comes before the other, as : " Quoi que vous disiez, I'homme juste et constant dans ses principes vit en paix avec lui-meme." Let us further observe, that after verbs expressing /ear, such as craindre, avoir peur, apprehender, trembler, custom requires the use of ne before the verb in the subjunctive : Je crains que vous ne tombiez ; Nous avons peur qu'il ne soit malade j Vous apprehendez qu'il ne meure ; Je tremble qu'ils ne soient coupables. But this is the case only when neither of the two verbs is accompanied by a negation, or, in other words, when there is no negation in the English sen- tence ; for if the first verb is used in the negative form, the verb in the sub- junctive rejects ne : Je ne crains pas que vous tombiez ; Nous n^ avons pas peur qu'il soit malade, &c. The meaning in the first case, is: I fear, or am afraid you will fall ; and, in the latter case : I do not fear, or am not afraid you will fall. But if it is the second verb that takes the negative, then not only it is prece- ded by ne, but followed by pas or point, in the usual way, as :/ am afraid he will not corne ; Je crains qu'il ne vienne pas. Then, in the first instance, that nt; must not be considered a negation, and must be used without j3as ox point ; for if one of the latter is added, it chan- 56 FRENCH SIMPLIFIED. 67. — The following verbs, derived from the same source, admit the same terminations in every tense and person, and consequently are conjugated exactly like TENIR. s'absteni?', to abstain. entretenir, to entertain. appar^mzV, to belong. maintenir, to maintain. coutenir, to contain. ohtenir, to obtain. detenir, to detain. vetenir, to retain. soute?iir, to uphold, to maintain, to support. Those verbs, as may be seen, are nothing but tenir, with a prefix to each of them. So that, by joining the prefixes to every person of tenir alternately, we have the conjugation of each of those nine verbs very easily ; it is suffi- cient to know tenir. Therefore, instead of ten irregular verbs, there is in reality but one. 68. — VENIR,* to come, is also conjugated like Tenir; and this is so easily done that we have only to substitute a v in the place of the t throughout the verb. Thus instead of tiens, tenant, tenu, tenons, tins, tiendrai, tienne, &c., say viens, venanti venu, venons, vins, viendrai, vienne, and so on ; and all its kindreds, which are, cxvconveniT, to circumvent, prevenir, to come beforehand, convenir,* to agree, -proveni?;* to come from, contrevenir, to infringe, revenir,^ to come again, devenir,^ to become, xeAevenir,* to become again, dii^covivenir, to disagree, sxxhvenir, to come in help, iutQvvenir,^ to interfere, sur^Je;^^>,*to come unexpectedly, pa.rvenir,* to come to, se souvenir, to remember, se Tesaouvenir, to recollect, (* Compound tenses conjugated with etre.) ges the sense of the sentence : Je crains que vous ne tombiez pas, signifies / am afraid you will not fall. This practice of using ne as above, is borrowed from the Latins, who used the same before their subjunctive in similar cases, as : timed ne cadas, Ifear thou wilt fall, je crains que tu ne tombes. The same practice is observed after the conjunctive expressions a mains que, de crainte que, de peur que, and the verb empecher : d moins qu'A ne vienne ; de crainte qu'W ne soit malade ; de peur qWW ne parte ; vous empe. cherez qu'il ne vienne. And in this case it is so even when the other verb is used negatively : II ne viendrapas a moins que vousne l'invitiez ; Ne parlez pas si haut de erainte qW'A ne vous entende ; Je ne manquerai pas de leur donner beaucoup d'exemples, de peur qu''[\s n'oublient les rfegles ; L'ignorance, I'envie et lea pr^jugds n'empecheront pas que la vdrite ne paraisse dans tout son jour. But if the verb in the subjunctive is used nee-atively, then it requires the other ne- IRREGULAR VERBS, in IR. 67 follow the same model. So that, thus far we have but one irregular verb to ]earn, and yet it is but partly irregular ; several of its tenses and persons being regularly formed from the primitive tenses. Mark it well. We should have added to the latter list : ^venir, to happen, and mesavenir, to mishappen ; but these are scarcely ever used now. Formerly, they were only used in the third person singular of each tense. 69. — Remarks. — We give in English the signification of each verb as nearly as possible ; but the learner should bear in mind that a great many verbs are used in divers senses, and serve to convey quite different ideas, as it is the case in the EngHsh and other languages. Therefore, to ascertain the real value of a verb, those v^ho study without a teacher must have recourse to a good dictionary. For instance, v/e have translated convenir by " to agree ;" and in this case its compound tenses are used with the auxiliary ^tre ; but the same verb means sometimes to suitt to please, and with this signification it takes the auxiliary avoir. It should be also remembered that there are words in French, as well as in other languages, the exact and strict meaning of which cannot be rigor- ously conveyed by any word of a foreign tongue. Then it must be very difficult to acquire a sound and deep knowledge of a language without the assistance of a master, since the dictionary is sometimes of little avail ; except it is a large and complete one, in which full explanations and nume- rous examples are given. However, in practice, we need not be so particu^ lar. Yet it is difficult to read the authors with pleasure and delight, without gative besides ne : Vous apprendrez dtnoins que yous ne le votjliezpas, &c. The verbs nier, desesperer, disconvenir and duuter, also require the subjunc- tive which follows them to be preceded by ne ; but this is the case only when those four verbs have the negative form : Je ne nie pas que cela ne soit ; On ne doute pas que vous ne reussissiez, &c. The same takes place after nier and disconvenir, when they are inter., rogative : Nierez-vous que la sant^ ne soit pr^f^rable h la richesse ? But in both cases we find in our good writers many examples in which the rule is not ob- served, and it is for this reason that the French Academy approves of both practices, especially with nier and disconvenir. Thus, Je ne nie pas que cela ne soit, and je ne nie pas que cela soit, are equally good. TENSES OF the SUBJUNCTIVE. We have treated of the subjunctive mood in general, and it is now expect- ed that the scholar will sufficiently understand its true nature, and know in what cases it takes place. But this mood having four tenses, we have still to examine the nature of each of those tenses, as we have done for those of the indicative, for they cannot be employed indifferently, and their respective names, as we have remarked, page 2, are not always sufficient guides for the proper use of the verb. On this subject, French grammarians give the following rules and excep. tions : I. " When the first verb is either in the present or future of the indicative, the second verb is put in ihe present of the subjunctive, to express something present or future : 58 FRENCH SIMPLIFIED. being versed in their language. I have heard many persons, who knew se- several foreign languages, say that they could never feel the same pleasure in reading them as they did in reading their own ; whilst I know a great many others for whom there is no difference. The reason is too obvious to require any argument. Those who understand Latin well will be greatly assisted by it in study. ing French ; they will perceive that a great many of our verbs have been formed from that ancient tongue : Tenir, from tenere ; soutenir, sustenere, &c. ; Venir, from venire, circonvenir, circumvenire ; convenir, convsnire, &c. And these compounded bear their real signification in themselves; CONVENIRE, that is, venire cum, con being a kind of syncope or alteration from cum, with. Therefore, convenir means to come with, to come together, to be pleased with, to convene, to suit, to agree. Circumvenire, that is, venire CIRCUM, to come arowid, to surround, to encircle, to environ, whence to cheat, to deceive, to circumvent : and in French, circonvenir has been used in both senses, to surround, and to cheat or deceive ; but now it is not much used, except in the latter sense, as a law term only. Contrevenir, venir centre, to come against, (as if it were, againstcome,) to break, to oppose, to resist, to violate, to transgress, to infringe, &c. The English language has a great many of such compound words, as, to understand, undergo, underbid, gainsay, overcome, &c. Je desire Je desire } o j- Jedesirerai J que vous e^McZnez ; but in the preterit, to express something past : Je desirerai \ ^^^^°^^ ^^^^^ ^t^die. " Exception. Though the first verb be in the present or future, yet the second is used in the imperfect or pluperfect of the subjunctive, when some conditional expression accompanies the verb in the subjunctive : Je doute ) quails fissent des progr^ rapides, s^ils n^avaient un hon mci- Je douterai ^ tre. T do ler ' I ^^® votre frere eut reussi sans voire assistance." • II. " When the first verb is in the imperfect, either of the preterits, the pluperfect, either of the conditionals, the second verb is put in the imperfect, (of the subjunctive,) to express a present or future idea ; but it is put in the pluperfect, to express a past idea : Je douiais Vai doute Je doutai y avals doute Je douterais Taurais doute J '^'^ Exception. Instead of the imperfect, we use the present of the subjunc tive, if the verb expresses an action that is done at the time we are speak, ing, or that is done at all times ; but it is put in the preterit, to express an ac, tion past : II m'fl trahi quoiqu'il soit mon ami ; II a fallu qu'il ait sollicite ses juges." Such are the rules we find in the grammars most generally in use. In- deed, they cannot be called rules, for it is easy to perceive that each rule is nullified and blown off by the exception appended to it ; and the exceptions themselves are far from being correct. For instance, the exception to the first rule says, " that we must use the imperfect or the pluperfect, if there is que vous etudiassiez. que vous eussiez etudie. IRREGULAR VERBS, ill IR. 59 ■^O. — The following are perfectly regular, except in the future : PRESENT. PRESENT PARTICIPLE PAST PARTICIPLE. INFINITIVE. Courit, To run. Courant, Runjiing. Couru/ Run. INDICATIVE. PRESENT. je cours nous courons tu cours vous courez il court ils courant IMPERFECT. Je courais, &c. PRETERIT DEFINITE. je courus tu courua il courut nous courumes vous courutes ils coururent some conditional expression in the sentence ;" but this is a great error ; for even in the examples given -we may use i}\Q present and the preterit : ^ ^** ^ » qu'ils FASSENT des progrfes solides, sHls n'ont un ban maitre. je douterai Je doute je douterai Je doute Je doute > que votre frfere ait reussi sans voire assistance. que vous arriviez S. temps si vous partez si tard. que I'on comprenne vos regies si vous ne les expliquez pas mieut. Thousands of examples could be given, but let those rules stand as they are ; we are not writing a criticism, nor do we intend to establish any rule. Our sole object is to enable the pupil to discover the truth by himself, and those rules may assist him a little. Let us consider the subject under a point of view different from that of our grammarians, who have prefaced or accompanied their rules by the fol- lowing remark: — "The subjunctive being always dependent upon another Verb, it is the tense of the preceding verb that determines what tense of the subjunctive we must employ." This is evidently a mistake ; it is not the mere external figure of a word, but the idea we want to express, that deter- mines such a choice ; and of this we want no other proof than the rules and exceptions we have copied above. As we have seen, in treating of the other moods, verbs are used to express something either past, present or future; thus, to use the divers tenses properly, it is necessary to distinguish which of those ideas we have in view to express by each verb in the sentence, without any reference to what precedes or follows. Indeed, this will appear to be in perfect contra- diction with the assertions of our grammarians, but it is in perfect accord, ance with reason, analogy and facts. If the scholar can remember what we have said in speaking of the respec- tive tenses of the indicative and the conditional, he will understand the foL 60 FRENCH SIMPLIFIED. FUTURE. Je courraii &c CONDITIONAL. Je courrais, &c. IMPE RATI VE . Cours, coure, couron's, courez, courent. SUBJUNCTIVE. PRESENT. Que je coure, &c. IMPERFECT. Q,ue jc courusse, &c. Conjugate in the same way : accourir, to run to. parcowrzV, to run over. coxicourir, to concur. recGiirir, to have recourse. d-iQcourir., to discourse. secourir, to assist. eucourir, to incur. 'I',!,— FAILLIR, to fail, has only the follov^^ing forms *. ' INFINITIVE. Present. Faillir. Past Participle. Failli. Preterit Definite. Je faillis, &c. ( Seefinir.) lowing remarks without the least difficulty; for the tenses of the subjunctive are used in the same circumstances as those of the former moods, the only difference being that, in the indicative the expression is positive, whilst, in the subjunctive, it is doubtful, as we have seen. But the subjunctive has only four tenses, and this seems to be a conse. quence of our natural feelings or wants, for any expression which is dubious, or uttered with incertitude, need not be so much particularized as that which affirms in an open, direct and positive manner. And thus the present of the subjunctive is used in speaking of an action, or a state of being, either PRESENT or FUTURE. Therefore, when a verb is required to be in the subjunctive, if it is to ex- press either di present or future idea, we put it in the present, which answers for both tenses ; and this explains the reasan why, at the head of this tense, in conjugating the verbs avoir, etre and exister, we have given the same English forms as in the present and future of the indicative, a precaution not to be found in grammars, and yet most important, for the verb will fre* quently be in the subjunctive in French, when it must be in the indicative in English. The frequent mistakes committed by foreigners, on this subject, in speaking or writing, and translating French, may be attributed to the great inaccuracy or deficiency that exists in the grammars which have hitherto been in use. They all tell the pupil to translate the French sub- junctive quefaie, queje sois, queje parle, que je fiuisse, &c., hy that I may have, that I may he, I may speak, &c. Now remark, that there are comparatively but very few cases in which the French subjunctive can be rendered in English by the above form ; and, as a matter of course, such grammars induce the student into a double error ; for he believes the French verb is to be used in the subjunctive only when IREGULAR VERBS, in IR. 61 Subjunctive. Imperfect que je faillisse, &c. and its compound tenses, which are easily obtained with the past participle and the auxiliary avoir. N. B, In general, when one of the primitive tenses is wanting, its deriva- tives are also wanting; in faillir, two of the primitives are wanting. 72, — D£FAILLIR, to faint, is also used in the following forms only : INFINITIVE. Present. Defaillir. Present Participle. Defaillant. Past Participle. Defailli. INDICATIVE. Present, nous defaillons, vous defaillez, ils de- faillent. Imperfect. Je defaillais, &c. Preterit Definite. Je defaillis, &c. and its compound tenses ; but neither of those forms is much used now. 73.— MOURIR, to die. Present Part. Mourant. Past Part. Mort. INDICATIVE. PRESENT. je meurs tu meurs il meurt nous mourons vous mourez ils meurent the English verb takes the auxiliary mat, and the fact is, that may is often to be rendered in French by the indicative. Let us proceed by facts, which will say more than any possible argument. Comparison of the Present or the Subjunctive with its corresponding Tenses of the Indicative. N. B. The first column contains the verbs that are in the present of the subjunctive, and the second column shows, that by changing or removing the expressions or circumstances that require the subjunctive, the same verbs go to the present or tha future of the indicative, according to the idea. SUBJUNCTIVE. Je desire que vous compreniez. On souhaite que vous deveniez savans. Je doute que vous reussissiez sans un peu d'apphcation. On doutera que vous fassiez des progr6s. Je ne conviendrai jamais qu'il ait raison quand 11 a tort. 6 indicative. Je suis sur que vous comprendrez. On espere que vous deviendrez savans. Je crois que vous reussirez avec un peu d'apphcation. On verra que vous faites des pro- gxha. Je conviendrai toujours qu'il a rai- son quand il n'a pas tort. 62 FRENCH SIMPLIFIED^. IMPERFECT. Je mourais, &e. PRETERIT DEF. Je mouFus, &c. (See courir.) FUTURE. Je mourrai, &;c. CONDITIONAL. Je mourrais, &c. IMPERATIVE. Meurs, mourons, niourez. (Vide page 43.) SUBJUNCTIVE. PRESENT. que je meure que nous mourions que tu meures que vous mouriez qu'il meure qu'ils meurent IMPERFECT. Que je mourusse, &c. Conjugate the compound tenses with Hre» 74.— ACQU£l?IR, to acquire. Pres. Part. Acquerant. Past Part, Acquis. INDICATIVE. PRESENT. J acquiers tu acquiers il acquiert IMPERFECT. PRETERIT DEF. nous acquerons vous acquerez ils acquierent J'acquerais, &c. J'acquis, &c. (Vide Jinir.) II m'a trahi quoiqu'il soit mon ami. Quelque puissant qu'il sou, je ne le crains pas. Quelles que soient les lois, nous devons toujoiirs les respecter. .Te doute qu'il parte demain. On veut qu'elle soit instruite. Nous desirous qu'elle akkive bien- t6t. Ils souhaitent que vous sotez heu. reux. Doutes-tu qu'elle ecrixe mieux que toi? Quoiqu'il vienne cet apres-midi, il ne sera pas pay6. II me faut une table qui soit forte. J'ai prepare vos malles aiin que ■vous paetiez ayec nous. II ne m'a pas tralii parce qu'il est mon ami. Tout puissant qu'il est., je ne le crains pas. Telles que sont les lois, nous de- vons toujours les respecter. Je sais qu'il part ou partira demain. On espere qu'elle sera instruite. Nous croyons qu'elle arrivera hieru tot. lis pensent que vous serez heu- reux. Tu sais qu'elle ecrit mieux -que toi. Puisqu'il vierit cet apr^s midi, il sera paye. II me faut une table qui est dans le grenier. J'ai prepare vos malles puisque vous pariez avec nous. IRREGULAR VERBS, in IR. 63 FUTURE. CONDITIONAL. IMPERATIVE. V acqucrrai, &c. ^ J'acqueriais, &c. Acquiers, acquerons, acquerez. SUBJUNCTIVE. PRESENT. que j acqiiiere que nous acquerions que tu acqui^res que vous acqueriez qu'il acquiere qu'ils acquierent IMPERFECT, que j'acquisse, &c. {Finir.) In the same way are conjugated : Conquerir, to conquer, but not much used except in its root, present participle^ and past tenses ; Reconqutrir, to conquer again, same observation ; Requerir, to require ; S'enquerir, to inquire. Qu^rir to fetch, is only used in its root. Pres. Par. cueillant. IND. Pres. je cueille, &c, Pret. Def. je cueillis. coND. je cueillerais. SUBJ. Pres. que je cueille 75.— CUEILLIR, to gather, cueilli. je cueillais, &c. je cueillerai. Past Par, Iiwperf. Put. IMPERA. Imperf. cueille, &c. queje cueillisse. Son pfere a permis qu'elle viejntne ici tous les jours. J'ai ^crit par la poste afin qu'on me riponde plus t6t. Elle ne pourrait pas faire mon petit manage, quoiqu^elle pa-raisse tres-ro- buste. Vous auriez trouv^ mon vin agrd- able, quoiqu'il ne yaille pas le v6tre. On la croirait votre ain^e, bien qu'elle ait dix ans de moins que vous. II aura voulu que vous partiez, S'on pere a su qu'elle vient ici tous les jours, J'ai ecrit par la poste parce qu'on me repondra plus tot. Elle ne pourrait pas faire mon petit menage, parce qu'elle ne parait pas assez robuste. Vous auriez trouve mon vin agrd- able, mais il ne vaut pas le votre. On la croirait votre ainee, et ce- pendent elle a dix ans de moins que vous. II aura cru que vous partez. Preterit. In general, when the verb is required to be in the subjunctive, this tense answers for X\\q preterit indefinite and the future anterior of- the indicative. Examples. With the Subjunctive. With the Indicative. Je doute que vous ayez fini avant Je suis stir que vous aurez fini avant midi. midi, 64 ' FRENCH SIMPLIFIED. All regular except \Siq future, and the conditional^ of course. Accueillir, to welcome, and Recueillir, to collect, are conju- gated in the same manner. And likewise Saillir, to project; but this latter is only used in its third persons. Saillir, to gush, is regular, and follows the conjugation oijinir. Ouir, to hear, is only used in its root, past part, ovii, pref. definite, jouis, &c. subj. imperf. que jouisse, &c., and its com- pound tenses. Formerly the ind. fres. was : j'ozs, tu oz>, il oit, nous oyons, vous oyez, ils oient; imperf. yoyais, or rather oyois, &c. ; future, yoirai, &c. Fres. parti- ciple, oyant, and the rest ; but these forms are never used now ; we only mention it here for the benefit of those who may happen to read very old French books, or manuscripts. TG. — Benir, to bless, is perfectly regular, and belongs to the class oi finir ; but it has two past participles; heni/xo. speaking of persons, and hinit, when used for inanimate ob- jects, in the sense o^ hallowed. '77, — Hair, to hate, also conjugated like j'f^iV, makes in the three persons singular, present indicative, je 7iais, tu hais, il hait; and in consequence of its formation from tu hais, the second person singular of the imperative is hais/ all the rest is regular, the present participle being ha'issant, past participle hai, preterit def. je hais. T8. — Fleurir, to blossom, belonging to the same class, is likewise quite regular; but when used figuratively, meaning to jiourish, to he in a prosperous condition, then the present par- ticiple and the imperfect of the indicative Bxe Jlorissant, Jloris- Je Grains que vous ri'ayez pas etudii. Je sais que vous n^avez pas etudie. II est etonnant qu'il se soit trompe. II est Evident qu'il s^esi trompe. Elle nie qu'elle ait ecrit cette lettre. Elle avoue qu'elle a ecrit cette lettre. II n'est pas possible qu^elle ait cru II est certain qu'elle a cru cela. cela. Est-il certain que vous ayez He en 11 est certain que vous avez ete en Europe ? Europe. Elle touchait le piano ce matin, quoi- Elle touchait le piano ce matin, vu que vous le lui ayez souvent de. que vous le lui avcz souvent con- fendu. seille. Je douterai que vous ayez fait tons Je croirai que vous avez fait tous vos vos efforts. efforts. Nous ne partirons pas avant que vous Nous ne partirons que lorsque vous soyez arrive. serez arrive. Imperfect. In cases where the subjunctive takes place, this tense repre- sents the imperfect, the preterit definite of the indicative, and the present of the conditional. In the rules we have copied from grammarians, we are told that this subjunctive imperfect is used " to express di present or future action ;" but this is not clear ; they undoubtedly mean that it is so when IRREGULAR VERBS, Iq IR. 65 sail, instead o? Jleurissant, fleurissait, which are the forms of its proper sense ; but in all the other tenses, even in the figura- tive meaning, it preserves the orthography of its root. T"©. — Gesir, to lie down, is an old verb scarcely ever used now, except in the following forms : gisant, il gU, nous gisonSy ils gisenf, il gisait ; and particularly ci-git, here lies or rests, a formula in monumental inscriptions for the dead. THIRD CONJUGATION. (In oir.) 80. — The verbs of this conjugation are few in number, and, as we have said, they all present a few irregularities, according to the rules set down on the formation of the tenses. The cases deviating from said rules are printed in italics. INFINITIVE. PRESENT. Recevoir, To receive. PRESENT PARTICIPLE. Recevant, Receiving. PAST PART. Recu, Received. (See No. 17.) We shall not give the compound tenses, for it would be wasting paper and time uselessly. INDICATIVE, PRESENT. je regois nous recevons tu re^ois vous recevez il regoit • ils recoivenl IMPERFECT. Je recevais, &c. it has the signification oi \he present conditional: for, as we have remarked, this latter is used in speaking of something e\i\\eY present or future ; other- wise we believe it is difficult to find one case in which the verb in the imper. feet (subjunctive) is to be rendered in English by any form of \he present or xhe future tense. The subject will be made clear by the following Examples, With the Subjunctive. With the Indicative and the Conditional. II a d^sir^ que vous parlassiez en sa II a cru que vous parleriez en sa fa- fa veur. veur. Nous doutions que vous fussiez de Nous savions que vous Stiez de re- retour. tour. J'apprehendais qu'il n'ahusat de ma Je prevoyais qu'il dbuserait de mu confiance. confiance. Elle doutait que son p^re fut ]&.. Elle savoit que son pfere Hait \t, 6* 66 FRENCH SIMPLIFIED. PRETERIT DEFINITE. je re9us tu regus il recut FUTURE. CONDITIONAL. nous resumes vous regutes ils recurent Je recevrai, &:c. Je recevrais, &c. IMPERATIVE. recevoDS recevez qu'ils recoiveni SUBJUNCTIVE. PRESENT. que nous recevions que vous receviez qu'ils recoivent IMPERFECT. que nous recussions que vous recussiez qu'ils recussent In the same manner we conjugate : apercevoaV, to perceive reSevoir, to owe again concevoir, to conceive -percevoir, to collect devoir, to owe decevoir, to deceive Choir, to fall, now only used in that form. Ravoir, to have again, idem. regois qu'il recoive que je recoive que tu recoives qu'il recoive que je regusse que tu regusses qu'il recut Alexandre ordonna que tous ses su. jets 1'adorassent. Je voulais que vous ecrivissiez. Je sortis hier quoique je fusse malade. Alexandre ciut que tous ses sujeis Vadoreraient. Je pensais que vous ecririez. Je ne sortis pas hifir parce que je/us malade toute la journ^e. Pluperfect. In the case of the subjunctive, this tense is generally used for the pluperfect, or the preterit anterior of the indicative, and the two con- ditionals past, and may be accompanied by any tense of the indicative or of the conditional ; and it is used to express either a past or future anterior idea, like the conditional past. EXAMPLES. Je doute que vous eussiez acquis de si grandes connaissances sans voire application. Nous avons craint que vous ne fussiez parti sans nous. II ignorait que j'eusse emhrasse cette profession. Nous avions craint qu'ils ne se fussent egares. Je fus surpris qu'ils eussent fait si peu de progrfes. Je voudrais que vous eussiez fiki quand je reviendrai. iRREauLAR VERBS, in OIR. 67 81.— DfiCHOlR, to decay. Pres. part. Dechoyant, never used. Fast 'part. Dechu. Ind. Fres. Je dechois, &c. (No Imperfect.) Fret. Def. Je dechus, &c. Future. Je decherrai, &c. CoND. Je decherrais, &c. * SuBj. Fres. Que je dechoie, &c. Imperf. Que je dechusse, &c. Its principal use is in its root and past part. In the same manner is conjugated : £ciioiR, to fall to, to expire, to become due.; t^cheant, J^chu. It takes the auxiliary Hre, and is only used in the third persons of each tense, either simple or compound, and participles. 83.— MOUVOIR, to move (to put in motion.) Fres. part. Mouvant. Fast part. Mu. Ind. Fres. meus^ meus; meut ; mouvons, mouvez, meuvent. Imperf. mouvais. Fret. def. mus. Fut. mouvrai. Cond. mouvrais. Impera. meus, mouvons, mouvez. Subj. Fres. meuve, meuves, meuve ; mouvions, mouviez, meuvent. Imperf. musse, &c. In the same w^ay : t^mouvoir, to stir, to touch, to move the passions ; and Tromouvoir, to promote (in dignity,) chiefly used in its first form and past participle. II faudrait que nous eussions recite nos le5ons avant midi. Etc. Here may end our remarks on this subject ; the teachers and practice will do the rest. Indeed, we have gone farther than we intended, when we com- menced the article, but the matter seemed to require some development, in- asmuch as it is one of the most delicate parts of the language, and our gram- mars are very deficient on this, as well as on many other points. At first, I did not think of giving such notes in this work, and thus I was quite unpre- pared. Yet, imperfect as this sketch is, it is supported by indisputable facts, and may throw some light upon the matter, which for more than two centuries has been regarded as one of the greatest difficulties in the language. But a close investigation clearly shows that not the least difficulty exists. All our good writers of the seventeenth, eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, follow exactly the same practice. Those who wish to acquire a sound and sure knowledge of the language, should not too much depend upon the rules of grammars commonly used in schools ; there are many things which can be better explained in a class than in an elementary book ; and those who have not the advantage of studying under a competent teacher, should read and read over again such authors as 08 FRENCH SIMPLIFIED. 83.— PLEUVOIR, to rain. Pres.part. Pleuvant. Fast p. Plu. Ind. Pre*, ilpleut. Imperf. \\^\e\n3.\L Fret. Def.W plut. Fut. Wpleuvra. Condit. il pleuvrait. Subj. Fres. qu'il pleuve. Imjperf. qu'il plut. 84.— POUVOIR, to be able. Pre5. ^. Pouvant. Fast p. Pu. Ind. Fres. Je puis or peux, tu peux, il peut; nous pouvons, vous pouvez, ils yeuvejit. Imperf. je pouvais, &c. Fret, je pus, &c. B\t. ie pourrai, Sec. Cond. je pourrais. (No 1m- PERA.) SuBJ. Fres. que je puisse, &c. Imperf, que je pusse,' &:c. 85. — SAVOIR, to know (something.) Fres. p. Sachant. Fast. Su. Ind. Fres., sais, sais, salt; savons, savez, savent. Imperf. sa- vais, &c. Fret. Def. sus, &c. (See recevoir.) Fut. saurai. Cond. saurais. Imperat. 5ac^e, sache ; sachons.sachez, sachent. Subj. Fres. que jesache, &c. Imperf. que je susse, &c. 86.— ASSEOIR, to settle, to sit. Fres. p. Asseyant. Fast. Assis. Ind. Fres. J'assieds, tu assieds, il assied ; nous asseyons, vous asseyez, ils asseient. have become our classics, and compare them all. The writer of these notes has been often consulted on this and other grammatical points, by persons who are pretty good French scholars, and sometimes by anonymous letters through the post office, some of which are still on hand. Those persons had filled their heads with rules of grammar, and were at a loss to know why some of our writers of the highest celebrity, had sometimes made use of the indicative or the subjunctive, contrary to the rules of grammar. They were impressed with the idea that either the writers or tlae printers had committed errors ; and the truth is, that they took for errors expressions which are real beauties, and true efforts of genius and judgment. It is expected that the preceding remarks will supply the imperfections so much felt in French grammars now in use, and give full satisfaction to all those who may want information on this part of the French tongue. In concluding this subject, it may be well to observe to foreigners, that any French writer who should not faithfully adhere to the principles we have endeavoured to elucidate, would be thought'deficient in the knowledge of the language, and liable to criticism ; but in conversation, the Frencii, as well IRREGULAR VERBS, in OIR. 69 Imperf, J'asseyais, &c. Preterit Def. J'assis, &c.* Future. J'assi&ai, or ] asseiej-ai, &c. CoND. J'assierais or j'asseierais, &c. Impera. assieds, qu'il asseie, asseyoris, asseyez, qu'ils as- seient. (See No. 18.) Subj. Pres. que j'asseie, &c. Im- perf. que j'assisse, &c. In the same manner, rasseoir, to settle, to fix. S'asseoir, to sit down, is the same verb, but with this signifi- cation it is reflected in French, as the root indicates, and must be conjugated with two pronouns, and likewise se rasseoir, to sit down again, for which see page 27. Seoir, to fit, to become, is only used in the third per- sons ; scyant, il sied, ils siient ; il seyait, il siera, il sierait ; it has no compound tenses, and is seldom employed in any past tense, and never in its root. 87.— VOIR, to see. Pres. p. Voyant. Past. Vu. Ind. Pres. vois, vois, voit ; voyons, voyez, voient. Imperf. voyais. Pret. def. vis.* Fut. verrai. CoND. verrais. Impera. vois, voyons, voyez. Subj. Pres. voie, voies, voie ; voyions, voyiez, voient. Imperf. visse, &c. ; all regular e^ce^t future. Like voir are conjugated : 7x,evoir, to see again ; entrevo^V, to see but imperfectly, to have a glimpse of. * For those having their preterits in is, look zXfinir, instead oirecevoir. as other nations, are not so particular in their language. Indeed, in the present state of society in France, he who should be so far-fetched in his colloquial discourse as constantly to adhere to the minute rules of grammar, would be thought a mere pedant, and treated accordingly. Familiar con- versation necessarily allows and tolerates many liberties in the language, which must be easy and free ; and sometimes a little negligence, to a certain point, has rather more merit than too much precision or accuracy. Tant pis pour qui ne fait jamais de solecisme en parlant, says D'Alembert ; de tels parleurs prouvent ou quHls ri'ont pas dHdies a eux-memes, ou ils mon- trent de Vaffeciation, et leur langage est toujours ridicule. But in making this observation, we do not mean to say that the language should be murdered. There are rules which must be strictly observed; and too many faults, or even a few, if often repeated by a Frenchman, will soon betray a want of education. Of course we must speak the best we can, but without seeming to think of it. And this good habit of always expressing one's-self properly, is acquired by studying nothing but good models, and in the company of persons of education. 70 FRENCH SIMPLIFIED. Vrevoir, to foresee ; but this is perfectly regular, forming its future, je prevoirai, from its root, and, of course, cond. pre- voirais. Fourvoir, to provide, is likewise regular, ks/ulure and cond. being ^owxvoirai, pourvoirais ; but it ditfers from the others in its preterit def. which is je "poxixvus, &c. and in consequence of the rules on the formation of the tenses, the imperf. of the SUBJ. must be, que je Tpoxxvvusse, &c. Surseoir, to suspend, to postpone, to delay, a law term, is likewise conjugated as voir ; Sursois, &c. sursoyais, .... sur- sis, &c. but the future is regularly formed, (from the root,) sur- seairai, &c. Its past part, is sursis. 88.— VALOIR, to be worth. Pres.p. Valant. Past. Valu. Ind. Pres. vaux, vaux. vaut ; valons, valez, valent. Imperf. valais. Pret. valus. Put. vaudrai. Cond. vaudrais. Impera. vaux, valons, valez. SuBj. Pres. vaille,v allies, vaille, valions, valiez, vaillent. Im- perf. valusse, &c. In the same way we conjugate : Eqwivaloir, to be equivalent to. Revaloir, to return like for like. 'Prevaloir, to prevail, follow the same, but this one is en- tirely regular in the pres. of the subj., derived from the pres. In teaching a language we are obliged to present it in its best purity, but lest the pupils should think it difficult in their practice to observe all those niceties we have pointed out in our remarks, let me tell them that there are coniparatively few French people, and very few indeed, who know such peculiarities at all, because our grammars are far from being explicit, as we have seen. OF THE PAST PARTICIPLE. This part of our grammar, Uke the subjunctive, has made a great noise, and without cause, too. It has been a subject of dispute, or discussion, among our grammarians, for two or three centuries. They have made a mon- ster of it ; and it has been regarded as the greatest difficulty in the French language. We have had volumes upon volumes treating this question, which is almost nothing. Some grammarians have established on this sub- ject froni twenty to fifty rules and exceptions, whilst there are but two rules to be followed, and without exceptions. It is necessary first to observe that past participles are frequently used for adjectives, i.e., to express the qualities of nouns, as des Sieves appliques, les fivieres debordees, un theme bien ecrit, des lettres mal ecrites, Slc, then. IRREGULAR VERBS, ill OIR. 71 pari, que je pre vale, c«:c. and also, Se Vvevaloir, to take ad- vantage, to glory in. §^, — YOULOIR, to be willing, to wish, to necessitate, to want, to require, to prescribe, &c. Pres.p. Vouiant. Past p. Youlu. Tnd. Pres, veux, veux, veut ; voulons, voulez, veulent. Ini' per/, voulais. Pret. voulus. Put. voudrai. Cond. voudrais. Impera. veuille, veuillons, veuillez. SuBJ. Pres. veuille, veuilles, veuille ; voulions, vouliez, veuil- Jent. Imperf. voulusse, &c. f^©« — The following verbis only used in the third person sin- gular of each tense, it being one of those that grammarians call impersonal or uni-personal. Its real meaning cannot be given in English, word for word. FALLOIE,, to be necessary, obligatory, proper, requisite, imperious, needful, unavoidable, indispensable, it must, to want. (No Present Part.) Past p. Fallu. Ind, Pres. il faut. Imperf. il fall ait. Pret. Bef. il fallut. Put. ilfaudra. like adjectives, they agree in gender and number with the noun qualified, and, consequently, this has nothing to do with our present subject. NoTA. — To understand the two following rules well, it is necessary to dis- tinguish the subject to the verb, as well as its object ; and if the learner should be deficient on this point, the parsing of two or three sentences in the reading lessons, with the assistance of the teacher, will put him on the way. First Rule. — The Past Participle agrees in gender and number with the subject to the verb, only when said verb is the auxiliary eire, that is, when that participle is combined with this auxiliary. Examples. (The subject and ihe participle are in italics.) Les ecoliers diligens sont estiinis. Les eleves paresseux ne seront pas estimes. Ceux qui sont appliques seront recompenses. Ma sceur est appliquee, elle sera estimee. Elle estpartie ; elle sera bien regue. lis etaient partis ; ils ont ete bien regus. ^ Mon habit est hien fait ; ma robe est mSil faite. II a ^te puni ; elle serait punie. 72 FRENCH SIMPLIFIED. CoND. il faudrait. (No Impera.) SuBj. Present, qu'il faille. Imperf. qu'il fallut. The com- pound tenses are conjugated with avoir : il a fallu ; il avait fal- lu ; il aura fallu, &c. The infinitive is never used. 9 1 . — The last verb we have to mention of the Third Conjuga- tion, is nothing but the verb avoir, conjugated with y, there, prefixed to it in the third person singular only. PRES. PRES. PART PRETERITS. INFINITIVE. y avoir, there to he. y ayant, there heing. J y avoir eu, there to have been. \ y ayant eu, there having been. INDICATIVE. PEES. il y a PRET. IND. il y a eu IMPEKF. il y avait PLDPEEF. il y avait eu PRET. DEF. il y eut PRET. ANT. il y eut eu FUTURE. il y aura FUT. ANT. il y aura eu CONDITIONAL. PRESENT. il y aurait PAST. il y aurait eu SUBJUNCTIVE. PRES. qu'il y ait PRET. qu'il y ait eu IMPERF, qu'il y eut PLUPERF. qu'il y eut eu Nos amis sont venns. Ces dames sont-elles arrivees ? Mesdames, oti eles-vous allees ce matin ? Nous 6tions allees faire des visites. A quelle heure etes-vous revenues ? Elles sont rcntrees k dix heures et demie. Nous craignions qu'eZZe ne {nitombee. lis ne sont pas alles avec nous. lis sont arrives avant voiis. lis n'etaient pas alles si loin. La tegle est expliquee. EsUelle cornprise ? Les difficultes seront bientOt vaincues. The subject is sometimes placed after the participle, but this makes no change in the rule : C'est de I'Egypte que sont venues les premieres connaissances. Aux murs sont suspendues mes ormes. Second Rule. — The past participle, accompanied by the auxiliary avoir, never agrees with the subject, since we have said it is only the case w^hen accompanied by the auxiliary etre. But it always agrees with its direct REGULAR VERBS, in RE. 73 In the interrogative and the negative forms the y always stands in the same place, that is, before the verb and next to it : il n'y a fas ; y avait-il, &c. N. B. There are many other impersonal verbs in the language, of course ; such as neiger, to snow ; tonner, to thunder ; importer, to matter, &c., &c. but in that third person, they follow the conjugation to which they respect- ively belong. THE FOURTH CONJUaATION. (in RE.) 92, — We must bear in mind that, arrived at this point of our subject on the conjugation of verbs, we have scarcely any thing else to learn ; and we might well dispense with giving the conjugation of the following verb ; for any learner acquainted with its five primitive tenses, and what we have said, from page 40 to 46, must be able to recite or write down that verb throughout unhesitatingly, without any model. However, we give one part of it, to serve as a reference in case of need, but it is believed there will not be much occasion for it. 93.— INFINITIVE. PRESENT. Rendre, To render, PRESENT PART. Reudant, Rendering. PAST PART. Rendw, Rendered. We need not give the compound tenses, nor any more of the translation into English, for which Exister will serve as a guide. object, when this so called ohject precedes the participle, otherwise it remains unchangeable. EXAMPLES WITHOUT AaREEMENT. (The participle and its direct object are in italics.) Les Aleves studieux ont toujours aime V etude. lis ont etudie leurs legons ; ils ont fait de grands progres ; ils ont eprouve beaucoup de satisfaction ; ils ont surmonte, vaincu toutes les difficult is ; ils ont acquis des connaissan- ces tres-^tendues ; ils ont enrichi leur esprit ; ils ont contentelems parens, et fait honneur h leur pays. Les ecoliers paresseux ont touioursredouteV etude; ils ont aime \e jeu; ils n'ont ecoute ni les avis de leurs amis ni la voix de la raison ; ils ont neglige leurs devoirs ; ils ont donne des chagrins &, leurs parens et fait la honte de leur pays. Nous avons eu de la neige. Nous avions regu des lettres qui avaient annonci cette nouvelle importante. Aurez vous h\eni6t fini votre exercise ? J'ai ecrit trois pages. Elle a recite ses legons sans faire une faute. Avez-vous su les votres ? Je n'ai/azY que trente-six fautes. Vous avez fait de gran^ds efforts. 1 74 FRENCH SlMPIilFIED* INDICATIVE. PRESENl*. je rend^ nous ren6o7ts tu rends vous rendez il rend* ils rendent IMPERFECT. Je rendais, &c. (See exister.) PRETERIT DEFINITE. je rendis nous rendmes^ tu reudis vous rendites il rend/^ ik rend^'reni FUTURE* Je rendraz, &c. CONDITIONAL. Je rendraw, &c. IMPERATIVE, rend.'? rendon^ qu'il rende rendez qu'elle rende qu'ils rendent * In all verbs of the fourth conjug-ation, the second person singular, prer« sent indicative, is always similar to the first, and the third always ends either with a. d or t : with a d, whenever the first two end with ds^ in which case, the s being left out, we have the third person, il rend; je perds, tu perds, il perd ; je tords, tu tords, il tord ; je comprends, tu com. prends, il comprend, ^c. In other cases it is always a. t ; as, je crois, tu crois, ii croit; je lis, tu lis, i] Z?i; je crains, tu crains, il craint; je ^Zajs, tu ^Zais, il plait; je romps, tu romps, il rompt ; je reduit, tu. reduis, il reduit; resous, resous, resout, &c. Only two verbs are excepted, which will be found here- after. Avez-vous compris la re^Ze ? .Je n'ai compris que les exemples. Si I'on avait donne beaucoup d'exemples, vous auriez apprisles regies sans divo'n fatigue yotre memoire et perdu votre temps. In all those examples, and similar ones, the participle being combined with the verb awofr, does not agree with the subject ; it does not agree with its direct object, because this latter <;omes after. Sometimes the verb has no object at all, but this makes no difference : Nous avons porZe, vous avez dormi, ils auraient etudii, elle a chante, ils ont compris, &c. EXAMPLES OF AGREEMENT. (The direct ohject and the participle are in italics.) Quelle est la legon que vous avez etudiee? Quelles lettres avez-vous ecrites ? Que de progres vous avez f aits ! Voici la legon gw'on nous a donnie. EEGULAR VERBS, in RE, 75 SUBJUNCTIVE. PRESENT. que je rende que nous rendions que tu render que vous rendkz qu'il rende qu'ils rendent IMPERFECT. que je rendisse que nous rendissons que tu vendisses que vous rendissiez qu'il rendu qu'ils rendissent 94. — The Fourth Conjugation comprises above two hundred verbs ; and some grammars, published in this country, tell us that only forty are regiilar, giving all the rest as irregular. Such methods are evidently erroneous ; they increase the learner's trouble to no purpose, and are proper to fright children, who, having no means to assist their memories, and not being able to judge for themselves to vi^hat extent those supposed irregularities are true, believe in difficulties which do not exist in the least reality. Almost all those verbs are regular, and therefore the recollection of the five primitive tenses of a few of them will suffice to make the scholar tho- roughly acquainted with the whole ; the triffing irregularities will not much fatigue his memory, because they are very scarce. OS. — At first let us remember the conjugation of Rendre well, the whole of which is to be found in its five PRIMITIVES : Inf. Fres. Pres. Pari. Past P. Ind. Pres. Pret. Def. Rendre. Rend<2;^^. Rend?/. Je rend^. Je rendz,?. II me recitait les vers qyCW. avait composes. Que de maux les pauvres ont soufferts ! Que de gloire vous auriez acquise, si vous les aviez soulages I Quelles mesures a.-t-on prises, quelles demarches a-t-on faites h cet efFet ? Q,u.e\s fruits avez-vous retires de vos amusemens frivoles ? &c. Grammarians distinguish or count two sorts of objects, which they call also complements, regimens, and in English, governments ; the one direct, and the other indirect. It is to conform to this general custom that I have adopted these denominations, direct and indirect object or complement, for I believe no such thing exists as an indirect object. For instance : Je donne ce livre d monfrere, I give this book to my brother ; nous pai^ons de vous, we are speaking of you ; livre is what they call direct object, and/rere, indirect object ; but I cannot see that the word frere is more indirect, in the sen- tence, than the word 7M)re. Lime is the object o{ l\ie verb donne, a.nd frere is the object of the preposition a. And likewise, in the second sentence, vous is the object of the preposition de. Sometimes the preposition is under- stood, but the mind supplies it easily. In the sentence, Je vous parle, it is evident that it is not you that I speak, but to you; in this case and others, 76 FRENCH SIMPLIFIED. 96. — Now the following fifty-seven being precisely sub- jected to the same inflections as rendre, there can be no diffi- culty to form every tense and person of each of them in the same way : appendre, to append, se morfondre, to catch cold, ♦ attendre, to expect, parfondre, to melt together, abattre. to pull down, Pend?-e, to hang, Battre,* to beat, Verdre^ to lose, combattre, to combat, Poudre, to lay eggs, condescendre, to condescend, pretendre, to pretend, confondre, to confound, rabattre, to abate, Correspondre, to correspond, rebattre, to beat again, corrompre, to corrupt, redescendre, to descend anew, debattre, to debate, refendre, to split again, se debattre, to struggle, refondre, to melt again, defendrf, to defend, remordre, to bite again, demordre, to desist, repandre, to spill, dependre, to depend, reperdre, to lose again, Descendre, to descend, repondre, to answer, detendre, to relax, repondre, to lay eggs anew, detordre, to untwist, retend?e, to extend again, distendre, to distend, retendre, to stretch again, * Foreigners should only remember that the French language never admits of a double consonant at the end of a word ; in consequence of which the verb Satire, and similar ones, lose one of their Vs in the three persons singular of the present of the indicative, where we have one syllable less for all those verbs. Thus, we spell je hats, tu hats, il hat; and not " batts, batts, batt." But this is owing to the genius of the language, and is not an irregularity. When we have one syllable more, the tt is preserved every- where ; for one of the Vs belongs to the following syllable : hattant, haitons, haite, hatiis, hattu, &c. This remark applies to all verbs of this kind, such as mettre, admettre, and others. See note, page 74. the French idiom allowing, and custom requiring, the suppression of the preposition, as it often happens in the English language ; such as, / tell you, he told us, it gives me much pleasure, lend me your hook, send us something, ask him his name, &c. Thus, the above sentence conveys the idea of je parle a vous, or, literally, je a, vous parle. Therefore vous is the object of the preposition, and, in this case, the verb has none. But never mind that ; we are not willing to dispute about names. See note, page 2. The important point is to remember what we have said in our rule, that the participle agrees only with its direct object, and never with the other. And in consequence of this, the past participles of intransitive verbs, which grammarians also call neuter verbs, must agree with the subject, according to the first rule, but, with regard to the second rule, they must remain unchan- ged, as they never take any direct object. Further examples, with the parti- ciple and the direct object printed in italics, will say more on the subject than any argument ; read them attentively. REGULAR VERBS, in RE. 77 s*ebattr^, to sport, retondre, to shear again, entendre, to hear, retordre, to twist anew, Epandrc, to scatter, revendrc, to sell again, etendre, to extend, Rompr^, to break, Fendrc, to split, sous-entendre, to understand, Fond?e, to melt, survendre, to oversell, interrompre, to interrupt, suspendre, to suspend, mevendn?, to undersell, Tendre, to stretch, Movdre, to bite, Tondre, to shear, morfondre, to cause a sudden Tordre, to twist, cold, Vcndre, to sell, And perhaps a few more, which can be easily known. OT. — All the other verbs belonging to this conjugation, per- haps half a dozen excepted, are as regular as any of the fifty- eight we already know. The only thing we have to remark is, that some of their primitive tenses differ, more or less, from those of Rendre, in their terminations. CONCLURE, to conclude, differs from rendre only in hav- ing its preterit definite m us, instead of is ; a circumstance which, considering the root, (conclure,) makes this verb still more regular than rendre, taken as a general standard. Be- sides, it strictly follows the laws of the formation of the ten- ses, in every particular. Then, it would certainly suffice to inform the scholar of that single fact, and a single word is ea- sier to be remembered than a whole conjugation. However, here are the five primitives, which are more than we want : Les regies ^u'on vous a donnees sont tr^s-faciles. Madame, Je ?;ous ai appelee; no\is vous slYOus attendue ; il vous a. troin- pee ; nous vous avons entsndue chanter. Remark, that most generally this object to the participle is one of the pro. nouns, 7ne, ie, se, nous, vous, ie, la, les, que, lequel, lesquels, &c. Les lettres que vous avez ecrites; nous les avons regues. Madame, je vous ai vue, mais je ne vous ai pas rcconnue. It is proper to remark, also, that the compound tenses of all reflected verbs are always used with the auxiliary verb Eire, instead of Avoir ; but in this case, said auxiliary etre loses its proper signification, and adopts that of avoir. Therefore, as a forcible consequence of the two easy rules we have laid down, the past participle of reflected verbs, or used as such, can never agree with the subject. Then, with regard to such verbs, all comes within our Second Rule. And, consequently, it is important to distinguish whether the second pronoun which accompanies reflected verbs, is direct or indirect object; if it is direct^ as a matter of course, the participle agrees with it, but otherwise not, 7* 78 FRENCH SIMPLIFIED. Inf. Pres. Pres. Pari. Past P. Ind. Pres. Pret. Def. Conclure. Cor\Q\\xant. Conclw. Je conclu5. Je conclws. And like Conclure is conjugated Exclure, to exclude. 98. — Remarks. — According to what has been observed in note, page 74, and on several other occasions, when the first person singular of the present indicative is known, the two others are easily obtained. The same takes place in the preterit definite, the three persons singular having the same num- ber of syllables in each verb respectively ; the second being similar to the first, and the third taking a t instead of an s. Remember, also. No. 62. However, if the student should not know how to continue the preterits having their first persons in us instead of is, he wuU have the preterit either of courir, page 59, or that of recevoir, p^ge 66, or still, oi etre, page 8, for his guide. But those in is follow the preterit either of rendre or finir, both alike, also. With such ample provisions, it must certainly suffice to know the primi- tive tenses of a few of the verbs we have to consider hereafter, especially when it is asserted that thej^ are quite regular. The printing of their conju- gations at length, could have no other object than that of enlarging a book, or giving a little more trouble to the learners. 99.— CONFIRE, to confect, to pickle. Inf. Pres. Pres. Part. Past Part. Ind. Pres. Pret. Def. Confire. Confisant. Confix. Je confix. Je confw. On the same plan are conjugated : Sujire, to suffice ; but its past part, is Szfji. Circoncire, to circumcise, j^as^^ar^ Circoncis. N. B. Hereafter we shall give the primitive tenses in the same order, but without their names, and their terminations shall be no longer printed in ita- lics. The first primitive tense, that is, the root, being printed in capitals at the head of each article, there is no occasion for repeating the same, and the other four will be found under it. EXAMPLES WITH AGREEMENT. Cette dame s^estfiattie. Ces dames se sont trompees. Se sont-elles promenees? lis se sont amuses. Ma sceur s'est instruite. Nous novs sommes baignes. Lucrece s'est tuSe. Ces 6coliers se sont dislingues, parce qu'ils se sont appliques. EXAMPLES WITHOUT AGREEMENT. Ces dames se sont parle. EUes se sont achete des gnnts. Lucrfece s'est donne la mort. Les legislateurs s'etaient donne des c'jwps de poing. All come under the two rules we have given ; there is no exception, the students will see in reading good French authors. REGULAR VERBS, in RE. 79 100.— COUDRE, to sew. Cousant. Cousu. Je couds. Je cousis. D^coudrej to unsew, Recoudre, to sew again; Follow the same. 101 .— CE-OIRE, to believe. Croyant. Cru. Je crois. Je crus. Let us remember what we have said page 19 ; the persons formed from the present part, require y to be changed into ?, when followed by e mute ; but since it does not constitute an irregularity in the first conjugation, it must be the same here. Formerly the y was used before e. 103.— fiCRIRE, to write. £crivant. Ecrit. J'ecris. J'ecrivis. Circonscrire, to circumscribe, Proscrire, to proscribe, D^crire, to describe, Recrire, to write again, Inscrire, to inscribe, Souscrire, to subscribe, Prescrire, to prescribe, Transcrire, to transcribe, follow the same way. 103.— FEINDRE, to feign. Feignant. Feint. Je feins. Je feignis. In the same manner : Astreindre, to subject, Empreindre, to imprint, Aiteindre, to attain, F,preindre, to squeeze, Ceindre, to gird, l^feindre, to extinguish, Confraindrc, to constrain, 'Efreindre, to tie hard, Craindre, to fear, Joindre, to join, Conjrdndre, to conjoin, Oiyidrc, to anoint, Dejuindre, to disjoin, Peindre, to paint, Detkindie, to discolour, Plaindre, to pity, Enr.eind/re, to enclose, Sc Plaindre, to complain, Enfreindre, to infringe, Rcslrcindre, to restrain, Enjo7nd?-e, to enjoin, Teindre, to dye, and a few more of the same cast ; such as, Rctnndre, to dye again ; Repeindre, to paint again ; Rejoindre, to join again; Re- teindre, to extinguish again, 10* 114 FRENCH SIMPLIFIED. pondit : Je Pavoue, la chose est manifeste ; nous ne ponvons don- ner aucune excuse, et nous n'osons ni demander ni esperer le per- don : nous serons tous vos esclaves. Point du tout, dit Joseph ; mais celui sur qui Ton a trouve la coupe sera mon esclave : pour vous, retournez en liberte chez votre pere. Par cette conduite, il voulait connaitre quels etaient les veritables sentiments de ses freres envers Benjamin, et il vit que ce jeune frere leur etait veri- tablement cher. LXXVII. JuDA s'approchant plus pres de Joseph, Seigneur, lui dit-il, je vous prie de m'ecouter : notre pere aime tendrement cet enfant ; il ne voulait pas d'abord le laisser partir ; je n'ai pu obtenir cela de lui, qu'apres lui avoir promis que mon frere serait a I'abri de tout danger. Si nous retournons chez notre pere sans cet enfant cheri, il en mourra de chagrin. Je vous supplie et je vous conjure de congedier cet enfant, et de me livrer en servitude a sa place : je prends sur moi et je subirai volontiers le chatiraent qu'il merite. Les autres freres joignirent ensuite leurs prieres a celle de Juda : De grace, seigneur, criaient-ils tous ensemble, renvoyez Benja- min ; nous aimons mieux rester ici dans les fers, que de retourner dans notre pays, ou nous serions cause et lemoins de la mort de notre venerable pere. LXXVIII. Joseph, attendri jusqu'aux larmes, ne pouvait plus cacher ses sentiments a ses freres. II commanda que tout le monde sortit du salon, et etant seul avec les dix Hebreux, qui tremblaient de tous leurs membres, il jeta un grand cri, et leur dit : Je suis Joseph ; mon pere vit done encore ? Aucun d'eux ne lui repondit, tant ils avaient honte de paraitre devant un frere qu'ils avaient condamne a I'esclavage, et qu'ils voyaient si riche et si puissant. Joseph etait si bon, qu'il voulut les rassurer. II leur dit qu^il avait oublie leur injustice. II ajouta que la providence s'etait servie de leurs desseins pour I'envoyer dans cette terre et leur sauver la vie, et qu'il adorait les ordres du Tres-Haut. LXXIX. Les enfants de Jacob, eperdus, ne savaient s'ils devaient croire ce discours. Joseph embrassa son frere Benjamin et I'arrosa de larmes. Ensuite il embrassa aussi ses autres freres en pleurant avec eux. Allez promptement chez mon pere, leur dit-il ; annon- cez-lui que Joseph est encore vivant, et qu'il a beaucoup de credit PRACTICAL LESSONS. 115 aupres du roi d'figypte: determinez-le a venir dans ce pays avec toute sa famille ; qu'il vienne, il logera avec moi dans ce palais. Venez tous, vous trpuverez ici des ressources centre la famine, qui; doit durer encore cinq ans. Get evenement fit grand bruit a la cour de Pharaon. Le roi felicita Joseph, et approuva son dessein d'attirer son pere a Memphis. LXXX. Le roi, charme de voir les freres de Joseph, leur donna des pre- sents pour Jacob, et leur dit : Amenez ici votre pere avec toute sa famille, et ne vous embarrasses pas de vos meubles ; je vous. fournirai tout ce qui vous sera necessaire, et toutes les richesses de r£gypte seront a vos dispositions. II envoya aussi plusieurs cha- riots pour transporter lo vieillard, les petits enfants et les femmes. Vous jugez bien quel fut I'etonnement du pere, quand il vit arriver ses fils avec ces equipages superbes ; mais il fut encore bien plus louche, lorsqu'on lui annonca que son cher Joseph etait vivant. Je suis satisfait, dit-il, si mon fils Joseph vit encore ; j'irai le voir avant de mourir. Alors il rendit graces a Dieu, et lui ofFrit des sacrifi- ces avant de sortir de son pays. LXXXJ. Jacob se hata d'arriver en Egypte, oil son fils I'attendait. Joseph alia au-devant de lui, et lorsqu'il le vit, il descendit de son char et courut I'embrasser. lis versyrent tous deux des larmes de joie. Mon cher fils, dit le patriarche, j'ai assez vecu ; a present je descendrai content dans le tombeau, puisque je t'ai vu. Le vice-roi conduisit son pere dans son palais ; ensuite il le presenta a Pharaon, qui lui demanda quel age il avait. De- puis cent trente ans, je suis voyageur sur laterre, repondit Ja- cob ; je n'ai pas encore atteint I'heureuse vieillesse de mes: aieux, et j'ai deja eprouve bien des vicissitudes. LXXXIL Joseph etablit ensuite son pare et toute sa famille dans le pays de Gessen, le plus fertile de toute I'Egypte. Jacob y ve- cut encore dix-sept ans. Des qu'il sentit que sa mort appro- chait, il assembla ses enfants dans sa chambre et les benit. Ensuite il leur exprima le desir qu'il avait d'etre enterre dans le tombeau de ses ancetres, et leur recommanda de porter son corps au pays de Chanaan, aussitot qu'il serait mort, et de le deposer dans le sepulcre ou reposaient Abraham et Isaac Ses enfants ne raanquerent pas de s'acquitter de ce devoir. 116 FRENCH SIMPLIFIED. LXXXIII. Apres la mort de leur pere, les freres de Joseph eraignaient que la vengeance de ce dernier n'eclatat contre eux. Cependant le vice-roi lestraita toujours avec la meme bonte. S'ils continue- rent a se repentir de leur perfidie, ses bienfaits seuls furent la cause de leur repentir. Joseph etant mort, ils resterent toujours en £gypte. Leur nombre, quand ils passerent dans ce pays, etait seulement de soixante-dix personnes. II s'augmenta beaucoup, de sorte qu'ils devinrent une grande nation. Les Egyptiens com- mence rent a se repentir de les avoir regus dans leur empire. Un roi, qui monta sur le trone plusieurs annees apres la mort de Joseph, et qui ignorait les services de ce dernier, reduisit tous les Hebi'eux au plus dur esclavage. LXXXIV. Quel cha^igement dans I'etat de ces etrangers ! lis avaient ete autrefois si bien accueillis ! Alors ils etaient traites avec la plus grande indignite. Ils fesaient des briques, batissaient des cita- delles, reparaient des ouvrages publics. Le nouveau Pharaon voulait les detruire par ces travaux excessifs; mais ils semblaient par la devenir encore plus nombreux. C'est pourquoi ils furent forces, par un edit du roi, de jeter dans le Nil leurs enfants nou- vellement nes; et I'execution de cette loi barbare etait si stricte- ment surveillee, qu'il ne I'eur etait pas possible de Peiuder.. LXXXV. Parmi les femmes Israelites, qui, dans ce temps d'affliction, regrettaient d'etre meres, il y en eut une qui fut plus heureuse que les autres. EUe s'appelait Jacobed, et etait I'epouse d'Amram. Elle avait un fils qui etait si beau, qu'elle ne put se resoudre a le noyer. Elle le cacha soigneusement dans sa maison pendant trois mois ; mais enfin ne pouvant plus tenir la chose secrete, elle mit ce cher enfant dans un panier de jonc, enduit de bitume, le porta en pleurant sur les bords du Nil, et I'exposa sur ce fleuve parmi des roseauXi LXXXVI. Cependant Marie, soeur de cet enfant infortune, s'etait placee a une certaine distance pour observer ce qui arriverait a son mal- heureux frere. Peu de temps apres, la fille du roi vint se baigner dans ce fleuve. Elle apercut le panier arrete dans les roseaux ; et, desirant savoir ce qu'il contenait, elle y envoy a une de ses- FRACTICAL LESSONS. 117 servantes qui le lui apporta. La princesse se hata de I'ouvrir, et y trouva le petit enfant qui pleurait. Les pleurs et la beaute de ce petit infortune la toucherent. Heias ! dit-elle, c'est un enf<\nt de ces Hebreux ; mais il est trop aimable, il ne perira pas : je veux le prendre pour mon fils. LXXXVII. La SGBur de Tenfant, enchnnlee du succes d'une aventure si singuliere, s'approcha de la fille de Pharaon, et lui dit : Voulez- vous que j'ailie chercher une bonne nourrice pour cet enfant? La princesse accepta son offre, et la petite fille courut appeler sa mere meme, Comprenez-vous quelle fut la joie de la mere et de la soeur ? Ainsi I'enfant fut nourri par sa propre mere. Quand il fut grand, elle le rendit a la princesse, quile nomma Mo'ise, c'est-a- dire, tire des eaux. II fut eleve dans le palais de Pharaon, et instruit dans toutes les sciences des Egyptiens. II avait quarante ans lorsqu'il quitta la cour, et alia consoler les Israelites ses freresj qui gemissaient sous le poids de la tyrannie. LXXXVIII. Un jour Moise etant sorti de Memphis, vit dans la campagne un Egyptien qui maltraitait un Israelite. Personne ne le voyant, il crut pouvoir le venger. II tua TEgyptien et le each a dans le sable. Le lendemain il trouva, dans un autre endroit, deux Hebreux qui se querellaient ; et comme il leur reprochait leur conduite, I'un d'eux lui^ dit : voulez-vous nous tuer aussi, comme vous avez tue hier cet Egyptien ? Moiise fut epouvante ; et appro- nant ensuite que son action etait sue de Plmraon, il crut qu'il lui importait de fuir. 11 se retira dans le pays des Madianites : la, il menait paitre les troupeaux de Jethro, pretre du peuple, et il epousa sa fille Sephora. LXXXIX. Il y avait quarante ans que Moise servait son beau-pere, lorsque Dieu voulut tirer son peuple de I'esclavage dans lequel il gemissait en Egypte. Un jour, etant dans les champs, pres du mont Horeb, Il vit un buisson qui brulait et qui ne se consumait pas : desireux de voir de pres cette merveille, il va vers le buisson. Une voix eclatante lui crie : Moise, je t'ai choisi pour le liberateur de mon peuple ; va le retirer de la servitude dans laquelle le roi d'Egypte le retient. Tu annonceras sans crainte a ce prince ma volonte, et tu la lui coijfirm.eras par les miracles les plus surprenants. 118 FRENCH SIMPLIFIEI). XC. Morss retourna done enJEgypte, avec sa femme et ses enfants ; et ayant donne a son frere Aaron le soin d'assembler les Israelites dans un meme lieLi, il leur declara les ordres de Dieu, et fit devant eux des prodiges etonnants. Ensuite Moise et Aaron se transpor- terent a la cour du roi, a qui ils demanderent, de la part de Dieu, la liberie des Hebreux. Pharaon, qui n'avait pas honte d'adorer comme un dieu le bcEuf Apis, ne craignit pas de se moquer du vrai Dieu et de ses envoyes. A peine les eut-il ecoutes quelques moments, qu'il leur repondit en ces termes ; XCI. Je croyais, dit ce roi impsrieux aux deux ambassadeurs, que vos freres hebreux employaient tout leur temps .a faire les briques que je leur demandais. Je vols qu'ils ont le loisir de penser a offrir des sacrifices dans le desert ; je leur oterai ce temps, dont ils abusent. Apres cette fiere reponse, il chassa de son palais les envoyes du Seigneur. Moise se plaignit a Dieu de Tobstination de Pharaon. II recut ordre d'aller faire de- vant ce roi inflexible les plus grands miracles. II changea les eaux en sang, et fit sortir du fleuve du Nil des legions de gre- nouilles importunes; mais les magiciens du roi firent les memes prodiges. XCII. Ces imposteurs chantaient victoire, et insultaient a I'envoye du Tout-Puissant. Mais Moise, seconde de la vertu d'en haut; con- fondit la vanite de leur art, D'un coup de baguette, il produisit une multitude innombrable de moucherons, de mouches, de sau- terelles, qui tourmenterent les hommes, et desolerent les compag- nes. Le ministre du Tres-Haut appela la peste, qui vint enlever la plus grande partie des bestiaux des Egyptiens ; mais elle epargna ceux des Israelites. Des ulceres horribles a voir, couv- rirent les hommes et les animaux. Enfin, une grele frodoyante et d'epaisses tenebres signalerent la puissance du Seigneur. XCIII. Pharaon, dont le coeur etait endurci, promettait a Moise la liberte du peuple dans les temps d'affliction ; quand le fleau etait passe, il n'avait pas honte de manquer a sa parole. Le Seigneur lui reservait, dans les tresors de sa puissance, une dixieme plaie, la plus affligeante de toutes. L'Ange extermi- PRACTICAL LESSONS. 119 tiateur descenclit du ciel, et, frappant de son glaive homicide lea premiers nes des Egyptiens, il remplit de funerailles leur em- pire desole ; mais les cris et les plaintes ne se fesaient point en- tendre dans les maisons des Hebreux : I'Ange, qui en avait vu les portes teintes du sang de I'agneau pascal, les avait res- pectees. XCIV. EnP IN Pharaon, vaincu par tant de maux, permit aux Israel- ites de sortir de I'Egypte et d'aller dans le desert. lis parti- rent done sous la conduite de Moise, et emporterent les vases d'or et d'argent, et les habits precieux des Egyptiens. Dieu, maitre souverain de toutes choses, ne desapprouva point que son peuple gardat ces richesses, comme une juste compensation de ses longs travaux. Lenombre des Iraelites s'elevait a plus de six cent mille hommes, sans compter les enfants. Pharaon se repentit bientot de la permission qu'il avait donnee au peuple hebreu. 11 assemble proniptement des troupes et des cha- riots de guerre, et se met a les poursuivre. XCV, Les Egyptiens joignirent sur les bords de la Mer lloug""e les Israelites qui fuyaient. Jugez quelle fut la consternation de ceux-ci, lorsqu'ils se virent entre la mer d'un cote, et leurs ennemis de I'autre ! lis commencerent a murmurer centre Moi'se, leur liberateur. N'avions-nous pas, disaient-ils, des se- pulcres en Egypte ? Fallait-il venir dans ces deserts pour y mourir miserablement 1 Dieu, qui etait offense de leurs mur- mures, voulut cependant montrer combien son bras est puis- sant, fitends ta baguette sur les flots, dit-il a Mo'ise. Celui-ci I'etendit, et les eaux s'entr'ouvrirent, s'eleverent, formerent comme un mur de chaque cote, et laisserent un passage libre et sec, par ou les Israelites gagnerent le rivage oppose. XCVI. Tels etaient la fureur et I'aveuglement des Egyptiens, qu'ils oserent se precipiter sur les pas d'un peuple que Dieu favori- sait si visiblement. Leurs chariots se briserent dans ce che- min etroit, et les cavaliers furent tous culbutes. Comme ils se repentaient deja de s'etre engages dans cette route mira- culeuse, Moise etendit de nouveau sa baguette sur les eaux. Elles se rejoignirent a I'instant, et envelopperent Pharaon et toute son armee. Tous les £gyptiens perirent dans les flots, et ISO S'UENCH SIMI>LI]^IE3>» les Israelites virent la mer couverte des corps de leurs ennB» tnis. Alors ils se rejouirent d'etre delivres de I'esclavage, et rendirent graces au Tout-Puissant, par un cantique sublime qu'ils chanterent avec Maise. XCVII. Ensuite, les Hebreux entreretit dans un vaste desert, par lequel il fallait passer pour arriver dans la terre promise. Us errerent pendant quarante ans dans cette solitude. Quand ils se furent enfonces un peu avant, ils ne trouverent point d'eau dans ces regions inhabitees. lis crurent qu'ils allaient perir ; et, oubliant les miracles que Dieu avait deja faits en leur fa- veur, ils se plaignaient a Moise, et s'emportaient centre ce digne conducteur, lorsque celui-ci, inspire d'en haut, mena cette multitude alteree vers un lieu ou elle trouva une source abon- dante ; raais les eaux en etaient ameres et desagrcables aboire : Moise y jeta un certain bois, et elles devinrent douces. XCVIII. Les enfants d'Israel passerent dans un autre endroit, nom- me Sin. La nourriture leur manquant, ils recommencerent leurs murmure^s. Plut a Dieu, disaient-ils, que nous fussions demeures en Egypte ! nous serious dans nos maisons, assis pres des monceaux de viandes. Pourquoi Moise nous a-t-il conduits dans ce desert pour y mourir de faim ? J'ai prie le Seigneur, repondit Moise, et il vous enverra ce soir de la vi- ande, et domain matin, du pain. En efFet, tout-a-coup il vint •un si grand nombre de cailles, qu'elles convrirent toute I'eten- due du camp. Chacun en prit avec la main autant qu'il en vou- lut. Le lendemain il tomba une pluie abondante de petits grains blancs, que les Israelites appelerent manne, et qui leut servit de pain pendant quarante ans. XCIX. Cependant le peuple s'avancait dans le desert, et temoin de tant de prodiges, il semblait s'etre repenti de son peu de con- fiance, lorsqu'il arriva dans un lieu ou I'eau manqua de nou- veau. II s'en prit encore a Moise, et peu's'en fallut qu'il ne le maltraitat. Par I'ordre du Seigneur, Moise frappa avec sa ba- guette le pied du mont Horeb, et une abondante fontaine en jaillit. Cette multitude, toujours revoltee et tbujours cherie, eprouva bientot la puissante protection du Tres-Haut, dans la PRACTICAL LESSONS. 121 guerre centre les Amal6cites. Ceux-ci eurent lafollie de vou- loir leur boucher le passage : les Hebreux les attaquerent avec autant de courage que de succes ; mais ils furent vainqueurs, plutot par les prieres de Moise, leur conducteur, que par la valeur de Josue, leur general. Ensuite, Dieu voulut lui-meme donner des lois aux en- fants d'Israel. 11 y avait deja trois mois qu'ils etaient partis d'Egypte. Ils s'assemblerent tous autour du mont Sinai. Le spectacle qui les frappa est difficile a peindre. Une nuee epaisse descendit du ciel, et couvrit la montagne. Au milieu de cette obscurite efFrayante, les eclairs, le tonnerre, des sons eclatants de trorapette jetaient I'epouvante dans tous les esprits. Enfin, la majeste de Dieu parut, environnee de tourbillons de flammes et de fumee. CI. Une voix terrible se fit entendre au peuple : Je suis, dit-elle, le Seigneur votre Dieu, qui vous ai tires de I'esclavage ; vous n'aurez point de dieux etrangers, et vous ne vous ferez aucune idole pour I'adorer, Je suis le seul que vous devez servir, et dont vous etes obliges de suivre les preceptes. Le Seigneur donna apres a Moise ses comraandements ecrits sur des tables de pierre. lis sont parvenus jusqu'a nous, et nous devons nuit et jour les mediter et les pratiquer. CII. Conseils de Tobie a son Fils. MoN Fils, ecoute les paroles de ma bouche, et mets-les dans ton coeur corame un solide fondement. Lorsque Dieu aura regu raon ame, ensevelis mon corps; et honore ta mere tous l«s jours de ta vie : car tu dois te souvenir des peines qu'elle a eues pour toi, dans ton enfance. Et quand elle aura elle-meme acheve le temps de sa vie, ensevelis-la aupres de moi. Aie Dieu present a I'esprit tous les jours de ta vie ; et garde-toi bien de consentir jamais a aucun peche, et de violer les commandements du Seigneur notre Dieu. Fais I'aumone de ton bien, et ne detourne les yeux d'aucun pauvre ; car de cette sorte le Seigneur ne detournera point lea yeux de toi. 11 1S2 FRENCH SIMPLIFIED. Exerce la misericorde en la maniere que tu pourras. Si tu as beaiacoup de bien, donne beaucoup : si tu en as peu, donne de bon coeur de ce peu que tu as. Par la, tu t'amasseras un riche tresor, et une grande recompense pour le jour de la necessite. Car I'aumone delivre du peche et de la mort ; et elle ne laissera pas toraber une arae dans les tenebres. L'aumone donnera une grande confiance, devant le Dieu supreme, a tons ceux qui I'auront faite. Veille sur toi, men fils, pour cviter toute sorte de mal .... Ne souffre jamais que I'orgueil domine dans tes pensees, ni dans tes paroles ; car c'est de I'orgueil que tons les maux ont pris naissance. Lorsqu'un homme aura travaille pour toi, paie-lui aussitot ce qui lui est du; et ne retiens jamais le salaire d'un service que tu auras regu. Prends garde de ne faire jamais aux autres ce que tu serais fache qu'on te fit. Mange ton pain avec les pauvres, et avec ceux qui ont faim ; et couvre de tes vetements ceux qui sont nus. Demande toujours conseil a un homme sage. Benis Dieu en tout temps ; demande-lui qu'il conduise tes pas, et ne compte que sur lui dans tous tes desseins .... cm. O vous, jeunes eleves, a la portee de qui nous mettons cette histoire sacree, que de prodiges ne nous resterait-il pas a vous raconter ! Mais votre age s'ennuie bientot des choses les plus utiles a savoir. Nous voulons rendre votre etude plus legere, et vous plaire par une agreable diversite. Cependant, si vous me croyez, vous irez cbercher dans les livres saints la suite des evenements dont nous avons ebauche I'histoire. 11 vous importe de les connaitre, si vous voulez connaitre veri- tablement votre religion. Puissent-ils faire vos delices ! Que celui d'entre vous a qui I'Ecnture-Sainte aura plu, sache qu'il a fait des progres dans la vertu. PART III. PROGRESSIVE READING AND TRANSLATING LESSONS. TRAITS D HISTOIRE, DISCOURS MORAUX, FABLES, NARRATIONS, DESCRIPTIONS, ANECDOTES, LETTRES, ETC. I. . Aristote, ce philosophe plus digne de louange que cer- tains savants ne pensent, a ecrit d'excellentes choses. Voici ce que je lisais dernierement dans un endroit de ses ouvrages. Supposons, dit-il, des hommes qui demeurent sous terre, dans de belles et grandes maisons, ornees de statues et de tableaux, et qui y aient toujours habite. La terre s'ouvre tout d'un coup; ces hommes sortent de leur sejour, et viennent demeurer avec nous ; lis decouvrent la terre, les mers, le ciel, ils jettent les yeux sur le soleil, ils observent sa grandeur, sa beaute, sa lumiare ; aprds que la nuit a obscurci la terre, ils contemplent le ciel parsemS d'astres diffirents ; ils remarquent le lever et le coucher de tous ces astres, ainsi que leurs divers mouvements : en voyant toutes ces choses, ces hommes s'ecrieront, sans doute,. qu'elles sont gouvernses par une supreme intelligence. II. Le mensonge a quelque chose de honteux. Chez les anciens Remains, un menteur etait eloigns des emplois publics ; et quiconque I'aurait eii pour ami, aurait ete regarde comme un homme msprisable. La varite leur plaisait beaucoup, quoiqu'ils ne la connussent pas comme Iss Chretiens. Jamais ils ne trompaient, pas mame dans les plus petites choses. Per- sonna n'osait les soup^onner de mensonge. Des hommes d'un caractere si beau etaient assuremement bien dignes de louange. 124 FRENCH SIMPLIFIED. III. Plusieurs auteurs rapportent des choses extraordinaires au sujet de la force d'un certain Milon de Crotone, qui vivait du temps de la republique romaine. Get homrae porta un jour sur ses epaules un boeuf a une distance de cent vingt-cinq pas : il le tua ensuite'd'un coup de poing, et le mangea tout dans un jour. Q.uel appetit ! Ses forces furent pourtant la cause de sa mort : il apergut un arbre entr'ouvert par le milieu, il voulut le fendre ; mais les deux parties du tronc vainquant les efforts de Milon et se rapprochant mutuelleraent, il demeura attache par les bras, et devint la pature des loups et des autres b6tes. Quand vous serez a Paris, allez voir le palais de Ver- sailles ; vous y admirerez la statue de marbre qui represente ce Milon dont nous parlous. Elle est comptee avec raison parmi les plus belles ; et la ville de Marseille se glorifie d'avoir produit le celebre sculpteur du Puget par qui elle a ete faite. Milon entr'ouvre un ch^ne aussi vieux que la terre, Mais I'arbre tout-^-coup se rejoint et I'enserre. Un lion qui se dresse et s'attache k son flanc, De I'athlete entrave boit k loisir le sang. Sur le marbre anime le Puget defigure Tout le corps du lutteur sous les maux qu'ii endure. Ses cheveux sont dresses, ses membres sont roidis ; Yous reculez d'effroi, vous entendez ses cris. Le Miekre. La Peinture. Chant 1. IV. Un homme savant et amateur de la vertu a toujours en lui-meme de veritables richesses. Aristippe,, philosophe grec, fournit autre- fois une preuve bien convainquante de ce que nous avangons. II s'etaitembarque pour retourner dans son pays ; mais une horrible tempete le jeta sur les cotes des Rhodiens. Apres son naufrage, il alia droit a Rhodes, et commenga aparler de la philosophie ; les personnes qui I'ecouterent, le comblerent de presents : cela le mit en etat non seulement de se procurer les choses necessaires, mais encore de fournir de la nourriture et des habits a ses compagnons de voyage; aussi quand ces gens-la, etant sur le point de partir pour leur patrie, lui dirent : qu'avez-vous a envoyer a vos pa- rents ? Dites aux miens, leur repondit-il, qu'ils procurent a leurs. enfants des biens qui puissent les suivre apres un naufrage. PRACTICAL LESSONS. 125 II faut faire grand cas d'un veritable ami; rien n'est plus rare. Le philosophe Socrate s'acquit une telle reputation parmi les pai- ens, qu'il fut juge par I'oracle, le plus sage des honnmes. II eut pour parents Sophronicus et Phanatere, et pour patrie, la ville d'Athenes. Ce grand homme d'une naodeslie egale a sa vertu, fesant batir une maison, la voulut tres-petite : quelqu'un lui en marqua sod etonnement. Le logement que vous avez commeace a batir, lui dit-it, est trop resserre ; un homme de votre reputation et de votre merite aurait besoin a'un palais, et meme tres-vaste^ Ma maison est petite, j'en conviens, repondit le philosophe; je me croirais neanmoins fort heureux, si je pouvais la remplir de vraia amis. vr. Je ne vous blamerai jamais de ce que vous aimez les plaisirs de la campagne ; au contraire, je vous en feliciterai tou jours, car je conviens avec vous qu'ils sont infiniment plus agreables que ceux que nous pouvons gouter dans les villes. Le doux murmure des ruisseaux, les claires fontaines, I'aspect imposant des forets, ici le riant gazon, la les prairies emaillees de fleurs exhalant le plus doux des parfums, les papillons baisant avec delice la fieur qui vient de naitre, le zephir caressant avec volupte les rameaux des arbres, qui paraissent sensibles a cette tendresse ; la hauteur des montag- nes, le penchant des collines,. la profondeur et le calme des vallees fleuries, font un spectacle charmant, et qui ne peut porter aucun- prejudice au mceurs. Ajoutez a cela mille troupeaux bondissant dans la plaine, ou grimpant siir le dos des hauteurs escarpees ; quel tableau ! Les oiseaux, par leur ramage perpetuel et toujours nouveau, semblent nous inviter a chanter avec eux les bienfaits et la gloire du Createur. La culture des terres, la moisson, I'ac^ tivite du laboureur, tout plait. Je ne trouve aucun plaisir compara- ble a celui que goiite un honn^te homme qui cultive tranquillement son champ. Restez done a la campagne le plus long-temps que vous pourrez^ La saison semble vous inviter a y faire un long, sejour. YIL Sgmiramis, reine des Assyriens, fonda la ville de Babylone, et se rendit tres-illustre, surtout par les ouvrages magnifiques qui furent eleves en dilFerents endroits de son empire pendant qu'elle legna. L'inscription qui fut gravee sur son mausolee, par sons ©rdre,, etait celle-ci :. Si quelq^u'un de raes sucGesseurs. a besoiia 11* 126 FRENCH SIMPLIFIED. d'argent^ qu'il ouvre ce tombeau, el qu'il en prenne tant qu'il vou- dra. Darius, ajoutant foi a cette inscription, commanda que le tombeau fut ouvert ; mais au lieu de I'argent qu'il clierchait, il trouva cette autre inscription : Si tu n'etais un homme perdu de crimes et insatiable d'argentj tu ne troublerais en aucune raaniere le repos des morts ! VIll. LoRSQUE vous lirez les hisloires etrangeres, vous trouverez que les plus grandes republiques ont ete renversees par des jeunes- gens, et qu'elles ont ete soutenues et retablies par des vieillards. Ceux qui pretendent que la vieillesse e&t inutile a tout, sont sembla- bles a ceux qui diseni qu'un pilote ne fait rien dans un vaisseau, parce qu'il est tranquilJement assis a la poupe, pres du gouvernail. Un vieillard ne fait pas les memes choses que font les jeunes-gens, mais il en fait et de bien plus importantes et de meilleures. Les grandes affaires sont decidees, non pas par la force, la vitesse ou I'agilile du corps, mais par la prudence, Tautorite et les sages avis» Ces precieux avantages ne perissent point avec I'age ; ils aug- mentent d'ordinaire. Dans les anciennes republiques de la Grece, un hoipme ne pouvait etre admis aux charges publiques, que lorsqu'il avait atteint I'age de quarante ans. Dans toutes les pro- fessions de la vie humaine, il faut etre apprenti avant d'etre maitre. Si vous confiez la conduite d'un vaisseau a un homme qui n'a jamais navigue, il est bien a craindre que le batiment ne revienne jamais dansle port. Je ne trouve rien de plus tcmeraire, ni meme de plus insense, que les pretentions d'un jeune homme qui se per- met de critiquer, a tort et a travers (en politique comme en toute autre chose), des hommes revelus de quarante ou soixante ans d'heureuse experience dans tel ou tel art. IX. Marc-Aurele, qui par la suite parvint a I'empire, pleura long-temps la mort de son pracepteur. Comme cette marque d'affection n'etait pas du gout de ses courtisans : SoufFrez, leur dit un jour I'empereur Antonin-le-Pieux, qu'il soit homme. La philosophic et I'age n'otent point la sensibilite. Je remercie les dieux, disait ce Marc-Aurole, de ce que j'ai eu de bons maitres, et de ce que je les ai bientOt eleves aux honneurs qu'ils paraissaient souhaiter. 11 avait dans son palais leurs images en or, et il couvrait souvent leurs tombeaux de fleurs. Ne soyez pas surpris que la posterity admire tant la gloire de ce grand homme ; il coiinut le piix d'une bonne education, eS sut se rendre digne des le9ons qu'on lui donna. PRACTICAL LESSONS. 127 X. Plusieurs fois je vous ai dit qu^il est important de s'appliquer a Tetude. Cependant vous vous ennuyez bientot du travail. Quand commencerez-vous a avoir honte de votre paresse, et a vous en repentir'? Auguste, qui dans la suite fat empereur, etant encore enfant, ornait son esprit des connaissances les plus utiles. II fortifiait aussi son corps dans I'exercice des travaux les plus penibles. Sa mere Attie, et Philippe son beau-pere veillaient sur lui avec une extreme attention. Tons les jours ils deman- daient a ses maitres et a ses gouverneurs ce qu'il avait fait, ou il etait alle, de quelle maniere il avait passe la journee, avec quelles personnes enfin il s'etait trouve. Cette sollicitude preserva Auguste de plusieurs dangers. Si le Seigneur vous a donne des parents aussi attentifs, ne cessez point de le louer, et de Ten remercier. XI. Pericles, ce fameux chef des Atheniens, qui avait ete instruit par Anaxagore, eat non seulement un genie eleve, raais un grand amour pour les pauvres. II arriva cependant que, occupe de bien des affaires, il parut pendant quelque temps avoir oublie son maitre. Dans ces circonstances ce vieillard tomba malade, et etant au lit, la tete couverte, il voulait se laisser mourir de faim. La nouvelle en est donnee a Pericles; il vole a I'instant chez le malade; il prie avec larmes Anaxagore de ne pas renoncer a la vie, et de lui con- server un conseiller sage et fiddle. A ces mots, le philosophe se decouvre; et adressant la parole a son disciple : Pericles, lui dit-il, ceux qui ant besoin d'une lampe, y mettent de I'huile. XII. Si vans connaissiez bien le fruit qui est attache aux lettres, vous ne seriez pas surpris que tant de vieillards aient pali sur les livres. Caton, deja vieux, s'appliqua a I'etude des lettres grecques. Seneque, fort avance en age, frequentait les ecoles des philosophes. Un homme exhortant Diogene a mettre fin a ses travaux : Si je courais dans la lice, repondit ce vieillard, devraisje, etant voisin du but, ralentir ma coarse ? L'empe- reur Marc-Aurele, dans une extreme vieillesse, allait encore, comme un enfant, avec son porte-feuille, chez son maitre d'ecole. Get empereur avait coutume de dire : Qu'il est gle- rieux a un vieillard meme, d'apprendre quelque chose» 128 FRENCH SIMPLIFIEB. XIII. Une dame flamande avait un mari qui s'etait rendu fameux dans tous les quartiers de la ville par ses ivrogneries. Chaque jour il passait tout son temps dans les cabarets, buvant depuis le matin jusqu'au soir : il se retirait ensuite chez lui, bron- cbant a chaque pas, se jetant tantot sur une muraille, tant6t sur I'autre, et etant toujours escorte d'une foule d'enfants qui lui fesaient mille huees. Des qu'il mettait le pied sur la porte, il coramengait a crier de toutes ses forces, appelant sa ferame, ses enfants, ses domestiques ; mais aucun ne se presentail : ils evitaient au contraire sa rencontre, et se retiraient dans les endroits les plus secrets de la muison. Quand il rencontrait quelqu'un d'eux, il le jetait par terre, le meurtrissait de coups de pied et de coups de poing, ou lan^ait contre lui tout ce qui- se presentait sous sa main. XIV. Sa femme, qui etait tres-patiente, supporta pendant quelque- temps ce genre de vie sans dire un mot ; ensuite elle mit en usage les remontrances pour corriger son mari de cette habi- tude infame : apres, elle pleura, elle conjura, elie se mit en celare, elle menaca; raais tout ce qu'elle fit fut inutile : I'habi- tude avait jete de trop profondes racines. Lorsqu'elle vit qu'elle perdait son temps et sa peine, que son mari courait toujours au cabaret des qu'il etait leve, qu'il en revenait souvent sans habit et sans chapeau ; qu'a la maison il renversait et cas- sait les tables, les buffets et tous les autres meubles , elle forma la resolution d'en venir a un dernier remede, et iraagina un tour hardi. XV. Un matin avant le jour, son mari rentre plus plein de vin q;u'a Fordinaire ; il crie, il tempete comme de coutume, apres quoi se jetant sur le plancher, il s'endort. Quand la femme le voit etendu, quand elle I'entend ronfler, et qu'il lui parait enfonce dans un sommeil qu' aucun bruit de tonnerre ne saurait dissiper, elle saisit cette occasion ; elle lui lie d'abord les mains avec une bonne attache, et ensuite les pieds ; elle lui couvre la tete d'un mouchoir, et enveloppe le reste du corps dans un drap^;, elle le met dans une biere ; elle tapisse de noir le vestibule, et y expose son mari, avec tous les appareils du deuil et de: FafflictioiL. PRACTICAL LESSONS. 129 XVI. LoRSQUE toates choses sont ainsi disposees, elle ouvre la porte de la maison, elle pousse de grands oris, et, profitant de la faculte qii'ont les femmes de pleurer a leur gre, elle verse un torrent de larmes : elle dit que son mari est mort ; en meme temps elle s'ar- rache les cheveux, se frappe la tete, et s'efforce par toutes sortes de moyens de marquer de la douleur. Mon cher naari, dit-elle en elevant la voix d'une maniere lamentable ; helas ! mon cher mari, est-ce ainsi que tu me laisses pour toujours veuve et desolee ? est- ce ainsi que tu abandonnes tes enfants et ta femme? Un seal instant nous separe done pour toujours ! . . . . XVH. CoBiME deja il fait jour, et que les gens commencent a aller dans les rues, bien des personnes accourent a ce bruit : les uns conso- lent la veuve qui parait accablee de douleur, les autres se mettent a genoux, et font des prieres pour le defunt. Quelque temps se passe de la sorte ; mais ensuite volla que tout-a-coup, tandis que ceux-ci pleurent, que ceux-la gemissent, et que ces autres temoig- nent en paroles leur compassion ; voila, dis-je, que tout-a-coup le mari est eveille par ce bruit confus ; il ouvre les yeux ; mais il voit seulement a travers le suaire qui lui couvre la figure, une lu- miere lugubre et tout cet appareil funebre ; il veut remuer ses pieds, mais il les sent fortement lies. XVIII. Il prete I'oreille, mais il n'entend quepleurs etgemissements ; il distingue seulement la voix de sa femme, qui de temps en temps re pete ces paroles : Est-ce ainsi, mon cher mari, que tu es de- scendu dans I'eternite ? Ah ! si du moins avant la mort tu avals purifie ton ame souillee par tes ivrogneries ! . . . Tout cela excite en lui une horreur melee d'etonnement et de regret qui le fait presque mourir ; il n'ose se remuer tant soit peu ; il demeure quelque temps comme mort, osant a peine respirer ; a la fin cependant il pousse un soupir involontaire, et demande du secours. Aussitot tons les assistants sont saisis du plus grand etonnement, ils s'ecrient que I'ame est revenue dans le corps, et que le defunt est ressuscite. XIX. La femme court la premiere au cercueil, changeant sa douleur feinte en une joie feinte aussi ; elle enleve promptement le suaire, elle defait le drap, elle delie I'attache des mains et des pieds ; et le 130 , FRENCH SIMPLIFIED. mari demandant la cause de ce qn'il voit : Tous ceux, lui repond- elle, que tu apercois, mon cher epoux, etaient venus pour assister a tes funerailJes ; le vin t'^enleva hier la raison et la vie ; mais, par le plus grand des bienfaits, tu es revenu des portes du noir sejour. Quelles actioi.s de graces cela ne demande-t-il pas de toi et de nous ! Le mari ajoute foi au recit de sa femme ; il est frappe, au- tant qu'on peu Tetre, d'un pareil evenement, et, levant les mains au ciel, il fait vceu a haute voix qu'il ne goutera plus de vin. II tint parole, et pendant le reste de sa vie il fut buveur d'eauv XX. Les hommes ont decouvert depuis quatre ou cinq siecles, plu- sieurs choses tres-utiles, qui etaient inconnues aux anciens. Rien certainement n'est plus avantageux, ni plus commode que \q linge, le papier, I'imprimerie, les moulins, la poudre a canon, la boussole, les machines a vapeur, les chemins de fer, les telegraphes, le para- tonaerre, la stenographie, la lithographic, etc. tout cela a ete de- couvert il n'y a pas tres-long-temps. Nos descendants inventeront aussi sans doute bien des choses, car la faculte d'inventer appar- tient, non pas a un siecle particulier, mais a tous. Si cinq cents ans apres notre mort, nous naissions de nouveau, nous trouverions connus plusieurs secrets qui sont ignores aujourd'hui, et qu'on cher- chera inutilement, jusqu'a ce que le moment marque par la Provi- dence soil arrive. XXL Un homme que la verite, dans la bouche meme d'un ami, offense, doit passer pour un malade incurable. Nous avons plus d'obliga- tion, disait Caton, a des ennemis mordants, qu'a ces amis qui pa- raissent doux : ceux-la nous disent souvent la verite, ceux-ci ne la disent jamais. Les avis sont un devoir de Tamilie ; donnons-les librement et sans aigreur : recevons-les avec soumission et sans re- pugnance. II n'y a rien de plus pernicieux dans I'amitie que la flatterie, les manieres et les propos doucereux, la complaisance ou- tree. Tout deguisement est un mal, puisqu'il altere le vrai ; mais surlout il est contraire a I'amitie, car il exclut la verite, sans la- quelle I'amitie n'est rien. XXII. Lucullus a Euphrosine. Enigme. — Madame,, je vous promis, q^uand vous partites d'ici,que je vous donnerais bient6t de mes nou- velles, s'il se passait quelque chose de nouveau. Je suis homme de parole. Depuis votre depart, je suis alle visiter votre terre ; j'ai PRACTICAL LESSONS. 131 trouve qu'on avail entierement acheve les semailles, et qu'on exe- cute vosderniers ordres avec exactitude: mais j'ai decouvert, tou- chant vos feinniers, une chose qui vous surprendra. J'ai appris que depuis quiiize jours, ils donnent le couvert a une espece de pro- phete qui certainement ne suit pas les traces des prophetes du Seigneur. Je les ai exhortes a le congedier, sans que j'aie pu obtenir cela d'eux. lis na'ont repondu qu'ils I'estimaient beaucoup, et qu'ils ne le chasseraient pas sans un ordre expres de votre part. XXIII. QuAND j'ai vu leur resolution, je n'ai pas voulu insister da- vantage, et je me suis retire. Souhaitant neanraoins de voir ce propbete d'une nouvelle espece, je suis alle une seconde fois a votre terre, et j'ai satisfait ma curiosite. Je I'ai trouve couch6 sur la paille. En quel endroit, me direz-vous peut-etre ? A la porte de I'ecurie. II s'est leve des qu'il m'a apercu, et j'ai eu tout le loisir necessaire pour le considerer attentivement. 11 est vetu d'une robe de toute sorte de couleurs ; elle est sans couture, quoiqu'elle soit de plusieurs pieces ; elle n'a ete faite ni de coton, ni de fil, ni de sole, ni de laine, ni de poil, ni de peau d'aucun animal ; elle n'a point ete fabriquee de main d'homme. H y a apparence que les partisants de la ridicule opinion des preadamites auraient eu en grande veneration ce pro- pbete ; car il se vante que ceux dont il tire son origine, ont pre- cede Adam. 11 a une espece de couronne sur la tete, et une barbe couleur de sang. 11 est tres-sobre, ne vivant pour I'or- dinaire que des rebuts des cochons et des chiens. 11 meprise I'or et I'argent. II va toujours pieds nus, mais il marche fort grave me nt. XXIV. Je n'ai pas encore pu decouvrir de quelle secte il est; cepen- dant les fermiers m'ont dit qu'ils I'eussent chasse bien vite, s'ils n'avaient ete ternoins qu'il rend graces au Tres-Haut fort sou- vent dans la nuit et a toutes les heures du jour. Du reste, il ne pratique ])oint Thumilite: il marche aussi fierement que le plus grand monarque du monde. Le peuple n'ose le condam- ner ; mais les personnes sensees et qui se connaissent un peu en physionomie, disent qu'il merite le feu. Pour moi, je pense qu'clles ont raison ; je ne voudrais pourtant pas opiner, si j'etais un de ses juges, qu'il fut brule vif. Marquez-moi ce que vous voulez que j'exige de vos fermiers, au sujet de ce nouvel bote {le c€q). Je serai exact a vous obeir. 132 FRENCH SIMPLIFIED. XXV. HoNOREZ vos parents, donnez-vous garde de les contrister, rendez-leur tous les services qui dependront de vous ; ne dou- tez point apres cela que le Ciel ne favorise vos entreprises. Apres que la ville de Troie eut ete prise et brulee, les Grecs ayant compassion des Troyens, firent une chose qui etait bien digne de la douceur de leur nation : ils permirent a tout citoyen libre, d'emporter sur ses epaules ce qu'il priserait le plus. Aussitot Enee mit sur les siennes son pere Anchise, quoique accable de vieillesse, et excita par cette action I'etonnement de tous les spectateurs. Les Grecs ne voulurent point qu'elle fut sans recompense : ils ordonnerent que tout ce qu'avait perdu Enee, lui fut restitue sans reserve ; tant il est vrai que la piete des enfants envers leurs parents, est agreable a tout le monde, et que la reconnaissance qu'ils leur temoignent, est le plus sur moyen dont ils puissent se servir pour se procurer la bienveil- lance du public. XXVI. On ne peut douter que Quintilien ne soit admirable dans ses ecrits ; mais parle-t-il jamais mieuxque quand il fait le portrait d'un ecolier aimable et accompli 1 Un tel enfant, dit-il, sera sensible a la gloire, et la louange I'animera ; il pleurera, quand il aura ete vaincu par ses condisciples ; une noble emulation le tiendra sans cesse en haleine; une reprimande le piquera ; I'honneur le portera aux choses les plus difficiles ; le succes lui donnera de nouvelles forces ; la crainte d'etre vaincu leren- dra toujours assidu a I'etude, attentif aux lecons du maitre ; et la perseverance lui procurera des jouissances et des honneurs que rien ne saurait egaler : car il est certain qu'en se distin- guant paries qualites de I'esprit, il ne se rendra pas moins re- commandable par celles du cceur. Qui pourrait s'empecher d'aimer et d'estimer un ecolier d'un si bon naturel ? Combien sont heureux les parents qui ont de tels enfants ! XXVII. Il faut necessairement avouer que I'inconstance des hommes est extreme. Chacun s'imagine toujours que la condition des autres est lameilJeure, de sorte que personne ne vit content de la sienne. Le marchand qui, attire par I'esperance du gain, n'a pu s'empecher d'aller exposer sa vie a tous les dangers de la * PRACTICAL LESSONS. 13S mer, ambitionne le sort de I'avocat, lorsque les flots com- mencent a s'elever : Tavocat, qui s'est enroue en plaid- ant une mauvaise cause, tache de se persuader qu'il n'y a d'heureux que le marchand : le soldat qui est oblige d'attaquer I'ennemi, et qui ne saurait se garantir d« la mort, s'il essayait de I'eviter, soutient que Tartisan est cejui qui meue la vie la plus tranquille : I'artisan, a qui ses enfants deraandeut du pain, "et qui ne pent leuren donner, vante le genre de vie du soldat; et s'il arrivait que rien n'empechat les uns et les autres de voir accomplir leurs souhaits, il est certain qu'ils ne voudraient point changer d'etat. Quel sujet peut-il y avoir d'une si grande incoTistan^e ? Je ne doute point que St. Augustin n'en marque la vraie cause, lorsqu'il dit : Seigneur, tu nous as faits pour toi, et notre coeur ne sera veritablement tranquille que lorsqu'il se reposera en toi. XXVIIl. QuAND j'examine la conduite des grands hommes de I'anti- quite, et surtout de ces savants qui nous ontlaisse tant d'exem- ples de vertu a imiter, je ne puis m'emp6cher de les estiraer a:iitant que je les admire : mais ce qui est cause que j'ai tant de veneration pour eux, c'est moins leur science que leur mo- destie. Pour ne pas parler de tous, quoiqu'il n'y ait guere de raison 6^ parler de I'un plutot que de I'autre, con«iderons seu- lementles plus faraeux des philosophes; nous verrons qu'ils se deiiaient tous de leurs forces de la mem« maniere que^'ils n'a- vaient eu qu'un genie tres-commun. Ces hommes incorapara- bles etudiaient tres-long-temps avant d'entreprendre de donner des lemons aux autres. Pythagore fut ecolier jusqu'a I'age de cinquante ans. Democrite avait quatre-vingts ans, lorsqu'il com- menca a avoir des disciples. Parmenide demeura cache sous line roche vingt-huit ans. Platon, le divin Platon, frequenta I'ecole de Socrate et de plusieurs autres pendant plus de qua- rante ans. Enfin Aristote n'eut pas honte d'assister aux lecons de son maitre Platon, pendant vingt annees et meme au-dela. C'est ainsi qu'ils s'y prenaient pour etre tels qu'ils ^ouhaitaient de paraitre a leurs ecoliers, et pour meriter Tes- time du public. XXIX, Pensees et Maximes de Plutarqv£, Les enfants out plus besoin de guides pour lire, que poui marcher. 12 134 FRENCH SIMPLIFIED. La perfection de la vertu se forme cle trois choses : du natu- re!, de rinstruction et des habitudes. C'est dans I'enfance qu'on jette les fondements d'une bonne vieillesse. Se taire a propos, vaut souvent mieux que de bien parler. 11 n'y a d'homme ^ibre, que celui qui obeit a la raison. Celui qui obeit a la raison, obeit a Dieu. L'homme ne saurait recevoir, et Dieu ne saurait donner rien de plus grand que la veiite. L'autorite est la couronne de la vieillesse. Un ennemi est un precepteur qui ne nous coute rien. Le silence est la parure et la sauvegarde de la jeunesse. Pour savoir parler, il faut savoir ecouter. Sachez ecouter, et vous tirerez parti de ceux meme qui par- lent mal. Ceux qui sont avares de la louange, prouvent qu'ils sontpau- vres en merite. Je fais plus de cas de I'abeille qui tire du miel des fleurs, que de la femme qui en fait des bouquets. Quand mon valet bat mes habits, ce n'est pas sur moi qu'il frappe : il en est de mtme de celui qui me reproche les acci- dents de la nature et de la fortune. 11 n'en est pas de I'esprit corame d'un vase ; il ne faut pas le remplir jusqu'aux bords. L'equitation est ce qu'un jeune prince apprend le mieux, parce que son cheval ne le flatte pas. Celui qui affecte de dire toujours comme vous dites, et de faire toujours comme vous faites, n'est pas votre ami : c'est votre ombre. Le cameleon prend toutes les couleurs, excepte le blanc : le flaneur imite tout, excepte ce qui est bien. Le flatteur ressemble a ces mauvais peintres qui ne savent pas rendre la beaute des traits, mais saisissent parfaiiement les difformites. L'endurcissement dans le crime pourrit le coeur, comme la rouille pourrit le fer. II est temps, je pense, de mettre sous les yeux des elfeves quelques morceaux d'un langage un peu plus varie, afin de leur donner une idee des modifica. tions dont le style est susceptible, et du ton qui convient k la nature de cliaque sujet. Cela servira en ir^me temps h relever un peu, ou du moins h. faire oublier, s'il est possible, cette espece de monotonie trop souvent inseparable d'un ouvrage elementaire, et toujours fatiganie pour le jeune age. Nous aurons soin cependant de ne pas nousecarter de la marche que nous avons adoptee et suivie jusqu'ici, nous bornant toujours ^ un style essentiel- lement simple et tr^s-facile, quoique souvent unpeu plus soutenu et quelque. fois legferement ovn6. PRACTICAL LESSONS. 1S5 XXX. Sur la Fureur du Jeu, De tous les moyens d'acquarir, il n'en est pas de plus hon- teux que le jeu, ni de plus contraire au bonheur de ceux meme qu'on envie. Quelles sont leurs jouissances ? et combien en a-t-on vu prosperer? Coiistante dans le malheur, la For- tune n'est legare que dans la prosperite. Si quelquefois cette deesse aveugle accueille les joueurs dans leurs premiers essais, ce n'est que pour frapper ensuite des coups plus terribles ; et quand elle les tient eleves au plus haut de sa roue, c'est alors qu'elle va les precipiter dans un abime de misere. Trop peu sages pour profiler des suites heureuses qu'avait eues un moment d'erreur, ils ne savent plus borner leurs desirs ; plus ils ont gagne, plus ils veulent, plus ils esperent gagner encore ; ils semblent vouloir defier la Fortune : et le meme hasard qui les a favorises, leur enleve en moins d'un instant bien au-dela de ce qu'il leur avait donne. Se promet- tre un bonheur constant, se flatter de fixer la Fortune, c'est le comble de la folie. Pour un ou deux aventuriers, dont on vante les honteux succes, et qui, par de coupables moyens, ont su corriger la malignite du sort, combien ne voit-on pas de milliers d'homme^ reduits a la misere, et forces de mendier a la porte meme des maisons qui leur appartenaient ] L'example de tant de joueurs mines ne devrait-il pas epouvanter tous ceux qui sont tentes de se livrer a cette funeste passion % Cependant tous I'ont sous les yeux, et aucun n'est corrige. On voit le precipice entr'ouvert sous ses pas, et Ton ne veut pas I'eviter. Mais parmi cette foule de victimes qui doivent etre sacrifices au dieu du hasard, distinguons seulement cet infortune. II est entre dans le dessein de se divertir ; ah! je crains bien qu'il ne sorte avec le desespoir et la mort dans I'ame ! Voyez quelle agitation il fait deja paraitre ; quel trouble, quelle inquie tude ragne dans ses yeux! avec quelle impatience cependant il attend le moment fatal ou il pourra s'exposer a de nou- veaux hasards ! II I'attend, il le craint, il le redoute ; il se flatte de voir la Fortune repondre a ses desirs : un moment aprds, il semble prevoir le coup terrible qui va le frapper. Partage entre la crainte et I'esparance, ces sentiments si op- poses se peignent tour a tour sur son visage ; deja meme il s'epuise en combinaisons inutiles, et cberche d'avance le moyen de corriger la Fortune, si elle lui est contraire. {Style plus elevi). Mais entrons dans ces tristes assemblees oil le plaisir sert de prelexte a la capidite. Que de victimes vont 136 FRENCH SIMPI^IFIEDv ^tre sacrifiees sur I'autel de la Fortune ! et de quels divers senti- ments le joueur ne doit-il pas etre agite au moment ou, les yeux fixes sur la carte fatale^. il attend ou la vie ou la mort ! O vous qui seriez tentes de vous livrer a cet appat trompeur, venez, entrez, si vous Tosez, dans cet infame repaire! Voyez cette foule pale et tremblante, plus digne encore de pitie que de baine !. Voyez-les, ces joueurs, insensibles a tout ce qui les environne ! la foudre gronderait sur leurs tetes, le ciel meme menacerait ruine, sans leur faire quitter la place et san& les distraire^ lis sont sourds et muets : a peine de temps en temps laissent-ils entendre quelquts sons mal articules. On voit empreintes sur leurs figures toules les difTerentes passions dont leurs coeurs sont agites .' le desespoir, la rage, une joie melee d'inquietude, les caracteres de I'esperance et de la crainte varies a I'infini, viennent se peindre tour a tour sur leurs visages. Ce n'est plus un jeu, c^est un travail dur et penible qui les accable. Le joueur fortune redouble de prudence, et s'efTorce de garder son sang froid, pour conserver ses avan- tages et fixer de son cote la Fortune, qui bientot I'abandonne pour repandre ses faveurs sur son adversaire. Celui-ci, plus heureux a son tour, est assez imprudent pour se fier encore a I'incon- stante deesse ; sa propre experience n@ suflit pas pour I'instruire ; non content d'avoir recouvre son argent, il se livre encore avec plus d'ardeur a de nouveaux hasards pour gagner Targent de ses rivaux. Au milieu des efforts qu'ils font pour s'entre-detruire, le jour qui les surprend vient mettre fin au combat, Ce moment terrible leur inspire des sentiments bien differents. Le joueur triomphant se leve et se retire ; une joie maligne brille dans ses yeux et sur son visage; car il n'a plus rien a craindre des caprices du sort: heureux du mulheur de son rival, il semble jouir de ses pleurs, il sem- ble insulter a sa douleur. Le perdant contemple avec des yeux d'envie, cet argent qui lui appartenait il n'y a qu'un monaent, et qui, de ses mains, a passe dans celles de son heureux adversaire. C'est alors que sa rage eclate avec plus de violence ; il exhale son desespoir par les plus terribles imprecations. Son malheur est au comble; car I'espoir m6me, soutien des malheureux, est perdu pour lui. Quand il jouait, I'esperance d'un coup desucces leconsolait, mais a present- un seul objet occupe ses pensees : objet terrible ! c'est son creancier. Incapable d'acquitter sa dette, il craint qu'on ne vienne I'arracher du sein de sa famille, pour lui faire expier sa fuute dans I'horreur des cachets ; et la douce consolation d'interesser les hommes a son sort lui est encore ravie. On le blame, on le fuit. II a merite son ijifortune, et il eprouve le sort qu'il preparait a ses semblables. PRACTICAL LESSONS. 137 XXXI. Dd la Resignation. (Lettre.) Quoi ! V0U3 en etes encore a vous indigner et a vous plaindre! vous ne conriprenez pas encore que, dans tous les evenements qui vous affligent, il n'y a pas d'autre mal que votre indignation nneme et vos plaintes? Pour moi, je ne connais pas d'autre nnalheur pour un tiomme que I'opinion ou il est qu'il peut y avoir, dans le monde, quelque malheur pour lui. Quoi done ! du jour meme ou il y aura quelque chose d'insupportable pour ncioi, je ne pourrai plus me supporter moi-menne ! Ma sante est-elle mauvaise, c^est une des suites de ma destinee : une maladie contagieuse me prive-t-elle de mes parents et de mes amis, une banqueroute me reduit-elle a I'indigence, ma maison est-elle detruite par un incendie, ai-je eprouve une foule de pertes inattendues, recu des bless-ures, essuye des travaux et des peines sans nombre, ce sont des accidents ordinaire?, ou plutot des evenements necessaires; ce sont des decrets de la Providence, et non pas des accidents fortuits. Ai-je oblige, ou meme comble de bien une foule de gens qui font aujourd'hui tout ce qu'ils peuvent pour me nuire, je me sens dispose a les desarmer par la patience, et a me venger par de nouveaux bienfaits si I'occasion s'en presente ; car je sais qu'il n'y a rien de plus beau et de plus grand que de faire des ingrats. Croyez un ami qui vous ouvre le fond de son coeur. Dans tous les evenements qui pourraient me paraitre contraires et facheux, voici mes dispositions : non seulement je me soumets a Dieu, mais encore je consens a sa volonte ; c'est par inclination, et non par necessite que je lui obeis. Je ne recevrai jamais avec tristesse, ni d'un air chagrin, aucun evenement ; je ne paierai jamais a regret ma part du tribut commun : tous ces pretendus maux qui nous font gemir et trembler^ sont des tributs de la vie. N'esperez pas on etre exempt, mon cher Lucilius ; ne le demandez pas. Vous etes tourmente par des rhumatismes, sujet a des insomnies ; les ali- ments n'ont plus de douceur pour vous; des pertes continuelles accelerent votre ruine; je vais plus loin, vouscraignez meme pour votre vie : eh bien ! ne saviez-vous pas que c'elait la ce que vous demandiez, quand vous desiriez de vieillir ? Ces evenements sont inseparables d'une longue vie, comme la poussiere, la boue et la pluie sont inseparables d'une longue route. Mais, direz- vous, je voulais vivre, mais etre exempt de tous ces desagrements. Un voea si lache est-il digne d'un homme? Prenez comme vous voudrez celui que je fais pour vous ; c'est le voeu d'un homme de coeur qui vous veut du bien. Fasse le Ciel que la Fortune ne vous prenne jamais en amitie ! Interrogez-vous vous-meme ; si Dieu vous proposait le choix^ lequel pre fsreriez- vous, de vivre dans le 12* 138 FRENCH SIMPLIFIED. camp, ou dans le marche ? Eh bien, mon cher Lucilius, vivre c'est etre au service. Ainsi les hommes qui sont sans cesse les jouets de la Fortune, qui montent et descendent eontinueilennent par des sentiers penibles, qui sont charges des emplois onereux et des expeditions les plus perilleuses, sont les hommes courageux, ce sont ks premiers du camp : mais ceux qui, tandis que les autres travaillent, vivent dans la mollesse,. sont des faineans, dont la surete fait la honte. XXXII. Description. {Style unpeujieuri). Dans les lieux meme les plus sauvages, la Nature a pnour un coeur tranquille des charmes secrets, que toute la richesse de I'art ne peut egaler. Lorsqu'au lever de I'aurore je me transporte sur nos hautes montagnes, que je vois le ciel se teindre peu a peu des plus vives couleurs, un globe de feu paraitre, s'elever, et, par ses rayons naissants, efFacer ies ombres des collines opposees ; les nei- gesse fondre lentement, et former des ruisseaux qui coulent pres de moi avec un agreable murmure ; des fleurs champetres meler leurs douces odeurs a celles des plantes qui croissent dans les fentes des rochers ; des gouttes de rosee briller sur ces fleurs, sur les buissons voisins, et sur les filaments legers qui voltigent a I'en- tour ; les tranquilles zephirs sejouerentre les feuilles des faibles arbrisseaux, et en agiter mollement les branches lege res : lorsque j^entends les oiseaux qui, par un tendre gazouillement, saluent I'as- tre du jour et preludent a de nouveaux concerts: lorsque je vois des tourbillons'^de fumee quis'elevenl des toits rustiquesdes bergers, et annoncent le retour du travail ; le bucheron qui, s'arrachant au repos, quitte sa chaumiere pour s'enfoncer dans la foret prochaine; les laboureurs qui se repandent dans les campagnes ; les t'roupeaux qui sortent a pas lents des hameaux, et se dispersent sur le pen- chant des collines ; toute la Nature quis'eveille,. et qui, sans per- dre encore une impression de fraicheur, reprend une vigueur nou- velle : ah! quel enchantement j'eprouve ! et quel ennemi de la Divinite pourrait resister a un spectacle si touchant ! XXXIII. Pierre-le-Cruel, roi de Castille, etait a peine age de seize ans^ lorsqu'il succeda a son pere, Alphonse XI, Tan treize cent cin- quante. Jamais prince ne justifia mieux son surnom : il fut le Ne- ron deson temps, et, comme lui, le meurtrier de sa mere. Tyran barbare et sanguinaire, il devint si odieux a ses sujets, qu'ils se souleverent en masse centre lui, le detronerent et le chasserent du royaume, comme un homme couvert d'ignominie et d'approbre.. Cependantles Anglais,, sous la conduite du Prince Noir, vinrent PRACTICAL LESSONS. 139 a son secours, et le retablirent sur le trone, centre le voeu des Castillans. Comme vous pouvez le juger, une telle intervention n'est guere a Thonneur de la nation'anglaise : mais laissons cea reflexions. Bornons-nous a notre sujet, et contentons-nous de rap- porter les faits, tela que Thistoire nous les fournit. Le tyran dont nous parlons, avail jure la perte de Pierre, roi d'Arragon. Deja il touchait au moment de le detroner et d'enva- hir ses etats, lorsque Mahomet Barberousse, roi de Grenade, vint au secours du prince opprime, qui etait son ami. Le Castillan se voyant arracher sa proie, tourne sa fureur d'un autre cote. 11 acGorde la paix au roi d'Arragon, lui rend ses conquetes, et feint de se preter a tout, dans la vue de porter toutes ses forces oil les appellent ledepit et la vengeance. Cependant le roi de Grenade avait eu I'avantage sur I'un des generaurdu roi de Castille ; il I'avait fait prisonnier. 11 se con- duisit en vainqueur genereux, car il renvoya ce general en liberie. Neanmoins, abandonne du roi d'Arragon, tout vainqueur qu'il est, Barberousse desire la paix. Mais son ardeur ou sa confiance le rend imprudent. II compte flechir son ennemi, en se rendanl au- pres de lui avec une garde de six cents hommes seulement. Sur la foi d'un sauf-conduit, il va le Irouver a Seville, il lui demande la paix, et n'en obtienl que la mort. Pierre le fait arreter a table avec trente-sept seigneurs de sa suite. On les conduit au sup- plice, mais avec une derision qui deja devenait elle-meme un sup- pi ice. Pierre-le-Cruel se menage- un plaisir digne de lui : ce roi fail lui-meme la fbnction de bourreau. XXXIV. DiscouRS. Barherousse a Fierre-le- Cruel, Ce discours, qu'on suppose dans la bouche de Barberousse au moment oti- ce roi feroce va lui trancher ]a tete, donnera aux eleves une idee du style sub- lime. La fierte, I'indignation, et la noblesse des sentiments regnent dans ce morceau. Al'instant oil Pierre va porter le coup, le malheureux Barbe- rousse s'ecrie : " Arrete, Bourreau, j'ai une grace a demander au roi." A ces mots, Pierre s'arrete en effet, soil que le cri de la vertu puisse reveiller les remords que le crime etouffe dans le coeur du coupable ; soil que Barberousse, desarme, pret a mourir, prtraisse encore redoutable au cruel qui va I'immoler ; soil enfin que le ton d'intrepidite dont ces paroles furent prononcees, impose a ce barbare. Qui, Tyran,je fuston ennemi ; je dus I'etre : la timide equitene s'unit jamais au crime audacieux ; I'honneur ne peut s'accorder 140 FRENCH SIMPLIFIED. avec la perfidie : des ennemis si opposes ne connaissent point de traites, et rhomrae vertueux s'iionora toujours de la haine du mechant. Aussi ai-je toujours fait gloire de la tienne, et je ne me re- pens en ce monnent que d'avoir voulu cesser de la meriter. Le Ciel, qui deteste les traitres et les scelerats, nne punit d'avoir voulu m'allier a I'objet de son nnepris et de sa haine, et de m'etre abaisse jusqu'ate proposer line paix qui ne pouvait exister entre nous. Ne crois pas cependant que je me reproche I'usage honorable que j'ai fait de ma victoire ; il m'^honore autant qu'il t'humilie ; il aiteste a la fois et ma clemence et ta cruaute, et cette generosite fut pour moi une seconde victoire plus glorieuse que la premiere. Non, quelque malheureuses qu'en soient les suites, va^ Barberousse ne sut jamais se repentir d'^une belle action. La seule demarche que je dois me reprocher, c'est de m^etre confie a la parole d'^un homme que j'aurais du mieux connaitre; c'est d'avoir pu, sur la foi de tes serments, me livrer entre tes mains. Combien je me suis trompe !: Je croyais les rois esclaves de leur parole, comme je !e fus toujours moi-m6me, et j'avoue qu''a ce titre j'^ai mente d'etre ta viclime ; trop puni peut-^tre de mon imprudence et de ma facile credulite, mais assez venge de ta perfidie par Tinfamie dont elle te couvre, et a laquelle tu mets le comble en devenant toi-meme mon bourreau. Quel que soit le sort que ta cruaute me pre; are, quel- que affreux qu'il soit de repaitre de son sang les yeux d'un epi:emi, Barberousse a brave assez de fois la mort, pour ne pas la craindre sous quelque aspect qu'elle se presente, et je perirai sans me plaindre. Mais pourquoi faut-il que j'entraine dans ma perte mes amis malheureux ? Juste ciel ! pourquoi envelopper dcs innocents dans ma punition? pourquoi ne sui.s.je pas la seule viclime, quand je suis le seul coupable? 11 m'en coute, Barbare, de prendre devant toi la posture d'un suppliant ; mais que ne peuvent sur mon cceur I'amitie et la reconnaissance } Oui, Piene, tu f)Our- ras te vanter d'avoir vu Barberousse a tes genoux ; m'y void, moi qui suis seul coupable, moi qui seul merite ton ressentiment : frappe, punis ton ennemi. II ira, sM le faut, jusqu'a bemr tes coups. Mais que ta vengeance ne s'etende pas au-dela du trepas ; daigne epargner des amis que leur fidelite seule a rendus victimes ! lis vont done mourir pour m'avoir trop aime ? tout leur crime, helas ! est d'avoir ete trop fideles a leur roi ; et ils n'auraient rien a craindre s'lls m'eussera eie moins attaciies, ets'ils n^eussent pas voulu partager mon sort ! Quel example osps-tu donner a tes peuples ! tremble qu'ils n'en usent contre toi ! Ah .' si la pitie ne pent rien sur ton ccEur, consulte clu moins ton interet ; accorde par politique une grace que tu ne peux refuser sans atlai- b.Ur le zele et raffection de tes sujets. PRACTICAL LESSON&. 141 Mais quoi ! Barberousse descendre a la priere ! Trop chers et trop malheureux amis, pardonnez a I'auteur de votre infor- tune ; il en soufFre plus que vous ; vous le voyez dans une attitude humiliante : ce que son propre danger, ce que I'appareil des plus grands tourments, ce que I'aspect de la mort la plus cruelle n'eut jamais pu obtenir de lui, votre interet Pobtient ; oui, c'est votre in- teret qui le precipite aux pieds d'un ennemi ; il ferait plus encore pour vous sauver, si cela etait en son pouvoir ; mais jugez, par ce penible effort, par cet effort dont il ne se serait jamais cru capable, jugez si Barberousse sait reconnaitre votre fidele amitie : jugez combien vous etes chers a son cceur afflige, combien il vous aim© plus qu'il ne s'aime lui-meme ! XXXV. Damon et Pythias. Syracuse gemissait sous la tyrannic de Denys. Cet homme feroce apres avoir usurpe, a force de ruses et de violences, un trone qui ne lui appartenait pas, cherchait a s'y maintenir par la terreur et la cruaute. Ses malheureux sujets, accables sous le poids de son oppression, etaient contraints de se taire et d'etouffer les plus justes plaintes. Toutes les remontrances qu'ils osaient hasarder etaient autant de delits juges dignes de mort. Au milieu de Tepouvante universelle, Pythias, jeune homme ar- dent et resolu, ne put retenir les transports de son indignation, sur un trait de la barbaric du tyran, dont il fut temoin. 11 osa elever la voix, et deplorer tout haut les calamites de sa patrie. Mais son ardeur, son zele lui couta trop cher. Les espions que Denys sou- doyait de tous cotes, en informerent sur le champ ce tyran, qui jure d'en tirer une vengeance exemplaire. Le jeune infortune se voit blentot assailli d'une troupe de satellites barbares, qui le chargent de fers et le conduisent en prison. Au meme instant, Damon, son intime ami, s'avance a sa rencon- tre, et, penetre de la plus vive douleur, il I'aborde d'un air con- sterne. Mon cher Pythias, s'ecrie-t-il, que veut dire ceci 1 qu'as- tu fait ? Peut-etre ton inconsequence, ton ardeur impetueuse. . . . Oui, mon cher Damon, ce que tu m'as predit plusieurs fois est enfin arrive. Je n'ai pu t'imiter ; je me suis ecarte des conseils que tu m'as donnes, J'ai deteste long-temps en secret la cruaute du tyran ; je fesais un effort sur moi-meme pour t'obeir ; mais enfin il a fallu que mon indignation se manifestat. Apres tant d'exemples de barbaric, elJe ne pouvait plus se tenir cachee. Je vois que j'en mourrai ; mais la mort est preferable a un aussi hon- teux esclavage. Je ne regrette que mon vieux pere, ma femme ei mes enfants, C'est a toi que je les recommande, mon ami : 142 FRENCH SIMPLIFIED. donne-leur des consolations ; subviensa leurs besoins ; je n'aurai plus a me plaindre de mon destin. Les barbares satellites ne voulurent pas que les deux amiss'entretinssent plus long-temps. Arraches de force des bras Tun de Tautre, on les separa de la maniere la plus cruelle. Pythias fut jete au fond d*^une prison, et Damon ne put obtenix la faveur de le suivre. Accable de douleur, ce dernier roulait dans son esprit differentes pensees, et cherchait s'il ne pourrait pas trouver quelque moyen de tirer son ami d'afFaire ; ma is il ne s'en presentait aucun. Apres bien des reflexions, bien des incertitudes, choisissant tantotun parti, tan- tot un autre, les rejetant tous ensuite comme inutiles ou peu con- venables, il resolut a la fin de se presenter a Denys lui-meme. On I'introduisit en presence du tyran, qui etait toujours entoure d'une garde nombreuse. Prosterne a ses pieds : Seigneur, lui dit-il, un jeune malheureux vient d'etre, par ton ordre, charge de chaines ; je ne viens point le defendre, ni demander sa grace. Quoique sa faute n'ait ete que I'etfet de I'impetuosite ordinaire a un jeune homme, il est coupable a tes yeux, cela suffit. Laseule faveur que je te demande, c'est que la punition qui I'attend soit differee de quelques jours. II a, loin d'ici, un pere languissant, une epouse, deux faibles enfants qui ont besoin de sa presence ; permets, seigneur, que je m'offre en otage a sa place, que je prenne ses chaines pour quelques jours ; qu'il obtienne seulement la liberte de revoir sa famille, d'arranger ses affaires, de recevoir les derniers embrassements des siens. II reviendra sans faute, au terme que tu fixeras ; et suppose qu'il y manque, ma mort sera le prix de ce retard. Denys demeura presque stupefait d'une demande si nouvelle ; et curieux d'en voir I'effet : He bien, dit-il, je lui accorde deux jours. Pendant ce temps, tu seras prisonnier a sa place. Mais songe bien que si I'aurore du troisieme jour ne le voit pas a Syracuse, tu en seras le premier puni. Damon, joyeux de cette reponse, court aussitot a la prison de son ami. II delie lui-meme les fers qui chargent ses mains, les place sur les siennes avec un empressement sans egal : Va, dit-il, va toi-meme rassurer ta malheureuse famille. Denys t'accorde deux jours dont tu peux disposer sans donner de soupgons ; ils suffisent pour te procurer un vaisseau et te sauver. II faut surtout de la promptitude et de Tintelligence. Pars, ne perds pas de temps. A ces mots Pythias: C'est sans doute au prix de ta liberte et au peril de ta vie que tu as obtenu ce delai ; mais, y songes- tu 1 Moi fuir ! moi te laisser a ma place, en proie a la fureur de ce tyran impitoyable 1 helas ! voila done comme tu me con- nais 1 Damon, rends-moi bien vite, rends-moi mes chaines, si PRACTICAL LESSONS. 143 tu crois que raon ame peut concevoir une telle bassesse et una perfidie aussi execrable. — Non, repond Damon, la bassesse et la perfidie ne peuvent pas entrer dans un cceur comme le tien. Si je pouvais soup^onner en toi d'aussi vils sentiments, depuis long-temps ta ne serais plus men ami. Mais ce n'est point la bassesse, ce n'est point la perfidie qui te fera obeir a la loi que je t'impose ; tu as un pere, une epouse, deux enfans a qui tu dois ta vie, a qui tu te dois tout entier. lis ne peuvent subsister sans toi. Moi, je n'ai plus personne pour qui il m'importe de vivre ; et mourir pour un ami comme toi, me sera le plus doux des plaisirs. — Ah J tu ne jouiras pas d'un si cruel plaisir! repliqua Pythias. J'irai, puisque tu le veux, remp- lir les derniers devoirs de la nature; j'irai faire mes derniers adieux a mon pere, a mon epouse, a mes enfans ; mais apres demain, au premier rayon de I'aurore, tu me reverras ici. En te laissant aupres d'eux a ma place, je leur ferai un present d'un plus grand prix ; et j'espere que celui-la suffira pour leur con- solation. A ces mots, il embrasse de tout son coeur son genereux ami, dont les larmes se melent aux siennes, et il s'empresse de marcher a sa raaison. Le second jour s'ecoule, le troisieme parait, et Pythias n'est point arrive. Damon, persuade dans le fond de Fame, que, cedant aux cris et aux larmes de sa famille desolee, il s'est procure les moyens d'echapper, ne se sentait pas de joie. Denys, au con- traire, se croyant le jouet de I'un et de I'autre, entra dans la plus grande fureur ; et, dans I'exces desacolere, il ordonna que Damon fut conduit sur-le.champ au supplice qui avait ete destine a Pythias. Cette triste nouvelle se repandit par la ville. Le peuple accou- rut en foule sur la place pour etre temoin de ce funeste spectacle. L'un plaignait Tamitie trahie, I'autre detestait la perfidie du traitre ; chacun condamnait en secret I'inhumanite du tyran. Celui-ci, as- sis sur son trone et environne de mille guerriers, roule autour de lui des yeux enflammes de courroux, et montre a decouvert I'im- patience qu'il a de se venger. Damon enchaine s'avance; le bourreau est a cote de lui. Tous les spectateurs, emus de com- passion, reculent a sa vue. Un fremissement d'horreur et de pitie saisit a la fois tous les cceurs ; on voit dans tous les yeux rouler des larmes qui ne peuvent plus se cacher. Au milieu de la dou- leur generale, Damon seul se montre avec un air de satisfaction et de serenite. II benit, dans le fond de son coeur, les dieux de ce qu'ils ont exauce ses vosux, et de ceque son amiestsauve. Arrive au milieu de la place, il attend avec tranquilite le coup fatal : il a deja les yeux bandes ; son coup est nu ; le fer etincelle sur sa tete, lorsqu'on entend de loin crier : "Arr^te, arrete, cruel ;" et Ton voit un jeune homme hors d'haleine, couvert de poussiere 144 FRENCH SIMJPLIPIEIH et de sueur, precipiter ses pas vers la place, Chacun se tourney incertain a ce cri, et lui livre le passage. Parvenu au milieu, !'Je te rends grace, 6 Ciel" ! s'ecrie-t-il en reprenant prompte- ment ses esprits, "je te rends graces de ce que les devoirs de fils ne m'ont pas empeche de remplir ceux d'ami" ! Aussilot il court a Damon, et se precipite a son cou. On entend alors parmi les spectateurs un murmure de compassion, d'etonnement et de joie. " C'est Pythias ! c'est lui-meme, se disent-ils entre eu-x. He. las ! qui I'attendait ? Qui pourrait le croire" ? Cependant.Pythias, s'etant detache des bras de son ami, se pre* senle avec intrepidite a Denys, qui le regarde en extase, et qui a peine a en croire ses yeux. " Enfin, dit-il au roi, tu vois ta victime ; presse mon supplice, et delivre I'innocence. La plus cruelle necessite m'a contraint a rester long-temps. Mon pere, mon malheureux-pere ! en apprenant la nouvelle de mon sort, est tombe subitement comme s'il eut ete frappe de la foudre. J'ai vainement empoye tous les moyens. pour le rappeler a la vie. Malgre tous les secours de I'art, j'ai eu la douleur de le voir, cette nuit meme, expirer a mes yeux." A cet instant, ses pleurs inter- rompirent un moment son recit. II le reprit ainsi ■: *' Je me suis fait violence, je me suis derobe aussilot des bras de mon epouse desolee, de mes enfants, et j'ai hate mon retour. Mais, voulant prendre un chemin moins long, je me suis egare dans I'obscurite de la nuit, au milieu d'un bois, oii j'ai erre jusqu'a I'aube du jour, par differents sentiers qui m'ont conduit tres-loin d'ici. Remis enfin sur la route, j'ai double le pas, et j'ni couru meme de toutes mes forces ; je suis trop heureux enfin d'etre arrive si a propos. Rends-moi done, rends-moi mes fers, et que mon ami reprenne sa liberte ; je ne desire rien autre chose de toi." II n'y eut personne a ce recit, qui put retenir ses larmes ; et le tyran lui-meme sentit dans son coeur naitre un mouvement de pitie, qu'il essaya vainement de d'etouffer. Cependant il ordonna que Damon fut detache. Mais un nouveau prodige se fait voir ; il re- double plus vivement dans I'ame des spectateurs leur etonnement, et leur fait verser des larmes. Damon refuse, et pretend que ses fersn'appartiennent plus a Pythias. *' Le temps qui etait prescrit est deja ecoule, dit-il ; c'est a moi de mourir; retourne aupres de tes enfants a^bandonnes" — '' Le temps de te rendre la liberte, tant que tu vis, repond Pythias en pleurant, ne pent jamais etre ecoule ; elle t'est due par toutes les lois, a toutes sortesde litres." Damon persiste dans son refus. Cette noble dispute s'echauffe de plus en plus. Chacun des deux demande a haute voix a Denys la liberte pour son ami, et la mort pour lui-meme. A la vue de ce combat genereux, le coeur du tyran, tout de fer qu'il etait, ne put resister plus long-temps. Sa cruante naturelle PRACTICAL LESSONS. 145 ceda. Itmu, attendri : *' La liberte et la vie, dit-il, sonl dues a I'un et a I'autre; et je les leur donne. Mais une si rare amitie merite encore davantage : elle est digne d'un roi ; et je veux etre en tiers avec vous." En disant ces paroles, il descendit de son trone, et courut les embrasser avec la plus tendre affection. Tel on voit souvent sur la scene, en un clin-d'ceil, un desert in- culte et sauvage devenir un riant jardin ; ainsi, dans I'inslant tout changea pour le peupleet d'aspect et de face, A la tristesse, aux pleurs succederent les fetes et les acclamations de plaisir. Chacun se pressait pour voir de plus pies les deux incomparables amis. Chacun fesait retentir de toutes parts les echos descris d'une joie vive, et de ses applaudissements ; places tous deux, comme en triomphe, aux cotes du roi, le peuple entier, content, ivre de joie, les conduisit, avec tous les transports de I'allegresse, jusqu'a son palais. XXXVI. T>u Bonlieur. Il n'est point de route plus sure pour allerau bon- heur, que celle de la vertu. Si I'on y parvient, il est plus pur, plus solide, plus doux par elle ; si on le manque, elle seule peut en de- dommager Homme, veux-tu vivre heureux et sage, n'attache ton coeur qu'a la beauie qui ne perit point ; que ta condition borne tes desirs ; que les devoirs aillent avant tes penchants ; etends la loi de la neces- site aux choses morales : apprends a perdre ce qui peut etre en- leve ; apprends a tout quitter quand la vertu I'ordonne, a te metlre au-dessus des evenements, a detacher ton coeur sans qu'ils le dechirent; a etre courageux dans I'adversile, afin de n'6tre jamais miserable ; a fetre ferme dans ton devoir, afin de n'^tre jamais criminel. Alors tu seras heureux malgre la fortune, etsage malgre les passions; alors tu trouveras, dans la possession meme des biens fragiles, une volupte que rien ne pourra troubler, tu les possederas sans qu'ils te possedent, et tu sentiras que I'homme a qui tout echappe, ne jouit que de ce qu'il sait perdre. Tu n'auras point, il est vrai, I'illusion des plaisirs imaginaires ; tu n'auras point aussi les douleurs qui en sont le fruit ; tu gagneras beaucoup a cet echange ; car ces douleurs sont frequentes et reelles, et ces plaisirs sont rares et vains. Vainqueur de tant d'opinions trompeuses, tu le seras encore de celle qui donne un si grand prix a la vie. Tu passeras la tienne sans trouble, et la terminerassans efTroi : tu t'en detacheras comme de toutes choses. Que d'autres, saisis d'hor- reur, pensent en la quittant cesser d'etre ; instruit de ton neant, tu croiras commencer. La mort est la fin de la vie du mechant, et le commencement de celle du juste. — J. J". Rousseau. 13 146 FRENCH SIMPLIFIED, XXXVII. DiscoURS. Spartacus a ses Compagnons. Afin de pouvoir apprecier le morceau suivant, il faut savoir que Sparta- cus, originaire de Thrace, avait ete fait esclave par les Romains, et con- damne au vil metier de gladiateur. II eut I'adresse de s'evader de prison avec trente de ses compagnons d'infortune, et iJs parvinrent bieniot k former une armee de dix mille hommes. lis combattirent long-temps avec succ^s centre les Romains, mais enfin ils furent vaincus par Crassus, Pan 31 avant J. C. et Spartacus perit lui-meme, avec plus de trente mille des siens, mais il vendit cher sa defaite. Les el^ves remarqueront dans ce morceau un style succinct, mais persuasif, plein d'un noble anthousiasme et de pensees sublimes. Braves compagnons,